Intelligent Transportation System and Advanced Technology (Energy, Environment, and Sustainability) 9819705142, 9789819705146

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Energy, Environment, and Sustainability Series Editor: Avinash Kumar Agarwal

Ram Krishna Upadhyay Sunil Kumar Sharma Vikram Kumar   Editors

Intelligent Transportation System and Advanced Technology

Energy, Environment, and Sustainability Series Editor Avinash Kumar Agarwal, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

AIMS AND SCOPE This books series publishes cutting edge monographs and professional books focused on all aspects of energy and environmental sustainability, especially as it relates to energy concerns. The Series is published in partnership with the International Society for Energy, Environment, and Sustainability. The books in these series are edited or authored by top researchers and professional across the globe. The series aims at publishing state-of-the-art research and development in areas including, but not limited to: . . . . . . . . . .

Renewable Energy Alternative Fuels Engines and Locomotives Combustion and Propulsion Fossil Fuels Carbon Capture Control and Automation for Energy Environmental Pollution Waste Management Transportation Sustainability

Review Process The proposal for each volume is reviewed by the main editor and/or the advisory board. The chapters in each volume are individually reviewed single blind by expert reviewers (at least four reviews per chapter) and the main editor. Ethics Statement for this series can be found in the Springer standard guidelines here https://www.springer.com/us/authors-editors/journal-author/journal-author-hel pdesk/before-you-start/before-you-start/1330#c14214

Ram Krishna Upadhyay · Sunil Kumar Sharma · Vikram Kumar Editors

Intelligent Transportation System and Advanced Technology

Editors Ram Krishna Upadhyay School of Technology Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya Vadodara, Gujarat, India

Sunil Kumar Sharma School of Technology Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya Vadodara, Gujarat, India

Vikram Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering Engine Research Laboratory IIT Kanpur Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

ISSN 2522-8366 ISSN 2522-8374 (electronic) Energy, Environment, and Sustainability ISBN 978-981-97-0514-6 ISBN 978-981-97-0515-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-0515-3 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Paper in this product is recyclable.

Preface

Intelligent transportation system (ITS) helps evolve the present transportation mode by integrating safety, comfort, and scheduling. An improved lifestyle and the affordability of personal forms of transportation for all income groups inside cities have aided the expansion of private vehicles. This has resulted in many transportation issues, including traffic congestion, road accidents, a terrible travel experience during peak hours, and environmental degradation. As a result, concerns about the transportation system’s long-term viability have arisen. The sustainable, intelligent transportation system provides a viable solution for reducing transportation externalities. The International Society for Energy, Environment and Sustainability (ISEES) was founded at the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur (IIT Kanpur), India, in January 2014 to spread knowledge and awareness and catalyse research activities in the fields of energy, environment, sustainability, and combustion. Society’s goal is to contribute to the development of clean, affordable, and secure energy resources and a sustainable environment for society, spread knowledge in the areas mentioned above, and create awareness about the environmental challenges the world is facing today. The unique way adopted by ISEES was to break the conventional silos of specialisations (engineering, science, environment, agriculture, biotechnology, materials, fuels, etc.) to tackle the problems related to energy, environment, and sustainability holistically. This is evident by the participation of experts from all fields to resolve these issues. The ISEES is involved in various activities, such as conducting workshops, seminars, conferences, etc., in the domains of its interests. The society also recognises the outstanding works of young scientists, professionals, and engineers for their contributions by conferring awards in various categories. The Seventh International Conference on “Sustainable Energy and Environmental Challenges” (VII-SEEC) was organised under the auspices of ISEES from December 16–18, 2022, at the Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (IIT-BHU), India. This conference provided a platform for discussions between eminent scientists and engineers from several countries, including India, the USA, Spain, Poland, Austria, the Czech Republic, and Korea. At this conference,

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eminent international speakers presented their views on energy, combustion, emissions, and alternative energy resources for sustainable development and a cleaner environment. The conference presented two high-voltage plenary talks by Dr. Ajay Kumar, Former Union Defense Secretary, GoI and Dr. SSV Ramakumar, Director (R&D), Indian Oil. The conference included 29 technical sessions on energy and environmental sustainability topics, including two plenary talks, 15 keynote talks, 80 invited talks from prominent scientists, and 118 contributed talks by students and researchers. The conference included technical sessions on advanced engine technologies, air pollution monitoring, anaerobic digestion, combustion and flames, air pollution control, biodegradation of toxic chemicals, energy and exergy, desalination and wastewater treatment, environmental bioengineering, pollution and climate change: challenges and priorities, alternative transportation fuels and materials, emerging environmental contaminants, sustainable processing of biomass, human health and environmental sustainability, sprays and atomisation, solid waste: challenges and mitigation, solid waste management, sustainable food and agri biotechnology, modelling and simulations, renewable energy technologies, bioremediation, biofuels and biorefineries, engine emissions and control, cleaner technologies for pollution mitigation, microbial processes, energy and environment, coal and biomass gasification, and environmental challenges mitigation. About 250+ participants and speakers attended the conference, where 14 ISEES books published by Springer Nature, under a dedicated series, “Energy, environment and sustainability”, were released. This conference laid the roadmap for technology development, opportunities and challenges in the Energy, Environment, and Sustainability domain. These topics are relevant for the country and the world in the present context. We acknowledge the support from various funding agencies and organisations for the successful conduct of the VII-SEEC, where the idea of these books germinated. We would therefore gratefully like to acknowledge IIT BHU (Special thanks to Prof. Akhilendra Pratap Singh); SERB, Government of India; Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) (Special thanks to Dr. Vipin Shukla) and our publishing partner Springer Nature (Special thanks to Swati Mehershi). The editors would like to express their sincere gratitude to a large number of authors from all over the world for submitting their high-quality work on time and revising it appropriately at short notice. We want to express our special gratitude to our prolific reviewers: Dr. Hari Krishna Gaddam, Dr. Pradeep, Dr. Jyoti Sharma, Dr. Swati Mohapatra, Dr. Kartik Selva Kumar, Dr. Pradeep Saroj, Dr. Dipen Rajak, Dr. Navneet Sharma, Mr. Surya Pratap Singh, Mr. Abhay Upadhyay, and Ms. Kiran Sharma, who reviewed various chapters of this monograph and provided their valuable suggestions to improve the manuscripts. Ms. Kiran Sharma played an invaluable role in the refinement of the manuscript through her expertise in editorial correction, proofreading, grammar, fragmentation, and manuscript flow. Her meticulous attention to detail ensured that the document was free of errors and maintained a coherent and logical structure, significantly improving the manuscript’s readability and coherence.

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The book aims to provide practical insights, case studies, and real-world scenarios to help transportation professionals and researchers understand how advanced technology can be applied to address transportation challenges, technologies, and developments shaping transportation’s future. The book also contains reviews on newly developed technologies for the intelligent transport system. Areas such as hydrogen application in the land transportation sector, reverse logistics, waste to biofuel production, multimodal transportation, management of intelligent transportation, public transportation, high-speed rail transit system, GPS tracking system, green energy, sustainable transportation, and rail vehicle dynamics provide the latest development in the transportation sector. Chapters include recent results and are focussed on current trends in the railway, air, and automotive sectors. In this book, readers will get an idea about intelligent transportation and its implementation, which will help them analyse current transportation challenges and ITS versatility for an effective solution. A few chapters of this book are based on the review of state-of-the-art bio-fuel, hydrogen, with a particular focus on the theory, development, and applications of these alternative fuels in transportation systems. We hope the book greatly interests the professionals and post-graduate students involved in rail transportation, road transportation, marine transportation, air transportation, pipeline transportation, energy, and environmental research. Vadodara, India Vadodara, India Kanpur, India

Ram Krishna Upadhyay Sunil Kumar Sharma Vikram Kumar

Contents

Part I 1

Introduction to Intelligent Transportation System and Advanced Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ram Krishna Upadhyay, Sunil Kumar Sharma, and Vikram Kumar

Part II 2

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General 3

Intelligent Transportation System, Materials, Process and Management

A Systematic Review on Renewable Hydrogen Application in the Land Transportation Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Victor Hugo Souza de Abreu, Dante Luiz Da Ros Hollanda, Laís Ferreira Crispino Proença, Laura Bahiense, and Andrea Souza Santos Efficiency Improvement of Reverse Logistics by Managing ITS Implementation and Analyzing Customer Behavior . . . . . . . . . . Saurabh Narwane, Rakesh Kumar, Ravi Shankar Sinha, and Ram Krishna Upadhyay Studying the Effectiveness of Synthetic Rutile Made from Inferior Quality Ilmenite Ore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Purushottam Kumar Singh, Santosh Kumar Mishra, Kartikeya Shukla, and Pankaj Kumar Unearthing the Origins: A Comprehensive Analysis of Root Causes Behind Major Accidents in India’s Midstream and Downstream Petroleum Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jamunalal Rout, Gagan Aggarwal, Vineet Kumar Saxena, Hemalata Jena, and Suchismita Satapathy Waste-To-Biofuel Production for the Transportation Sector . . . . . . . Nikolaos C. Kokkinos, Elissavet Emmanouilidou, and Sunil Kumar Sharma

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Enhancing Multimodal Transportation in India: Jogighopa Multimodal Logistics Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Jayant Gupta, Vaibhav Jaydeo Khobragade, and Ram Krishna Upadhyay

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Management of Intelligent Transportation Systems and Advanced Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Subhash Kumar Verma, Richa Verma, Bipin Kumar Singh, and Ravi Shankar Sinha

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Integration of Cycling with Public Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Arpit Gaur, Satvik Gupta, and Ram Krishna Upadhyay

10 Intelligent Technologies in High-Speed Rail Transit Systems . . . . . . . 217 Nisha Prasad and Shailendra Jain 11 Management of GPS Tracking Systems in Transportation . . . . . . . . . 251 Richa Verma, Bipin Kumar Singh, and Farah Zahidi Part III Sustainable Transportation System and Application 12 Neighbourhood Walkability as a Determinant of Sustainable Transport Mode Choice: Evidence from Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Olorunfemi Ayodeji Olojede, Blessing Olufemi, Damilare Jeremiah Odeyemi, Peter Bolaji Oladeji, Adewale Sheyi Popoola, Ayorinde Oluwafemi Oladipupo, and Elizabeth Tolulope Akinjobi 13 Cost Construction Management of Aerial Rope Systems for Sustainable Public Transport in Green Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Alexander V. Lagerev and Igor A. Lagerev 14 Advanced Techniques in Upgrading Crude Bio-oil to Biofuel . . . . . . 321 Abiodun Oluwatosin Adeoye, Rukayat Oluwatobiloba Quadri, Olayide Samuel Lawal, Dosu Malomo, Emmanuel Oghenero Emojevu, Omotayo Oluyemisi Omonije, Olalere Kayode Odeniyi, Moshood Olatunji Fadahunsi, Muhammad Jibrin Yelwa, Samson Abiodun Aasa, Augustine Eyikwuojo Onakpa, Busuyi Patrick Omoniyi, Ibrahim N. Mark, Joseph Usman, Aminu Muhammad Ismaila, and Abdullahi Usmanu Saidu 15 Advancements in Vibration Analysis for Rail Vehicle Dynamics . . . 355 Azad Duppala, Srihari Palli, Rallabandi Sivasankara Raju, Dowluru Sreeramulu, Suman Pandipati, and Pavan Kumar Rejeti

Editors and Contributors

About the Editors Dr. Ram Krishna Upadhyay is currently working as Assistant Professor at the Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya, Vadodara, a Central University, established by the Ministry of Railway, Government of India. He has received his Ph.D. and M.Tech. from the Indian Institute of Technology (ISM) Dhanbad in mechanical engineering with a broad specialisation in surface engineering and tribology. Before joining Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya, Dr. Ram worked as Postdoctoral Fellow at the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur. His research interests include lubrication and materials wear for industrial application, tribology of additive manufactured parts, and nanocomposites. He is a recipient of the SERB-ACS NPDF best poster competition award by the Science and Engineering Research Board, New Delhi, and the American Chemical Society, U.S.A. He published several journal papers, book chapters, edited a book, and completed a project funded by the Science and Engineering Research Board, New Delhi.

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Dr. Sunil Kumar Sharma is Assistant Professor at the Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya, Vadodara, a Central University, established by the Ministry of Railway, Government of India. He has received his Ph.D. from the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee. He worked at the Non-destructive Evaluation and Structural Health Monitoring Laboratory at C. N. University, South Korea. His research interests are vehicle dynamics, contact mechanics, mechatronics, and realtime software-enabled control systems for high-speed rail vehicles. He published several research articles in a national and international journal, book chapters, and edited a book. Dr. Sharma is also featured among the top 2% of scientists in a global list compiled by Stanford University, USA. Dr. Vikram Kumar is currently at IIT Kanpur. He received his Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, India, in 2018. His areas of research include polymer and composite coating; wear, friction, and lubrication; IC engine tribology; alternative fuels; advanced low-temperature combustion; engine emissions measurement; particulate characterisation. Dr. Kumar has edited 4 books and authored 10 book chapters and 19 research articles in international journals and conferences. He has been awarded with “ISEES Best Ph.D. Thesis Award” (2018), Senior Research Associateship under “SCIRPOOL Scientist” (2018–2021). He is a lifetime member of ISEES.

Contributors Samson Abiodun Aasa Department of Mechanical Engineering, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago Iwoye, Nigeria Abiodun Oluwatosin Adeoye Department of Chemistry, Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Oye-Ekiti, Ekiti, Nigeria Gagan Aggarwal School of Engineering and Technology (SoET), Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), New Delhi, India; Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board, New Delhi, India

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Elizabeth Tolulope Akinjobi Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria Laura Bahiense Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro—UFRJ), Transport Engineering Programme (Programa de Engenharia de Transportes—PET), COPPE-UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Dante Luiz Da Ros Hollanda Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro—UFRJ), Transport Engineering Programme (Programa de Engenharia de Transportes—PET), COPPE-UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Victor Hugo Souza de Abreu Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro—UFRJ), Transport Engineering Programme (Programa de Engenharia de Transportes—PET), COPPE-UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Azad Duppala Aditya Institute of Technology and Management, Tekkali, AP, India Elissavet Emmanouilidou Department of Chemistry, School of Science, International Hellenic University, Kavala, Greece Emmanuel Oghenero Emojevu Department of Chemistry, University of Benin, Benin, Nigeria Moshood Olatunji Fadahunsi Department of Petroleum Engineering, Bayero University Kano, Kano, Kano State, Nigeria Arpit Gaur School of Technology, Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya, Vadodara, Gujarat, India Jayant Gupta School of Technology, Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya, Vadodara, Gujarat, India Satvik Gupta School of Technology, Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya, Vadodara, Gujarat, India Aminu Muhammad Ismaila Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Sokoto, Sokoto State, Nigeria Shailendra Jain Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, M. P., India Hemalata Jena School of Mechanical Engineering, KIIT Deemed to Be University, Bhubaneswar, India Vaibhav Jaydeo Khobragade School of Technology, Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya, Vadodara, Gujarat, India Nikolaos C. Kokkinos Department of Chemistry, School of Science, International Hellenic University, Kavala, Greece Pankaj Kumar Center for Materials and Manufacturing, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SR University, Warangal, India

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Rakesh Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Elitte College of Engineering, Kolkata, West Bengal, India Vikram Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, India Alexander V. Lagerev Academician I G Petrovskii Bryansk State University, Bryansk, Russia Igor A. Lagerev Kuban State Technological University, Krasnodar, Russia Olayide Samuel Lawal Department of Chemistry, Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Oye-Ekiti, Ekiti, Nigeria Dosu Malomo Department of Chemistry, Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Oye-Ekiti, Ekiti, Nigeria Ibrahim N. Mark Central Technical Services Division NNPC, NNPC E&P Ltd, Benin, Edo State, Nigeria Santosh Kumar Mishra Department of Production Engineering, National Institute of Technology Trichy, Trichy, India Saurabh Narwane School of Technology, Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya, Vadodara, Gujarat, India Olalere Kayode Odeniyi Department of Industrial Safety and Environmemtal Technology, Petroleum Training Institute, Effurun, Delta State, Nigeria Damilare Jeremiah Odeyemi Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria Peter Bolaji Oladeji Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Lead City University, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria Ayorinde Oluwafemi Oladipupo Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria Olorunfemi Ayodeji Olojede Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria Blessing Olufemi Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria Omotayo Oluyemisi Omonije Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Technology Minna, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria Busuyi Patrick Omoniyi WATTCCON Chemical & Equipment Marketing Company Nig. LTD Commercial, Kaduna, Nigeria Augustine Eyikwuojo Onakpa Toulouse INP-ENSIACET, Green Chemistry and Processes for Biomass (Green CAP), Toulouse, France Srihari Palli Aditya Institute of Technology and Management, Tekkali, AP, India

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Suman Pandipati Aditya Institute of Technology and Management, Tekkali, AP, India Adewale Sheyi Popoola Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Federal University, Oye-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria Nisha Prasad Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Bengaluru, India; Sevenomy Learning, Pune, India Laís Ferreira Crispino Proença Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro—UFRJ), Transport Engineering Programme (Programa de Engenharia de Transportes—PET), COPPE-UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Rukayat Oluwatobiloba Quadri Department of Chemistry, Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Oye-Ekiti, Ekiti, Nigeria Rallabandi Sivasankara Raju Aditya Institute of Technology and Management, Tekkali, AP, India Pavan Kumar Rejeti Aditya Institute of Technology and Management, Tekkali, AP, India Jamunalal Rout School of Engineering and Technology (SoET), Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), New Delhi, India; Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board, New Delhi, India Abdullahi Usmanu Saidu Department of Pure and Environmental Chemistry, Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Sokoto, Sokoto State, Nigeria Andrea Souza Santos Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro—UFRJ), Transport Engineering Programme (Programa de Engenharia de Transportes—PET), COPPE-UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Suchismita Satapathy School of Mechanical Engineering, KIIT Deemed to Be University, Bhubaneswar, India Vineet Kumar Saxena Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board, New Delhi, India Sunil Kumar Sharma School of Technology, Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya, Vadodara, Gujarat, India Kartikeya Shukla Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Trichy, Trichy, India Bipin Kumar Singh Centre for Augmented Intelligence and Design, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Eshwar College of Engineering, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

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Editors and Contributors

Purushottam Kumar Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Silchar, Silchar, India Ravi Shankar Sinha Department of Mechanical Engineering, Budge Institute of Technology, Kolkata, West Bengal, India Dowluru Sreeramulu Aditya Institute of Technology and Management, Tekkali, AP, India Ram Krishna Upadhyay School of Technology, Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya, Vadodara, Gujarat, India Joseph Usman Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi, Nigeria Richa Verma School of Business Management, Noida International University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India Subhash Kumar Verma School of Business Management, Noida International University, Uttar Pradesh, India Muhammad Jibrin Yelwa Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, National Research Institute for Chemical Technology, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria Farah Zahidi Learners University College, Sharjah, UAE

Part I

General

Chapter 1

Introduction to Intelligent Transportation System and Advanced Technology Ram Krishna Upadhyay , Sunil Kumar Sharma, and Vikram Kumar

The Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) is a comprehensive system for managing urban mobility. Information collection systems, analytics and decision support systems, communication systems, and automation and control systems are the four central systems of ITS. While the future of urban mobility looks to be uncertain, new or improved inventions such as electric cars (EVs), autonomous vehicles (AVs), and the inclusion of technological inventions administer the extended prospects of better urban mobility through ITS implementation. It is suggested that Intelligent Traffic Monitoring Systems (ITMS) can also be used to modernize urban transportation and citywide command control centers. This book is based on various transportation aspects related to Intelligent Transportation Systems. Fortunately, as the digital age has progressed, human movement and location data have expanded dramatically in bulk. Technology such as cell phones or GPS-based tracking generates large amounts of standardized, low-cost data, which opens up many possibilities for developing transportation demand models. The lack of integrated transportation planning has resulted in the emergence of the situation in which city buses, BRTS, and para-transit systems compete rather than complement one another. The integration of newer formal modes of public transportation with previously existing modes of transportation is lacking. Passenger services are not appealing today because commuters do not know bus/auto/schedules. There is no information on when the next transportation system will arrive. Commuters face an unpredictably long wait. There are no provisions for emergency circumstances or commuter safety and security aboard buses or at bus stops. Through the Passenger Information System, ITS R. K. Upadhyay (B) · S. K. Sharma School of Technology, Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya, Vadodara, Gujarat, India e-mail: [email protected] V. Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 R. K. Upadhyay et al. (eds.), Intelligent Transportation System and Advanced Technology, Energy, Environment, and Sustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-0515-3_1

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will help make bus services more appealing to commuters by removing the abovementioned uncertainties and making the services more reliable with reduced travel time and waiting time, improved commuter safety and security, and improved travel conditions. It will also help other parties. The owner will receive regular feedback on system performance for policymaking and infrastructure planning. The operator will receive a report on the driver’s performance for a disciplined operation. It will assist the operator with service scheduling and dispatch, maintenance, incident management, and business intelligence. It will increase operator efficiency by improving vehicle monitoring and asset management and lowering fuel consumption and emissions. Through simulation and modeling, ITS aids in planning and visualization. The first section of this book includes one chapter based on the introduction of different sections and presents the important aspects of each section. Intelligent transportation systems, materials, processes, and management are covered in the second section. The section emphasizes how vital transport systems are for society’s social and economic needs. However, it emphasizes that these systems’ excessive reliance on fossil fuels negatively affects the environment and people, making them unsustainable in their current state. It is necessary to move towards decarbonizing the transportation industry in order to address this problem. Integrating the use of ITS into reverse logistics procedures is one method for enhancing transportation sustainability. ITS can improve downstream pipeline transportation processes in particular. Initiatives are being undertaken, including the introduction of advanced technologies, workforce training, and safe operating procedures, to ensure the safe and efficient implementation of ITS in transportation systems. Another aspect discussed is the transition from fossil fuels to cleaner energy sources like biofuels. Biofuels like biodiesel are considered renewable and cleaner alternatives to traditional fossil fuels. Various waste feedstocks, including waste cooking oil, municipal solid waste, and lignocellulosic materials, show promise as valuable resources for producing bio-jet fuel, contributing to the reduction of carbon emissions in the transportation sector. Furthermore, the section touches upon the transformation of the Indian logistics industry, which is rapidly progressing in terms of technology, infrastructure, and service levels provided by different service providers. Effective management of Intelligent Transportation Systems and advanced technology is crucial for successfully implementing and operating modern transportation networks. This management encompasses various aspects, including system planning, deployment, operation, maintenance, and evaluation, with a focus on integrating advanced technologies like sensors, communication systems, and data analytics to optimize performance, enhance safety, and improve efficiency in transportation systems. Recent research from various agencies worldwide has highlighted that the transportation sector is responsible for one-third of total CO2 emissions, with motorized transit modes, particularly for short trips, being significant contributors to this pollution. These short trips are not only inefficient but also disproportionately add to emissions. Additionally, the widespread use of motorized transit causes traffic jams, air pollution, lengthy commutes, and other sustainability issues in cities in India and worldwide. A chapter focuses on incorporating cycling into India’s transportation networks to address these problems, especially in places like Vadodara,

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where bus stations have a shortage of first-mile connectivity. The objective is to promote intermodality and offer suggestions to reduce the drawbacks of motorized travel and increase the benefits of cycling. However, the success of encouraging more people to use bicycles for daily trips strongly depends on changing people’s attitudes toward cycling, necessitating the creation of policies and promotional initiatives by public and commercial organizations. In another work, the rapid expansion of highspeed rail (HSR) networks presents traffic challenges such as congestion, maintenance issues, and safety concerns. Intelligent technologies like AI and machine learning have been included in many HSR system components. These include traffic control, maintenance, communication, and many other devices. These technologies have made high-level automation and adaptive systems possible by revolutionizing the HSR sector. Lastly, GPS tracking devices have improved operational efficiency and optimized transportation systems. Configuration, data collection, analysis, and performance evaluation are all necessary to effectively administer GPS monitoring systems. It allows for resource allocation, prompt dispatching, effective route planning, and real-time vehicle tracking. Other critical applications include improving situational awareness and incident management by integrating GPS data with other transportation management systems. Data quality, dependability, and privacy issues are among the GPS tracking system management obstacles that can be overcome with the help of effective data governance procedures and capacity building. Collaboration between stakeholders is crucial for administrating GPS monitoring systems, which improves operational effectiveness, lowers costs, increases safety, and improves customer satisfaction in transportation systems. The book’s third section is based on sustainable transportation systems and their applications. Mechanisms of surface interaction covering basic science, transportation, urban design, sustainable energy, and rail vehicle dynamics are covered in this section. This section’s first chapter covers the relevance of walkability in urban development, particularly in Ilesa, Nigeria. The study evaluates neighborhood walkability and how it affects residents’ decisions to choose walking as a form of transportation. It makes policy suggestions for enhancing the pedestrian environment and indicates that changing neighborhood characteristics could encourage walking. Another chapter discusses the use of aerial rope systems as a sustainable and environmentally friendly mode of transportation. It focuses on cost optimization models for constructing ropeways, considering factors like route selection, terrain, tower placement, and rope system characteristics. Other research explores the conversion of biomass waste into biofuels through pyrolysis and the challenges associated with raw bio-oil. It discusses advanced upgrading techniques, including hydrodeoxygenation and catalytic cracking, to improve bio-oil properties and make it a viable alternative to fossil fuels. Finally, a comprehensive review of vibration analysis techniques applied to rail vehicles is presented. It covers fundamental concepts, vibration sources, classical and modern analysis methods, and vibration control and mitigation strategies, emphasizing their role in ensuring rail systems’ safety, comfort, and efficiency. This monograph presents the various aspects of transportation, management, and advanced techniques to provide a better perspective towards sustainable transportation through ITS. Particular topics covered in this book are as follows:

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. Introduction to Intelligent Transportation System and Advanced Technology. . A Systematic Review on Renewable Hydrogen Application in the Land Transportation Sector. . Efficiency Improvement of Reverse Logistics by Managing ITS Implementation and Analyzing Customer Behavior. . Studying the Effectiveness of Synthetic Rutile Made from Inferior Quality Ilmenite Ore. . Unearthing the Origins: A Comprehensive Analysis of Root Causes Behind Major Accidents in India’s Mid-stream and Downstream Petroleum Sector. . Waste to Biofuel Production for the Transportation Sector. . Enhancing Multimodal Transportation in India: Jogighopa Multimodal Logistics Park. . Management of Intelligent Transportation System and Advanced Technology. . Integration of Cycling with Public Transportation. . Intelligent Technologies in High-Speed Rail Transit Systems. . Management of GPS Tracking Systems in Transportation. . Neighborhood Walkability as a Determinant of Sustainable Transport Mode Choice: Evidence from Nigeria. . Cost Construction Management of Aerial Rope Systems for Sustainable Public Transport in Green Cities. . Advanced Techniques in Upgrading Crude Bio-Oil to Biofuel. . Advancements in Vibration Analysis for Rail Vehicle Dynamics. The topics are organized into three different sections: (i) General, (ii) Intelligent Transportation System, Materials, Process and Management, and (iii) Sustainable Transportation System and Application.

Part II

Intelligent Transportation System, Materials, Process and Management

Chapter 2

A Systematic Review on Renewable Hydrogen Application in the Land Transportation Sector Victor Hugo Souza de Abreu , Dante Luiz Da Ros Hollanda , Laís Ferreira Crispino Proença , Laura Bahiense , and Andrea Souza Santos

2.1 Introduction Mobility, which involves the transportation of people and freight, is fundamental to the socioeconomic growth of any country and is set to grow even more in the coming years. Internal combustion engines power the vast majority of vehicles today, creating an urgent need for a rapid transformation of the transportation sector (Salvi and Subramanian 2015; Santos et al. 2021; Breuer et al. 2022; de Assis et al. 2022). However, compliance challenges with other propulsion systems and near-zero emission standards are inevitable (Jeyaseelan et al. 2022; Dominkovi´c et al. 2016; Connolly et al. 2016), to comply with the Paris Agreement (Camacho et al. 2022; Burdack et al. 2023) and more recently the Conference of the Parties 27-COP27. It is crucial that means of transportation are safe, cost-effective and ecologically sustainable (Mohideen et al. 2023; de Assis et al. 2022; Proença et al. 2023). Hydrogen can be an ideal option as a synthetic energy carrier for the transportation sector due to its high energy density per weight. In addition, hydrogen is widely available in combined forms on Earth and, when oxidized, does not contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, being converted into water (Singh et al. 2015; Lee et al. 2023). According to Sircar et al. (2022) and Burdack et al. (2023), hydrogen has significant potential as a viable and efficient fuel to drive the green economy. This is due to its abundance, sustainability, safety and affordability. In addition, hydrogen

V. H. S. de Abreu · D. L. Da Ros Hollanda · L. F. C. Proença · L. Bahiense · A. S. Santos (B) Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro—UFRJ), Transport Engineering Programme (Programa de Engenharia de Transportes—PET), COPPE-UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 R. K. Upadhyay et al. (eds.), Intelligent Transportation System and Advanced Technology, Energy, Environment, and Sustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-0515-3_2

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is capable of converting surplus energy from intermittent sources such as solar and wind into a storable form of energy (Collet et al. 2017). However, there are still significant challenges to ensure the sustainable production of hydrogen from renewable resources in a cost-effective manner, as well as on-board storage to provide the desired autonomy (Proença et al. 2023). In addition, it is necessary to develop durable energy conversion devices and adequate infrastructure for hydrogen delivery (Singh et al. 2015). Researchers have devoted extensive discussion to the hydrogen economy; however, to date, it remains a nascent solution for future global energy supply and transportation fuel (Meier 2014). All this calls for reflections on the hydrogen energy system for the transport sector, which includes its resources, production technologies, storage, fuel transportation, distribution and utilization (Qureshi et al. 2023). Furthermore, attention should be paid to the technical issues and their control strategy to address the problems of the transportation system using hydrogen (Salvi and Subramanian 2015). This study aims to conduct a systematic review with a bibliometric approach to analyze the potential of renewable hydrogen in the land transport sector (road and rail transport). The research will address both the opportunities, including available technologies, and the challenges associated with this transition. Strategies that can be adopted to minimize these challenges will be explored, with particular attention given to successful initiatives and projects in this area. Additionally, future prospects for the large-scale adoption of renewable hydrogen vehicles will be examined, bearing in mind government policies and available economic incentives.

2.2 Methodology Renewable hydrogen technology has been shown as a valuable strategy to combat global warming by reducing carbon dioxide (CO2 ), consequently climate change and the depletion of fossil natural resources (Lee et al. 2023; Nikolaidis and Poullikkas 2017; Abbas et al. 2023). This sustainable approach has gained scientific attraction in recent years in transportation for its environmental benefits, where renewable hydrogen production with zero carbon emission has emerged as an alternative fuel to meet energy demands, having the potential to drive the energy transition of the sector (Amin et al. 2022). Thus, several studies have been conducted to identify potential applications of renewable hydrogen in the land transportation sector, considering road and rail modes. Therefore, this work seeks to carry out a systematic analysis of these studies with a bibliometric approach, considering direct searches in the Web of Science and Scopus databases, considering the search topics (TS or TITLE-ABS-KEY) presented in Table 2.1, considering the studies published until June 2023. It should be noted that additional searches were carried out to improve the theoretical basis of this book chapter. Importantly, TS (Title Search) and TITLE-ABS-KEY (Title, Abstract, and Keywords) represent the specific keywords targeted for exploration within studies’

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Table 2.1 Definition of search topics by mode of transportation under investigation Criteria

Criteria description

Topics related to road transport

Web of Science—TS = (‘Road Transport*’ AND ‘Renewable Hydrogen’) OR TS = (‘Highway Transport*’ AND ‘Renewable Hydrogen’) OR TS = (‘Road’ AND ‘Vehicle*’ AND ‘Renewable Hydrogen’) OR TS = (‘Highway’ AND ‘Vehicle*’ AND ‘Renewable Hydrogen’) OR TS = (‘Road Transport*’ AND ‘Green Hydrogen’) OR TS = (‘Highway Transport*’ AND ‘Green Hydrogen’) OR TS = (‘Road’ AND ‘Vehicle*’ AND ‘Green Hydrogen’) OR TS = (‘Highway’ AND ‘Vehicle*’ AND ‘Green Hydrogen’) Scopus—TITLE-ABS-KEY (‘Road Transport*’ AND ‘Renewable Hydrogen’) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (‘Highway Transport*’ AND ‘Renewable Hydrogen’) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (‘Road’ AND ‘Vehicle*’ AND ‘Renewable Hydrogen’) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (‘Highway’ AND ‘Vehicle*’ AND ‘Renewable Hydrogen’) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (‘Road Transport*’ AND ‘Green Hydrogen’) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (‘Highway Transport*’ AND ‘Green Hydrogen’) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (‘Road’ AND ‘Vehicle*’ AND ‘Green Hydrogen’) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (‘Highway’ AND ‘Vehicle*’ AND ‘Green Hydrogen’)

Topics related to rail transport

Scopus—TS = (‘Rail Transport’ AND ‘Renewable Hydrogen’) OR TS = (‘Railroad’ AND ‘Renewable Hydrogen’) OR TS = (‘Railway’ AND ‘Renewable Hydrogen’) OR TS = (‘Rail Transport’ AND ‘Green Hydrogen’) OR TS = (‘Railroad’ AND ‘Green Hydrogen’) OR TS = (‘Railway’ AND ‘Green Hydrogen’) Scopus—TITLE-ABS-KEY(‘Rail Transport’ AND ‘Renewable Hydrogen’) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY(‘Railroad’ AND ‘Renewable Hydrogen’) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY(‘Railway’ AND ‘Renewable Hydrogen’) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY(‘Rail Transport’ AND ‘Green Hydrogen’) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY(‘Railroad’ AND ‘Green Hydrogen’) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY(‘Railway’ AND ‘Green Hydrogen’)

titles, abstracts, and keywords. The selection of TS and TITLE-ABS-KEY, as well as the underlying keywords and their combinations, ensued from a collaborative brainstorming effort among the chapter’s development team. This process ensured the identification of the most pertinent terms for inclusion. Another noteworthy aspect is the incorporation of English keywords. English is universally acknowledged as the international language of research, with most esteemed scientific journals, conferences, and databases being predominantly English-centric. Integrating English keywords into the search criteria enhances researchers’ prospects of uncovering a comprehensive and diverse array of pertinent studies. A careful selection of databases and search topics provides a comprehensive and reliable approach for gathering relevant and up-to-date information. Although all publications available in the databases were considered, priority was given to the inclusion of studies published in the last 10 years, allowing a contemporary assessment of the state of the art of renewable hydrogen applications in transportation. This preference for recent studies reflects the interest in keeping up with the latest

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trends and technological advances, considering the rapid evolution of the renewable energy field and the increasing attention to sustainability in the transportation sectors. It’s important to highlight that to mitigate potential biases stemming from the chance of overlooking pertinent studies within these databases, it is considered crucial to conduct supplementary documentary searches, thereby enhancing the foundation of the research. Nonetheless, it’s important to acknowledge that despite these efforts, significant studies pertaining to the subject might still have been inadvertently omitted from our deliberations. The research repository encompassed a total of 68 meticulously curated studies, each subjected to rigorous inclusion and qualification criteria. These criteria encompassed not only the year of publication and document type but also delved into the essence of source relevance, its significant contribution to the existing body of knowledge, and the potential for technical innovation. This stringent selection process ensured that only the most pertinent and impactful studies found their place within the repository, ultimately enhancing the credibility and depth of our research compilation. With the creation of the database, this chapter is based on the following guiding questions: . What are the main advantages of using renewable hydrogen in the transportation sector? . What are the challenges and obstacles faced in the application of renewable hydrogen in the transportation sector in question, as well as possible solutions to solve them? . What are the available technologies for the use of renewable hydrogen in the transport sector in question? . What are the future prospects for the large-scale adoption of renewable hydrogen vehicles in the transportation sector in question? . What government policies and economic incentives are available to promote the application of renewable hydrogen in the transportation sector in question?

2.3 Bibliometric Analysis From the search conducted, it was possible to verify that 68 publications were suitable to be included in the research repository, i.e., they met the inclusion and qualification criteria (quality and applicability). Figure 2.1 depicts the evolution of publications on this topic over the years. This analysis is vital for assessing the extent of theme growth and identifying emerging opportunities for further research. Figure 2.1 provides a comprehensive view of the distribution of studies concerning the application of renewable hydrogen in the land transport sector. Notably, most of these studies, approximately 57% of the total, are concentrated within the last three years. This surge in research activity signifies a growing interest in the potential of renewable hydrogen as a sustainable energy source for the transportation industry.

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18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

1992 2005 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

Fig. 2.1 Growth in publications over the years

The year 2022 stands out prominently in the dataset, boasting 16 publications, which could indicate a pivotal moment in the research landscape. Furthermore, the year 2023, while still in progress, has already seen the emergence of 12 publications, suggesting a sustained and evolving interest in this field. It’s important to highlight that, alongside the limited quantity of research on this topic, a substantial portion of the studies within the research repository (approximately 68% of the total) does not directly address the intersection of renewable hydrogen and the land transport sector, as illustrated in Fig. 2.2. This discrepancy arises from the fact that many of these studies focus on hydrogen’s role in electricity generation from fossil fuels, while others have a broader scope, encompassing the transport sector as a whole without a specific emphasis on road and rail transport applications (Table 2.2). It is also crucial to conduct a thorough evaluation of the primary keywords extracted from the studies incorporated into the research repository. These keywords are identified within the intricate web of interconnected terms showcased in Fig. 2.3, a visualization generated using the VOSviewer software developed by the Centre for Science and Technology Studies at Leiden University, Netherlands. This tool is adept at constructing and presenting bibliometric networks. Employing this strategy empowers researchers to streamline their quest for studies closely aligned with the subject of their investigation. Simultaneously, it aids in uncovering new research avenues by elucidating the contributing factors, pivotal dimensions, and principal domains. Figure 2.3 represents a network consisting of 180 distinct items, delineated into 18 clusters, interconnected through a network of 554 links. Within this intricate network, one can discern the prominence of certain keywords, denoted by the size of the spheres that encapsulate them, and their interconnectedness, denoted by the links between these spheres. Noteworthy, Fig. 2.3 reveals the prevalence of intuitive keywords such as ‘hydrogen’, ‘renewable hydrogen’, and ‘transport sector’. However, it is imperative

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Does the study deal specifically with renewable hydrogen and the land transport sector?

32%

68%

No

Yes

Fig. 2.2 Percentage of studies dealing specifically with renewable hydrogen and the land transport sector

Table 2.2 Publications by journal Source

% of publications

2022–2023 journal’s impact

International journal of hydrogen energy

22

7.139

Renewable and sustainable energy reviews

13

16.799

Energies

4

3.252

Energy

4

9.000

Energy conversion and management

4

11.533

to underscore the presence of other pivotal keywords such as ‘life cycle analysis’, ‘cost–benefit analysis’ and ‘technical and economic feasibility’, which serve to lay the groundwork for a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the research landscape. These keywords expand the discourse beyond mere concepts and into the realms of rigorous analysis, sustainability assessment, and pragmatic viability, enriching the research ecosystem with multifaceted insights into the subject matter. Another noteworthy cluster of keywords pertains to the various roles that renewable hydrogen can assume, encompassing its functions as a ‘raw material,’ a ‘transport’, a ‘fuel cell’, and a ‘storage’.

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Fig. 2.3 Interconnection network between the top keywords

2.4 Application of Renewable Hydrogen in Road Transportation The transportation sector consumes a high percentage of energy, which corresponds to about 31.8% of the total energy consumed worldwide per year (European Commission 2015). Among all modes of transportation, 72.3% of the total consumption comes from road transportation. From the point of view of energy carriers, road transport depends significantly (86.3%) on petroleum products (fuel oil, gasoline, diesel, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, biofuels), diesel being the most used (Navas-Anguita et al. 2020; Lu 2016). For these reasons, scientific research has been oriented towards the development of alternative solutions to fossil fuels also in this sector, such as the use of hydrogen (Abdelghany et al. 2022; Deendarlianto 2017). A vehicle can use hydrogen as fuel in different ways, depending on the technology adopted. The two main ways of using hydrogen in vehicles are (Mohideen et al. 2023): . Hydrogen fuel cells (Fuel Cells): In this case, hydrogen is converted into electricity through an electrochemical reaction in a fuel cell (Micena et al. 2020). The electricity generated powers an electric motor that propels the vehicle. Hydrogen fuel cells are particularly used in hydrogen-powered vehicles, known as fuel cell vehicles (FCEVs). These vehicles have a hydrogen tank that supplies the fuel to the fuel cell, producing electricity to power the electric motor and move the vehicle. The only resulting emission is water, making them a pollutant emission-free option. . Modified internal combustion engines: In some technologies, hydrogen is used in a modified internal combustion engine to—partially or fully—replace gasoline

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or diesel. In this case, hydrogen is mixed with air, and instead of a spark plug, ignition occurs by compression (as in a diesel engine). These vehicles are called hydrogen internal combustion vehicles (HICEVs). Although burning hydrogen in an internal combustion engine also results in water emissions, the efficiency and cleanliness of the process can vary depending on the design and technology used. Several studies suggest that hydrogen vehicles can be an efficient solution from an environmental and economic point of view. These vehicles are complementary to the battery electric ones, whether for passenger or freight transportation, using light or heavy vehicles, especially in those cases requiring long autonomies and short refueling times (Jeyaseelan et al. 2022; Ajanovic et al. 2021; Lui et al. 2022), enabling increased energy security and reduced GHG emissions (Salvi and Subramanian 2015; Dokhani et al. 2023). Regarding comparative analyses, Candelaresi et al. (2023) conducted a study in which they combined energy analysis with a comparative environmental life cycle assessment of eight different private vehicle fleets in Italy. These fleets use renewable hydrogen in combination with some conventional fuel, such as natural gas or gasoline, used separately or mixed, while maintaining the same total amount of energy and proportion of hydrogen energy in the blend. Based on the results, the findings suggest that the use of hydrogen blends is energetically viable and environmentally beneficial in the short term, as they require only minor modifications to existing compressed natural gas and gasoline-powered vehicles while paving the way for pure hydrogen mobility. The main advantages of hydrogen as a transportation fuel are its high gravimetric energy density, which allows it to store and transport large amounts of energy without excessively increasing the weight of the vehicle, and its convenient logistics, similar to other automotive fuels such as natural gas. In fact, these characteristics are the main reason why this fuel is still a strong candidate for the decarbonization of the heavy transport sector (Proença et al. 2023). It is important to highlight that heavy-duty vehicles have a significant consumption of diesel, a fuel with a high fossil carbon content, and still do not have an effective solution to reduce their CO2 emissions (Nugroho et al. 2021). Moreover, due to the high energy consumption of these vehicles and the need for short refueling times and long autonomies, the adoption of all-electric powertrains becomes quite challenging in most heavy-duty applications, mainly due to the limitations of batteries in terms of gravimetric energy density. In this scenario, the prospects for the use of hydrogenpowered vehicles strengthen considerably (Camacho et al. 2022; Lui et al. 2022; Keller et al. 2019). Due to this logistical advantage, hydrogen-powered buses are being implemented in public transport systems in several cities around the world. Public transit system buses, for example, undergo extensive testing for the use of hydrogen and fuel cells (Ruf et al. 2019). While hydrogen was initially used in buses with internal combustion engines, bus manufacturers are now focusing primarily on electric buses equipped with fuel cells. The implementation of hydrogen and fuel cells in municipal buses has contributed significantly to the technological and economic advancement of this

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form of propulsion in road transport, as well as assisting in air quality improvement policies (Sircar et al. 2022). Furthermore, in the case of heavy-duty road transportation, the hydrogen fueling infrastructure required is smaller compared to other types of vehicles. This is because most heavy-duty vehicles are fueled along highways or in garages, as in the case of city buses. In addition, hydrogen-powered trucks are close to entering the commercial market. These advances show a promising outlook for the adoption of heavyduty hydrogen vehicles (Ruf et al. 2019). However, for the diffusion of hydrogen road transport vehicles, it is necessary to identify the barriers to their large-scale commercialization/use, as well as possible solutions to these problems, as shown in Table 2.3. It is worth noting that the best way to minimize barriers is through investment in research and the direct involvement of stakeholders, including both public and private initiatives (Wanapinit and Thomsen 2021). For example, as hydrogen heavyduty fuel cell trucks have few commercial vehicle types available, it would be beneficial if academia could test the solutions of transportation and logistics companies to disseminate objective results and educate society about this technology, so that information barriers could be reduced (Camacho et al. 2022). In addition, the public policies needed to accelerate the global energy transition in the medium and long term to achieve Paris Agreement 2050 targets should be strengthened through public funding, working together with the private sector. Several studies have been dedicated to modeling the future of the transport sector, taking a broad approach. For example, in Denmark, two scenarios—one with a high percentage of electric vehicles, and the other with a high percentage of hydrogen use in the transport sector—have been analyzed using the STREAM model, an energy scenario simulation tool (Skytte et al. 2014). The main conclusions of Skytte et al. (2014) were that a higher share of electric vehicles could significantly reduce the socioeconomic cost of the energy system in 2050. In addition, it was highlighted that electricity demand for hydrogen generation through electrolysis is more flexible than electric vehicle charging. Therefore, production can be used to a greater extent to compensate for the variable electricity surplus of a high share of wind and solar power in the power system. It should also be noted that the fact that the implementation of the hydrogen scenario is more expensive than that of the electric vehicle’s scenario depends mainly on technological development, especially on improving the efficiency of the conversion from electricity to hydrogen. Navas-Anguita et al. (2020) conducted a comparative study of possible alternative fuel production technologies for road transport in Spain, covering the period 2020–2050. Among the technologies analyzed were biofuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel, synthetic diesel/gasoline and hydrotreated vegetable oil), electricity and hydrogen. According to the study results, hydrogen was identified as a viable option to decarbonize the transport system. While steam methane reforming is considered the most mature and cost-competitive production technology, hydrogen production was pointed out as a promising alternative. Hydrogen would be obtained through electrolysis, thus avoiding dependence on fossil resources as the main feedstock. This approach suggests that the use of hydrogen as a fuel in road transport could be

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Table 2.3 Challenges and possible solutions related to the application of renewable hydrogen in the road transport sector Challenges

Possible solutions

Currently, hydrogen fueling infrastructure is limited compared to the network of traditional fuel stations and electric vehicle stations (Mohideen et al. 2023; Sircar et al. 2022). Building a comprehensive and affordable infrastructure would require significant investments and time for its implementation (Proença et al. 2023; Low et al. 2023)

It is necessary to expand the hydrogen refueling infrastructure by increasing the number of refueling stations and making them accessible to users (Micena et al. 2020; Low et al. 2023). This will require collaboration between governments, businesses and institutions for infrastructure investments and strategic planning (Mohideen et al. 2023)

Hydrogen production, storage and distribution are still expensive processes, which directly influence the cost of road transport vehicles that make use of hydrogen. This makes hydrogen-powered vehicles more expensive compared to other transportation options such as battery electric vehicles (Mohideen et al. 2023)

Implementing appropriate policies and financial incentives can magnify the use of renewable hydrogen. This can include subsidies for the purchase of hydrogen vehicles, tax exemptions or preferential tariffs for renewable hydrogen producers, and programs to support research and development in this area (Salvi and Subramanian 2015; Proença et al. 2023). The establishment of partnerships between governments, industries, universities and research institutions is key to boost the adoption of renewable hydrogen, including in the perspective of the deployment of hydrogen heavy-duty fuel cell trucks (Camacho et al. 2022). These partnerships can facilitate the sharing of knowledge, resources and experiences, thus accelerating the overcoming of challenges (Salvi and Subramanian 2015; Wanapinit and Thomsen 2021)

The hydrogen production chain, which includes the electrolysis of water to obtain hydrogen, transportation, and storage, has energy losses at each step. This results in a generally lower energy efficiency compared to other propulsion technologies, such as pure electric engines (Abreu et al. 2023a, b)

Investing in research and development of technologies related to the production, storage, distribution and utilization of renewable hydrogen can lead to significant improvements (Dominkovi´c et al. 2018). This includes the creation of more efficient fuel cell systems, more effective electrolysis methods and innovative storage solutions (Proença et al. 2023) (continued)

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Table 2.3 (continued) Challenges

Possible solutions

Hydrogen is a highly flammable gas and requires special care regarding safe storage, handling and transportation. This can pose additional challenges in terms of regulation, training and supply chain security (Sircar et al. 2022; Qureshi et al. 2023; Abreu et al. 2023a, b)

Promoting awareness about the benefits of renewable hydrogen in the road transport sector is key to its large-scale adoption. Public education campaigns and dissemination of accurate information can help dispel myths and increase the acceptance of this technology among users and society at large (Low et al. 2023; Abreu et al. 2023a, b). Creating an enabling regulatory environment is essential for the growth of renewable hydrogen. This involves defining safety standards, emission regulations and incentives specific to the road transport sector, as well as integrating renewable hydrogen into energy and transport policies (Proença et al. 2023; Qureshi et al. 2023; Wanapinit and Thomsen 2021)

a more sustainable and environmentally friendly option, especially when produced from renewable energy sources such as electricity generated from clean sources. Thus, contributing to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and the transition to a cleaner and more sustainable transport system over the coming decades. Currently, German policy is directed towards the expansion of renewable energy generation and the promotion of battery electric vehicles. However, from today’s perspective, hydrogen plays a key role as an essential component for energy transportation in gaseous and liquid form, in line with the Power-to-X strategy. Hydrogen is practically indispensable in all applications where the direct use of electricity is not technically or economically feasible, i.e., in cases where it is not sensible or possible to use electricity directly (Zellner 2022). Nugroho et al. (2021) conducted a study to develop a design model for a network of hydrogen refueling stations for heavyduty vehicles (HDV-HRS network) in Germany until 2050, based on traffic data from German heavy-duty trucks, estimating its costs. Comparing different fueling scenarios, the results of the on-site fueling scenario showed a network consisting of 137 stations, with a cost of e8.38 billion per year in 2050 (equivalent to e0.40 per kilometer traveled per vehicle). Conversely, the centralized scenario, with the same amount of stations, showed a lower cost of e7.25 billion per year (e0.35 per kilometer traveled per vehicle). The levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) ranged from e5.59/kg (in the pipeline scenario) to e6.47/kg (in the on-site supply scenario) in 2050. Italy’s National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP) covers several measures, including investments in hydrogen refueling stations, with the aim of promoting the use of FCEVs in long-distance freight transportation. In their study, Gallo and Marinelli (2023) analyze the impact of this action on CO2 emissions and fuel consumption, focusing on a case study conducted in the Campania region. Their proposed approach, which can be applied in other geographical contexts, involved

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the implementation of a road freight transportation simulation model. This model is based on the construction of a supply model, the estimation of road freight demand, and an assignment procedure to calculate traffic flows. Their study covered the period from 2025 to 2040, according to the NRRP forecasts, and considered some assumptions about the effects of the action. In addition, it is assumed that hydrogen will be fully produced from renewable sources (green hydrogen). The main results obtained in three different scenarios showed that savings ranging from 423,832 to 778,538 tons of CO2 and from 144 to 264 million liters of diesel could be achieved. These results are promising and highlight the positive potential of adopting fuel-cell vehicles and using renewable hydrogen to reduce carbon emissions and fossil fuel dependency in the freight transport sector. Burdack et al. (2023) conducted an investigation into the techno-economic costs of producing and transporting hydrogen for export from Colombia to Europe and Asia, using open-source tools in Python. The results of the study revealed the potential of Colombia to produce green hydrogen at competitive prices through the use of renewable energy. The estimated values were 1.5 and 1.02 USD/kgH2 for the years 2030 and 2050, respectively, when wind energy is used as a production source. With solar energy, prices were estimated at 3.24 and 1.65 USD/kgH2 for the same years. These results show that Colombia has the potential to become a highly promising supplier of hydrogen to Asian and European countries. Moreover, the production and transportation of Colombian renewable hydrogen is expected to be carried out at competitive and advantageous prices, being one of the lowest among producers. These findings underscore the importance of investing in sustainable technologies and the use of renewable resources for hydrogen production, propelling the country towards a cleaner economy and favoring its opportunities in the international hydrogen market. Economic analyses of autonomous wind-powered hydrogen refueling stations at three selected sites in Sweden were conducted by Siyal, Mentis and Howells (Siyal et al. 2015), through the use of the Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewable (HOMER) Model. The results indicated that these stations have the capacity to produce renewable hydrogen fuel throughout the year, enough to fuel 200 vehicles daily at the analyzed sites. The LCOH at the stations equipped with the V-112 wind turbine ranged between US$ 5.18 and US$ 7.25 per kilogram of hydrogen (kgH2 ), while at the stations with the V82 wind turbine, it ranged from US$ 6.52 to US$ 9.62 per kgH2 . In addition, it was observed that the variation in wind speed had an impact on the LCOH, with a 17–19% reduction in cost when the wind speed increased from 4.5 to 5 m/s. Based on the results obtained, it was concluded that the use of hydrogen fuel in the transportation sector can bring both economic and environmental benefits to Sweden. However, the large-scale implementation of this option represents a significant challenge for the country.

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2.5 Application of Renewable Hydrogen in Rail Transportation Between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries—when the choice of energy sources for the displacement of cargo and passengers was undefined—electric motors, diesel and coal engines fought a fierce battle for market victory. There was a need to achieve efficiencies in fuel supply and demand logistics, as well as the best energy efficiency for greater vehicle autonomy. Horses, motor vehicles and trains shared the same roads in the cities (Geels 2005). Amidst various modes, Dincer and Zamfirescu (2016) state that rail transportation is the best for land routes due to several economic, social, energy, and environmental advantages. The results found by Garmsiri et al. (2013) show that rail transportation with hydrogen has an advantage over other modes because it can store more fuel on board, and hydrogen refueling methods can be simplified and safely handled by rail operators. However, Al-Hamed and Dincer (2021) highlighted that before relying on hydrogen to fuel future locomotives, transition fuels such as natural gas and ammonia, for example, will be needed to replace current environmentally harmful technologies. Considering that the use of the best fuel depends on some variables, the study of Veziro˘glu and Barbir (1992) considered versatility, efficiency in use, environmental compatibility, safety, and cost-effectiveness to society. They concluded that hydrogen is the best fuel for the transportation sector because it presents more advantageous characteristics for each of the items addressed. This can be verified with the several technological changes that locomotives have undergone, going through wood (18 MJ/ kg and less than 9% of hydrogen atomic content), coal (23.2 MJ/kg and about 50% hydrogen atomic content) and diesel (43.2 MJ/kg and about 75% hydrogen atomic content) as fuels for freight traction. With the evolution of the type of fuel used over the years, there is an increase in hydrogen content, whose lower calorific value is equal to 120 MJ/kg, according to Miranda (2017) and Miranda (2013). In the work of Katalenich and Jacobson (2022), an investigation is conducted on the replacement of diesel by other propulsion technologies. When analyzing the overall efficiency of the system, the value of 29% was assumed for diesel locomotives and 55% for hydrogen locomotives. In Hoffrichter (Hoffrichter 2019), a 40% reduction in energy consumption was pointed out, when employing hydrogen instead of diesel in locomotives. On emissions from the railway sector, the study conducted by Siddiqui and Dincer (2019) notes that more than 3,300 tons CO2 /year and approximately 100% NOX can be avoided by investing in hydrogen-powered hybrid locomotives instead of dieselpowered vehicles. Regarding the emissions of CO2 , CO, NOX , non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) and particulate materials (PM), Oliveira et al. (2019) conducted a study to analyze the potential for changes in modals for transportation of limestone between two cities in Brazil (Belo Horizonte/MG and Tubarão/SC). One of the reported conclusions of this work highlights that the railway mode is preferable to the road modal, even though the last employs diesel locomotives and impacts less

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on-air quality during the transportation of the mentioned cargo, when considering a route longer than 100 km. This strong competition with the road sector is also pointed out by Ruf et al. (2019). They highlighted several challenges and obstacles to be overcome, some of them listed in Table 2.4. Some technologies are available for application in the railway sector, such as water electrolysis (through solar and wind energy) and biomass gasification. Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells are already consolidated in the market and in an advanced stage of commercial use. What should be analyzed are the places where renewable hydrogen production has more potential: solar, wind or large availability of local biomass. Brazilian business representatives mention the installation of solar panels in the rail concession yards themselves, besides the installation of wind power plants around these yards. A thorough investigation should be conducted on the availability of local biomass for the production of renewable hydrogen to fuel locomotives. Regarding the source of hydrogen to be used in the railway sector, Guerra et al. (2021) confirm the use of renewable sources for the production and use of hydrogen. In this respect, a study by the International Energy Agency (2019) reports the use of renewable sources (wind and solar) to supply the batteries of electric locomotives by railway companies in the Netherlands, Austria, Germany, Belgium, Scandinavia, Japan, Chile, and Switzerland. By way of example: (i) NS (Netherlands) operates its vehicles solely with energy from wind source; (ii) in 2017, Deutsche Bahn’s energy matrix relied on 42% through renewable sources and the company has a goal to reach 100% by 2050; and (iii) in 2018 Japan Rail-East operated wind turbines, solar panels, and a biomass plant. Lastly, in Teng et al. (2022) it is mentioned that renewable energy studies and applications in the rail industry are still in their infancy, needing more research. The study of Hancke et al. (2022) states that low-carbon hydrogen obtained from the electrolysis of water through renewable electricity will be an integral part of the future energy system. On the other hand, Seyam et al. (2021) conduct a study with five alternative fuels (natural gas, methanol, ethanol, dimethyl ester, and hydrogen) for the rail system to highlight, among other aspects, the environmental impacts. The results show that the blend composed of 75% of natural gas and 25% of hydrogen proved to be the best option. In addition, it was emphasized at the end of the aforementioned study that government subsidies are important to make alternative fuels an economically viable option for the aforementioned industry. In this regard, the work of Zenith et al. (2020) shows an analysis with four types of locomotives (two diesel and two electric) on two railroads—one in Norway (731 km section) and one in the USA (2,883 km section)—for the years 2020, 2030 and 2050. One of the conclusions of the study is that diesel is economically superior to batteries and hydrogen in 2020 under US conditions, but with the technological evolution of FCs, they become competitive in 2030. For Norway, the highly taxed diesel puts it at a strong disadvantage with respect to the low cost of electricity, and as a result hydrogen and batteries are competitive with diesel. This topic is ratified by the International Energy Agency (2019), which mentions the expectation of the

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Table 2.4 Challenges and possible solutions related to the application of renewable hydrogen in the rail transport sector Challenges

Possible solutions

Option for hydrogen-powered locomotives instead of rail electrification

Hydrogen-powered trains technology does not require extra infrastructure, nor does it require complex electrification of the lines as is the case with direct overhead line electrification. Hydrogen is an environmentally friendly fuel (if it comes from renewable energy sources) and can replace diesel in cases where rail electrification is not economically feasible

High development costs and operational risks

Government support for early demonstration projects should be encouraged due to high development costs and operational risks However, commercial competitiveness on a Total Cost of Ownership basis can be expected as train manufacturers have already started to develop commercial products

Power-to-gas installation presents risks to hydrogen supply if it requires planned or unplanned maintenance

Alternative—-third party-services need to be established as redundancy solutions, which improve the security of fuel supply

In most countries, there is no area planning for hydrogen and fuel cell infrastructure. In fact, the licensing of an infrastructure is mostly not explicitly regulated and only refers to conventional infrastructure. A particular example is that in most European countries, the on-site production of hydrogen results in the classification of the refueling station as an industrial activity, which means that it must be implemented as an industrial zone

Attention must be paid to area use planning and the underlying risks of its uncertainty. The importance of the existing land use around railway depots is highlighted to size new hydrogen projects according to existing permits

Compliance of rolling stock with national regulations

It is advised that a risk assessment must be carried out by a national accreditation body to ensure that rolling stock is compliant with regulations

Lack of knowledge and awareness about fuel cell and hydrogen technology are the most persistent causes of public opposition to local project development

Good stakeholder management should be established for new projects and processes. In addition, there is a finding from many projects that a well-managed integration of all associated stakeholders makes project implementation safer by addressing the concerns of public communities

From a legal standpoint, hydrogen regulatory frameworks need to evolve. Legislation is needed to describe in more detail the role of hydrogen as a fuel

Senators and deputies need to be involved in this issue for recognizing that hydrogen is a fuel, from multiple sources (continued)

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Table 2.4 (continued) Challenges

Possible solutions

A regulatory authority is needed that is Agencies that deal with fuels must create an responsible for certifying the quality and origin area for monitoring and supervising the of hydrogen, as is done with other fuels production of hydrogen for the rail sector, as well as for other transport modes The licensing processes for hydrogen refueling stations need to be reviewed, and significant restrictions that categorize hydrogen production as an exclusively industrial process should be re-examined

Legal and regulatory developments should accommodate the needs of this new technology in the rail environment and simplify processes for those looking to build hydrogen infrastructure and make investments

There are countries with obsolete locomotives and limited capacity to invest in new trains, as well as almost all of the railway investments made are for repair and maintenance of the infrastructure with no or few projects for its modernization

Modernization of locomotives and wagons shall be done for current load capacities

There are countries where the rail infrastructure Massive investments in rail infrastructure must in general is in poor condition, with reduced be done by public authorities for faster cargo train operating speeds and, as a consequence, flow in the country severely impacted train regularity The introduction of hydrogen as a new energy source requires great care in terms of safety

Proper training of first responders is advised as one of the most important elements in reducing risks to humans and increasing safety levels. First responders, such as local firefighters and military police, need to be trained in the safe handling of hydrogen-powered vehicles when involved in emergencies or accidents

When introducing hydrogen-powered trains to the market, the new technology is more expensive than traditional technologies

Specific funding possibilities should be offered to fill this gap until the necessary scale for cost reduction is achieved. These would need to be adapted to the national financial capabilities of the different rail operators

Hydrogen-powered trains have a disadvantage compared to traditional technologies when they are examined on a purely commercial basis, without considering their environmental benefits

A general view over the total hydrogen-powered train aspects must be considered, not only financially, but regarding all the benefits for the whole society

High cost of hydrogen for fueling trains

The cost of hydrogen supplied to trains can potentially be reduced by sharing the refueling station with other modal transport modes (buses, trucks and cars) (continued)

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Table 2.4 (continued) Challenges

Possible solutions

The hydrogen refueling infrastructure needed to service and operate locomotives requires wide adoption and standardization. within the area of operation. To operate independently of fixed routes in a network, a standardized network of refueling stations must be built (if no other fuel supply concepts are developed)

Cooperation is needed between different actors (institutional, manufacturers and operators) to drive innovations through the same standards

There is limited experience and knowledge on hydrogen and fuel cell technologies among railway players

The development of an integrated project with concept development, engineering and operation of a prototype fleet can overcome these deficiencies. The running sites for these vehicles should ideally be on a busy stockyard or main track, with one or two large refueling stations to achieve economies of scale

Only a few rail operators in Europe have Professional training is of great relevance for developed the knowledge to introduce the development of hydrogen fueled trains deployment with hydrogen technologies. As the technology technology is still new, railway operators need training

decarbonization of the railway sector with 100% of locomotives running on hydrogen by 2030. In Italy, Ferrovie Nord Milano (FNM) has requested 14 hydrogen locomotives for the H2iseo project, which is conducting tests in the regions of Lombardy, Puglia, Sicily, Calabria and Umbria. The project aims to introduce 40 hydrogen locomotives by 2025. Enel Green Power, of the Enel Group, will supply the renewable hydrogen for FNM to operate its locomotives, to be acquired from the company Alstom. In 2020, in the city of Groningen/Holland, a partnership between Alstom and Engie to fuel passenger trains has ended with good results for both companies and society. In 2022, according to information from Alstom itself, the partnership between the aforementioned companies was strengthened, through 41 requests for hydrogenpowered trains in European countries. In South Africa, it was reported in April 2022 that the country has the decarbonization of the transport sector as one of its national focuses, including heavy transport in trucks, ships, aircraft and trains. However, there are no details in this document. What is known from the Power Engineering International (Largue 2021) is that the company Engie is conducting negotiations with the mobility sector (heavy transport truck companies, port operators, companies that manufacture vehicles for mines, rail operators and bus manufacturers). In Dincer and Acar (2017), it is highlighted that the transportation sector relies heavily on fossil fuels, which directly impacts the contribution of increasing greenhouse gas emissions (GHG). In this regard, renewable hydrogen could provide sustainable solutions in the transportation industry through safe, reliable, clean, and affordable energy systems.

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Recent studies from the European Union Agency for Railways (UnionAgency and for Railways 2022) show that hydrogen-powered trains offer good technical performances, with similar flexibility and versatility to diesel-powered fleets. In addition, renewable hydrogen is expected to gradually become competitive, along with demand-side policies, so that industrial consumption progressively includes new applications in rail transport. Furthermore, the mentioned document reports that the rail sector needs the support of local and regional authorities to identify grid segments where the use of hydrogen would be beneficial and help to decarbonize rail transport. As a result, scaling up by renewable energy demand will strongly drive the technological development of hydrogen applications in the rail sector. In Palmer (2022), the associate professor of civil engineering at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver/Canada, Mr. Gordon Lovegrove, states that it is exciting to adapt 30–50-year-old diesel-powered vehicles by hydrogen propulsion systems and have them “easily for another 50 years”. For this, he mentions that US$ 1 million is needed. This publication highlights that in France, Scotland, and in parts of the Netherlands, the railway networks have committed to replace diesel engines by GHG-free systems by 2035. In addition, Germany will eliminate diesel trains by 2038 and the United Kingdom by 2040. With demand for renewable energy—including hydrogen—increasing in scale, these mandates are strongly driving technological development in the rail sector. In Siwiec (2021), it is noted that the European Railway Agency (ERA) has been mobilizing for the political adoption of new technologies for locomotive propulsion: recent studies show that hydrogen-powered trains offer good technical performances with similar flexibility and versatility to diesel-powered fleets. In addition, renewable hydrogen is expected to gradually become competitive, along with demand-side driven policies, so that industrial consumption progressively includes new applications in rail transport. Furthermore, the mentioned paper reports that the rail sector needs the support of local and regional authorities to identify the segments of the network where the use of hydrogen would be beneficial and help to decarbonize rail transport. In Brazil, the Law of the Railways Brazil Lei No 14.273 (2021), more specifically in its Article 18 (about investments in innovation), states that it is important to have a joint action among the government (Ministry of Transportation and National Agency of Land Transportation), the industry (Brazilian Association of the Railway Industry and Brazilian Hydrogen Association), and the academy—that carries out research oriented to innovation in the railway sector—to execute projects focused on the substitution of diesel by renewable hydrogen, since there is a great potential for the application of this fuel in the national locomotives in operation. Government support to the development of locomotives powered by renewable hydrogen replacing diesel is necessary since Brazil has clean energy characteristics—when compared with other countries—and can make good use of its natural resources for the production of this type of hydrogen. The energy transition focused on renewable hydrogen consumption, both for passengers and cargo may be feasible, but there are difficulties to be overcome. In this sense, public policies can promote

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support for the initial stages of this innovative technological insertion by facilitating regulatory burdens or even removing regulatory barriers. For the energy transition in the railway sector, some investments are already being observed: (1) In Germany, Berlin and Brandenburg states and Niederbarnimer Eisenbahn have concluded negotiations on a research contract for the Heidekrautbahn (Herwartz et al. 2021). For the first time, hydrogen-powered trains will be used in the region around the German capital. The project has a total cost of e 25 million financed by the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure; (2) In Chile, in 2021, according to a report sent by that country to the International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells (IPHE) the Ministry of Energy presented two requests to channel funds from the Agencia Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo (National Agency for Research and Development) (ANID) to the development of technological solutions for the adaptation of fossil fuelbased rail transport to green hydrogen. According to InvestChile (2022), there is a project that is in the engineering phase and testing will begin in mid-2023. In addition, an increase in scale with an operational fleet of hydrogen-powered railways is estimated for the next 10 years; and (3) In the United States, more specifically in California, USD 40 million are being made available for pilot projects aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) in the transportation sector. One of the lines of support of the California Air Resources Board (CARB) is the development of locomotives that do not require diesel for travel in that state, such as port-train yards. In that country, in 2021, it was reported that General Motors (GM) has entered into a fuel cell supply partnership with Wabtec, “responsible for the transportation of about one fifth of the world’s railway cargo”.

2.6 Final Considerations The methodology adopted in this study proved essential to encompass a broad spectrum of information related to the application of renewable hydrogen in land transport modes, both road and rail. With a comprehensive approach, it was possible to obtain a detailed overview of the study area, allowing to identify promising opportunities and challenges to be addressed. For decision-makers, this study is of paramount importance as it offers key insights to guide public policies and strategic investments in the transport sector. By understanding the possibilities and obstacles of using renewable hydrogen, policymakers can make more informed decisions and target resources efficiently. In addition, the study can provide crucial information for the transportation industry and companies involved in this emerging market, allowing them to identify business opportunities and prepare for the transition to cleaner and more sustainable energy sources. However, it is important to highlight that despite the valuable insights gained in this research, there is a notable need for information on the application of renewable

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hydrogen in maritime and air transportation modes. This knowledge gap is of concern since these sectors account for a significant share of global transportation carbon emissions. To address this limitation and further broaden overall understanding, it is imperative to encourage and promote more research focused on these specific areas. Acknowledgements This publication is a joint realization of UFRJ and the H2Brasil project. The H2Brasil project is part of the German-Brazilian Cooperation for Sustainable Development and is implemented by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH and the Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME) and funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ).

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Chapter 3

Efficiency Improvement of Reverse Logistics by Managing ITS Implementation and Analyzing Customer Behavior Saurabh Narwane, Rakesh Kumar, Ravi Shankar Sinha, and Ram Krishna Upadhyay

3.1 Introduction These days, rivalry should be visible in almost every area, and the manufacturing business is not exceptional. Organizations are continually looking for new open doors and imperfections in the framework. Logistics is significant in any manufacturing organization because it utilizes the machine, material, and workforce. Reverse logistics is a minuscule component of an organization’s general logistics. It covers every exercise that measures what occurs to the items that have been returned (Korpeoglu et al. 2020; Rita et al. 2019; Sanchez-Cartas and Katsamakas 2022; Konˇcar et al. 2021). The treatment of the product that got back to the producer by the client is alluded to as reverse logistics. The consistently extending manufacturing area, joined with computerization, has brought about large-scale manufacturing and development in the number of products accessible. Regular assets have been overused because of outstanding development and expanding industrial waste, which needs to be catered by green creation and logistics (Rita et al. 2019). Reverse logistics is a moderately new idea, and logistics businesses have attempted to focus on its effects on administrative decisions. Customer satisfaction has also been S. Narwane · R. K. Upadhyay (B) School of Technology, Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya, Vadodara, Gujarat, India e-mail: [email protected] R. Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Elitte College of Engineering, Kolkata, West Bengal, India R. S. Sinha Department of Mechanical Engineering, Budge Budge Institute of Technology, Kolkata, West Bengal, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 R. K. Upadhyay et al. (eds.), Intelligent Transportation System and Advanced Technology, Energy, Environment, and Sustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-0515-3_3

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a significant part of any organization’s development, and the focus on increasing customer satisfaction has developed dramatically. Recently, it has been discovered that reverse logistics could significantly further build customer satisfaction (SanchezCartas and Katsamakas 2022). Regardless of size, item, or worldwide reach, almost every manufacturing organization has observed that reverse logistics plays an indispensable job. The underlying objective was to direct the survey and interviews in manufacturing enterprises, emphasizing fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) and electronic goods manufacturers. FMCG and electronic items were chosen because FMCGs are consumed as often as possible, making logistics considerations to distribute them to customers more basic. The rise of electronic products in the market throughout recent decades and the recurrence with which more up-to-date products hit the market are the reasons for inclining toward electronic goods. The primary adversities of Reverse Logistics are (Konˇcar et al. 2021; Tibben-Lembke and Rogers 2002; Stock 1998; Kopicki et al. 1993; Pohlen and Farris 1992; Gabele and Hirsch 1986; Dekker et al. 2004): . What are the reasons for returning products? And why do firms get concerned about reverse logistics? . How does Reverse Logistics work in real life? . What are the products that customers are returning? . Who is managing and administering reverse logistics processes? Firms take part in reverse logistics because they can benefit from it, have restrictions, and are socially constrained to do so. Furthermore, Fleischmann and Dekker (Gabele and Hirsch 1986) classify these main impetuses as financial (direct and indirect), law formulation, and communal assistance. Customers can lawfully return products in numerous countries, and corporations are responsible for administrative mandates. Also, occasionally, businesses will partake in recuperation programs to keep up with or foster a spotless and environment-friendly picture (Erol et al. 2010). Customers return items for an assortment of reasons. Products might be returned for various reasons, including physical harm, customer dissatisfaction with the product’s usefulness (expectations not met), customers discovering an elective product with better practicality after making the purchase, and customers abusing the merchandise exchange by returning it for no great explanation (Miranda and Jegasothy 2009; Alshamsi and Diabat 2015; Jayaraman and Luo 2007). Based on the above observations and research gaps, this research aims to answer the following questions: . What are the necessary processes in reverse logistics? . What occurs to the products that are returned? How do companies deal with the outcomes? . What effect do returns have on manufacturing industry decisions? . What impact do ecological problems have on reverse logistics decisions?

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Reverse Logistics Processes Whenever a product enters the reverse logistics stream, the logistics director must conclude whether it should be returned to the trader, disposed of in a landfill, or sold on the supplementary market (Eijk et al. 2012; Johnson 1998). A product might enter the reverse logistics cycle for an assortment of reasons. Contingent upon where two indistinguishable products enter the reverse logistics stream in the distribution channel, they might take distinct routes to various destinations. A book returned to a store by a consumer may not breeze up in the same spot as a book returned by the store to its supplier due to overstocking, as indicated by Rogers and Tibben-Lembke (2002). Neither of these books can wind up in the same spot as the distributor’s brought books back. Whenever another version replaces a product, the previous version might be sold until it is not accessible, perhaps at a discount. The product may never be sold on the supplementary market. If the product does wind up in reverse logistics, the organization might have the option to trade it to an outlet at a significant expense. This is especially evident assuming the new product is just a tiny, gradual move up to an existing famous product. Considering the changes are substantial, in any case, the maker might offer a discount to support the sale of the leftover products (Erol et al. 2010). When this happens, the dealer might eliminate the old goods from the store and trade them on the supplementary market. Also, when a product’s sales doesn’t live up to assumptions, it tends to be hard for the producer to trade it on the supplementary market, even at a drastically discounted cost.

3.1.1 Various Types of Returned Items In a reverse logistics stream, Rogers and Tibben-Lembke (2002) classify retail merchandise as follows: . Closeouts: first quality products that the retailer has never chosen again to convey. . Purchase outs or “lifts”: where one producer buys out retailers’ supply of a contender’s product. . Jobs outs: first quality seasonal, occasion merchandise. . Surplus: first quality overstock, overwhelm, showcasing returns, slow-moving stock. . Flawed: products discovered to be off-base. . Non-Defective Defectives: products thought mistakenly to be off base. . Salvage: harmed items. . Returns: products returned by customers. Return management alludes to the most common way of returning a product and changing it into a practical state. Returns Management amplifies benefits using tools or instruments and procedures (Ltd 2009). As per Rogers and Tibben-Lembke (2002), there are seven choices for discarding returned products to the maker: get back to

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the vendor; trade as new; trade via discount; offer to supplementary market; give to charity; recycling; product remanufacturing. The producer has at least one option as a reference to discard the returned product, contingent upon the condition, legally binding liabilities with the seller, and interest in the product.

3.1.2 Reverse Logistics Processes Reverse logistics exercises incorporate movements in an enterprise’s attempts to gather utilized, harmed, undesirable, or obsolete products and bundle and deliver materials from a client. When a product has been returned to the maker, the organization has an assortment of removal decisions. The primary choice that is accessible to organizations for managing returned products is to return them to the provider for a total discount. Products that haven’t been utilized can be offered to another customer or through a different discount shop as often as possible. If the products are of low quality, they might be transported to a rescue organization, which will exchange them on the global market for products that can’t be sold without guarantees. If reconditioning, revamping/remanufacturing the product may further develop the trading value, the firm might do so before trading the product. The primary choice accessible to organizations for managing returned products is to return them to the provider for a total discount. Products that haven’t been utilized can now and again be offered to another shopper or through a different discount shop. If the products are of low quality, they might be sent to a rescue organization, which will exchange them on the worldwide market (Agrawal et al. 2015; Wan et al. 2020; Gobbi 2011; Sundin and Bras 2005). If there is a possibility that the product can’t be sold without guarantees and if reconditioning, restoring, or remanufacturing the product may further develop the trading value, the firm might do so before trading the product. Then again, these exercises could be dealt with by an outsider organization working in reconditioning, remanufacturing, or renovation (Erol et al. 2010). If none of these cycles is conceivable, the maker can determine what portions of the product can be reused to deliver new things while the rest is discarded in a landfill or reused.

3.1.3 Reverse Logistics and Its Consequences on the Environment Many manufacturing associations are constantly drawn in with chipping away at their reverse logistics, either because they are legitimately essential to screen their returned product and dispose of them safely or because they need to keep a green picture among their customers. Anything drives them; natural factors will, in a general sense, influence their determined decisions later. Rogers and Tibben-Lembke (2002) provided some insight:

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. Expansion in landfill costs throughout the long term. . Numerous products can never again be landfilled because of natural guidelines. . Financial matters and natural contemplations force firms to utilize more reusable bundling, totes, and materials. . Ecologically persuaded limitations are compelling firms to reclaim their bundling materials. . Numerous makers should reclaim their products toward the finish of their useful lifetime. Undesirable product removal is turning into a more firmly directed action. Generally, this is valid for most nations all around the world. It is well known that organizations in the United States and Europe with offices and appropriate manufacturing units in nations like India, China, and Thailand keep monitoring how these seaward locales handle trash created at these destinations. They set a benchmark for rethinking organizations that should be fulfilled. The remarkable development in landfill costs in the United States and Europe can be credited to landfill rules. Numerous offices have shut down because of the impediments to safeguarding human well-being and the climate. Another region is where fixing guidelines measure as to what can be discarded at a landfill. More limitations exist in Europe and the United States on what can be dumped in landfills. Most of the time, producers are not legally necessary to reclaim their things after finishing their useful lives. They are also not allowed to dump them in landfills. Subsequently, the makers are constrained to gather their merchandise (Sundin and Bras 2005). These variables have added to an ascent in reusable bundling and transportation materials. Habitually, associations consider reusable materials and parts for their products during the product advancement and configuration stages. This has added to the development of the field of reusability plans. This research investigates the respondents’ information on reverse logistics, how they have carried out reverse logistics concepts inside their firms, and how this influences their judgments. This research does not focus on the performance measurement of reverse logistics models used by the respondents’ companies. It investigates beyond a few fundamental reverse logistics activities and what companies mean for the choices administrators should make daily in their organizations. The fundamental focus of this study is on the idea of reverse logistics and its capacity in the present manufacturing and related sectors. The undertaking aims to understand better reverse logistics and its use in manufacturing and other businesses. Another focus is understanding various reverse logistics aspects and how these variables impact manufacturing and other business decisions. The research also aims to investigate the ecological implications of reverse logistics.

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3.2 Methodology The methodology used is categorized into two segments: survey overview and interview. The survey segment of the theory was partitioned and directed into two sections. The first was to comprehend specialists’ points of view in the reverse logistics space on the elements that influence the choices in the reverse logistics process. The second approach was from a client’s perspective to measure their requests and assumptions for the producers and critical leaders.

3.2.1 The Survey A model arrangement of overview questions was ready after acquiring an essential comprehension of reverse logistics. The inquiries were received from Rogers and Tibben’s (2002) research.

3.2.2 Expert Perspective It was challenging to pick the target group for the survey used in this research. The survey aimed at manufacturing, quality and improvement, logistics, inventory management, sourcing, and procurement. Industrial personnel agreed to be part of the survey and completed all the questionnaires. The questionnaire was created to help the research achieve the following goals: . Determining and understanding the respondents’ degree of comprehension of reverse logistics. . Deciding the monetary expense of product returns on consumer loyalty. . To understand the importance of fair return policies. . Choices that were made to stay with them as harmless to the ecosystem as expected. The questions were designed to be simple to understand for the respondents and take minimum time to complete. Following the decision to modify the target group.

3.2.3 Customer Perspective The customers being the ultimate users and a critical part of the whole process, it was necessary to understand their concerns and their level of understanding regarding the policies in reverse logistics. The questionnaire made for the survey was easy to understand. The forms were distributed to the students, residents, professors, and

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management personnel to consider respondents from every age group and understand their behavior. Almost all the questions were objective, where the respondent had to choose either one or more options available. Thus, the respondents could have several options available to choose from the questionnaire. We received 180 exhaustive responses to draw a conclusion from the analysis performed.

3.2.4 Interview Following the survey responses for this research, interviews with the respondents were performed to understand their responses better and understand the notion of reverse logistics. The discussions were made in person in the form of one-to-one questioning. In addition, the purpose of this research was briefly conveyed to the respondents to give them a sense of the research’s objectives and goals. As a result, the topic was opened, and the responders were allowed to share their ideas on supply chain and reverse logistics. Factor and correlation analysis were performed by Minitab, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software, and Excel package.

3.3 Results The survey questions were created to understand the idea of reverse logistics as understood by manufacturers and logistics specialists employed by the organizations. An attempt is made to portray the respondents’ responses tangibly to offer to atone for how they view the concept of reverse logistics. The answers are analyzed and correlated with concepts from the theoretical basis portion. Only responses provided via the survey are considered in the results section. However, the discussion section contains a more detailed analysis of those responses and the interview discussions with the participants.

3.3.1 The Survey The survey results are divided into experts’ perspectives and customers’ perspectives. The results are primarily shown in bar graphs, pie charts, tree maps, etc. The quantitative discussion, including mean, median, mode, and standard deviation from the graph, is also highlighted to correlate the data analysis.

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Expert Perspective

The respondents are logistics experts who primarily work in the reverse logistics domains. A total of 180 respondents participated in the survey. Thus, the results obtained from the survey were used for the analysis. The observations for various factors are shown in Figs. 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4. Figure 3.1 shows the respondent’s age distribution. It can be seen that people between the age bracket 25 and 30 have mostly participated in the survey. Essentially, respondents completed their undergraduate before becoming supply chain professionals. The respondents were primarily employed in middle management (Fig. 3.2), followed by company senior management roles. Figure 3.3 shows the company size of the participating respondents. During the interaction, it was found that, primarily, the respondents were engaged in inventory management (54), followed by manufacturing (36) and sourcing and procurement (36). The companies had essentially 500–750 personnel employed in total. People involved in the type of business are presented in Fig. 3.4, along with a number of automatic supplies handling tools (Fig. 3.5). The bar chart illustrates the number of companies using ASHTs’ such as automated storage and retrieval systems (ASRS), rail-guided vehicles (RGVs), and autonomous intelligent vehicles (AIVs). It can be observed that almost 1/4th of the employees have agreed that their companies are using advanced technology. Also, few companies have agreed to the limited use of the same. A clear upward trend toward using Automatic Supplies Handling Tools (ASHTs’) by companies 2–7 is observed in Fig. 3.5. Age Group of the Respondents 100 No. of Respondents

Fig. 3.1 Bar graph of the distribution of respondent’s age

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Fig. 3.2 Bar graph of positions of the respondents in their companies

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