Information Retrieval: A Biomedical and Health Perspective (Health Informatics) 3030476855, 9783030476854

This extensively revised 4th edition comprehensively covers information retrieval from a biomedical and health perspecti

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Table of contents :
Preface
Contents
Chapter 1: Foundations
1.1 Basic Definitions
1.2 Scientific Disciplines Concerned with IR
1.3 Models of IR
1.3.1 The Information World
1.3.2 Users
1.3.3 Health Decision-Making
1.3.4 Knowledge Acquisition and Use
1.4 IR Resources
1.4.1 Organizations
1.4.2 Journals
1.4.3 Texts
1.4.4 Tools
1.5 The Internet and World Wide Web
1.5.1 Users
1.5.2 Usage
1.5.3 Hypertext and Linking
1.6 Evaluation
1.6.1 Classification of Evaluation
1.6.1.1 Was the System Used?
1.6.1.2 For What Was the System Used?
1.6.1.3 Were the Users Satisfied?
1.6.1.4 How Well Was the System Used?
1.6.1.5 What Factors Were Associated with Successful or Unsuccessful Use of the System?
1.6.1.6 Did the System Have an Impact?
1.6.2 Relevance-Based Evaluation
1.6.2.1 Recall and Precision
1.6.2.2 F Measure
1.6.2.3 Ranked Systems
1.6.3 Challenge Evaluations
1.6.3.1 Text REtrieval Conference (TREC)
1.6.3.2 TREC Biomedical Tracks
1.6.3.3 Other Aspects of TREC
1.6.3.4 Beyond TREC
References
Chapter 2: Information
2.1 What Is Information?
2.2 Theories of Information
2.3 Properties of Scientific Information
2.3.1 Growth
2.3.2 Obsolescence
2.3.3 Fragmentation
2.3.4 Linkage and Citations
2.3.4.1 Author Productivity: Lotka’s Law
2.3.4.2 Subject Dispersion: Bradford’s Law
2.3.4.3 Journal Importance: Impact Factor
2.3.4.4 Author Impact
2.3.4.5 Co-citation Analysis
2.3.4.6 Alternatives to Citations
2.3.5 Propagation
2.4 Classification of Health Information
2.5 Production of Biomedical and Health Information
2.5.1 Generation of Scientific Information
2.5.2 Peer Review
2.5.2.1 Is Peer Review Effective?
2.5.2.2 How Can Peer Review Be Improved?
2.5.3 Primary Literature
2.5.3.1 Characteristics of the Primary Literature
2.5.3.2 Methodological Issues in Primary Literature
2.5.3.3 Reproducibility and Replicability
2.5.3.4 Reporting Issues in Primary Literature
2.5.3.5 Publication Bias
2.5.3.6 Fraud in Primary Literature
2.5.4 Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis
2.5.5 Secondary Literature
2.6 Electronic Publishing
2.6.1 Electronic Scholarly Publication
2.6.2 Consumer Health Information
2.7 Use of Knowledge-Based Health Information
2.7.1 Models of Physician Thinking
2.7.2 Physician Information Needs
2.7.2.1 Unrecognized Needs
2.7.2.2 Recognized Needs
2.7.2.3 Pursued Needs
2.7.2.4 Satisfied Needs
2.7.3 Information Needs of Other Healthcare Professionals
2.7.4 Information Needs of Biomedical and Health Researchers
2.7.5 Information Needs of Consumers
2.8 Summary
References
Chapter 3: Content
3.1 Classification of Health and Biomedical Information Content
3.2 Bibliographic Content
3.2.1 Literature Reference Databases
3.2.1.1 MEDLINE
3.2.1.2 Other NLM Bibliographic Resources
3.2.1.3 Non-NLM Bibliographic Databases
3.2.2 Web Catalogs and Feeds
3.2.3 Specialized Registries
3.3 Full-Text Content
3.3.1 Periodicals
3.3.2 Books and Reports
3.3.3 Web Collections
3.4 Annotated Content
3.4.1 Images and Videos
3.4.2 Citations
3.4.3 Evidence-Based Medicine Resources
3.4.4 Molecular Biology and -Omics
3.4.5 Educational Resources
3.4.6 Linked Data
3.4.7 Other Annotated Content
3.5 Aggregations
3.5.1 Consumer Health
3.5.2 Health Professionals
3.5.3 Body of Knowledge
3.5.4 Model Organism Databases
3.5.5 Scientific Information
References
Chapter 4: Indexing
4.1 Types of Indexing
4.2 Factors Influencing Indexing
4.3 Controlled Vocabularies
4.3.1 General Principles of Controlled Vocabularies
4.3.2 The Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Vocabulary
4.3.3 Other Indexing Vocabularies
4.3.4 The Unified Medical Language System
4.4 Manual Indexing
4.4.1 Bibliographic Manual Indexing
4.4.2 Full-Text Manual Indexing
4.4.3 Web Manual Indexing
4.4.3.1 Dublin Core Metadata Initiative
4.4.3.2 Open Directory
4.4.3.3 User Tagging
4.4.3.4 Paid Search
4.4.4 Limitations of Manual Indexing
4.5 Automated Indexing
4.5.1 Word Indexing
4.5.2 Limitations of Word Indexing
4.5.3 Word Weighting
4.5.4 Link-Based Indexing
4.5.5 Web Crawling
4.6 Indexing Annotated Content
4.6.1 Index Imaging
4.6.2 Indexing Learning Objects
4.6.3 Indexing Biomedical and Health Data
4.7 Data Structures for Efficient Retrieval
References
Chapter 5: Retrieval
5.1 Search Process
5.2 General Principles of Searching
5.2.1 Exact-Match Searching
5.2.2 Partial-Match Searching
5.2.3 Term Selection
5.2.3.1 Term Lookup
5.2.3.2 Term Expansion
5.2.3.3 Other Word-Related Operators
5.2.3.4 Subheadings
5.2.3.5 Explosions
5.2.3.6 Spelling Correction
5.2.4 Other Attribute Selection
5.3 Searching Interfaces
5.3.1 Bibliographic
5.3.1.1 Literature Reference Databases
5.3.1.2 Web Catalogs
5.3.1.3 Specialized Registries
5.3.2 Full Text
5.3.2.1 Periodicals
5.3.2.2 Textbooks
5.3.2.3 Web Search Engines
5.3.3 Annotated
5.3.3.1 Images
5.3.3.2 Citations
5.3.3.3 Molecular Biology and -Omics
5.3.3.4 Other Databases
5.3.4 Aggregations
5.4 Document Delivery
5.5 Notification or Information Filtering
References
Chapter 6: Access
6.1 Libraries
6.1.1 Definitions and Functions of DLs
6.2 Access to Content
6.2.1 Access to Individual Items
6.2.2 Access to Collections
6.2.3 Access to Metadata
6.2.4 Integration with Other Applications
6.3 Copyright and Intellectual Property
6.3.1 Copyright and Fair Use
6.3.2 Digital Rights Management
6.4 Open Access and Open Science
6.4.1 Open-Access Publishing
6.4.2 NIH Public Access Policy
6.4.3 Predatory Journals
6.5 Preservation
6.6 Librarians, Informationists, and Other Professionals
6.7 Future Directions
References
Chapter 7: Evaluation
7.1 Usage Frequency
7.2 Types of Usage
7.3 User Satisfaction
7.4 Searching Quality
7.4.1 System-Oriented Performance Evaluations
7.4.2 User-Oriented Performance Evaluations
7.4.2.1 Early User-Oriented Studies
7.4.2.2 User Studies Focused on Answering Questions
7.4.2.3 Other User-Oriented Studies of Clinicians
7.4.2.4 User-Oriented Studies of Consumers
7.5 Factors Associated with Success or Failure
7.5.1 Predictors of Success
7.5.2 Analysis of Failure
7.6 Assessment of Impact
7.7 Research on Relevance
7.7.1 Topical Relevance
7.7.2 Situational Relevance
7.7.3 Research About Relevance Judgments
7.7.4 Limitations of Relevance-Based Measures
7.7.5 Automating Relevance Judgments
7.7.6 Measures of Agreement
7.8 What Has Been Learned About IR Systems?
References
Chapter 8: Research
8.1 Frameworks and Challenge Evaluations
8.2 Biomedical and Health IR Research
8.2.1 Early Studies
8.2.2 Challenge Evaluations in Biomedicine and Health
8.2.2.1 TREC Genomics Track
8.2.2.2 TREC Medical Records Track
8.2.2.3 TREC Clinical Decision Support Track
8.2.2.4 TREC Precision Medicine Track
8.2.2.5 CLEF Cross Language Image Retrieval Track (ImageCLEF)
8.2.2.6 CLEF eHealth Lab Series
8.2.3 Ad Hoc Retrieval
8.2.4 Consumer-Oriented
8.2.5 Image Retrieval
8.2.6 High-Recall Retrieval
8.2.7 EHR Retrieval
8.3 General IR Research
8.3.1 Overview of Early Research
8.3.2 Machine Learning: Uncovering Latent Meaning
8.3.3 Natural Language Processing
8.3.4 Question-Answering
8.3.4.1 TREC Question-Answering Track
8.3.4.2 Recent Question-Answering
8.3.4.3 Biomedical Question-Answering
8.3.5 Text Categorization
8.4 Research Systems and the User
8.4.1 Early Research
8.4.2 User Evaluation of Research Systems
8.4.3 TREC Interactive Track
8.5 Looking Forward
References
Correction to: Retrieval
Correction to: Chapter 5 in: W. Hersh, Information Retrieval: A Biomedical and Health Perspective, Health Informatics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47686-1_5
Index
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Health Informatics

William Hersh

Information Retrieval: A Biomedical and Health Perspective Fourth Edition

Health Informatics

This series is directed to healthcare professionals leading the transformation of healthcare by using information and knowledge. For over 20 years, Health Informatics has offered a broad range of titles: some address specific professions such as nursing, medicine, and health administration; others cover special areas of practice such as trauma and radiology; still other books in the series focus on interdisciplinary issues, such as the computer based patient record, electronic health records, and networked healthcare systems. Editors and authors, eminent experts in their fields, offer their accounts of innovations in health informatics. Increasingly, these accounts go beyond hardware and software to address the role of information in influencing the transformation of healthcare delivery systems around the world. The series also increasingly focuses on the users of the information and systems: the organizational, behavioral, and societal changes that accompany the diffusion of information technology in health services environments. Developments in healthcare delivery are constant; in recent years, bioinformatics has emerged as a new field in health informatics to support emerging and ongoing developments in molecular biology. At the same time, further evolution of the field of health informatics is reflected in the introduction of concepts at the macro or health systems delivery level with major national initiatives related to electronic health records (EHR), data standards, and public health informatics. These changes will continue to shape health services in the twenty-first century. By making full and creative use of the technology to tame data and to transform information, Health Informatics will foster the development and use of new knowledge in healthcare. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/1114

William Hersh

Information Retrieval: A Biomedical and Health Perspective Fourth Edition

William Hersh Oregon Health & Science University Portland, OR USA

ISSN 1431-1917     ISSN 2197-3741 (electronic) Health Informatics ISBN 978-3-030-47685-4    ISBN 978-3-030-47686-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47686-1 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020, corrected publication 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

To Sally, Becca, Alyssa, and AJ

Preface

The main goal of this book is to provide an understanding of the theory, implementation, and evaluation of information retrieval (IR) systems in biomedicine and health. There is already a great deal of “how-to” information on searching for biomedical and health information (some listed in Chap. 1). Similarly, there are also a number of high-quality basic IR textbooks (also listed in Chap. 1). This volume is different from all of the above in that it covers basic IR as do the latter books, but with a distinct focus on the biomedical and health domain. The first three editions of this book were published in 1996, 2003, and 2009. Although subsequent editions of books in many fields represent incremental updates, this edition is profoundly rewritten and is essentially a new book. The IR world has changed substantially since I wrote the first three editions of the book. At the time of the first edition, IR systems were available and not too difficult to access if you had the means and expertise. Also, in that edition, the Internet was a “special topic” in the very last chapter of the book. By the second edition, the World Wide Web had become a widespread platform for the use of information access and delivery, but had not achieved the nearly ubiquitous and saturated use it has now. At present, however, not only must health care professionals and biomedical researchers understand how to use IR systems to be effective in their work, but patients and consumers must also as well to attain optimal health care. Similar to previous editions will be the maintenance of a Web site for errata and updates. The Website http://www.irbook.info/ will identify all errors in the book text as well as provide updates on important new findings in the field as they become available. As in the first three editions, the approach is still to introduce all the necessary theory to allow coverage of the implementation and evaluation of IR systems in biomedicine and health. Any book on theoretical aspects must necessarily use technical jargon, and this book is no exception. Although jargon is minimized, it cannot be eliminated without retreating to a more superficial level of coverage. The reader’s understanding of the jargon will vary based on their background, but anyone with some background in computers, libraries, health, and/or biomedicine should be

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Preface

able to understand most of the terms used. In any case, an attempt to define all jargon terms is made. Another approach is to attempt wherever possible to classify topics, whether discussing types of information or models of evaluation. I have always found classification useful in providing an overview of complex topics. One problem, of course, is that everything does not fit into the neat and simple categories of the classification. This occurs repeatedly with IR, and the reader is forewarned. This book had its origins in a tutorial taught at the former Symposium on Computer Applications in Medicine (SCAMC) meeting. The content continues to grow each year through my course taught to biomedical informatics students in the on-campus and disease-learning programs at OHSU. (Students often do not realize that next year’s course content is based in part on the new and interesting things they teach me!) The book can be used in either a basic information science course or a biomedical and health informatics course. It should also provide a strong background for others interested in this topic, including those who design, implement, use, and evaluate IR systems. Interest continues to grow in biomedical and health IR systems. I entered a fellowship in medical informatics at Harvard University in the late 1980s, during the initial era of medical artificial intelligence. I had assumed I would take up the banner of some aspect of that area, such as knowledge representation. But along the way I came across a reference from the field of “information retrieval.” It looked interesting, so I looked at the references of that reference. It did not take long to figure out that this was where my real interests lay, and I spent many an afternoon in my fellowship tracing references in the Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology libraries. Even though I had not yet heard of the field of bibliometrics, I was personally validating all its principles. Like many in the field, I have been amazed to see IR become so “mainstream” with its routine use by almost everyone on the planet. The book is divided into eight chapters. Chapter 1 provides basic definitions and models that will be used throughout the book. It also points to resources for the field and introduces evaluation of systems. Chapter 2 provides an overview of biomedical and health information, describing some of the issues in its production, dissemination, and use. Chapter 3 gives an overview of the great deal of content that is currently available. Chapters 4 and 5 cover the two fundamental intellectual tasks of IR, indexing and retrieval, with the predominant paradigms of each discussed in detail. Chapter 6 discusses the methods and challenges of larger information access. Chapter 7 focuses on evaluation research that has been done on state-of-the-art systems in the biomedical and health domain. Finally, Chapter 8 explores research about IR systems and their users, with an emphasis on applications in the biomedical and health domain. Within each chapter, the goal is to provide a comprehensive overview of the topic, with thorough citations of pertinent references. There is a preference for discussing biomedical and health implementations of principles, but where this is not possible, the original domain of implementation is discussed. This book would not have been possible without the influence of various mentors, dating back to high school, who nurtured my interests in science generally

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and/or biomedical and health informatics specifically, and/or helped me achieve my academic and career goals. The most prominent include Mr. Robert Koonz (then of New Trier West High School, Northfield, IL), Dr. Darryl Sweeney (then of University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana), Dr. Robert Greenes (then of Harvard Medical School), Dr. David Evans (then of Carnegie Mellon University), Dr. Mark Frisse (then of Washington University), Dr. J.  Robert Beck (then of OHSU), Dr. David Hickam (then of OHSU), Dr. Brian Haynes (McMaster University), Dr. Lesley Hallick (then of OHSU), and Dr. Jerris Hedges (then of OHSU). I must also acknowledge the late Dr. Gerard Salton (Cornell University), whose writings initiated and sustained my interest in this field. I would also like to note the contributions of institutions and people in the federal government who aided the development of my career and this book. While many Americans increasingly question the abilities of their government to do anything successfully, the NLM, under the former directorship of the late Dr. Donald A. B. Lindberg and the current directorship of Dr. Patricia Flatley Brennan, has led the growth and advancement of the field of biomedical and health informatics. The NLM’s fellowship and research funding have given me the skills and experience to succeed in this field. I would also like to acknowledge the late Oregon Senator Mark O. Hatfield through his dedication to biomedical research funding that aided myself and many others. Finally, this book also would not have been possible without the love and support of my family. All of my parents, Mom and Jon, Dad and Gloria, as well as my brother Jeff and sister-in-law Myra, supported the various interests I developed in life and the somewhat different career path I chose. I think that now as they have become Web users and searchers, they appreciate my interest in this area. And last, but most importantly, has been the contribution of my wife, Sally, and two children, Becca and Alyssa, whose unlimited love and support made this undertaking so enjoyable and rewarding. March 2020 Portland, OR

 William Hersh

Contents

1 Foundations����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1 1.1 Basic Definitions������������������������������������������������������������������������������    3 1.2 Scientific Disciplines Concerned with IR ����������������������������������������    5 1.3 Models of IR ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    7 1.3.1 The Information World ��������������������������������������������������������    7 1.3.2 Users ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    8 1.3.3 Health Decision-Making������������������������������������������������������    9 1.3.4 Knowledge Acquisition and Use������������������������������������������    9 1.4 IR Resources ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   11 1.4.1 Organizations������������������������������������������������������������������������   11 1.4.2 Journals ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   12 1.4.3 Texts��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   13 1.4.4 Tools��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   13 1.5 The Internet and World Wide Web����������������������������������������������������   14 1.5.1 Users ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   15 1.5.2 Usage������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   16 1.5.3 Hypertext and Linking����������������������������������������������������������   18 1.6 Evaluation ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   19 1.6.1 Classification of Evaluation��������������������������������������������������   21 1.6.2 Relevance-Based Evaluation������������������������������������������������   24 1.6.3 Challenge Evaluations����������������������������������������������������������   30 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   34 2 Information����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   41 2.1 What Is Information?������������������������������������������������������������������������   41 2.2 Theories of Information��������������������������������������������������������������������   42 2.3 Properties of Scientific Information��������������������������������������������������   45 2.3.1 Growth����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   45 2.3.2 Obsolescence������������������������������������������������������������������������   46 2.3.3 Fragmentation ����������������������������������������������������������������������   48

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2.3.4 Linkage and Citations ����������������������������������������������������������   48 2.3.5 Propagation ��������������������������������������������������������������������������   60 2.4 Classification of Health Information������������������������������������������������   61 2.5 Production of Biomedical and Health Information��������������������������   64 2.5.1 Generation of Scientific Information������������������������������������   64 2.5.2 Peer Review��������������������������������������������������������������������������   69 2.5.3 Primary Literature����������������������������������������������������������������   73 2.5.4 Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis ������������������������������   94 2.5.5 Secondary Literature������������������������������������������������������������   99 2.6 Electronic Publishing������������������������������������������������������������������������  101 2.6.1 Electronic Scholarly Publication������������������������������������������  102 2.6.2 Consumer Health Information����������������������������������������������  103 2.7 Use of Knowledge-Based Health Information����������������������������������  108 2.7.1 Models of Physician Thinking����������������������������������������������  109 2.7.2 Physician Information Needs������������������������������������������������  110 2.7.3 Information Needs of Other Healthcare Professionals ��������  115 2.7.4 Information Needs of Biomedical and Health Researchers��  115 2.7.5 Information Needs of Consumers ����������������������������������������  116 2.8 Summary ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  116 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  116 3 Content������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  141 3.1 Classification of Health and Biomedical Information Content��������  141 3.2 Bibliographic Content����������������������������������������������������������������������  143 3.2.1 Literature Reference Databases��������������������������������������������  144 3.2.2 Web Catalogs and Feeds ������������������������������������������������������  153 3.2.3 Specialized Registries ����������������������������������������������������������  154 3.3 Full-Text Content������������������������������������������������������������������������������  155 3.3.1 Periodicals����������������������������������������������������������������������������  156 3.3.2 Books and Reports����������������������������������������������������������������  157 3.3.3 Web Collections��������������������������������������������������������������������  159 3.4 Annotated Content����������������������������������������������������������������������������  161 3.4.1 Images and Videos����������������������������������������������������������������  162 3.4.2 Citations��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  163 3.4.3 Evidence-Based Medicine Resources ����������������������������������  163 3.4.4 Molecular Biology and -Omics��������������������������������������������  166 3.4.5 Educational Resources����������������������������������������������������������  169 3.4.6 Linked Data��������������������������������������������������������������������������  170 3.4.7 Other Annotated Content������������������������������������������������������  170 3.5 Aggregations ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  172 3.5.1 Consumer Health������������������������������������������������������������������  172 3.5.2 Health Professionals�������������������������������������������������������������  173 3.5.3 Body of Knowledge��������������������������������������������������������������  175 3.5.4 Model Organism Databases��������������������������������������������������  176 3.5.5 Scientific Information ����������������������������������������������������������  176 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  177

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4 Indexing����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  181 4.1 Types of Indexing������������������������������������������������������������������������������  181 4.2 Factors Influencing Indexing������������������������������������������������������������  182 4.3 Controlled Vocabularies��������������������������������������������������������������������  183 4.3.1 General Principles of Controlled Vocabularies ��������������������  184 4.3.2 The Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Vocabulary������������  185 4.3.3 Other Indexing Vocabularies������������������������������������������������  191 4.3.4 The Unified Medical Language System��������������������������������  194 4.4 Manual Indexing ������������������������������������������������������������������������������  197 4.4.1 Bibliographic Manual Indexing��������������������������������������������  198 4.4.2 Full-Text Manual Indexing ��������������������������������������������������  200 4.4.3 Web Manual Indexing����������������������������������������������������������  200 4.4.4 Limitations of Manual Indexing ������������������������������������������  206 4.5 Automated Indexing��������������������������������������������������������������������������  207 4.5.1 Word Indexing����������������������������������������������������������������������  207 4.5.2 Limitations of Word Indexing����������������������������������������������  207 4.5.3 Word Weighting��������������������������������������������������������������������  208 4.5.4 Link-Based Indexing������������������������������������������������������������  212 4.5.5 Web Crawling ����������������������������������������������������������������������  213 4.6 Indexing Annotated Content ������������������������������������������������������������  214 4.6.1 Index Imaging ����������������������������������������������������������������������  214 4.6.2 Indexing Learning Objects����������������������������������������������������  215 4.6.3 Indexing Biomedical and Health Data����������������������������������  218 4.7 Data Structures for Efficient Retrieval����������������������������������������������  218 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  220 5 Retrieval����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  225 5.1 Search Process����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  226 5.2 General Principles of Searching��������������������������������������������������������  226 5.2.1 Exact-Match Searching��������������������������������������������������������  227 5.2.2 Partial-Match Searching��������������������������������������������������������  229 5.2.3 Term Selection����������������������������������������������������������������������  233 5.2.4 Other Attribute Selection������������������������������������������������������  237 5.3 Searching Interfaces��������������������������������������������������������������������������  237 5.3.1 Bibliographic������������������������������������������������������������������������  237 5.3.2 Full Text��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  249 5.3.3 Annotated������������������������������������������������������������������������������  252 5.3.4 Aggregations ������������������������������������������������������������������������  257 5.4 Document Delivery ��������������������������������������������������������������������������  257 5.5 Notification or Information Filtering������������������������������������������������  258 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  259 6 Access��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  261 6.1 Libraries��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  261 6.1.1 Definitions and Functions of DLs ����������������������������������������  263 6.2 Access to Content ����������������������������������������������������������������������������  265

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6.2.1 Access to Individual Items����������������������������������������������������  265 6.2.2 Access to Collections������������������������������������������������������������  267 6.2.3 Access to Metadata ��������������������������������������������������������������  268 6.2.4 Integration with Other Applications��������������������������������������  269 6.3 Copyright and Intellectual Property��������������������������������������������������  272 6.3.1 Copyright and Fair Use��������������������������������������������������������  273 6.3.2 Digital Rights Management��������������������������������������������������  275 6.4 Open Access and Open Science��������������������������������������������������������  276 6.4.1 Open-Access Publishing ������������������������������������������������������  277 6.4.2 NIH Public Access Policy����������������������������������������������������  278 6.4.3 Predatory Journals����������������������������������������������������������������  280 6.5 Preservation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  281 6.6 Librarians, Informationists, and Other Professionals ����������������������  282 6.7 Future Directions������������������������������������������������������������������������������  283 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  284 7 Evaluation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  289 7.1 Usage Frequency������������������������������������������������������������������������������  290 7.2 Types of Usage����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  292 7.3 User Satisfaction ������������������������������������������������������������������������������  294 7.4 Searching Quality������������������������������������������������������������������������������  294 7.4.1 System-Oriented Performance Evaluations��������������������������  295 7.4.2 User-Oriented Performance Evaluations������������������������������  299 7.5 Factors Associated with Success or Failure��������������������������������������  310 7.5.1 Predictors of Success������������������������������������������������������������  310 7.5.2 Analysis of Failure����������������������������������������������������������������  314 7.6 Assessment of Impact ����������������������������������������������������������������������  316 7.7 Research on Relevance ��������������������������������������������������������������������  319 7.7.1 Topical Relevance ����������������������������������������������������������������  319 7.7.2 Situational Relevance������������������������������������������������������������  320 7.7.3 Research About Relevance Judgments ��������������������������������  321 7.7.4 Limitations of Relevance-Based Measures��������������������������  323 7.7.5 Automating Relevance Judgments����������������������������������������  325 7.7.6 Measures of Agreement��������������������������������������������������������  326 7.8 What Has Been Learned About IR Systems? ����������������������������������  327 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  329 8 Research����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  337 8.1 Frameworks and Challenge Evaluations������������������������������������������  337 8.2 Biomedical and Health IR Research ������������������������������������������������  343 8.2.1 Early Studies ������������������������������������������������������������������������  344 8.2.2 Challenge Evaluations in Biomedicine and Health��������������  346 8.2.3 Ad Hoc Retrieval������������������������������������������������������������������  353 8.2.4 Consumer-Oriented��������������������������������������������������������������  355 8.2.5 Image Retrieval ��������������������������������������������������������������������  356 8.2.6 High-Recall Retrieval ����������������������������������������������������������  357 8.2.7 EHR Retrieval ����������������������������������������������������������������������  358

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8.3 General IR Research ������������������������������������������������������������������������  360 8.3.1 Overview of Early Research ������������������������������������������������  360 8.3.2 Machine Learning: Uncovering Latent Meaning������������������  363 8.3.3 Natural Language Processing ����������������������������������������������  366 8.3.4 Question-Answering ������������������������������������������������������������  368 8.3.5 Text Categorization ��������������������������������������������������������������  377 8.4 Research Systems and the User��������������������������������������������������������  381 8.4.1 Early Research����������������������������������������������������������������������  382 8.4.2 User Evaluation of Research Systems����������������������������������  383 8.4.3 TREC Interactive Track��������������������������������������������������������  384 8.5 Looking Forward������������������������������������������������������������������������������  389 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  389 Correction to: Retrieval. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C1 Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  407

Chapter 1

Foundations

The goal of this book is to present the field of information retrieval (IR), sometimes called search, with an emphasis on the biomedical and health domain. To many, “information retrieval” implies retrieving information of any type from a computer. However, to those working in the field, IR has a different, more specific meaning, which is the retrieval of information from databases that predominantly contain textual information. A field at the intersection of information science and computer science, IR concerns itself with the indexing and retrieval of information from heterogeneous and mostly textual information resources. The term was coined by Mooers in 1951, who advocated that it be applied to the “intellectual aspects” of description of information and systems for its searching [1]. The advancement of computer technology continues to alter the nature of IR. As recently as the 1970s, Lancaster stated that an IR system does not inform the user about a subject; it merely indicates the existence (or nonexistence) and whereabouts of documents related to an information request [2]. At that time, of course, computers had considerably less power and storage than today’s personal computers, and there was no Internet connecting the world’s computers and other information devices to each other. In the 1970s, computers and network systems were only sufficient to handle bibliographic databases, which contained just the title, source, and a few indexing terms for documents. Furthermore, the high cost of computer hardware and telecommunications usually made it prohibitively expensive for end users to directly access such systems, so they had to submit requests that were run in batches and returned hours to days later. In the twenty-first century, however, the state of computers and IR systems is much different, leading to new perspectives on the nature of the field [3, 4]. End-­ user access to massive amounts of information in databases and on the World Wide Web is routine. A recent monograph traces the history of IR from early experiments in the 1960s through the advent of ubiquitous search systems in the 2000s [5]. Not only can IR databases contain the full text of resources, but they may also contain images, sounds, and even video sequences. Indeed, there is now the notion of the digital library, where journals and books are mostly provided in digital form © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Hersh, Information Retrieval: A Biomedical and Health Perspective, Health Informatics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47686-1_1

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1 Foundations

and library buildings are augmented by far-reaching computer networks [6, 7]. The scientific publishing enterprise has been transformed to increasingly open science, with access not only to research publications but also their underlying data [8]. New models for delivering knowledge have been proposed, such as the Mobilizing Computable Biomedical Knowledge initiative, whose manifesto calls for knowledge to be provided in “computable formats that can be shared and integrated into health information systems and applications” [9]. So transformative and ubiquitous has IR become that the name of the leading Web search engine, Google, has entered the vernacular in a variety of ways, including as a verb (i.e., using a search engine to look something up is called “Googling”) [10]. The Google Trends1 (formerly Zeitgeist) keeps a tally of the world’s interests as measured by what humans collectively type into the Google search engine. In addition, some lament that the “Google generation,” i.e., today’s legions of technology-savvy young people, are not critical enough in their skills regarding seeking, synthesizing, and critically analyzing information [11]. One of the early motivations for IR systems was the ability to improve access to information. Noting that the work of early geneticist Gregor Mendel was undiscovered for nearly 30 years, Vannevar Bush called in the 1960s for science to create better means of accessing scientific information [12]. In current times, there is equal if not more concern with “information overload” and how to avoid missing important information. A well-known example occurred when a patient who died in a clinical trial in 2000 might have survived if information about the toxicity of the agent being studied from the 1950s (before the advent of MEDLINE) had been more readily accessible [13]. Indeed, a major challenge in IR is helping users find “what they don’t know” [14]. Just how much information is out there? One analysis estimated the amount of digital data in the world to be 33 zettabytes in 2018, with a projection to grow to 175 zettabytes by 2025 [15]. (A zettabyte is 1021 bytes, or one billion terabytes.) Another report estimated the amount of computer network traffic to triple between 2017 and 2022 to 4.8 zettabytes per year, which would be about equal to all previous Internet traffic from 1984 to 2018 [16]. Another analysis noted that 3.8 million searches of Google are done every minute [17]. In the 2000s, Card published a figure comparing the exponential growth of information as it surpassed the estimate of the size of all documents created in human history (40,000  years), well above the estimated amount of information a human could learn in a year (see Fig. 1.1) [18]. A current estimate of the health information on a single human over their lifetime is over 1000 terabytes, with the major of information coming from social determinants of health and health behaviors, and only a tiny fraction representing clinical data (h citations [91]. The h-index gives value to the most highly cited papers by a scientist. The h-index has been popularized by its prominent use by Google Scholar, which allows researchers to create a profile page that lists their publications and their citations (captured by Google crawling), such as the one for this author4 or his daughter.5 By default, the Google Scholar profile sorts papers by their number of citations, which may not represent what authors consider to be their best or most important work. For example, the most highly cited paper for this author is a 1994 paper describing an IR test collection that has been widely used, which he would not consider to be his most valuable research work [92]. Another tool for calculating h-index is the software package Publish or Perish,6 which uses a number of citation sources (including Google Scholar) to calculate a wide range of measures for a scientist, with tools to control for author names, in particular authors from different fields who have the same names. There are some challenges to the different citation packages on the Internet that use automated methods to calculate metrics like h-index. Kulkarni et al., for example, found that three sources of citations—Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar—varied “quantitatively and qualitatively” in their citation counts for articles published in three journals, JAMA, Lancet, and NEJM [93]. Different sites also use different approaches for calculating h-index. Because the Google Scholar h-index calculation includes a variety of resources on the Web beyond just academic papers, it tends to be higher than when calculated just for published papers, as is done by Elsevier Scopus. For example, the current Google Scholar h-index for this author at the time of this writing is 71, compared to an h-index of 42 at the same time calculated by Elsevier Scopus.7 Another challenge for the Google Scholar h-index is that it does not always correctly disambiguate author names (such as William H. Hersh of Queens College8). It has also been shown that uploads of false papers that are found and included by Google Scholar can manipulate its metrics [94]. A number of other measures have been proposed to measure scientific impact. One proposed variant of the h-index is the g-index, which measures the number of papers of a scientist that have >g citations, on average [95]. The g-index correlates with the total number of citations for an author, whereas the h-index is correlated with the most citations from the most highly cited papers. For fields like

 https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=xFn_7nUAAAAJ  https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Ed5VVnUAAAAJ 6  https://harzing.com/resources/publish-or-perish 7  https://ohsu.pure.elsevier.com/en/persons/william-bill-hersh 8  https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=DCt8udIAAAAJ 4 5

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informatics, where scientific output also includes tools and databases, Callahan et al. have proposed the U-index to account for these other contributions [96]. One more effort to catalog citations of scientists comes from Ioannidis et al., who both include and exclude self-citation [97]. Another measure whose use has been advocated by the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) is the relative citation ratio (RCR) [98]. The RCR uses the co-citation network of the paper to normalize the number of citations it has received for a given field. In other words, it adjusts citations relative to a discipline and allows comparison of peers within it. As such, a paper will have an RCR >1.0 if it is more cited relative to other papers in its discipline. The NIH has developed a dataset of citations for biomedical researchers and a Web site that calculates RCR for individual researchers9 [99]. One analysis found that while amount and length of grant funding were associated with RCR, there was a diminishing of returns for funding over time [100]. An additional well-known project of bibliographic linkage is the Erdös Number Project. This project is, according to its Web site,10 part of the “folklore of mathematicians,” who measure their distance in co-authorship from the prolific Hungarian mathematician, Paul Erdös. Erdös published over 1400 scientific papers and had over 500 co-author collaborators. The mathematical community has built a collaboration graph for its community with approximately 337,000 authors of 1.6 million authored items in the Math Review database. Erdös is at the center of that graph. An “Erdös number” is thus the smallest number of coauthorship links between an individual and Erdös. Therefore, someone who coauthored with Erdös has an Erdös number of 1. Anyone who co-authored with any one of those co-authors has an Erdös number of 2. This author has an Erdös Number of 4, thanks to his former postdoc Andrew Turpin,11 who was a graduate student of Alistair Moffat,12 who has one of the lowest Erdös numbers (2) in the IR community. A more tongue-in-cheek citation measure is the “Kardashian Index,” which measures the discrepancy between a scientist’s social media profile (from their Twitter handle) and publication record (from Google Scholar) based on a comparison of numbers of citations and Twitter followers [101]. The index can be calculated from a Web site that has users enter their Twitter handle and Google Scholar ID, with index of 5 indicating one is a “science Kardashian.”13 As of this writing, this author’s Kardashian Index is 2.6, indicating his social media presence is not out of proportion to his scientific citation profile.

 https://icite.od.nih.gov/  https://oakland.edu/enp/ 11  https://people.eng.unimelb.edu.au/aturpin/ 12  https://cis.unimelb.edu.au/people/staff.php?person_ID=13222 13  http://theinformationalturn.net/kardashian-index/ 9

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2.3.4.5  Co-citation Analysis Another type of analysis done in bibliometrics is co-citation analysis, which measures the number of times that pairs of authors are cited together by another paper. Co-citation analysis can help show authors whose work is similar in scope. Andrews performed such an analysis for the field of medical informatics, with a particular focus on members of the American College of Medical Informatics, a body of elected fellows who have made significant and sustained contributions to the field [102]. This analysis showed that the work of this author at the time was closest to that of Keith Campbell, Betsy Humphreys, Mark Tuttle, and Christopher Chute. In addition, he was found to be the 21st most highly cited individual in this group of leaders of the field. Another analysis of publication and citation in the medical informatics field was recently carried out by Eggers et al. [103]. They analyzed 10 years of publications and citations in 22 journals in the field. In addition to measuring numbers of publications, they calculated an “authority score,” based on frequency of citation by other highly frequent publishers. This author ranked tenth in the list of authority scores. They also mapped closeness of authors, which converged into five topic areas of the field. This analysis placed this author close to Homer Warner, Steve Johnson, Arthur Elstein, and Patricia Brennan, which seems less logical than Andrews’ analysis. Related to co-citation analysis is the recognition of the importance of research collaboration, especially with the emergence of “team science” and the large teams that take part in large, cutting-edge research projects. Indeed, a motivation of the NIH Roadmap initiative is to encourage collaboration of multidisciplinary teams of scientists to accelerate research findings into benefit for human health [104]. Co-citation analysis has also been proposed as a means to identify fields ripe for cross-disciplinary ideas [105]. 2.3.4.6  Alternatives to Citations Can the impact of science be determined by measures other than citations? One approach that has been adopted is article-level metrics, or altmetrics [106]. Lin et al. defined an ontology of article-level metrics that includes five categories and provides examples how each can be measured both for scholars and the public [107]. This has been developed into an altmetrics score that gives relative weight to different types of “mentions” about a publication, from appearing in the major news media to social media, Wikipedia, online course syllabi, and other Web platforms, as enumerated in Table 2.2.14 These mentions carry varying weight and are used to calculate a real-time altmetrics score that journals and others can display on their Web sites. The altmetrics score was first adopted by the Public Library of Science (PLoS) family of journals [108], but many others now provide it, such as JAMA and

14

 http://altmetrics.org/

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Table 2.2  Elements of the altmetrics measure for article citation (adapted froma) Source News Blog Policy document (per source) Patent Wikipedia Twitter (tweets and retweets) Peer review (Publons, Pubpeer) Weibo (not trackable since 2015, but historical data kept) Google+ (not trackable since 2019, but historical data kept) F1000 Syllabi (Open Syllabus) LinkedIn (not trackable since 2014, but historical data kept) Facebook (only a curated list of public pages) Reddit Pinterest (not trackable since 2013, but historical data kept) Q&A (Stack Overflow) YouTube Number of Mendeley readers Number of dimensions and Web of science citations

Weight 8 5 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0 0

https://www.altmetric.com/about-our-data/our-sources/

a

British Medical Journal (BMJ) [109]. One concern for altmetrics is that the highest values tend to show focus on minor and/or uncertain issues rather than major health issues [110].

2.3.5  Propagation A final property of information is propagation. Interest in this area has been revived with the growth of the Internet and Web, which provide a vast new medium for information spread. The notion of the propagation of information can be traced back to Dawkins, whose book laid out the ideas of memes, which are information patterns that are held in a person’s memory but can be copied to another [111]. The field that studies the replication and evolution of memes is called memetics. There are many Web sites devoted to memetics.15 Dawkins gave examples of memes as “tunes, ideas, [and] catch-phrases,” which propagate from “brain to brain.” Memes have been likened to genes but may be more appropriately compared to viruses, which cannot replicate themselves but take over a cell’s DNA to cause it to make millions of copies of itself. According to

15

 http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/MEMES.html

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Dawkins, memes can affect the mind like a parasite, causing an individual to change his or her behavior and/or pass the idea on to others. Memes are selected or, in genetic terms, have fitness by a variety of properties such as novelty, coherence, and self-reinforcement. If they do not have the capability to survive, then they may die out. The Internet is a medium for the wide spread of memes. The frequent forwarding of emails and the use of social media sites are common means for memes to propagate. One consequence of such easy spread of information is the propagation of misinformation, including that related to science [112].

2.4  Classification of Health Information Now that some basic theories and properties of information have been described, attention can be turned to the type of information that is the focus of most of this book, textual health information. It is useful to classify it, since not only are varying types used differently but alternative procedures are applied to its organization and retrieval. Table 2.3 lists a classification of textual health information. Patient-specific information applies to individual patients. Its purpose is to tell healthcare providers, administrators, and researchers about the health and disease of a patient. This information comprises the patient’s medical record. Patient-specific data can be either structured, as in a laboratory value or vital sign measurement, or in the form of free (narrative) text. Of course, many notes and reports in the medical record contain both structured and narrative text, such as the history and physical report, which contains the vital signs and laboratory values. For the most part, this book does not address patient-specific information although Chap. 8 discusses the processing of clinical narrative text. As will be seen, the goals and procedures in the processing of such text are often different from other types of medical text. The second major category of health information is knowledge-based information. This is information that has been derived and organized from observational or experimental research. In the case of clinical research, this information provides clinicians, administrators, and researchers with knowledge derived from experiments and observations, which can then be applied to individual patients. This information is most commonly provided in books and journals but can take a wide variety of other forms, including computerized media. Some patient-specific information Table 2.3  A classification of textual health information 1. Patient-specific information a. Structured—lab results, vital signs b. Narrative—history and physical, progress note, radiology report 2. Knowledge-based information a. Primary—original research (in journals, books, reports, etc.) b. S  econdary—summaries of research (in review articles, books, practice guidelines, etc.)

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does make it into knowledge-based information sources, but with a different purpose. For example, a case report in a medical journal does not assist the patient being reported on but rather serves as a vehicle for sharing the knowledge gained from the case with other practitioners. Knowledge-based information can be subdivided into two categories. Primary knowledge-based information (also called primary literature) is original research that appears in journals, books, reports, and other sources. This type of information reports the initial discovery of health knowledge, usually with original data. Revisiting the earlier serum cholesterol and heart disease example, an instance of primary literature could include a discovery of the pathophysiological process by which cholesterol is implicated in heart disease, a clinical trial showing a certain therapy to be of benefit in lowering it, a cost-benefit analysis that shows which portion of the population is likely to best benefit from treatment, or a systematic review that uses meta-analysis to combine all the original studies evaluating one or more therapies. Secondary knowledge-based information consists of the writing that reviews, condenses, and/or synthesizes the primary literature. The most common examples of this type of literature are books, monographs, and review articles in journals and other publications. Secondary literature also includes opinion-based writing such as editorials and position or policy papers. It also encompasses clinical practice guidelines, systematic reviews, and health information on Web pages. In addition, it includes the plethora of pocket-sized manuals that are a staple for practitioners in many professional fields. As will be seen later, secondary literature is the most common type of literature used by physicians. Another approach to classifying knowledge-based information comes from Haynes [113], taking the perspective of evidence-based medicine (EBM) [114, 115]. As depicted in Fig. 2.3, Haynes defines a hierarchy of evidence, dubbed the 4S model. At the base are the original studies forming the foundation of knowledge. These studies are in turn aggregated into syntheses, often called systematic reviews or evidence reports, which systematically identify and synthesize all the evidence Fig. 2.3  The “4S model” of hierarchy of evidence, adapted from [113] Systems – actionable knowledge Synopses – concise evidencebased abstractions Syntheses – systematic reviews and evidence reports Studies – original articles published in journals

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on a given topic. Where appropriate in systematic reviews, meta-analysis is performed, in which the results of multiple appropriately homogenous studies are combined to achieve an aggregate result, which usually also has larger statistical power. Systematic reviews are distinct from narrative reviews, which just provide a general overview of a topic that is usually broader but less exhaustive in coverage. A further distillation of knowledge occurs with synopses, which provide a summary (ideally derived from an evidence-based synthesis) on a topic. The ultimate level of the hierarchy is systems, which consist of actionable knowledge structured in a way that can be used by information systems, such as a clinical decision support module of an electronic health record. Haynes and colleagues subsequently expanded this 4S model into 5S [116] and 6S [117] versions, adding summaries explicit for each level, but the original is simplest and provides an overview of the types of information formats in which is scientific information is provided and published. Although the scope of EBM is beyond this book, it is well-described in other references [114, 115]. But the process of EBM requires IR throughout, so an overview of EBM provides some perspective about the use of IR with it. The process of EBM involves three general steps: • Phrasing a clinical question that is pertinent and answerable • Identifying evidence (studies in articles) that address the question • Critically appraising the evidence to determine whether it applies to the patient There are two general types of clinical question: background questions and foreground questions [118]. Background questions ask for general knowledge about a disorder, whereas foreground questions ask for knowledge about managing patients with a disorder. Background questions are generally best answered with textbooks and classical review articles, whereas foreground questions are answered using EBM techniques. Background questions contain two essential components: a question root with a verb (e.g., what, when, how) and a disorder or aspect of a disorder. Examples of background questions include What causes pneumonia? and When do complications of diabetes usually occur? Foreground questions have four essential components, based on the PICO mnemonic: the patient and/or problem, the intervention, the comparison intervention (if applicable), and the clinical outcome(s). Some expand the mnemonic with two additional letters, PICOTS, adding the time duration of treatment or follow-up and the setting (e.g., inpatient, outpatient, etc.) [119]. There are four major categories of foreground questions: • • • •

Therapy (or intervention)—benefit of treatment or prevention Diagnosis—test diagnosing disease Harm—etiology of disease Prognosis—outcome of disease course

EBM has evolved since its inception. The original approach to EBM focused on clinicians finding original studies in the primary literature and applying critical appraisal, a challenging and time-consuming task for most. This led to a next generation of EBM that focused on the use of syntheses and synopses, where the

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literature searching, critical appraisal, and extraction of statistics operations were performed ahead of time [120]. Others argued we should put more emphasis on teaching information management (seeking) than the techniques of EBM [121], and we will see many examples of evidence-based information resources now available in Chap. 3.

2.5  Production of Biomedical and Health Information Since the main focus of this book is on indexing and retrieval of knowledge-based information, the remainder of this chapter will focus on that type of information (except for Chap. 8, where patient-specific information is discussed, but only in the context of processing the text-based variety). This section covers the production of biomedical health information, from the original studies and their peer review for publication to their summarization in the secondary literature for clinicians and consumers.

2.5.1  Generation of Scientific Information How is scientific information generated? Figure  2.4 depicts the “life cycle” of scientific information. The process begins with scientists themselves, who make and record observations, whether in the laboratory or in the real world. These observations are then written up and submitted for publication in the primary literature, where they undergo peer review. If the paper passes the test of peer review, it is published, usually in a scientific journal. If the paper does not pass muster in peer review, the author usually revises it and resubmits it to the same or a different

Secondary publications

Public data repository

Original research

Write up results

Publish

Relinquish copyright

Peer review

Fig. 2.4  The “life cycle” of scientific information

Submit for publication

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journal. Other steps that may occur if the paper is published is that the author may be required to relinquish the copyright, usually to the publisher of the journal, and/ or the information in the paper may make its way into secondary publications, such as a textbook or clinical practice guideline. In addition, there is growing encouragement, sometimes requirement (especially in the genomic sciences) for underlying data to be published. Finally, research results typically generate new questions and motivate new research that may then follow a new cycle through this process. One of the most widely cited descriptions of the scientific process is Thomas Kuhn’s The Structure of Scientific Revolutions [122]. Kuhn noted that science proceeds in evolutions and revolutions. In the evolutionary phase of a science, there is a stable, accepted paradigm. In fact, Kuhn argued, a field cannot be a science until there is such a paradigm that lends itself to common interpretation and agreement on certain facts. A science evolves as experiments and other observations are performed and interpreted under the accepted paradigm. This science is advanced by publication in peer-reviewed journals. In the revolutionary phase, however, evidence in conflict with the accepted paradigm mounts until it overwhelmingly goes against the paradigm, overturning it. The classic example of this described by Kuhn came from the work of Copernicus, who contributed little actual data to astronomy but showed how the astronomical observations of others fit so much better under a new paradigm in which the planets revolved around the sun rather than around the earth. A more recent example comes from cancer research, where existing notions of the “hallmarks” of cancer are overturned piece by piece, leading to significant changes in our understanding of the disease and its treatment [123]. Just about all research undergoes peer review by scientist colleagues, whom decide whether the paper describing the research is worthy of publication. The goal of this process is to ensure that the appropriate experimental methods were used, that the findings represent a new and informative contribution to the field, and that the conclusions are justified by the results. Of course, what is acceptable for publication varies with the scope of the journal. Journals covering basic biomedical science (e.g., Cell) tend to publish papers focusing on laboratory-based research that is likely to focus on mechanisms of diseases and treatments, whereas clinical journals (e.g., JAMA) tend to publish reports of large clinical trials and other studies pertinent to providing clinical care. Specialized journals are more likely to publish preliminary or exploratory studies. Bourne provided some simple rules to those aspiring to achieve scientific publication in the field of computational biology, but these easily apply to other fields and still pertinent in recent times [124]. Peer-reviewed journals are not the only vehicle for publication of original science. Other forums for publication include the following: • Conference proceedings – usually peer-reviewed, publishing either full papers or just abstracts • Technical reports—may be peer-reviewed, frequently providing more detail than journal papers • Books—may be peer-reviewed.

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In general, however, non-journal primary literature does not carry the scientific esteem accorded to journal literature. These varying sources of non-journal primary literature are sometimes called “grey literature,” and their identification can be important, as they may impact the results of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. In particular, they are less likely to show a treatment effect and thus may lead to exaggeration of meta-analysis results when not included [125]. It has been posited for a long time that the scientific method is the best method humans have devised for discerning the truth about their world [30]. While a number of limitations with the peer review process and the scientific literature itself will be seen in ensuing sections, the present author agrees that there is no better method for understanding and manipulating the phenomena of the world than the scientific method. Flaws in science are usually due more to flaws in scientists and the experiments they devise than to the scientific method itself, although some note systemic flaws as well [126]. To bring more standardization to the biomedical and health publishing process, the editors of the major medical journals formed a committee (International Committee of Medical Journal Editors, ICMJE16) to establish policy, such as providing general recommendations on the submission of manuscripts to journals. They defined the so-called Vancouver format for publication style, which journals will agree to accept upon submission even if their own formats vary and will require editing later. Equally important, however, they defined a number of additional requirements and other statements for biomedical publishing [127]: • Redundant or duplicate publication occurs when there is substantial overlap with an item already published. One form of redundant publication that is generally acceptable is the publication of a paper whose preliminary report was presented as a poster or abstract at a scientific meeting. Acceptable instances of secondary publication of a paper include publication in a different language or in a journal aimed at different readers. In general, editors of the original journals must consent to such publication, and the prior appearance of the material should be acknowledged in the secondary paper. • Authorship should be given only to those who make substantial contribution to study conception or design and data acquisition, analysis, or interpretation; drafting of the article or revising it critically for important intellectual content; and giving final approval for publication. • A peer-reviewed journal is one that has most of its articles reviewed by experts who are not part of the editorial staff. • While journal owners have the right to hire and fire editors, the latter must have complete freedom to exercise their editorial judgment. • All conflicts of interest from authors, reviewers, and editors must be disclosed. Financial support from a commercial source is not a reason for disqualification from publishing, but it must be properly attributed. 16

 http://www.icmje.org/

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• Advertising must be kept distinguishable from editorial content and must not be allowed to influence it. • Competing manuscripts based on the same study should generally be discouraged, and this requires careful intervention by editors to determine an appropriate course of action. The ICMJE has also published guidelines concerning conflicts of interest and authorship [128], planned for update in 2020 [129], as well a statement on data sharing [130], both of which are described below. They recently published a statement, Recommendations for the Conduct, Reporting, Editing, and Publication of Scholarly Work in Medical Journals.17 Scientific information would not be generated at all were it not for research funding. The process to determine research funding is also done via peer review. The largest grantor of biomedical research funding in the world is the NIH, which maintains a site containing a wealth of data about its grant review and funding process.18 Some highlights from this site include: • The NIH budget for the most recent US fiscal year was $36 billion. • About 80% of the funding goes to extramural researchers outside the NIH, with remaining funding administration as well as intramural researchers. • In recent years, the NIH received about 54,000 grant proposals and awarded about 11,000 grants for a success rate of about 20%, which varies across institutes and research initiatives. • About 30,000 scientists participate in NIH peer review. • The process supports about 126,000 graduate (mostly PhD) students and 43,000 postdocs, many of whom carry out parts of the funded research. There are some additional concerns about the generation of knowledge. One is that some knowledge is never obtained because it is “forbidden” to be studied [131]. Knowledge may be forbidden because it can only be obtained through unethical means, e.g., human experiments conducted by Nazi scientists. But other research is prohibited by what Kempner et al. call “informal constraints.” This may involve fear from results being attacked by political groups across the spectrum, from religious groups to animal rights activists. Clearly there must be some ethical constraints on the conduct of science, but not merely if they offend the political agenda of a particular group. A new wrinkle on this problem has emerged with efforts to undermine government science in the United States. Until recently, for example, research on gun safety has not been allowed to be funded by US government agencies [132]. One recent analysis identified over 300 instances of government Web sites having scientific information on politically controversial topics modified or removed [133]. This has been particularly notable for government Web sites on climate change [134]. Another concern is the potential subverting of open data reuse policies for political 17 18

 http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/  https://report.nih.gov/nihdatabook/

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agendas. For example, the US Environmental Protection Agency recently adopted a “transparency rule” that allowed it to exclude data that was not freely shared [135]. As a number of large environmental science studies have personally identifying information, excluding them from consideration in environmental regulations means ignoring large amounts of research that could impact policy. Several university associations wrote letters objecting to this policy [136]. Another concern about the production of biomedical literature is that the clinical trials carried out do not meet the needs of “decision-makers,” in particular, those who develop policy, practice guidelines, and so forth. This has given rise to the development of pragmatic clinical trials [137, 138]. The characteristics of these trials include the selection of clinically relevant interventions for comparison, diverse populations of study participants, recruitment from heterogeneous practice settings, and data collection from a broad range of clinical outcomes. There are a number of other characteristics of the scientific process. One is that it is based on trust, i.e., all who participate should have a disinterested pursuit of the truth. Smith advocates that scientists especially should have extraordinary honesty, since their methods and results are mostly taken without direct verification [139]. Conflicts of interest that undermine science will be explored further below, but some have called for more financial independence for research and the education of researchers [140]. Other have noted, however, that much more must be done to maintain trust in scientific research, including addressing systematically some of the flaws that will be described later in this chapter [126]. Jamieson et al. propose a number of approaches for authors and journals that would lead to more effective signals of trustworthiness. These include article badging, checklists, a more extensive withdrawal ontology, identity verification, better forward linking, and greater transparency [141]. Objective scientific research also shows us that new is not necessarily better. This was borne out in an analysis that assessed 10 years of articles in NEJM that concerned a medical practice and tested a new practice [142]. The study found that 77% of the times, the new practice was beneficial, but the remainder of the times it was not. By the same token, studies of established practices found that, over half the time, the practice was no better or worse, so actually reversing the established practice, or it was inconclusive. Another analysis looked at four cohorts of randomized control trials in the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews and found that slightly more than half of new treatments were superior to established ones [143]. Further analyses like these have identified many more “reversals” of earlier research [144, 145]. Indeed, this points to another characteristic of science, which is that when it works properly, it is self-correcting. Science has also undergone profound change, especially with the emergence of new information technologies and the global Internet. There has been essentially a complete change of publishing medium from paper to electronic. This is certainly noticeable over the editions of this book, where original IR systems were used to be directed to paper copies of articles and books to now the entire process being electronic, from finding the content to accessing and using it. This has impacted all of the sections to follow, from peer review to primary and secondary literature.

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2.5.2  Peer Review Although peer review had its origins centuries ago, it did not achieve its present form until the twentieth century [146]. As noted earlier, the goal of peer review is to serve as a quality filter to the scientific literature. Theoretically, only research based on sound scientific methodology will be published. In reality, of course, the picture is more complicated. Awareness that what constitutes acceptable research may vary based on the quality or scope of the journal has led to the realization by some that the peer review process does not so much determine whether a paper will be published as where it will be published. Most journals have a two-phase review process. The manuscript is usually reviewed initially by the editor or an associate editor to determine whether it fits the scope of the journal and whether there are any obvious flaws in the work. If the manuscript passes this process, it is sent out for formal peer review. Most of the high-profile journals have low acceptance rates, e.g., the