Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems: Decolonizing the Technology Education Curriculum 9819913950, 9789819913954

Citation preview

Contemporary Issues in Technology Education

Mishack T. Gumbo P. John Williams   Editors

Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems Decolonizing the Technology Education Curriculum

Contemporary Issues in Technology Education Series Editors P. John Williams, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia Marc J. de Vries, Technische Universiteit Delft, Delft, The Netherlands

Technology education is a developing field, new issues keep arising and timely, relevant research is continually being conducted. The aim of this series is to draw on the latest research to focus on contemporary issues, create debate and push the boundaries in order to expand the field of technology education and explore new paradigms. Maybe more than any other subject, technology education has strong links with other learning areas, including the humanities and the sciences, and exploring these boundaries and the gaps between them will be a focus of this series. Much of the literature from other disciplines has applicability to technology education, and harnessing this diversity of research and ideas with a focus on technology will strengthen the field. Occasional volumes on a bi-annual basis will be published under the Council for Technology and Engineering Teacher Education (CTETE) inside this series. For more information, or to submit a proposal, please email Grace Ma: grace. [email protected].

Mishack T. Gumbo · P. John Williams Editors

Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems Decolonizing the Technology Education Curriculum

Editors Mishack T. Gumbo University of South Africa Pretoria, South Africa

P. John Williams School of Education Curtin University Perth, WA, Australia

ISSN 2510-0327 ISSN 2510-0335 (electronic) Contemporary Issues in Technology Education ISBN 978-981-99-1395-4 ISBN 978-981-99-1396-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

An Introduction to Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems

There has been a steadily growing interest in indigenous knowledge systems and research which has revealed rich and sophisticated practices and understandings of the historical relationships between human development and the environment. Research has, however, concentrated on the generality of indigenous knowledge systems rather than on their related dimensions. One area which has suffered from a lack of attention is indigenous conceptions of Technology, despite considerable evidence that conceptions of Technology have been fundamental to the progress of society throughout history. The essentially sustainable nature of these relationships is one characteristic which has prompted a reconsideration of their relevance for contemporary society, and in the case of this book, more specifically for education. This book attempts to rectify this concentration by focusing on the dimension of technological systems. This reconsideration is aligned with the need to decolonize education as a response to the effects of colonization on indigenous knowledge and people. The effects of colonization are clear and are a matter of explicit record in those contexts where a colonial power assumed control of a society, subjugated the population, and implemented foreign systems. The eventual removal of the colonial power led to the impetus to decolonize the educational systems which had been implemented. The notion of decolonization has also come to be applied more broadly to those contexts where colonial subjugation has been less explicit, but the outcome has nevertheless been a lack or recognition of indigenous knowledge. While we conceive of decolonization as a bigger work of transformation, we submit that indigenous knowledge is one of the essential tools to decolonize the education systems which are anchored on colonization. Hence, the contents of the chapters in this book should be understood as centering indigenous knowledge as a contributed effort to decolonize Technology Education. In this book, therefore, the focus is on indigenous technological knowledge systems education (ITKSE). Technological knowledge has been developed by indigenous people since the beginning of civilization, including blacksmithing, woodcarving, textile-weaving and dyeing, leather works, beadworks, pottery making, architecture, agricultural breeding, metal-working, salt production, gold-smithing, v

vi

An Introduction to Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems

copper-smithing, leather-crafting, soap-making, bronze-casting, canoe-building, brewing, glass-making, and agriculture. In some parts of the world such as Africa and Australia, these technologies, as indigenous technologies, still exist. ITKSE should be encompassed by Technology Education as it can benefit both indigenous students—who have been denied learning about what is relevant to them—and non-indigenous students—whose understanding of Technology can be widened by learning about indigenous technology. These cultural groups can expand their knowledge of technology by learning both ITKSE and Western technological knowledge systems education (WTKSE), thereby enriching each other’s understanding and technological perspectives. ITKSE also presents opportunities for Technology teachers to reflect on and revisit their depth of technological knowledge, pedagogies, and assessment. Furthermore, ITKSE also presents opportunities to ignite further research in the field that would help expand the understanding of Technology draw attention to the value of indigenous technology. The intent of this book is transformational in the sense that it brings decolonial and indigenous perspectives into the Technology Education context. It is hoped that the goals of Technology Education will expand to encourage indigenous-mindedness.

Part I A Case for Indigenous Technology in Technology Education This part provides a foundation for the justification of considering indigenous technology as a component of Technology Education from the perspectives of the 4th industrial revolution, engineering knowledge, innovation, and intellectual property rights. In Chapter 1, Mishack T. Gumbo from South Africa applies Schumpter’s Leapfrogging Theory approach to explain Technology Education’s preoccupation with contemporary advanced technology, having leaped over and consequently ignored generations of technological development, rather than having a more developmental accumulative approach which represents the totality of technology. This leapfrogging approach has implications for indigenous technology in that it is viewed as outdated and primitive and must be ignored in order to address the latest technology. This is in spite of the preference to use indigenous technologies in providing effective solutions for local contexts, causing less destruction to the natural environment as a result of the respected tripartite relationship between humans, spirituality, and nature. Mishack sees a correlation between the notion of leapfrogging and the structure of economic development and innovation. He employs the concept of creative destruction, whereby innovation necessarily results in the destruction of what went before, and consequently, an entrepreneur, in recognizing, initiating, and exploiting

An Introduction to Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems

vii

an economic opportunity, also creatively destroys. In this chapter, what has been destroyed is indigenous technology knowledge. Technology Education can react to the destruction of this element of its history by respecting human rights, valuing local knowledge, relating content to all students, infusing Botho principles and accommodating orality. In Chapter 2, Michael Gaotlhobogwe from Botswana locates the discussion of indigenous technologies within a STEM paradigm, proposing that the promotion of STEM privileges certain groups within society. The hidden curriculum of STEM, embedding as is has, neoliberal multiculturalism, antiblackness, colonialism, white supremacy, and militarism, has resulted in the curtailment of knowledge development and transfer of information for indigenous people, as the power dynamics have become inequitable. Michael suggests that one way of legitimizing indigenous technology is to recognize the glocalization (characterizing both local and global considerations) trends whereby users seek distinctive products and services imbued with both local meaning and global appeal. The promotion of such products, services, technologies, and knowledge(s) can help ensure indigenous people develop legitimacy in the STEM knowledge space. However, STEM education is important and should not be denied to any particular group of people for any reason, be it political, epistemological, cultural, or social. STEM education does subscribe to an epistemology that is based on EuroWestern worldviews, and this foundation, coupled with the hidden pedagogies practiced within STEM, has the effect of alienating indigenous people from participating and successfully performing in this knowledge area. Michael proposes that the Arts are more inclusive epistemologically, and so including the Arts within STEM through a socio-cultural approach will go a long way in bridging the gap between Western and indigenous technology systems, thereby enabling indigenous groups to engage more fully with STEAM education. In the next chapter, Marc de Vries from the Netherlands focuses on one element of the STEM education paradigm: engineering, proposing that the parallels between indigenous technology and engineering knowledge are such that the first can have the same status at the latter. Similarities between these forms of knowledge include: • Knowledge is at a much lower level of generalization (i.e., local) than natural science knowledge; • Knowledge is developed based on an awareness that the natural world’s potential can be exploited in the interest of all living beings; • Knowledge has moral and social implications, as new technologies give rise to new moral concerns; • Much of the knowledge is ‘know-how’ and is learned through oral transmission and repetitive practice;

viii

An Introduction to Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems

• The purpose of developing knowledge is not just to get to know more about reality as it is, but to be applied to improve reality, and reflection is needed on what ‘improvement’ means; • Part of knowledge is about norms and standards which are not the outcome of experiments, but social agreements; • Usability (rather than truth) is the criterion for accepting or rejecting that type of knowledge. Marc notes that there is a double value in including indigenous knowledge in STEM education. (1) It fits very well with the nature of engineering knowledge and enhances an understanding of the nature of that knowledge, and (2) it can also be used to reveal the incorrectness of a positivist view on knowledge in STE(A)M education under the influence of traditional science education. It is a misconception that scientific knowledge is the most reliable form of knowledge, concludes Marc. In epistemology, other sources of knowledge are identified that can result in knowledge as reliable as scientific knowledge: a good memory, a reliable witness, direct personal perception, and reasoning. A lot of reliable knowledge cannot be confirmed scientifically, not because that knowledge is not reliable but because the rules for knowledge acceptance in science are unique and therefore limited. For this reason, there is no justification for valuing scientific knowledge over indigenous knowledge as if the former is always more reliable than the latter. The main thesis proposed by Sefiso B. Khumalo and Tome’ A. Mapotse in Chapter 4 is that innovation can be supported and encouraged by the inclusion of indigenous knowledge systems in Technology Education. New technological systems emerge when strong cores of complementary knowledge consolidate and feed an array of coherent applications and implementations. Indigenous and modern technology knowledge coexists relationally in that one depends on the other. Technology Education enables learners to solve real-world problems, enhance life, and extend human capability as they meet the challenges of a dynamic global society. Indigenous knowledge is known for solving real-life problems even though this was not scientifically recorded. The systematic integration of technology in the teaching and learning process fosters a population that leverages twenty-first-century resources, and IKS is part of this important development. The sharing of the indigenous knowledge and incorporating it with the school technology curriculum can create a new dynamic, technological practice that will benefit learners, community, and society with functional modern technology innovations. In the final chapter in this part, Richie Moalosi, Yaone Rapitsenyane, Odirileng Marope, and Oanthata Sealetsa from Botswana propose that the status of indigenous knowledge systems will be enhanced by the recognition of intellectual property rights. Technology Education can play an essential role in this by educating students on the value of intellectual property rights, and in turn, students will educate their various communities on protecting their indigenous knowledge and technologies. To benefit from the commercial exploitation of indigenous technologies, indigenous people must assert their ownership of the indigenous technologies inherent in the uses of indigenous products. A difficulty is that indigenous knowledge is often

An Introduction to Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems

ix

communal and historically not subject to personal ownership. Ubuntu values advocate for collective ownership rather than personal ownership, and communities that are well organized can own IP rights. The authors propose that through Technology Education, students can teach their communities to create, apply, protect, defend, promote, negotiate, and monetize their IP, which can be geographical indications, communal, intellectual rights, etc. This will help make communities resilient to externally induced socio-political vulnerabilities. It will also avert instances where knowledge and skills gained from Africa’s indigenous people are used by developed countries to produce technologies of Africa which are then sold back to Africa.

Part II The Cultural Root of Indigenous Technology and its Practices, Knowledge, and Skills The four chapters in this part provide insights into specific examples of indigenous technical knowledge and education from the Sami tribe in Sweden and toys and temples in India. Cecilia Axell begins in Chapter 6 by providing specific examples of the incorporation of indigenous knowledge systems into Technology Education. In one Sámi school, specific traditional cultural artifacts were used as starting points for technology teaching. The cultural context was central and included both historical and present perspectives, with clear connections to other subject areas, as well as the children’s own experiences. Sámi myths and fairy tales were also frequently used for contextualization. Since each technology activity was linked to many different perspectives and subject areas, the technology teaching was grounded in an holistic view of knowledge. The traditional cultural artifacts were not only attributed a practical value but also a symbolic value connected to inherited knowledge and practical applications and skills. The pupils were thus given the opportunity to discover that technology is not only modern high-tech. Sámi schools in Sweden provide Sámi children with an education equivalent to that of the Swedish compulsory school, but with the additional opportunity to mediate the norms, values, traditions, and cultural heritages of Sámi society. In addition, the Sámi pupils are given the opportunity to speak, read, and write in a Sámi language. Sámi education is available from preschool to grade 6 (12-year-olds). This chapter illustrates how traditional cultural artifacts can play an important role in Technology Education and contribute to broadening the understanding of the relationship between humans, culture, nature, technology, and history. An inclusion of

x

An Introduction to Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems

ITKSs in the curriculum may not only prevent marginalization of indigenous knowledge, but also provide opportunities to broaden pupils’ understanding of technology, how it evolves, and the driving forces behind technological change. The second example in Chapter 7, provided by Ritesh Khunyakari, examines Indian toys as symbolic, material, and cultural manifestations of design and technology. Indigenous knowledge systems represent a cohesive ensemble of knowledges, which reclaim their distinctive identity on the basis of their spatio-temporal origins, methodological approaches, manifestations, and the unique (epistemic, socio-economic, political, cultural, and contextual) value contributions toward enriching human understanding. Indigenous toys inherit the legacy of play and learning passed over generations. Designing, making, and operating on toys capture a close-knit understanding of cultural norms. With changing times, challenges surface in tapping the rich legacy of knowledge, cultural heritage of skills, practices, and values embodied in indigenous toys. Besides aiding reflection on aspects of culture and cognition, the analysis of indigenous toys helps unpack complex, multi-layered interactions between humans, technologies, and societies. By stimulating context and culture, indigenous toys can facilitate the reflexive orientations in teaching and learning technology. The use of toys in education offers possibilities for designing authentic engagements for learners, teachers, and teacher educators from the indigenous knowledge systems informed standpoint. In Chapter 8 by Indu Viswanathan and Sumita Ambasta explores Hindu temple architecture. Instructions on temple design are contained in the shastras and a¯ gamas, while the tradition of sthapati (master-builder) is passed along through apprenticeship models within a community of practice. The onto-epistemology of Hindu temples (linking the cosmos with the human spiritual journey) and the historical and potential role of temples in society have been obscured from mainstream knowledge through the colonization of India and the Westernization of architecture education. Traditional Western architecture education focuses on technical and practical knowledge and skills. Hindu temples, however, play a deeply significant role in sustaining the material and social life of temple communities and are instrumental in supporting Hindus’ inward journeys, away from the material and social, toward the Divine. This goal is reflected in the design of temples and in architectural pedagogy, incorporating the architect’s own spiritual journey through the guru-shishya tradition, including learning through oral transmission, repetition, and memorization and through embodied personal practice of yoga asana and dance. The sincerity of the relationship between teachers and learners is central to the tradition. Hindu architecture education happens through an apprenticeship model, within a community of practice, sometimes taking a decade of learning. In sum, because architecture—in process and product—emerges from different metaphysical worldviews, this reflects in different conceptualizations of architecture education. The authors conclude by reflecting that the long shadows of coloniality continue to disregard indigenous knowledge technology, despite the magnificent examples of theory and practice that survived colonization. When temples are understood through

An Introduction to Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems

xi

Dharmic onto-epistemology, their sophisticated qualities and purpose are enlivened. Moreover, when the indigenous architectural pedagogy is examined in that context, and alongside its Western counterpart, the limitations of the latter are revealed. In a case study in the last chapter of this section, Sumita Ambasta and Indu Visnathan explore how the design and procedures of ikat weaving are intertwined with community living, identity, and livelihood. The chapter describes the Indigenous technology of ikat weaving and dyeing focusing on three Indian regions: Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa. Ikat weaving and dyeing have existed for centuries and were passed down through communities and families. The authors advance that this technology has relevance for contemporary design and technology education, especially in higher education. They discuss the history of ikat in India and its associated communities of practice as defined by three traditions of ikat weaving and dyeing. They conclude by contextualizing ikat weaving and dyeing within contemporary Technology Education and teaching and sustainability and ikat tradition.

Part III Indigenous Technology and Curriculum This part of the book provides both critiques and solutions arising from the interplay of indigenous and Western technology in the curricula from Kenya, New Zealand, India, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. In the first Chapter (10) in this part, Sophia N. Njeru from Kenya discusses structured initiatives to integrate indigenous technological knowledge systems in Afrika’s higher education institutions’ design education. The design curriculum in Afrika is predominantly skewed toward Western theories, concepts, methodologies, and approaches, some of which are quite alien to African students. Due to the massive looting and psychological disintegration of Africa’s cultural heritage by colonialists and foreign religions, Africans, including designers, are denied the right to their identity, knowledge, technology, and artistry. Sophia postulates seven (7) approaches to incorporate indigenous technology knowledge systems in Afrika’s higher education institutions design (fashion, jewelry, textile, product, industrial, interior, and graphic) education: introduce a studio-based cross-cultural design unit that infuses study tour with cultural communities; develop and employ principles and techniques/toolkits of co-creation; design and adopt models, theories, and frameworks on cultural sustainability; critically review design practitioners and manufacturers responsible collaboration with cultural communities; develop and implement affordable short courses specifically for cultural and artisanal communities; formulate and implement sustainable community extension initiatives; and conduct extensive research on indigenous technology knowledge systems, especially Afrika’s ethnic minorities.

xii

An Introduction to Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems

Afrika’s indigenous cultural heritage provides an unmatched opportunity for a cross-cultural perspective on indigenous technology knowledge systems, design education, and decolonization of the education system. To forestall Afrika’s cultural appropriation and misrepresentation, the education system, especially design education, urgently needs a paradigm shift infusing indigenous technology knowledge systems in a structured manner to offer culturally appropriate sustainable design solutions that address contextual and global conundrums while providing benefits to communities: cultural, social, economic, and environmental. Globally, indigenous technology knowledge systems are inherently ethical; thus, their exploitation and celebration can significantly address unsustainable production and consumption, especially projects emanating from HEIs offering design education. In Chapter 11, Ruth Lemon, Tony Trinick, and Kerry Lee discuss the place of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of the Maori technology curriculum in New Zealand. The goals of M¯aori-medium education include the implementation and honoring of the Treaty of Waitangi, realizing the principle of self-determination, the centrality and legitimacy of te reo M¯aori, tikanga (M¯aori custom), and m¯atauranga M¯aori (cultural capital), and preparing learners to access te ao M¯aori (the M¯aori world) and the wider world. At the core of m¯atauranga M¯aori (M¯aori knowledge) are the key concepts of mana (power/essence/presence), tapu (certain restrictions, disciplines, and commitments), and mauri (energy/spiritual essence). One of the issues is that indigenous knowledges are not static, functioning solely as archives from the past, repositories of traditions that can only be framed in a pre-contact, pre-colonization time-period. Indigenous knowledges are tools for thinking, organizing, and informing us about our world and our place in it. Curriculum development is a politicized process at the best of times, but more so when the topic under consideration is an endangered language with shattered knowledge systems that are undergoing attempts at reconstruction. The first-ever M¯aori-medium curriculum for technology, the Marautanga Hangarau, was developed in the 1990s as part of the wider curriculum development for teaching and learning in M¯aori-medium contexts. One of the tensions in the development of the Hangarau curriculum is who determines the content and how this content is represented. To create some resemblance to an indigenous curriculum, the developers re-ordered and re-organized the content to differentiate it from its English medium counterpart. This included a series of wheako whakaari (learning experiences) written using M¯aori contexts. Another tension in the process of determining the content was that many thought Hangarau was just a translation of the English medium Technology curriculum document with no effort to reflect indigeneity other than the language. There are three key messages for contexts that are simultaneously revitalizing their indigenous language and indigenous knowledge via curriculum development. The first is that curriculum development opportunities are not always planned and at first may seem so restrictive it can seem to be a process not worth considering. Second, M¯aori seized the opportunity to advance critical linguistic and curriculum development capacity goals which helped to shift the curriculum from a Euro-centric base to a base of M¯aori knowledge. Finally, while arguably very late in the curriculum

An Introduction to Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems

xiii

development cycle, M¯aori are now better positioned to debate, critique, and reflect on how curricula can be constructed to better meet the needs of diverse groups of indigenous students. The thesis of Peter Kwaira from Zimbabwe in Chapter 12 is that indigenous technology knowledge systems education should be encompassed within the technology curriculum if it is to benefit all learners. To that end, he identifies possible points for inclusion within the Zimbabwe curriculum. Various aspects of indigenous technology knowledge systems education featured prominently across the Curriculum Framework 2015-2022, indicating that ITKSE interweaves intricately with human culture in a range of contexts. With the relationship between technology and culture being cyclical, there is a significant influence of technology on everyday life and on culture, and vice versa. Document analysis of the curriculum clearly showed that this was mainly the case in subjects closely relating to the concept of Design and Technology such as Agricultural Engineering, Technical Graphics & Design, Textiles technology & Design, Food Technology & design, Sports Science & Technology, Software Engineering, Art & Design, Metal Technology & Design, Home Management & Design, Wood Technology & Design, and Building Technology & Design. Since indigenous technology knowledge systems education has always been part of human culture in Zimbabwe, it is important for teachers to be assisted in gaining a reasonably high level of appreciation of this concept, which has actually become a topical issue globally; somehow impacting international relations. On the one hand, there are those who see the concept as conflicting with globalization and capitalism; alleging that the economic system de-humanizes people, judging them through wealth. The same camp sees the concept of fighting against powerful forces, keeping people poor and de-humanized. For them, indigenous technology knowledge systems education is an everyday struggle, reacting and responding to the de-humanizing world of individualism, selfishness, materialism, and isolation. In Chapter 13, Kaul and Bharadwaj discuss the post-independence attempts in India to develop awareness of the significant national legacy of indigenous science and technology knowledge, which was restricted by centuries of colonization. The National Mission for Manuscripts (NAMAMI), set up in 2003, has listed 3.5 million manuscripts out of the estimated 40 million in India. Two-thirds of these are in Sanskrit and 95 percent are yet to be translated. The Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems Division in the Ministry of Education at All India Council for Technical Education and the Board for Promotion of Vedic Education (Central Government to Set up Board for Promotion of Vedic Education) were both established in 2020, and it is hoped these organizations will return indigenous technology knowledge systems to public recognition. Colonial education policy brought about the derailment of indigenous knowledge systems and traditions, which continued unabated after independence. The subsequent education system has failed in formally reacquainting Indians with their heritage in science, technology, and other knowledge streams and facilitating a transformation in their perception and perspective. Indians still view their past through colonial lenses, continuously judging themselves against Western yardsticks. The

xiv

An Introduction to Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems

civilization that respects all life forms, worships animals, trees, and rivers subconsciously imbibed and idealized the Western anthropocentric worldview and state of being. There has been a subconscious tussle between the civilizational memory and heritage of Indians and what they have been programmed to aspire toward, namely the Western material parameters of success which essentially invalidate the basic tenets of Hindu thought and learning. When a billion Indians own their native education and wisdom, things will change. Indigenous education and native spirit were responsible for India becoming one of the richest nations of the world before the two waves of colonization. India needs a renewed perspective of ownership of indigenous science and technology education systems. There must be focus on translating Sanskrit texts and making the knowledge mainstream. An engaging curriculum that establishes the antiquity of our sciences and encourages native innovation is the need of the hour. Similar to the previous chapter, Joseph N. C. Mnguni and Tomé A. Mapotse (Chapter 14) examine the technological divide between South Africa and the rest of the world, and the efforts to bridge it for the benefit of South African development. The authors propose that action research is one way to assist or support policymakers in improving educational initiatives, such as incorporating indigenous knowledge systems into the curriculum in South Africa. The authors propose that rather than artificially including clinical and sterile indigenous examples in the Technology Education curriculum, policymakers should focus on the shared tenets of African and Western indigenous knowledge systems from an ontological, epistemological, methodological, and attitudinal standpoint through three key channels: early business training and African IKS upgrades, increased promotion of science, technology, engineering, entrepreneurship, and mathematics, and lastly vocational and on-the-job training. Action research can be the structure for integrating African and Western technologies. It has the potential to bridge the theoretical and practical divides, resulting in a revitalized Technology Education. Allowing African indigenous knowledge systems and Western Technology Education analysis to break free from the conceptual constraints imposed by Western knowledge dominance in South Africa for schooling, study, or disciplines allows for interdisciplinary cross-fertilization of African indigenous knowledge systems and Western Technology Education analysis. This strategy can help to stimulate and improve this process through participant empowerment, collaboration through participation, knowledge acquisition, and social change by integrating the two worldviews, as well as provide a way to investigate the consequences of combining the two worldviews. In the final chapter in this part (Chapter 15), authors Mercy Rugedhla, Lily C. Fidzani, and Richie Moalosi argue that using a more practical approach to indigenous technological knowledge in the current curriculum in Zimbabwe will provide a practical focus to enhance people’s lives. This involves a deep understanding of the indigenous materials in the community and constitutes the application of indigenous technology in the learning process throughout the curriculum.

An Introduction to Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems

xv

The authors discuss studies that have shown that indigenous knowledge is a source of creativity and innovation, provides appropriate local solutions using locally available resources, contributes to effective, sustainable community development, forms identity in communities, and is a mechanism for solving problems. Research has also shown that indigenous knowledge is linked to global sustainability, and students can be taught to sustain life and protect the planet through Indigenous Knowledge rather than exploiting it. Focusing on resources that are available in the immediate environment, the authors specify activities that could serve to introduce indigenous knowledge and be included in the curriculum through: Heritage Studies, Agriculture, Mathematics, Science, Humanities and Mass Displays, Commercial subjects, and Practical subjects (Agricultural technology, Food Technology and Home Management, and Textile and Designing Technologies). These practical applications of indigenous technologies in the current Zimbabwe school curriculum should be contextualized in that they are based on the everyday life practices of the communities where the learning occurs. Such an approach will assist in cultural preservation and its development. This curriculum development would be sensitive to the local needs and indicate that indigenous knowledge systems are a valuable resource that is often undermined. The authors argue that it is time to reflect on and integrate local thought and content into the school curriculum, which resonates with the local needs.

Part IV Indigenous Technology in the Teaching and Learning of Technology The authors of the chapters in this final part of the book, which focuses on the development of teaching and learning through the context of indigenous technologies, come from South Africa, Indonesia, and Hong Kong. The first Chapter (16) by Richard Maluleke and Mishack T. Gumbo explains that cooperative and experiential learning can play a crucial role in decolonizing the learning of Technology. Collaborative learning methods can be used to promote the integration of indigenous knowledge. Collaborative classrooms should involve teachers, other school personnel, parents, and community members. In collaborative learning, indigenous people can be accommodated to share their expertise with Technology learners and teachers, and learners from different knowledge systems can enhance their design skills. By collaborating in design activity, learners can produce appropriate technological models.

xvi

An Introduction to Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems

Experiential learning plays a pivotal role in promoting active learning in indigenous communities. Indigenous elders use experiential learning to cultivate practical skills in their children; it is the process of learning by doing which begins with the learner engaging in direct experience followed by reflection. Technology teachers could use case studies, field trips, and videos (of elders making an artifact) to promote an experiential learning strategy in their class for integrating indigenous knowledge. Technology teachers could invite community-based knowledge holders to come to demonstrate indigenous skills to learners. Reflecting on indigenous ways of knowing enables learners to situate their learning within their cultural context and draw on their prior knowledge and experiences. In Chapter 17, Rif’ati Dina Handayani and Triyanto review how to integrate indigenous technology into science and technology learning classrooms. They propose six stages to integrate indigenous technological knowledge into learning involving (1) collecting and identifying indigenous technology, (2) selecting a topic and conducting a suitability analysis, (3) designing lesson plans, (4) implementing the learning design, (5) reflecting and evaluating, and (6) developing further consideration. This integration will make learning more relevant and have more profound meaning and more affluent understanding. It will also be appropriate for students with different cultural backgrounds to build their own identities. Therefore, building relations and social networks between teachers and the indigenous community is necessary based on belief, respect, and mutualism. Indigenous science and indigenous technology are considered branches of knowledge concerned with the set of concepts about the nature of the specific culture to improve the creation of typical structures. Indigenous technology is not a theory but more a practice of life skills. The method of life skills is carried out through the most straightforward technology, such as traditional tools made of bamboo and wood. It is seen that indigenous technology is pragmatic and practical since it is a set of repeated experiences as a way of living and problem-solving for human sustainability. Indigenous technology is beneficial for scientists and technologists, not just the local community. Learning should be based on everyday life and societal circumstances that construct conceptual knowledge to allow students to recognize the meaningfulness of technology. The reliance of indigenous technology on the natural environment requires preserving the ecosystem from damaging exploitation. Integration of indigenous technology is a way for traditional knowledge to be available to students. This integration is a form of cultural influence and responsibility for education development. In the next Chapter (18), authors Tsebo K. Matsekoleng and Tomé A. Mapotse from South Africa use the medium of environmental education as an integrative context for indigenous knowledge in Technology Education. They propose that decolonization of education could embrace the synergy of these disciplines and teach people in general about the environmental issues and offer solutions, using Botho and cooperative conceptual frameworks to ground these ideas. Environmental Education focuses on teaching learners about, for, and in the environment and Technology Education teaches learners about design artifact solutions

An Introduction to Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems

xvii

to their immediate problems and processing materials to develop a new product. Integration of Technology Education and Environmental Education becomes easy for Technology Education teachers only if they can master the holistic approaches of these two subjects. Both Technology Education and Environmental Education encourage school-going children to take care of their environment and to actively respond to perceived needs. The authors advise that Technology Education teachers, curriculum designers, and policymakers need to embrace the synergy between the disciplines to make the curriculum relevant to the learners which could in turn help societies address environmental concerns in their communities. In Chapter 19, Margarita Pavlova from Hong Kong also focuses on Environmental Education. Her philosophy is that indigenous technologies can provide appropriate solutions for the environmental, social, and economic issues that face humanity today. Teaching and learning about environmentally friendly indigenous technologies that have traditionally helped to support communities’ well-being can be included in measures to make Technology Education ‘greener’. The greening of the curriculum can be seen as a process of developing knowledge, skills, competencies, attitudes, and mindsets that will help students contribute to the economy that is defined as a green economy, the one that significantly reduces environmental risks and environmental depletion. In its simplest expression, a green economy can be thought of as “one which is a low carbon, resource-efficient and socially inclusive”. Margarita notes that a connection between sustainable development and the concept of a circular, green economy has been prominent among policymakers, intergovernmental agencies, and researchers who define the circular economy as a regenerative system in which resource input and waste, emission, and energy leakage are minimized by slowing, closing, and narrowing material and energy loops. This can be achieved through long-lasting design, maintenance, repair, reuse, remanufacturing, refurbishing, and recycling. This chapter considers the social facet of a circular green economy and its contribution to all three pillars of sustainability, in particular when indigenous technology is taken into account. Indigenous technology has a lot to offer to the circular economy thinking particularly in terms of the way it is inherently embedded in the local context and natural world. Indigenous people are the key stakeholders of the natural environment since a significant number of conserved areas have been, and are, traditionally owned or managed by their communities. The ecosystem is in better hands in indigenous communities in terms of their intimate relationship with their immediate surroundings, which in turn motivates their regenerative practices and shapes indigenous values and attitudes toward nature. The knowledge system of indigenous communities offers a fully-fledged model validated in the laboratory of life that can be transformed into global actions by integrating it with modern scientific knowledge. Indigenous practices passed down from generation to generation, combined with the mutually reciprocal relationship between humans and nature established by indigenous practices, can provide answers to two critical approaches toward sustainability—technical solutions and value change. In Chapter 20, the final chapter in this part, Tomé A Mapotse proposes the use of action learning as the mechanism through which indigenous technology can be

xviii

An Introduction to Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems

integrated into Technology Education. The chapter outlines the pedagogical aspects of the indigenous technological knowledge systems (ITKS) that need to be practiced in Technology Education classes. Technology Education teachers are encouraged to use action learning methodologies to conduct research on Technology. Even though Technology Education is a school subject and action research is a research methodology, it is important to note that in the method of teaching technology, the design process is inherently researchoriented. Once Technology Education teachers can be empowered through action research, they will be able to emancipate their peers through action learning. Action learning places the emphasis on inquiry-led action to affect the skills transfer required in Technology Education. For Technology Education teachers to meet both the sustainable development goals and Agenda 2063 aspirations, action learning can be used. Action Learning has the potential to, respectively, improve learners’ practice as well as enhance their performance especially if experienced Technology Education teachers embark on skill transfer processes with the more novice teachers. Action learning is collaborative, cooperative, and collegial. The book concludes with Chapter 21, written by the editors, Mishack T. Gumbo and P. John Williams. In the chapter, an account about achieving the intent of the book is provided, including an indication of the synergy and logical flow of the parts of the book and the chapters contained in them. P. John Williams Mishack T. Gumbo

Contents

Part I 1

2

A Case for Indigenous Technology in Technology Education

The Leapfrogging Effect of “Modern” Technology on Indigenous Technology: A Need to Transform Technology Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mishack T. Gumbo Making a Case for Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michael Gaotlhobogwe

3

19

3

Engineering Knowledge as Indigenous Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marc J. de Vries

4

Building Modern Technology Innovation on Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Technology Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sefiso B. Khumalo and Tome’ A. Mapotse

43

Creating the Value of Indigenous Knowledge and Technologies in Technology Education Curriculum Through Intellectual Property Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Richie Moalosi, Yaone Rapitsenyane, Odirileng Marope, and Oanthata Sealetsa

57

5

Part II 6

33

The Cultural Root of Indigenous Technology and its Practices, Knowledge and Skills

Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education: Technology Education in a Sámi School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cecilia Axell

75

xix

xx

Contents

7

Toys, Design and Technology: Intergenerational Connects and Embodied Cultural Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Ritesh Khunyakari

8

Sthapatya Shiksha: Hindu Temple Architecture Education . . . . . . . . 121 Indu Viswanathan and Sumita Ambasta

9

Ikat Weaving in India: A Case Study of Three Indigenous Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Sumita Ambasta and Indu Viswanathan

Part III Indigenous Technology and Curriculum 10 Nexus of Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems and Design Education in Afrika’s Higher Education Institutions . . . 153 Sophia N. Njeru 11 Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Aotearoa-New Zealand and the Development of the M¯aori Technology Curriculum . . . . . . . 169 Ruth Lemon, Tony Trinick, and Kerry Lee 12 Locating Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education Within the Revised Curriculum in Zimbabwe . . . . . . . . . . 185 Peter Kwaira 13 Decolonization of Indian Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education: Linking Past to Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Kaul and Bharadwaj 14 Examining the Technological Divide Between Africa and the Western World: A Case of South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Joseph N. C. Mnguni and Tomé A. Mapotse 15 Indigenous Technological Knowledge for Education in Zimbabwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Mercy Rugedhla, Lily C. Fidzani, and Richie Moalosi Part IV Indigenous Technology in the Teaching and Learning of Technology 16 Learning Strategies that Promote an Integration of Indigenous Technology in the Teaching of Design Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Richard Maluleke and Mishack T. Gumbo 17 Integrating Indigenous Technology into Science and Technology . . . 269 Rif’ati Dina Handayani and Triyanto

Contents

xxi

18 Technology Teachers’ Use of Indigenous Knowledge to Integrate Environmental Education into Technology Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Tsebo K. Matsekoleng and Tomé A. Mapotse 19 Indigenous Technologies: What Is There for ‘Green’ Technology Education? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Margarita Pavlova 20 Ways in Which Technology Education Teachers Can Integrate Indigenous Technology Through Action Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Tomé A Mapotse 21 Transforming Technology Education Curriculum Through Indigenous Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Mishack T. Gumbo and P. John Williams

Abbreviations

4th AIKS AL AR ASD ATE CAPS CBC CBD CDU CIKS CPDM DBE DLT DoE DR ECD EE ESD ESSI GAP GET GIs HEI ICT ICTI IK IKR IKS IoT IP

IR 4th Industrial Revolution African Indigenous Knowledge Systems Action Learning Action Research Agenda for Sustainable Development African Technology Education Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement Competency-Based Curriculum Central Business District Curriculum Development Unit Centre in Indigenous Knowledge Systems Cultural Product Design Model Department of Basic Education Distributed Ledger Technology Department of Education Developmental Research Early Childhood Development Environmental Education Education for Sustainable Development Engaged Scholarship and Societal Impact Global Action Programme General Education and Training Band Geographical Indicators Higher Education Institutions Information and Communication Technology Indigenous Corporate Training Inc Indigenous Knowledge Indigenous Knowledge Resources Indigenous Knowledge Systems Internet of Things Intellectual Property xxiii

xxiv

IRD IT ITKSE IUCN KRV Mini-PAT MoE MOPSE MSKS NAMAMI NGOs NWU OAU OBM POPBL+ PVC SDG SES SKAV STE(A)M STEM TE TKS UKZN UL UNEP UNESCO UNISA UNIVEN VTE WIPO WTKSE WWF ZIMSEC

Abbreviations

Iqbal International Institute for Research and Dialogue Indigenous Technology Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems Education International Union for the Conservation of Nature Kala Raksha Vidhyalaya Mini Assessment Task Ministry of Education Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education Modern Scientific Knowledge System National Mission for Manuscripts Non-Governmental Organizations North-West University Organization of African Unity Original Brand Manufacturer Problem-Oriented and Project-Based Learning+ Polyvinyl Chloride Sustainable Development Goals Socio-Economic Status Skill, Knowledge, Attitude and Value Science, Technology, Engineering (Arts) and Mathematics Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Technology Education Traditional Knowledge Systems University of KwaZulu-Natal University of Limpopo United Nations Environmental Programme United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization University of South Africa University of Venda Vastushastra Technology Education World Intellectual Property Organisation Western Technological Knowledge Systems Education Worldwide Fund for Nature Zimbabwe Schools Examination Council

Part I

A Case for Indigenous Technology in Technology Education

Chapter 1

The Leapfrogging Effect of “Modern” Technology on Indigenous Technology: A Need to Transform Technology Education Mishack T. Gumbo Abstract This chapter explores the leapfrogging effect of modern technology on indigenous technology. Using Schumpeter’s theory of leapfrogging, I show how Technology Education follows the model of the conventional industry which downplays indigenous technology. This model affects how Technology Education is conceptualised and taught, disadvantaging indigenous students who form part of the Technology Education class. It even denies non-indigenous students the opportunity to learn about indigenous technology. I contend for the transformation of the subject ultimately. Indigenous technology is one of the contemporary issues for Technology Education in as far as the needed transformation of the subject is concerned. It is in this light that the chapter makes a valuable contribution to the debates that seek to transform the subject. Keywords Indigenous technology · Curriculum · Modern technology · Leapfrogging · Transformation · Context

1.1 Introduction The study of technology is irrefutable because technology is a driving force of human development. On a small or big scale, people engage in daily activities which employ technology. However, there exist a knowledge gap and lack of interest from dominant cultures (Jokhu & Kutay, 2020) about indigenous technologies and the contribution that they can make towards development and education, as well as their sustaining function of indigenous people’s livelihoods. Modern technologies, many of which are linked to Western innovators and designers, are promoted more than indigenous technologies; modern technologies hasten development, while they are also disruptive and leapfrog indigenous technologies. Indigenous technologies are therefore a missing link in the Technology Education curriculum and pedagogy which needs M. T. Gumbo (B) University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_1

3

4

M. T. Gumbo

to be addressed. Therefore, this chapter explores the leapfrogging effect of modern technology on indigenous technology. In the light of human rights, it is critical to note that education is intimately connected to the life of the people (Babaci-Wilhite et al., 2012). Hence, education which excommunicates students from their culture is disserving or underserving them. Besides Western and formal sciences, alternative scientific and technological knowledges for other cultures do exist globally which can contribute to sustainable development (Safakish, 2015). This chapter focuses on indigenous technologies. There are reasons why indigenous technologies should be taught: • Disruptive function of non-native/non-indigenous technologies on indigenous technologies, e.g. indigenous people in Asmat, Papua, and Indonesia opposed the effect of logging and fishing by external organisations which removed their livelihoods (Jokhu & Kutay, 2020). • Displacement of indigenous people from regions being developed for the external industry is causing disruption (Jokhu & Kutay, 2020) in their livelihoods. • Global developments tend to exclude indigenous technologies due to the primitive stigma placed on them. • As long as indigenous people live, they engage indigenous technologies and knowledge systems. So, indigenous technologies are not stagnant nor past-trapped (Gumbo, 2015). • Colonisation, which discredits indigenous technologies, is a system which is opposed by indigenous people and non-indigenous people who have noticed the system’s injustices on indigenous people. • Technology Education needs to be decolonised as it does not embrace indigenous perspectives of technology (Gumbo, 2020a). • Technology Education students are therefore taught an incomplete curriculum which does not include indigenous technologies. Both indigenous students’ and non-indigenous students’ understanding of technology could be enhanced by teaching them about indigenous technologies. This chapter proceeds by describing the leapfrogging theory and discussing the leapfrogging of indigenous technologies by exogenous technologies. Then, I argue for a paradigm shift that will be receptive to indigenous technologies. The discussion of different thinking is taken forward and demonstrated with three case studies on indigenous technologies. Then, I look at the exclusionist versus inclusionist development brought about by technology. Lastly, I suggest ideas about the transformation of Technology Education.

1.2 The Leapfrogging Theory I adopted Schumpeter’s (1939, 1976, 2008) leapfrogging theory to describe the dynamics of the phased-in technology at the expense of the phased-out technology in developmental terms. Though the theory was developed for the economic market,

1 The Leapfrogging Effect of “Modern” Technology on Indigenous …

5

I found it useful to explain the dominance of “modern” technology over indigenous technology, and thus, the Technology Education curriculum. Heavin and Power (2020) claim in this regard that technology leapfrogging refers to the stage when the so-called leading-edge technology skips one or more technology generations. It is when the current and most advanced technologies are adopted, shifting the older legacy technologies (Heavin & Power, 2020). For example, during COVID19 lockdown, institutions abruptly converted from venue-based meetings with their technology (such as projecting agenda on the screen and in-room presentations) to remote technology (such as Zoom and Teams). The obvious leapfrogging happened in the medicine industry in terms of the sought-after solutions to COVID-19 pandemic. Modern methods and medicines were promoted while there were indigenous solutions that proved to be effective, such as lengana (Artemisia afra) and other options, but which were downplayed (Gumbo & Gaotlhobogwe, 2021). Schumpeter also developed the growth theory (Aghion et al., 2015), which helps with the understanding of leapfrogging theory. The growth theory speaks of creative destruction which is the process by which new technological innovations replace older technologies (Aghion et al., 2015). This growth theory is based on three main ideas, which are described thus: (1) long-term growth results from innovations, (2) innovations result from entrepreneurial investments that are themselves motivated by the prospects of monopoly rents (a special form of land rent in a capitalist economy which occurs on the basis of the sale of goods at monopoly prices in excess of their value), and (3) new innovations replace old technologies (Aghion et al., 2015). In economic developmental terms, the replacing technologies could be firms that compete with their rivals to the stage that older ones ultimately die out. For instance, South Africa has witnessed indigenous open markets being leapfrogged by big conventional firms. The leapfrogging theory as described above has crucial implications for indigenous technology. Indigenous technology, as part of indigenous knowledge systems, is viewed as outdated or primitive technology which is treated like an old technology that must be leapfrogged by new technologies (Chilisa, 2012; Gumbo, 2020a; Shizha, 2013; Smith, 1999). There has been disinterest in indigenous technology even though they are preferred in providing effective solutions for local contexts, causing less destruction to the natural environment as a result of the respected tripartite relationship between humans, spirituality, and nature (Gumbo, 2020a). It is in this light that other chapters in this book describe indigenous technologies in different contexts and their value for the survival of local communities. Leapfrogging these technologies stifles the livelihoods of the local communities. It is therefore important, from a Technology Education point of view, that students should be taught to primarily design for their indigenous contexts as that would help to create appropriate technological solutions, collaborate with indigenous communities, and evaluate conventional solutions against indigenous solutions. This has implications for what is taught in Technology Education, to whom, and for what intended purpose. This brings us to the next section about the leapfrogging of indigenous technology with exogenous technology.

6

M. T. Gumbo

1.3 Leapfrogging Indigenous Technology by Exogenous Technology As indicated in the previous section, the leapfrogging theory explains the economic agenda of big corporations with their modern technology at the expense of indigenous technology. In this light, Schumpeter’s leapfrogging theory stems from his concept of economic development and entrepreneurship, understood in terms of a symbiotic interaction between “economic, historical, political, social and all other elements of the process of the functioning and development of the capitalist world” (Croitoru, 2012, p. 138). Upadhyay and Rawal (2018) recognise the relationship between entrepreneurship and innovation—“a creative and innovative response to the environment and an ability to recognize, initiate and exploit an economic opportunity” (p. 1680). Upadhyay and Rawal (2018) declare that Schumpeter introduced the concept of creative destruction which incessantly destroys the old economic structure for a new one. Hence, Schumpeter regards an entrepreneur as one who creatively destructs (Upadhyay & Rawal, 2018). Innovation is defined as a new idea, device, or method (Upadhyay & Rawal, 2018) and is a buzzword, especially in higher education institutions. For example, sections that deal with research are referred to as Research and Innovation. The term innovation is conceptualised in terms of leapfrogging technology with related terms such as the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) and digitisation. Fomunyam (2020) casts a critical view on the 4IR for its negative impact on indigenous people. I find the theme, “biases of technology” in the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement an important theme to engage students on (Department of Basic Education, 2011); their critical skills should be exercised in evaluating the biases of technology, including the 4IR. Technology Education should produce students who can also debate the advantages and disadvantages of the leapfrogging technologies against indigenous technologies. The argument this far in this chapter is not to counter developments that are implied in the concept of leapfrogging. Rather, I argue that indigenous technology should not be left behind. Their sustainability function means the survival of indigenous people. Since technology changes due to the changing needs of the people, I want to believe that indigenous technologies also undergo modifications from generation to generation and due to the changing conditions in the indigenous people’s localities, but this happens in ways that befit them. Thus, modernity should not only be mentioned when there is a talk about development (Gumbo, 2003) which is fast-tracked by disruptive technologies for quick marketing and capital generation compared to indigenous technologies which are mainly labour intensive but environmentally friendly. In the final analysis, however, the speediness of the leapfrogging technologies with their associated historical, political, and social problems such as food insecurity must be evaluated against the snail-pace development of indigenous technologies with their related environmentally friendliness, sustainability function, self-reliance of indigenous people, and relevance. The Setswana adages are relevant in this case: Lepotlapotla le jele pudi (speed kills) and Tsela-motsopodia ga e latse

1 The Leapfrogging Effect of “Modern” Technology on Indigenous …

7

nageng (a winding road will make one arrive ultimately). These adages provide frameworks to evaluate leapfrogging technologies and indigenous technologies, respectively. Burlamaqui and Kattel (2015, p. 270) claim “that development processes and trajectories are better understood within a Schumpeterian approach than within existing orthodox and heterodox approaches”. Schumpeter’s approach is that of mapping out the dying out of the “low-type” and “high-type” business due to leapfrogging that the latter creates. However, the realities suggest that the West monopolises technological development through the internationalisation of technologies which creates a leapfrogging effect. Kouame’s (2019) presentation during the Tokyo Office Morning Seminar on 15 July 2019 shows a world map with the concentration of innovation coming from the US and Europe. Kouame (2019) claims that the existing technologies are not always adapted to the local. Kouame (2019) decries the low agricultural productivity in Africa due to the non-exploitation of technologies such as mobile phone applications, sensors, satellites, and drones. I argue that indigenous people have always had effective solutions which need to be integrated with modern solutions, e.g. their sophisticated crop planting systems (Gumbo, 2003). Simply adapting external technology in indigenous people’s contexts without actively involving them might not help much. In fact, Kouame (2019) opines that new technologies have supplanted old ones. When they are imposed on local communities, they disturb the local technologies—this is motivated by the externalists’ (exogenes’/colonialists’) attitudes that local communities are poor, and therefore, they need to be rescued. There is therefore a need for a paradigm shift about indigenous technologies.

1.4 A Different Thinking About Indigenous Technology In the light of the reasons given in this chapter’s introduction and the leapfrogging effect of technology discussed in Sects. 1.2 and 1.3, there should be a paradigm shift about indigenous technologies. I employ three case studies (Zimbabwe, South Africa, and India) to (or illustrate?) this paradigm shift. Other chapters in this book also build on this as they describe the dynamism of indigenous technologies and how they could help transform Technology Education.

1.4.1 Zimbabwe In 2004, my family (wife, children, my late father, and I) visited the village, Makura in Gutu, Zimbabwe, where my father came from. I observed food security, selfreliance, and sustainability in the people’s agricultural activities. They reared goats and cattle, grew crops, and processed them with the grinding stone; for example, they harvested rapoko (a small grain crop) and processed it into peanut butter. Rapoko can also be used for brewing beer and porridge. There are granaries to store grains

8

M. T. Gumbo

for the next planting season. Other crops that they plant include pumpkins, peanuts, maize, tomatoes, etc. They use water from the pits that they have dug for their fields. In another village, Mapanzure, the people keep poultry and plant maize which they take to the local mill for processing at a very affordable price. They have a way of planting potatoes using an empty maize meal bag to encourage the plant to give produce more potatoes. Motivated by botho/ubuntu, the people show a gesture of serving and giving food to their visitors sufficiently. At Makura, my family and I were well fed and given some more food to take with us. At Mapanzure where I visited with a group of men over the weekend for church-related activities, the people served us goat meat, eggs laid by their live chicken, tea, etc. How the local people organised themselves and their technological activities was a cause for my critical reflection on the concept of poverty. I saw people who collectively enjoyed sufficiency, were self-reliance, being far away from government, aided both geographically and by service provision, devised innovative means to cope with the local environmental conditions, e.g. processing of peanut butter from rapoko, were at peace, and had stable livelihoods. Later on, my reflections produced a book chapter, Teaching Technology in “poorly resourced” contexts (Gumbo, 2020b) in Pedagogy for Technology Education in Secondary Schools (Williams & Barlex, 2020) for a series on Contemporary Issues in Technology Education. In the chapter, I claim that the word poor or poverty has been made difficult to define because of how the so-called poor people, the majority of whom are indigenous, are described. In the chapter, I draw from the four perspectives of poverty: (1) income or consumption poverty; (2) material lack or want in terms of wealth and lack quality of other assets such as shelter, clothing, furniture, personal means of transport, radios or television, no or poor access to services; (3) capability deprivation in terms of people’s capability to do things for themselves or can/cannot be such as possessing skills and physical abilities, self-respect; (4) multi-dimensional view of deprivation, e.g. material lack being one of the several mutually reinforcing dimensions (Chambers, 2006; Ludi & Bird, 2007). One observes externalist’s view of “poor” people in these perspectives which values material possession than intangible materials such as social values and therefore a different view of technological activities understood from botho philosophy—communality ignited as energy which produces people’s activities. In the light of the above assertion about “poor people”, the following fundamental questions are asked: What poverty is taken to mean depends on who asks the question, how it is understood, and who responds. Our common meanings have all been constructed by us, non-poor people. They reflect our power to make definitions according to our perceptions. Whose reality counts? Ours, as we construct it with our mindsets and for our purposes? Or theirs as we enable them to analyse and express it? (Chambers, 2006, p. 1)

Since many indigenous communities live on the peripheries of cities (usually referred as rural), they are regarded as poor people. This can be illustrated by how a rural school is described; that is, it is a school that is situated 10–20 km from a town boundary, equal to or greater than 20 km from a town boundary, and very remote (The Fiji Ministry of Education, 2011 in Gumbo, 2020a). Currently, defining urban

1 The Leapfrogging Effect of “Modern” Technology on Indigenous …

9

by comparing it with rural or vice versa creates thinking which discredits rural areas (Gardener, 2008 in Gumbo, 2020a). As stated above, this creates an externalist’s perspective that accords the status of “poor” to indigenous people. Rural areas should be understood in terms of the uniqueness of their people and technological resources, knowledge, and skills without comparing them with external environments.

1.4.2 South Africa The formal mining activities by big corporates were preceded by black Africans’ multifaceted activities; they combined mining activities with agricultural activities. For example, they dug holes to extract edible bulbs and roots and to catch animals (Gumbo, 2020a, Mason, 1982). They acquired bulb-digging techniques and tunnelling methods (Gumbo, 2020a). They also extracted minerals used for making the body and wall paints, bracelets, earrings, and other artefacts. According to Mason (1982), there is evidence of hematite pencils, i.e. a reddish-black mineral which consists of ferric oxide which was found at Olieboompoort which is near Botswana border. In the Middle Stone Age, people used these pencils for skin painting. Evidence of a shaft and gallery cutting through solid rock in Phalaborwa around A.D. 770 also exists (Mason, 1982, p. 138). The miners should have used advanced tools to cut through the rock. It should also be noted that the entire household (men, women, and children) as well as the community were engaged in indigenous mining activities (Gumbo, 2020a). So, botho was carried in every activity that they engaged in. With the introduction of colonial systems which brought leapfrogging technologies, indigenous mining was criminalised. Colonialism interfered with sustainable livelihoods so that indigenous people are now viewed as poor. To date, indigenous mining is treated as a criminal activity that is punishable by law. Decriminalisation of the same would help ensure counteracting the leapfrogging effect. There is therefore a need to redesign mining by ensuring that indigenous people and mining technologies are not marginalised by the leapfrogging technologies.

1.4.3 India The monsoon weather in India has sparked creative ideas in the people. The Khasi tribe responded to the weather conditions by building a rope bridge (Watson, 2019). Tall trees which grow by the riverbanks were identified as the natural resources for the construction of the bridge. Tough ropes are tied around the tree trunks and kneaded to cross big rivers. The trees stabilise the bridges; the trees stabilise the bridges even more as their roots grow deeper into the ground (Watson, 2019). The bridges provide walkways for the people to walk over to the other sides of the rivers, a solution to the problem of restricted movement due to the monsoon weather conditions. This shows

10

M. T. Gumbo

that indigenous people can also provide technological solutions for their challenges and needs. These case studies suggest a need to counter the leapfrogging of local knowledge, skills, practices, methods, technics, processes, and activities by promoting these practices alongside the conventional technologies, or even by combining the two where possible. This would in turn counter the poverty stigma placed on indigenous people which judges them through the urban developmental and economic lens, disregarding the richness of local resources. In the chapter, Teaching Technology in “poorly resourced” contexts, I proposed a redefinition of poor, and thus, being poor means the extent of lack in certain areas (resources, services, capabilities, etc.) judged or measured against what is available locally, not against external developmental perspectives (Gumbo, 2020a). I opine that exclusionist and inclusionist technological development should form part of the discourse that will begin to address the leapfrogging effects of modern technologies on indigenous technologies.

1.5 Exclusionist Versus Inclusionist Development The case studies discussed above illustrate the external influence of innovation, the globalisation ideology, the impact of leapfrogging technologies on the African continent, and the botho-based globalisation and innovation.

1.5.1 External Influence of Innovation The fact that indigenous technologies are downplayed is because there is a global attempt not to recognise them, which denies the world these technological forms (indigenous technologies). To back up this claim, Sjöholm and Lundin (2013) discuss the People’s Republic of China’s reaction to the external influence of innovation, starting with the fact that the country is making effort to promote indigenous technology development so as to restrict the dominance of foreign multinational firms. Implied in Sjöholm and Lundin’s statement is an innovation that is framed by these multinational firms which motivate the non-inclusion of indigenous technologies in development projects. Ferraro and Iovanella (2017) describe the network science from the European context which is responsible for technology transfer and pushes innovation from such contexts; it is universalised even in indigenous contexts without showing interest in local technologies; thus, it is an innovation that leapfrogs local technologies. Nhemachena (2021) shares strong views about the leapfrogging effect of colonialism which is orchestrated through disruptive technologies, disruptive industrial revolutions, and disruptive pandemics within a globalisation ideology. This turns the discussion to globalisation in the next section.

1 The Leapfrogging Effect of “Modern” Technology on Indigenous …

11

1.5.2 The Globalisation Ideology Globalisation is a process of cultural mixing or hybridisation across locations and identities (Babaci-Wilhite, 2020). The Iqbal International Institute for Research and Dialogue (IRD) (2011) defines globalisation as a Western form of economic or political organisation which is universalised to a path of progress to even be adopted by the indigenous people. According to the IRD (2011), globalisation is the integration of capitalist economies, assimilation of social attitudes and cultural moors, and incorporation of global regimes through the advances in technology, transportation, and communication. Referring to it as a double-edged sword that created a bipolar world order, the IRD (2011) argues that it is likely to benefit the powerful entities but hurt a vast majority of people, their sustainable ways of life, and the global ecosystem. Babaci-Wilhite (2020, p. 720) cites Geo-JaJa and Yang to further describe globalisation in through the four stages of imperialism: (1) slave trade which extracted labour and disrupted local societies, (2) colonialism, which disregarded ethnicity and cultural boundaries, (3) neocolonialism, which imposed political and economic pressure, and (4) the globalisation of the neoliberal ideology (IRD, 2011), which brought free trade regimes which shrunk space, time, and borders through New Information and Communication Technologies. Civilisation is another associated term with globalisation. Notions of civilisation are disguised in indigenous contexts as promising developments when they actually affect indigenous people, making them abandon their knowledge and practices in favour of Western ones (Gumbo, 2003). Nhemachena (2021) questions the uncritical celebration of industrial revolutions in the twentyfirst century, which “are meant to benefit transnational corporations which own and control the nanotechnologies, biotechnologies and information technologies” (p. 4). This implicates the ushering in of the 4IR with its antecedents: virtual assistants, digital assistants, virtual personal assistants, voice assistants, and artificially intelligent assistants (Adamopoulou & Moussiades, 2020). While one is not necessarily opposed to this technological development, it is critical not to be blind to its marginalising effect. The foregoing discussion illustrates that at the centre of globalisation is the intention to make money. What globalisation has succeeded to do is pushing the agenda of externalists’ technological innovation at the expense of internalists’ (indigenes’) technological innovation. Nhemachena’s (2021) use of a Shona adage, Hakuna mhou inokumira mhuru isiri yayo (no cow lows for a calf that is not its own), assists to illustrate this argument. Hakuna mhou inokumira mhuru isiri yayo, according to Nhemachena (2021), raises the identity issue and confronts the uncritical notion that there exists a universal/global cow or “mother” which can low for all calves or children in the world (p. 7). The leapfrogging function as a driving force of globalisation brings into the discussion its impact on the African continent.

12

M. T. Gumbo

1.5.3 The Impact of Leapfrogging Technologies on the African Continent Through colonisation, Africans were “compelled to move from their enclave and to abandon their traditional system of production” (Ocheni et al., 2012, p. 48) in favour of the colonisers, despising their own as no more applicable to modernity. In a historical context, monetisation and the concomitant taxation of Africans’ barter system were (and still are to a greater extent) applied by the colonisers to directly control and administer African territories through the use of their currencies (Ocheni et al., 2012). This was done so that they could easily regulate the use of their currencies and value to effectively control Africa’s economy and administration mainly through low wages as they were employed in the colonial service (Ocheni et al., 2012). My critique of poverty earlier in the chapter can also be understood in these historical terms—indigenous people were made poor so that they could be referred to as such. The exercise of impoverishing them was achieved through the creation of economic classes (comprador bourgeoisie, petite bourgeoisie, proletariat, and peasant) (Ocheni et al., 2012). Indigenous technologies (described in Gumbo, 2015) were crippled and discouraged from thriving. The decolonisation stories (Smith, 1999) of Africans and other indigenous people elsewhere attest to the fact that they still experience the atrocities of colonisation. Nhemachena (2021) argues in this light that states are now governed in ways that maintain the colonial administration strategy—disarticulation of Africans’ pattern of economic development, markets, and trades, disrupting the marketing centres and/or routes that were designed based on their local needs (IRD, 2011). Furthermore, transport routes were designed such that it was easier to easily evacuate the raw materials from their sources to the destination point where they could in turn be exported abroad (Ocheni et al., 2012, p. 52). Babaci-Wilhite (2020) adds that the production of goods, markets, traders, transport, provision of social amenities, and pattern of urbanisation were distorted. A pattern of the international division of labour was introduced to the disadvantage of Africans, locking Africa into, in Ocheni et al.’s (2012) words, perpetual debtor. The aim was to use Africans for cheap labour in the production of raw materials and primary products for export to European industries at a very low price and sold back at an exorbitant price to ensure further impoverishment of Africans.

1.5.4 Botho-Based Globalisation and Innovation Nhemachena’s argument as discussed in 1.5.2 does not suggest that indigenous people are anti-inclusivist, otherwise, that would be inconsistent with their botho philosophy. According to Nhemachena (2021), “the Shona people historically welcomed European travelers during the pre-colonial era and they inclusively extended human rights and privileges to them before the same European travelers

1 The Leapfrogging Effect of “Modern” Technology on Indigenous …

13

colonized their African hosts” (p. 7). Africans were, however, shocked to see the colonialists abusing their botho by grabbing their land, looting their livestock, and dispossessing them of their mines and other economic activities (Nhemachena, 2021)— refer to the case study about mining in Sect. 1.4.2. The externalists denied themselves the opportunity to learn about botho which would have enabled them to move harmoniously with internalists. Nhemachena (2021) presents the Shonas’ conception of botho through Hakuna mhou inokumira mhuru isiri yayo as being anti-particularistic or nonrelativistic. By referring to God as the Unifier, Nhemachena (2021) claims that the Shonas “had knowledge of an inclusivist, omniscient, and omnipotent God. …, they knew that God could low for every calf because God was not particularistic or relativistic” (p. 7). In this perspective, Africans value mhou as a source of survival in many respects: it is a unifier especially during lobola (Africans talk in terms of mhou during lobola negotiations), and nothing is thrown away when a cow is slaughtered; in ceremonies, a cow is slaughtered to provide enough meat for all who will attend; even its dung is useful in households, e.g. as an energy source, to plaster/decorate walls, apply on the floor as a snake repellent, etc. The expressed botho here as opposed to the ills of colonisation, global capitalism, and imperialism all of which aim to be global, inclusive, and cosmopolitan but for ulterior purposes, i.e. to dispossess and exploit other people in the world (Babaci-Wilhite, 2020; Jokhu & Kutay, 2020; Nhemachena, 2021). Nhemachena (2021) emphasises this point thus: Of course in the twenty-first century, the global cow lows for all calves in the world to be included and to be connected in the Internet of Things, Internet of Battlefield Things, and Internet of Humans from which transnational corporations harvest Big Data and by means of which they also exercise global surveillance, sousveillance, and uberveillance. (p. 8)

In the light of these questions, Ocheni et al. (2012, p. 46) claim that “there is an urgent need for people and the leadership to create their own indigenous identity, culture, technology, economy, education, religion, craft, etc.”. Ocheni et al. (2012) base their claim on the industrial exploitation and its colonial goals discussed in 1.1 to 3.3. Ocheni et al. (2012) assert that Africans were good sculptors, carvers, cloth weavers, minors, blacksmiths, etc. Therefore, they could provide the technological needs of the African societies. In creating their own indigenous identity, culture, technology, economy, education, religion, craft, etc., it should be noted that indigenous people cannot divorce themselves from botho. They will always want to embrace other cultures and ethnic groups. What is rather sensible to do is for them to prevent dominance and assimilation by those other cultures and ethnic groups. There should be a willingness from colonialists to learn from indigenous people instead of subjecting indigenous people to the colonialists’ culture, knowledge, and technologies.

14

M. T. Gumbo

1.6 Transformation of Technology Education The external realities as discussed this far are also evident in academia as some indigenous scholars have been conditioned to mimic Western academics and educators (Nhemachena, 2021). This is evident in their strict adherence to European languages even when they have a choice to speak their own, adoption of the English accent and behaviour, despisal of their own local practices and technologies, etc. This is attested to by Ocheni et al. (2012), who claim that “the introduction of colonial education made Africans abandon their indigenous technological skills and education in preference to one which mainly emphasizes reading and writing” (p. 51). “Education which is not deeply rooted in people’s culture and environment cannot bring about any meaningful technological advancement” (Ocheni et al., 2012, p. 51). Africans are resultantly adopting the standards of the world without including local culture in education (Babaci-Wilhite, 2020). Colonial education in Africa has failed to transmit the values and knowledge of African society from one generation to the next but deliberately changed those values and replaced the traditional knowledge with the knowledge from a different society. There is therefore a need to transform Technology Education. This can be done in the following ways: Curriculum: • A human rights approach to Technology Education should be adopted, showing justice about what students learn and how. For example, the South African Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement is guided by the principles such as valuing indigenous knowledge systems; social transformation; human rights, inclusivity, environmental and social justice; credibility, quality, and efficiency. • Indigenous people’s values, identities, epistemologies, ontologies, worldviews, perspectives, autonomy, sovereignty, concerns, and experiences (Nhemachena, 2021) should be respected and accommodated in the Technology Education curriculum. Local knowledge can facilitate empowerment in human capital development. • Technology Education should include themes and content which indiscriminately relate to all students. • As Technology Education motivates the use of design scenarios and case studies, such should be diversified to accommodate students’ varied backgrounds and cultures. • Designs by indigenous people should be included in the curriculum instead of including only those by Westerners. Students will be motivated to learn about designs that they can identify with. Pedagogical approaches: • Teaching in Technology Education should make room for indigenous languages to facilitate the meaningfulness of concepts and principles of technology. The use of local language addresses the barrier between real-life and classroom experiences. Kim and Song (2021) conducted interviews with eight secondary school teachers

1 The Leapfrogging Effect of “Modern” Technology on Indigenous …

• • • •

15

(four technology and four science teachers) to find out how teachers perceived technology and engineering. The authors noticed that language influenced the teachers’ perceptions in the sense that they often understood the terms through the meanings of Chinese characters. They were confused between the Korean terms and the corresponding English terms; the connotations of terms were different between these two languages. One of the skills that Technology Education targets in students is collaboration. Botho principles could be infused to motivate and facilitate the respect of all knowledges and constructivist learning. Botho can be better inculcated by elders in the community. Hence, elders can be resourceful in teaching about botho and other technological knowledges that they possess. Technology teachers should encourage students to primarily design solutions for their local contexts as a strategy to promote indigenous technologies. Communication about the design solutions should not be limited to the written word, but orality (a dominant communication mode in indigenous contexts) should be accommodated as well.

The transformation of Technology Education should therefore take into account the realities and existence of indigenous technology. Many schools are a host to students from diverse contexts who should be afforded the opportunity to learn how technology is conceptualised from those contexts.

References Adamopoulous, E., & Moussaiades, L. (2020). Chatbots: History, technology, and applications. Machine Learning with Applications, 2, 100006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mlwa.2020.100006 Aghion, P., Akcigit, U., & Howitt, P. (2015). The Schumpeterian growth paradigm. Annual Review of Economics, 7(5), 57–75. Babaci-Wilhite, Z. (2020). Linguistic and cultural rights in STEAM education: Science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics. In J. M. Abidogun & T. Falola (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of African education and indigenous knowledge (pp. 715–735). Palgrave. Babaci-Wilhite, Z., Geo-JaJa, M. A., & Shizhou, L. (2012). Education and language: A human right for sustainable development in Africa. International Review of Education, 5, 619–647. Burlamaqui, L., & Kattel, R. (2015). Development as leapfrogging, not convergence, not catchup: Towards Schumpeterian theories of finance and development. Review of Political Economy, 28(2), 270–288. Chambers, R. (2006). What is poverty? Who asks? Who answers? Poverty in Focus (pp. 3–4). Chilisa, B. (2012). Indigenous research methodologies. Sage. Croitoru, A. (2012). Scumpeter, J. A., 1934 (2008), The theory of economic development: An inquiry into profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle, translated from the German by Redvers Opie, New Brunswick (U.S.A.) and London (U.K.): Transaction Publishers. A review to a book that is 100 years old. Journal of Comparative Research in Anthropology and Sociology, 3(2), 137–148. Department Basic Education. (2011). Curriculum and assessment policy statement grades 7–9: Technology. Government Printers.

16

M. T. Gumbo

Ferraro, G., & Iovanella, A. (2017). Technology transfer in innovation networks: An empirical study of the Enterprise Europe Network. International Journal of Engineering Business Management, 9, 1–14. Fiji Ministry of Education. (2011). Annual report. Government Printers. Fomunyam, K. G. (2020). Deterritorialising to reterritorialising the curriculum discourse in African higher education in the era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. International Journal of Higher Education, 9(4), 27–34. Gardener, M. (2008). Education in rural areas: Issues in education policy number 4. Centre for Education Policy Development. Gumbo, M. T. (2003). Indigenous technologies: Implications for a technology education school curriculum. Vista University. Gumbo, M. T. (2015). Indigenous technology in technology education curricula and teaching. In P. J. Williams, A. Jones, & C. Buntting (Eds.), Contemporary issues in technology education: The future of technology education (pp. 57–75). Springer. Gumbo, M. T. (Ed.). (2020a). Decolonization of technology education: African indigenous perspectives. Peter Lang. Gumbo, M. T. (2020b). Teaching technology in “poorly resourced” contexts. In P. Williams & D. Barlex (Eds.), Pedagogy for technology education in secondary schools: Contemporary issues in technology education (pp. 283–296). Springer. Gumbo, M. T., & Gaotlhobogwe, M. (2021). African indigenous knowledge and practices to combat Covid-19 pandemic. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 18(5), 462–481. Heavin, C., & Power, D.J. (2020). DSS foundations: What is technology leapfrogging? https://dss resources.com/faq/pdf/514.pdf IRD. (2011). Globalization and its impact on indigenous cultures. International Conference on Globalization and its Impact on Indigenous Cultures. Islamabad, Pakistan. Jokhu, P. D., & Kutay, C. (2020). Observations on appropriate technology application in indigenous community using system dynamics modelling. Sustainability, 12, 1–12. Kim, S., & Song, J. (2021). The nature of technology and engineering (NOTE) as perceived by science and technology teachers in Korea. Research in Science & Technological Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2021.1924656 Kouame, W. A. (2019). Leapfrogging: The key to Africa’s development? From constraints to investment opportunities. https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/700131563238536580-0090022019/ original/071619ticadseminar21leapfroggingWilfriedKouame.pdf Ludi, E., & Bird, K. (2007). Brief No. 1: Understanding poverty. www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/ files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/5678.pdf Mason, R.J. (1982). Prehistoric mining in South Africa, and iron age copper mines in the Dwarsberg, Transvaal. Journal of South African Institute for Mining and Metallurgy, 82, 134–144. Nhemachena, A. (2021). Hakuna mhou inokumira mhuru isiri yayo: Examining the interface between the African body and 21st century emergent disruptive technologies. Journal of Black Studies, 00, 1–20. Ocheni, B. S., & & Nwankwo, C. (2012). Analysis of colonialism and its impact in Africa. CrossCultural Communication, 8(3), 46–54. Safakish, M. (2015). The role of indigenous knowledge in sustainable rural economic development. Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 5(9S), 285–289. Schumpeter, J. A. (1939). Business cycles: A theoretical, historical, and statistical analysis of the capitalist process. McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc. Schumpeter, J. A. (1976). Capitalism, socialism and democracy. George Allen & Unwin. Schumpeter, J. A. (2008). The theory of economic development: An inquiry into profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle. Transaction Publishers. Shizha, E. (2013). Reclaiming our indigenous voices: The problem with postcolonial Sub-Saharan African school curriculum. Journal of Indigenous Social Development, 2(1), 1–18. Sjöholm, F., & Lundin, N. (2013). Foreign firms and indigenous technology development in the People’s Republic of China. Asian Development Review, 30(2), 49–75.

1 The Leapfrogging Effect of “Modern” Technology on Indigenous …

17

Smith, L. (1999). Decolonizing methodologies: Research and indigenous peoples. University of Otago Press. Upadhyay, C. S., & Rawal, P. (2018). A critical study of Joseph A. Schumpeter’s innovation theory of entrepreneurship. International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts, 6(1), 1678–1685. Watson, J. (2019). Lo-Tek, design by radical indigenism. www.loot.co.za/product/julian-watsonjulia-watson-lo-tek-design-by-radical-i/zhfd-6297-g350 Williams, P., & Barlex, D. (Eds.). (2020). Pedagogy for technology education in secondary schools: Contemporary issues in technology education (pp. 283–296). Springer.

Chapter 2

Making a Case for Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Michael Gaotlhobogwe Abstract This chapter highlights and exposes some of the subtle messages that have been a part of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education. These subtle messages are part of the hidden curriculum, education practices shrouded with intentionally produced forms of subordination, discrimination, and hegemony that benefit some groups of people at the expense of others. The literature demonstrates the decline of STEM education amid a narrative that suggests that STEM education is growing in popularity. Identifying and addressing the hidden curriculum in STEM is expected to democratise knowledge and information transfer, as well as power dynamics therein. STEM curricula have been viewed from a product /process perspective and as such not many, particularly in the African context ever probed the motives of its architects. A praxis perspective is adopted and a recommendation to include the Arts as a theme within STEM through a socio-cultural approach to bridge the gap between WTKS and ITKS is made. Keywords Hidden curriculum · Underrepresented populations · Socio-cultural · STEM · STEAM

2.1 Introduction In this chapter, I discuss how the hidden curriculum in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) has ensured that these disciplines largely remain a preserve for certain groups of people in societies. According to Alsubaie (2015), a hidden curriculum refers to the unspoken or implicit values, behaviours, and norms that exist in educational settings. Halpern (2018) noted that the hidden curriculum is an implicit curriculum that expresses and represents attitudes, knowledge, and behaviours which are conveyed or communicated without intention. In the context

M. Gaotlhobogwe (B) University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_2

19

20

M. Gaotlhobogwe

of this chapter, the hidden curriculum or the hidden pedagogy refers to education practices shrouded with intentionally produced forms of subordination, discrimination, and hegemony that benefit some at the expense of others (Margolis et al., 2001). These intentionally produced forms of ills are oftentimes hidden, hence hidden curriculum. Examples of education practices shrouded with intentionally produced forms of subordination and discrimination are provided to illustrate how such behaviours and attitudes impact the uptake of STEM by underrepresented populations. The chapter begins by presenting literature that demonstrates the decline of STEM education amid a narrative that suggests that STEM education is growing in popularity. The benefits of identifying and addressing the hidden curriculum in STEM are discussed. These benefits include the democratisation of knowledge and information transfer, as well as power dynamics.

2.2 The Decline of STEM Education as a Result of the Hidden Curriculum The decline of STEM education is widely reported even in jurisdictions that are non-indigenous. In the United States, for example, it is reported that falling achievements in STEM subjects across all levels of education have prevented the country from upholding its status as the global technological powerhouse it was during the mid-twentieth century. Villanueva et al. (2018) note that by identifying the hidden curriculum, particularly, for underrepresented populations in engineering, knowledge, and transfer of information are democratised and power dynamics can become more equitable. The authors further indicate that the hidden curriculum in engineering has been a relatively neglected area in research. However, it is not only in engineering where the hidden curriculum has been neglected in research, but it is across all the STEM-related fields. Vakil and Ayers (2019, p. 451) observe the unwillingness to grapple with the larger political, ideological, and racialised context of STEM education. As a result of the hidden curriculum in STEM, particularly for indigenous people as underrepresented populations in this area of education, knowledge, and transfer of information have been curtailed and power dynamics have become inequitable. Vakil and Ayers (2019, p. 450) ask interesting questions, thus, “In what ways are STEM reforms implicated in the advance of neoliberal multiculturalism, antiblackness, colonialism, white supremacy, and militarism in this unique historical moment? How do the racialized politics embedded in these reforms become embodied and contested in school cultures, curricular and epistemological priorities, and pedagogical practices?” The hidden curriculum, according to Seemann (2015), taps into the political agenda of education regulators and providers. On a similar note, Jacobs (1999) observed that governments use economic power to create a hidden curriculum that helps them to achieve certain political goals. Margolis et al. (2001, p. 2) observe that some of the ideological content of higher education intends to bamboozle, to pull the wool over people’s eyes... universities

2 Making a Case for Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems …

21

teach those who produce neither for the use nor for exchange but produce ideology... in this sense the university curriculum itself may be seen as a “hide” like a duck blind. A study conducted in the United States highlighted structural and cultural features of universities, as well as STEM curricula and pedagogy, which continue to privilege white males (Rainey et al., 2018). The following are two examples, one from Botswana and the other from South Africa, illustrating the ideological nature of the practices intended to achieve subordination and discrimination of the underrepresented populations. In Botswana, at one of the higher institutions of learning, there are reports of a certain mathematics professor who used to walk into a full lecture theatre on the first day of a semester and rhetorically ask, “Is this a History class or Mathematics class?” It is reported that the professor would go on to announce that only a third of the class would remain after only two weeks of lectures. Hermeneutics dictates that there were hidden meanings in the comments made by the professor, and these comments were followed by actions. Hermeneutic emphasises the non-apparent meanings of texts [or verbal and non-verbal communications]—meanings that may not even be understood by the authors (Margolis et al., 2001, p. 2), or in this case the professor. Messaging used by instructors, which varies in content and approach on the first day, shapes classroom social dynamics and can affect subsequent learning in a course (Meaders et al., 2021). The hidden meaning of the professor’s comments was that mathematics is hard for it to be studied by so many. Many of whom belong to the Humanities, which according to the professor and many others who hold the same views, is the domain of the notso-academically imbued. Those who are considered not to be academically imbued to cope with mathematics, it is so because of the way mathematics is presented, which is shrouded with intentionally produced forms of subordination, discrimination, and hegemony that benefit some at the expense of others (The Atlantic, 2017, April 25). This attitude is a representative view of some STEM professionals who have a conviction that STEM is not for everybody but for specific groups of people. Rollins (2020) sees these implicit and explicit biases in STEM. Those not included, come from underrepresented populations, including females, non-Caucasian, and indigenous. Lee et al. (2020, p. 4) observe that “racial representation of students in STEM is often attributed to pervasive stereotypes about intelligence and academic preparation based on race. For Asian/Asian American students, representation in STEM is explained by such stereotypes as superior intelligence, strong work ethic, or excelling in math, all of which are a part of the model minority concept”. For Black and Latino students, their underrepresentation is falsely attributed to personal characteristics such as inferior intelligence, weak work ethic, and deficiencies in mathematics (Lee et al., 2020). Lewis Hamilton, one of the few black individuals within Formula One, opined that “Some of these barriers I recognise from my own experiences, but our findings have opened my eyes to just how far-reaching these problems are...” (ESPN, 2021, July 12). In Lee et al. (2020), students reported that they left the STEM major because of feeling marginalised and pushed out. In South Africa, the then Minister of Native Affairs is reported to have delivered a speech in which he reiterated that:

22

M. Gaotlhobogwe When I have control over native education I will reform it so that the natives will be taught from childhood to realize that equality with Europeans is not for them... What is the use of teaching the Bantu Mathematics when he cannot use it in Practice? (House of Assembly Debates, Vol. 78, August–September 1953: 3585 cited in Vithal & Volmink, 2005)

Bantu was used in the speech as a demeaning word defining the people whose languages are spoken in central and southern Africa, including Swahili, Setswana, Xhosa, Shona, and Zulu. The two examples above represent the interpretation of the hidden curriculum in the context of this chapter. The statement made by the professor and his/her subsequent actions intended to achieve subordination and discrimination fundamentally operated through implicit mechanisms (e.g. emotion, self-efficacy) apparent to the individual but not to everybody (Villanueva et al., 2018). Similarly, the comment by the Minister from South Africa is a revelation that those who have control over curricula implicitly present it in such a way to achieve subordination and discrimination, in this case using mathematics as an example. Villanueva et al. (2018) note that these emotions and self-efficacy may guide an individual’s decision to take (or not take) action over their own motivations and trajectories. The authors further note the need not just to identify the hidden curriculum in classrooms but also to characterise and track down those continual inward-to-outward transmissions of the hidden curriculum that may propel (or not propel) underrepresented groups to continue and persist in engineering. The misconceptions about the underrepresented populations often manifest as subtle, stunning, often automatic, and non-verbal exchanges (Lee et al., 2020), which are “put-downs” of these populations by perpetrators, resulting in their reduced participation and unsatisfactory performance in STEM.

2.3 Reduced Participation and Unsatisfactory Performance of Underrepresented Populations in STEM Performance gaps between high and low Socio-Economic Status (SES) learners have been reported in mathematics (Graven, 2013) in South Africa. In the USA, Lee et al. (2020) note that studies point to the need to address the low participation, representation, engagement, and inclusion in engineering and related STEM fields among underrepresented students. The views reflected in the previous section were not, just isolated individual opinions. These are a result of systemic barriers imposed by those with socio-economic and political power, and the policy implications of such views are immense. Rohan (2018) posits that the empires may have virtually disappeared, but the cultural biases and disadvantages they imposed have not. Underrepresented populations (indigenous people included) have suffered and continue to suffer these cultural biases and disadvantages in STEM (Rollins, 2020). As a result of the cultural biases and disadvantages, lamentations to decolonise STEM curricula abound in writings from science (Kruger, 2018; Nordling, 2018;

2 Making a Case for Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems …

23

Rohan, 2018), technology (Gaotlhobogwe & Ruele, 2020; Gumbo, 2020; Moalosi et al., 2017), engineering (Fomunyam, 2017), and mathematics (Brodie, 2016; Lawton, 2018; Mudaly, 2018). In Africa, and perhaps in other contexts, disciplines within STEM share similar problems. Firstly, there are serious gender imbalances across these disciplines; second, participation is skewed along racial lines; and lastly, perceptions are that only gifted people [particularly males, and mostly males of Asian and Caucasian descent] excel in these disciplines. This suggests that the way STEM subjects are taught does not provide opportunities for diversity and for accessing STEM knowledge. Systemic barriers like implicit and explicit bias bar underrepresented groups from entering the STEM workforce and hinder academic success as well (Rollins, 2020; The Atlantic, 2017, April 25). As a result, the STEM field perpetuates stereotypes about who belongs in the field. Unfortunately, many from the underrepresented populations either fall off or perform unsatisfactorily in STEM (Rollins, 2020; The Atlantic, 2017, April 25). An important part of students’ ideas about mathematics [and related STEM subjects] is how they see themselves in relation to that subject (Brodie, 2016). Research has shown that one of the key factors in students’ achievement in any subject is a teacher who believes that they can do well in that subject (Bandura, 1993; Dibapile, 2012). In the case where stereotypical beliefs and perceptions are that certain groups of people do not belong, such beliefs and perceptions translate into pedagogical practices that marginalise those who do not belong. According to Rollins (2020), discrimination was a major barrier for ethnic minority students pursuing further STEM education. She further states that for minority students, discrimination has negative impacts on grades, the value of education, academic curiosity, self-efficacy, academic motivation, and achievement. Contemporary literary works emerging from the African context such as African Voices on Indigenisation of the Curriculum: Insights from Practice (Gumbo & Msila, 2017), Africanising the Curriculum: Indigenous Perspectives and Theories (Msila & Gumbo, 2016), Indigenous Research Methodologies (Chilisa, 2012), Decolonising Technology Education: African indigenous perspectives (Gumbo, 2020), and Silent Exclusion: The Unheard Voices in Remote Areas of Botswana (Pansiri, 2017) have illustrated the alienating nature of the dominant curriculum and its pedagogies [inclusive of STEM) in African schools and universities. This alienating nature, however, is often subtle, and the curriculum is presented as if it is just a neutral assemblage of knowledge appearing in texts and classrooms (Apple, 1995). As a result of the hidden ideological [alienating] nature of curricula, it is presented as what Tabulawa (2017) calls a technocratic exercise that simply involves repackaging existing knowledge to achieve educational needs. This “technicist” view promotes the product/process approach to curriculum, which in turn focuses on technical issues and not on the core issues inherent in the politics of curriculum. The product and the process approach to the curriculum are conceptualisations that present the curriculum as value-neutral and non-problematic. The product/process approach to curriculum is not oriented towards human well-being and is not committed to the emancipation of the human spirit. It is when the praxis approach to curriculum is adopted that the ideological nature of the curriculum is exposed.

24

M. Gaotlhobogwe

In 2017 the Atlantic published an article in which a mathematics professor set to define the ideology that maintains white supremacy, valuing one racial group over others, and to expose how whiteness operates in classrooms and schools, leaving black, Latino, and indigenous students disenfranchised mathematically. The Atlantic (2017, April 25): Dan Battey, an associate mathematics professor at the Rutgers University Graduate School of Education, said he set out to synthesize for mathematics educators, the research literature from sociology, history, and other disciplines on whiteness—defined in the paper as “the ideology that maintains white supremacy, valuing one racial group over others.” He also sought to expose how whiteness operates in classrooms and schools, leaving black, Latino, and indigenous students disenfranchised mathematically.

According to Battey, there are ways in which mathematics teachers, mathematics educators, and mathematics researchers “are perpetuating racism in schools”—which is shaping the expectations, interactions, and kinds of mathematics that students experience. And the lack of attention to whiteness as the fundamental cause leaves it invisible and neutral. Battey and his co-author Luis Leyva of Vanderbilt University’s Peabody College of Education write further that “naming white institutional spaces, as well as identifying the mechanisms that oppress and privilege students, can give those who work in the field of mathematics education-specific ideas of how to better combat racist structures” (The Atlantic, 2017, April 25).

2.4 Politics of Curriculum and STEM: The Socio-Cultural Approach Education and curricula are both a tool for, and a reflection of those who have the power to impose their ideologies on the powerless, the powerless in this case being the underrepresented populations. STEM education has not escaped these political gimmicks that led to the onslaught of Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education. So, there is a nuanced interplay of interest; in practice, the nuances amount to competing values and positions which have to be contested, debated, advanced, and defended (Keirl, 2007). Keirl further notes that the competing values are political. And the values of underrepresented populations are not compatible with the values of those in positions of, and possession of power. “Growing up in motorsport I often looked around me and wondered why I was one of the very few people of colour” (Hamilton in ESPN, 2021, July 12). It is not just about drivers, it’s more about the great job opportunities there are for mechanics and engineers, in marketing and in accounting. The recommendations laid out in the Hamilton Commission’s full report (ESPN, 2021, July 12) included the following actions: • Establishment of a new exclusions innovation fund, to develop programmes that address the factors that contribute to the high proportion of students from Black backgrounds being excluded from schools; and

2 Making a Case for Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems …

25

• Supporting the piloting of new approaches to increase the number of Black teachers in STEM subjects that lead to careers in engineering, namely mathematics, physics, design and technology, and computing. STEM education has experienced a plethora of reforms resulting from global influences. These reforms come guised in technical terms with many interpretations, such terms as globalisation, interdisciplinarity, a market economy, knowledge society, and the latest being the 4th Industrial Revolution (4th IR). Unfortunately, it has been demonstrated (Tabulawa, 2013a, 2013b) that many times these reforms are transplanted and delivered without taking cognizance of the socio-cultural context of local environments, hence the socio-cultural approach to legitimise Western Technological Knowledge System Education (WTKSE) within indigenous contexts.

2.5 Giving ITKSE Legitimacy in the Knowledge Space Legitimising WTKSE within indigenous contexts is not sufficient without giving Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education (ITKSE) legitimacy in the knowledge space. WTKSE has been promoted as the only legitimate technological knowledge system by reforms discussed in the previous section. Some indigenous people have also embraced these reforms oblivious of the consequential compromise and demise of precolonial industries, science, and technology that existed. Given this background, what then should happen is to give ITKSE legitimacy in the knowledge space. Moalosi et al. (2016, p. 9) observed that as the world becomes more globalised and to some extent glocalised (reflecting or characterised by both local and global considerations), users seek distinctive products and services imbued with local meaning and with a global appeal. Such products, services, technologies, and knowledge(s) should be aggressively promoted and used by indigenous people for them to find legitimacy in the knowledge space. The mistake that indigenous people make and should not continue to make is to think that for ITKS to find legitimacy in the knowledge space the West should create an enabling environment. This chapter has demonstrated that the values of underrepresented populations [indigenous people and their knowledge(s)] are not compatible with the values of those in positions of, and possession of power [Euro-Western people and their knowledge]. Gumbo and Gaotlhobogwe (2021) note that the Euro-Western culture of scientific evidence renders indigenous health practices less credible. However, the authors observed that people who patronise indigenous/traditional doctors and Sangomas include those who have access to the Western-based medicine, indicating some unknown scientific or non-scientific truth about the efficacy of indigenous knowledge and practices. Furthermore, because indigenous knowledge has not been documented also rendered it illegitimate in the knowledge space. As a result, for example, “the Victoria Falls” were not discovered until they were discovered by David Livingstone in 1855 long after the local Batonga had lived there and named them Mosi oa tunya. Manatsha (2014, p. 270) posits that colonialism played a major role in “erasing” the identities

26

M. Gaotlhobogwe

of the conquered and colonised communities in many ways. For example (Manatsha continues), the colonisers got rid of the indigenous or local names of many places and streets. They replaced these with names that represented their (the colonisers) identities, culture, and ideologies. He further observed that not only did they project their Western values into the landscape but also excluded and devalued the naming systems of original inhabitants, in effect writing off native knowledge. To find legitimacy in the knowledge space, ITKS must be repacked in ways that have an international appeal, and be documented and aggressively promoted by indigenous people themselves. I propose the adoption of the socio-cultural approach, to both legitimise WTKSE within indigenous contexts to improve participation of indigenous people in STEM and legitimise ITKS glocally.

2.6 Indigenous Technological Aspects of Indigenous Knowledge (Art as an Example) Inclusion of the Arts as a theme within STEM is seen as a positive response to this onslaught of Indigenous Technological Knowledge systems Education. The Arts have several dimensions that could bring STEM closer to indigenous people, as well as bring indigenous people closer to STEM. In other words, the Arts are well placed to promote ITKSE while at the same time embracing WTKSE. According to Colucci-Gray et al. (2019), the addition of the arts to STEM embraces social inclusion, community participation, or sustainability agendas. This section of the chapter demonstrates how the inclusion of the Arts as a theme within STEM through a socio-cultural approach will legitimise WTKSE within indigenous contexts. Legitimisation of WTKSE within indigenous contexts through STEAM will improve the participation of indigenous people in this important knowledge area. According to Marín-Marín et al. (2021), the STEAM movement was promoted as an alternative to solve the problem of the lack of competent workers choosing STEM careers. The Arts in this chapter take on a meaning that embraces different creative activities. Some of these creative activities are part of the Technology Education curricula, but not part of the Science and Mathematics curricula. Such activities as arts and crafts, publishing, music, visual and performing arts, film, radio broadcasting, new media, and various design disciplines (Moalosi et al., 2016, p. 12). According to Marín-Marín et al. (2021, p. 2), citing the arts, as a complement to STEM, have a very broad meaning, from general forms such as painting, drawing, and photography, among others, to more particular ones, such as the performing arts, makerspaces, aesthetics, or crafts. According to Li (2018), visual culture art education can help students grasp complexities of culture. As a result of such complexities in product design, Li (2018) continues by stating that it is necessary to investigate the issues of empowerment, representation, and social consciousness, which are becoming more important in art education. Inclusion of Art in STEM is not a complete solution to the discrimination and exclusion of underrepresented populations in STEM, since in

2 Making a Case for Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems …

27

some ways the arts have suffered the same fate. However, it will go a long way in addressing some but not all forms of discrimination and exclusion.

2.7 The Recommended Socio-Cultural Approach Model to Legitimise WTKSE Within Indigenous Contexts The socio-cultural approach model (Fig. 2.1) developed by Moalosi et al. (2016) depicts how the traditional and contemporary areas of knowledge in design can be brought together to practically link and integrate the output successfully in a product design environment to stimulate the creation of culture-centred innovative products (pp. 7–8). This socio-cultural model is equally suitable to bring together Indigenous Technological Knowledge and Western Technological knowledge in the same way as described by Moalosi et al. (2016). The socio-cultural approach model illustrates the interface between the users and the product. The user’s domain is characterised by socio-cultural factors (symbols, form, signs, values, norms, and beliefs). On the other hand, the product carries cultural messages by being encoded with a shared set of cultural memory factors from indigenous and western sources. Therefore, these sources act as mediators of cultural memory narratives or as mediators of human thoughts and behaviour. This introduces the concept of representation in products. In the case of this chapter, the users are the indigenous communities and the product is the STEAM curricula. The socio-cultural approach has been used to evaluate educational reforms in Tabulawa (2013a, 2013b). Symbols may convey commonly held cultural values and can be used Fig. 2.1 Socio-cultural approach model. Source Moalosi et al. (2016)

28

M. Gaotlhobogwe

in the STEAM curricula to gain greater power to attract underrepresented populations if emotional fervour is attached to them. The design can be modified to make it more responsive to users’ needs based on their feedback [Moalosi et al., 2016 referred to design of products. In the same way, the curriculum can be understood from a product perspective]. Figures 2.2 and 2.3 are examples of the application of the socio-cultural approach model in the design of products. Discussed in Gaotlhobogwe and Mokgolodi (2020) is the Nako [a Setswana name for a time] timepiece which integrates state-of-art watchmaking innovation (WTKS) with Botswana’s cultural and historical significance. Aptly named nako, the inspiration from the wristwatch design by Gabriel Mothibedi was drawn from Botswana cultural and historical heritage showcasing the three dikgosi monuments in the Central Business District (CBD) of Gaborone. It also used the Setswana word nako which simply means “time,” the brand was deliberate in using language as a definer and a luxury timepiece made in Botswana by Batswana, the people of Botswana, as a platform to highlight what the country has to offer from a local and international level (Thobega, 2019 cited in Gaotlhobogwe & Mokgolodi, 2020). Discussed in Moalosi et al. (2016) is a necklace inspired by how African women carry their babes on their backs to reflect the lifestyle realities they endure in bringing up their children. The whole design story demonstrates an interface and interaction between the domains within the socio-cultural approach juxtaposed with WTKS to come up with a product that has both the indigenous cultural heritage and the international appeal. These examples are presented to illustrate the complementarity of Technology and Art. The examples also demonstrate that including art in STEM is bound to achieve the design and development of products that incorporate the values of both the indigenous and the western cultures. Fig. 2.2 Nako timepiece showcasing the three Dikgosi monuments in the Central Business District (CBD) of Gaborone. Source Gaotlhobogwe and Mokgolodi (2020)

2 Making a Case for Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems …

29

Fig. 2.3 Mother–child bond necklace. Source Moalosi et al. (2016)

2.8 Conclusion The position of this chapter is that STEM is an important area that should not be denied to any particular group of people because of any reason, be it political, epistemological, cultural, or social. By nature, STEM education subscribes to scientific principles of epistemology that are based on Euro-western worldviews. This nature coupled with the hidden pedagogies practiced within STEM alienates indigenous people from participating and successfully performing in this knowledge area. The Arts are more inclusive epistemologically, and it is therefore proposed that including the Arts within STEM through a socio-cultural approach will go a long way in bridging the gap between WTKS and ITKS, thereby bringing STEM closer to indigenous people and indigenous people closer to STEM. Activities within Art as indicated by Moalosi et al. (2016) and Marín-Marín et al. (2021) are already complementary within STEM, as demonstrated by their inclusion in Technology Education. Adoption of the socio-cultural approach model in bringing STEM and Arts together has already been documented with impressive results as demonstrated in Figs. 2.2 and 2.3.

30

M. Gaotlhobogwe

References Alsubaie, M. (2015). Hidden curriculum as one of the issues of curriculum. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(33), 125–127. Apple, M. W. (1995). The politics of official knowledge: Does a national curriculum makes sense? Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 14(1), 1–16. Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28(2), 117–148. Brodie, K. (2016). Yes, mathematics can be decolonised. Here’s how to begin. The Conversation. Available at http://theconversation.com/yes-mathematics-can-be-decolonised-heres-howto-begin-65963 Chilisa, B. (2012). Indigenous research methodologies. Sage. Colucci-Gray, L., Burnard, P., Gray, D., & Cooke, C. (2019). A critical review of STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics). Oxford Research Encyclopaedia of Education. https://www.gettingsmart.com/2012/04/infographic-the-decline-of-stem-educationin-the-u-s/ Dibapile, W. T. S. (2012). A review of literature on teacher efficacy and classroom management. Educational Psychology & Counseling Publications and Other Works. https://trace.tennessee. edu/utk_educpubs/31 ESPN. (2021, July 12). Lewis-hamilton-commission-delivers-recommendations-increase-diversitymotorsport. https://www.espn.com/f1/story/_/id/31807425/lewis-hamilton-commission-del ivers-recommendations-increase-diversity-motorsport Fomunyam, K. G. (2017). Decolonising the engineering curriculum in a South African University of Technology. International Journal of Applied Engineering Research, 12(17), 6797–6805. Gaotlhobogwe, M., & Mokgolodi, L. H. (2020). Decolonising curricula for a knowledge-driven society: The time is now. Mosenodi Journal, 23(1), 36–41. Gaotlhobogwe, M., & Ruele, V. (2020). Decolonizing technology education: The case of Botswana higher education. In P. L. L. International (Ed.), Decolonization of technology education— African Indigenous perspectives (Mishack, T Gumbo (pp. 207–226). Academic Publishers. Gaotlhobogwe, M., Major, T., Koloi-Keaikitse, S., & Chilisa, B. (2018). Conceptualizing evaluation in African contexts. In F. Cram, K. A. Tibbetts, & J. LaFrance (Eds.), Indigenous evaluation. New Directions for Evaluation, 159, 47–62. Graven, M. H. (2013). Poverty, inequality and mathematics performance: The case of South Africa’s post-apartheid context. ZDM Mathematics Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858013-0566-7 Gumbo, M. T. (2020). Decolonizing technology education: African indigenous perspectives. Peter Lang International Academic Publishers. Gumbo, M. T., & Gaotlhobogwe, M. (2021). African indigenous knowledge and practices to combat COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 18(5), 462–481. Gumbo, M. T., & Msila, V. (2017). African voices on indigenisation of the curriculum: Insights from practice. Reach Publishers. Halpern, C. (2018). The gears of the hidden curriculum. Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, 33(1), 40. Jacobs, M. (1999). Curriculum. In E. Lemmer (Ed.), Contemporary education: Global issues and trends. Heinemann. Keirl, S. (2007). The politics of technology curriculum. In D. Barlex (Ed.), Design and technology for the next generation. Cliffe & Company, Shropshire. Kruger, N. (2018). Decolonising science, determining knowledge and developing graduates. Science Deans Forum, University of the Western Cape. Available at https://www.uwc.ac.za/ Faculties/NS/News/Pages/Science-Deans-Forum-Decolonising-Science,-Determining-Knowle dge-and-Developing-Graduates.aspx Lawton, T. (2018). In South Africa, ‘decolonising’ mathematics. Undark truth, beauty, science. Available at https://undark.org/article/in-south-africa-decolonizing-mathematics/

2 Making a Case for Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems …

31

Lee, M. J., Collins, J. D., Harwood, S. A., et al. (2020). “If you aren’t White, Asian or Indian, you aren’t an engineer”: Racial microaggressions in STEM education. International Journal of STEM Education, 7, 48. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-020-00241-4 Li, D. (2018). Using issues-based art education to facilitate middle school students’ learning in racial issues. International Journal of Education & the Arts, 19(12). Retrieved from https://doi. org/10.18113/P8ijea1912 Manatsha, B. T. (2014). The politics of renaming “colonial” streets in Francistown, Botswana. Historia, 59(2), 269–288. Retrieved October 30, 2021, from http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo. php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0018-229X2014000200016&lng=en&tlng=en Margolis, E., Soldatenko, M., Acker, S., & Gair, M. (2001). Peekaboo: Hiding and outing the curriculum in The hidden curriculum in higher education. In K. Y. Independence (Ed.), Margolis, E (pp. 1–20). Routledge. Marín-Marín, J. A., Moreno-Guerrero, A. J., Dúo-Terrón, P., & López-Belmonte, J. (2021). STEAM in education: A bibliometric analysis of performance and co-words in Web of Science. International Journal of STEM Education, 8, 41. Available at https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-021-002 96-x Meaders, C. L., Senn, L. G., & L. G., Couch, B. A., Lane, A. K., Stains, M., Stetzer, M. R., Vinson, E., & Smith, M. K. (2021). Am I getting through? Surveying students on what messages they recall from the first day of STEM classes. International Journal of STEM Education, 8, 49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-021-00306-y Moalosi, R., Marope, O., & Setlhatlhanyo, K. N. (2017). Decolonising Botswana’s design education curricula by infusing indigenous knowledge: Botho co-creation process. In M. T. Gumbo & V. Msila (Eds.), African voices on indigenisation of the curriculum: Insights from practice. Reach Publishers, Wandsbeck, South Africa. Moalosi, R., Setlhatlhanyo, K. N., & Sealetsa, O. J. (2016). Cultural memory, an asset for designdriven innovation within the creative industries sector: Lessons for design education. Design and Technology Education: An International Journal, 21(2), 9–22. Msila, V., & Gumbo, M. T. (2016). Africanising the curriculum: Indigenous perspectives and theories. African Sun Media. Mudaly, V. (2018). Decolonising the mind: Mathematics teachers explore possibilities for indigenising the school curriculum. Journal of Education. Issue 74, http://journals.ukzn.ac.za/index. php/joe Nordling, L. (2018). How decolonization could reshape South African science. Nature International Journal of Science. Available at https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-01696-w Pansiri, O. N. (2017). Silent exclusion: The unheard voices in remote areas of Botswana. International Journal of Educational Sciences, 3(2), 109–118. Rainey, K., Dancy, M., Mickelson, Stearns, E., & Moller, S (2018). Race and gender differences in how sense of belonging influences decisions to major in STEM. International Journal of STEM Education, 5, 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-018-0115-6 Rohan, D. R. (2018). Decolonise science—Time to end another imperial era. The Conversation. Available at https://theconversation.com/decolonise-science-time-to-end-another-imperial-era89189 Rollins, M. (2020). Diversity in STEM: What is it, why does it matter, and how do we increase it? Available at https://caseagrant.ucsd.edu/news/diversity-stem-what-it-why-does-it-matter-andhow-do-we-increase-it Seemann, K. (2015). Culture in design, technology, and environment: Reflecting on field experiences. In K. Stables & S. Keirl (Eds.), Environment, ethics, and cultures. Sense Publishers. Stables, K., & Keirl, S. (2015). Environment, ethics and cultures—Design and technology education’s contribution to sustainable global futures. Sense Publishers. Stewart, D. (1993). Teaching or facilitating: A false dichotomy. Canadian Journal of Education, 18(1), 1–13. Tabulawa, R, (2013a). Teaching and learning in context—Why pedagogical reforms fail in SubSaharan Africa.

32

M. Gaotlhobogwe

Tabulawa, R. (2013b). Teaching and learning in context: Why pedagogical reforms fail in SubSaharan Africa. CODESRIA. Tabulawa, R. (2017). Interdisciplinary, neoliberalism and academic identities: Reflections on recent developments at the University of Botswana. Journal of Education (69), http://joe.ukzn.ac.za The Atlantic. (2017, April 25). How does race affect a student’s math education? https://www.the atlantic.com/education/archive/2017/04/racist-math-education/524199/ Vakil, S., & Ayers, R. (2019). The racial politics of STEM education in the USA: Interrogations and explorations. Race, Ethnicity, and Education, 22(4), 449–458. https://doi.org/10.1080/136 13324.2019.1592831 Villanueva, I., Gelles, L. A., Di Stefano, M., Smith, B., Tull, R. G., Lord, S. M., Benson, L., Hunt, A. T., Riley, D. M., & Ryan, G. W. (2018). What does hidden curriculum in engineering look like and how can it be explored? The American Society for Engineering Education. ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition. Vithal, R., & Volmink, J. (2005). Mathematics curriculum research: Roots, reforms, reconciliation and relevance. In R. Vithal, J. Alder, & C. Keitel (Eds.), Researching mathematics education in South Africa: Perspectives, practices and possibilities. HSRC Press.

Chapter 3

Engineering Knowledge as Indigenous Knowledge Marc J. de Vries

Abstract In this chapter, I will argue that a lack of respect for indigenous knowledge has more to do with a narrow, positivist view of science and technology than with the true value of this type of knowledge. The inclusion of indigenous knowledge in technology education can help us come to a richer idea about the nature of science and technology. Indigenous knowledge in that respect is very similar to the knowledge in engineering sciences. That branch of science, however, has been generally accepted as valid knowledge. Given the analogies between indigenous knowledge and engineering (science) knowledge, there is no reason to deny that the first can have the same status as the latter. Keywords Nature of science · Nature of engineering and engineering sciences · Positivism · Modernism

3.1 Introduction At first thought, the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in technology education may sound like introducing a rather specialist field in a much broader curriculum. It seems to be something in a small corner of the whole curriculum. Its value may be seen in recognizing that technology has been developed in Western-industrialized countries and different cultures. It is appropriate for young people to become aware of these cultures and so be freed from a narrow view of technology and its role in culture. This is most certainly a good reason for having indigenous knowledge in technology education. In this chapter, however, a different perspective will be taken. In that indigenous perspective, indigenous knowledge is not seen as something in a little corner but as something that causes us to change our outlook on science and technology. Indigenous technology is related to notions about knowledge that should permeate the whole curriculum. In this chapter, I will focus on technology education in line with the nature of this book, but I will always deal with technology M. J. de Vries (B) Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_3

33

34

M. J. de Vries

in the context of the trend toward Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education in which natural science, technology, engineering, and engineering science are brought together. Indigenous knowledge is a powerful notion that provides a deep understanding of the nature of technological knowledge. Therefore, having indigenous knowledge in general education has a broader value than merely adding some examples of technologies from other cultures. This exposes the limitations of a positivist view of knowledge. Such a view sees knowledge as value-free, researcher-independent, and free from theoretical assumptions. Later, philosophy of science has left that perspective behind when it comes to knowledge in science. However, the positivist view on science is still present in curricula and textbooks for science education (Gumbo, 2017). It is strikingly much less present in technology education curricula and materials. This is related to the philosophy of technology, and engineering has shown that technology and engineering (science) knowledge fits even less with the positivist perspective than knowledge in science. Therefore, indigenous knowledge supports the added value of having technology and engineering education in the school curriculum. This is even separate from many other values of having indigenous knowledge in technology education (Gumbo, 2018), such as the awareness of the high level of much of indigenous knowledge, which corrects an image as if this knowledge is ‘primitive’ and ‘simple’. In this chapter, the characteristics of indigenous knowledge will be explored and compared to contemporary insights into the nature of technology and engineering science (as different from scientific knowledge). The terms ‘technology’ and ‘engineering’ will not be differentiated much in this chapter. Probably, the best way to distinguish them is to see engineering as part of technology. Technology then is the development, implementation, and use of new products and processes to make the world a better place (whereby many moral debates around technology deal with the question of what a ‘better’ place means). Technology encompasses both the user and the developer perspective. Or in other words, both the civilian and social as the professional side are included. As people living in a technological society, we all make use of technology. Engineers are people that have the role of creating new technologies available for society. In engineering, other characteristics are the use of natural (and other) sciences knowledge, development and use of models (including formula and technical drawings), often quantitative data, and a prominent role in design. Most of what is stated in this chapter about the nature of knowledge refers to both technology and engineering. The characteristics of knowledge that will be presented apply to both technological and engineering knowledge (unless indicated otherwise). Engineering knowledge is developed in a systematic way in engineering sciences. These are truly sciences, just like natural sciences, but focus on human-caused phenomena while natural sciences focus on natural phenomena. From now on, I will use the term engineering also to include engineering sciences. The logic of this chapter is as follows: First, the characteristics of indigenous knowledge according to literature in that field will be presented. Next, the characteristics of technological and engineering knowledge according to the philosophy of technology and engineering knowledge will be discussed. From that discussion, it

3 Engineering Knowledge as Indigenous Knowledge

35

will become evident that these characteristics are very similar to indigenous knowledge. Then, the conclusion will be that learning about the nature of indigenous knowledge does provide an understanding not only of that particular type of knowledge but of technological and engineering knowledge in general. This seems to be a strong motive for including indigenous knowledge in technology and engineering curricula, irrespective of the country where the curriculum is effective.

3.2 The Nature of Indigenous Knowledge Literature on indigenous knowledge suggests the following characteristics of that type of knowledge: It is primarily local knowledge, that is, not highly generalized knowledge. Indigenous knowledge has been developed in a particular context, and its value is primarily in understanding that context. It does not necessarily apply to all other contexts (Le Grange, 2007). At first sight, this may seem to be a weakness. The claim of science (particularly in a positivist view of science) is that its knowledge is valid anywhere and anytime. Newton’s laws became so important because of that claim. But to get at that high level of generality, a lot of abstraction is needed. Abstraction is from the Latin word ‘abstrahere’, which means ‘to peel off’. Certain elements or aspects of reality are peeled off the rest to focus only on those. The advantage of that is concentration and depth. The disadvantage is that the view on reality as a whole is lost. The knowledge is time and location independent, but that comes at a price. There is a distance between the knowledge and reality that needs to be bridged to use the knowledge for intervening in reality. The closer the knowledge stays to reality, the more value it has for direct application. Indigenous knowledge often goes hand in hand with a strong awareness of the intrinsic value of reality. It is mostly related to a worldview in which reality is either God-given or has an intrinsic value independent of the good it can provide for humans (a non-anthropocentric perspective) (Barnhardt, 2007, illustrates that for an Alaskan society). Sustainability, therefore, is often associated with indigenous knowledge (Ownor, 2007). That also is very different from science (in a positivist view). The positivist ideal of science is that it is free from interest. Doing science in that view: taking total distance from reality and observing it from the outside as an observer who has no emotional connection with reality and not even an opinion on reality. Normativity is not part of the content of scientific knowledge. Of course, there are norms for when to accept whether knowledge is scientific or not, but normativity is not in the knowledge itself. This, too, has advantages and disadvantages. The distance taken may prevent the scientist from preoccupations that can hinder an honest view of reality. But it also means that admiration for reality, which can be a very strong driving force for getting to know it, is lost. Religion can be such a driving force. Natural sciences find their early roots in cloisters where monks developed indigenous knowledge about plants and animals, driven by the awareness that knowledge could bring them closer to the God who created that reality. And because they felt a Godgiven responsibility for preserving that reality (see the following characteristic). In

36

M. J. de Vries

much of early African indigenous knowledge, religion is also a driving force for knowing reality. Indigenous knowledge has a moral character in that it is often about how to deal with the context in a responsible, sustainable way. This is often the effect of the previous characteristic (the awareness of the intrinsic value of reality), as we saw, but can still be seen as a separate one. Reality is seen as something that needs care, and humans are responsible for that, even if, or perhaps even more, because they are themselves part of that reality. The ability to take care of a garden requires knowledge about what needs much water and what needs little water, what needs much sun and what needs less sun, etc. The ‘appropriate technology’ concept implies that reality needs to be treated according to its needs and properties. Positivistic science does not require that appropriateness. Humans can change much of reality as they wish and turn it entirely to the service of themselves. This is typical of the Modernist approach to technology in which dominance and control are the key characteristics. The practice has shown how disastrous the effects of that approach can be. Furthermore, indigenous knowledge is mainly developed to intervene in reality, not to just study it (Gumbo, 2015). This is a normative dimension in the broadest sense as it entails a normative judgment of any kind about reality. It complements descriptive knowledge. Seehawer illustrates that with the example of indigenous knowledge about making soil fertile as complementary to knowledge about soil properties (Seehawer, 2018). As mentioned earlier, intervening, in reality, means a confrontation with reality in its full complexity and richness, not just with ‘peeled off’ elements or aspects of reality. Therefore, holistic knowledge and not a compartmentalized knowledge of reality are needed (Handayani et al., 2018). The intervention also requires ideas about ‘better’ and ‘worse’; otherwise, the intervention has no direction—intervention aims at improving reality. Unfortunately, in Modernism, often the debate about progress is very shallow. Progress simply means longer life, better health, more intelligence, more strength, and tastier food. All of these have no value in themselves. Some dictators had a very long life but was that ‘better’ for the country they ruled over than a democratic ruler who lived shorter? If intelligence is used for evil purposes, can it be called progress to give people more intelligence? These values need to be weighed in a holistic perspective underpinned by a worldview in which these values can function. A lot of indigenous knowledge is not written (not propositional, that is, expressible in sentences, even) and passed on, therefore not by textbooks but by oral transmission and repetitive practice in a master-bachelor relationship—the master shows how to apply the knowledge properly (Breidlid, 2009). This, too, is a contrast with science in a positivist view. In that perspective, all knowledge needs to be made explicit in words and formulas. Knowing-how, as conceptualized by Gilbert Ryle (1949), is characterized by the fact that much of that knowledge cannot be expressed in words. When an experienced carpenter tries to explain to a pupil how to hammer a nail straight into a piece of wood, (s)he will soon find out that it is impossible to express that knowledge fully in words. The same holds for riding a bike. People who know how to keep balance will find out that they cannot fully explain it. Much of

3 Engineering Knowledge as Indigenous Knowledge

37

indigenous knowledge also has that. Handbooks cannot be the only means to teach that knowledge. Personal relationships are needed for that. Social agreement plays an essential role in what is accepted as knowledge and what is not. This is nicely illustrated in the study by Maluleka et al. (2006) that highlights, among others, the role of elders in a tribal society. This excludes rationality in these decision processes, but arguments are not the only factor here. Again this is in contrast to positivistic science. In that view, ratios and arguments have a monopoly. The social status of the person who is developing that knowledge should not influence the acceptance or rejection of that knowledge. Contemporary philosophy of science has already shown that this ideal (if at all it should be an ideal) in practice is impossible to reach. No one can participate in the adventure called science without bringing along all their personal qualities. Probably if they would not, people would not make the efforts they do now with interests involved. If no one would feel the pride of publishing their first article in a journal, would they be motivated to make that article a very good one? How much research would not have taken place without a company paying for it because they hope to gain knowledge that can be used to improve their products? In the case of indigenous knowledge other aspects of social status are important. Admiration for what ancestors did for a people can also be a motive for deciding what knowledge is transferred and what is not. Here too, we have seen advantages and disadvantages. Social status is not always a good ground for acceptance of knowledge as we do not always have an accurate view of what people did or with what motives. But as stated before, personal and social interests are a legitimate, and even necessary, element in the development of knowledge for a community and, as such, should be valued in the acceptance or rejection of knowledge. For indigenous knowledge, truth and useability are used as a criterion for accepting new knowledge. This is the consequence of the context-specificity and normativity of indigenous knowledge. In science, and particularly seen from a positivist perspective, this can never be the case. Only the correspondence with empirical data (‘truth’, a philosophically complicated concept) can be accepted as a legitimate criterion for determining whether or not new knowledge can be accepted as reliable knowledge. As a result, a lot of scientific knowledge produced in that realm is never used in practice. For example, indigenous knowledge is developed for use, and usability is a valuable criterion. That does not mean that truth is not an issue. The knowledge that is usable at first sight but not reliable, of course, is not useful either. This characteristic is also related to the context-specificity of indigenous knowledge. What is helpful in one context may not be useful in a different one. Good discussion!

3.3 The Nature of Technological Knowledge Having seen some characteristics of indigenous knowledge, let us now turn to the nature of technological knowledge. We will see striking resemblances. These are some characteristics of technological knowledge as identified in the philosophy of

38

M. J. de Vries

technology literature. For easy recognition, the characteristics will be presented in the same order as for indigenous knowledge. Knowledge in technology is at a much lower level of generalization than natural science knowledge (De Vries, 2010). Engineers in aeronautics are more interested in helicopter theories and not in theories about anything that flies, or even worse, anything that moves. That theory may not apply to jet planes, but that does not bother the designers of helicopters. As long as the theory works for that which is being designed, it is okay for them. This nicely compares to the locality of indigenous knowledge. Both indigenous knowledge and technological knowledge are fairly context-bound. Generalizability is not a priority for those types of knowledge. As long as the knowledge is valid for the context in and for which it was developed, that suffices. Technological knowledge is developed based on an awareness that the natural world’s potential can be exploited in the interest of all living beings (not just human beings). Such knowledge focuses on using natural and artificial resources, to make the world more fitting to human and social needs. At the same time, in technology, there is an increasing awareness that reality, particularly the natural environment, is vulnerable and that care needs to be taken that exploiting reality’s potential does not cause harm to that reality. This compares to the awareness of the natural world’s value that we also noticed in indigenous knowledge (Jax et al., 2018). Increasingly, the development of knowledge in technology has moral and social implications, as new technologies give rise to new moral concerns (Petersen & De Vries, 2012; Grunwald, 2020). The introduction of robots in many sectors of society has caused problems regarding the relationship between robots and humans: Can they get along well? Likewise, the introduction of new media causes new moral questions about the appropriate use of those media. These examples can be multiplied by many others. Here too, we see an analogy with indigenous knowledge, which also has a moral dimension. The purpose of developing knowledge in technology is not just to get to know more about reality as it is, but to be applied to improve reality, and reflection is needed on what ‘improvement’ means. This goes beyond moral concerns only. It also refers to deeper, worldview-related concerns about the purpose of things and humans. This also matches with what we saw for indigenous knowledge. For instance, in medical technology, questions about what can be done with humans without de-humanizing them are evoked by various new ways of diagnosing and therapy. Can we treat humans as if they are machines that need repair? What is the difference between care and maintenance? What does that mean for medical technologies (Weber, 2018)? Recent epistemology of technology has shown that related domain knowledge is only partially proposition based (Meijers & de Vries, 2009). A lot of knowledge is of a ‘knowing how’ type, and the way knowledge is expressed goes beyond words and comprises visual means (the mind’s eye, as described by Eugene Ferguson (1992)). An architect can try to explain to the customer what the building will look like, but (s)he knows that a drawing or a house model tells more than can be captured in words. The overall perspective on the building cannot adequately be represented in words only. This requires a ‘mind’s eye’ coordination.

3 Engineering Knowledge as Indigenous Knowledge

39

Part of knowledge in technology is knowledge about norms and standards (Meijers & de Vries, 2009). Those are not the outcome of experiments but social agreements. The size of an A4 sheet is not based on experiments, as if it were a natural phenomenon. That size has been determined by consensus and thus became part of the knowledge base. The same holds for the size of M4 bolts, etc. Again there is a great analogy with indigenous knowledge, as it is often established by social agreement. For normative knowledge in technology, the truth cannot be a criterion for accepting a theory as there is no reality to compare with (Meijers & de Vries, 2009). The theory is not about reality as it is but as it should be. We also saw this for indigenous knowledge. Not truth, but usability is the criterion for accepting or rejecting that type of knowledge. Classical mechanics is used for designing and building bridges, but not because it is true, because it is not. The particles in the bridge do not behave as described in classical mechanics. They show quantum behavior. However, on a macroscopic level, the difference between an enormous number of particles showing quantum behavior or behaving as described in classical mechanics is far behind the comma. Doing calculations on the bridge’s mechanical properties would be impossible at the quantum level; therefore, classical mechanics would be used. As we noticed earlier, indigenous knowledge also has usability as its primary criterion for acceptance or rejection. In summary, the main characteristics of knowledge in technology as far as they differ from knowledge in natural sciences match the main characteristics we found for indigenous knowledge.

3.4 The Double Value of Indigenous Knowledge in Technology Education In technology education, the knowledge taught and learnt is not primarily scientific, which is highly generic, abstract, and value-free knowledge. In that respect, it makes sense to have a separate school subject, Technology, in the curriculum, as the knowledge taught in that type of education is different from what is taught in science education. It can be seen as a status problem for the position of technology education in Western-industrialized countries. Its relation to science education is often relatively weak, and the deep difference in the nature of the knowledge taught in science education and in technology education is certainly one of the reasons for that. In the past decade, a movement has emerged to improve this relationship in STEM education (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics, sometimes extended to STEAM with A for Arts). Still, a standardized paradigm for this new type of education is yet to be found. Whatever will be the future of STE(A)M education, the unique contribution of technology and engineering will be lost when the particular characteristic of engineering knowledge is ignored, and technology and engineering are seen as merely the application of science. Including indigenous knowledge in

40

M. J. de Vries

technology education as a component in STE(A)M education would prevent this, as the nature of indigenous knowledge closely resembles the nature of engineering knowledge, at least according to recent insights into the philosophy of engineering as we have seen above, and thus emphasizes the fact that technology has a knowledge base of its right and is not just ‘applied science’. As stated in the Introduction, science education often suffers from a narrow positivist view on science as a discipline. Although scientific knowledge is different from technological and engineering knowledge, it does not differ in that science works in a positivist way and technology and engineering do not. Neither can and should strive for the ideals of positivism. The impact of social factors on the development of both scientific and technological/engineering knowledge can and should not be avoided as it drives developments in both science and technology/engineering. Removing that ‘engine’ would mean that they would both come to a standstill. Although care needs to be taken that the outcomes of science and technology are not just a matter of votes and personal interests, the need for having human and social aspects involved in science and technology should be recognized. There is a double value in having indigenous knowledge in technology education. (1) It fits very well with the nature of engineering knowledge and enhances an understanding of the nature of that knowledge, and (2) it can also be used to reveal the incorrectness of a positivist view on knowledge in STE(A)M education under the influence of traditional science education.

3.5 A Legitimate Place for Indigenous Knowledge in Technology Education The role of indigenous knowledge at this moment is undervalued chiefly in technology education. As in the whole book, the value of having indigenous knowledge in the technology education curriculum is emphasized in this chapter. Before closing this chapter, however, it is good to remark that there is also a legitimate place for knowledge with different characteristics than indigenous knowledge, namely scientific knowledge. But then, the true nature of scientific knowledge needs to be understood well. At the beginning of the chapter, it has been stated that a positivist view on science is not fruitful and not shared widely in the philosophy of science anymore (though still present in science education textbooks) (Handayani et al., 2018; Seehawer, 2018). Furthermore, it is a misconception that scientific knowledge is the most reliable form of knowledge. In epistemology, other sources of knowledge are identified that can result in knowledge as reliable as scientific knowledge: a good memory, a reliable witness, direct personal perception, and reasoning. A lot of reliable knowledge cannot be confirmed scientifically, not because that knowledge is not reliable but because the rules for knowledge acceptance in science are unique and therefore limited. For this reason, there is no justification for valuing scientific knowledge over indigenous

3 Engineering Knowledge as Indigenous Knowledge

41

knowledge as if the former is always more reliable than the latter. The other extreme compared to positivism is that scientific knowledge is seen as only the outcome of a social process and ratio hardly plays a role in it. That view is not fruitful either, as it downplays the role of data and rationality (this view can be seen in extreme socioconstructivist publications). Scientific knowledge should not be overestimated nor underestimated, and if given the right place, it can serve a useful role in technology and engineering education. What then is a proper role for scientific knowledge in technology and engineering education? One of the characteristics of scientific knowledge is that it is abstract and generic. Those characteristics make it possible to draw from that knowledge in many different situations in technology and engineering. Generic and abstract theories from sciences can provide clues for variables that may make a difference in the functioning of a new artifact. It can also offer explanations for the more context-specific knowledge and therefore provide clues as to how this knowledge can be used and with what modifications in other contexts. In that case, the strength of scientific knowledge (generic and abstract) is combined with technological and engineering knowledge (specific and concrete). It takes a ‘translation’ from the generic and abstract level of scientific knowledge to the specific and concrete level of technology and engineering, but it belongs to the expertise of engineers to make that ‘translation’.

3.6 Conclusion We have seen that the nature of indigenous knowledge closely resembles the nature of technology and engineering knowledge. Therefore, indigenous knowledge in the technology education curriculum has the value of enhancing an understanding of the nature of technology and engineering knowledge. This will also help the learners understand the difference between scientific knowledge and that technology is not just the application of scientific knowledge. Both scientific and indigenous technology and engineering knowledge have their value. STE(A)M education would be a means to bring together the best of both by showing how these different types of knowledge can be combined in developing, producing, and using new products and processes. It shows the richness of the STE(A)M domain because different people with different ways of thinking and knowing can find a place in this domain.

References Barnhardt, R. (2007). Creating a place for indigenous knowledge in education: The Laska native knowledge network. In G. Smith & D. Groenewald (Eds.), Place-based education in the global age: Local diversity. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Breidlid, A. (2009). Culture, indigenous knowledge systems and sustainable development: A critical view of education in an African context. International Journal of Educational Development, 29, 140–148.

42

M. J. de Vries

de Vries, M. J. (2010). ‘Engineering science as a “discipline of the particular”? Types of generalization in engineering sciences. In I. van de Poel & D. E. Goldberg (Eds.), Philosophy and engineering: An emerging agenda (pp. 83–94). Springer. Ferguson, E. S. (1992). Engineering and the mind’s eye. MIT Press. Grunwald, A. (2020). Nanotechnology—A new field of ethical inquiry? The ethics of nanotechnology, geoengineering and clean energy (pp. 17–31). Routledge. Gumbo, M. T. (2015). Indigenous technology in technology education curricula and teaching. In P. J. Williams et al. (Eds.), The future of technology education: Contemporary issues in technology education (pp. 57–75). Springer. Gumbo, M. T. (2017). Rethinking teaching of technology: Approach integrating indigenous knowledge systems. In M. J. de Vries (Ed.), International handbook of technology education. Springer. Gumbo, M. T. (2018). Rethinking teaching of technology: An approach integrating indigenous knowledge systems. In M. J. de Vries (Ed.), Handbook of Technology Education (pp. 807–825). Springer. Handayani, R. D., Wiluyeng, I., & Prasetyo, Z. (2018). Elaborating indigenous knowledge in the science curriculum for the cultural sustainability. Journal of Teacher Education for Sustainability, 20(2), 74–88. Jax, K., Calestani, M., Chan, K. M. A., Eser, U., Keune, H., Muraca, B., O’Brian, L., Potthast, T., Voget-Kleschin, L., & Wittmer, H. (2018). Caring for nature matters: A relational approach for understanding nature’s contributions to human well-being. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 35, 22–29. Le Grange, L. (2007). Integrating western and indigenous knowledge systems: The basis for effective science education in South Africa? International Review of Education, 53, 577–591. Maluleka, K., Wilkinson, A., & Gumbo, M. (2006). The relevance of indigenous technology in curriculum 2005/RNCS with special reference to the technology learning area. South African Journal of Education, 26(4), 501–513. Meijers, A. W. M., & de Vries, M. J. (2009). Technological knowledge. In J. K. Berg Olson, S. A. Pedersen, & V. F. Hendricks (Eds.), A companion to the philosophy of technology (pp. 70–74). Wiley-Blackwell. Ownor, J. (2007). Integrating African indigenous knowledge in Kenya’s formal education system: The potential for sustainable development. Journal of Contemporary Issues in Education, 2(2), 21–37. Peterson, M., & de Vries, M. J. (2012). Do new technologies give rise to new ethical issues? Some reflections on nanotechnology. In C. Kermisch & M.-G. Pinsart (Eds.), Nanotechnologies: Towards a shift in the scale of ethics? (pp. 87–100). EME/CEI. Ryle, G. (1949). The concept of mind. Hutchinons’s University Library. Seehawer, M. (2018). South African science teachers’ strategies for integrating indigenous and western knowledge in their classes: Practical lessons in decolonisation. Educational Research for Social Change, 7(0), 91–110. Weber, A. S. (2018). Emerging medical ethical issues in healthcare and medical robotics. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics Research, 7(6), 604–607.

Chapter 4

Building Modern Technology Innovation on Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Technology Education Sefiso B. Khumalo and Tome’ A. Mapotse

Abstract New technological systems emerge when a strong foundation of complementary knowledge consolidates and feeds an array of coherent applications and implementations. The absence of scientific knowledge in rural communities creates value in the use of indigenous knowledge (IK) and innovation. Innovation activities (including scientific, technological, organizational, financial, and commercial activities) are critical in Technology Education. This chapter focuses on the following: the Development of Technology Education in the school curriculum; Philosophical Perceptiveness of Technology Education; Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) and Modern Technology relational coexistence; Unpacking IKS and Modern Technology; Building Modern Technology Innovation within IKS context, and whose responsibility is it; and advancing IKS within Technology Education (TE) classes. There has been an argument for the recognition and decolonization of technology education putting more emphasis on the integration of IKS in the modern curriculum and Traditional Knowledge Systems (TKS). The idea of canvasing the TE curriculum for the schooling of African learners in South Africa has been emphasized. The institutionalization of learning based on Western liberal values ruined both the freedom of the individual and his/her respect for the elder’s wisdom. A progressive and robust approach to the transformation of education to address this crucial issue of the disparity in the utilization of TKS. These arguments will be explored further in this chapter. There is a relational coexistence of IKS and Modern Technology and practical examples are used to illustrate this. Keywords Indigenous Knowledge System (IKS) · Modern Technology · Relational coexistence · Curriculum · Artifacts

S. B. Khumalo (B) Government Pensions Administration Agency, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] T. A. Mapotse University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_4

43

44

S. B. Khumalo and T. A. Mapotse

4.1 Introduction The main aim of this chapter is to show how Modern Technology innovation can be built on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) in Technology Education (TE) and the relational coexistence thereof. New technological systems emerge when strong cores of complementary knowledge consolidate and feed an array of coherent applications and implementations (Mehta et al., 2021). Even though there was scientific knowledge generated and transferred from one generation to another, unfortunately in many cases it was not identified and recorded as such. Technology Education (TE) is all about how systems and things work to solve problems (Alaleeli & Alnajjar, 2020). In acquiring these skills in a classroom environment or situations where learners are struggling with both procedural and conceptual problems, one might perhaps think that there would be a need for the teacher to make didactical moves to sustain learners’ attention, i.e., that the teacher more actively uses the learners’ conceptual knowledge. However, despite this poor Western techno-science record, many leaders of postcolonial nations in Africa, some academicians, and researchers are still calling for IKS integration into their education systems and socioeconomic activities (Sitwala, 2017). Realizing that most postcolonial African countries’ education systems are ingrained with or inspired by, Western knowledge, the question remains, ‘What use would it be to integrate IKS into the country’s education system equally in both urban and rural settings?’ This chapter to some extent will respond to this question. The absence of scientific knowledge in rural communities created value in the use of indigenous knowledge (IK) and innovation (Siambombe et al., 2018). The absence here from these cited authors refers to a lack of recordings of this type of knowledge. IK and indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) refer to knowledge and knowledge systems that are unique to a given culture (Ellen & Harris, 1996). IK can be differentiated from the modern scientific knowledge system (MSKS) and international knowledge systems. The roots of MSKS rest on scientific research conducted and generated in institutions of higher learning such as universities and research institutions (Tharakan, 2017). Although IK is geographically based, the relocation of communities has created an opportunity for the infusion of knowledge from different areas creating a combined knowledge base. Historically and politically IK was influenced by the colonial system which eroded and undermined local knowledge. This influence did not take into consideration the fact that IK came into being as a means of survival for those who generated it (Akullo et al., 2018) and survival is also applicable in urban environments. IK is embedded in the ideas, beliefs, values, norms, and rituals which are native in the minds of the people who inherited it (Huaman & Sriraman, 2015). This chapter focuses on building Modern Technology Innovation through IKS in TE classes. The chapter is divided into four sections that unpack how Modern Technology can build on IKS in TE classes.

4 Building Modern Technology Innovation on Indigenous Knowledge …

45

4.2 Development of Technology Education into the School Curriculum Generally, education plays a very important role in the development of society. Therefore, the curriculum occupies a very important space in society. In a capitalist system, the poor bear the brunt of the need to maximize profit and that has been like that since the beginning of the dark ages. The poor are those who do not own or have the means of production and leave on more or less than a dollar a day. Although capitalism has operated since about the seventeenth century, its activities and reach have dramatically accelerated since the early 1970s—with the rapid development of its ‘neoliberal’ variant (Benxze, 2020). TE has been in place and was embedded in the capitalist system to have labor-intensive economy. Because of this, there was a need to define TE and its incorporation into the mainstream curriculum. There have been very strong arguments for the recognition and decolonization of TE by putting more emphasis on the integration of IKS in the modern curriculum (Gumbo, 2020). The global platform is dominated by many factors including inequality and the need to ensure an equitable and relevant TE curriculum. This equitable and relevant curriculum should include the full integration and recognition of IKS. The inclusion of IKS in the school curriculum must be a deliberate act because the world economy is skewed and is not balanced. Resource constraint is a global phenomenon, and if IKS must be part of TE and give meaning to the existing curriculum, then there is a need for investment. About 2,153 billionaires now have about the same total wealth as approximately 4.6 billion people; the richest 1% have more wealth than 6.9 billion people; and almost half of the world’s population live on less than $5.50 (USD) a day (Oxfam, 2020). The relationship between wealth distribution and IKS needs to be made more explicit. This will assist in ensuring that IKS is fully integrated as part of the TE curriculum and the school curriculum at large which is normally adequately resources. As part of the curriculum, the making aspect of TE provides opportunities for learners to use tools, equipment, and materials to develop a solution to an identified problem, need, or opportunity. The making aspect of TE requires resource allocation as part of the mainstream curriculum. This is because making involves building, testing, and modifying the product or system to satisfy the specifications of the solution (design specification). Learners will cut, join, shape, finish, form, combine, assemble, measure, mark, separate, mix, etc. Making should be according to the design, although modifications are also desirable. Making must always be undertaken in a safe and healthy atmosphere and manner (Department of Education [DoE], 2011).

46

S. B. Khumalo and T. A. Mapotse

4.3 Philosophical Perspectives of Technology Education The philosophy associated with any discipline and its realization as a curriculum subject is important (Ndlovu, 2012). Like many domain-specific subfields of philosophy, such as philosophy of physics or philosophy of biology, philosophy of technology is a comparatively young field of investigation (Reydon, nd). It is generally thought to have emerged as a recognizable philosophical specialization in the second half of the nineteenth century, its origins often being located with the publication of Ernst Kapp’s book, Grundlinien einer Philosophie der Technik (Kapp, 1877). Philosophy of technology continues to be a field in the making and as such is characterized by the coexistence of several different approaches to philosophy. The philosophy of technology compared with other disciplines is relatively young, and its emergence comes from technological practices and engineering (Jones et al., 2013). Four modes are identified as the main modes of interest in the philosophy of technology. Those modes are technology as an artifact, technology as knowledge, technology as activities, and technology as part of human being which is a critical aspect of IK (de Vries, 2011; Mitcham, 1994). These modes can blend or interlink at some instances to enhance the minds-on and hands-on nature of TE activities and practices. The underlying philosophical approach that most IKS take is a holistic one. Holistic refers to making TE part of the curriculum while making it relevant to the learners and building new technological knowledge on their IK foundation. The ‘disciplinary’ approach, which seeks to break everything down to some elemental constitutive components and study these individually, is the opposite of the indigenous approach, which takes a systemic perspective in its approach to developing solutions to problems (Tharakan, 2017). The philosophy of Technology Education refers to the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence of this subject as an academic discipline. This is a critical question to be asked and answered to give meaning to the philosophical perspective of IKS and TE. The question is, ‘What is the philosophical perspective of IKS on TE in relation to building Modern Technology Innovation?’ The institutionalization of learning based on Western liberal values ruined both the freedom of the individual and his/her respect for the elders’ wisdom (Kaya & Selati, 2013). Thus, the tendency arises to perceive IKS as belonging to Africans; while there is some recognition in that, there is a risk of narrowing the IKS in a country such as South Africa because it is a country with diverse people (Maila & Loubser, 2003).

4.4 The Relational Coexistence of IKS and Modern Technology Various indigenous knowledge systems have developed water sourcing, conservation, storage, and treatment techniques and practices that are sustainable in the context of that local community (Tharakan, 2017). Although much of the world’s attention has

4 Building Modern Technology Innovation on Indigenous Knowledge …

47

been focused on Asia, many African Indigenous Knowledge Systems (AIKS) are now being documented and described and are becoming the focus of study, especially as these indigenous practices pertain to development in the African context (Van Wyk, 2002). IKS and Modern Technology coexist relationally in that one depends on the other. Technology Education enables learners to solve real-world problems, enhance life, and extend human capability as they meet the challenges of a dynamic global society (Technology Curriculum Management System, 2009). As indicated in the previous chapters, IKS is known for solving real-life problems even though this was not scientifically recognized or noted. The systematic integration of technology across the curriculum and in the teaching and learning process fosters a population that leverages twenty-first-century resources, and IKS is part of this important development (Technology Curriculum Management System, 2009). Here are some practical examples to illustrate the relational coexistence between IKS and Modern Technology. Figure 4.1 is a picture that was taken by one of the authors in an upmarket suburb in Pretoria, South Africa, for demonstration of IKS ancient cooking. Inside this three-legged pot, there is tripe (mala le mogodu—refers to Fig. 4.1). Tripe is a delicacy for some people in South Africa. In Fig. 4.1, the tripe was cooked this way because it is energy intensive. It consumes a lot of electricity and has become very expensive. The tripe took about three hours to cook, and IKS was applied in the cooking of this tripe delicacy. It would have taken a lot of energy to cook tripe on an electric or gas stove which uses different heat energy. This shows how IKS is married to the intricate philosophy of TE. It has been stated above that the philosophy of Technology Education refers to the fundamental nature of knowledge, Fig. 4.1 IKS in Practice, demonstration of tripe cooking using different energy

48

S. B. Khumalo and T. A. Mapotse

Fig. 4.2 Mealie in substance farming

reality, and existence of this subject as an academic discipline. Therefore, the use of IKS here fits well into the philosophy of Technology Education. Persistent drought across Southern Africa had previously rendered many areas susceptible to strong winds and intensive flooding (Oxfam International, 2020). The benefits of indigenous farmers’ knowledge in contributing to modern scientific adaptation strategies are increasingly recognized in recent times (Mafongoya & Ajayi, 2017). In sub-Saharan Africa, there exists a lack of research on the integration of IK and its philosophy into modern climate change adaptation due to a ‘disconnect between climate science and African agriculture’ (Ziervogel et al., 2008). Figure 4.2 shows some of the products of backyard farming where IK was applied. Figures 4.2 and 4.3 illustrate the subsistence farming from the beginning to the harvest where IKS were applied in a backyard in an upmarket suburb in Pretoria, South Africa. At an advanced level, this subsistence farming practice in the backyard becomes a huge farming exercise with sophisticated tractors and harvesting machines that apply advanced technology. That technology entails the design process, systems and controls, structures, and IKS. Here the technology process was applied to solve the problem of hunger in a small way. This idea can then be elevated to TE curriculum in a classroom setup. Learners may be given a project where they actually plant mealie in their yards and either eat the product or take some to an orphanage or families that are in need within their communities. Figures 4.4 and 4.5 also show an avocado tree with fruits. The tree was planted applying IK and that has resulted in the fruits. These are contained in a container for domestic use. These products can be bought in a supermarket where they are manufactured and supplied to the business sites. The avocados and the mealie corn can be processed further into other products. The avocado seed has some medicinal benefits, while the mielie corn can be processed into mielie meal,

4 Building Modern Technology Innovation on Indigenous Knowledge …

49

Fig. 4.3 Product of the backyard mealie field

Fig. 4.4 Avocado tree planted in the yard applying IK

mielie rice, popcorns, etc. An avocado seed was planted and nurtured from that stage to where it produced fruit, or it reproduced itself. IK was applied to arrive at this desired outcome, an avocado that is ready for consumption. Vocational technology education curriculum must be able to anticipate the competency requirements in future and the needs of students to organize the future (Utari & Mukhaiyar, 2020). This is one of the examples of taking care of the environment and applying IK and

50

S. B. Khumalo and T. A. Mapotse

Fig. 4.5 Maize and advocados products where IK was applied

TE in a practical setting, i.e., solving a problem of hunger. An avocado tree is very difficult to plat and take care of it until it produces fruit.

4.5 Building Modern Technology Within IKS Context A progressive and robust approach to the transformation of education to address the crucial issue of the disparity in the utilization of TKS (Maila & Loubser, 2003) within the formal classroom situation should be evident among TE teachers. IK is a good foundation to build and consolidate Modern Technology such as what really goes on in the weather which affects the community (Siambombe et al., 2018). In this context, IKS is the cornerstone of learners because the Technology Education curriculum should enable them to acquire and apply content knowledge and skills through active exploration, interaction, and collaboration with others across the globe (Technology Curriculum Management System, 2009). It is for this reason that one cannot talk about or implement Modern Technology with the tacit application of IKS without including Action Research. According to Mapotse (2018), there are four basic themes that stand out for Action Research, namely empowerment of participants, collaboration through participation, acquisition of knowledge, and social change. These could be implemented immediately or over time. For instance, the telephone in Fig. 4.6 began with an idea where the original inventor applies IK to produce the gadget which today has become so sophisticated that it become more than a communication device. Figure 4.6 shows an old version of the gadget, the telephone which used cables for communication. Today, this gadget is a smartphone that can do a lot of things to solve problems and make life easier for people or users today. The smartphone is wireless and contains several applications which can do communication, scanning to transferring money instantly as well as entertainment.

4 Building Modern Technology Innovation on Indigenous Knowledge …

51

Fig. 4.6 The old means of communicating using a landline phone

Fig. 4.7 The twenty-first century mode of communication through a smartphone

Technology is evolving from ancient discoveries to the latest sophisticated technological artifacts. Figures 4.6 and 4.7 depict the communication improvement that has been taking place over the years. This gives us a clear indication of how the technology practitioner can build Modern Technology from the IK baseline and bedrock. The cell phone in Fig. 4.7 is a product based on Fig. 4.6, i.e., a mere communication. Figures 4.6 and 4.7 above demonstrate how a technological system can be a component of another technological system, an understanding of the relation of

52

S. B. Khumalo and T. A. Mapotse

Fig. 4.8 Modern Civil Technology workshop

components and systems, and the idea that new inventions in technology often put smaller parts or systems together to achieve a new technological system should be explored (Lind et al., 2019). Vocational technology education curriculum must be able to anticipate the competency requirements in future and the needs of students to organize the future ability to innovate in the values of society (Utari & Mukhaiyar, 2020). This shows that sophisticated Modern Technology can be built on IK. Figure 4.7 shows a gadget is a smartphone that can do a lot of things to solve problems and make life easier for people or users today. The smartphone is wireless and contains several applications which can do almost anything from communication and scanning to transferring money instantly as well as entertainment. Figure 4.8 shows a Civil Technology workshop in one of the schools in South Africa. Educational programs are needed to enlighten students about sometimes problematic relationships among fields of science and technology and powerful societal actants and, where they perceive harm, help them to develop expertise, confidence, and motivation to develop and implement personal and social actions that may overcome them—and, thus, contribute to the transition of societies toward those that place more priority on such values as equity, diversity, and environmental well-being (Benxze, 2020). Figure 4.8 shows a picture of the modern Civil Technology workshops in one of the specialized schools in one of the nine provinces in South Africa. There are modern workshops for Civil Technology, Mechanical Technology, and Electrical Technology. These workshops cater to Grades 8–12 learners. The workshop is well ventilated and uses natural light as part of saving the environment. The learners are taught and acquire various skills through various technology artifacts. In South Africa, the Department of Basic Education (DBE, 2011) has developed assessment criteria in what is called mini-PAT (Mini Assessment Task). Mini-PAT is a set of short practical assessment tasks which make up the main formal assessment of a learner’s skills and application of knowledge during each term. It may be an

4 Building Modern Technology Innovation on Indigenous Knowledge …

53

assignment covering aspects of the design process, or it may be a full capability task covering all aspects of the design process (see Fig. 4.9). It shows an assessment rubric that may be used to assess the learner who has applied to IK. Figure 4.9 illustrates what is important in assessing the competence of Technology Education leaners in what is referred to as Mini-PAT. The formal assessment should take into consideration and acknowledge the role played by the learners’ IK in laying the foundation for complex projects at a later stage in the knowledge.

Fig. 4.9 Assessment Rubric. Source DBE (2011)

54

S. B. Khumalo and T. A. Mapotse

4.6 Conclusion This chapter concludes by showing the philosophical aspect of TE, and its relation with Modern Technology in the context of IKS and how can this then be built into the school curriculum. The curriculum is the cornerstone to advancing and demonstrating the relational coexistence between Modern Technology and the Indigenous Knowledge System. Practical examples were given to demonstrate the relation between IKS and Technology Education. Modern scientific knowledge is a part of the top-down model of development that is the hallmark of multilateral development agencies that promote MSKS as the only solution to development problems (Tharakan, 2017). The sharing of the IKS and incorporating it with technology and schooling curriculum can create a new dynamic, technological practice that will benefit both learners, community, and society with functional Modern Technology innovations.

References Alaleeli, S., & Alnajjar, A. (2020). Arab digital generation’s engagement with the technology: The case of high school students in the United Arab Emirates University. Journal of Technology and Science Education JOTSE, 10(1), 159–178. Akullo, D., Kanzikwera, R. S., Birungi, P., Alum, W., Aliguma, L., & Barwogeza, M. (2018). Indigenous knowledge in agriculture: A case study of the challenges in sharing knowledge of past generations in a globalized context in Uganda. Online Publication. Benxze, J. L. (2020). Post-pandemic science & technology education: An ideological battle. Journal for Activist Science & Technology Education, 11(2), Online. Department of Basic Education South Africa. (2011). National curriculum assessment policy statement. Senior phase (pp. 7–9). DoE. de Vries, M. C. (2011). The springer international handbooks of technology education. (Editor). Springer. Ellen, R., & Harris, H. (1996, May, 8–10). Concepts of indigenous environmental knowledge in scientific and development studies literature: A critical assessment. East-West Environmental Linkages Network Workshop 3; Canterbury. Gumbo, M. T. (Ed.). (2020). Decolonization technology education. African Indigenous perspectives. Peter Lang. Huaman, E. L., & Sriraman, B. (Eds.). (2015). Indigenous innovation. Sense Publishers. Jones, A., Buntting, C., & de Fries, M. (2013). The developing field of technology education: A review to look forward. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 23(2), 191–212. Kapp, E. (1877). Grundlinien einer Philosophie der Technik: Zur Entstehungsgeschichte der Cultur aus neuen Gesichtspunkten. G. Westermann. Kaya, H. O., & Selati, Y. N. (2013). African indigenous knowledge systems and relevance of higher education in South Africa. The International Education Journal: Comparative Perspectives, 12(1), 30–44. ISSN 1443-1475 ©. https://www.iejcomparative.org Lind, J., Pelger, S., & Jakobsson, A. (2019). Students’ ideas about technological systems interacting with human needs. International Journal of Technology Education, 29, 263–282. Mafongoya, P. L., & Ajayi, O. C. (2017). Indigenous knowledge systems and climate change management in Africa. Wageningen.

4 Building Modern Technology Innovation on Indigenous Knowledge …

55

Maila, M. W., & Loubser, C. P. (2003). Emancipatory indigenous knowledge systems: Implications for environmental education in South Africa. South African Journal of Education. EASA, 23(4), 276–280. Mapotse, T. A. (2018). Development of a technology education cascading theory through community engagement site-based support. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 28(3), 685–699. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-017-9411-6 Mehta H. M., Ali, A., Saleem, H., Qamruzzaman M. D., & Khalid. R. (2021). The effect of technology and open innovation on women-owned small and medium enterprises in Pakistan. Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Business, 8(3), 0411–0422 411 Print ISSN: 2288–4637/Online ISSN 2288–4645. https://doi.org/10.13106/jafeb.2021.vol8.no3.0411. Mitcham, C. (1994). Thinking through technology: The path between engineering and philosophy. University of Chicago Press. Ndlovu, E. C. (2012). Interpretation and enactment by teachers of interrelatedness of TechnologySociety-Environment and other themes of the Technology curriculum. University of Pretoria. Oxfam. (2020). Time to care: Unpaid and underpaid care work and the global inequality crisis. Oxfam International. https://www.oxfam.org/en/pressreleases/worlds-billionaires-have-morewealth-46-billion-people Reydon, T. A. C. (nd). A peer-reviewed academic resource. Online: Internet encyclopaedia of philosophy germany: Leibniz University of Hannover. Retrieved 30 October 2021, Philosophy of Technology | Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (utm.edu). Siambombe, A., Mutale, Q., & Muzingili, T. (2018). Indigenous knowledge systems: A synthesis of Batonga people’s traditional knowledge on weather dynamism. African Journal of Social Work © National Association of Social Workers-Zimbabwe/Author(s) ISSN Print 1563–3934 ISSN Online 2409–5605. Sitwala, N. I. (2017). On the question of IKS integration. Gender and Behaviour, 15(4). Online. Retrieved 30 October 2021, form: On the question of IKS integration|Gender and Behaviour (journals.co.za). Svensson, M., & Johansen, G. (2017). Teacher’s didactical moves in the technology classroom. Accepted: 8 November 2017/Published online: 24 November 2017. This article is an open access publication. Journal Pendidikani Tekinologi Kejuruan, 3(1), February 2020. System, T. C. M. (2009). Camden city school district: Technology curriculum- GRADES 3–8. Camden. Tharakan, J. (2017). Indigenous knowledge systems for appropriate technology development, indigenous people. Purushothaman Venkatesan, IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intech open.69889. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/56259 Utari, N., & Mukhaiyar, R. (2020). Alternative concepts to identify the characteristics of vocational technology education curriculum. JPTK. Van Wyk, J. A. (2002). Indigenous knowledge systems: Implications for natural science and technology teaching and learning. Indilinga: African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems, 1(1), 6. Ziervogel, G., Cartwright, A., Tas, A., Adejuwon, J., Zermoglio, F., Shale, M., & Smith, B. (2008). Climate change and adaptation in African agriculture. Environment Institute, Rockefeller Foundation.

Chapter 5

Creating the Value of Indigenous Knowledge and Technologies in Technology Education Curriculum Through Intellectual Property Rights Richie Moalosi, Yaone Rapitsenyane, Odirileng Marope, and Oanthata Sealetsa Abstract In Africa, recognising the value of intellectual property rights from indigenous knowledge and technologies is in the infancy stage. Communities have been exploited because of a lack of knowledge in the subject area. It is time for communities to benefit from their indigenous knowledge and technologies. This chapter proposes that Technology Education can play an essential role in educating students on the value of intellectual property rights. In turn, students will educate their various communities on protecting their indigenous knowledge and technologies. The chapter discusses the importance of indigenous knowledge and technologies, intellectual property rights, and appropriate forms to protect indigenous knowledge. The relevance of indigenous knowledge and technologies in the fourth industrial revolution is discussed. The chapter concludes by proposing a framework that can be used to teach indigenous knowledge and technologies and intellectual property rights in the Technology Education (TE) curriculum. Keywords Value creation · Indigenous knowledge · Indigenous technologies · Technology Education · Intellectual property · 4th Industrial Revolution

5.1 Introduction An indigenous knowledge system is known by various names as per the context, such as traditional ecological knowledge, traditional knowledge, folk knowledge, indigenous people’s knowledge, etc. Familiarity with indigenous knowledge systems in developing economies should serve as a foundation for developing the school curriculum. This will be building the education system using people’s culture and making education more relevant to the context. The knowledge and technologies

R. Moalosi (B) · Y. Rapitsenyane · O. Marope · O. Sealetsa University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_5

57

58

R. Moalosi et al.

assist in uplifting the society’s socio-economic, physical, and spiritual understandings and influence the community’s survival strategies (Flintan & Truebswasser, 2019; Tharakan, 2017). From a developing economy’s perspective, indigenous knowledge systems and technologies should be viewed as complementary to Western knowledge and technologies. This type of knowledge and technology should be recognised as equally valid, adaptable, and complementary to Western knowledge and technologies (Mawere, 2014; Zidny et al., 2020). However, this wisdom is seldom documented in Africa and other developing countries. There is a need to study, explore, and document indigenous knowledge systems and technologies to respond to the current societal challenges because culture is dynamic. Documenting indigenous knowledge and technologies can lead to knowledge development, entrepreneurship, and technological innovation (Mbatia & Vilita, 2021). This chapter aims to help Technology Education learners understand the value of protecting indigenous knowledge technologies in the Technology Education (TE) curriculum to generate value from intangible properties. Innovation and creativity are the core drivers of sustainable economic development, and intellectual property (IP) rights are essential for generating value from intangible assets (World Intellectual Property Organisation [WIPO], 2022). Due to a lack of a robust enabling environment for IP creation, protection, administration, and enforcement hinder Africa from boosting its participation in the world economy a_nd stimulating innovation and competitiveness of the private sector (Africa Intellectual Property Rights & Innovation, 2021). The lack of a conducive IP environment has led to a weaker and less efficient administration of the IP framework in Africa, contributing to suppressed international investments and trade, weak private sector development, and economic growth (Mbatia & Vilita, 2021). This chapter will define indigenous knowledge technologies and IP rights. Intellectual property rights are relevant in this study because the authors argue that indigenous knowledge systems and technologies need to be legally protected to avert the exploitation of communities. The forms of IP protection for indigenous technologies will be explored as advanced by WIPO (2020). In Africa, IP ownership of indigenous knowledge and technologies is often vested in the community instead of individual ownership, as in the global north. However, this study argues that the community can still protect their indigenous knowledge systems and technologies provided they have been given relevant education. The chapter advances that teaching indigenous knowledge systems and technologies in the TE will equip students to legally assist and educate their communities to protect their valuable indigenous assets. A framework for teaching indigenous knowledge systems, technologies, and IP in the TE curriculum has been proposed.

5.2 Indigenous Knowledge Technologies WIPO (2020) defines indigenous knowledge and technologies as a living body of knowledge, know-how, skills, innovations, or practices developed, sustained, and

5 Creating the Value of Indigenous Knowledge and Technologies …

59

passed on from generation to generation within a community, often forming part of its cultural heritage or spiritual identity. It is technically designed and fabricated based on the culture, tradition, and needs of a people and adapted for use in a specific context (Manabete & Umer, 2014). Indigenous knowledge and technologies are unique and embedded in each society and are the local intellectual capital. These technologies have survived the test of time and are in congruence with the living conditions of the specific community. Indigenous knowledge and technologies are part of the foundation of the community’s socio-cultural framework—values, beliefs, norms, and practices (Sithole, 2020). Sithole (2020) further argues that factors such as urban–rural migration, globalisation, and changes to population structure threaten the survival of indigenous knowledge and technologies. Manabete and Umer (2014) advance that indigenous knowledge and technologies offer the following development opportunities: • accelerates economic growth by the provision of employment opportunities to citizens; • helps a nation attain self-reliance in the technological arena; • provides ample opportunity for innovation, modernisation, and technological competitiveness; • stimulates industrial development and domestic capacity building; • creates awareness and demand for local products and services in the global markets; and • imposes checks on imports from overseas and provides opportunities for the exportation of local technologies. The preservation, management, and sharing of indigenous knowledge and technologies are critical for social and economic development in developing economies (Tsekea, 2016). To achieve this, students need to be educated about the value of IP and their role in educating their communities in rural areas to develop a high level of IP awareness. Creativity and innovation are vital skills in TE to create new products and services imbued with indigenous knowledge and technologies. TE should play a leading role in educating students about IP protection. Moreover, most indigenous knowledge and technologies in Africa are based on oral culture, which resides with the old generation. Elderly memory loss, old age, and death have led to the disappearance of indigenous knowledge and technologies. Hence the saying, ‘in Africa, when an elder dies, it is like a library going in flames’ (De Ley, 2019).

5.3 Intellectual Property Rights Intellectual property refers to creations of the mind such as inventions, designs, literary and artistic works, performances, plant varieties, names, signs, and symbols (WIPO, 2020). IP rights are an artefact of industrialisation meant to protect and reward individual or communal ingenuity and innovation reflected in new ideas or inventions. IP creates valuable assets capable of owning, selling, transferring,

60

R. Moalosi et al.

and modifying. These assets need protection because they embody the proprietary interests of their inventors, creators, and owners. Such protection is deemed to protect against exploitation while at the same time encouraging original, creative, and innovative activity. Community interests often supersede individual freedom and IP reward in Africa. Indigenous knowledge is communal and historically not subject to personal ownership. The WIPO (2020) work on indigenous knowledge and technologies addresses three different areas: traditional knowledge in the strict sense (technical know-how, practices, skills, and innovations, biodiversity, agriculture, or health); traditional cultural expressions/expressions of folklore (cultural manifestations such as music, art, designs, symbols, and performances); and genetic resources (the genetic material of actual or potential value found in plants, animals, and micro-organisms). WIPO (2020) states that IP law gives exclusive property rights in the creations and innovations to: • • • • •

grant control over their exploitation, mainly commercial exploitation; provide incentives for further creativity; moral rights protection; equitable compensation; and protection against unfair competition.

The objectives of IP protection as per WIPO (2020, pp. 25–26) include: • wealth creation, trading opportunities, and sustainable economic development, including the promotion of equitable benefit sharing from the use of indigenous knowledge and technologies. • preservation, promotion, and development of indigenous knowledge and technologies; • prevention and repression of misappropriation and unauthorised exploitation, illicit use, and abuse, as well as other unfair and inequitable uses of indigenous knowledge and technologies; • protection of tradition-based creativity and innovation; • recognition of the value of and promotion of respect for indigenous knowledge and technologies and the communities that preserve them, including prevention of insulting, derogatory, and/or culturally and spiritually offensive uses; • safeguarding the cultural identity and values of communities; • empowerment of traditional knowledge/ traditional cultural expressions holders; • prevention of false and misleading claims to authenticity and origin; prevention of third-party failure to acknowledge the source; and • promotion of cultural diversity. Creative industries are viewed as the new drivers of the post-industrial economy. Therefore, developing economies may exploit their competitive advantage using their indigenous knowledge and technologies of natural resources. For example, traditionally, in Botswana, the Devil’s claw, scientifically known as Harpagophytum procumbens, has roots in treating many ailments, such as fever, pain, arthritis, and indigestion. Such indigenous knowledge was held and passed along not in written

5 Creating the Value of Indigenous Knowledge and Technologies …

61

but primarily in oral form. Due to a lack of IP awareness, the IP of the plant is owned by a German company. Similarly, Pfizer developed the Hoodia cactus into an anti-obesity drug using indigenous technology from the San community. These cases show developed countries acquiring monopoly rights to indigenous resources at the expense of the source country. This demonstrates that indigenous technologies have been freely utilised by others and patented to exclude their originators and original owners (Feris, 2020). To benefit from the commercial exploitation of indigenous technologies, indigenous people must assert their ownership of the indigenous technologies inherent in the uses of indigenous products (Ismail & Fakir, 2004). In most cases, multinational companies use indigenous people’s knowledge of local flora and fauna to develop new drugs that yield high profits that are not shared with the original users. This exploitation of their ethnopharmacological technology to create and market medicines derived from the indigenous plants returns little or no compensation from the drug’s sales to the indigenous people (Ismail & Fakir, 2004). Often, it is argued that compensation for indigenous technologies is neither warranted nor practical, as a specific owner cannot be identified. However, the community which can benefit from such is known, but this argument is used by those who want to circumvent paying royalties to the communities. Indigenous people should be compensated for assisting with discoveries in natural medicines, agricultural products, pharmaceuticals, etc.

5.4 Forms of IP Protection for Indigenous Technologies There are different forms of IP protection related to protecting indigenous knowledge technologies (WIPO, 2020). These include: (a) Trade secrecy law protects trade secrets and confidential information from public disclosure and unauthorised use. The protection requires that the privileged information is not in the public domain. Reasonable steps should be taken to keep it undisclosed as it has commercial value because of its secrecy. Certain types of indigenous knowledge and technologies may qualify for trade secret protection, such as information that is not known outside of a community or group. However, protecting indigenous knowledge and technologies using trade secrets requires positive action by the holder(s) of the information. Thus, unless a local community or indigenous group designates information as a trade secret and takes positive steps to protect it, any unauthorised acquisition or use by a third party would not be protected (WIPO, 2020). (b) Geographical indication provides only limited scope for positive protection. It is often used in challenging trademarks. The geographical indication can prevent the misleading use of any means in the designation or presentation of a good that indicates or suggests that the good in question originated in a geographical area other than the actual place of origin. Natural resources indigenous to a specific geographical territory may qualify for protection only if the concerned name

62

R. Moalosi et al.

has not yet become generic or semi-generic, either locally or internationally. Holders of indigenous knowledge and technologies would thus only benefit if they acted pro-actively to protect bioresources. (c) Patent law protects new technology products and processes, such as a machine, a process, or a method of manufacture, and technological improvements. Indigenous technologies can benefit from patent protection if the technology satisfies the following criteria: novelty, non-obviousness, and usefulness (WIPO, 2020). Of these three criteria, utility is arguably the easiest to satisfy. The utility criterion ensures that the products or processes, although novel and non-obvious, are prevented from being patented without current practical application. For the most part, indigenous technologies would fulfil this requirement as it has been utilised for generations within the community. The criteria of novelty and nonobviousness, on the other hand, prove more challenging. The novelty requirement constrains patents as protection for indigenous technologies since no individual applicant from an indigenous group or local community can realistically claim to have invented the product. The requirement of non-obviousness or ‘an inventive step’ is similarly challenging to fulfil, as it is tricky to track down the original ‘inventor’ of specific indigenous technology. The inventive step may have occurred generations ago and would be difficult to trace. Thus, while patent law can help protect indigenous technologies, it can also be unwieldy and awkward to use and apply. (d) Contract law involves research institutions and pharmaceutical companies establishing cooperation agreements with developing country governments and indigenous people/communities. Companies receive prior informed consent to obtain biotechnological samples and utilise associated technologies (WIPO, 2020). They agree to share the profits from any commercial product derived from the biotechnological material with the indigenous people/communities. However, most holders of indigenous technologies cannot negotiate fair terms. Numerous problems arise in contract law, such as enforcement, specifically because only parties to a contract can enforce it. In most cases, communities are unable to implement the contract agreement. (e) Sui generis system (collective/communal intellectual rights) acknowledges the rights of communities over their biological resources and knowledge and the right to collectively benefit from the use of their biological resources and the utilisation of their knowledge, innovations, practices, and technologies (WIPO, 2020). Indigenous knowledge and technologies that have ancient roots and are often informal and oral are not protected by conventional IP systems, and this has prompted several countries and regions to develop their distinct sui generis (specific, unique) systems for protecting indigenous knowledge and technologies or traditional cultural expressions (WIPO, 2020). Sui generis measures aim to address the characteristics of specific subject matter, such as indigenous knowledge and technologies or traditional cultural expressions, to adequately accommodate unique features and particular policy needs. The Africa Union Model Law attempts to provide a model for Africa to protect indigenous technologies. The Model Law recognises that formal or

5 Creating the Value of Indigenous Knowledge and Technologies …

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

63

informal communal control over biological resources exists in many African countries. It also recognises that states may not always be, and have not always been, protective of the rights of communities over their local bioresources or ensured that the community benefits from their knowledge and practices. It acknowledges that traditional ecological knowledge and practices often differ significantly from Western concepts of IP and, as such, warrants dissimilar protection. It recognises ‘community intellectual rights’ as rights that are enshrined and protected under community norms and practices and customary law. Copyright protects original literary, artistic, dramatic, or musical works and computer software when expressed or fixed in a material form. Copyright can also protect against insulting, derogatory, offensive, demeaning, or degrading use of a work, an issue that is often of concern to traditional cultural expressions which embody spiritual qualities and the very cultural identity of a community (WIPO, 2020). Neighbouring rights refer to the rights of performers and producers to be compensated when their performances and sound recordings are performed publicly or broadcast. Industrial designs protect the shape, pattern, or ornamentation applied to a manufactured product. The design, shape, and visual characteristics of textiles, carvings, sculptures, pottery, woodwork, metalwork, jewellery, basket weaving, and other handicraft could be protected as industrial designs. Trademarks protect words, distinctive names, signs, symbols, or pictures used to distinguish goods or services of an individual or organisation from those of others in the marketplace to safeguard them against third-party claims.

Figure 5.1 intellectual property framework summarises different forms of IP and how communities and innovators can benefit from the same. Figure 5.1 proposes that through Technology Education, students can teach their communities to create, apply, protect, defend, promote, negotiate, and monetise their IP, which can be geographical indications, communal, intellectual rights, etc.

Fig. 5.1 Intellectual property framework

64

R. Moalosi et al.

However, the enforcement of IP rights is the IP holder’s responsibility. This includes searching for infringing articles, trademarks, or products and launching legal action. The courts will decide whether the IP right is valid and whether others have infringed it. Obtaining and enforcing IP rights can be expensive for disadvantaged communities with limited knowledge of IP searching and resources.

5.5 Intellectual Property Ownership—Community Versus Individual Many rural communities in developing economies have extensive indigenous technologies unique to their context. Indigenous technologies are implicit and embedded in the practices and experiences of the local people. They can provide the basis for advancing agriculture, health care, food preparation, education, natural resource management, and other activities. Such technologies have provided sustainable livelihoods in rural areas, such as increasing agricultural productivity and providing food security (Lwoga, 2011; Sithole, 2020). Therefore, it is essential to develop effective strategies to document indigenous technologies as most are available in the public domain. There is a possibility for them to be misappropriated. For example, technology education students can collect the same as part of their assignments and verify and document them. An IP right is an essential legal instrument by which indigenous technologies can be protected from exploitation. In Africa, indigenous technologies are preserved in people’s minds and local practices, which may be eroded by failing memories and death. The main features of indigenous knowledge and technologies are that it is shared and communicated orally and through traditions and culture, grounded in a particular culture and geography. It is developed through daily engagement and trial and error to see what meets a specific community’s needs (Tharakan, 2017). The international IP inadequately protects indigenous technologies from a Western concept that values individuality and seldom articulates communal rights. In developing economies, such rights are owned and managed communally instead of by an individual. Communities use indigenous technologies because they are effective, affordable, available, and more accessible than contemporary methods. The concept of indigenous technologies is explored from the ethical foundation of Ubuntu—a philosophy shared, under different names, by several African cultures. Ubuntu, translated from the Bantu language, means humanness and humanity towards others or ‘I am because we are and since we are, therefore, I am’. In Ubuntu, relationships are valued instead of the individualistic form of identity. Therefore, Martin and Mirraboopa (2003, p. 11) state that ‘one experiences the self as part of others and that others are part of self; this is learnt through reciprocity, obligation, shared experiences, coexistence, cooperation, and social memory.’ The values espoused through the philosophy of Ubuntu include some of the following: generosity, respect, forgiveness, community spirit, cooperation, togetherness, sharing, reconciliation,

5 Creating the Value of Indigenous Knowledge and Technologies …

65

trust, empathy, collaboration, interdependence, spirituality, collective responsibilities, harmony, love, consensus building, and interpersonal relationships among people (Carroll, 2008; Chilisa et al., 2016). Eze (2010, pp. 190–191) sums up the philosophy of Ubuntu as: A person is a person through other people strikes an affirmation of one’s humanity through recognition of an ‘other’ in his or her uniqueness and difference. It is a demand for a creative intersubjective formation in which the ‘other’ becomes a mirror (but only a mirror) for my subjectivity. This idealism suggests that humanity is not embedded in my person solely as an individual; my humanity is co-substantively bestowed upon the other and me. Humanity is a quality we owe to each other. We create each other and need to sustain this otherness creation. And if we belong to each other, we participate in our creations: we are because you are, and since you are, I am. The ‘I am’ is not a rigid subject but a dynamic self-constitution dependent on this otherness creation of relation and distance.

Embracing IP rights in the philosophy of Ubuntu recognises non-Western ways of thinking which promote individual ownership as opposed to communal ownership. Ubuntu values advocate for collective ownership rather than personal ownership. However, communities are well organised, and they can own IP rights. For example, in Botswana, each village has a village development committee that oversees the development of their village. Suppose multi-national companies want to pay royalties to communities. Such a village structure can be used rather than excuses that it is difficult to identify the original inventor of the technology within the community. WIPO (2020) also argues that beneficiaries’ recognition arises through customary understandings, protocols, laws, or practices within the community. In Africa, indigenous knowledge is communal-based, unlike in Western countries, where it is individual-based. The increase in global trade has resulted in the clash between individualist IP and communal indigenous knowledge systems. However, Western notions of individual ownership of IP are philosophically at odds with the collective nature of indigenous technologies rights (Feris, 2020). Communities of indigenous groups in Africa must ensure that they own and control these property rights to partake in the benefits of commercialisation. The commercialisation of indigenous technologies and products offers Africa and developing economies a sustainable opportunity to increase their share of value-added products in the global economy (Ismail & Fakir, 2004). In the realm of indigenous technologies, most African societies view this type of knowledge as a communal value to be placed in the public domain and not necessarily as a profit-bearing commodity (Feris, 2020). Feris further argues that a regulatory vacuum in most African countries has left indigenous knowledge largely unprotected and vulnerable to annexation by the dominance of the Western world in the sphere of technological innovation and their ability to usurp intellectual capacity. While sharing knowledge is for some communities entrenched in their cultural values and customary laws and systems, IP law counters these traditions and beliefs and dictates that knowledge sharing should carry monetary value (Feris, 2020). Indigenous culture features such as storytelling, language use, song, and dance are linked to sacred sites, religion, objects, etc. Those are significant to society’s identity and cultural expression. The conventional IP law systems cannot protect

66

R. Moalosi et al.

such a complex cultural setup. Indigenous people want protection for their cultural knowledge, manifestations, and expressions. This requires a holistic reform of IP laws to accommodate indigenous cultural rights’ communal and collective nature. Indigenous people have criticised the IP system for promoting the commercialisation and commodification of cultural products and expressions at the expense of protecting indigenous cultures. It is costly to defend an infringed IP and thus requires the services of a legal expert, and most communities cannot afford to protect their rights. Moreover, communities are not aware or not adequately educated on IP laws. The conventional IP system risks indigenous peoples’ systems of communal ownership and informal innovation and responsibilities in cultural products and expressions. Indigenous peoples, local communities, and governments in developing economies have been demanding IP protection for indigenous forms of creativity and innovation because of increasing concerns about the exploitation of their cultures. Without IP protection, communities have experienced unwanted misappropriation and misuse of their indigenous knowledge and technologies. WIPO (2020) advances that preventing misuse, misappropriation, copying, adaptation, or other illicit exploitation should be promoted. There is a need to protect traditional medical remedies, agriculture processes, pharmaceuticals, indigenous food, tanning, construction, infrastructure technologies, environmental protection, indigenous art, crafts, household equipment, and music against misappropriation, enabling communities to control and benefit collectively from their commercial exploitation (WIPO, 2015).

5.6 Relevance of Indigenous Knowledge and Technologies in the Fourth Industrial Revolution The drivers of the 4th Industrial Revolution (4IR) are rapid advances in digital technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, robotics, additive manufacturing (3D printing), the Internet of Things (IoT), distributed ledger technology (DLT) or blockchain, and quantum computers and their integration with biotechnology, nanotechnology, and cognitive, social, and humanitarian sciences (Naudé, 2019; UNIDO, 2019). These technologies are innovative, fast growing, deeply interconnected, and interdependent. Recombination of complex technology ecosystems and cross-sectoral spillovers is creating new fields of knowledge, scientific disciplines, technology, materials, and activities and has the potential to address pressing global challenges. Therefore, the benefits of 4IR in solving global challenges can come in handy in advancing the development of indigenous technologies. For example, there is a need to document and record indigenous knowledge and technologies in the 4IR. The technologies offered by the 4IR could assist in creating platforms that can record and preserve indigenous knowledge and technologies. However, there are some fears that if documentation and recording make

5 Creating the Value of Indigenous Knowledge and Technologies …

67

indigenous knowledge and technologies extensively available to the public through the internet, this could lead to misappropriation and misuse in ways that were not anticipated by indigenous knowledge and technologies holders (Tsekea, 2016). If TE students are taught IP issues, they can be future ambassadors in using social platforms to create, preserve, and disseminate indigenous knowledge and technologies for the benefit of their communities (Sithole, 2020). This dissemination of knowledge can leverage the Internet of Things (IoT) in the 4IR for speed and effectiveness, with data security issues addressed by these IP aware indigenous students or citizens. The Internet of Things can help to make African manufacturing more efficient and has the potential to deliver services to rural areas at much-reduced costs (Cowie et al., 2020). Innovation is becoming more complex, multidisciplinary, collaborative, unplanned, unpredictable, and disruptive (UNIDO, 2019). Artificial Intelligence (AI) could promote indigenous technological innovations to produce goods and services which use digital technologies. For example, AI applications can strengthen and help expand agri-business by helping to track products along the supply value chain, as is now being done in Ethiopia in coffee production and exports (Naudé, 2019). AI has improved the efficiency of food processing and packaging by reducing food waste. Additive manufacturing can make it easier for indigenous small businesses to start manufacturing. 3D printers are less energy and capital-intensive. Renewable energy technologies such as solar panels and batteries may be expected to improve the competitiveness of African indigenous manufacturing industries. The development of rural innovation hubs in Africa aimed at boosting innovation within regions, and sectors is another example of work putting technological innovation at the forefront of rural development (Cowie et al., 2020). Indigenous technologies need to take advantage of the economic benefits of 4IR technologies, such as increased revenues due to lower transaction costs, greater control over production processes, more reliable and better-quality output, increased productivity and competitiveness, greater industrial safety, better product quality, and more customer involvement in production (UNIDO, 2019). For example, 4IR can assist indigenous technologies in creating intelligent production systems that enable a shift from mass production to mass customisation. It can help indigenous technologies enhance product innovation, customisation, and time to market. This will boost economic growth at the community level by creating new products and blending manufacturing and service activities. Embracing 4IR technologies can improve production efficiency or reduce associated costs in producing indigenous technologies. Integrating 4IR technologies into indigenous technologies is expected to boost economic growth, create jobs at the local community level, and alleviate poverty, thus contributing to Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 1 on poverty, SDG 8 on decent work and economic growth, and SDG 9 on the industry, innovation, and infrastructure. Apart from financial benefits, there are also environmental and social benefits of 4IR technologies, such as excellent resource efficiency and effectiveness, improvements in human health, and the creation of a knowledge society.

68

R. Moalosi et al.

Contrary, 4IR has challenges such as making it easier to substitute machines for human workers and reshaping labour markets. People will lose jobs, especially in the manufacturing sector, if they do not upskill or retool. In support of the latter, Naudé (2019) and Abardazzouon (2017) argues that 4IR may lead to technological unemployment as jobs are automated.Another challenge includes the increased widening of the technological gap between developed and developing economies. Developed countries with high proficiencies in science, technology, and innovation will reap the benefits of breakthroughs in frontier technologies more than the developing countries. Another threat to the global society is higher rates of cybercrime and data protection, as developing economies are vulnerable to such because of the technological divide.

5.7 A Framework for Teaching Indigenous Technologies and IP in the Technology Education Curriculum IKS is the inner core component of teaching indigenous technologies and IP in the TE curriculum (Fig. 5.1). The outer layer of the framework deals with capacity building, advocacy, IP rights, and IKS and technologies. In this framework, capacity development comprises four components thus, institutional development, human resource development, financial resource development, and effective national programmes. Schools and institutions that educate teachers should be capacitated to deliver such an approach in the curriculum. Human resources should include cultural experts, oral witnesses, indigenous innovators, older people, etc. These experts can teach some of the components of IKS if they are not documented anywhere. The framework calls for institutions to run in-service programmes on IKS to assist teachers in developing physical resources such as effective learning and teaching materials/aids, databases, etc. Financial resources must be availed to help implementors effectively deliver the curriculum. Appropriate learning and teaching methods, such as projectbased learning, should be used in TE. It is a student-centred pedagogy that enables students to acquire deep knowledge and skills through active investigation of a realworld, authentic, and complex challenge. To attain standardise implementation, the capacity development activities need to be coordinated at a high or national level, e.g. ministerial. Approaching the teaching of IKS through project-based learning will enable students to document the IKS activities technologies and save such information in databases for future use. Having a more profound knowledge of IKS will allow students to learn about the philosophies behind the creation of indigenous technologies. As IKS and technologies are dynamic, students can innovate the technologies by designing innovative designs that integrate 4IR technologies. Such an approach will develop indigenous technologies to contemporary technology. This will keep IKS and technologies current, which will be a way of digitising and preserving society’s cultural heritage.

5 Creating the Value of Indigenous Knowledge and Technologies …

69

Fig. 5.2 Framework for teaching indigenous technologies and IP in TE curriculum

If the new designs are not legally protected through IP rights, such designs are likely to be copied or pirated. Therefore, it is essential to safeguard the designs with an appropriate legal instrument, as discussed elsewhere in the chapter. Once students and teachers are capacitated, they will promote, protect, and educate their communities about the value of IKS. The framework also envisages teachers and students as advocates for the proper use of IKS within their communities. When all these activities are done, this satisfies a framework of teaching IKS and technologies and IP in the TE curriculum (refer to Fig. 5.2).

5.8 Conclusion There is no ‘one-size-fits-all’ solution for protecting IKS and technologies. There is a need to understand indigenous IP rights into a broader notion of indigenous cultural systems and heritage, which strongly reflect indigenous peoples’ viewpoints on cultural protection. The Model Law presents home-grown protection solution for the African continent and is designed to protect communities from exploitation using the discussed legal frameworks. Educating TE students on such a legal framework will help spread and conscientise their communities on IKS rights. This will make communities resilient to externally induced socio-political vulnerabilities. It will also avert instances where knowledge and skills gained from Africa’s indigenous people are used by developed countries to produce technologies of Africa and sold back to Africa.

70

R. Moalosi et al.

Indigenous knowledge and technologies should be incorporated into contemporary industrial processes, especially the technologies brought by 4IR, such as Artificial intelligence, the Internet of Things, big data, etc. This will assist communities in developing locally value-added products and services that can contribute to household security and generating IP. As indigenous technologies continue to change due to environmental, cultural, physical, and economic challenges, TE students can help validate, exploit, and integrate indigenous technologies into appropriate technology and development. Such an approach will help document, develop, and bring indigenous technologies closer or combine it with modern scientific knowledge systems. Integrating 4IR technologies and indigenous technologies will enhance capacitybuilding capabilities and the potential to design innovative sustainable products and services. This is an invaluable contribution to the global quest for technological development. The approach will promote indigenous-based creativity and innovation as ingredients of sustainable economic growth and sustainable livelihoods. This may also result in the generation of IP and new knowledge and preserving, respecting, and safeguarding cultural heritage. Teaching IKS and technologies to TE students can help their communities develop and commercialise sustainable indigenous technologies that benefit the community instead of individuals. This will be aligned with the philosophy of Ubuntu—‘I am because we are and since we are, therefore, I am’.

References Abardazzouon, N. (2017). The rise of artificial intelligence in Africa. Retrieved from https://www. howwemadeitinafrica.com/rise-artificial-intelligence-africa/59770/ Africa Intellectual Property Rights & Innovation. (2021). Retrieved from https://www.wipo.int/por tal/en/index.html Carroll, K. K. (2008). Africana studies and research methodology: Revisiting the centrality of Afrikan worldview. Journal of Pan African Studies, 2(2), 5–27. Chilisa, B., Major, T. E., Gaotlhobogwe, M., & Mokgolodi, H. (2016). Decolonising and indigenizing evaluation practice in Africa: Toward African relational evaluation approaches. Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation, 30(3), 347–362. Cowie, P., Townsend, L., & Saleminkc, K. (2020). Smart rural futures: Will rural areas be left behind in the 4th industrial revolution? Journal of Rural Studies, 79, 169–176. De Ley, G. (2019). The book of African proverbs: A collection of timeless wisdom, wit, sayings & advice. Hatherleigh Press. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2005). Understanding knowledge societies. United Nations publication. Eze, M. O. (2010). Intellectual history in contemporary South Africa. Palgrave Macmillan. Feris, L. (2020). Protecting traditional knowledge in Africa: Considering African approaches. African Human Rights Law Journal, 4, 242–255. Flintan, F. & Truebswasser, U. (2019). Extensive pastoralist (cattle): Leveraging for food and nutrition security. In P. Ferranti, E. M. Berry, & J. R. Anderson, Encyclopedia of food security and sustainability. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.21546-1 https://www.howwemadeitinafrica.com/rise-artificial-intelligence-africa/59770/ Ismail, Z., & Fakir, T. (2004). Trademarks or trade barriers? Indigenous knowledge and the flaws in the global IPR system. International Journal of Social Economics, 31(1/2), 173–194.

5 Creating the Value of Indigenous Knowledge and Technologies …

71

Lwoga, E. T. (2011). Knowledge management approaches in managing agricultural indigenous and exogenous knowledge in Tanzania. Journal of Documentation, 67(3), 407–430. Manabete, S. S., & Umer, B. (2014). Indigenous technology for sustainable development in West Africa. Journal of Education and Practice, 5(37), 54–62. Martin, K. L., & Mirraboopa, B. (2003). Ways of knowing, being and ways of doing: A theoretical framework and methods for indigenous and indigenist research. Journal of Australian Studies, 76, 203–214. Mawere, M. (2014). Culture, indigenous knowledge and development in Africa: Reviving interconnections for sustainable development. Langaa Rpcig. Mbatia, L., & Vilita, B. (2021). AfCFTA: How intellectual property laws can help create jobs. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/january-2021/afcfta-how-intellect ual-property-rights-can-help-create-jobs Naudé, W. (2019). Brilliant technologies and brave entrepreneurs: A new narrative for African manufacturing. Journal of International Affairs, 72(1), 143–158. Sithole, P. M. (2020). Indigenous knowledge systems in crop management and grain storage in Chimanimani District of Zimbabwe. Southern African Journal of Environmental Education, 36, 21–32. Tharakan, J. (2017). Indigenous knowledge systems for appropriate technology development. In P. Venkatesan (Ed.), Indigenous people. Intech Open. Tsekea, S. (2016). The position of intellectual property systems in the protection of indigenous knowledge. Proceedings of the Standing Conference of Eastern, Central, and Southern Africa Library and Information Associations (SCECSAL) XXIIA: Ezulwini, Swaziland. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317660421_The_position_of_intell ectual_property_systems_in_the_protection_of_indigenous_knowledge. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). (2019). Bracing for the new industrial revolution: Elements of a strategic response. Vienna. WIPO. (2015). Intellectual property and traditional medical knowledge. Retrieved from https:// www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_tk_6.pdf World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO). (2020). Intellectual property and genetic resources, traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions. WIPO Publications. World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO). (2022). The direction of innovation. https:// www.wipo.intedocspubdocs/en/wipo-pub-944-2022-en-world-intellectual-property-report2022-the-direction-of-innovation.pdf Zidny, R., Sjöström, J., & Eilks, I. (2020). A multi-perspective reflection on how indigenous knowledge and related ideas can improve science education for sustainability. Science & Education, 29, 145–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-019-00100-x

Part II

The Cultural Root of Indigenous Technology and its Practices, Knowledge and Skills

Chapter 6

Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education: Technology Education in a Sámi School Cecilia Axell

Abstract This chapter is about how Sámi culture and knowledge systems are reflected through Technology Education in a Sámi school. The aim is to discuss the benefits of using traditional cultural artifacts in Technology Education, as well as what aspects indigenous technological knowledge systems (ITKS) can contribute to Technology Education. The chapter is based on the results of a case study, including recurring visits to a Sámi school in northern Sweden. In this Sámi school, specific traditional cultural artifacts were used as starting points for technology teaching. The cultural context was central and included both historical and present perspectives, with clear connections to other subject areas, as well as the children’s own experiences. Sámi myths and fairy tales were also frequently used for contextualisation. Since each technology activity was linked to many different perspectives and subject areas, the technology teaching was grounded on a holistic view of knowledge. The traditional cultural artifacts were not only attributed a practical value but also a symbolic value connected to inherited knowledge and practical applications and skills. The pupils were thus given the opportunity to discover that technology is not only modern high technology. In summary, this chapter illustrates how traditional cultural artifacts can play an important role in Technology Education and contribute to broadening the understanding of the relationship between humans, culture, nature, technology, and history. An inclusion of ITKSs in the curriculum may not only prevent marginalisation of indigenous knowledge, but also provide opportunities to broaden pupils’ understanding of technology, how it evolves, and the driving forces behind technological change. Keywords Technology Education · Sámi school · Cultural artifacts · Indigenous technological knowledge systems · Indigenous knowledge systems

C. Axell (B) Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_6

75

76

C. Axell

6.1 Introduction This chapter is based on results from a case study, exploring the nature of Technology Education in a Sámi school in northern Sweden (Axell, 2020). The aim is to discuss the benefits of using traditional cultural artifacts in Technology Education, as well as what aspects indigenous technological knowledge systems (ITKS) can contribute to Technology Education. Despite the Sámi people’s unique position as the only indigenous people in Sweden, the Sámi culture only has a minor place in the Swedish general national curriculum. There is also a notable lack of knowledge about the Sámi, their history, and culture in general. This is confirmed in studies investigating how northern indigenous cultures and values are included in teachers’ training in Sweden (Johansson, 2007, 2008). Hence, there is a demand among Sámi teachers and researchers that all children at compulsory schools in Sweden learn more about Sámi culture and other indigenous cultures (Svonni, 2015). This is in line with researchers arguing that inclusion of indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) can broaden the perspectives in Technology Education (e.g. Gumbo, 2015, 2017, 2018; van Wyk, 2002). The Sámi people live in four countries: Sweden, Finland, Norway, and Russia. Their traditional area of land is called Sápmi (Sámi Information Centre, n.d.). The Sámi population in Sápmi is estimated to be about 100,000. The Swedish census does not ask about ethnicity, but the Sámi population in Sweden is estimated to be about 20,000 (Keskitalo & Määttä, 2011). Like many other indigenous peoples, the Sámi have been subjected to discrimination, assimilationist politics, and injustice in the form of land loss and suppression of cultural and political institutions (Kortekangas, 2017; Minde, 2005; Svonni, 2015). Assimilation of the Sámi is no longer official political policy, but the Sámi continue to fight for their rights since these are seldom considered by the national states (Kuoljok & Utsi, 2009). Even if the Sámi do not have their own nation, they share language, culture, history, and connections with their traditional territories and waters. Sámi life and culture contain a great deal of informal knowledge, linked to practical applications and skills. This knowledge is holistic and place-bound (Keskitalo & Määttä, 2011; Keskitalo et al., 2012; Svonni, 2015). Culture is transferred through upbringing but also through education (Keskitalo & Määttä, 2011). Today there are five Sámi schools in the northern part of Sweden (Johansson, 2007; Svonni, 2015). The Sámi schools provide Sámi children with an education equivalent to that of the Swedish compulsory school, but with the additional task to mediate the norms, values, traditions, and cultural heritages of Sámi society. Also, the Sámi pupils should be given the opportunity to speak, read, and write in a Sámi language (Balto & Johansson, 2015; Swedish National Agency for Education, 2019). Sámi education is available from preschool to grade 6 (12-yearolds), and after that, the children attend mainstream Swedish compulsory schools (Alerby et al., 2013). The case study this chapter rests on (Axell, 2020) is based on recurring visits during three years to a Sámi school in northern Sweden. Each visit lasted four to six

6 Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education: Technology …

77

days. This specific Sámi school was chosen because of a request from the researcher to the Sámi education Board regarding interest in participating in a study, and teachers in this school registered their interest to participate. The study was conducted through participatory observations (Spradley, 1980) of daily activities with the children, as well as other events connected to the school day. The empirical data consisted of field notes, photographs, children’s drawings, transcribed interviews, and audio-recorded conversations during technology lessons, as well as other activities. It is important to note that the heritage of an indigenous people is a complete knowledge system and can only be fully understood and learned by the people themselves (Battiste, 2005). Therefore, this chapter is based on information from the Sámi school’s teachers, and from literature. For the same reason, the analyses of technology teaching in this Sámi school are conducted through Technology Education lenses. The starting point is that increased knowledge and understanding of indigenous cultures can create opportunities for all pupils, regardless of cultural background, to develop a broader understanding of technology (Gumbo, 2017, 2018; Lee, 2011). Based on the above, the following part of this chapter will describe Technology Education in a Sámi school. The chapter ends with a discussion on the implications for including cultural artifacts and ITKS in Technology Education.

6.2 Technology Education in a Sámi School According to the Swedish Technology Curriculum for the compulsory school, teaching in years 1–3 should include some objects from pupils’ everyday life and how these objects are adapted to people’s needs and changed over time (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2019). This content was clearly present in Technology Education in this Sámi school. One of the teachers explained that Sámi culture includes “a lot of things that are very old, but we still can and still do”. As example, she gives baking bread on a flat stone over a fire, traditional Sámi ice fishing methods, Sámi handicrafts (duodji), and how to tie and use different knots. Sámi artifacts are also clearly present in the school premises and in the schoolyard, e.g. different types of Sámi dwellings, wooden boats, a snowmobile, and a smaller model of a Sámi pole shed (njalla) that the Sámi used to store food in (Fig. 6.1). Among the toys that the children use on breaks, there are also lassos, i.e. long ropes used to catch reindeer (Fig. 6.2). The children play with these objects, but some of them are also used in teaching.

6.2.1 Technology Education in the Sámi Preschool Class Teaching in the preschool (1- to 5-year-olds) and preschool class (6-year-olds) is often based on a “season wheel” showing the eight seasons the Sámi divide a year into (Fig. 6.3). The wheel illustrates what happens in nature each season, e.g.

78

C. Axell

Fig. 6.1 Sámi artifacts in the schoolyard

Fig. 6.2 Rope for catching reindeer

when specific animal species give birth to their cubs and when bears wake up from hibernation. Nature is thus clearly present, and teaching is frequently taking place outdoor and in the natural environment. One of the teachers explained: “nature is not something you go to … you just are there”. The natural environment was used when the pupils in the preschool class were tasked with building cairns with snow (Fig. 6.4). A cairn is a human-made pile of

6 Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education: Technology …

79

Fig. 6.3 A season wheel for teaching in the Sámi preschool

stones, in ancient times often built as landmarks. According to the preschool class teacher, it is important to use materials from nature in construction work and not limit the children to using only, for example, Lego or Kapla blocks. To support the pupils’ construction work, the teacher asked them to imagine what a spruce tree looks like. Where is its widest part? Where is it narrowest? What would happen to big spruce if it were the other way around? Snow was also used as constructing material when the pupils built their own “deck chairs”. Using shovels and buckets, they designed, tested, and modified their chairs until they felt they were both comfortable and equipped with facilities, such as cup holders (Fig. 6.5). These activities were related to the curriculum requirement that pupils in preschool class should be given the opportunity to design and construct by using different materials, tools, and techniques, but also learn about common technical solutions, how they are designed, work, and could be improved (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2019). An important tool in Sámi everyday life is the knife (Fig. 6.7). Already in preschool, the children are made aware of its usefulness—to light a fire, to cut dried meat, and when fishing and hunting. The children practice handling a knife and learn how to carve safely, without harming themselves or others. The Sámi knife was discussed during a technology lesson in the preschool class. When the teacher asked “What is the most important thing we carry around our waist?” one pupil answered “the belt”. The teacher continued “And what do we carry in the belt?”. The pupils claimed that it is the knife, and the teacher confirmed “Yes, [the knife] is the most important [item] we have … [we use it] for cutting bread and meat, to mark the [reindeer] calf …”.

80 Fig. 6.4 A snow cairn

Fig. 6.5 A “deck chair” made of snow

C. Axell

6 Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education: Technology …

81

6.2.2 Technology Education in the Sámi Primary School Artifacts were not only central in Technology Education in the preschool class, but also in the primary education classroom. During a lesson called “What is technology?” with year 3 (9-year-olds), the pupils were asked what they think of when they hear the term “technology”, and their suggestions were written on the whiteboard. The teacher gathered the pupils in a circle on the floor. She had brought a bag from which she removed one artifact after another, and asked the children “What is this?” and “Is this technology?” The collection of artifacts consisted of both older and newer technology, as well as artifacts with a long history but which are still in use: Sámi footwear, older tools for scraping hides, an older pack saddle for reindeer, a stopper for Sámi reindeer lassos made from reindeer antler, tools for rolling thin wafers, a snow gaiter, an egg cutter, a clothes peg, a nutcracker, and a fork (Fig. 6.6). During the lesson, interesting discussions arose about what technology is and that it is not only modern artifacts like mobile phones and computers. According to the teachers, examples of important traditional cultural artifacts in Sámi culture are Sámi footwear (nuvttagat), the wooden bowl originally used for reindeer milk (náhppi), the Sami temporary dwelling (lávvu), the Sámi walking stick, and the traditional Sámi knife. Storage vessels are often made from birch bark and tubers (Fig. 6.7). Three of these traditional cultural artifacts served as starting points in technology activities in primary school: the temporary Sàmi dwelling (lávvu), the Sámi winter shoes, and the traditional Sámi Shaman drum (goavddis). These activities took place with pupils in grades 2–3 (8–9-year-olds). Fig. 6.6 Collection of older and newer artifacts

82

C. Axell

Fig. 6.7 Collection of Sámi artifacts

6.2.2.1

The lávvu Project

There are different types of traditional Sámi dwellings, of which the lávvu is the most recognised: a mobile, lightweight dwelling consisting of poles and covered with woollen cloth, rugs, or tent fabric. It is used as a temporary shelter and is similar in design to the Native American tepee but is more stable, so it can cope with strong winds. The lávvu was traditionally used by Sámi families when they migrated with their reindeer. Therefore, this dwelling needed to be lightweight and easy to assemble. The material for the lávvu was transported on sledges, pulled by reindeer. A more permanent dwelling is the goathi. A goathi is larger than a lávvu and has a dome-shaped structure consisting of a timber frame (Ministry of Agriculture, 2013). The primary teacher explained: “The lávvu is our caravan. It is portable.” Today lávvu tents are made from modern materials and used in the summer for camping or reindeer herding. Also, the silhouette of the lávvu serves as a Sámi symbol. Different types of Sámi dwellings are built on the Sami school’s schoolyard. They are used both in teaching and for play during breaks (Figs. 6.8 and 6.9). There is also a lávvu in the preschool facilities (Fig. 6.10). The lávvu project started with a visit to a Sámi museum, followed by a lesson in one of the Sámi dwellings in the schoolyard. During these lessons, the pupils were taught about the unwritten rules for being in a lávvu. The pupils also cut willow branches using pruning shears. Using knives, these branches were then cut into three forks. The pupils also scraped the branches and collected the bark (Fig. 6.11). Back in the classroom, the bark was put into boiling water and an experiment was conducted by putting a piece of paper in the decoction to see what happened. The result was that the paper was dyed. The foundation of the lávvu consists of forked poles forming a tripod. Each member of the family and each item has its own specific place in the dwelling. In the middle is a fireplace (árran), a hole is left at the top for smoke. The fireplace is surrounded by larger stones, and the floor is covered with birch twigs with reindeer or elk furs on top. The birch rice needs to be replaced weekly. The pupils also

6 Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education: Technology … Fig. 6.8 One of the dwellings (a lávvu) on the schoolyard

Fig. 6.9 Example of another type of dwelling on the schoolyard

83

84

C. Axell

Fig. 6.10 The Lávvu in the preschool facitities

Fig. 6.11 Three forks made of branches

learned about the goddesses, which, according to Sámi traditional mythology, live in different spaces of the lávvu, and the pupils draw pictures based on what they learned (Fig. 6.12). The next step was to construct a model of the lávvu, and each pupil received a wooden plate. Three holes were made with a hand drill, and the three poles were fastened. Glue was used to stabilise the structure. The fireplace was created by gluing stones in a circle in the middle of the wooden plate. Pieces of birch twigs were glued

6 Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education: Technology …

85

Fig. 6.12 A pupil’s drawing of a lávvu

Fig. 6.13 Pot from reused tea lights

to the floor of the lávvu. Used tea lights were reused to create a pot for cooking over the fire (Fig. 6.13). The final step was to put canvas over the structure. This consisted of two halves which were laid from behind and forward towards the door opening. The door was made from a piece of cloth that was held in place by wooden slats and hung using string from one of the bars above the door opening (Fig. 6.14). By modelling clay from flour, salt, and water, the pupils also created various artifacts belonging to life in lávvu, such as storage vessels (Fig. 6.15).

86 Fig. 6.14 Door from a piece of cloth

Fig. 6.15 Storage vessels made of modelling clay

C. Axell

6 Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education: Technology …

87

Fig. 6.16 Preparation for writing lávvu-based stories

The pupils were also given a sheet of paper divided into four fields with a question in each field: Where? When? Who? Why? The pupils filled in who lived in the lávvu, where the lávvu was situated, and when and why the main characters were in the lávvu. They then wrote their own stories (fairy tales) connected to the lávvu (Fig. 6.16). Most of the children wrote that their characters were in the lávvu because they were going to hunt, fish, or take care of their reindeer. Some also drew dogs or other animals, and some drew bear tracks. Figures from Sámi mythology, and folktales were also present in their stories. Through the lávvu project, the pupils were given the opportunity to achieve several objectives from the technology curriculum: develop their knowledge about technology in everyday life, solving different problems and needs with technology, and identifying and analyse technological solutions based on their suitability and function. They were also given the opportunity to use different materials for their own constructions and explore how they can be combined and familiarise themselves with the function and construction of some everyday objects, including simple mechanisms. During the project, it was also made clear how objects in pupils’ daily lives have changed over time (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2019).

6.2.2.2

The Sámi Winter Footwear Project

Traditional Sámi winter shoes are made of hide pieces from the legs of the reindeer. The skins from the four legs of one reindeer are enough for one pair of Sámi winter shoes. Since the hide is thicker in different places on the reindeer’s legs, it is important

88

C. Axell

that each piece is put in the right place. The shoes are traditionally sewn with threads made of reindeer sinews (Fig. 6.17). Underneath, the fur pieces are placed in two directions, so the wearer does not slip. The function of the toe hook was originally for use on skis (Fig. 6.18). According to one of the primary teachers, skis are an important artifact in the Sámi culture and history and are therefore included in teaching: “We talked about those old skis, with just one strap… and why our shoes look like they do with this ‘beak’. It is a skiing bond… [It is important] that [the children] understand why things are [constructed] as they are…”. The teacher introduced the winter shoes activity by reading aloud in Sámi from a Sámi picture book, Silbamánnu “Silver Moon” (Horndal, 2016). The story is about a Sámi girl who is good at spinning threads. One day she is captured by Stallo, a well-known character in Sámi mythology—a giant troll who eats people. However, the girl outwits Stallo by unravelling one of her threads, all the way to the place she is held captive, and she is rescued. The book contains illustrations of artifacts with ancient histories: Sámi clothing, Sámi shoes, a wooden spindle, a wooden milk bowl, a walking stick, and longbows. Modern artifacts such as a quad bike, binoculars, a walkie-talkie, and electric power lines are also depicted in the book. The teacher gathered the pupils in a circle on the floor. She had brought an old Sámi wooden spindle (Fig. 6.19), like the one depicted in the picture book. She had also brought a bag of sheep’s wool. The teacher took a wad of wool, soaked it with water, and rolled it against her leg to show how to make threads to knit a sweater. Fig. 6.17 Shoe threaded with reindeer sinews

6 Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education: Technology …

89

Fig. 6.18 The toe hook was originally used in skiing

Fig. 6.19 A Sámi wooden spindle

A traditional Sámi winter shoe made of reindeer hide was then presented to the pupils, together with a bunch of dried sinews (Fig. 6.20). The sinews were familiar to several of the pupils and a discussion arose about where the sinews can be found on the reindeer and what physiological function they have. The teacher started to process the sinews with a rubber hammer (Fig. 6.21). While doing this, she encouraged the pupils to follow what happened: “Look, now I have loose threads… When they are this small, I soak them…, and then I spin them like this, against my leg.”

90

C. Axell

Fig. 6.20 Introduction of the Sámi winter footwear project

Fig. 6.21 Processing of sinews

She put several threads together and rolled them back and forth on her leg. When finished she handed some sinews to the pupils, while repeating the Sámi word for “reindeer sinews”. All pupils were given the opportunity to process the sinews with the rubber hammer and then twist the threads. Most of the pupils wanted to use the sinew threads as bracelets.

6 Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education: Technology …

91

Also in this project, the pupils were given the opportunity to work in accordance with several objectives in the technology curriculum: the historical perspective, identify problems and needs that can be solved with technology, analyse technical solutions based on their suitability and function, and investigate different materials and how these can be combined (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2019).

6.2.2.3

The Sámi Shaman Drum Project

In the past, the Sámi shaman drum had two functions: (1) as a tool that helped the Sámi shaman (the Noajdde) enter a trance and travel to other worlds; (2) as an instrument to help foresee the future. Common motifs on the drums are ancient Sámi gods and goddesses, reindeer, hunting, quarry animals, and encampments (Kuoljok & Utsi, 2009). During the seventeenth century, drums were banned by Christian representatives, and the drums were collected and burned. Not many have survived, but according to the teachers they are still a strong and important Sámi symbol. This project started with a visit to the new town hall, and the participants were pupils in year 3 (aged 9). Back in the classroom, the teacher introduced the project by showing a photo of the town hall door handles, which are made of birch and reindeer horns (Fig. 6.22). Some of the pupils recognised that the handles were designed like the bottom of an old shaman drum. The teacher asked if they knew what the drums were used for, and a pupil responded that they were used to find grazing for the reindeer. The teacher confirmed that this was correct and added that the families also used them “to make sure that childbirth went well, and where to find elk to hunt” but also “to talk with the gods”. The Sámi shamans were especially good at that. By showing different photos of shaman drums, the teacher started a discussion about the materials the drums were made of. The pupils were also made aware of different ancient Sámi symbols—each symbol has a meaning. Some of drums were Fig. 6.22 Town hall door handles

92

C. Axell

Fig. 6.23 Sámi symbols

decorated with beer teeth, since the bear was seen as a sacred animal. Many of the drums were decorated with illustrations of beavers, elks, reindeers, reindeer corrals, hunters, and boats. The sun symbol was also common. The teacher concluded that these symbols are still popular on jewellery, and other artifacts, but she also noted that today many people do not know what they mean—they use them because they “think they are nice” (Fig. 6.23). The pupils received a sheet of paper depicting the gods’ and goddesses’ symbols, and were tasked with writing down facts about six of them (Fig. 6.24). Since according to Sámi mythology some of the goddesses live in the lávvu, the teacher made connections to the lávvu project. In the next step, the pupils started to create their own shaman drums. The teacher had brought concrete frames to form cylinders, and the pupils prepared their drums by painting them in the colours they preferred. The drum were then decorated. Some pupils chose to draw illustrations of Sámi gods and goddesses, reindeer, or Sámi dwellings, while others decorated their drums with their pets or names of relatives (Fig. 6.25). While preparing the cylinders, the researcher discussed the function of the drums and asked the pupils if they thought that the shaman drum is “technology”? The pupils agreed that the drum is technology, by referring to it as an artifact the Sámi used in the past to solve problems.

6 Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education: Technology … Fig. 6.24 Gods’ and goddesses’ symbols

Fig. 6.25 The pupils decorated their drums

93

94

C. Axell

Fig. 6.26 Reindeer hides

The following day, the drumheads were attached to the drums, and the teacher had brought circular reindeer hides. She showed how the reindeer hides had been scraped with a specific tool and then tanned in a decoction of water and sallow bark (Fig. 6.26). The drumheads were attached to the cylinders using a staple gun. Alternative solutions, such as using bolts and screws, were discussed (Fig. 6.27). The drums were then left to dry (Fig. 6.28). During the activity, the teacher confirmed the pupils’ alternative suggested solutions and encouraged them to personalise their drums by decorating them with illustrations symbolising what is important to them. There were also discussions about older and modern technological solutions to meet the same human needs and wants. For example, in reindeer herding skis used to be the only means of transport. Today, technology such as snowmobiles, quad bikes, motorbikes, and helicopters are also used.

6 Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education: Technology … Fig. 6.27 The drumheads were attached with a staple gun

Fig. 6.28 The drums were left to dry

95

96

C. Axell

6.3 Implications for Including ITKS in Technology Education 6.3.1 Multiple Cultural Perspectives on Technological Knowledge An aspect discussed among the teachers at the Sámi school was the general lack of knowledge about the Sámi in Sweden, and that Sámi culture only has a minor place in the Swedish general national curriculum. However, due to the hierarchical imbalance between indigenous knowledge and Western perspectives on knowledge, including IKS is a challenge. As Battiste (2005) notes, “Indigenous knowledge has been understood as being in binary opposition to ‘scientific,’ ‘Western’, ‘Eurocentric,’ or ‘modern’ knowledge” (Battiste, 2005, p. 5). Hence, from a traditional Western view, the kinds of skills and knowledge connected to the described technology projects are often seen as “only practical”. They are thus attributed lower value than theoretical knowledge” which is connected to intellectual skills. However, instead of dividing knowledge into theoretical and practical and instead of seeing knowledge as something embodied and contextualised, indigenous peoples’ knowledge could help to broaden the perspectives in education (Alerby et al., 2013). These arguments are in line with researchers who argue that Technology Education is overly influenced by Western knowledge systems (Gumbo, 2018; Williams, 2000). Consequently, pupils often perceive the teaching content as being only about modern artifacts such as computers, mobile phones, tablets, and TVs (de Vries, 2005; Gumbo, 2017, 2018). However, since technology is global, Technology Education should include technology from different cultural contexts, and not only focus on those from limited parts of the world (Edgerton, 2006; Gumbo, 2015). Multiple culture perspectives, including ITKSs, can broaden pupils’ understanding of technology and its connections to culture and thus contrast a Westernbiased curriculum (Axell, 2020; Gumbo, 2017; Lee, 2011). As van Wyk (2002) proposes, an inclusion of IKS can problematise the insufficient integration of cultural-social dimensions in Technology Education. The absence of multicultural aspects of technology also clashes with one of the keystones in the twenty-first-century skills: that education should strive to ensure that pupils develop an understanding of cultural diversity and multicultural literacy. Cross-cultural skills can not only support pupils to be open-minded to different ideas and values but also create conditions for them to develop respect for cultural differences, as well as using these to generate ideas and innovations (Scott, 2015).

6 Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education: Technology …

97

6.3.2 A Holistic Perspective on the Knowledge Including Sustainable Development The Sámi culture is built on a holistic view of knowledge (Keskitalo & Määttä, 2011; Keskitalo et al., 2012; Svonni, 2015), which was confirmed in the technology teaching in this school. In the projects described here, the cultural context was central and included both historical and present perspectives, with connections to other school subjects, such as science, religion, history, and crafts. Through this thematic approach, in combination with the inclusion of pupils’ outside-school experiences, holistic learning in technology was offered. The importance of a holistic approach is also highlighted by scholars in Technology Education. Onwu and Mosimege (2004), for example, argue for the inclusion of IKSs in Technology Education, since IKSs can contribute to a holism missing in Western thought. In contrast to the holistic nature of IKSs, Western knowledge systems (WKSs) are often limited to some particular aspects of reality (Onwu & Mosimege, 2004). The holistic nature of IKSs can also support pupils’ views of nature and sustainable development (Bondy, 2011; Lee, 2011; Marshall, 2000; Utsi, 2007). As Gumbo (2018) notes, Western societies in general see themselves as separate from nature. IKS, on the other hand, encourage collective learning and indigenous societies generally regard themselves as part of nature. Including IKS in Technology Education could thus broaden pupils’ views and attitudes towards the environment (Gumbo, 2018). In line with Gumbo (2018), Marshall (2000) states, from a M¯aori perspective, that the environment cannot be seen “as a standing reserve, to be called upon” (p. 129). To do any harm to the environment is to invade or harm oneself. Not only for the environment but also for the future of oneself and one’s people. Thus, the context in which the technology development takes place is also important—an aspect of an indigenous worldview can contribute (Marshall, 2000). This can be linked to how one of a teacher at the Sámi school described nature as not something “you go to … you just are there”. Hence, indigenous perspectives could counteract narrow anthropocentric views of nature and contribute to broadening the concept of “sustainable development”.

6.3.3 Creating Meaningful Contexts By using different traditional cultural artifacts and making clear connections to the historical and cultural perspectives, prerequisites were created for the pupils in the Sámi school to experience the learning content as meaningful. An inclusion of their own experiences also supported conditions for seeing technology teaching as relevant. As Lee (2011) notes, since technology involves something that people have made or done, it also involves human values. Consequently, technology is always

98

C. Axell

inherently situated within a culture and its values. The cultural context is therefore what gives the artifacts meaning (Lee, 2011). Myths and storytelling were also frequently used for contextualisation in this Sámi school, which confirms that indigenous knowledge is often transmitted through narratives (Goduka & Kunnie, 2004; Owuor, 2007). This approach is also in line with previous research advocating the use of narratives in Technology Education, since stories can act as springboards for discussions about the nature of technology and its impact on humans, society, and nature in the past and the present (Axell, 2017).

6.3.4 The Symbolic Value of Artifacts and Connections to Cultural Identity In technology teaching in this Sámi school, traditional cultural artifacts were also given a symbolic value. In this way, technological knowledge was connected to inherited knowledge, practical applications, and skills (Keskitalo & Määttä, 2011; Keskitalo et al., 2012; Svonni, 2015). This confirms that indigenous technology is collective and based on knowledge that has been developed over many generations (Bondy, 2011; Gumbo, 2018). Artifacts like the lávvu, traditional Sámi winter shoes, and the shaman drum can be seen as important Sámi symbols and expressions of cultural identity. Knowledge about the artifacts can thus help strengthen the pupils’ cultural identity. However, it is important to note that Sámi people are not a homogeneous group and what is valued as important Sámi symbols varies between individuals and between groups (Swedish Ministry of Agriculture, 2013). Integrating ITKSs into Technology Education can also make teachers reflect on their own biases and develop an understanding of their own position in the social, historical, and political context that surrounds technology. This includes how our social identities are shaped by society and what role technology plays in this formation (Gumbo, 2018). Additionally, today’s technology classrooms are often multicultural, which is an important aspect to consider in teaching. Cultural artifacts, and technological solutions from other cultures, could advantageously be included as well in the technology teaching. In this way, a narrow Western perspective could be avoided, and the teaching could contribute to all pupils experiencing a sense of belonging and meaningfulness.

6.3.5 The Historical Perspective According to the Swedish curriculum, Technology Education should give pupils opportunities to reflect on the historical development of technology, to understand contemporary technological phenomena (Swedish National Agency for Education,

6 Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education: Technology …

99

2019). However, this is a challenge, because this development is often described as a historical timeline focussing on certain specific inventions, and the enduring dimension of technology is lost (Edgerton, 2006). Inclusion of indigenous knowledge can prevent teaching where the past is portrayed as an inevitable progression, driven by human progress where everything has only improved (Lee, 2011). In this Sámi school, specific traditional cultural artifacts served as a starting point for technology teaching. In this way, both historical and cultural perspectives were made visible. The pupils were given the chance to discover that technology is not only modern high technology; it is an age-old tradition of problem-solving, modification and adaptation to fulfil our needs (Lee, 2011). In the teaching, there was also a strong link between past and present. A clear message was that although some technological knowledge is old, it remains important and relevant today. This includes artifacts like skin shoes, skis, reindeer skins as sleeping mats, traditional food technology methods, fishing methods, the traditional Sámi knife, and other artifacts connected with Sámi handicraft. In this way, technology’s enduring dimension was stressed.

6.4 Conclusion To summarise, this chapter illustrates how traditional cultural artifacts can play an important role in Technology Education and contribute to broadening an understanding of the relationship between humans, culture, nature, technology, and history. A cultural context, in combination with a holistic perspective on learning, gives artifacts meaning and provides a meaningful context within which they are used. By including indigenous cultural artifacts in Technology Education, it is possible to prevent a mediation of Western technology as superior to indigenous technological solutions; the same human needs and problems can be solved with different kinds of technology, and much of the technology is still in use has a long history. An inclusion of ITKSs in the curriculum may not only prevent marginalisation of indigenous knowledge, but also provide opportunities to broaden pupils’ understanding of technology, how it evolves, and the driving forces behind technological change.

References Alerby, E., Hertting, K., Jonsson, G., & Sarri, C. (2013). Images of cultural identities. Sámi children’s experiences of learning. In R. Craven, G. Bodkin-Andrews & J. Mooney (Eds.) Indigenous Peoples. A volume in: International advances in education: Global initiatives for equity and social justice (pp. 269–285). Information Age Publishing, Inc. Axell, C. (2017). Critiquing literature: Children’s literature as a learning tool for critical awareness. In P. J. Williams & K. Stables (Eds.), Critique in design and technology education. Contemporary issues in technology education (pp. 237–254). Springer Nature.

100

C. Axell

Axell, C. (2020). Broadening the Horizons of Technology Education: Using traditional cultural artefacts as learning tools in a Swedish Sámi School. Design and Technology Education: An International Journal, 25(2), 192–216. Balto, A. M., & Johansson, G. (2015). The process of vitalizing and revitalizing culture-based pedagogy in Sámi Schools in Sweden. International Journal about Parents in Education, 9(1), 106–118. Battiste, M. (2005). Indigenous knowledge: Foundations for first nations. WINHEC: International Journal of Indigenous Education Scholarship (1), 1–17. Bondy, A. (2011). Indigenous knowledge, intellectual property and technology education. International Journal of Learning, 18(1), 389–400. de Vries, M. J. (2005). Teaching about technology: An introduction to the philosophy of technology for non-philosophers. Springer. Edgerton, D. (2006). Shock of the old: Technology and global history since 1900. Profile Books. Goduka, N. I., & Kunnie, J. E. (Eds.). (2004). Indigenous peoples’ wisdom and power: Affirming our knowledge through narratives. Ashgate. Gumbo, M. T. (2015). Indigenous technology in technology education curricula and teaching. In P. J. Williams, A. Jones, & C. Buntting (Eds.), The future of technology education: Contemporary issues in technology education (pp. 57–75). Springer. Gumbo, M. T. (2017). Alternative knowledge systems. In P. J. Williams & K. Stables (Eds.), Critique in design and technology education. Contemporary issues in technology education (pp. 87–105). Springer Nature. Gumbo, M. T. (2018). Rethinking teaching of technology: An approach integrating indigenous knowledge systems. In M. J. de Vries (Ed.), Handbook of technology education (pp. 807–825). Springer International. Horndal, S. (2016). Silbamánnu. CálliidLágádus. Johansson, G. (2007). Cultural diversities in education in the North (Research Report). Luleå University of Technology. Department of Education. Johansson, G. (2008). Teachers’ intercultural competences as keystones for learning in Europe: Cultural diversity as a generic part of teaching profession. Kongresrapport Til Den 10. Nordiske Læreruddannelses Kongres. Keskitalo, P., & Määttä, K. (2011). How do the Sámi culture and school culture converge—Or do they? Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, 40, 112–119. Keskitalo, P., Määttä, K., & Uusiautti, S. (2012). Sámi education in Finland. Early Child Development and Care, 182(3–4), 329–343. Kuoljok, S., & Utsi, J. E. (2009). The Sámi: People of the sun and wind. Ájtte. Kortekangas, O. (2017). Useful citizens, useful citizenship: Cultural contexts of Sámi education in early twentieth century Norway, Sweden, and Finland. Paedagogica Historica, 53(1–2), 80–92. Lee, K. (2011). Looking back, to look forward: Using traditional cultural examples to explain contemporary ideas in technology education. Journal of Technology Education, 22(2), 42–52. Marshall, J. D. (2000). Technology education and indigenous peoples: The case of Maori. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 32(1), 119–131. Minde, H. (2005). Assimilation of the Sami—Implementation and consequences. Gáldu Cála. Journal of Indigenous Peoples Rights. No. 3/2005. Acta Borealia, vol. 20, 2003:2, 121–146 (E. Blomgren, Trans.). Onwu, G., & Mosimege, M. (2004). Indigenous knowledge systems and science and technology education: A dialogue. African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 8(1), 1–12. Owuor, J. A. (2007). Integrating African indigenous knowledge in Kenya’s formal education system: The potential for sustainable development. Journal of Contemporary Issues in Education, 2(2), 21–37. Sámi Information Centre. (n.d.). http://www.samer.se

6 Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education: Technology …

101

Scott, L. C. (2015). The futures of learning 2: What kind of learning for the 21st century? Education research and foresight (Working Papers). UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/ 002429/242996e.pdf Swedish Ministry of Agriculture. (2013). The Sami—An indigenous people in Sweden. Sámi Parliament. Swedish National Agency for Education. (2019). Curriculum for the compulsory school system, the pre-school class and school-age educare 2011. Revised 2019. Norstedts Juridik AB. Svonni, C. (2015). At the margin of educational policy: Sámi/Indigenous peoples in the Swedish National Curriculum 2011. Creative Education (9), 898–906. Spradley, J. P. (1980). Participant observation. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Utsi, P. M. (2007). Traditionell kunskap och sedvänjor inom den samiska kulturen: relaterat till bevarande och hållbart nyttjande av biologisk mångfald. Sámi Parliament. van Wyk, J. A. (2002). Indigenous knowledge systems: Implications for natural science and technology teaching and learning. South African Journal of Education, 4, 305–312. Williams, P. J. (2000). The only methodology of technology? Journal of Technology Education, 11(2), 48–60.

Chapter 7

Toys, Design and Technology: Intergenerational Connects and Embodied Cultural Practices Ritesh Khunyakari

Abstract Toys represent symbolic, material, and cultural manifestations of design and technology. Developing an understanding of technologies through the lens of indigenous technological knowledge systems affords critical advantages, besides enabling dialogue on discursive practices around technologies. Indian toys are a case in point. An exhaustive analysis of the vast repertoire of toys from the rich, diverse, and evolving Indian culture is difficult to achieve. Hence, data is drawn from an earlier study involving pre-service teachers examining Indian childhoods through toys. The range of indigenous toys elicited is analysed using a heuristic framework developed to parse the diversity of toys based on two dimensions of the nature of toy functioning (static vs. dynamic) and influence on toy production (realistic vs. creative ingenuity). Besides aiding reflection on aspects of culture and cognition, the analysis of indigenous toys helps unpack complex, multi-layered interactions between humans, technologies, and societies. By stimulating context and culture, indigenous toys can facilitate the reflexive orientations in teaching and learning technology. The study offers possibilities for designing authentic engagements for learners, teachers, and teacher educators from the indigenous knowledge systems informed standpoint. Keywords Cultural appropriation · Design and technology education · Indigenous technological knowledge systems · Toys

7.1 Introduction Toys represent a distinctive category of artefactual interest across generations. By virtue of their design and material existence, toys embody material, social, and cultural practices that are historically and contextually appropriated by human societies. The context of indigenous toys affords a world of alternatively configured R. Khunyakari (B) Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Hyderabad, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_7

103

104

R. Khunyakari

material experiences, the processes of production, and the socio-emotive and cognitive resonance generated through play. The world of indigenous toys represents a case of indigenous technological knowledge systems (ITKS) which can bring fresh perspectives on the understanding of design and technologies in practice. To further this argument, the chapter systematically develops a conceptual framework that teases the persistent epistemological-ontological tension pervading contemporary discussions on technology and foregrounds the situated, socio-cognitively appropriated perspective as a mindful contact with culture. The chapter then reports the analysis of data obtained from an earlier study involving pre-service teachers to examine toys as a means of unpacking the Indian childhoods. A heuristic framework developed classifies the indigenous toys, forming the basis for a discussion on the affordance of toys in enabling design and technology education.

7.2 Indigenous Knowledge Systems: Dealing with the Epistemological-Ontological Tension Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) represent a cohesive ensemble of knowledges, which reclaim their distinctive identity on the basis of their spatio-temporal origins, methodological approaches, manifestations, and the unique (epistemic, socio-economic, political, cultural, and contextual) value contributions towards enriching human understanding. An acknowledgement of indigenous knowledges— construed variously as traditional, cultural, local, or folk knowledges—allows for revisiting and challenging the hegemonic relationship between modern science knowledge systems and western science knowledge systems (WSKS) (McCarty, 2012), and offers possibilities for critical reflexivity and alternate imaginations (Odora Hoppers, 2002). In the same vein, an appreciation of ITKS needs to be developed (Gumbo, 2012; Shizha, 2014). While the extant literature on IKS has deliberated largely on the outcomes and entrenched practices in niche sectors like health, ecology, and agriculture, leading to alternate theorising of knowledge-power relationships and ethics (Sharma, 2021), little effort has been made towards critical reimagination of the curricular principles (Aikenhead & Ogawa, 2007; Singh & Reyhner, 2013) and the nature of human-technology-society relationships (Turnbull, 2000). A prejudiced celebration of technological knowledge as synonymous with societal development sets the tone for characterising this relationship (Tharakan, 2015). Achievements and technological developments as markers of progressive societies pose an exclusive epistemology of evaluation (Arthur, 2009), reinforcing the historically entrenched hegemonic relation of knowledge that neglects or compromises the socio-cognitive, affective, and other aspects crucial to society and practice. Further, the sense of technological advancement through tangible material gains conjures an ontology that emphasises products over processes or systems. In contrast to technologies enduring

7 Toys, Design and Technology: Intergenerational Connects …

105

over time, the rapidly changing technologies receive appreciation as “frontier technologies”. An epistemological-ontological tension, similar to technology, is reported in the growth and metamorphosis of Indian design. While the contemporary literature acknowledges design both as a noun and as a verb (Dorst, 2006), the historical understanding continues to be contoured and revisited exclusively through design outcomes. The temporal unravelling of design culture, following the predominant Eurocentric paradigm, leads to a linear or stylistic partitioning. Vyas (2000) critiques the approach for its inadequacy to capture the inevitable and powerful place of design idiom in appreciating dynamism and the fundamental character of India’s cultural traditions and heritage, including its rich engagement with technology. In contrast, he proposes a “lateral approach”, which involves a continuous, ongoing interface between tradition and modernity, signifying the ever-continuing, mutual interactions of a designer’s temperament and approach with the material resources, knowledge, skills, and values. The connections between knowledge and tradition serve as coherent points of reference that continuously feed into influence, and evolve the living patterns and attitudes of human societies. Further, the lateral approach allows for capturing the inherent unity and embodiment of craft, art, skill, and technique salient to the Indian design paradigm (Balaram, 1998). The lurking tension between epistemology and ontology manifests in relation to both technology and design. A corresponding tension has seeped into the imagination of curricular spaces which could otherwise be carved as spaces for critical transformation towards inclusive and responsive technology education (Gumbo, 2018). An effort to counter this long-standing, pervasive tension is noted in Gandhi’s alternative education system of Nai Talim, which placed the productive handicrafts as the pivot of education and challenged the oppressive agenda of colonial education, both symbolically and politically. The integral envisioning of work and education implied a rupture in social vulnerabilities associated with manual labour and demanded from learners a continual engagement with various activities in a learning cycle (NCERT, 2005). Kumar (1993) observed that while the formerly developed self-sufficiency, the latter instilled autonomy. A learning cycle follows the processes of generating resources, their transformation, and production, ultimately reaching its users, for example, growing cotton weaving and selling khadi cloth. As opposed to piecemeal knowledge offered through subject domains, the learning cycle involves an integrated approach situated within the commune and IKS. Technology’s relation to human beliefs, practices, and values is critical for challenging the linear relation between knowledge and reality (Watson-Verran & Turnbull, 1995). An IKS-informed approach to design and technology education can offer liberal space within curricula to meaningfully address the tension described above.

106

R. Khunyakari

7.2.1 Technologies as Situated and Appropriated: The ITKS Perspective Technologies are not passively received by individuals, communities, or societies. They are contextually appropriated through processes of negotiated use, reflection, and practice (Pacey, 2000). Given this understanding of a close-knit relation between technology-in-context and technological evolution, it may not be prudent to consider either a linear, deterministic trajectory or a series of progressive advancements, or even a reconstructed journey based on remarkable milestones (Basalla, 1988). Rather, it may be fruitful to consider the variations at a given slice of time and engage with the conditions, contexts, and ways in which technologies have been absorbed, imbibed, situated, and appropriated. Following this orientation, heuristically technology can be classified as (i) envisioned (e.g. Leonardo’s works), (ii) emergent (e.g. vaccines), (iii) encountered (e.g. mobiles), and (iv) encultured (e.g. water harvesting practices). This scheme captures the sources and the extent of technological appropriation in relation to context, space, and time. Adapting this conceptual orientation for analysing toys affords considering different knowledges (eurocentric or indigenous; explicit or tacit, etc.) and scope for a fluid intermingling of otherwise vehemently claimed knowledges, isolated and contrasted through lenses of perspectives and positionality. Further, the dynamic flux within IKS and WSKS mediated through the role of human motivation, reflection, and transformation of technologies is acknowledged.

7.2.2 Unravelling IKS Through Relations with Symbols and Materials In India, expressions of design and technology find resonance with symbols and materials (Coomaraswamy, 2004). Indian art traditions have been multiple, accommodative, and persistently evolving, as evident in observations by historians of Indian art. Many tribes and races, such as the Aryans, Parthians, Greeks, Sakas, Kushanas, Huns, Turks and Mongols made this land their home. They brought with them their indigenous cultures and then merged with the races already here. This mingling of races and cultures and their absorption into what may be called the mainstream of Indian civilization proved to be a significant historical process rich with many possibilities. (Iyer, 1982, p. 1)

The blend of art, material knowledge, and technologies (Dhamija, 2002) are characteristic of the Indian examples of IKS, such as water harvesting, biodiversity conservation, agricultural practices, medicine, etc. Several indigenous toys symbolically capture the nuances of immediate natural and social reality with greatly rendered artistic and aesthetic elegance (Aggarwal et al., 2013). Some associate culturally with enduring traditions and practices of religious faith, community fairs, and festivals.

7 Toys, Design and Technology: Intergenerational Connects …

107

The traditions in Indian puppetry exemplify this point (Mehrotra & Khunyakari, 2007). Therefore, capturing coherent inter-relationship of symbols, materials, and purpose is a revealing feature of IKS in India.

7.3 Toys as Intergenerational, Cultural Artefacts The relational distinction between toy, game, and play highlights their salience in a child’s developmental environment. On one level, the distinction seems inconsequential but attending to the subtle differences and dialectic inter-relation provides a compass to the unique positioning of toys, characterised by definite, material existence and specifically intended design need (see Table 7.1). The features of intergenerational learning (Davis et al., 2002) and embodiment reveal intent, design influences, and toy attributes steering a child’s behaviours. Bradley (1985) noted that toys lead to the development of physical and social skills together with imaginative reconstruction of ideas and social relations. Beyond providing intrinsic motivation, play materials or toys catalyse adult-child interactions. Rubin and Howe (1985) found materiality correlates with behavioural patterns. For instance, art materials elicited solitary and constructive play, whereas dress-up clothes, vehicles, and dolls elicited socio-dramatic play. Miller et al. (2017) studied the nature of toys (feedback or electronic toy versus traditional or non-automated toys) impacting the quality and quantity of parent-child interactions. Infants’ vocal and gestural behaviours covaried with the toy presented in play sessions. Further, Table 7.1 Toy’s relation with game and play Characteristics

Game

Toy

Meaning

Activity that one engages An object for a child to Engage in an activity for in for amusement or fun play with, typically a enjoyment and recreation model or miniature replica of something

Human agency Set rules and procedures Develop, Operate and participate in person (play) or vicariously (observe, listen)

Play

Set the norms and actively participate

Motivation

Amusement, idling, recreation

Joy, curiosity, tinkering, Amusement, indulgence, recreation trifling, recreation

Boundedness

Definite beginning and end

Timeless

May or may not be time-bound

Context

Formal

Non-formal

Informal

Involvement

Largely collective; sometimes individual

Largely individual; at times collective

Either collective or individual

108

R. Khunyakari

parents’ contingent feedback and their global responsiveness also varied with respect to the toy types. The toy-specific pattern of adult-child interactions suggests the need for examining toys as intergenerational means for a contextual understanding of learning and childhood.

7.3.1 Toys as a Point of Contact and Continuity of Cultural Heritage Toys embody the wisdom of material tempering, cultural traditions, and practices (Scott, 2010). Designerly expressions informed through art and aesthetics inherit a toy legacy along with narratives of sociological interactions around them (NCERT, 2006). The following excerpt captures a folk narrative on social engagement with toys and its translation into reality, which was later immortalised through sculpting, another form of artistic-technological expression. The Satavahanas were a mighty power and their empire spread over a large part of the peninsula during circa 230 B.C.- 230 A.D. A legendary story is told of a Satavahana king, the founder of the dynasty who, as a child, used to play with clay soldiers and horses. They later were brought to life and helped the king to defeat his overlord and establish himself as a sovereign monarch. This legend, though of course apocryphal, is the one probably portrayed in a panel carved in low relief from Jaggayyapetta (Andhra Pradesh) which depicts a prince playing with toy horses and elephants. (Dhavalikar, 1977, p. 30)

The continuation of insights, social experiences, and assimilated wisdom transferred as material, intellectual, and socio-cultural traditions signify toys as heritage culture (Dongerkery, 1954; Nhi, 2017). An archaeological approach to studying toys offers a “technological snapshot” and unfolds interesting nuances of human civilisations. While historians engage with reconstructing the dynamics around a period of time, a pedagogue with an eye for technological detail notices an encapsulated message of design concerns and considerations, material engagements, and revisualisation of the transformational processes to realise adorable, artefactual marvels that continue to impress humans across ages. A peep into the tradition of Indian terracotta1 reveals toy design and making. Terracotta figurines were manufactured in large quantities in north India. They comprise human and animal figures, toys of various kinds, such as chariots, whistles and rattles, and also figures of gods and goddesses and other related cult objects. …A Sanskrit text, Kashyapa Samhita, which is a medical treatise in third century, …suggests that the toys should be well polished, handy, soft, straight, and easy to move from place to place, charming and soundproducing. Charaka, of the same period, prescribes that they should be pleasant looking, have soft edges …could not be easily put into the mouth or swallowed by a child. (Dhavalikar, 1977, pp. 2–3)

The expectations posed on the materials, production processes, and usability of anticipated toys suggest that these were user-directed technological design interventions. Engagement with toys simultaneously immersed a child into cultural expressions of materials, honing principles and working knowledge, and endowed norms and

7 Toys, Design and Technology: Intergenerational Connects …

109

Fig. 7.1 Toy cart from Indus valley civilisation. Source Illustrated by author

values of the immediate milieu. An uncanny similarity reverberates in examples of Victorian toys such as phonographic dolls, picture books with animal sounds, a toy monorail, and a toy dirigible balloon, where toys extended knowledge and resources in mathematics, physics, and engineering, and familiarised children to principles through which the mechanical devices operated (De Vries, 1992)—refer to Fig. 7.1. A comprehensive human, environmental, and technological relationship finds focus in indigenous toys as evident in the terracotta toy cart from Harappa, Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3500–2750 B.C.) illustrated in Fig. 7.1.

7.3.2 All-Round (Socio-Emotive, Cognitive, and Cultural) Human Development Literature on child development (Brandow-Faller, 2018; Morgenthaler, 2006), cognition, and learning (Bergen et al., 2016) harmoniously reiterate the critical value of play mediated through toys (Sandberg & Vuorinen, 2008). Misra and Gupta (2015) assert: The young use toys and play to discover their identity, help their bodies grow strong, learn cause and effect, explore relationships, and practice skills they need as adults. Adults use toys and play to form and strengthen social bonds, teach, remember and reinforce lessons from their youth, discover their identity, exercise their minds and bodies, explore relationships, practice skills, and decorate their living space. (pp. 2–3)

A considered choice of toys, suited to a child’s age, abilities, cultural context, and interests, promotes physical, motor, socio-emotional, and cognitive development. Ray et al. (2013) suggest the therapeutic value of playing with toys for diagnosing and attending to developmental (behavioural, cognitive, and socio-emotive) needs.

110

R. Khunyakari

Critical to play therapy is the struggle of selection and availability of toys representing a child’s cultural environment (Raman & Singhal, 2015). Trawick-Smith et al. (2011) note that the limited research on the effects of toys can be categorised into studies that focus on social versus individual, real versus non-real, and genderstereotypical versus non-stereotypical materials. Further, studies narrowly focus on areas of behaviour such as social interaction or symbolic transformation. Play ought to be studied in its entirety which includes the material, social, symbolic, cognitive, and creative forms. Advances in research towards identifying the suitability of toys and their impact on early stages of development are quite revealing. Smirnova (2011) found that five-year-olds were attracted to the functional capabilities embodied in toys (push buttons to flap their wings, play a melody, etc.). Although toys with “interactivity” served as means of entertainment, these led children to reproduce stereotyped, monotonous actions and reduced creative self-expression. They did not contribute to either unfolding of play, creation of imaginary situations, or coaxing children to assume adult roles, thereby posing a potent psychological and pedagogical danger to child development. Wooldridge and Shapka (2012) found that child-directed electronic toys had a negative impact on the play experiences and quality of parent-child interactions. An overexposure to toys can lead to social problems and shunted interpretation of culture (Best, 1998). Studies report the impact of stereotyped toys and gender on play (Cherney et al., 2003) and ill impact of the exposure to digital toys (Palaiologou, 2016) at an early age. Insights from child development can inform designing toys that foster comprehensive development and facilitate meaningful adult-child interactions.

7.4 Indigenous Technological Knowledge System: The Case of Indian Toys The long continuing tradition of local design and toy manufacture in India represents an example of ITKS. Studying toys as the material actualisation of human thought provides a means to explore design, technology, and cultural aspects of society. The living tradition of indigenous Indian toys is sustained by families and communities of artisans and crafts-persons, many of who are semi-skilled, first-generation professionals. Khanna (1983, 2000) noted that children prefer action-based (moving and sound-making), dynamic folk toys over static, figurine-type toys. Toy characteristics such as theme (e.g. joker dancing, sparrow chirruping, and flying, etc.), material simplicity (e.g. wood pieces, metal wires, etc.), embodied local cultural ethos (e.g. wrestler action in toys of Uttar Pradesh and Punjab, dancing ghost in Bengal, etc.), the inclusion of scientific principles (e.g. levers and inclined planes, laws of gravity and forces, etc.), and attention to technology elements (e.g. precision and tolerance, linkages, assembling, etc.) seem to govern the preference. Any scheme for analysing indigenous toys ought to capture these characteristics.

7 Toys, Design and Technology: Intergenerational Connects …

111

A study by Khunyakari (2017) involved twenty-nine participants (pre-service teachers) to identify and explore an indigenous toy for unravelling the cultural context, adult–child interactions, and social intent to inform child development. As a pedagogical experiment, the study engaged with the contextual diversity of Indian childhoods, but the exercise also brought participants to examine, appreciate, and discuss the nature of socio-technological engagement in indigenous toys (see Table 7.2). A grasp of the richness of indigenous toys can be gauged by the fact that 21 different kinds of toys were reported. Only 1 toy, namely a doll, had 4 instances of occurrence. An exhaustive analysis of toys from the rich, diverse, and evolving Indian culture is rather difficult to achieve. Hence, a heuristic framework of quadrants was developed that involves an intersection of two dimensions: the nature of toy functioning (static versus dynamic) and the influence on toy production (an inspired model versus the outcome of creative ingenuity). While details of analysis are beyond the scope of this chapter, Fig. 7.2 depicts an effort to map the 21 toys onto the heuristic quadrant framework. Table 7.2 summarises insights drawn from a comparative analysis of representative indigenous toys from each quadrant. The study on unpacking Indian childhoods through toys revealed: (a) an engagement with materiality and mechanisms; (b) lasting impact of the purposes a toy achieves—edutainment, creative learning, and innovation. The case of unpacking embodied knowledge practice becomes evident in Fig. 7.3 which depicts the process of toy manufacture from the locally available materials and associated ingenious knowledge and skills. Tracing the material and design evolution from the earliest documented time to the present time generates interest in historical-cultural contexts, material properties, and corresponding changes in the overall metamorphosis of toy design.

7.4.1 Contextualising Design, Science, and Technology in and Through Toys Toys encapsulate scientific ideas, concepts, principles, and laws. A systematic unpacking of these during play can help young learners explore, appreciate, extend, and concretise their conceptual understanding. Teachers can use scientific toys to contextualise, convey, and immerse children in illustrative experiences of learning. Gupta’s (2011) lifetime explorations concern making toys the talking point for children to engage with foundational ideas in the sciences. The experience of toys allows children to resurrect an alternate position of science done in spaces other than laboratories involving learned scientists, expensive equipment, and definite set-ups. Science from everyday things, easily found at home, helps make connections with everyday life, making learning authentic and relevant. Through selective tailoring of experiences, the seeds for an epistemic shift in the nature of science can be inculcated. From science done by scientists to science involving fun, curious discoveries and working

112

R. Khunyakari

Table 7.2 Comparative analysis of toys S. No

Quadrant category

Dynamic, real

Static, real

Static, creative

Dynamic, creative

Quadrant label

I

II

III

IV

Example

Toy cart

Figurines/dolls

Play dough

Toddy palm-fruit vehicle

Composite

1

Material kinds

Composite

Single

Composite

2

Material properties Solid wood or mouldable mud

Cloth, plastic, and semi-flexible

Soft, rollable, and mouldable

Solid, fibrous, and woody shells

3

Structure-function relation

Round wheels, axis for co-ordinated movement, wood platform, and yoke

Body postures, ornamentation, and dress and hair styles

Open to explorations

Round fruit equally partitioned, axle assembly, long wood handle, and short axle

4

Assemblage

Platform on frame, yoke, and axle-wheel union

Human body components, assembly, ornaments, hair, and footwear

Open to extent of component explorations

Balance two halves of fruit, axle-fruit assembly, and handle-axle reinforcement

5

Context of creation Imitative play, transport device, and appreciation of real structures

Humanoid interactions, reification of the divine, and safe-guarding

Kinaesthetic, liberal expression and imaginative transformation

Amusement, co-ordinated motor movement, creative ingenuity

6

Cultural salience

Animal-human relationship, transportation, exercise tool-usage, and religious worship

Human bondage, projective play, attend to cultural details, and deity worship

Material-based exploration of reality, hone imagination, and planned motor action

Human-environment relationship, craft-skills, tool use, creativity, and collective play

7

Alternate materials Mud, Terracotta, iron, and plastic

Wood, mud, Terracotta, cloth, and plastic

Flour-dough, Coconut shells, clay-dough, and wooden and metal mud-dough discs, CDs, bottles, and tins

8

Alternate designs

Single/dual animal driven, with and without shed, and disc-wheeled base

Animals/humans, male/female, and body/action postures

Open to explorations

Different wheel structures, axle lengths, and handle with supporting flanges

9

Advanced forms

Toy chariot, toy Professionals, car, motorised car, kinds, and forms and scaled replica of thematic engagement

Block for moulding shapes

Toy-tricycle, support structure for differently abled

10

Associated play

Transport and load-carrying

Communicative play and fantasy

Self-recreation and explore thought

Self-amusement and collective play

11

Instances of advanced forms

02

Nil

Nil

Nil

7 Toys, Design and Technology: Intergenerational Connects …

113

Fig. 7.2 Mapping of indigenous toys onto the quadrant framework

Figure 7.3 a–g From produce to manufacture to play—Learning cycle in indigenous toys. Source Illustrated by author

114

R. Khunyakari

with materials provide a refreshingly different orientation (Sarukkai, 2012). Research in science education foregrounds the value of analogies, modelling, imagery, and mental simulation in shaping conceptual learning (Clement, 2008). Besides developing knowing and invoking curiosity, the exposure to doing things kindles creative exploration of materials and their functionality while embedding observations and evidence-based explanations.

7.4.2 Generative Toys: Tinkering, Bricoleur, and Jugaad Engagement with toys can enthuse children to develop their own toys. Practitioners have “toyed” with this idea of using resources for mediating inclusive learning and supporting the differently abled. As means of unfolding the scientific principles, concepts, and practical insights, toys empower teachers and teacher educators. Khanna (2000) uses toy design experience to encourage learners to self-craft toys by attending to their material and procedural knowledge, thereby forging connections between the formal and informal modes of learning. Several indigenous toys are crafted out of waste materials like tin cans, strips, waste rubber, etc., and encourage mindful attention to the concerns of environmental sustainability and create local job opportunities. Indigenously crafted toys are statements of creative ingenuity and embodied phronesis that register a sense of awe among children and adults and reinforce the value of material tinkering and bricoleur activity. The subtle message of tiding over challenging conditions through creative reimagination and transformation of existing resources to meet immediate needs, operationalised as Jugaad, instils a sense of hope and possibility, albeit sometimes with a compromised sense of quality.

7.4.3 Pedagogic Experiments Involving Thinking About, Along, and Through Toys Contextual understanding of childhood impacts policies, welfare interventions, and educational practice (James & Prout, 2015). Analysing toy design, making, and use-in-context unravel the imagination of childhood in society by noticing the cultural ideas, socio-historical environments, and the designed spaces of interactions involving the child, adults, and the artefactual world (Khunyakari, 2021). While games may or may not use material resources, toys are tailored to meet the needs of children, embody learning goals, and render active material engagement for establishing social dialogue. Indigenous toys represent a comprehensive and encompassing case for different manifestations of technology. Mitcham (1994) proposed technology to manifest as objects, knowledge, activity, and volition. Toys represent the objects through which children interact, associate, and transact with the world. They are a blend of cultural

7 Toys, Design and Technology: Intergenerational Connects …

115

heritage and knowledge. Kroes and Meijers (2006) suggest artefacts embody intended (designed) and accidental (discovered) purposes. While the quality of interactions envisaged for a child of a particular age and cognitive maturity suggest the intended purposes, the reflections around its use, the influence of social-material environments, and changes over a period of time reveal other purposes associated with toys. Analysing evolving nature of toys affords interpretative perspectives on adults’ conceptualisation and negotiation with childhood. Analysing play-involving toys opens avenues for studying norms and practices. Children’s association, construction, and mediational use of toys reveal the volitional aspects of the toy as technology. Studying toys foregrounds the pedagogic value of thinking about, along, and through indigenous toys.

7.5 Toys, Cultural Heritage, and Legacy Indigenous toys inherit the legacy of play and learning passed over generations. Designing, making, and operating on toys capture a close-knit understanding of cultural norms. With changing times, challenges surface in tapping the rich legacy of knowledge, cultural heritage of skills, practices, and values embodied in indigenous toys. Concerns have been expressed in the way IKS is harnessed in the globalised, neoliberal world. Shiva (2007) cautions us about bioprospecting, the appropriating and exploiting of indigenous resources for global commercial interests. Similarly, indigenous toys are plagiarised, appropriated, and turned into commodities using varied present-day materials (Yadav, 2020). This process of imposed material has robbed children of experiences involving a feel for the natural materials from immediate environments. Toys made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) use heavy metals like lead or cadmium as stabilisers. Both plastic and soft toys use organo-metallic compounds containing these heavy metals as colouring agents, which gradually leach and get absorbed in children’s bodies when they chew, lick, or touch them, resulting in exposure to toxins. An empirical study by Kumar and Pastore (2007) found that all the unbranded toy samples collected from three metropolitan cities of Delhi, Mumbai, and Chennai contained varying concentrations of lead and cadmium. Cheap plastic toys with improper finishing have propagated a culture of “use-and-throw” over the previous “possess-and-bequest” tradition. The politics and economics of open markets encourage toy producibility in bulk, ease of access to synthetic materials, and schemes of taxation, all of which contribute to a shift from handicraft to commodified toy production. The shrinking of communities that traditionally engage in making indigenous toys is a cause of concern. These include the toy-associated culture of Patam storytelling in Telangana (Vadlamudi, 2016), the toy-making communities of Etikoppaka and Kondapalli in Andhra Pradesh, Nirmal in Telangana, and Channapatna in Karnataka, to name a few (Reddem & Khan, 2020). The rich cultural diversity of indigenous Indian toys involves associated communities.2 The geographic spread of ITKS on the

116

R. Khunyakari

brink suggests the dying of the cultural preserve and the severity of the ongoing tussle with advancement. Government policies like “AatmaNirbhar Bharat” (self-reliant India) that support the revival and promotion of indigenous toys offer a glimmer of hope (GoI, 2021), albeit with the daunting ethical challenge of economy-oriented development. The vulnerabilities, if not handled carefully, may cause irreparable damage to the fading cultural heritage.

7.6 Invoking Educational Shifts and Possibilities A competitive, market-driven economy has altered the established, traditional livelihoods of communities engaged in toy-making, besides eroding the inherited values, associated traditions, and practices. Complex, machine-enforced toy assemblies that reach the hands of a child impose a felt perception of distancing because of their inability to repair or fix their own toy. The freedom and will to tinker, and repair own toys is overtaken by consumerist tendencies, further widening the chasm between episteme (mind-work) and techne (hand-work). Ilaiah (2007) discusses the antipathy towards basic, productive labour processes among Indians pursuing higher education, rooted in caste hierarchy demarcating the physical and mental labour. He traces the science, art, and skills of Adivasis (indigenous people), cattle-rearers, leatherworkers, potters, farmers, weavers, dhobis, and barbers historically for reconstructing a theory of the dignity of labour in relation to life, gender, and religion. Reclaim of the enduring culture of indigenous toys as an example of ITKS in curricular space will certainly enrich this perspective. Guru and Sarukkai (2012) use the powerful metaphor of a “cracked mirror” to problematise and engage with the strenuous relationship between experience and theory in the Indian social reality. They argue that a lop-sided reliance on Western theories coupled with non-exposure and untrained orientations to non-western traditions in engaging with issues of social realities has eclipsed the thinking of budding Indian intellectuals and hindered a democratic exchange of world views, ideas, and concepts. As for manifestations of materials and processes that are culturally appropriated, toys can foster discussions around the discursive practices in conceptualising IKS. As outcomes of human ingenuity and adequate scaffolding, indigenous toys could mediate reflection about contextual, recursive thinking, reasoning, and action. The observations concerning embodied practice extend to toys and correspondingly to the practices of work engagement in their design and playful use (Suchman, 2000). The use of indigenous toys can foster cognitive, social, and emotive engagement with distinctive learning and therapeutic advantages (Dender & Stagnitti, 2011). Indigenous toys offer a unique vantage point affording thinking about, along with, and through technology. Through systematic education interventions, one hopes to not just revive livelihoods and community economy but also the entire ITKS encompassing valueoriented practices which embrace concerns of environment, health, cultural practices, and a dignified outlook to manual work. The IKS approach affords a reimagination

7 Toys, Design and Technology: Intergenerational Connects …

117

of education for sustainability (Buenavista et al., 2018) that would be more authentic, respectful of traditions, and offer possibilities of enrichment and mutual growth of communities of toy practitioners and stakeholders in education.

Notes 1. The term Terracotta is derived from the Italian vocabulary, where terra means earth and cotta implies baked. Terracotta is a form of ancestral technological knowledge that dates back to the Indus valley culture (3000–2000 B.C.), where reddish-brown clay was used to develop figurines and artefacts, wherein the fired body was porous. The material knowledge with adaptive modifications have been used in various cultural traditions for production of human and animal figurines, toys, sculptures, architectural outcomes and aesthetical environments. Later, in the Gupta period (A.D. 240–570), a technical phrase called lepya-karma (terracotta manufacture) became a prominent part of the artisan vocabulary. 2. For more information refer https://vikaspedia.in/education/childrens-corner/toys-of-india.

References Aggarwal, P., Rao, P., & Joshi, S. (2013). Wooden toys in India. Unasylva 240, 64(1), 57–60. Aikenhead, G., & Ogawa, M. (2007). Indigenous knowledge and science revisited. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 2, 539–620. Arthur, B. (2009). The nature of technology: What it is and how it evolves. Penguin Books. Balaram, S. (1998). Thinking design. National Institute of Design. Basalla, G. (1988). The evolution of technology. Cambridge University Press. Bergen, D., Davis, D., & Abbit, J. (2016). Technology, play and brain development: Infancy to adolescence and future implications. Routledge. Best, J. (1998). Too much fun: Toys as social problems and the interpretation of culture. Symbolic Interaction, 21(2), 197–212. Bradley, R. (1985). Socio-cognitive development and toys. TECSE, 5(3), 11–30. Brandow-Faller, M. (2018). Childhood by design: Toys and the material culture of childhood, 1700–present. Bloomsbury Visual Arts. Buenavista, D., Wynne-Jones, S., & McDonald, M. (2018). Asian indigeneity, indigenous knowledge systems, and challenges of the 2030 agenda. East Asian Community Rev, 1, 221–240. Cherney, I., Kelly-Vance, L., Glover, K., Ruane, A., & Ryalls, B. (2003). The effects of stereotyped toys and gender on play assessment in children aged 18–47 months. Educational Psychology, 23(1), 95–106. Clement, J. (2008). Creative model construction in scientists and students: The role of imagery, analogy, and mental simulation. Springer. Coomaraswamy, R. (2004). The essential Ananda K. Coomaraswamy. World Wisdom Inc. Davis, L., Larkin, E., & Graves, S. (2002). Intergenerational learning through play. International Journal of Early Childhood, 34(2), 42–49. Dender, A., & Stagnitti, K. (2011). Development of the indigenous child-initiated pretend play assessment: Selection of play materials and administration. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 58, 34–42. De Vries, L. (1992). Victorian inventions. John Murray (Publishers) Ltd. Dhamija, J. (2002). Indian folk arts and crafts. National Book Trust. Dhavalikar, M. (1977). Masterpieces of Indian Terracottas. Taraporevala Sons & Co., Pvt. Ltd.

118

R. Khunyakari

Dongerkery, K. (1954). A journey through Toyland. Popular Book Depot. Dorst, K. (2006). Understanding design. Gingko Press. GoI. (2021). Toy story: Promotion of indigenous toys of India. https://eoivienna.gov.in/?pdf116 99?000. Accessed May 2, 2022. Gumbo, M. (2018). Rethinking teaching of technology: An approach integrating indigenous knowledge systems. In M. J. de Vries (Ed.), Handbook of technology education (pp. 807–825). Springer. Gumbo, M. (2012). Indigenous technology in technology education curriculum and teaching. In P. J. Williams, A. Jones, & C. Buntting (Eds.), The future of technology education (pp. 57–75). Springer. Gupta, A. (2011). Ten little fingers: Ideas and activities in science. National Book Trust. Guru, G., & Sarukkai, S. (2012). The cracked mirror: An Indian debate on experience and theory. Oxford University Press. Ilaiah, K. (2007). Turning the pot, tilling the land: Dignity of labour in our times. Navayana Publishing Pvt. Ltd. Iyer, B. (1982). Indian art: A short introduction. Taraporevala Sons & Co., Pvt. Ltd. James, A., & Prout, A. (Eds.). (2015). Constructing and reconstructing childhood: Contemporary issues in the sociological study of childhood. Routledge. Khanna, S. (1983). Dynamic folk toys. The Development Commissioner for Handicrafts, Government of India. Khanna, S. (2000). Joy of making Indian toys. National Book Trust. Khunyakari, R. (2017). Toys as culturally embodied artefacts to deconstruct and analyse childhood. In Eighth Annual International Conference of Comparative Education Society of India, titled “Criticality, Empathy and Welfare in Contemporary Educational Discourses” held at University of Jammu, November 16–18. Khunyakari, R. (2021). Cultural metaphors as means to contextualised understanding of child and childhood. Children & Society, 35(4), 613–629. Kroes, P., & Meijers, A. (2006). The dual nature of technical artefacts. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 37(1), 1–4. Kumar, K. (1993). Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869–1948). In Z. Morsy (Ed.), Thinkers on education (Vol. 2, pp. 507–517). UNESCO. Kumar, A., & Pastore, P. (2007). Lead and cadmium in soft plastic toys. Current Science, 93(6), 818–822. McCarty, T. (2012). Indigenous knowledge and skills. In J. Banks (Ed.), Encyclopedia of diversity in education (Vol. 2, pp. 1169–1171). Sage Publications India Pvt Ltd. Mehrotra, S., & Khunyakari, R. (2007). Puppetry as a technology education unit. In M. De Vries, R. Custer, & J. Dakers (Eds.), Analyzing best practices in technology education (pp. 107–122). Sense Publishers. Miller, J., Lossia, A., Suarez-Rivera, C., & Gros-Louis, J. (2017). Toys that squeak: Toy type impacts quality and quantity of parent-child interactions. First Language, 37(6), 630–647. Misra, S., & Gupta, P. (2015). Toys and safety regulations. Consumer Education Monograph Series No. 18. Centre for Consumer Studies, Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi, India. Mitcham, C. (1994). Thinking through technology: The path between engineering and philosophy. The University of Chicago Press. Morgenthaler, S. (2006). The meanings in play with objects. In D. Fromberg & D. Bergen (Eds.), Play from birth to twelve: Contexts, perspectives, and meanings (2nd ed., pp. 65–74). Routledge. NCERT (2005). National focus group on work and education. NCERT. NCERT. (2006). National focus group on heritage crafts. National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT). Nhi, V. H. (2017). Folk toys and games for children: Cultural heritage of Vietnam. International Journal of Social Sciences and Management, 4(4), 223–231.

7 Toys, Design and Technology: Intergenerational Connects …

119

Odora Hoppers, C. (2002). Indigenous knowledge and the integration of knowledge systems: Towards a conceptual and methodological framework. In C. Odora Hoppers (Ed.) Indigenous knowledge and the integration of knowledge systems: Towards a philosophy of articulation (pp. 2–22). New Africa Books (Pty) Ltd. Pacey, A. (2000). The culture of technology. The MIT Press. Palaiologou, I. (2016). Children under five and digital technologies: Implications for early years pedagogy. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 24(1), 5–24. Raman, V., & Singhal, M. (2015). Play therapy with children: Its relevance and utility in the Indian context. Journal of Indian Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 11(2), 121–157. Ray, D., Lee, K., Meany-Walen, K. K., Carlson, S. E., Carnes-Holt, K. L., & Ware, J. (2013). Use of toys in child-centred play therapy. International Journal of Play Therapy, 22(1), 43–57. Reddem, A., & Khan, L. (2020, October 17). Far from a happy toy story. The Hindu, Hyderabad, Saturday, p. 7. Rubin, K., & Howe, N. (1985). Toys and play behaviors: An overview. TECSE, 5(3), 1–9. Sandberg, A., & Vuorinen, T. (2008). Dimensions of childhood play and toys. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 36(2), 135–146. Sarukkai, S. (2012). What is science? National Book Trust. Scott, S. (2010). Toys and American culture: An encyclopedia. Greenwood, ABC-CLIO, LLC, California. Sharma, A. (2021). Decolonizing international relations: Confronting erasures through indigenous knowledge systems. International Studies, 58(1), 25–40. Shiva, V. (2007). Bioprospecting as sophisticated biopiracy. Signs, 32(2), 307–313. Shizha, E. (2014). The indigenous knowledge systems and the curriculum. In G. Emeagwali & G. J. Sefa Dei (Eds.) African indigenous knowledge and the disciplines (pp. 113–130). Sense Publishers. Singh, N., & Reyhner, J. (2013). Indigenous knowledge and pedagogy for indigenous children. In J. Reyhner, J. Martin, L. Lockard, & W. Gilbert (Eds.), Honoring our children: Culturally appropriate approaches for teaching indigenous students (pp. 37–52). Northern Arizona University. Smirnova, E. (2011). Character toys as psychological tools. International Journal of Early Years Education, 19(1), 35–43. Suchman, L. (2000). Embodied practices of engineering work. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 7(1–2), 4–18. Tharakan, J. (2015). Indigenous knowledge systems—A rich appropriate technology resource. African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development, 7(1), 52–57. Trawick-Smith, J., Russell, H., & Swaminathan, S. (2011). Measuring the effects of toys on the problem-solving, creative and social behaviours of preschool children. Early Child Development and Care, 181(7), 909–927. Turnbull, D. (2000). Masons, tricksters and cartographers: Comparative studies in the sociology of scientific and indigenous knowledge. Routledge. Vadlamudi, S. (2016, October 16). End of a story: The centuries-old art of Patam storytelling in Telangana is slowly fading away. The Hindu, Sunday, Sunday Magazine, p. 3. Vyas, K. (2000). Design: The Indian context—Learning the historical rationale of the Indian design idiom. National Institute of Design. Watson-Verran, H., & Turnbull, D. (1995). Science and other indigenous knowledge systems. In S. Jasanoff, G. Markle, J. Pertersen, & T. Pinch (Eds.), Handbook of science and technology studies (pp. 115–139). Sage Publications. Wooldridge, M., & Shapka, J. (2012). Playing with technology: Mother-toddler interaction scores lower during play with electronic toys. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 33(5), 211–218. Yadav, C. (2020). Incredible “Handmade in India”: Toys on the brink of extinction. International Journal of Disaster Recovery and Business Continuity, 11(1), 561–571.

Chapter 8

Sthapatya Shiksha: Hindu Temple Architecture Education Indu Viswanathan and Sumita Ambasta

Abstract This chapter explores the onto-epistemology and pedagogy of the threethousand-year-old technology of Hindu temple architecture, which sits within Vastushastra, the science of architecture. Instructions on temple design are contained in the shastras and a¯ gamas, while the tradition of Sthapati (master-builder) is passed along through apprenticeship models within a community of practice. The ontoepistemology of Hindu temples (linking the cosmos with the human spiritual journey) and the historical and potential role of temples in society have been obscured from mainstream knowledge through the colonization of India and the Westernization of architecture education. However, both the pedagogy and architectural practice have persisted, remaining continuously outside of formal Westernized education. Centring this pedagogical tradition illuminates powerful concepts from indigenous teaching and the link between spirituality and technology. This allows us to constructively re-examine dominant histories, assumptions, and practices within Western architecture, locate their worldview, and imagine and enact pluralism of theory and practice in the classroom and in the field. Keywords Indigenous technology · Hindu temples · Guru-Shishya · Coloniality · Architectural pedagogy

8.1 A Brief Introduction to Hindu Temples Indian temple architecture, in the fullness of its development, establishes in spatial terms an intellectual and actual approach to the Supreme Principle of which the deity is symbolic. The statue is the manifestation (arc¯a-avat¯ara) of the deity through a concrete work of art (m¯urti), and the building is its body and house. Images are given shape by sculpture and painting, I. Viswanathan (B) Independent Scholar, Orlando, FL, USA e-mail: [email protected] S. Ambasta Independent Scholar, New York, NY, USA © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_8

121

122

I. Viswanathan and S. Ambasta

whose inter-relationship expresses in line, proportion, and colour the love (bhakti) to which gods and myths owe their existence as aspects of the Absolute. (Kramrisch, 1965, p. 10)

Understanding the technology and pedagogy of Hindu temple architecture— particularly within the Westernized academy—is not a procedural overview of technique, curriculum, and form and function in general society. (This would assert a Western ontological bias.) From its core and moving outward, the architecture and pedagogy of Hindu temples manifest the onto-epistemology of its indigenous knowledge tradition—Sanatana Dharma (Hinduism). This becomes our starting point for exploring Hindu temple architecture and a central node in examining its implications on Western archaeological pedagogy. What distinguishes indigenous worldviews from Western ones and how does this reflect in its architectural pedagogy? As indigenous scholars from around the world have observed, indigenous sciences embrace the spiritual and physical (or Divine) as inseparable (Gumbo, 2017, p. 141). In Sanatana Dharma, this is described as purusha—the unmanifest, the Supreme Consciousness—and prakriti—manifest, “nature or matter, the active principle of creation” (Bandyopadhyay, 2019, p. 718). From this emerges an ontology of human existence as fully integrated with the Divine and with nature, including the planet. Nature is not a resource for human consumption; she is revered. All life is materially and energetically interdependent. Harmony between the inner and outer world (Bandyopadhyay, 2019), the Seer and the seen, underlies the search for knowledge— both of the self and of the world. From this emerges a vision of human society. It’s crucial to note here that Sanatana Dharma—the entire indigenous framework of metaphysical, philosophical, and scientific inquiry and the civilizational design that emerges from it—was catalogued by British Orientalists, East India Company officials, Christian missionaries, and American authors as a (false, heathenistic) religion, where religion was a category defined by Christianity (Altman, 2017; Sharma, 2018). That Christian-centric definition and miscategorization continue to dominate the public consciousness. “It is significant that nowhere in the extensive vocabulary of the Indian languages is there a word that corresponds to the term ‘religion’” (Dutta & Adane, 2013, p. 489). Having established the ontological foundation of Sanatana Dharma, and that Sanatana Dharma is not limited to religion, but is an indigenous knowledge tradition and worldview, we turn our gaze to Hindu temples and the pedagogy of architecture. It is helpful to begin by asking why and what before asking how. What is a temple? Why are Hindu temples built? Why are they designed in a particular fashion? The answers lie in the Sthapatya Veda, the Vedic texts that expound on the science of architecture (Kak, 2002; Vardia, 2018).

8.2 What Is a Temple? Why Are Temples Built? According to the Sthapatya Veda, there are three temples in the architecture of the cosmos—the temple of the stars (arupa), the temple of man (rupa), and the temple

8 Sthapatya Shiksha: Hindu Temple Architecture Education

123

of brick and stones “representing both cosmic astral temple and the small human temple of feelings, experience and aspirations” (Bandyopadhyay, 2019, p. 719). It is this third category of temples that is the focus of this chapter, although the other two are implied. Temples are the residences of the deities. Whether or not adherents visit the physical mandir, the pujaris (priests) commit to maintaining the conditions for the deity’s residence according to protocols established centuries ago (Duraiswamy, 2021). Hindus are thus advised to live near a temple in order to benefit from the Divine energy that resides and is maintained in the temple. The notion of a brick-and-stone temple as a model of the cosmos has existed for over 3000 years, beginning with Vedic fire altars to their current form (Kak, 2002; Kramrisch, 1946; Trivedi, 1993). The structures themselves went from wood to rock-cut, to independent stone structures (Duraiswamy, 2021). Hindu temples cover a vast range of structures, in size and scale (large complexes to small, simple singledeity shrines), local traditions, histories, and deities (e.g. Jagannath, Chidambaram), regional architectural style (e.g. Chola, Hoysala), frequency of community engagement, urban versus rural, etc. Even within schools of temple design, there are distinctions, like between the Tamilian and Karnatak Dravidian styles of temples (Duraiswamy, 2021). Note the interplay between the guidelines from the Sthapatya ´ a temples in Tamil Nadu, for Veda and local, historically rooted expressions. Saiv¯ ´ agama. While the instance, are built, sanctified, and maintained according to the Saiv¯ a¯ gamas are separate from the Vedas, they honour their essence (Duraiswamy, 2021). Abrahamic temples (i.e. churches, synagogues, mosques) are places for adherents to congregate and receive sermons; they are dependent on and centre the congregation. Hindu temples (mandirs, kovils) are not dependent on congregations. This ontological dichotomy was made clear during the 2019 Sabarimala controversy. Nonadherents, including a Muslim cleric, sued the temple for discrimination because of the rules governing pilgrimage to the temple. The lawyer representing the temple argued that he represented the rights of the deity, Ayyappa, as the temple was His abode, and that the rules in question reflected the protocols that maintain the deity’s presence. In the end, the Indian Supreme Court’s ruling—in favour of the petitioners—upheld the Abrahamic, anthropocentric concept of the temple. The Hindu battle to preserve temples in the face of material and epistemological violence is not new. Meenakshi Jain (2019) notes that during the intense period of Islamic invasion of India before British colonization, when Hindu temples were methodically and repeatedly attacked and desecrated (Asher, 2015; Durant, 1930) there were also consistent efforts by the local communities to reconstruct them, sometimes hiding the murtis (consecrated statues of the Deities) for generations in anticipation of a repeated attack.

8.3 Role of Temples Historically, temples played a central role in community life. The temple grounds vibrated with social life, including community gatherings, festivals, fairs, contests

124

I. Viswanathan and S. Ambasta

of learning, and a town hall, “where people assembled to consider local affairs or to hear the exposition of sacred literature” (Sastri, 1976). The temple grounds also served as a school, hospital, town hall, and judicial court. Temples were responsible for supporting the artistic community, especially sculptors. In addition, the temple was an economic centre, providing low-interest loans and cash endowments to village assemblies and initiatives that benefited the community (such as irrigation) and employing architects and craftsmen, priests, musicians, dancers, cooks, and landless farmers. Since the responsibility of temple governance rested upon the shoulders of the local king, the temple became a conduit for the relationship between the king and society (Michell, 1988). Temples housed historical records and, over time, became an urban magnet. “The growth of several towns can be attributed to the booming economy created by their temples” (Duraiswamy, 2021, p. 50). The temple was a central hub of the material, the manifest experience of society, an incubator of intellectual, economic, artistic, and cultural activities, and a Dharmic guide. However, its primary responsibility was in moving Hindus from the material to the spiritual world, “of directing the individual’s gaze towards the ultimate goal” (Dutta & Adane, 2013).

8.4 The Temple Is Technology To maintain harmony, all man-made objects and structures were enjoined to be fashioned with the same measurements and principles with which the cosmos is made, and so the underlying order and symmetries of the cosmos manifest themselves in the designs and representations made by man. (Trivedi, 1993, p. 246)

Indigenous technology is distinct from Western technology by way of its cultural view; indigenous technological artefacts are the cultural expression of creativity, values, priorities, and needs (Gumbo, 2017). In the case of Hindu temples, technology is conceptualized as the dynamic interplay between the cosmos, the human form, and the temple. Temple designs capture that technology, as encoded in the Sthapatya Veda (Kak, 2002; Vardia, 2018), which has informed temple construction for millennia.

8.5 The Onto-Epistemology of Temple Architecture The Sthapatya Veda stipulates that the temple and the town should mirror the cosmos including astronomical knowledge, the anatomy of the earth, and mathematics. Kak (2002) observes the significance of the numbers 108 and 360 in temple design, a reflection of the centrality of the “assumed equivalence between the outer and the inner cosmos” to the concept of the temple. He references the Brihat Samhita 56, which lists the design proportions that the temple must satisfy.

8 Sthapatya Shiksha: Hindu Temple Architecture Education

125

The height of the temple should be double its width, and the height of the foundation above the ground with the steps equal to a third of this height. The sanctum sanctorum should be half the width of the temple” and so on. It also lists twenty types of temples that range from one to twelve storeys in height. (Kak, 2002, p. 2)

Dutta and Adane (2013) and Trivedi (1993) observe that self-similarity, the defining characteristic of fractals, is an organizing principle in Hindu temple architecture, which reflects the model of the cosmos as envisioned in Sanatana Dharma and represented across various texts. A verse from Kathopanishad, another principal Upanishad says, “Whatever is here, that is there; what is there, the same is here.” The Pinda-Brahmanda theory of a school of Hindu philosophy called Samkhya proposes the existence of a correspondence between macrocosm and microcosm. (Trivedi, 1993, pp. 244–245)

Bandyopadhyay (2019) notes that the Mayamata (doctrine of measurements) conveys the importance of precise mathematical measurements in the design, “The time and place of construction of a temple, the directions, the position of the sun and zodiac – all are superimposed over each other to technically make the ‘rhythm’ of the temple at unison with the rhythm of the universe” (p. 721). Furthermore, all traditions of Hindu temple design reflect a relationship with the human form, reflecting parts of the body as parts of the building. The elevation was conceived as elements of the standing human body. The summit of the tower, the decorative amalaka, is equated to the head, the tower (sikhara) to the body’s trunk. The sanctum (garbhagriha or vimana) is the nerve centre, located at the navel (n¯abhi), and houses the soul (atman), represented by the consecrated image. The transept projections from the mah¯a-mandapa are defined as the outstretched hands (hasta) and pillars, and the lower plinth or platform is represented by the feed (p¯ada). Through the temple-figure runs a vertical axis, known as the brahmasutra, the pillar, which unites earth and sky. The human form thus served as metaphor for both the body of the deity and the temple itself. (Leeper & Taylor, 2017, pp. 66–89)

The design incorporates philosophy, psychology, and a complex sociocultural understanding; in this way, each individual’s spiritual, emotional, and intellectual needs are honoured. The divinity of the temple is established when the universal energy is first harnessed in the sannidhi (consecrated space) and maintained by the pujaris (Duraiswamy, 2021). This energy is represented and manifested through the murti. Depending on astrological, astronomical, and climatic factors, different styles of temple constructions exist across India. Some texts suggest fourteen styles, divided into cardinal divisions—Nagara (north), Dravida (south), and Vesara (east)— with each division representing a particular principle. For instance, Nagara temples embody the element of fire, represented by the ascendancy of the sun, while Dravidian temples embody the principle of descendancy or condensation. Thus, the profile of Nagara temples increases in height as the seeker moves from the outside in. Dravidian temple forms begin with the greatest height (the gopuram) moving the seeker into increasingly smaller spaces (see Figs. 8.1 and 8.2). Regardless of any differences, all temples support the same process. Understanding Hindu temple design requires an understanding of the philosophy of

126

I. Viswanathan and S. Ambasta

Fig. 8.1 Profile of a North Indian Temple (Bandyopadhyay, 2019, p. 722)

Fig. 8.2 Profile of a South Indian Temple (Bandyopadhyay, 2019, p. 722)

Sanatana Dharma; the primary focus is moksha, or release from the cycle of reincarnation into this illusory world through the dissolution of “boundaries between man and the divine” (Michell, 1988, p. 61). Just as the spiritual practice of the Hindu moves her through each layer of consciousness (from temporal to eternal, manifest to unmanifest), each layer of the temple (moving from outside to in) is designed to move her in the same direction. In order from outside (Bandyopadhyay, 2019): Bhoga mandir is the offering space, where naivedyam (food offerings) is presented to the deity. The bhoga mandir signifies the first step in the journey when the seeker recognizes the temporality of sensory attachment to the world. “This space signifies the first tier of spiritual upliftment when the aspirant starts realizing that the world is a place of feelings (of pleasure and pain), and all these are temporary in nature” (p. 720). Nat mandir is the dancing hall. Here, the seeker dances and sings, experiencing their own dance as a reflection of the eternal cosmic dance, the dynamic rhythm of nature. Jaganmohana is the assembly space, where the seeker can first view the deity from a distance and “realizes that the whole universe is bewildering and infatuating” (p. 720). Antarala is the threshold from the Jaganmohana to the centre of the temple. Here, the seeker enters a state

8 Sthapatya Shiksha: Hindu Temple Architecture Education

127

of transcendence, liberated from confusion and sensory impressions. Garbhagrha is the womb chamber of the temple. Dark and intimate, the experience mirrors being in a mother’s womb, the threshold between form and formless. The highest point of the temple aligns with the garbhagrha. The journey then continues up the vertical tower to reach the summit of the temple. The tower may be designed to reflect sacred mountains. This journey, up the spine (meru-danda) of the seeker, implies the journey towards enlightenment, which is reached above the crown. How did these complex, sophisticated temples manifest, moving from philosophy, to design, to the material? How was the technology of building these temples learned, and how and what did it survive?

8.6 Vastushastra Technology Education (VTE) 8.6.1 The Gurukul Tradition Vedic pedagogy resides within the Gurukul tradition, a residential learning model that is premised on dialogical, experiential learning that applies to all subjects of study, including music, art, philosophy, and architecture. Gurukul learning occurs primarily through spoken, not written, words, as is the case with most indigenous traditions. This pedagogy is reflected in many of Sanatana Dharma’s philosophical texts, such as the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Yoga Vasishta, which are articulated in the form of conversation. At the core is the Guru-Shishya (teacher-student) relationship, where the Guru embodies the qualities of humility, non-egotism, and compassion, and has taken on the responsibility of being the steward of knowledge (Chaithanya et al., 2019). The Shishya devotes himself to the Guru in service and is provided protection, lodging, and food by the Guru in the Gurukul during the period of study. The learning process is individualized by the Guru for each Shishya’s needs. It is understood that the Guru is transmitting knowledge from a higher plane—that the knowledge comes through the Guru to the Shishya. Thus, learning is understood to be an energetic exchange and not just an intellectual one. The Gurukul model is the earliest pedagogy, dating back to the oral traditions of the Upanishads (circa 2000 BCE).

8.6.2 Dharmic Universities In the last centuries before the Common Era through the first millennium of the Common Era, ancient India witnessed the flourishing of several universities, including Nalanda, Takshila, Ujjain, and Vikramshila Universities (Dhanorkar, 2017; Mani, 2008; Vat, 2017). These institutions educated students from across India and other parts of Asia in disciplines such as art, philosophy, astronomy, literature, and

128

I. Viswanathan and S. Ambasta

architecture (Dhanorkar, 2017). Temple architecture embodied the guiding principles and ethos that informed all art, architecture, and city planning. “One of the most important surviving records about the construction of the temple is in the palm leaf manuscript which explains the details of the building operation of thirteenth century Sun Temple at Konark, Orissa” (Dhanorkar, 2017, p. 90). These institutions and their wealth of knowledge, including their vast libraries, were systematically destroyed by Islamic invaders (Asher, 2015; Jain, 2019; Mani, 2008). Nalanda University, at the time of its destruction at the beginning of the twelfth-century CE, housed 10,000 students, 3,000 professors, and a nine-storey library that housed nine million manuscripts. The library was set on fire by Islamic colonizers, taking nearly three months to completely burn down (Vat, 2017, p. 204). Takshila University, dating to fifth-century BCE, was an international centre for the study of Ayurveda, Vedic studies, art, medicine, law, and military science, until its destruction in the fifth-century CE.

8.6.3 Curriculum The content and pedagogy of architectural education reside in the ancient manuals ¯ described earlier—the Sthapatya Veda and the Agamas. Sthapatis learn (Dhanorkar, 2017, pp. 90, 93) art, sculpture, light and sound, philosophy, social sciences, and astrology; geometry, history, drawing, dance, music, and yoga asana. A Sthapati’s relationship with all aspects of the temple, from design to materials, reflects the indigenous worldview, including the dynamic interplay between the elements, where purusha meets prakriti. Master temple architect, V. Ganapati Sthapati, remarking on the history of India’s stone carving tradition, notes: Stone, when touched, is felt to be cold. This is due to its moisture content. When two pieces of stone are brought into collision, fire is produced. Hence stone contains fire. Stone is earth in consolidation of particles of earth. Stone contains pockets filled with air. Stone, added to this, has the quality of space in that it echoes sound. Thus, stone is a composite of the five elemental substances-water, fire, earth, air and space. Stone is the final product of the ultimate Energy. (Sthapati, n.d., para. 6)

8.6.4 Community of Practice as Pedagogical Model Hindu temple architectural education embraces a family apprenticeship model. Sthapati—one who has studied and mastered the Sthapatya Veda—is a surname still in use, reflecting the continuous family trade. Historically, the two bodies that worked in concert to hold and transfer the knowledge of architecture from the apprenticeship to master phase were the seni (architectural guild) that followed the silpas (canons or rules of the craft.) Within the seni sits the Guru-Shishya relationship; emergent architects remained with their mentors or master teachers, for a period of nearly ten years before they went out on their own (Dhanorkar, 2017, p. 90). This community of

8 Sthapatya Shiksha: Hindu Temple Architecture Education

129

practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991) is central to Hindu temple architectural educational tradition (Gangey, 2019). The community of practice is composed of a domain (the area of knowledge—architecture), the community (seni), and the practice (silpas). As an aspect of social practice, learning involves the whole person; it implies not only a relation to specific activities but a relation to social communities[…]. Activities, tasks, functions, and understandings do not exist in isolation; they are part of broader systems of relations in which they have meaning. (Lave & Wenger, 1991, p. 53)

In this manner, the architectural pedagogy is comprised of on-site, experiential, and multimodal training. Yoga asana and dance are learned and practiced so that Sthapatis can better “understand balance, stability, load transfer and centre of gravity” (Dhanorkar, 2017, p. 93). Philosophical foundations are learned through verbal instructions, written text, and memorization. Memorization through oral transmission and recitation plays a central role in sharpening the intellect, according to the Vedic model. Similarly, cyclical models of learning and doing, including repeated verification and reflection, happen throughout the design process, thought to trigger creative problem-solving. This includes initial imitation of master’s skills and techniques, later processing of information and developing skills and then finally developing a characteristic or a signature style to become the master architect and develop own Philosophy and carry on this cycle of teaching learning process. Strategies such as proceeding from known to unknown; simple to complex; concrete to abstract; particular to general, whole to part were used in medieval architecture education and is also used in contemporary architecture education. (Dhanorkar, 2017, p. 94)

8.7 Sthapatya Education and Western Architectural Education 8.7.1 The Arc of Indian Architecture Education The Gurukul tradition marked the beginning of formal architectural education in India, embedded in the University-based model, dating back at least 3,000 years. During the period of Mughal invasion, beginning in the eight century and ending around the start of the British Raj, Hindu temples—particularly in Northern India— were a prime target of destruction. However, the tradition of Sthapati education appears to have remained uninterrupted, passed down continuously across generations with support from the Hindu kings that remained in power. Even as temples were razed on a considerable scale by Mughal invaders, Hindus repeatedly reconstructed them (Jain, 2019). The arrival of the British meant the imposition of a new model and system of education, which was premised upon the dismissal of Indian indigenous knowledge. Readers may be familiar with “Macaulay’s Minute on Indian Education”, an 1835 treatise in which British politician Sir Thomas Macaulay outlined the reasons why Britain should invest in installing an English-medium educational system in India. Amongst his proclamations, Macaulay declared,

130

I. Viswanathan and S. Ambasta

I have conversed, both here and at home, with men distinguished by their proficiency in the Eastern tongues. I am quite ready to take the oriental learning at the valuation of the orientalists themselves. I have never found one among them who could deny that a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia. The intrinsic superiority of the Western literature is indeed fully admitted by those members of the committee who support the oriental plan of education. (Harlow & Carter, 2003, p. 230)

Macaulay’s minute encapsulated the British Raj’s colonial system of educating Indians in language, form, and content. This included a model of formal architectural education, which was borrowed from the Parisian Ecole de Beaux system. This approach was premised upon competition—between ateliers and their students. The concepts of architecture in these formal schools conformed to the Western paradigm of technology, even as the Sthapati tradition remained alive. The Ecole de Beaux system relied on design exercises and competition as its main pedagogical tool (Prasad, 2016, p. 1055). While the British system ignored the existing indigenous system of architecture education, there were some British outliers who sought to highlight the indigenous system either through documentation or debates. Despite these efforts, the dominant model in contemporary Indian architectural education remains the British-imposed French system. Discourse about technology in Indian architectural education circulates around software and does not incorporate indigenous pedagogy or philosophy in a meaningful way. By November 2015, there were 423 Indian colleges of architecture. The Council of Architecture, established in 1972, regulates architectural education and practice; this includes minimum standards for opening a college of architecture, including curriculum, examination, and internship criteria (Prasad, 2016). Some institutions have made attempts to work with local architects, but these are focused on local aesthetics and regional languages, and not on centring indigenous architecture. The privatization of architecture education led to an increase in cohort size, resulting in subpar learning experiences for students in understaffed departments. Moreover, these urban, cost-prohibitive institutions are the domain of the privileged urban class, out of reach for rural and economically disadvantaged students, who find it difficult to relate to curricula that doesn’t centre their experience. In response, community members of the rural village of Tilonia, India, created their own architects, called “barefoot architects” (Al-Adel, 2018; Prasad, 2016). Barefoot College is a grassroots initiative to reclaim the right to architecture education for the purpose of local upliftment. The college differentiates between literacy—the domain of the elite institutions—and education—what is learned outside those halls, in a person’s lived environment and experience. Their main architectural projects include: building a college campus, homes for the homeless, and rain harvesting (Al-Adel, 2018, p. 25). While the college purports to uphold traditional knowledge in its approach to architecture education, the pedagogical model suggests an orientation towards democratized (i.e. open access) learning, rather than the Guru-Shishya tradition or an apprenticeship model, which is centred on high standards of qualification and commitment. Also missing are the foundational courses described in the previous section. It would appear that “traditional,” in this case, does not refer to the indigenous knowledge tradition but to another (undefined) concept.

8 Sthapatya Shiksha: Hindu Temple Architecture Education

131

This relegation of indigenous knowledge to the margins, as distinct from formal education, is prevalent across all disciplines in post-colonial India. In concert with this is the demotion of indigenous knowledge in the public consciousness, even amongst some stewards. Below is a translated excerpt from the 2002 Guru Purnima speech delivered by Shanmuga Sthapati, the lead architect supervising the construction of the magnificent San Marga Iraivian Temple in Kauai, Hawaii in the United States (Himalayan Academy, n.d., paras 17–20). There is a practice in our country. A father nurtures his son, supports in his growth into a smart and intelligent person. Later, the son performs his duty towards his father. This is what Thiruvalluvar said in Verse 67. Thanthai magarkattru nandri avaiyatthu mundhiyiruppa cheyal. This means, it is the duty of the father to bring up his son such that he is able to hold his own among men of great learning. I have one daughter and three sons. In accordance with this Kural, I educated my first three children well. Born as stone-carvers, we are not very rich people. But, I did not want my children to face the difficulties and insults that I faced due to my not being educated. That was the motivation for me to educate my children. For my youngest son, too, I did not want to be amiss in my duty. He got a Diploma in Computer Technology. Then, following the advice of many well-wishers I arranged for him to enrol for a Bachelor’s Degree in Engineering. This was just before I came to Kauai.

There is a striking tension between Sri Sthapati’s reverence for indigenous knowledge (“There appears to me a divine connection between the Saivite land of Siva’s abode, Kailash and Kauai, Hawaii” [Himalayan Academy, n.d., para 4]) and the internalized colonial message about “not being educated,” which is measured in financial wealth. This tension compels him to translate his duty as a father (as described in the Kural) into ensuring his children receive a formal Western education, including a certificate in computer technology and a degree in engineering for his youngest son. To put this into perspective, one need only view (see Figs. 8.3, 8.4 and 8.5) the architectural marvel whose construction he has overseen. This is not an indictment of Sri Sthapati, but an observation of the phenomenological and material implications of centring Eurocentric concepts of architecture, technology, and education in a post-colonial society. This includes an internal layer of self-dislocation, wherein the post-colonial society has marginalized and, perhaps, tokenized the indigenous system and consciousness that sustained and normalized its indigenous technology and pedagogy. Thus, indigenous technology education remains on the margins (Gumbo, 2015). In the particular case of Hindu temples in India, state governments have taken over the role of their governance, where the “secular” tasks (a Western construct) of temple maintenance and construction are separated from the “religious” ones (MacRae, 2004).

132

I. Viswanathan and S. Ambasta

Fig. 8.3 The Dwara Gopuram (temple main entrance tower) is made from 11 tonnes of granite and took six years to carve (Photograph taken by Manickam, 2018)

Fig. 8.4 The intricate pillars carved using only a hammer and chisel and spaced and structured to serve as energy points for the temple (electricity-free by design) (Photograph taken by Manickam, 2018)

8 Sthapatya Shiksha: Hindu Temple Architecture Education

133

Fig. 8.5 Intricately carved lion pillar with free standing and rotatable stone ball inside the lion’s mouth (Photograph taken by Manickam, 2018)

8.7.2 How Does Sthapatya Architectural Education Relate to Western Understandings of Architecture Education? On the surface, there appears to be a strong overlap between Hindu temple architecture education and contemporary Western pedagogies of architecture like design/build studio (Foli´c et al., 2016). Dhanorkar (2017) which suggests that design/build studio is not a new pedagogy, but closely resembles indigenous Hindu architectural pedagogy, with on-site learning and demonstration at its core. Upon closer inspection of design/build, however, the onto-epistemological differences reveal themselves. Formalized at Yale University in the 1960s, design/build emerged from community activism and development in rural Kentucky (Schuman, 2012); an ethical commitment to serving and engaging under-resourced communities sits at its core and reflects in the pedagogy. Traditional Western architecture education focuses on technical and practical knowledge and skills; design/build is premised on out-ofclassroom experiential learning that helps develop socially responsible, well-rounded architects. While the role of architecture in serving and supporting the community appears to resemble the Vastushastra approach, design/build comes closer to the Barefoot College concept (Al-Adel, 2018; Prasad, 2016). Both design/build and Barefoot College disrupt the technical, urban approach to architecture by integrating rural communities at the material and social level; while the a¯ gamas reveal that temples played a deeply significant role in sustaining the material and social life of temple

134

I. Viswanathan and S. Ambasta

communities, they are also instrumental in supporting Hindus’ inward journeys, away from the material and social, towards the Divine. This goal is reflected in the design of temples and in architectural pedagogy, incorporating the architect’s own spiritual journey through the Guru-Shishya tradition, including learning through oral transmission, repetition, and memorization and through embodied personal practice of yoga asana and dance. The sincerity of the relationship between teachers and learners are central to the tradition. Hindu architecture education happens through an apprenticeship model, within a community of practice (Gangey, 2019), sometimes taking a decade of learning. In sum, because architecture—in process and product—emerges from different metaphysical worldviews, this reflects in different conceptualizations of architecture education.

8.8 Conclusion Across the world, the long shadows of coloniality (Mignolo & Walsh, 2018) continue to disregard indigenous knowledge technology, despite magnificent examples of theory and practice that survived colonization. Unfortunately, this marginalization is often enacted by post-colonial societies and their institutions that support and govern technology and technology education. In the case of Hindu temples and their architectural education and practice that create, maintain, and rebuild them, we can see this result in the demotion of sophisticated technological knowledge to the craft of the “uneducated”, while Westernized schools of technology, architecture, and engineering produce the “educated.” This is largely because temples are viewed through a colonial worldview as a material construction with aesthetic and social value and “superstitious” meaning. When temples are understood through Dharmic onto-epistemology, their sophisticated qualities and purpose are enlivened. Moreover, when the indigenous architectural pedagogy is examined in that context, and alongside its Western counterpart, the limitations of the latter come into view. This is evident even with the limited access we have to indigenous practices due to the destruction wreaked upon India by multiple invasions. The potential value of further exploring and engaging in this work—particularly in informing and expanding Western concepts of archaeological education—might contribute to a shift within the Indian consciousness about her own indigenous knowledge traditions, particularly if these contributions are recognized by the wider global community.

References Al-Adel, A. A. A. A.-H. (2018). The Egyptian International Journal of India’s New Architects. The Egyptian International Journal of Engineering Sciences and Technology, 25, 24–30. Altman, M. J. (2017). Heathen, Hindoo, Hindu: American representations of India, 1721–1893. Asher, F. (2015). Nalanda: Situating the great monastery. Marg Foundation.

8 Sthapatya Shiksha: Hindu Temple Architecture Education

135

Bandyopadhyay, A. (2019). Understanding the architecture of Hindu temples: A philosophical interpretation. International Journal of Architectural and Environmental Engineering, 13(12), 718–722. Chaithanya, Venandana, & Chetan. (2019). Guru and Shishya: A unique coordinate. Journal of Ayurveda and Integrated Medical Sciences, 4(5), 337–343. Dhanorkar, S. S. (2017). Co-relation of pedagogical strategies in Hindu temple architecture and contemporary architecture education. International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology, 10(1), 87–97. ¯ Duraiswamy, D. (2021). Temple management in the Agama-s: With special reference to K¯amik¯agama. Notion Press. Durant, W. (1930). The case for India. Simon & Schuster. Dutta, T., & Adane, V. S. (2013). Symbolism in Hindu temple architecture and fractal geometry— ‘Thought Behind Form.’ International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), 3(12), 489–497. Foli´c, B., Kosanovi´c, S., Glažar, T., & Fikfak, A. (2016). Design-build concept in architectural education. Architecture and Urban Planning, 11(1), 49–55. https://doi.org/10.1515/aup-20160007 Gangey, G. (2019). The role of community of practices in architecture pedagogy. In International conference on architecture pedagogy (pp. 1–5). Gumbo, M. T. (2015). Indigenous technology in technology education curricula and teaching. In The future of technology education (pp. 1–281). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-170-1 Gumbo, M. T. (2017). An indigenous perspective on technology education. In P. Ngulube (Ed.), Handbook of research on indigenous knowledge systems in developing countries (pp. 137–160). IGI. ISBN: 978-1-5225-2642-1. Harlow, B., & Carter, M. (Ed.). (2003). Archives of Empire: Volume I. From the East India Company to the Suez Canal. Duke University Press Books Himalayan Academy [website]. (n.d.). Shanmuga Sthapati, Iraivan’s Construction Architect Speaks about the Significance of Iraivan Temple. Retrieved March 24, 2022 from https://www.himala yanacademy.com/monastery/temples/iraivan/shanmuga-significance-of-iraivan Jain, M. (2019). Flight of deities and rebirth of temples: Episodes from Indian history. Aryan Books International. Kak, S. (2002). Space and cosmology in the Hindu temple. International Symposium on Science and Technology in Ancient Indian Monuments, 108, 1–17. Kramrisch, S. (1946, reprint 2015) The Hindu temple. Motilal Banarsidass. Kramrisch, S. (1965). The art of India. Phaidon Press. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press. Leeper, D., & Taylor, B. (2017). The temple setting. In The Routledge handbook of archaeology and globalization. MacRae, G. (2004). Who knows how to build a temple? Religious and secular, tradition and innovation, in contemporary South Indian sacred architecture. South Asia, 27(2), 217–243. https:// doi.org/10.1080/1479027042000236643 Mani, C. (2008). The heritage of Nalanda. Aryan Books. Manickam, R. (2018). Iraivan: The south facing Shiva [Photograph slideshow]. Retrieved March 24, 2022 from https://www.himalayanacademy.com/monastery/temples/iraivan Michell, G. (1988). The temple as a link between the gods and man. In The Hindu temple: An introduction to its meaning and forms (pp. 61–76). The University of Chicago Press. Mignolo, W., & Walsh, C. E. (2018). On decoloniality: Concepts, analytics, praxis. Duke University Press. Prasad, V. (2016). Investigating the contemporary architecture education challenges in India. International Journal of Educational and Pedagogical Sciences, 10(3), 1055–1058. Sastri, K. A. N. (1976). A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. Oxford University Press.

136

I. Viswanathan and S. Ambasta

Schuman, A. W. (2012). Community engagement. In J. Ockman (Ed.), Architecture school: Three centuries of educating architects in North America (pp. 252–259). The MIT Press. Sharma, A. (2018). The ruler’s gaze: A study of British rule over India from a Saidian perspective. HarperCollins. Sthapathi, G. V. (n.d.). The story of stone. Retrieved November 1, 2021 from https://www.himala yanacademy.com/monastery/temples/iraivan/bangalore/stone-story Trivedi, K. (1993). Hindu temple: Models of a fractal universe. In International seminar on Mayonic science and technology (pp. 243–257). Vardia, S. (2018, July). Building science of Indian temple architecture. Shweta Vardia Building Science of Indian Temple Architecture. Vat, P. (2017). India as a destination for higher education: Opportunities and challenges. In International conclave on India: The global destination for higher education (Vol. 83, pp. 203–209). Retrieved from https://destinationreporterindia.com/2019/02/06/india-as-a-destination-for-med ical-tourism/

Chapter 9

Ikat Weaving in India: A Case Study of Three Indigenous Traditions Sumita Ambasta and Indu Viswanathan

Abstract This chapter describes the Indigenous technology of Ikat weaving and dyeing in India in three regions, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa. Ikat weaving and dyeing is an Indigenous technology passed down for centuries through communities and families. The chapter draws on primary and secondary sources to explore how the design and procedures of ikat weaving are intertwined with community living, identity, and livelihood. The impact of overseas trade and market influences on this Indigenous weaving style has transformed history and continues to transform the globalized world of fashion and design. The Indian case study shows that the inclusion of such Indigenous technology in culturally relevant pedagogy has relevance for contemporary design and technology education, especially in higher education. Institutional support and regulatory processes help situate Indigenous technology locally in India by protecting the intellectual property of such technologies. Ikat regional communities also offer evidence of how Indigenous knowledge traditions contribute to our understanding of sustainability in technology education. Keywords Indigenous · Weaving · Technology · Communities · Intellectual property

9.1 Introduction to Ikat Ikat is a form of resist dyeing and weaving and has been studied as an art and a craft. However, it has not been studied as an Indigenous technology. Weavers are viewed as artisans but not people with knowledge of technology. The focus has been on the motifs, regional evolution of patterns, and the ritual aspect of textile design. In studying ikat as an Indigenous weaving technology, the textile weaving S. Ambasta (B) Plaksha University, Punjab, India e-mail: [email protected] I. Viswanathan Hindu University of America, Orlando, FL, USA © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_9

137

138

S. Ambasta and I. Viswanathan

tradition reveals an alternate form of knowledge (Gumbo, 2017). The dying and weaving methods are examples of the employment of design or procedural knowledge (Williams, 2000) in creating highly valued textile products. This ancient Indigenous form of weaving and resist dyeing technology has survived and been transmitted over large geographies through trade (Crill, 1998). While ikat has been produced locally in many regions globally, we see that the Indian history of ikat has survived by continuing to adapt and transform economic activities for over a millennium. This history of textile production and knowledge in India, a cornerstone of colonial history (Guy, 2013), is not more widely known due to the erasure of Indigenous knowledge within education. The line of inquiry into ikat as an Indigenous technology made Indian ikat an article of such high value in the global textile trade (Crill, 1998, 2006; Guy, 2013). Even in India, students in schools are not aware of the rich tapestry of this history of ikat, even though many organizations and the government have worked to include these technologies and design elements into higher education. “Ikat is magic,” says Chandana Srinath, a master weaver, the magic lying in ikat weaving’s design and procedural knowledge. There are three kinds of ikat produced in India: warp ikat, weft ikat, and double ikat. It is not the fabric dyed in ikat, but the cotton or the silk yarn is bundled and tied to a predetermined color scheme or design (Crill, 1998; Desai, 1987). The tied sections of the yarn remain undyed, and the rest of the exposed yarn takes on the dye color. The weaving is done after the yarn is sorted and woven into intricate designs on handlooms. The warp and weft of the loom are set up to produce intricate single ikat designs that show some bleeding of color. Single ikat involves the dyeing of either the warp or the weft yarns. Double ikat involves a highly complex weaving process where there is no bleeding in the design after the dyed yarns have been woven. The process involves a meticulous mathematical design to build patterns and motifs specific to the region or usage that relies on the weaver’s ability to execute procedural knowledge (Williams, 2000) that emerges only through weaving. Hence, this Indigenous weaving technology’s design and procedural knowledge are highly valued and are emulated by contemporary machine weaving textile producers. There Ikat production process has six foundational procedural steps, which could become twelve or twenty procedures depending on regional variations. The tools, yarn sourcing, dying materials, and motifs have a distinctive regional character. The first step is yarn perpetration which precedes any dyeing or weaving where cotton or silk yarns are rolled on hand reels and then gathered into groups of threads. These yarns undergo degumming and bleaching, drying, and wounding on frames. The second step is the preparation of yarn to resist dyeing where. The yarn is assembled on pegs by the length of the final product that will be woven. It is then arranged on a frame where the sections are marked for dying. The third step involves wrapping and dyeing. Warp and weft yarns are stretched on frames, tied down, and then marked for weaving. Designs are drawn from memory or graphing paper, even though minor errors could become expensive. The yarn is wrung and immersed in solutions to fix the color in the fourth step. Then, it is washed with cold water and dried. The next step prepares the dyed yarn for weaving when yarns are spread out in long spaces, dried, and then stretched (Crill, 1998). The yarns are then wound on bobbins and

9 Ikat Weaving in India: A Case Study of Three Indigenous Traditions

139

numbered. The loom is prepared for weaving by arranging warp and weft threads. Then, the weaving takes place with one or two weavers working together depending on the pattern and style of ikat, through an embodied form of production that relies on patterns, rhythms of the body, and breath. This chapter summarizes the rich history of Ikat in India. It describes the three regional Ikat traditions that have survived and continue to thrive and adapt to production challenges and economic forces. It then describes ikat in contemporary technology education and teaching, leading to discussions of sustainability and Indigenous technology in education.

9.2 The History of Ikat in India This section covers three eras of ikat history: precolonial, colonial, and contemporary. During each period, regional expressions of ikat responded to political, economic, and cultural influences. However, the basic resist dyeing and weaving technology remained constant, moving through different regions and finding local vibrancy (Barnes, 2012; Crill, 1998; Desai, 1987). The word “ikat,” from the Malay root word “mengikat,” meaning to tie, came into global usage as part of colonial trade. However, India had strong local ikat traditions preceding this global usage of the term ikat with local Indigenous names specific to regions. Gujarat’s Patola and Odisha’s Bandha are older than Andhra’s Pochampally tradition. Ikat dyeing and weaving in India as an Indigenous knowledge system has survived for over a millennium and transformed communities across Asia through evolving designs, techniques, and user accounts of these traditions from oral histories. Since colonial encounters, written reports have been only available (Bühler & Fischer, 1979). There is archeological evidence of ikat-type practices in South Indian temples and some Gujarati texts (Crill, 1998). However, Patola, the ikat from Gujarat, played a significant role in colonial trade with Southeast Asia (Bühler & Fischer, 1979). Ikat was situated in local sacred traditions (Dhamija, 2014; Ghosh & Ghosh, 2000), even as it turned into a currency of textile trade in precolonial and colonial times (Crill, 2006; Guy, 2013). Most international buyers of ikat are not aware of this Indigenous Indian weaving technology, especially the Patola, and its role in colonial trade. It is critical to note that Buhler and Fischer’s exhaustive study of the Patola, or double ikat from Gujarat, was written with the assistance of the Salvi family, whose recent testimonies are included later in this chapter. The question always arises whether the Indigenous or colonial narratives hold authority. Buhler situated the Patola tradition as the source of the Indonesian Ikat (Bühler & Fischer, 1979), even though Dutch colonial trade in Indonesian textiles has made the Malay word ikat a global terminology. While everyone agrees on the trade history of ikat, it is not easy to find sources and styles of the fabric from archival records (Guy, 2009) as not many samples have survived. Ajanta frescoes in India provide the earliest evidence of ikat images. It shows a warp ikat design of arrowheads (Crill, 1998; Guy, 2009) and stripes on lower garments worn by men and women. There are specific mentions of Gujarat’s ikat, Patola, in

140

S. Ambasta and I. Viswanathan

works dating from the twelfth century and, possibly, the fourteenth century (Crill, 1998). As the technique traveled to Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa, it took on local colors, symbols, and design motifs. The lack of actual textiles meant historians relied on secondary sources and oral histories for these weaving traditions. The Dutch colonial trade and the British colonial trade have specific references to the ikat trade. The names of textiles came from local sources, as was the practice in commercial trade (Bühler & Fischer, 1979), all three regions exported ikat. Still, primary sources from weavers tell us that they have held traditions of weaving within their families for hundreds of years while not being too concerned with written accounts of their practices. Since Indian independence after the Second World War, the Andhra clusters have significantly developed and dominated domestic and export markets (Crill, 1998). Odisha traditions have continued to flourish and have expanded more designs and motifs. Due to its high cost and limited production, the double ikat Patola tradition has contracted to just some families. However, Gandhian education, where a master weaver taught other weavers to create single ikat versions of the Patola, has given rise to the Rajkot cluster, which struggles to fill the growing demand for its more affordable and artistic products. The following sections describe practices from three regions of the ikat tradition.

9.3 Communities of Practice: Three Traditions of Ikat Weaving and Dyeing in India Ikat weaving clusters in India can be considered communities of practice of Indigenous technology traditions, as is evident from weavers’ accounts (Wenger, 1999). This section relies on primary and secondary sources, testimonies collected from weavers, regulatory filings by weavers’ cooperatives, and media reports. We can see how by centering the voices of contemporary ikat weavers from three regional traditions—Patola in Gujarat, Bandha-Kala in Odisha, and Pochampally in Andhra Pradesh—learning takes place in communities, and how weavers integrate and adapt livelihood issues with technical knowledge, and education. Learning takes place within a cultural context and sacred traditions (Desai, 1987; Dhamija, 2014; Ghosh & Ghosh, 2000; Mohanty & Krishna, 1974) through an apprentice model. Even among younger weavers, the learning is situated in ongoing activity (Lave, 1998), even though it is not included in any school curriculum. These weaving traditions have adapted to several materials and social changes involving pedagogies embedded in local cultures and environments.

9 Ikat Weaving in India: A Case Study of Three Indigenous Traditions

141

9.3.1 Patola in Gujarat 9.3.1.1

Location

The Ikat tradition of Patola in Gujarat is an ancient tradition and predates the word “ikat.” Patola is a word from the local language of Gujarati. The local double ikat tradition is mainly situated in Patan. In Gujarat, there are newer centers of ikat weaving in Rajkot and Surat, creating versions of the original Patola from Patan in response to consumers’ demands for a less expensive version of the highly desired double Ikat Patola. While the double ikat Patola has a distinguished history, the single ikat tradition from Rajkot and Surendranagar has also received recognition. It has arisen as a response to consumer demand for less expensive versions of Patola.

9.3.1.2

Families

Rahul Salvi from Patan was interviewed in 2021, and he generously shared his family’s history for this research. The Salvi family has been working on Patola for 900 years in Patan. Rahul Salvi, an architect by profession, was invited to join the family’s weaving business as a master weaver to preserve the tradition. He confirmed that Patan was the capital of Gujarat, and king Kumarpal was the Jain ruler in the eleventh century. The king wanted a Patola to offer to the deity every day. This cloth was imported from Jalna in Maharashtra, where the Salvi weavers lived. The king invited 700 weaver families from Jalna to Patan to weave Patola for the king for daily use in sacred traditions. Only two or three families of the original weaving community have survived. The current Salvi family in Patan is the only one that continues to use natural materials, employing natural dyes and original bamboo and teak wood equipment with no modifications. Rahul shared that an original Patola weaver starts learning from childhood, and children are placed under the loom when parents work. Children become used to the music created by the rhythm of weaving, so it becomes embodied knowledge from childhood. Rahul shared that they hold the Patan Patola as the “mother of all ikat work,” using the word ikat when people’s knowledge is inadequate. The word “Patola” comes from the “Pattakul,” a silken cloth in Sanskrit, modified to Patola. Salvi proudly stated that his family provided information about Alfred Buhler’s seminal work on Patan Patola from their family histories. There are eighteen to twenty processes that need to be mastered to become a master weaver. It starts from preparing the silk, which takes six to seven cycles, to creating threads for warp and weft. Then, dyeing must be done with perfect precision since even an error of a millimeter would create a faulty fabric. The processes are confidential, and they do not share photographs of these processes with anyone. The eighteen to twenty processes take four to five months, even when four or five weavers work on one garment. They learn from older family members and teach their children, as intergenerational knowledge is not shared outside the family. It takes 15–20 years to learn the entire process. The Salvi family treats the

142

S. Ambasta and I. Viswanathan

knowledge like a mother and hence does not share the knowledge for fear of dilution and distortion. The Salvis have built 10,000 sq feet of ikat museum called Patan Patola heritage, which holds 300–400-year-old pieces of Patola textiles. There are only 8–10 weavers left in the Salvi family. Four or five more families practice this craft in the traditional method. According to him, commercial producers employ around 250 people in Patan, but the weavers struggle to make a living, as it is only the merchandiser who makes the profit. Rajkot is the other cluster in Gujarat that came into existence when a master weaver from the Salvi family taught weavers at Rashtriya Shala, a Gandhian school set up in 1921 to train people. A Patan weaver Karamchand Prajapati (Parmar, 2013) trained other weavers in the Patola tradition to create livelihoods for artisans in the Gandhian tradition. He was originally a potter, learned enough from the Salvis to create a single weft version of the double ikat Patola and taught other weavers. The Rajkot cluster is the larger cluster, now employing around a thousand looms and offering employment and high production capacity for single ikat fabrics and products. The Patan and Rajkot clusters have received legal GI (Geographical Indicator) and intellectual property recognition and created products with different value propositions. The Rashtriya Shala is a vocational school supported by government agencies like Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) and has created a new generation of weavers in the Rajkot tradition.

9.3.1.3

Materials and Motifs

Traditionally, pure silk and natural dyes were used for weaving, as Patola is a delicate textile made for royalty and export. The British introduced chemical dyes to India in the nineteenth century, making the work quicker and simpler. In the last 100 years, tradition has given way to the use of fast bleach and easy-to-dye chemical colors (dyes). Organic dye quality varies with material quality, so everyone adopts chemical dyes for standard quality. However, since 1984, they have started creating Patola with natural dyes due to their eco-friendliness. Patan Patola weavers typically work with mulberry silk sourced from China, as it is the finest yarn quality, but during the COVID-19 pandemic, they temporarily sourced Indian silk from Mysore. Most motifs in the Patola are derived from animal, human, and vegetation figures situated within a square. Some of the popular names for designs are Nari Kunjar bhat (women), Vohra Bhat (Vohra community design), Paan Bhat (paan leaf or peepal tree leaf design), and Chhaabdi Bhat (floral basket design), and kinjar (elephant) and popat (parrot). Both the Patan and Rajkot clusters employ the same motifs and materials. The weavers state that the square or the “chowk” in the Patola pattern arouses the feeling of security, as women generally desire security on every occasion of their life. The Symbols of Elephant, Parrot, Peacock, Kalas (Jug), and the Human are all considered the auspicious symbol of good luck and fortune, which renders status and fortune to the wearer. People buy these products for sacred ceremonies, weddings, and childbirth to cause both status and protection to the wearer (Desai, 1987; Mohanty & Krishna, 1974).

9 Ikat Weaving in India: A Case Study of Three Indigenous Traditions

143

9.3.2 Bandha in Odisha 9.3.2.1

Location

There are two distinct ikat traditions in two different regions in Odisha in the Eastern and Western parts of the state encompassing around 175,000 weavers who rely on this technique for their livelihood as per the GI filing for Odisha ikat. It states explicitly that in this location, both double and single ikat traditions are called “bandha,” in the local language Odia, which means “to tie.”

9.3.2.2

Families

The families of weavers in Odisha are the Bhulias and Kosthas in Western Odisha and Gaudiya, Asini, and Sarakha Patara in Eastern Odisha (Ghosh & Ghosh, 2000). Many weavers are spread over an expansive geographical area, which has led to several Geographical Indicator (GI) tags being filed for specific Odisha ikat traditions. In Odisha, bandha is intricately tied to the sacred ritual of Jagannath and has an ancient history with these temple and worship traditions. There is an account of bandha fabrics from fourteenth-century texts (Mohanty and Krishna). According to their account, Bhulia weavers moved to this region almost a thousand years ago from the Western state of Rajasthan, when the state was attacked. They all work with cotton and a coarse form of silk called tussar. They have relied on local demand for their products to survive. The Gaudiya Patara and Asani Patara families in Nuapatna link their ikat craft to sacred traditions. They preserve one small piece of cloth woven by ancestors for seven generations. The eight generation adds their own and immerses the oldest part in a holy river. Therefore, the patterns and textiles serve as archival material and hold knowledge and memory for seven generations. The embodied knowledge of storing information in fabrics meant that the Patara families remembered their ancestors’ names for at least seven generations. These families also weave sacred ceremonial cloth for the Jagannath temples (Ghosh & Ghosh, 2000; Mohanty & Krishna, 1974). Handloom weaving in most places, and especially within the Meher, Bhulia, and Kostha communities, is a family tradition where men and women collaborate to create woven textiles. Women play specific roles in preparing yarn for dyeing and processing, tying and untying the yarns after dying. Men do most weaving and are involved in all parts of the longitudinal production cycle. Master weavers know how to weave patterns and designs without graphs, demonstrating a high mathematical and geometrical precision. They can also transfer designs into woven cloth from their imagination (Ghosh & Ghosh, 2000). Intergenerational transfer of knowledge occurs by including children from 12 years of age when they are invited to start experimenting on the loom. The women in the villages wear handwoven sarees, and the local consumption of the product means that the tradition stays sustainable, even

144

S. Ambasta and I. Viswanathan

in the absence of exports to other locations. Even the men wear handwoven bandha as garments as a marker of identity.

9.3.2.3

Motifs

Designs are inspired by natural surroundings and nature and include traditional motifs such as chakra (wheel), shankha (shell), phula (flower), and matsya (fish). Market demands mean that they are experimenting with newer designs and figures. The Gita Govinda cloth (Dhamija, 2014; Meher, 2017; Ranjan & Ranjan, 2009) is created with calligraphy forms of poetic couplets from Gita Govinda, a twelfth-century poem composed by Jayadev. These sacred textiles are used to dress the deities of Jagannath temple, an ancient worship tradition (Meher, 2017). These cultural motifs inspire weavers but may not be apparent to people who buy them as a commodity (Pradhan & Khandual, 2020).

9.3.3 Pogdubondhu or Pochampally in Andhra Pradesh 9.3.3.1

Location

Ikat from Andhra Pradesh is called Pogdubondhu, Chitki, and Buddabashi locally (Ghosh & Ghosh, 2000), situating the resist tie and dye and weaving traditions in the local language. However, it has become better known as Pochampally locally, as this is the merchandising center for ikat. It has been developed following consumer trade and merchandising inputs to make the product cost-effective by changing the process and materials. The original Andhra Ikat came from Chirala, a place between Vijayawada and Chennai (GI filing), where the famous Telia Rumal (Oily handkerchief) and Chowks (square) were woven. The textiles were in bold red, black, and white geometrical designs and were exported to Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. The locations are Koyyalagudem, Puttapaka, and Chautupal (Ranjan & Ranjan, 2009).

9.3.3.2

Families

Debanga, Dera, and Padmashali jatis are families settled in a few villages around Pochampally in the Vijayawada district. They use a fly shuttle loom, which helps higher productivity and reduces cost for the consumer compared to Bandha or Patola. There are around 100 master weavers in the region today, and their teams meet the growing demand for fabric in cotton and silk. However, the GI filings do not refer to the traditional communities but weavers’ organizations and cooperatives as holders of the GI Tag. The filings describe designs, motifs, and materials, creating ownership of the design and production process. Commercial considerations and

9 Ikat Weaving in India: A Case Study of Three Indigenous Traditions

145

adaptive technology have opened up ikat production to people beyond the original families and jatis who were initially holders of such knowledge. However, there are celebrated master weavers like Gajam Govardhan, who create new patterns and motifs to demonstrate the complexity of the craft while adapting to contemporary demands. One master weaver Chandana Srinath was interviewed for this research and was an eighteen-year-old young woman. She had stepped into her father’s shoes at his death in 2018. From the Padmashali jati (a community or a guild), her father supported a community of over two hundred weavers in Koyyalagudem, a village production center. His death meant losing their livelihood, leading her to lead this cluster as a fifteen-year teenager. She creates single, double ikat, telia Rumal, fabrics for upholstery, and fabrics for dress materials in cotton and silk by using vat colors which means the quality of the paint will stay after years. She continues her formal education and works as a leader, pursuing a bachelor’s in business. While her dream would be to go to the National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT), its full-time programs make it difficult for her to abandon her cluster and family. She has learned to dye and weave practically from her father and was able to function as a master weaver as a fifteen-year-old, evidence of the value of this situated community learning. As a child, she had learned to graph, tie and dye yarn and weave even when she was going to school. “I am working for them, not myself.” Her father was an award-winning master weaver, and she feels compelled to continue this legacy in his name. She has 40 looms she supports and a community of two hundred weavers, including seventy women and 130 men who work on dying and weaving. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Chandana continued to find opportunities for many weavers who lost work. Her father and grandfather were all master weavers, and they all learned and handled the weaving business from puberty and formal education. She creates the design, color combination, and dyeing techniques and hands it over to the weavers and detailed explanations, functioning as an eighteenyear-old teacher. Over time, women left the profession even though traditionally men and women worked together as a family, helping each other. Women work with yarns, tying the yarn with rubber, and men do the weaving. She is a master dyer who can convert shade cards into different kinds of dyes from merchandisers. She has created her dye color charts and knows about natural sources of stains. Her knowledge of chemistry comes from practical experience, experimentation, and learning from her father.

9.3.3.3

Materials and Motifs

Cotton is grown locally in Telangana, and weavers purchase yarn from factories in the area. Mulberry silk is purchased from the market and is sourced from Bengaluru, another city in South India. Some weavers buy silk yarn and spin it into finer yarns used for weaving. There are sitting and standing looms built by carpenters with wood procured locally, based on measurements given by master weavers. Over time, some

146

S. Ambasta and I. Viswanathan

weavers have moved to using power looms, reducing the physical labor and finesse of the weaving patterns. Demand for lower prices has driven a move to power looms. Most designs in the Andhra cluster come from geometric designs and patterns rather than natural motifs. Much production is created for export and other commercial production. While these are traditional weaving communities of practice that follow age-old Indigenous technologies, there are educational institutions that have included these Indigenous technologies within the contemporary design and fashion technology education. The following section gives an overview of the ways Indigenous knowledge of weaving has been included in education in these institutions.

9.4 Ikat in Contemporary Technology Education and Teaching Recent educational institutions have brought ikat into design and technology education in India. The institutional framework that brings this technology into contemporary educational spaces includes several networked institutions, including the National Institute for Fashion Technology (NIFT), Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC), Weavers’ Guilds, and the National Institute of Design (NID). These institutions work with local weavers to sustain Indigenous weaving traditions like ikat; students learn how to adapt and integrate these Indigenous technologies into contemporary marketplaces, and create an economic, technological and merchandising platform to ensure the Indigenous weaving technologies survive, adapt, and thrive. Two institutes stand out in this educational space in design and technology. The first one is NID, based in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, close to textile production centers. It was set up in 1961 to serve as a bridge between tradition and modernity and as a design response to the challenges of building a new national identity after independence from colonial rule in 1947. The founders collaborated with international designers to set up a design institute that used the Bauhaus design philosophy to bring the design that supported the traditional crafts, of which ikat was one. The institute has received recognition by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Government of India, as a Scientific and Industrial Research Organization. In this way, NID has found a way to integrate Indigenous technologies with Western knowledge, paving the way for dialogue (Gumbo, 2014). The textile design department at NID collaborated with weavers of double ikat Patan Patola and helped them apply to be included in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage (Vasudev, 2012). NID has a textile design department whose graduates and faculty have worked with weavers to bring these complexes dying and weaving techniques into contemporary usage. Designers, who are graduates of NID, have created brands that translate traditional motifs into minimalist and contemporary styles while using traditional weaving techniques. Traditional weavers use graph sheets and line drawings that are

9 Ikat Weaving in India: A Case Study of Three Indigenous Traditions

147

part of their rural lifestyle legacies. However, well-known master weavers like Gajam Govardhan respond to market needs by adapting block prints and Ajrakh prints, two other Indigenous textile dying traditions, into waving traditions to give them a more contemporary flair. These designers from NID are providing the design and branding inputs through their merchandising effort. Other designers speak of the grounding they received in traditional Indigenous textile traditions like ikat at NID, which they have used to create new classes of products like rugs (Hindu, 2012). Graduates like Chelna Desai have done a lot to bring ikat knowledge to people through offering contemporary products based on Indigenous techniques adapted to modern styles and sensibilities. She has also written a monograph on the art of ikat and curated samples and design motifs (Desai, 1987). The second institution is the National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT), set up in 1986. Its website states that it is the “pioneering institute of fashion education in the country,” and it works as a “knowledge service provider to the Union and state governments in the design, development of handlooms and handicrafts.” Their vision is to offer a “learning experience of the highest fashion standards about design, technology, and management and encourage our remarkably creative student body to draw inspiration from India’s textiles and crafts while focusing on emerging global trends.” It has now grown to 17 campuses from one campus, offering undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral programs in Fashion Design and Technology. Their education is lab and project-based, and they offer textile weaving and dyeing lab experiences. Local NIFT campuses offer collaboration with weavers. NIFT campuses exist near the three regional clusters of ikat weavers in Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha. A group of three graduates from the NIFT near the ikat cluster of Odisha started a label called “Utpatti” to help the weavers. As part of the curriculum at NIFT on craft-based product development, they were inspired to work to help local weavers and artisans from Odisha. During the pandemic, they worked with ikat weavers from Nuapatna, Odisha, to design, make and sell 3- and 4-ply ikat masks (Rajpal, 2020). Khadi and Village Industries Commission is a government body that helps Indigenous crafts, handlooms, and technologies find a way to adapt to the economic forces of modern life through rural development. Formed in 1957, KVIC was yet another government initiative to build national crafts and industries to address the colonial ravages of local artisans. KVIC presented the work of designers who worked with weaving clusters to offer their products at premier fashion events. Organizations like Digital Empowerment Foundation (DEF) worked with ikat weavers’ clusters from Odisha to help them collaborate digitally to create these products (Basu, 2018). One of the most significant recent moves in contemporary times has been adopting Intellectual property rights for these Indigenous technologies. As a member of the World Trade organization, India enacted the Geographical Indication (GI) tag, which certifies technology, crafts, or agricultural products as arising from a specific geographical location. The GI tag came into existence in 2003, and Pochampally or Andhra ikat was the third good to receive it, adding to its branding and marketing potential (Misra, 2021). Subsequently, all three clusters in Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh or Pochampally, and Odisha have received GI tags. Pochampally received it in 2005, Odisha ikat in 2007, and Patan Patola in 2013. Ikat traditions hence now have

148

S. Ambasta and I. Viswanathan

better recognition through the GI Tag and the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage through institutional and legal support.

9.5 Sustainability and Ikat Tradition Including Indigenous technology and ecology-sensitive education of dyeing and weaving within a culturally relevant education framework in schools has implications for self-determination and a transformation of communities. The highly valued double ikat tradition of Patola was transformed into a single ikat tradition, creating new clusters and transforming the lives of people in other regions of Gujarat (Weiss, 2014), which eventually became the Rajkot cluster. Ikat in India is an example of sustainable Indigenous knowledge, where local traditions grew within the local culture, social practices, and specific class structures (Shiva, 1997). However, Indigenous knowledge has transformed with institutional support, resulting in thriving existing clusters in three regions, as evidenced by the GI Tag. Ikat in India is a critical example of how sustainable Indigenous knowledge (Senanayake, 2006) led to non-traditional andragogy and traditional pedagogical learning frameworks across modern society. Scholars who have researched this tradition suggest that innovations in technology for ikat traditions can lead to bulk production for export while providing increased livelihood and sustainability (Behera et al., 2019). However, sustainability is not merely livelihood, even though economic factors make people view it unidimensional. The social clusters, families, traditions, and intergenerational knowledge help the craft survive and offer a way forward. The use of natural dyes and local motifs is drawn from nature, and sacred traditions ground weaving practices in a place-based culture, making weavers and consumers aware of the need for sustainable practices within fashion. The case of Chandana Srinath shows how women can take knowledge and apply it to the good of the community by treating it as a community resource (Appleton et al., 1995). A break in any part of this socialcultural repository of practices has harmed the entire community. In Odisha, while there are many weavers, in theory, the lack of agricultural and local materials and support has led to people moving to other forms of livelihood. While one may view it as the natural obsolescence of technology, it has given rise to the devastation of local social communities. This understanding of Indigenous knowledge and technology has not been viewed as scientific, though evidence shows otherwise in the case of ikat in three locations. This knowledge of chemistry in dyeing, physics and mathematics in weaving, material technology looms, agriculture in the cultivation of cotton and vegetables and fruits that serve as materials and dyes, and chemistry in oils to fix color all lend to Indigenous knowledge and technology. Diversity of knowledge has grown outside formal school, relying on communities of practice and situated learning. Recent scholarship shows how innovation in ikat clusters like Odisha has led to sustainability for the weavers, as well as several stakeholders (Agasty et al., 2021).

9 Ikat Weaving in India: A Case Study of Three Indigenous Traditions

149

Indigenous technology continues to resist being labeled as a craft, and its practitioners are called artisans and not considered scientific teachers, despite being masters of the design and production process (Shiva, 1997). Including Indigenous knowledge in technology education in schools is an essential part of decolonizing education, primarily through including such Indigenous technological knowledge in schools. As such Indigenous knowledge is included in higher education in design and technology, there seem to be some clear pathways to the inclusion of situated learning (Lave, 1998), and communities of practice (Wenger, 1999) can make technology education culturally grounded and relevant also in schools.

References Agasty, S., Tarannum, F., & Narula, S. A. (2021). Innovation for economic resilience and sustainability: A case study of Sambalpuri Ikat handloom cluster of Bargarh in India. SEDME (Small Enterprises Development, Management & Extension Journal): A Worldwide Window on MSME Studies, 48(1), 74–90. https://doi.org/10.1177/09708464211055533 Appleton, H., Fernandex, M., Hill, C., & Quiroz, C. (1995). Claiming and using Indigenous knowledge. In Missing links gender equity in science and technology for development (pp. 55–81). IDRC. Barnes, R. (2012). Textiles in Indian Ocean societies. Routledge. Basu, D. (2018, September 24). This organization is bringing weavers into the digital era. DNA. Retrieved March 30, 2022, from https://www.dnaindia.com/just-before-monday/report-this-org anisation-is-bringing-weavers-into-the-digital-era-2658035 Behera, S., Khandual, A., & Luximon, Y. (2019). An insight into the Ikat technology in India: Ancient to modern era. IOSR Journal of Polymer and Textile Engineering, 6(1), 28–51. https:// doi.org/10.9790/019X-06012851 Bühler, A., & Fischer, E. (1979). The patola of Gujarat: Double ikat in India. Krebs. Crill, R. (1998). Indian Ikat textiles. V & A publ. Crill, R. (2006). Textiles from India the global trade. Papers presented at a conference on the Indian textile trade, Kolkata, 12–14 October 2003. Seagull Books. Desai, C. (1987). Ikat textiles of India. Thames & Hudson. Design Manifesto (For a Design Enabled Technical Education). (n.d.). http://www.idc.iitb.ac.in/res ources/reports/Design_Manifesto.pdf Dhamija, J. (2014). Sacred textiles of India. Marg Publications. Dundoo, S. D. (2012, March 25). Weaving a fashion statement. The Hindu. Ghosh, G. K., & Ghosh, S. (2000). Ikat textiles of India. APH. Gumbo, M. T. (2014). Indigenous technology in technology education curricula and teaching. The Future of Technology Education, 57–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-170-1_4 Gumbo, M. T. (2017). An Indigenous perspective on technology education. Handbook of Research on Social, Cultural, and Educational Considerations of Indigenous Knowledge in Developing Countries Advances in Knowledge Acquisition, Transfer, and Management, 137–160. https:// doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-0838-0.ch008 Guy, J. (2009). Indian textiles in the East: From Southeast Asia to Japan. Thames & Hudson. Guy, J. (2013). “One thing leads to another” Indian textiles and the early globalization of style. In Interwoven Globe: The worldwide textile trade 1500–1800 (pp. 13–27). Metropolitan Museum of Art. Home. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2022, from https://nift.ac.in/ Lave, J. (1998). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press.

150

S. Ambasta and I. Viswanathan

Meher, S. (2017, November). The Sambalpuri Ikat of Odisha: History, symbolism and contemporary trends. https://www.sahapedia.org/the-sambalpuri-ikat-of-odisha-history-symbolism-andcontemporary-trends Misra, S. (2021). GI as marketing product: A study on its potential in India. Journal of Legal Studies and Research, 7(3), 94–108. Mohanty, B. C., & Krishna, K. (1974). Ikat fabrics of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. Calico Museum of Textiles. National Institute of Design. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2022, from https://www.nid.edu/ Parmar, V. (2013). Rajkot keeps dying patola art alive: Rajkot News. Times of India. https://timesofin dia.indiatimes.com/city/rajkot/rajkot-keeps-dying-patola-art-alive/articleshow/23616553.cms Pradhan, S., & Khandual, A. (2020). Community, local practices and cultural sustainability: A case study of Sambalpuri Ikat handloom. In Sustainability in the textile and apparel industries (pp. 121–139). Cham. Rajpal, S. (2020, August 6). How these three NIFT students’ fashion label is an ode to Odisha’s traditional artisans. Edex Live. Ranjan, A., & Ranjan, M. P. (2009). Handmade in India: Crafts of India. Abbeville. Senanayake, S. G. (2006). Indigenous knowledge as a key to sustainable development. Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 2(1), 87. https://doi.org/10.4038/jas.v2i1.8117 Shiva, V. (1997). Monocultures of the mind: Perspectives on biodiversity and biotechnology. Zed Books. Vasudev, S. (2012). Powder room: The untold story of Indian fashion. Random House India. Weiss, W. (2014). Gujarati warp Ikat resist method: A practitioner’s record and translation into cloth. Journal of Textile Design Research and Practice, 2(1), 7–33. https://doi.org/10.2752/205 117814x13969550462614 Wenger, E. (1999). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge University Press. Williams, P. J. (2000). Design: The only methodology of technology. Journal of Technology Education, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.21061/jte.v11i2.a.4

Part III

Indigenous Technology and Curriculum

Chapter 10

Nexus of Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems and Design Education in Afrika’s Higher Education Institutions Sophia N. Njeru Abstract This chapter discusses Afrikans’ culture, specifically sagacity on indigenous technological knowledge systems (ITKS), and demonstrates structured initiatives to integrate ITKS in Afrika’s higher education institutions’ (HEI) design education. Emerging economies’ ITKS remains largely undocumented and unacknowledged. Afrikan material culture was physically and psychologically disintegrated by European colonialists denying Afrikans the right to their rich cultural heritage and identity. Numerous Afrikan’s ethnic artifacts are still stashed away in Europe’s museums. Colonialism negatively impacted Afrika’s ITKS and indigenous education system. To date, Afrika’s HEIs’ design curriculum is predominantly skewed toward Western theories, concepts, methodologies, and approaches. Myriad conundrums jeopardize Afrika’s design curriculum’s goals and delivery. Indigenous Afrikans are excellent designers in their own right, epitomized in their material culture: fashion, textile, product, industrial, interior, jewelry, and graphic design. ITKS, with its long history globally, especially among ethnic minorities such as the Ogiek of Kenya, and cultural/artisanal communities should not be ignored. All efforts should be made to revitalize and develop its awareness principally in HEIs’ design education. Further, Afrika’s HEIs’ design education should be aggressively fostered. This chapter significantly promotes Afrikan design education stakeholders’ strategies for a conscious and responsible infusion of ITKS into the design curriculum in HEIs. Principally, ensuring all participating parties’ rights are respected for cultural, social, economic, and environmental sustainability and to forestall the continent’s cultural appropriation and misrepresentation. Keywords Culture · Ethnic dress · Indigenous knowledge · Indigenous technology · Design education

S. N. Njeru (B) Kirinyaga University, Kerugoya, Kenya e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_10

153

154

S. N. Njeru

10.1 Introduction Although Africa is usually spelt with a “c”, this chapter has followed the lead of other Afrikan sages by using a spelling with a “k”—a letter found in most indigenous languages on the continent. The spelling reflects Afrika speaking from within. Design is a broad concept that refers to imagining and planning the creation of objects, interactive systems, buildings, and vehicles, among others, to provide innovative solutions for people to address a particular need or a problem. Design is user-centered because users are at the heart of design thinking. Quoting Steve Jobs, “Design is not just what it looks like and feels like. Design is how it works” (Strate, n.d). Design is fluid because it transcends the arts, technology, innovation, creativity, sciences, research, and business, whose outcomes are products, services, systems, and experiences. Design education in HEIs conforms to design’s fluidity. Consequently, Afrika’s HEIs name design degrees variedly and domicile them in diverse schools/faculties, for instance, Kirinyaga University’s Bachelor of Science (Fashion design and textile technology); School of Engineering and Technology; Maseno University’s Bachelor of Arts (Fashion design and merchandising) (Interior design); School of Humanities and Social Sciences; University of Botswana’s Bachelor of Design (Industrial Design) (Design and Technology Education); Department of Industrial Design and Technology; Cape Peninsula University of Technology’s Bachelor of Technology (Design); and Faculty of Informatics and Technology. Design education specializations and subsequent careers include fashion, interior, jewelry, textile, graphic, product, and industrial design. Nonetheless, design education in emerging economies, especially in Afrika, remains largely undeveloped and unacknowledged compared to developed/mature economies. There are various problems facing Afrika’s design education in HEIs ranging from scarce reference materials, chiefly Afrikan-authored textbooks, lack of understanding by stakeholders particularly parents and guardians of students pursuing design, want of recognition from governments and the public, and dearth of funding of design-related projects especially postgraduate research, and weak enforcement of intellectual property. The textbooks, mostly from the Western world, are too costly for most design students and institutions and lack reference to the Afrikan context. The design curriculum in Afrika is predominantly skewed toward Western theories, concepts, methodologies, and approaches, some of which are too alien for Afrikan students. Njeru (2012) further asserts that due to the massive looting and psychological disintegration of Afrika’s cultural heritage by colonialists and foreign religions, Afrikans, including designers, are denied the right to their identity, knowledge, technology, and artistry. Independent governments and ethnic groups also caused the disintegration of Afrikan culture. Njeru (2012) opines that the Government of Kenya and the settling communities, namely the Maasai, Kikuyu, and Kalenjin, evicted and displaced the Ogiek people from the Mau Forest Complex (their ancestral land). The Ogiek’s houses were torched during the evictions, and their ethnic dress (an element of material culture) was lost or destroyed in the fires. The scarce extant collection of the Ogiek people’s indigenous dress: about four pelt cloaks and a leather skirt at the

10 Nexus of Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems and Design …

155

Nairobi National Museum—a government institution is dated 1969 and 1970. Hence, the collection fails to capture any discontinuity or continuity of the dress over time. This scenario poses a threat to the continued existence of their indigenous dress and ethnic identity (Njeru, 2012). Limited documentation of Afrika’s cultural heritage negatively impacts design education because designers draw inspiration from inter alia culture and nature. Nonetheless, indigenous Afrikans are excellent designers in their own right, epitomized in their culture. Thus, Afrika’s design education can infuse indigenous technological knowledge systems (ITKS) to foster innovative approaches to tackle society’s challenges: social, cultural, economic, environmental, and political. Culture is the total of the learned behavior of a group of people that are generally considered the tradition of that people and are socially transmitted from generation to generation (Tamu, n.d). Culture is a phenomenon that undergirds all the material and non-material expressions of a people (Gumbo, 2020). Material culture includes all the physical objects, or artifacts, that people make and attach meaning to. Nonmaterial culture entails human creations, such as social habits or rules, customs, values, attitudes, beliefs, meanings, symbols, knowledge, language, and systems of government, among others, within the community that is not embodied in physical objects (Calhoun et al., 1994). According to Kaiser (1997), material culture that is firmly embedded in non-material culture will remain stable/unchanged. Indigenous knowledge (IK) refers to the understandings, skills, and philosophies developed by societies with long histories of interaction with their natural surroundings, and it provides a foundation for locally appropriate sustainable development (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2017). IK tenets are adaptive, cumulative, dynamic, holistic, humble, intergenerational, invaluable, irreplaceable, moral, non-linear, observant, relative, responsible, spiritual, unique/personalized, and valid. Western science is increasingly recognizing the value of IK and is collaborating with communities to incorporate their knowledge in related research projects (Indigenous Corporate Training Inc [ICTI], 2018). Technology is the application of knowledge, skills, and resources to meet people’s needs and wants by developing practical solutions to problems, considering social, cultural, and environmental factors (Manabete & Umar, 2014). Culturally, technology is any human-made or culture-generated devices, formulations, or organizations utilizable to produce or create needed goods and services (Gumbo, 2020). Indigenous technology (IT) is a device, tool, piece of equipment, or system that is designed and fabricated based on the culture, tradition, and needs of a people and adopted for use in the people’s environment (Manabete & Umar, 2014). Alternatively, IT uses traditional methods and locally available resources to produce essential goods for sale or consumption by predominantly designing and making devices that help facilitate the production processes. IT is pragmatic; it is responsive and responsible to the ecology it lives in and from which it came (Gumbo, 2020). Kenya’s Ogiek’s beekeeping activity necessitates the fashioning of gisungut (wooden storage container for honey), gisienjot (indigenous chisel), and motoget (hyrax leather bag for carrying harvested honey) (Njeru, 2012). Hence, ITKS, with its long history globally, especially among ethnic minorities namely the Ogiek and cultural/artisanal communities, should not

156

S. N. Njeru

be ignored. Instead, ITKS should be fostered in Afrika’s HEIs’ design education to develop culturally appropriate products, services, systems, and experiences for Afrika and the world. The effort shall create awareness and appreciation of, and responsiveness to the rich cultural heritage of indigenous people in Afrika and globally.

10.2 A Spotlight on Indigenous Knowledge and Technology Indeed, culture is now widely perceived as an inalienable part of sustainable development (Padhiar & Garg, n.d.). Heritage manufacturing techniques utilize preindustrial, non-industrial, and often historical techniques of manufacture (Lantry, 2015). In Afrika, Olaoye (2005) asserts that Nigeria’s Ilorin people possess ITKS in dyestuff, dye production technology, and dyeing techniques. The dyers and designers used adire alabere ‘stitch-dye technique’ to dye fabrics. The thread was obtained from locally available raffia, jute, or other fibrous material. The abere-ilu ‘indigenous needle’ was used to stitch, as it could accommodate the thickness of the thread. Hand-manufactured textiles, ornamentation, and indigenous toys hold major cultural significance to Indian society. The handicrafts help to preserve indigenous values and other aspects of cultural background necessary for cultural identity, positivity, and uniqueness (Chandra, 2021; Lantry, 2015). The cultural significance also applies to Afrikan civilizations. There are variations in handicrafts based on regions, gender, materials, symbolism, and client preferences. Nonetheless, many traditional practices are being ignored, deemed as antiquated, unproductive, time-consuming, tedious, and unprofitable due to the presence of middlemen (Chandra, 2021; Lantry, 2015). If a particular craft dies, a part of history, tradition, and cultural identity die with the artisanal business (Lantry, 2015). However, Clifford (n.d.) states that some Indian crafts have survived, such as the ajrakh, primarily due to a growing Indian urban and international market for exotic: authentic, handmade, traditional, eco-friendly fashion, and homeware products, besides the intervention and support of design development organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and businesses. Clifford (2012) postulates that today, buying handmade products is for many consumers a political and spiritual act. The former rejects mass production methods that damage the environment and the livelihoods of producers. Consumers express their beliefs through shopping and ‘voting with their money’. Spiritually, it symbolizes a connection with the earth (Clifford, 2012). Regarding sustainability, Lantry (2015) highlights some differences between traditional artistry and fast fashion by comparing the ethical and moral superiority of traditional artistry and production techniques to fast fashion production methods. Traditional artistry is unique, offers a sustainable and dignified lifestyle for practitioners, and adopts environmentally friendly production methods, which may cost marginally. Traditional techniques including indigo dyeing, delicate mud resist block printing, and iron black offer opportunities to lower the negative environmental

10 Nexus of Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems and Design …

157

impact of the fashion industry. In contrast, fast fashion is mass-produced, characterized by low wages, poor living conditions, and cheap and dirty production methods. Hence, there is a need to create awareness of and preserve the cultural heritage of indigenous people the world over through design education. The approach creates a quadruple bottom line: people, profit, planet, and culture (Lantry, 2015).

10.3 Integration of ITKS in Design Education 10.3.1 Relationship Between Culture and Design Globally, the vision of HEIs is focused on training, research, and community engagement/service. Technology development and transfer are outcomes of research. Njeru (2012) asserts that indigenous Afrikan culture experienced devaluation and demonization by colonialists and foreign religions. Afrikan material culture, such as dress, was looted by colonialists and is stashed away in European museums and elsewhere, thus denying Afrikans their right to their rich cultural heritage, identity, knowledge, and technology. Due to the psychological disintegration of Afrikan culture, Afrikan design scholars pursuing clothing and textiles discipline have not studied Afrikan ethnic dress with reference to various concepts, theories, and practices. On the other hand, literature on indigenous Afrikan material culture, specifically dress, is mainly written by Westerners who misrepresent Afrikans, and it is primarily Eurocentric and ethnocentric (Njeru, 2012). Missionaries who came to Afrika were busy converting Africans not only to Christianity, but also to Western clothing (Toerien, 2003). In France24 television news (2021, October 26); the French president handed over all the artifacts looted from Benin, their former colony, and those currently displayed in France museums. The collection comprises intricately and elaborately carved artifacts—a symbol of the Benin people’s identity and rich cultural heritage. Nonetheless, dissenting voices emerged in France alleging that Benin lacks superior quality display and storage facilities. But the Benin people insist that they want all their artifacts returned immediately. Colonialists also imposed Western education systems on Afrikans. According to Rajula (2021), in 1976 the Organization of African Unity (OAU) adopted the Cultural Charter for Afrika to explore and expand Afrikan cultures to the world mainly through literature, art, and film. More recently, design from Afrika, especially textiles-inspired fashion, ITKS, architecture, and nature, is promoting the continent to the world. The year 2006 Charter for Afrikan Cultural Renaissance is probably why Afrika’s wave is where it is today, and Afrika Day (May 25th) commemorated annually is gaining more worldwide recognition and celebration (Rajula, 2021). The concept of culture and design are intertwined; thus, modification in the former’s evolution reflects and determines developments in the latter (Moalosi,

158

S. N. Njeru

Popovic & Hickling-Hudson, 2007). In the global market–local design era, connections between culture and design have become increasingly close. For design, cultural value-adding creates the core of product value (Lin et al., 2007) and may pave the way to the diversification of design concepts and facilitate product innovation (Moalosi et al., 2007), for instance, the functions of dress from the predominantly Western notions of adornment/decoration, modesty, immodesty/sexual attraction, and protection to new purposes espoused by Njeru (2012). It is the same for culture: design is the motivation for pushing cultural development forward. Taiwan Aboriginal cultures should have great potential for improving product design value, thus increasing recognition in the global market. By enhancing the original meaning and images of Taiwan Aboriginal cultures and taking advantage of new production technology, designers in Taiwan are trying to transform Aboriginal cultural features into modern products and fulfill the needs of the contemporary consumer market (Lin et al., 2007). Globally, culture is a lived experience. Non-material culture greatly influences the design and fashioning of material culture among Afrikans. Afrikans are outstanding designers in their own right, who effortlessly and creatively employ the principles and elements of design in their indigenous artifacts. Designers are challenged to be creators of cultural experiences. Clifford (2012) observed that the combined knowledge of both the handmade processes and the history of the patterns and motifs increases the object’s authenticity even further, particularly if the consumer is gaining this knowledge through seeing the object being crafted and hearing the story of the craft directly from the artisan. Ayo (1995) asserts that in Afrika, patterns and color are essential ingredients in everyday life. Through many textile embellishment techniques and dyeing with vegetable, mineral, or animal resources, artisans have developed a wide variety of color options (Lantry, 2015). Lin et al. (2007) aver that Aboriginal culture provides an excellent example of applying cultural features to design while still retaining meaningful cultural value in new cultural product design which can fit into the contemporary market. Cultural products, hence, can extend the heritage and traditional values of Taiwan Aboriginal Culture to the consumers’ daily lives and increase the sense of spiritual essence in human life. This effort can be achieved through impressions made by using products such as garments, crafts, decorations, utensils, furniture, ornaments, and packages, whose designs are based on that culture (Lin et al., 2007).

10.3.2 Kenya’s Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) The Government of Kenya implemented the CBC under the 2-6-3-3 system in 2017 (Amutabi, 2019) which is currently at the sixth grade in its progressive implementation to the university level. CBC is a collective/partnership learning in which the learner and instructor jointly seek answers and solutions to simple and complex learning expectations beneficial to humanity. The learning process is learner-centered rather than teacher-/instructor-centered. CBC promotes hands-on training, infusing

10 Nexus of Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems and Design …

159

the acquisition of new knowledge through observation, learning as you do, experiential learning, and practical experimenting: real-world skills and competency development. The system is compatible with the lifelong learning concept and promotes positive citizenship and indigenous education through IK. Universities should be ready to recruit professors of IK systems who have earned it through the ‘University of Life’ (Amutabi, 2019). CBC reintroduced and re-emphasized studio-based subjects specifically art and design, home science, and music, while strongly encouraging the use of locally available resources. These aspects of CBC resonate with ITKS acquisition: predominantly transmitted via apprenticeship and application within the society. Design education is also principally studio-based and hands-on training that seeks solutions to society’s real problems.

10.3.3 Strategies to Incorporate ITKS in Afrika’s Design Education Numerous HEIs in Afrika offer design courses. In the design field, the major topics in cultural design are still limited to identifying esthetic stereotypes such as the national shape or color. Still, they lack a defined framework from an Afrikan perspective about integrating culture in design education and process (Moalosi et al., 2007). Afrika’s HEIs can learn from non-Afrikan institutions in India, China, Australia, and Brazil concerning integrating ITKS in design education. This author postulates seven (7) approaches to incorporate ITKS in Afrika’s HEIs’ design education (inter alia fashion, jewellery, textile, product, industrial, interior, and graphic): (a) Introduction of a studio-based cross-cultural design unit that infuses study tour with cultural communities. Lantry (2015) organized study tours to India by Australian fashion design undergraduate and diploma students. The project encourages students to develop industry links with individual artisans whose practices are based on traditional artistry: hand embroidery, weaving, printing, and dyeing. The project proffers students a unique proposition that is difficult to achieve in a modern industrialized world: engage in sustainable/ethical sourcing and experience the positive outcomes of working collaboratively with local communities to build ethical and sustainable relations where the rights of the artisan and their craft are emphasized over profit margins; a path for sustained economic stability for Indian artisans in a globalized world, and encourages alternative contemporary designs that utilize traditional skills; collaborative partners (fashion design student and master artisan) gain more profound knowledge of each other’s mastery and cultural experiences and; and for fashion education it builds awareness of the sustainable and ethical practice, preparing emerging designers for the industry and contributing to changes of practice within the fashion system (Lantry, 2015). Such tours can also expose

160

S. N. Njeru

Afrika’s design students and faculty to diverse Afrikan cultural communities’ design-related ITKS. (b) Develop and employ principles and techniques/toolkits of co-creation, especially with cultural communities. Ribeiro, Mazzieiro, and Wendling (2019) elaborate on a co-creative relationship among three institutions, namely FUMEC University in Brazil, Lá da Favelinha Cultural Center, and SEBRAE/MG. This work adopted social design’s systemic thinking and awareness of the need for sustainable integration with the natural environment, rethinking the limits of its ability to provide raw materials and absorb the impacts of our society’s waste with prospects of permanence for a longer time in the benefited community. The clothes were designed in an upcycling process and also received individualized typographic prints done in silkscreen and handmade embroidery. The beneficiaries and FUMEC university’s students created the accessories and shoes in collective workshops and co-creative processes (Ribeiro et al., 2019). (c) Design and adopt models, theories, and frameworks on cultural sustainability. Cultural sustainability involves explicitly empowering and recognizing artisans’ traditional skills and knowledge in any collaboration/project (Yang & Lupo, 2019), such as textile heritage with designers. Employing the cultureoriented design model would empower design actors to consciously specify, analyze, and integrate socio-cultural factors in the early stages of the design process, especially the use of local content in solving design problems (Moalosi et al., 2007) as well as ITKS. Lin et al. (2007) proposed a cultural product design model (CPDM) that consists of three main parts: conceptual model, research method, and design process. Based on CPDM, the cultural product was designed using scenario and story-telling approaches. In a practical design process, four steps are used to design a cultural product, namely, investigation (set a scenario), interaction (tell a story), development (write a script), and implementation (design a product). The outcome comprised various bags from the Taiwan aboriginal culture. Christiaans et al. (2009) aimed to balance financial, cultural, and emotional needs concerning coffin design in Botswana. Designers are critical cultural intermediaries and must embody cultural values in the designed products. The authors employed ethnography based on designers’ recognition that the development of technologies increasingly relies upon an appreciation of the social circumstances in which systems are deployed and used. Further, end users/consumers have been given more influence in the design process to inform, ideate, and conceptualize in the early design phases (Christiaans et al., 2009). Wong and Leong (2019) highlight culturally driven strategies like tradition preservation and embedding cultural elements. The Fabrick Lab started ‘UN/FOLD’ working with the Shui ethnic minority to employ batik textile techniques to make scarves, thus preserving traditional handicrafts, and subsidizing their livelihoods. In designing frameworks, Lantry (2015) proposes a six-stage process for collaboration between artisan and designer (emerging and student), which include the following:

10 Nexus of Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems and Design …

161

• Research: for building a collaborative partnership and preparation by both the artisan and designer. • Engaging with the collaborative partner: a designer then makes informed decisions on whether to collaborate directly (with an entrepreneurial artisan) or indirectly (through an ethical middleman) based on the level of skills within the cultural community. • Building rapport and socializing together: the emphasis is on formal or informal social engagement such as sharing a meal or ritual; sourcing together; respecting cultural differences; developing communication skills; and comparing collaborative practices. • Experimenting: Collaborative partners should be prepared to share and discuss ideas for new ideas to bloom. The partners should listen and learn from each other to understand a design’s technical aspects and time frame and respect and acknowledge traditional design. • Sustainability considerations: Collaborative partners work together to ensure the collaboration’s sustainability considering the product’s ecological impact and ethical aspects such as intellectual property and working conditions. • Raising broader awareness of collaborative practice: What the students gain through the experience stays with them forever and influences their future practice as designers. Developing awareness of these collaborations, the importance of a sustainable livelihood for artisans, and their creations fosters sustainable change within the fashion industry. Through exhibitions, social media, and labeling, these collaborations can be celebrated with commercial success through various sales platforms (Lantry, 2015). (d) Critical review of design practitioners and manufacturers collaborating responsibly with cultural communities, such as Afrika’s ethnic minority groups. Lantry (2015) opines that there is evidence that designers can help lead change within the fashion industry with researchers investigating alternate resources or materials, manufacturing processes, and different models of practice, such as collaborative, holistic, or individual co-design. For instance, Kawira Afrikan Collection, a Kenyan jewelry design house, works with local artisans to provide clients with unique handmade products made of locally available horns, scrap brass, and beads besides imported brass, beads, and special stones (Aluoch, 2021). In India, Lantry (2015) points out that Manish Arora is a fashion designer who creates his unique signature style assisted by Indian traditional artisans, whose input he acknowledges. Indian designers work with many artisans, from weavers to embroiderers, for the artisans’, designers’, and industry’s sustainable future. Design departments in Afrika’s HEIs can engage such exceptional design practitioners and manufacturers to facilitate workshops and offer industrial attachment placement and internships for design students and graduates. To Clifford (2012), a collaboration method in which there is an equal two-way partnership between artisan and designer is the best way of continuing a craft by revitalizing it and positioning it in viable markets while celebrating the traditional qualities and raising the social position of the artisan. The collaboration

162

S. N. Njeru

involves the designer learning about the history and process involved in the craft. In contrast, the artisan learns design concepts and principles, presentation and finishing, and marketing relevant to the craft’s target market. The focus should be on the artisan as designer that is, artisan-designer, an equal partner with the industry whose intellectual property is respected and recognized, and at times paid royalties (Clifford, 2012). Lantry (2015) states that ideally, a collaborative exchange should be achieved through co-design, where the designer, artisan, and ethical middleman develop creative concepts together using the designer’s skills. Then co-execution follows, where the artisan and designer collaborate and work out the process, utilizing the artisan’s skills (Lantry, 2015). (e) Developing and mounting affordable short courses specifically for cultural and artisanal communities. HEIs offering design education must take the initiative because Lantry (2015) emphasizes that education plays a significant role in developing creative interaction aiming to restore artisan status. Clifford (2012) concurs that a more recent phenomenon of design education for rural artisans is enabling them to become the primary decision-makers on design, production, and marketing while celebrating the qualities of the craft, suggesting that this aim has perhaps succeeded. In India, Kala Raksha Vidhyalaya (KRV) and Women Weave teach contemporary design principles for traditional craft artisans. KRV is a design institute for rural artisans founded in Kutch. The latter is a charitable organization founded in Maheshwar to help revive the town’s rich sari weaving tradition and provide a sustainable income for local women (Clifford, n.d.). The more artisan designers there are, the more space created for companies such as Maiwa and Bombay Electric, who manifest the ever-expanding culturally aware and ethical market searching for high-quality objects with rich cultural and social meaning (Clifford, 2012). Crafting a Livelihood report suggests stakeholders, namely academic institutions, social entrepreneurs, and NGOs should collaborate to develop strategies for artisan education to upgrade their skills and could help them become more aware of the value of their skills, introduce new raw materials such as non-toxic dyes and regarding production planning, cost-effective marketing, and promotional strategies (Lantry, 2015). The effort has been achieved in Gujarat state, where social enterprises have been instrumental in bringing about the confluence of cultural heritage and women artisans’ empowerment via viable, prosperous, and sustainable models (Padhiar and Garg, n.d.). However, Clifford (n.d.) counters that NGO- or governmentled initiatives provide one-off workshops on technological skills, marketing, or costing training albeit with varied success. Thus, a new approach to design development has been design education for traditional/rural artisans. (f) Formulation and implementation of sustainable community extension initiatives. As mentioned earlier, Afrika’s HEIs’ visions include community engagement/service. Ribeiro et al. (2019) postulate that the Cerne Programme is a university extensionist activity that has brought several results in knowledge gains, and experiences explicitly: conceptual and educational products about the training methodology that will be provided to the community through

10 Nexus of Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems and Design …

163

print, exhibitions, Internet, and presentations organized in public spaces; integrated projects in Graphic, Product, Fashion and Interior Design, and Architecture; formation of teams of teachers and university students trained for the extensionist and professional action of interdisciplinary, systemic, and socioenvironmental character; students’ and teachers’ publications for the dissemination of methodological process reflections and results; systemic solutions for each project situation and communities, designed, and executed from the specific methodologies proposed and interactions with partner projects; beneficiaries with creative autonomy and qualified to work professionally in a network of partners or to solve problems of their daily life; and approximation between companies, institutions, society, and the university (Ribeiro et al., 2019). Hence, Afrika’s design education actors should emulate and be spurred by the work of Ribeiro et al. (2019). (g) Conduct extensive research on ITKS, especially on Afrika’s ethnic minorities and design education by Afrika’s HEIs’ faculty and students. Such research has the potential to decolonize design education because, as previously indicated, Afrika’s cultural heritage is fundamentally undocumented and unacknowledged. In Afrika, Njeru (2012) conducted research on Kenya’s Ogiek people, an ethnic minority, forest-dwelling hunters, and gatherers who wear their indigenous dress to date albeit occasionally and whose population is 52,596 (0.11%) of Kenya’s total population (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics [KNBS], 2019). The Ogiek face demographic and cultural extinction due to diverse factors, namely acculturation, the GoK’s 1977 ban on game hunting, and constant eviction and displacement from their ancestral land (Njeru, 2012). Like other cultural communities, especially ethnic minorities, Ogiek’s culture is prone to cultural appropriation by design actors. Despite the problems, the Ogiek embody their culture, both material and non-material, specifically ITKS, in their ethnic dress in diverse ways, namely: • expertise on where and how to hunt wild animals, especially hyrax, use of hyrax pelt to construct ethnic dress and conservation and preservation of the dress; • extensive knowledge of the raw materials’ characteristics/properties (weight, pliability), thus determining their use in fashioning the ethnic dress such as motoget (honey bag), leginjus (skirt/vest), menegupet (pelt cloak), and oguriet op poinet (bushbuck pelt cloak); • superior knowledge of the functions of dress and the Western theories of functions of clothing; • production of sewing equipment such as impiniit and ieneet (needle and yarn, respectively); • processing animal skins by smearing animal fat to soften them depending on how the dress will be worn and the wearer’s preference; • preservation, particularly of leather; • adornment technology influenced the practice of gempirr itig (ear piercing) to enable one to suspend from them ilmintoisieg and mwenigg op itig (men’s and women’s earrings, respectively); • conformity to the universal draped garment, such as leginjus and kauya (skirt);

164

S. N. Njeru

• gender distinction in production and types of dress; • consistency to the three types of dressing, explicitly body modifications, body enclosures, and attachments to the body or body enclosures. Body modifications include indurotoit (white clay soil applied on male initiates’ body), body enclosures comprise oguriet op inderit (hyrax pelt cloak), rosiet (headdress), and attachments to the body or to the body enclosure consist of taet (brass bracelet) and rungut op metit (club); • construction technology/techniques include patchwork, over-sewing, embellishing with glass beads, dyeing leather, and tanning skin; • application of design principles and elements in which red signifies beauty and is used in beadwork and red ochre. Symmetrical balance is exemplified in a bride’s ingarepait (beadwork necklace); and • sustainability ethos and principles include repair/mend, adjusting the size, biodegradable, multiple styles and functions, up-cycle, use of natural dyes and locally available materials, economic value, and hand-me-down (Njeru, 2012). Toerien’s (2003) study on Mali’s bogolanfini ‘mud cloth’ highlighted inter alia name and origin; fall and rise; making; meaning of designs; uses and designs; and continued production and use. Production of bogolanfini entails fabrication of yarn and cloth from locally sourced cotton; preshrink; mordant production from leaves and branches of two particular trees; painting using fermented mud; and bleach production from ground peanuts, water, caustic soda, and millet bran. Regarding gender distinctions, traditionally, the painting process was only done by women, whereby young women were taught by their mothers during a long-term apprenticeship. Further, they were taught about the symbolic meaning of the different designs or patterns found in bogolanfini. However, lately, young men are also painting the cloth, mainly for economic empowerment and the tourist market. The use of bogolanfini has changed in modern society. Traditionally, it was used primarily for making hunters’ shirts or tunics and women’s wraparounds worn in traditional critical periods in her life: after excision, before consummation of her marriage, immediately following childbirth, and as a burial shroud. In modern society, bogolanfini is simplified and massproduced for the tourist or export markets, as a form of fine art, for traditional Afrikan and Western-inspired clothing and commercial adaptations in curtaining, towels, sheets, book covers, wrapping paper, and coffee mugs. The continued production and use of bogolanfini are attributed to the availability of cheaper factory-produced textiles, social and political systems, its versatility because it is equally adaptable in traditional and modern settings, and its highly decorative quality of designs— simple on their own, yet complex in their combination (Toerien, 2003). The studies above provide a cross-cultural perspective in adapting ITKS to Afrika’s ethnic groups and decolonize design education. It is evident that ITKS is employed in the peoples’ ethnic dress and demonstrates artistic excellence, technological knowledge and skills, critical thinking, sagacity, and sustainability principles and ethos.

10 Nexus of Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems and Design …

165

10.3.4 The Role of Government in Promoting ITKS and Design Education Afrikan governments can develop initiatives to preserve ITKS and promote design education. As espoused by Chandra (2021), to promote the toy industry and decrease toy imports, the Government of India launched ‘Toycathon-2021’ to provide a platform to bring together diverse stakeholders, including designers, developers, and users, to brainstorm on advancing and developing traditional toys to endorse and preserve Indian culture. Such moves would help develop the toys sector, encourage the creative use of local resources, and create a vibrant global market for indigenous Indian toys, leading to an improved economy and employability among Indian citizens. The government would also promote the evolving market and marketing strategies for traditional toys’ consumption; help organize exhibitions to promote local toys and; and assist in tuning toys with global trends to meet and beat global demand for indigenous Indian toys (Chandra, 2021). Product design in Taiwan has stepped into the Original Brand Manufacturer (OBM) era. The cultural and creative industry has been incorporated into ‘Challenge 2008: National Development Grand Plan’, demonstrating the government’s eagerness to transform Taiwan’s economic development by ‘Branding Taiwan’ using ‘Taiwan Design’ based on Taiwanese culture, and aboriginal culture (Lin et al., 2007). Governments in Afrika can also formulate, implement, and enforce intellectual property for design-related ITKS that may emanate from HEIs offering design education. Clifford (2012) states that Indian intellectual property laws have established geographical indicators (GIs) which prevent these designs from being copied by craft producers for which ajrakh is not their traditional craft. A possible solution is to formulate a combination of GIs and ancillary rights (similar to copyright) in traditional handicrafts. GIs will ensure the community’s sustained identity and its sole claim over the craft while ancillary rights will encourage innovation within the community. Enabling easy access to intellectual property for artisans should also be integrated into the design education process to increase the profitability and success of innovations within ajrakh (Clifford, 2012), and Afrika’s ITKS. National museums are government institutions. Thus, Afrikan governments are responsible for continually updating the collections therein, to demonstrate among other issues their ITKS, discontinuity/change or continuity/stability, functions, creativity, and innovativeness. Museums are excellent sources of inspiration for designers. The approaches above should be well documented and widely disseminated to reference with like-minded institutions and individuals. Afrikan governments, design development organizations, and NGOs must play a proactive role in preserving ITKS through diverse long-term sustainable initiatives, especially design education.

166

S. N. Njeru

10.4 Conclusion and Recommendation Afrika, under colonialists and invasion by foreign religions, saw massive physical and psychological disintegration of her rich indigenous cultural heritage. The negative impact of the disintegration is experienced in Afrika’s HEIs, to the extent that the curriculum, more so design education, is still skewed toward Western discourse. Afrika’s culture is undocumented, unappreciated, and unacknowledged, thus unexploited due to her limited integration in education, research, and community engagement by design faculties. Design and culture are intertwined. Nonetheless, Afrika’s indigenous cultural heritage provides an unmatched opportunity for a cross-cultural perspective on ITKS, design education, and decolonization of the education system. Afrika’s Ogiek and Illorin peoples exemplify ITKS’ embodiment in ethnic dress. To forestall Afrika’s cultural appropriation and misrepresentation, the education system, especially design education, urgently needs a paradigm shift infusing ITKS in a structured manner to offer culturally appropriate sustainable design solutions that address contextual and global conundrums while providing benefits to cultural communities: cultural, social, economic, and environmental. Globally, ITKS are inherently ethical; thus, their exploitation and celebration can significantly address unsustainable production and consumption, especially projects emanating from HEIs offering design education. Afrika’s governments, design development organizations, and NGOs all have a critical role in methodically infusing ITKS in design education. Scholars, namely Lantry (2015), Clifford (2012) and Christiaans et al. (2009), stress a conscious and responsible collaborative approach between designers (students, faculty, and practitioners) and cultural or artisanal communities, in an equal partnership in which all stakeholders win/benefit. The author poses specific recommendations on the nexus of ITKS and design education in Afrika’s HEIs: • • • •

research and dissemination of findings; responsive collaboration with cultural communities and artisans; re-orient design curriculum to appreciate Afrika’s ITKS; develop and mount design postgraduate degrees in which a sizeable portion of research is aligned toward ITKS; • design scholars (specialized in inter alia fashion, textile, interior, product, industrial and graphic design) to aggressively develop grant research project proposals and apply for funds because lack of funding is a significant obstacle in Afrika; and • other stakeholders namely, design associations and development organizations, cultural communities and artisans, governments, and NGOs to assist HEIs with requisite resources (human and non-human) to foster the incorporation of ITKS into design education.

10 Nexus of Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems and Design …

167

References Aluoch, C. (2021, October 17). Jewellery for every occasion. Sunday Nation (p. 8). Amutabi, M. (2019). Competency-based curriculum (CBC) and the end of an era in Kenya’s education sector and implications for development: Some empirical reflections. Journal of Popular Education in Afrika, 3(10), 45–66. Retrieved from www.researchgate.net Ayo, Y. (1995). Africa. Dorling Kindersley Limited. Calhoun, C., Light, D., & Keller, S. (1994). Sociology (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill Inc. Chandra, R. (2021). Indigenous Indian toys: The repository for traditional wisdom, cultural heritage and a global economic opportunity [Academia Letters, Article 530]. Retrieved from https://doi. org/10.20935/AL530 Christiaans, H., Diehl, J. C., & Findlater, J. (2009). New trends in design research: The case of designing a culturally-appropriate coffin for Botswana. Retrieved from https://www.researchg ate.net/publication/257927129 Clifford, R. (2012). Between tradition and innovation: The ajrakh block printing of Kutch, India. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu Clifford, R. (n.d.). Design education and handloom weaving in India. Making Futures Journal, 4. Gumbo, M. (2020). An indigenous perspective on technology education. Retrieved from https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/338308087 Indigenous Corporate Training Inc [ICTI]. (2018). What does indigenous knowledge mean? A compilation of attributes. Retrieved from https://www.ictinc.ca/blog Kaiser, S. B. (1997). The social psychology of clothing: Symbolic appearances in context (2nd ed. revised). Fairchild Publications. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics [KNBS]. (2019). 2019 Kenya population and housing census (vol. IV). Retrieved from http://www.knbs.or.ke Lantry, J. (2015). Rethinking sustainability through collaborative exchange between emerging Australian designers and Indian artisans in fashion and textiles (Masters thesis, University of Technology Sydney, Australia). Retrieved from www.academia.edu Lin, R., Sun, M., Chang, Y., Chan, Y., Hsieh, Y., & Huang, Y. (2007). Designing “culture” into modern product: A case study of cultural product design. Retrieved from https://www.researchg ate.net/publication/221099871 Manabete, S. S., & Umar, B. (2014). Indigenous technology for sustainable development in West Afrika. Journal of Education and Practice, 5(37). Retrieved from http://www.iiste.org Moalosi, R., Popovic, V., & Hickling-Hudson, A. (2007). Strategies for infusing cultural elements in product design. In Conference proceedings for DEFSA International Design Education Conference. Retrieved from https://www.defsa.org.za Njeru, S. N. (2012). The indigenous dress of the Mau Ogiek people, Nessuit location, Nakuru County, Kenya (Doctoral thesis, Maseno University, Kenya). Olaoye, R. A. (2005). The traditional cloth-dyeing technology in Ilorin. In S. A. Ajayi (Ed.), Afrikan culture and civilization (pp. 114–127). Atlantis Books. Padhiar, V., & Dr. Garg, R. (n.d.). Convergence of culture and economic empowerment—A multiple case study of women artisans in the handicraft sector of Gujarat. Retrieved from https://www. academia.edu Rajula, T. (2021, May 29). Afrika Day affirms growing respect for the continent. Saturday Nation (p. 30). Ribeiro, J. P., Mazzieiro, A. T., & Wendling, G. J. (2019). Cerne project and remexe collection: Actions in social design in search of social innovations of systemic character. In M. Ambrosio, & C. Vezzoli (Eds.), Sustainability for All. Conference proceedings of the 3rd LeNS World Distributed Conference (vol. 2, pp. 454–458). Strate. (n.d). What is design? Retrieved from https://www.strate.education/gallery Tamu. (n.d). Culture. Retrieved from http://people.tamu.edu Toerien, E. S. (2003). Mud cloth from Mali: Its making and use. Journal of Family Ecology and Consumer Sciences, 31, 52–57.

168

S. N. Njeru

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO]. (2017). What is local and indigenous knowledge? Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/new/links Wong, G., & Leong, B. D. (2019). Fashioning sustainability in Hong Kong and China. In A. Gwilt, A. Payne, & E. A. Ru¨¯ thschilling (Eds.), Global perspectives on sustainable fashion (pp. 132–143). Bloomsbury Visual Arts. Yang, Y., & Lupo, E. (2019). Design-driven strategy for the sustainable textile heritage community in China. In M. Ambrosio & C. Vezzoli. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd LeNS World Distributed Conference, Designing sustainability for all, Milano, Mexico City, Beijing, Bangalore, Curitiba, Cape Town, 3–5 April 2019 (vol. 3, pp. 994–999). Retrieved from www.lensconference3.org

Chapter 11

Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Aotearoa-New Zealand and the Development of the M¯aori Technology Curriculum Ruth Lemon , Tony Trinick , and Kerry Lee Abstract Eurocentric hegemonic policy directives in the early 1990s, during the inaugural development of the M¯aori-medium Technology curriculum (Marautanga Hangarau) (Ministry of Education, Hangarau i roto i te Marautanga o Aotearoa. Learning Media, 1999) for schooling required it to be a translation of the Englishmedium version. The ongoing tension resulting from this requirement has been problematic in several ways. While linguistic rights were recognised in the 1990s (Trinick and May, Current Issues in Language Planning 14:457–473, 2013), the M¯aori-medium sector had minimal authority to determine structure and content. This impacted how the nature of the M¯aori-medium version was considered in curriculum for the next 30 years. The Ministry of Education as the representatives of the state determined what was important for students in M¯aori-medium to learn, not the M¯aorimedium community. This lack of recognition of the M¯aori-medium communities’ role in determining what was in the best interest of their community undermined and conflicted with three key goals of M¯aori-medium education which include striving for self-determination and the revitalisation of M¯aori knowledge alongside the language. This chapter examines the tensions in the development and nature of the Marautanga Hangarau, and the implications of the relationship between the role of a national curriculum and localised curriculum, in particular place-based indigenous knowledge (Trinick and Heaton, Language, Culture and Curriculum 34:273–287, 2020). Keywords Hangarau · M¯aori-medium Technology · Indigenous curriculum design · New Zealand curricula · Indigenous knowledge

R. Lemon (B) · T. Trinick · K. Lee University of Auckland—Waipapa Taumata Rau, Auckland, New Zealand e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_11

169

170

R. Lemon et al.

11.1 Introduction At the time the first P¯akeh¯a (European) settlers arrived in Aotearoa-New Zealand (NZ), M¯aori the indigenous people of Aotearoa-NZ had a robust system for educating their children to ensure their communities’ survival (Hemara, 2000; Riini & Riini, 1993; Trinick, 2015). As P¯akeh¯a settlers gained political power, European forms of government and schooling were established after 1840. Simon (1998) argued that the hegemonic function of these early European forms of schooling known as ‘native’ schools provided a formalised context for the assimilation and ‘civilisation’ of M¯aori communities into European beliefs, values, and practices. The goal of assimilation was maintained over the next century, through a range of overt educational policies that privileged English as ‘the’ language of education, making schools a key site of enduring colonisation (May & Hill, 2018; Trinick, 2015). There were unwanted consequences for M¯aori, of the explicit ‘English-only’ policy for schooling and implicit English-only workplace. Over time, there was such considerable language shift in M¯aori communities, that by the 1970s te reo M¯aori was considered an endangered language (Spolsky, 2005), threatened with possible extinction (Benton, 1979). It was against this background of rapid and significant language loss that M¯aori communities initiated the various forms of bilingual schooling, known more commonly in Aotearoa-NZ as M¯aori-medium (total immersion) schooling. Three of the complementary primary goals of the M¯aori-medium schooling movement were the revitalisation of language and knowledge, and selfdetermination (Trinick, 2015). This chapter examines ongoing tensions in the realisation of these goals through the development of the M¯aori-medium Technology curriculum, called Hangarau (MoE, 1999, 2008b, 2017). One of the key concerns is the policy directive to translate the English-medium version into M¯aori was an inadequate way of developing an indigenous curriculum by undermining the key goals of M¯aori-medium education. For example, Stewart (2020) argues that differences in worldview resulting in different ways of naming the world are not always interchangeable. Mutu (2014) and Salmond (2012) in their analyses of English language translations of M¯aori texts and vice versa, highlighting that many important cultural nuances are missed. In the subsequent re-development between 2006 and 2008, while still constrained by the original structure, writers were given more freedom to develop some of the content and underpinning philosophy. Therefore, there is now some philosophical separation between the English and M¯aori-medium versions. Thus, for the discussion in this chapter, Technology and Hangarau will not be used interchangeably.

11 Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Aotearoa-New Zealand …

171

11.2 Theoretical Positioning Drawing on a range of M¯aori-medium education research literature and reports (e.g. Durie, 2003a; Smith, 2021; T¯akao et al., 2010), the authors’ autoethnographic experiences in curriculum development, and now explicit government policy (Ministry of Education [MoE], 2020a, 2020b), the primary indicators of a successful approach to M¯aori-medium education system can be grouped around the following educational goals. These include the implementation and honouring of the Treaty of Waitangi, realising the principle of self-determination, the centrality and legitimacy of te reo M¯aori, tikanga (M¯aori custom) and m¯atauranga M¯aori (cultural capital), and preparing learners to access te ao M¯aori (the M¯aori world) and the wider world. An ongoing issue and debate in M¯aori-medium education is the nature of the relationship between Western (wider world) and indigenous knowledge (M¯aori knowledge) in schooling. To a large extent, this has been determined by those in power, consequently, indigenous knowledge has been marginalised. This impacts the place of localised tribal knowledge in the school curriculum because M¯aori identity is frequently determined by an individual’s connection to a tribe (or tribes). After briefly summarising key milestones in the development of the Hangarau curricula in this chapter, a critique of the structure of the Hangarau curriculum is considered against the educational goals of the M¯aori-medium education sector. An additional concern that arises from the knowledge debate is that these knowledge bases and worldviews influence pedagogical approaches—what teachers do, their knowledge and understanding (what teachers know), and beliefs (why teachers act as they do). There will be a brief discussion on the implications of the direct translation of the inaugural national curriculum framework from English into M¯aori (MoE, 1993a, 1993b) and the subsequent attempts to illuminate m¯atauranga M¯aori (M¯aori knowledge), with some examination of the tensions involved in the revitalisation of indigenous knowledge in a national curriculum (Trinick & Heaton, 2020). The chapter concludes with recommendations for future research in the development of indigenous curricula with possible messages for other countries simultaneously revitalising indigenous language and knowledge via curriculum development.

11.3 Indigenous Knowledge or M¯atauranga M¯aori in the Hangarau Context An anecdote about Scotty Morrison, a well-known M¯aori language advocate working in broadcast media, illustrates some of the issues about M¯atauranga M¯aori in the Hangarau context. Scotty belongs to Ng¯ati Whakaue (a M¯aori tribal group that connects to Rotorua in the central North Island). In the documentary series, Origins (Douglas & Christie, 2020), he searches for tangible connections to the ancestral Hawaiki homeland of M¯aori: Where did M¯aori begin? What waka (canoe) did they come on? While M¯aori migrations to Aotearoa-NZ took place hundreds of years ago,

172

R. Lemon et al.

the waka stories remain critical aspects of M¯aori identity in contemporary Aotearoa (Orbell, 1975; Trinick & Meaney, 2020). Waka traditions describe the arrival in New Zealand of M¯aori ancestors from a distant place, most often called Hawaiki. The exact location of Hawaiki has been lost in the mists of time. To demystify some of this migration history, Scotty met with Judith MacDonald and Wayne Abbott of the iwi Ng¯ati Rangit¯ane o Wairau (a M¯aori tribal group who connect to the Wairau Bar at the top of the South Island). They explore the Canterbury Museum collection of artefacts left by the first people in Aotearoa-NZ. The first tangible link to the ancestral homeland Hawaiki, comes in the form of a pocket-knife, a chisel, with a bevel cut, made from a terebra shell. Instead of encountering and relating to this tool as an object, Scotty meets and acknowledges the mauri or spiritual essence of the object. This chisel brings with it, its stories, its life, and its connections to Ng¯ati Rangit¯ane ancestors. At the core of m¯atauranga M¯aori (M¯aori knowledge) are the key concepts of mana (power/essence/presence), tapu (certain restrictions, disciplines, and commitments), and mauri (energy/spiritual essence). The constant challenge for M¯aori in contemporary society is how to acknowledge these concepts in curricula that aim to prioritise local indigenous knowledge. One of the issues is that indigenous knowledges are not static, functioning solely as archives from the past, repositories of traditions that can only be framed in a pre-contact, pre-colonisation time-period (Ataria et al., 2018; Mead, 2016; Stewart, 2020). Indigenous knowledges are tools for thinking, organising, and informing us about our world and our place in it (McKinley & Smith, 2019; Pere, 1997; Stewart, 2020). Indigenous Knowledge as a concept has been defined as the understandings and philosophies of groups of people developed over time and through interaction with the land, a foundation for decision-making and daily life (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation [UNESCO], 2021). Local and indigenous knowledge includes language, systems, resource use practices, social interactions, and spirituality (Salmond, 1983; Stewart, 2020). M¯atauranga M¯aori is the generic term for the body of knowledge representing the dynamic range of M¯aori epistemological systems that interconnect the world and all its domains of knowledge (Harmsworth & Awatere, 2013). According to M¯aori tradition, the foundations of this body of knowledge were brought by the original Polynesian settlers to Aotearoa-NZ (Mead, 2016; Sadler, 2007) and adapted to meet the needs of living in the temperate lands of Aotearoa-NZ (Lemon, 2019; Lemon et al., 2020; Trinick, 2015). According to Mead (2016), it is the values, attitudes, beliefs, and perspectives associated with M¯aori ways of thinking that have been handed down the generations. It is the ontological interaction, locating and making connections in this world, through the past, to the present and future. Over successive generations, this knowledge was refined in relation to the different canoe origins and environmental and geographic conditions of rohe (areas) that iwi settled in. The intergenerational transmission and retention of this knowledge were severely disrupted from about the mid-1800s because of colonisation. Not only was there considerable language shift to English in M¯aori communities, but localised knowledge systems were shattered particularly in tribal areas more exposed to European political power and practices.

11 Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Aotearoa-New Zealand …

173

In a more contemporary view, Royal (2007) argues m¯atauranga M¯aori has now evolved to represent the more generalised body of M¯aori knowledge, as opposed to localised knowledge, specific to an iwi or hap¯u. This view contrasts with Mahuika (2015), a staunch tribalist, who asserts it is all about localised knowledge. Mediating the two positions, several researchers argue that in contemporary times, both forms of knowledge, m¯atauranga M¯aori and m¯atauranga a¯ -iwi are valid and necessary (Doherty, 2012; Procter & Black, 2014). The concept of m¯atauranga M¯aori has been re-constructed (Allen & Trinick, 2021; Mead, 2012), with each new generation adding, subtracting, or amending the knowledge, ensuring the past, present, and future of m¯atauranga M¯aori (Ataria et al., 2018; Mead, 2012, 2016). M¯atauranga M¯aori, at a more general level, supports the ongoing reclamation and recreation of m¯atauranga a¯ -iwi (tribal knowledge systems). The developments of the Hangarau curriculum tried to capture this duality in the statement defining ‘te iho o te hangarau’ (‘the essence of hangarau’). The content areas of the curriculum focus on the more generalised body of M¯aori knowledge, while encouraging teachers to draw from hap¯u and iwi knowledge in their localised school curriculum, thus avoiding some of the tribal politics.

11.4 The Emergence of M¯aori Curriculum Development in Aotearoa-NZ K¯ohanga reo (early childhood M¯aori-medium language nests) and kura kaupapa (M¯aori-medium primary schools) were grass-roots initiatives from the 1980s to support the revitalisation of te reo M¯aori (Tocker, 2014, 2015; Waitangi Tribunal, 2013). The first k¯ohanga reo opened in 1982 and, by 1990, there were 600 k¯ohanga reo working with over 10,000 children. In 1990, funding was transferred from the Ministry of M¯aori Affairs to the Ministry of Education. Up to this point, k¯ohanga reo had been fully self-funding. Once the government recognised k¯ohanga reo as an early childhood educational context, state compliance and administrative requirements increased significantly, resulting in the closure of k¯ohanga reo unable to meet all the new legislative requirements (Waitangi Tribunal, 2013). In frustration at their children very quickly losing their language in the only primary schooling option then available, English-medium, the same communities that established k¯ohanga reo then established M¯aori-medium primary schooling, initially outside of the state system. Tocker (2014) highlights kura kaupapa using their agency to lobby for the right as a community to be able to choose to establish a kura kaupapa as their first, preferred schooling option. According to Tocker (2014), “the initial governmental approach was to make kura kaupapa the last option of a long list, or a last resort” (p. 83). When the early M¯aori-medium schools were established in the 1980s by their respective communities trying to save te reo M¯aori from extinction, they were required to follow the English-medium syllabi. There was no formal M¯aori-medium curriculum, and limited M¯aori language resource materials were available (Trinick & May, 2013).

174

R. Lemon et al.

In the late 1980s, as M¯aori language revitalisation schooling efforts were gaining momentum, a neoliberal transformation began in the education system in AotearoaNZ, including controversially, how the curriculum was to be developed (Trinick, 2015). One of the big changes was that prescriptive, outcomes-based curricula became the norm because of the new neoliberal paradigms influencing educational policy (O’Neill et al., 2004). Essentially, a view prevailed in government, and thus down to its education agency that student performance measured against the curriculum was a simpler mechanism to judge teacher and school effectiveness (McMurchy-Pilkington et al., 2013). Initially, in the curriculum reform process, no consideration was given to the needs of schools teaching in the medium of M¯aori even though M¯aori-medium schooling had been state-mandated schools for the last ten years. After extensive lobbying, Dr Lockwood Smith, the Minister of Education at the time acquiesced to the development of the M¯aori-medium curriculum (McMurchy-Pilkington et al., 2013). While this recognition was agreeable on one level—this was the first time in the long history of schooling that M¯aori educationalists were given some authority, however, delimited, to develop state curricula (Trinick & May, 2013), the political constraints and governmentally imposed expectation that M¯aori-medium curricula ‘mirror’ their hegemonic English-medium counterpart dampened enthusiasm (Dale, 2016; Durie, 2003a, 2003b; McMurchy-Pilkington, 2004; Stewart et al., 2017). Given this, the M¯aori-medium education community was divided on whether to continue to participate in this curriculum development (McMurchy-Pilkington & Trinick, 2002). On one hand, some saw an opportunity to advance the linguistic goals of M¯aori language revitalisation via curricula development. To develop national M¯aori-medium curricula, considerable corpus elaboration was required, which in turn provided support to daily classroom discourse usage (Trinick & May, 2013). On the other hand, there were those, mainly from the Kura Kaupapa M¯aori sector, who argued it was a continuation of the colonising ideologies via curriculum, albeit this time through the M¯aori language (McMurchy-Pilkington & Trinick, 2002). Essentially, the M¯aori-medium sector was presented with an unenviable dilemma— either work within the parameters determined by the MoE or implement the new English-medium curriculum versions (Trinick, 2015). Curriculum development is a politicised process at the best of times, but more so when the topic under consideration is an endangered language with shattered knowledge systems that are undergoing attempts at reconstruction. This ferment has flowed into educational research where researchers have attempted to address the issue of indigenous knowledge in state-mandated national curriculum documents (Trinick & Heaton, 2020). In mainstream education, a close examination of both national and international literature reveals the challenges educators and researchers have had in deciding, for example, the basic nature of the curriculum. Print (1993) suggests there are different categories: the nationally mandated curriculum; a subjectrelated curriculum statement; and the localised school curriculum. McGee (1997) adds a category of curriculum as representing what each student has learned. Within and along with these categories, there exist a range of perceptions of the nature of curriculum which include: the ideal or recommended curriculum, as reflected in

11 Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Aotearoa-New Zealand …

175

the research literature (Schugurensky, 2002); the intended or written curriculum, sometimes called the syllabus—the policy documents that exist at the macro-level (Bondy, 2007); the hidden curriculum, the unofficial expectations and/or unintended learning outcomes (McGee, 1997); and the null curriculum, what schools do not teach (Eisner, 1994). Curriculum development has been considered from macro-, meso-, and micro-level perspectives—the macro, dealing with national policy, the meso- or school level, and the micro-level, dealing with classroom implementation (Marsh, 2007). The micro-level is argued to be a valid site for the reinterpretation of macrolevel analysis (Goodson, 1993). The next section begins with an examination at the macro-level of curriculum development with the ideal or recommended curriculum— in the form of the state-mandated M¯aori-medium Technology Curriculum.

11.5 The Inaugural Development of the Marautanga Hangarau–M¯aori-Medium Technology Curriculum The first-ever M¯aori-medium curriculum for technology; the Marautanga Hangarau was developed in the 1990s as part of the wider curriculum development (Lemon, 2019) for teaching and learning in M¯aori-medium contexts, Te Marautanga o Aotearoa (MoE, 2017). The inaugural development was followed by two subsequent rewrites in 2008 and 2017 (MoE, 1999, 2008b, 2017). Although the state became more accommodating of the indigenous voice over the various iterations, several issues remain which have impacted the nature of Hangarau as an essential learning area in Te Marautanga o Aotearoa. Hangarau as a M¯aori-medium curriculum term emerged at the same time as Technology was introduced as a learning area in the English-medium schooling sector in the 1990s. Dr K¯aterina Te Heik¯ok¯o Mataira, a prominent M¯aori language revivalist, was charged with translating the English-medium curriculum framework and coined the term ‘Hangarau’ for Technology to enable the translation into M¯aori (Dale, 2016; MoE, 1993a, 1993b). Hangarau as a M¯aori language term has various other meanings in everyday social discourse; ironically, the primary meaning is ‘trickster’ (Williams, 1971). McMurchy-Pilkington (2004) posited that the translation of the National Curriculum framework, Te Anga Marautanga o Aotearoa (MoE, 1993a) needed reviewing before the re-development of M¯aori-medium curricula started in 2004. Other than the translator, there was no M¯aori-medium sector involvement in the creation of the term Hangarau as an essential learning area. For many language situations, it is not unusual for newly coined words to be created by an individual, but in this case, it was not just the creation of a new term, but the creation of a new learning area (discipline) for M¯aori-medium schooling (see Barton et al., 1998 for the story behind the creation of the term for mathematics). This translation of the New Zealand Curriculum Framework (MoE, 1993b) was also critiqued by Durie (2003a, 2003b), who argued that a translation is not the same as a curriculum framing M¯aori knowledge and M¯aori values, regardless of how ‘good’ the translation. While

176

R. Lemon et al.

Dale (2016) concurred with Durie, he believed it is more important to utilise the opportunity the translated curriculum framework presented which would lead to the development of a new discipline for schooling in te reo M¯aori. In the inaugural development of the Science and Technology curricula, M¯aori writers were co-opted to provide a M¯aori perspective (Lemon, 2019). These writers became the eventual primary contractors for the development of the marau Hangarau. This was the extent of ‘cross-over’ in the development of the 1999 Hangarau document. As noted earlier, one of the tensions in the development of the Hangarau curriculum is who determines the content and how this content is represented. The development of the Hangarau curriculum in Aotearoa was a politically driven, tightly constrained administrative process in the 1990s. To create some resemblance to an indigenous curriculum, the developers re-ordered and re-organised the content to differentiate it in some way from its English-medium counterpart (Lemon, 2019; MoE, 1999–2008). This included a series of wheako whakaari (learning experiences) written using M¯aori contexts. Another tension in the process of determining the content was that many thought Hangarau was just a translation of the English-medium Technology curriculum document with no effort to reflect indigeneity other than the language (Lemon, 2019; MoE, 1999–2008, 2003–2012; Stewart et al., 2017). Since its first introduction as an independent learning area in 1999, Hangarau has been misunderstood by Ministry officials, M¯aori-medium teachers, and the English-medium sector. Hangarau and Technology were seen as synonymous, meaning the inherently M¯aori philosophy of Hangarau was not being recognised and practised. Te iho o te Hangarau (the essence of Hangarau) signified another attempt to differentiate the Hangarau curriculum by developing a M¯aori-centric philosophy of the nature of Hangarau. Te iho o te Hangarau was written in longer form as part of the inaugural P¯utaiao, or M¯aori-medium Science curriculum document (MoE, 1996). To paraphrase these lines, Hangarau is about starting with m¯atauranga M¯aori (M¯aori knowledge) and then reclaiming and reframing indigenous knowledge bases in searching for solutions to problems in the contemporary world.

11.6 Curriculum Revisions Since the inaugural development in the 1990s, the political landscape has changed in Aotearoa-NZ, with governments becoming more accommodating of cultural and linguistic differences and thus providing a modicum of support for the M¯aori-medium community to control subsequent iterations of curriculum development (Trinick & Heaton, 2020). This was due to the growth of capacity in the M¯aori-medium community to develop national curricula; and the increasing enshrinement of the principles of Te Tiriti o Waitangi (the M¯aori text of The Treaty of Waitangi) at various levels of government policy (Trinick, 2015). Only two major conditions were imposed contractually for the review and redevelopment of Hangarau in the mid-2000s,

11 Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Aotearoa-New Zealand …

177

allowing curriculum teams to rethink the curriculum for M¯aori-medium schooling (Lemon, 2019; MoE, 1999–2008). The conditions were to condense the original 60page document and make it into a document that was ten pages or less. These ten pages had to include a papakupu (glossary) and the wh¯ainga paetae (achievement objectives). This gave curriculum designers space to debate and explore the place for m¯atauranga M¯aori and more localised iwi knowledge—What was Hangarau practice? What were the foundational concepts? What did Hangarau look like when exploring the dynamics between process, stakeholders, and environment? In contrast to the inaugural development in the 1990s where each learning area was developed in isolation, the different writing facilitators of the refresh of each learning area in the mid-2000s met regularly (Lemon, 2019; Trinick & Heaton, 2020). This revised process allowed some linguistic and epistemological crossfertilisation between the various disciplines and a process to standardise teaching and learning terms, generic to all learning areas. The linguistic consistency being developed across the curriculum represented a significant change from the ad hoc linguistic development approach in the 1990s (McMurchy-Pilkington, 2008). Additionally, representatives of various M¯aori-medium stakeholder groups met with writers from each learning area. These representatives, convened as a group called Te Ohu Matua, provided cultural and linguistic input on the content to the writers over the whole project. This change in process provided an opportunity to develop a more M¯aori-centric curriculum—which is discussed later in this chapter. By 2008, all the learning areas had been reviewed and merged into one document under the banner of Te Marautanga o Aotearoa (MoE, 2008b) which then became the state-mandated national curriculum document for all M¯aori-medium schools (Stewart et al., 2017). In the merged document, the Hangarau learning area was represented using a metaphor, a species of trumpeter fish called a moki, wrapped in a wh¯ariki (a woven flax mat—this was the metaphor that had been used to structure the inaugural Hangarau curriculum—symbolic of wrapping the new with the old). The moki was chosen because this fish is of tribal significance to the lead writer, Tuihana Pook, who belongs to Te Wh¯anau a Kauaetangohia hap¯u of Te Wh¯anau-aApanui tribe, located at Whangapar¯aoa in the Eastern Bay of Plenty (Lemon, 2019; see also Langley & Walker, 2004). The creation of this metaphor was an attempt to link to localised traditions, but in a national curriculum—thus maintaining the debate about how to ensure that the curriculum provided space to enable the promotion of local hap¯u and iwi knowledge—not just as an add on but as content recognised as important by the state. During the curriculum stocktake of the mid-2000s, teachers communicated the desire to have one main strand or key conceptual area showing learning over time. The one strand would integrate ethics, technical skills, and knowledge. While curriculum developers agreed that the two proposed strands must be integrated into all Hangarau learning, different skill sets would result from the concepts within each strand and so, curriculum designers utilised two strands for Hangarau (This information is updated from Lemon, 2019; where it was believed that the decision to have two strands was imposed by the Ministry of Education). A strand (whenu) or thread represents a subdomain of Hangarau containing either ethics, knowledge, skills, or learning

178

R. Lemon et al.

Fig. 11.1 The structure of the 2017 Hangarau curriculum. Reproduced with permission from the Ministry of Education

processes represented through a learning progression over 13 years of schooling in the Aotearoa-NZ system. These strands were aligned with the top and bottom of the ¯ o te Hangarau (The Nature of wh¯ariki (see Fig. 11.1). The two strands Ng¯a Ahuatanga Hangarau) and Te Whakaharatau Hangarau (Hangarau Practice, incorporating skills and knowledge) were essentially the same as the strands in the 1999 document. The strands were interlaced with five transversal elements or contexts for learning, known as aho (shown vertically in Fig. 11.1). The elements, or aho, included Te Tuku M¯ohiohio which involved researching and reclaiming traditional techniques, then reframing them for the contemporary world through innovation or adaptation; and a range of elements that reflected some of the key debates facing curriculum designers. One of the issues was how to maintain aspects of the old manual and technical subjects in a Hangarau curriculum. Second, was the issue of how then to position emerging technologies and how to embody m¯atauranga M¯aori. The latter was addressed, in part, through the development of second tier curriculum support materials that used whakatauk¯ı, or proverbial sayings, to represent the scope of each of the five contexts for learning (MoE, 2008a). In 2017, the transversal strand, or aho named Te Tuku M¯ohiohio (focusing on methods of communication or transfer of information) was removed to allow for the introduction of new content to enable the development of digital technology as part of the Hangarau process of meeting someone’s need. This new content was called Hangarau Matihiko (Digital Technologies), shown in Fig. 11.1. The removal of the transversal strand, or aho known as Te Tuku M¯ohiohio, was justified on the grounds; it would be embedded in the learning outcomes throughout the curriculum.

11.7 Conclusions and Recommendations Over time the conceptual metaphor designed for the Hangarau curriculum (see Fig. 11.1) has evolved to become more indigenous-centric as the political constraints for M¯aori-medium curriculum design have become less disabling. This change in attitude is in part due to the state’s growing acceptance of implementing and honouring

11 Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Aotearoa-New Zealand …

179

the Treaty of Waitangi in schooling and public policy. This in turn shifts the M¯aorimedium education goal of self-determination closer to realisation. This loosening is why, in the second and third iterations of the Marautanga Hangarau, the curriculum designers had more autonomy to focus on the centrality and legitimacy of M¯aori language, customs and knowledge or cultural capital. We have begun to see tribal knowledge and wider m¯atauranga M¯aori illuminated in the structure and content of the curriculum and second tier curriculum support materials. This also supports the realisation of the goal of preparing learners to access te ao M¯aori (the M¯aori world) and the wider world. Further research is needed into the specific ways in which m¯atauranga M¯aori relevant to today’s learners can be illuminated in curriculum and linked to the pedagogical choices teachers make to prepare their students to engage in te ao M¯aori and the wider world. M¯aori curriculum development with its associated tensions and challenges has now become an accepted practice in the Aotearoa-NZ schooling system— not an afterthought as was previous tradition. The capacity to develop indigenous curriculum has grown—albeit too slow for some to ensure a legacy of curriculum experts, researchers, and so on. Currently, Aotearoa-NZ is starting its latest curriculum refresh. It is not clear at this point if Hangarau will be a mandated or compulsory area in the newly revised model. There is considerable momentum to shift more authority to local communities, which could be at a school level, to a collective of schools, regional collectives, and so on. This is partly in response to the national curriculum’s delimited response to the M¯aori-medium sector’s goals of language and knowledge revitalisation. One of the authors of this paper is part of the advisory group which is currently seeking the views of key stakeholder groups. It is likely there will be a national curriculum but with more authority given to schools or local entities to create their curriculum. One of the big issues bubbling away is where the line of authority resides on the continuum from national state-mandated to localised curriculum. In the three iterations developed so far, the authority to decide the content, structure, and underpinning philosophy has laid mainly in the direction of the state. While this has advantages (e.g. state funding of state curriculum), there has been a propensity in Aotearoa-NZ to create and develop educational initiatives that are to meet the needs of English-medium schooling, not M¯aori-medium. The hope is that curriculum development is determined by the needs of M¯aori-medium schooling and their students acknowledging that they reside in a globalised world. There are three key messages that the M¯aori-medium community can impart to other contexts that are simultaneously revitalising their indigenous language and indigenous knowledge via curriculum development. The first is that curriculum development opportunities are not always planned and at first may seem so restrictive it can seem to be a process not worth considering. In the M¯aori-medium example, the initial restriction was on the continued suppression of indigenous knowledge but was more enabling of language revitalisation. Second, M¯aori seized the opportunity to advance critical linguistic and curriculum development capacity goals. This helps considerably to shift the curriculum from a Eurocentric base to a base of M¯aori knowledge or m¯atauranga M¯aori. This also provided an opportunity to begin critiquing the tensions between indigenous culture, language, and knowledge bases. Because the curriculum

180

R. Lemon et al.

was state-mandated, it was expected that resources would be provided to support its implementation. This does not mean that there was an equal allocation of resources. While the state has provided financial and resource support, it has tended to be in its priority areas, namely literacy and numeracy. Finally, while arguably very late in the curriculum development cycle, M¯aori are now better positioned to debate, critique, and reflect on how curricula can be constructed to better meet the needs of diverse groups of indigenous students.

References Allen, P., & Trinick, T. (2021). Agency-structure dynamics in an indigenous mathematics education community in times of an existential crisis in education. Educational Studies in Mathematics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-021-10098-1 Ataria, J., Mark-Shadbolt, M., Mead, A. T. P., Prime, K., Doherty, J., Waiwai, J., Ashby, T., Lambert, S., & Garner, G. O. (2018). Whakamanahia te m¯atauranga o te M¯aori: Empowering M¯aori knowledge to support Aotearoa’s aquatic biological heritage. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 52(4), 467–486. https://doi.org/10.1080/00288330.2018.1517097 Barton, B., Fairhall, U., & Trinick, T. (1998). Tikanga reo t¯atai: Issues in the development of a M¯aori mathematics register. For the Learning of Mathematics, 18(1), 3–9. https://flm-journal. org/Articles/62FD129A8F76A12DB855F8092788.pdf Benton, R. (1979). Who speaks M¯aori in New Zealand? NZCER. Bondy, A. (2007). The intended and interpreted Technology curriculum in four New Zealand secondary schools: Does this all mean the same? (Doctoral thesis, Massey University). https:// mro.massey.ac.nz/handle/10179/769 Dale, H. (2016). Te whanaketanga o te w¯ahanga ako o te Tikanga a¯ Iwi: Mai i te kore, ki te wheiao, ki te ao m¯arama. The development of the Tikanga a¯ Iwi learning area: From nothingness, to half-light, to the full light of day. In M. Harcourt, A. Milligan, & B. Wood (Eds.), Teaching social studies for critical, active citizenship in Aotearoa New Zealand (pp. 20–39). NZCER. Doherty, W. (2012). Ranga framework—He raranga kaupapa. In Conversations on M¯atauranga M¯aori (pp. 15–36). New Zealand Qualifications Authority. https://www.nzqa.govt.nz/assets/ Maori/ConversationsMMv6AW-web.pdf Douglas, M., & Christie, T. (Executive Producers). (2020). Origins [TV documentary series]. Scottie Productions. Durie, A. (2003a). He whakaaro an¯o: Curriculum framing. SET: Research Information for Teachers, 2, 17. Durie, M. (Ed.). (2003b). Ng¯a K¯ahui Pou: Launching M¯aori futures. Huia. Eisner, E. (1994). The educational imagination (3rd ed.). Macmillan. Goodson, I. F. (1993). School subjects and curriculum change (3rd ed.). Taylor & Francis. Harmsworth, G. R., & Awatere, S. (2013). Indigenous M¯aori knowledge and perspectives of ecosystems. In J. R. Dymond (Ed.), Ecosystem services in New Zealand—Conditions and trends (pp. 274–286). Manaaki Whenua Press. https://wwwuat.landcareresearch.co.nz/__data/assets/ pdf_file/0007/77047/2_1_Harmsworth.pdf Hemara, W. (2000). M¯aori pedagogies: A view from the literature. NZCER. Langley, A. D., & Walker, N. (2004, May). Characterisation of the blue moki (Latridopsis ciliaris) fishery and recommendations for future monitoring of the MOK1 Fishstock (New Zealand Fisheries Assessment Report 2004133). Lemon, R. (2019). Rangahau Hangarau: Stories of curriculum development (Master’s thesis, University of Auckland). ResearchSpace. http://hdl.handle.net/2292/46957

11 Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Aotearoa-New Zealand …

181

Lemon, R., Lee, K., & Dale, H. (2020). The marau Hangarau (M¯aori-medium Technology curriculum): Why there isn’t much research but why there should be! Australasian Journal of Technology Education. https://doi.org/10.15663/ajte.v0i0.71 Mahuika, N. (2015). ‘Closing the gaps’: From postcolonialism to Kaupapa M¯aori and beyond. In L. Pihama, S.-J. Tiakiwai, & K. Southey (Eds.), Kaupapa Rangahau: A reader. A collection of readings from the Kaupapa Rangahau Workshop Series (2nd ed., pp. 53–76). https://www.waikato. ac.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/339885/Kaupapa-Rangahau-A-Reader_2nd-Edition.pdf Marsh, C. J. (2007). Curriculum: Alternative approaches, ongoing issues (4th ed.). Pearson and Merrill Prentice Hall. May, S., & Hill, R. (2018). Language revitalization in Aotearoa/New Zealand. In L. Hinton, L. Huss, & G. Roche (Eds.), Routledge handbook of language revitalization (pp. 309–319). Routledge. McGee, C. F. (1997). Teachers and curriculum decision-making. Dunmore Press. McKinley, E. A., & Smith, L. T. (2019). Towards self-determination in Indigenous education research: An introduction. In E. A. McKinley & L. T. Smith (Eds.), Handbook of indigenous education (pp. 1–15). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-3899-0 McMurchy-Pilkington, C. (2004). He arotakenga o ng¯a tuhinga e p¯a ana ki ng¯a marautanga M¯aori: Literature review Te Anga Marautanga o Aotearoa (Final Report). Ministry of Education. McMurchy-Pilkington, C. (2008). Indigenous people: Emancipatory possibilities in curriculum development. Canadian Journal of Education, 31(3), 614–638. McMurchy-Pilkington, C., & Trinick, T. (2002). Horse power or empowerment? Mathematics curriculum for M¯aori-Trojan horse revisited. In B. Barton, K. C. Irwin, M. Pfannkuch, & M. Thomas (Eds.), Mathematics education in the South Pacific (Proceedings of 25th annual conference of the Mathematics Research Group of Australasia, Auckland, pp. 465–472). MERGA. McMurchy-Pilkington, C., Trinick, T., & Meaney, T. (2013). Mathematics curriculum development and indigenous language revitalisation: Contested space. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 25(3), 341–360. Mead, S. M. (2012). Understanding M¯atauranga M¯aori. In Conversations on M¯atauranga M¯aori (pp. 9–14). NZQA. https://www.nzqa.govt.nz/assets/Maori/ConversationsMMv6AW-web.pdf Mead, S. M. (2016). Tikanga M¯aori: Living by M¯aori values (Rev. ed.). Huia. Ministry of Education. (1993a). Te Anga Marautanga o Aotearoa. Learning Media. Ministry of Education. (1993b). The New Zealand curriculum framework. Learning Media. Ministry of Education. (1996). P¯utaiao i roto i te Marautanga o Aotearoa. Learning Media. Ministry of Education. (1999). Hangarau i roto i te Marautanga o Aotearoa. Learning Media. Ministry of Education. (1999–2008). Various policy and operational papers CU17/812/5; CU15/2227/5; CU17/846/5; 1999 Hangarau implementation; 2006 marau redevelopment. Documents released under request for official information 1139624. Ministry of Education. (2003–2012). Various policy and operational papers CU17/1530/5; CU17/5461/5; 2003 Whakapiki Reo Hangarau PLD; 2011 Beacon Practice Hangarau Scoping Project. Documents released under request for official information 1214766. Ministry of Education. (2008a). Hei tautoko i te Hangarau i roto i te Marautanga o Aotearoa. Ministry of Education. (2008b). Te Marautanga o Aotearoa. Learning Media. Ministry of Education. (2017). Te Marautanga o Aotearoa. Learning Media. Ministry of Education. (2020a). Ka hikitia– Ka h¯apaitia: Te rautaki m¯atauranga M¯aori (te reo M¯aori). https://www.education.govt.nz/our-work/overall-strategies-and-policies/ka-hikitia-kahapaitia/ka-hikitia-ka-hapaitia-te-rautaki-matauranga-maori/ Ministry of Education. (2020b). Tau mai te reo. https://www.education.govt.nz/our-work/overallstrategies-and-policies/tau-mai-te-reo/ Mutu, M. (2014). The Humpty Dumpty principle at work: The role of mistranslation in the British settlement of Aotearoa: The Declaration of Independence and He Whakaputanga o te Rangatiratanga o nga hapu o Nu Tireni. In S. Fenton (Ed.), For better or for worse: Translation as a tool for change in the South Pacific (Rev. ed., pp. 11–35). Routledge.

182

R. Lemon et al.

O’Neill, A., Clark, J., & Openshaw, R. (2004). Mapping the field: An introduction to curriculum politics in Aotearoa/New Zealand. In A. O’Neill, J. Clark, & R. Openshaw (Eds.), Reshaping culture, knowledge and learning: Policy and content in the New Zealand curriculum framework (pp. 25–46). Dunmore Press. Orbell, M. (1975). The religious significance of Maori migration traditions. The Journal of the Polynesian Society, 84(3), 341–347. Pere, R. (1997). Te wheke: A celebration of infinite wisdom. Ao Ako Global Learning. Procter, J., & Black, H. (2014). M¯atauranga a¯ -Iwi—He Haerenga M¯orearea. In Enhancing M¯atauranga M¯aori and global Indigenous Knowledge (pp. 87–100). NZQA. https://www.nzqa. govt.nz/assets/Maori/Te-Rautaki-Maori/Publications/Enhancing-Mtauranga-Mori-and-GlobalIndigenous-Knowledge.pdf Print, M. (1993). Curriculum development and design (2nd ed.). Allen & Unwin. Riini, M., & Riini, S. (1993). Historical perspectives of M¯aori and mathematics. In P¯angarau – M¯aori mathematics and education (pp. 16–20). Ministry of M¯aori Development. Royal, T. A. C. (2007). The purpose of education: Perspectives arising from M¯atauranga M¯aori: A discussion. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5369700de4b045a4e0c24bbc/t/53fe990fe 4b0281e279892ae/1409194264846/The+Purpose+of+Education Sadler, H. (2007). M¯atauranga M¯aori (M¯aori epistemology). The International Journal of the Humanities: Annual Review, 4(10), 33–46. https://doi.org/10.18848/1447-9508/CGP/v04i10/ 58246 Salmond, A. (1983). The study of traditional Maori society: The state of the art. The Journal of the Polynesian Society, 92(3), 309–331. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20705798 Salmond, A. (2012). Ontological quarrels: Indigeneity, exclusion and citizenship in a relational world. Anthropological Theory, 12(2), 115–141. https://doi.org/10.1177/1463499612454119 Schugurensky, D. (2002). The eight curricula of multicultural citizenship education. Multicultural Education, 10(1), 2–6. Simon, J. (Ed.). (1998). Ng¯a kura M¯aori: The native schools system 1867–1969. Auckland University Press. Smith, L. (2021). Decolonising methodologies: Research and indigenous peoples (3rd ed.). University of Otago Press. Spolsky, B. (2005). M¯aori lost and regained. In A. Bell, R. Harlow, & D. Starks (Eds.), Languages of New Zealand (pp. 67–85). Victoria University Press. Stewart, G. (2020). M¯aori philosophy: Indigenous thinking from Aotearoa. Bloomsbury Academic. Stewart, G., Trinick, T., & Dale, D. (2017). Te Marautanga o Aotearoa: History of a national M¯aori curriculum. Curriculum Matters, 13, 8–20. https://doi.org/10.18296/cm.0018 T¯akao, N., Grennell, D., McKegg, K., & Wehipeihana, N. (2010). Te piko o te m¯ahuri: The key attributes of successful Kura Kaupapa M¯aori. Ministry of Education. https://ndhadeliver.natlib. govt.nz/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE2475959 Tocker, K. (2014). Hei oranga M¯aori i te ao hurihuri nei. Living as M¯aori in the world today: An account of kura kaupapa M¯aori (Doctoral thesis, University of Auckland). ResearchSpace. http://hdl.handle.net/2292/22755 Tocker, K. (2015). The origins of Kura Kaupapa M¯aori. New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 50, 23–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40841-015-0006-z Trinick, T. (2015). Enhancing student achievement: School and community learning partnership. American Journal of Educational Research, 3(2), 126–136. https://doi.org/10.12691/education3-2-4 Trinick, T., & Heaton, S. (2020). Curriculum for minority Indigenous communities: Social justice challenges. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 34(3), 273–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/079 08318.2020.1831009 Trinick, T., & May, S. (2013). Developing a M¯aori language mathematics lexicon: Challenges for corpus planning in indigenous language contexts. Current Issues in Language Planning, 14(3–4), 457–473. https://doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2013.835149

11 Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Aotearoa-New Zealand …

183

Trinick, T., & Meaney, T. (2020). Ethnomathematics and Indigenous teacher education: Waka migrations. Ng¯a Hekenga: Te T¯atai me Ng¯a Kura Akoranga-Taketake. Revemop, 2, 1–18. https:// doi.org/10.33532/revemop.e202008 UNESCO. (2021). Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems (LINKS). https://en.unesco.org/links Waitangi Tribunal. (2013). Matua rautia: The report on the K¯ohanga Reo claim. Legislation Direct. Williams, H. W. (1971). Dictionary of the M¯aori language (7th ed.). Legislation Direct.

Chapter 12

Locating Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education Within the Revised Curriculum in Zimbabwe Peter Kwaira

Abstract In a book focusing on ‘Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education’ (ITKSE), the challenge in this chapter was to think of how such an education could be accommodated in any curriculum. Such thinking was driven by the contention, holding that, ‘ITKSE should not be left to exist outside of the Technology Education curriculum and classroom, if it is to benefit all learners, indigenous and non-indigenous’. In a multi-racial/cultural Zimbabwe, one could see value in such focus, especially now, when there has been a nationwide move to revisit the curriculum; making it more relevant to the country (Government of Zimbabwe, Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education Synopsis; Zimbabwe Education Blueprint 2015–2022—Curriculum Framework for Primary and Secondary Education. Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, Causeway, Harare, 2015a). From this background, the main problem motivating this chapter was to identify and locate all the possible points at which ITKSE could be integrated into the country’s revised curriculum (Framework 2015–2022). This led to the following research question: ‘How best could aspects of the teaching/learning of ITKSE be accommodated/integrated into Zimbabwe’s revised curriculum?’ A document analysis of the curriculum then helped to locate all the points offering opportunities for the accommodation/integration of ITKSE, from Early Childhood Development (ECD) to Advanced Level (Forms 5 to 6). Keywords Cultural/living heritage · Curriculum change/innovation · Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education (ITKSE) · Sustainable development · Zimbabwe’s Curriculum Framework 2015–2022

P. Kwaira (B) University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_12

185

186

P. Kwaira

12.1 Introduction and Background to the Problem Focusing on Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education (ITKSE), one could hardly avoid the challenge to then think of how such an education could be accommodated or integrated within/into any meaningful existing curriculum. Coming to the main purpose in this chapter, such thinking was mainly motivated by the persuasive contention that ‘ITKSE should not be left to exist outside the Technology Education curriculum and classroom, if it is to benefit all learners (indigenous and non-indigenous)’. Zimbabwe, being multi-racial/cultural, one could not see any better calling than this. Timing has just been right, coinciding with the national drive to revisit the whole curriculum, making it more relevant to the country’s needs, mainly regarding Sustainable Development (Government of Zimbabwe, 2015a). A call leading to this chapter actually prompted a document analysis of Zimbabwe’s revised curriculum (Framework 2015–2022), with a view to locate all the points offering opportunities for the accommodation/integration of ITKSE, from Early Childhood Development (ECD) to the Advanced Level (Forms 5 to 6). Background to the said curriculum is that, on 25 September 2014, the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education released a draft curriculum, introducing major changes to the country’s education/school system (Zimbabwe Ministry of Primary & Secondary Education, 2015). This followed nationwide consultations, involving various stakeholders, including Zimbabwe Schools Examination Council (ZIMSEC); Sport, Arts & Culture Ministry; Universities; Churches; Teachers’ Associations; Industry and Commerce. Implementation of the curriculum commenced on the 10th of January 2017, starting with selected classes (Government of Zimbabwe, 2015a). Today, schools are encouraged to provide diversified opportunities for all learners to develop the key knowledge, skills, and attitudes defined under various learning areas and levels (Government of Zimbabwe, 2015b). On the whole, the curriculum is now geared towards learners graduating with skill profiles aligned to critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, technology, team building, leadership, basic literacy and numeracy, and business/financial literacy (Government of Zimbabwe, 2015a). Also expected, are values relating to Ubuntu/Unhu/Vumunhu, discipline, integrity, and honesty. All these values and skills are then underpinned by principles founded upon; inclusivity, lifelong learning, equity, fairness, gender sensitivity, respect, balance, responsiveness, resourcefulness, diversity, transparency, and accountability (Government of Zimbabwe, 2015b). In total, after all, consultations and trial-running at various levels, Curriculum Framework 2015–2022 now has 105 learning area syllabi, outlined as follows: Infant (8); Junior (12); Secondary/Forms 1–4 (40); Secondary/Forms 5–6 (44), and Life Skill and Orientation Programme (1). Given this background, the main problem underpinning this chapter was to identify and locate all the specific and possible points at which ITKSE could be integrated or accommodated into/within the country’s revised curriculum (Framework 2015– 2022). The goal was to determine the extent to which the various syllabi could be used to facilitate/promote the teaching/learning of specific aspects under ITKSE.

12 Locating Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education …

187

12.2 Clarifying Questions Unpacking the Problem and Review of Some Pertinent Conceptual/theoretical Perspectives Given the problem addressed in the study leading to this chapter, the main research question was: How best could aspects of the teaching and learning of Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education (ITKSE) be accommodated and/or integrated into Zimbabwe’s revised curriculum (Framework 2015–2022)? This was then unpacked through the following sub-questions: • Which areas of Zimbabwe’s revised curriculum (Framework 2015–2022) could offer possible locations for ITKSE? • In what form would the identified aspects of ‘ITKSE’ feature within specific locations in Curriculum Framework 2015–2022? • In what way would specific aspects of ‘ITKSE’ relate to the various subject areas within the given levels of Curriculum Framework 2015–2022? • What pedagogical ideas could possibly be shared with practitioners, regarding integration of ‘ITKSE’ into the teaching/learning of various subject areas offered under the revised curriculum? Bringing this chapter into an appropriate conceptual/theoretical framework, meant putting the following pertinent topical issues into perspective: • • • • • •

Issues surrounding curriculum change and development Place of indigenous technology in sustainable development Link between indigenisation and economic development Place of technology in economic development Place of cultural diversity (inclusive culture) in sustainable development Application of indigenous technology in today’s contexts.

12.3 Issues Surrounding Curriculum Change/Innovation and Development In essence, Curriculum Framework 2015–2022 is a revised version of the education system in Zimbabwe. Therefore, reference to it ushers in the issue of curriculum change and innovation, where Bialystok (2018) deliberates on the subject of Authenticity in Education, before focusing on educational aims/purposes and ideals, among other factors. In several ways, Bialystok’s views on the issue of Authenticity in Education appear to confirm Ornstein and Hunkins’ (2004) views on Curriculum Change/Innovation; maintaining that, it is all about the question of education which is relevant for specific purposes within a given context. In the case of Zimbabwe, one of the most important elements recently brought into the curriculum was Technology Education, unanimously agreed upon during the nationwide consultations for Framework 2015–2022, as already indicated

188

P. Kwaira

(Zimbabwe Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, 2015). Previously, there had been mention of the concept, here and there within areas such as Wood Technology and Metal Technology, but it was not as widespread as it has now become. And, with this concept (Technology) now permeating the whole curriculum, one sees the need for Teacher Education to rise to the occasion, if teachers are to remain in charge of affairs in schools; thereby, justifying the fourth sub-question underpinning this chapter. Since advent of this millennium, the world has been grappling with the curricula adjustments considered necessary in various contexts. Globally, seminars, workshops, and conferences have resulted in much of the literature today, focusing on topics such as: Institutions of the 21st Century; University of the 21st Century, and Curricula for the 21st Century (Bialystok, 2018). Incidentally, even in this country, the introduction of Curriculum Framework 2015–2022, has been a move guided by thematic issues drawn from such topics. Being part of curricula for the twenty-first century, ITKSE could be viewed as a broad-based thread cutting across the whole education system, without narrowly focusing on a few core-subject areas. This then helps to support the notion that curricula of the twenty-first century are no longer confined to the boundaries of traditional skills, where learners would exit tertiary institutions to fit into the comfort zones of conventional areas of specialisation. Globally, the trend has been that of institutions gravitating towards the promotion of various soft skills over and above traditional skills/knowledge (Bialystok, 2018). Hence, these days, focus in all progressive institutions is no longer on the mechanical side, but on the human side of the graduate. Besides celebrating the graduation of an individual from college as a teacher, medical doctor, or engineer, the question now is; ‘How human is the individual?’ This is exactly why scholars and policymakers from all walks of life have grappled with issues relating to the question of ethics, where Hunhu/Ubuntu has become a universal issue, with broad-based implications on Technology Education (Bialystok, 2018).

12.4 Place of Indigenous Technology in Sustainable Development In Zimbabwean, like in much of Africa, indigenity and technology have always co-existed in everyday life. From early history, these two have been packaged within the following spheres, among others: education (informal), agriculture, medicine, religion, food production/processing, military (defence), art/crafts, entertainment, and business. Atte (1989) has witnessed this in situations where typical cases have included grain storage techniques in various African countries. The growth/development of technological capabilities within these spheres has had several implications on the issue of sustainable development within various communities.

12 Locating Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education …

189

Blowers et al. (2012) pose the question; ‘Is sustainable development sustainable?’ Clearly, this question challenges us to rethink the essence of sustainable development. There appear to be two linked concerns. One is the concern for maintaining, if not improving, conditions for living. This is expressed in terms of meeting needs and aspirations, looking after the planet, and providing a better quality of life among other motives. The other is a concern for bequeathing an acceptable inheritance to future generations. This comes in such terms as, not compromising the future, handing on in good order, and refraining from burdening future generations (Blowers et al., 2012). However, lately, there have been allegations of sustainable development becoming diverted from its central purposes and instead, being appropriated to describe and justify approaches, far more concerned with the demands/needs of the present than those of the future. We can examine this proposition by looking at three dimensions of sustainable development—the economic, the environmental, and the political (Blowers et al., 2012). It is here, that indigenous technology could have lessons for modern technology. For example, going unchecked in most cases, modern technology has been destructive to the environment, while the former has always been known to be environmentally friendly/compatible.

12.5 Link Between Indigenisation and Economic Development Over the years, a lot of effort has been made to localise/indigenise various sectors in Zimbabwe among which, Education and Industry have been the most prominent, in one way or another, impacting the national economy. For example, even the policy document at the core of this chapter (Curriculum Framework/Blueprint 2015–2022) has been a result of such efforts. In 2013, the Government adopted the Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-Economic Transformation (ZimAsset), a policy document that directly impacted the system with the greatest magnitude weighing upon the economy (Government of Zimbabwe, 2013). In this case, indigenising the economy meant adjustments to the related technology in order to localise conditions in various respects. Logically, even imported technology needed to suit local conditions in one way or another, for the sake of sustainability. Today, technology has progressed by leaps and bounds in all fields and countries around the world are building models of sustainable growth. In most cases, such models have been based on the assumption that technology can help countries to create new/alternate sources for the resources that are depleting (Heeks & Stanforth, 2015). The other idea is that science helps us to find ways of using the remaining resources in efficient ways. In the past, science and technology have been used to create short-term end-ofpipe remedies to problems; for example, focusing on cleaning up the environment and controlling pollution (Heeks & Stanforth, 2015). This method, however, failed to address the real causes of problems. Later, the focus shifted to developing ‘clean

190

P. Kwaira

technologies’, aimed at producing and creating products that are less harmful to the environment (Heeks & Stanforth, 2015). In all this, it appears that economic development/growth depends on how well the means of production (the technology involved in any context) is adjusted to suit local conditions. Most countries are now using science and technology to find answers to achieving a sustainable future and to solve the environmental problems they are facing (Heeks & Stanforth, 2015).

12.6 Place of Technology in Economic Development In any society, one of the aims of technology is economic development (Baynes, 2006). At least for Zimbabwe, this is what it has meant. If one talks about tool-making, ‘Tool making-making for what?’ It has to be ‘Tool-making for problem-solving within the context of socio-economic empowerment and development’ (Government of Zimbabwe, 2013). The same could be said about the whole of Africa. Historically, Africans have been known to have created their own forms of indigenous technologies, using scientific knowledge, passed on from generation to generation through various forms of informal education. Such technological knowledge featured within the context of socio-economic activities, calling for the application of various traditional skills/techniques in arts, crafts, black-smithing, iron-smelting, carding, weaving, and brewing, among others, summing up indigenous technology in Africa. Today, such a background shows, economic activities in Africa rooted in that rich history. Clearly, this also helps to show technology (traditional or modern), remaining vital in the economic activities of any country.

12.7 Place of Cultural Diversity (Inclusive Culture) in Sustainable Development The fact that today Zimbabwe has developed into a successful multi-racial society is a clear testimony of the impact of globalisation. This has come coupled with the challenge/need to promote cultural diversity and inclusivity within the population, especially through the constitution, for the sake of sustainable development (Government of Zimbabwe, 2015). Taking from the constitution of the land, Curriculum Framework 2015–2022 has also been designed to promote the same values and virtues. So far, it appears the level of cultural diversity/inclusivity witnessed in the country has been an advantage, regarding technological development/advancement in several sectors. Logically, such diversity also appears to have come with a lot of cross-pollination of ideas in the field technology, resulting in the progress so far

12 Locating Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education …

191

witnessed towards modernity. According to Tharakan (2017), the more cultural diversity/inclusivity we have in any community/society, the more inclusive and broader are the perspectives, regarding the application of technology in problem-solving, resulting in sustainable development.

12.8 Application of Indigenous Technology in Today’s Contexts In this chapter, the belief that ‘indigenous technology belongs to the old, traditional and outdated skills that are dead and gone’ is highly challenged. This is mainly because one sees our history helps us to understand our present in order to chat the way forward into our future. It is also through the same contention that one sees indigenous technology in any context being the foundation upon which whatever we consider to be modern technology has been founded. Linking ‘Cultural Heritage to Modern Technology’ in a concept note calling for papers to H-Net-Humanities & Social Sciences Online, Manikowska (2019) implies this position. Given the global challenges that we have today, the curriculum has become a dynamic process, characterised by rapid and erratic changes. Every time there are politico-socio-economic changes/developments around the world, curricula in all institutions are affected and there is always a need to update them if society’s needs are to be effectively addressed. Alvior (2015) illustrates this contention by highlighting the example of an ancient community that equipped its children with knowledge and skills to fish and hunt for food. Widely referred to as the ‘sabre-tooth curriculum’, this was a curriculum for survival, mainly anchored on informal mechanisms and approaches, where knowledge and skill were passed on from generation to generation. Unfortunately, when the fish and sabre-toothed tigers went extinct, the community also perished! However, with the advent of modernity, ways of life changed for the better, resulting in education shifting from so much emphasis on the informal, to the formal. Alvior (2015) sees formal education founded upon the following pillars: Philosophy (purpose of school), History (historical underpinnings of curriculum), Psychology (teaching/learning processes, founded upon Behaviourism, Cognitivism and Humanism), and Sociology (mutual relationship between society and curriculum). A close examination of these pillars shows the elements of truth and authenticity cutting across the whole concept of curriculum. Once a curriculum has been declared purposeful/useful, its authenticity is assured. Under the aims of education, valid knowledge is underpinned by the universal element of truth (Alvior, 2015). Reference to the curriculum as a culmination of purposeful, progressive, and systematic planning resulting in a product designed to create positive improvements in society, implies a lot of Hunhu/Ubuntu. This is why most discussions on educational aims are guided by questions such as: What is the purpose of education? What is

192

P. Kwaira

the purpose of teaching and learning? What is the relationship between education and teaching/learning? Who determines the aims/goals of education in a given context? These questions suggest a search for authenticity, founded upon Hunhu/Ubuntu. While we can debate and differ as to the purpose(s) of education, not many of us will dispute the fact that education is purposeful. According to Ornstein and Hunkins (2004: 268), curricula are created with specific intentions, based on the vested interests of those concerned. Enacted for a reason, education becomes an intentional activity, designed to equip learners with specific knowledge, understandings, skills, and attitudes, hoping to have them gain a receptivity to participate meaningfully in world affairs (Cornbleth, 1990 in Kwaira, 2014). In times of rapid change such as we have today, in practically every country, society expects schools to help citizens adjust accordingly. This is why in Curriculum in Context, Cornbleth (1990, in Kwaira, 2014) sees curriculum construction as an ongoing social activity influenced by many factors within and beyond the classroom. In a related discussion, Oxford (1997, in Kwaira, 2014) refers to the concept of social constructivism, where development is guided by social events and trends. This is where aims reflect the value-laden judgements guiding educational processes, and as educators, we are always challenged to interpret the aims of education in relation to society (Kyriacou, 1994). In Zimbabwe, this explains our current situation, where the Curriculum Framework 2015–2022 has all the technical skills reinforced by soft skills linked to the area of Chivanhu/Hunhu/Ubuntu.

12.9 Research Design and Methodology Typical of Developmental Research (DR), the study upon which this chapter is rooted was mainly based on activities centred on literature review, where various documents were studied and analysed. This exercise was in two phases, where the first informed the study, regarding pertinent issues relating to Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education (ITKSE) and the second was a content analysis of Curriculum Framework 2015–2022. Effectively, ITKSE emerged as an international cross-cutting thematic issue underpinning debate on various platforms today, where Sustainable Development is under discussion. Specifically focusing on all 105 syllabi comprising Curriculum Framework 2015– 2022, a detailed analysis helped to locate all places where the issue of ITKSE was implied or insinuated. This is where all data pointing to the results and findings of the study were obtained with the aid of a tailor-made checklist, designed to capture specific aspects of interest in relation to ITKSE.

12 Locating Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education …

193

12.10 Findings Having been collected in line with the four sub-questions outlined, all data were analysed qualitatively, culminating in the findings being presented under sub-topics 12.10.1–12.10.4.

12.10.1 Possible Locations for ‘ITKSE’ Within Curriculum Framework 2015–2022 These were drawn from the three main levels of the curriculum document with the aid of a specially crafted checklist as shown in Table 12.1. All the areas found either directly or indirectly implying/suggesting anything to do with or relating to ITKSE were found to be so, mainly because of the equipment and the nature of activities involved. Column 2 shows all the syllabi drawn from the specified levels while Column 3 focuses on those areas directly/strongly implying aspects of ITKSE. In practice, typical examples would be cases where specific pieces of equipment/technology would be used in problem-solving.

12.10.2 Identified Aspects of ITKSE Featuring Within Curriculum Framework 2015–2022 In Table 12.2, analysis of the various syllabi helped to show the form/nature of manifestation of the identified aspects of ITKSE at various levels. Across the four levels in Table 12.2, the forms in which aspects of ITKSE featured were determined within the context of the related equipment, activities, teaching/learning approaches, and the resultant goods/services.

12.10.3 Nature of Relationship Between Aspects of ITKSE and Various Subject Areas Within Curriculum Framework 2015–2022 Interestingly, various aspects of ITKSE featured prominently across Curriculum Framework 2015–2022, like a thread holding a garment together. This turned out to be very much in agreement with the view that ‘ITKSE interweaves intricately with human culture in various contexts!’ With the relationship between technology and culture being cyclical in nature, one sees the sense behind Ben Davis’ argument, seeing technology influencing everyday life with a strong grip on culture and vice versa (Davis, 2021). Document analysis of the curriculum clearly showed that

Visual-Performing Arts Physical Education, Sports, and Mass Displays Family, Religion and Moral Education Mathematics Science and Technology Agriculture Indigenous Languages English Info-Communication Technology Heritage–Social Studies Foreign languages Life Skills Orientation Programme

Mathematics Physics Physical Education, Sports, and Mass Displays Sociology Heritage Studies Family and Religious Studies Economics Theatre Arts

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

Junior (grades 1–7)

Secondary forms 1–4 (ordinary level)

Visual-Performing Arts Physical Education Mass Displays Mathematics and Science Family-Heritage Studies Info-Communication Technology English Indigenous Languages

2. Learning areas (syllabi)

. . . . . . . .

1. Level

Infant (ECD ‘A’ & ‘B’)

Table 12.1 Locating ITKSE at various levels within Curriculum Framework 2015–2022

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

(continued)

Mathematics Physics Physical Education, Sports, and Mass Displays Heritage Studies Economics Theatre Arts Wood Technology and Design Computer Science

Visual-Performing Arts Physical Education, Sports, and Mass Displays Mathematics Science and Technology Agriculture Indigenous Languages English Information-Communication Technology Heritage–Social Studies Foreign languages Life Skills Orientation Programme

Visual-Performing Arts Mathematics and Science Family-Heritage Studies Info-Communication Technology English Indigenous Languages

3. Possible locations for ‘ITKSE’ (syllabi) . . . . . .

194 P. Kwaira

1. Level

Table 12.1 (continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(continued)

Building Technology and Design Food Technology and Design Textile Technology and Design Statistics Combined Science Commerce Art Musical Arts Technical Graphics and Design Principles of Accounting Agriculture Business-Enterprise skills Geography English Chemistry Literature in English Literature in Zimbabwean Indigenous Languages Commercial Studies Metal Technology and Design Home Management and Design Foreign Languages Indigenous Languages Design Technology Life Skills

3. Possible locations for ‘ITKSE’ (syllabi)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Wood Technology and Design Computer Science Building Technology and Design Food Technology and Design Textile Technology and Design Statistics Combined Science Commerce Art Guidance and Counselling Musical Arts Technical Graphics and Design Principles of Accounting Agriculture Business-Enterprise skills Geography English Chemistry Literature in English Literature in Zimbabwean Indigenous Languages Commercial Studies Economic History Metal Technology and Design Biology Dance Home Management and Design

2. Learning areas (syllabi)

12 Locating Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education … 195

Secondary forms 5–6 (advanced level)

1. Level

Table 12.1 (continued)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

Film Crop Science Agricultural Engineering Technical Graphics and Design Sports Management Family and Religious Education Dance Textiles technology and Design Food Technology and design Sports Science and Technology Statistics Software Engineering Physics Chemistry Biology Guidance and Counselling Literature in English Pure Mathematics Art Metal Technology and Design Indigenous languages

History Foreign Languages Pure Mathematics Mathematics Indigenous Languages Design Technology Life Skills Orientation Programme

2. Learning areas (syllabi)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Film Crop Science Agricultural Engineering Technical Graphics and Design Sports Management Textiles technology and Design Food Technology and design Sports Science and Technology Statistics Software Engineering Physics Chemistry Art Metal Technology and Design Indigenous languages Animal science Home Management and Design Communication skills Music Economics Business Studies

3. Possible locations for ‘ITKSE’ (syllabi)

(continued)

196 P. Kwaira

1. Level

Table 12.1 (continued) . . . . . . . . . . . .

Wood Technology and Design Theatre Arts Physical Education, Sports, and Mass Displays Computer Science Building Technology and Design Foreign Languages Horticulture Business Enterprise Sports Management History Geography Life Skills Orientation Programme

3. Possible locations for ‘ITKSE’ (syllabi)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Animal science Home Management and Design Communication skills Music Sociology Economic History Economics Business Studies Wood Technology and Design Mechanical Mathematics Theatre Arts Accounting Physical Education, Sports, and Mass Displays Computer Science Design and Technology Building Technology and Design Foreign Languages Literature in Zimbabwean Indigenous Languages Horticulture Business Enterprise Additional Mathematics Sports Management History Geography Life Skills Orientation Programme

2. Learning areas (syllabi)

12 Locating Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education … 197

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

Junior (grades 1–7)

Secondary forms 1–4 (ordinary level)

Additional Mathematics Physics Physical Education, Sports, and Mass Displays Heritage Studies Economics Theatre Arts Wood Technology and Design Computer Science Building Technology and Design Food Technology and Design

Visual-Performing Arts Physical Education, Sports, and Mass Displays Mathematics Science and Technology Agriculture Indigenous Languages English Information and Communication Technology Heritage–Social Studies Foreign languages Life Skills Orientation Programme

(continued)

The dialogue between learners and teachers deepens in problem-solving activities, where they actually come up with basic solutions to problems. Although they remain active users of technology developed by others, there is a potential for the development of customised technology/equipment through modification and innovation

Mainly based on the equipment used and the activities engaged in by teacher and learner. At elementary levels, learners engage in various problem-solving activities

Mainly based on the equipment used and the activities engaged in by teacher and learner

. . . . . .

Infant (ECD ‘A’ & ‘B’)

Visual and Performing Arts Mathematics and Science Family-Heritage Studies Information and Communication Technology English Language Indigenous Languages

3. Form in which identified aspects feature under given locations

2. Identified locations for ‘ITKSE’

1. Level

Table 12.2 Manifestation of various aspects of ITKSE at given locations

198 P. Kwaira

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Film Crop Science Agricultural Engineering Technical Graphics and Design Sports Management

Textile Technology and Design Statistics Combined Science Commerce Art Musical Arts Technical Graphics-Design Principles of Accounting Agriculture Business-Enterprise skills Geography English Chemistry Literature in English Literature in Zimbabwean Indigenous Languages . Commercial Studies Metal Technology and Design Home Management and Design Foreign Languages Indigenous Languages Design Technology Life Skills Orientation Programme

2. Identified locations for ‘ITKSE’

Secondary forms 5–6 (advanced level) . . . . .

1. Level

Table 12.2 (continued)

(continued)

Although collaboration between teachers and learners continues, the latter begin to take the upper-hand in problem-solving resulting in the production of more goods and services at various levels

3. Form in which identified aspects feature under given locations

12 Locating Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education … 199

1. Level

Table 12.2 (continued)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Textiles technology and Design Food Technology and design Sports Science-Technology Statistics Software Engineering Physics Chemistry Art Metal Technology and Design Indigenous languages Animal science Home Management and Design Communication skills Music Economics Business Studies Wood Technology and Design Theatre Arts Physical Education, Sports, and Mass Displays Computer Science Building Technology and Design Foreign Languages Horticulture Business Enterprise Sports Management History Geography Life Skills Orientation Programme

2. Identified locations for ‘ITKSE’

3. Form in which identified aspects feature under given locations

200 P. Kwaira

12 Locating Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education …

201

this was mainly the case in subjects closely relating to the concept of Design and Technology (D&T), where typical examples included: • • • • • • • • • • •

Agricultural Engineering Technical Graphics & Design Textiles technology & Design Food Technology & Design Sports Science & Technology Software Engineering Art & Design Metal Technology & Design Home Management & Design Wood Technology & Design, and Building Technology & Design.

In all these areas, one sees ITKSE strengthened by the associated teaching/learning methods outlined in the relevant syllabi, firmly founded upon the fundamental principles of D&T in problem-solving. Typical of those methods have included discussion, project work, group work, experimentation, demonstration, educational tours, resource persons, observation, team teaching, and exhibitions.

12.10.4 Pedagogical Ideas and Recommendations for Teaching Practice These ideas/suggestions were identified and generated from a detailed literature search and analysis of specific cases. Typical scenarios from other systems across Africa and beyond were closely studied. Particular cases in point were those from West Africa, where Manabete (2014) has been focusing on ‘Indigenous Technology for Sustainable Development’, suggesting several ways of seeing it into the curriculum. With ITKSE now being part of the Zimbabwean curriculum, like in several other African countries, one sees this chapter qualifying as an ideal platform to generate and share relevant pedagogical ideas among educationists. For example, teachers and teacher educators could work towards the development of appropriate skills, regarding how to promote learning by incorporating the principles behind this philosophy in their teaching. The intention is also to help teachers appreciate the importance of incorporating aspects of ITKSE in the implementation of Curriculum Framework 2015–2022, where even the approaches have been designed to qualify it among curricula of the twenty-first century. Closely related to D&T, ITKSE involves a lot of problem-solving activities as reflected in the spectrum of teaching/learning methods. This is where one sees a lot of implications on teaching practice, starting with the nature of relationship between

202

P. Kwaira

the teacher and the learner. For example, findings from literature, particularly Freire (1985, 1990) and Moore (1982) showed a revolutionary shift in this relationship. In practice, ITKSE allows for dialogue between teacher and learner in a situation where they share equal responsibility in seeing the process succeeding, especially when packaged within the context of D&T. Instead of the teacher featuring as the main actor, he/she is only there to facilitate the process. For example, where learners need assistance in carrying out given tasks/procedures, the teacher simply demonstrates before asking and inviting learners to join him/her in performing the procedures. By engaging in observation and discussion, the teacher and the learner can learn from each other, as equal partners.

12.11 Discussion and Implications The results/findings of the study behind this chapter showed ITKSE broadly featuring in several locations throughout Curriculum Framework 2015–2022. The idea of revisiting the curriculum and re-designing it into what has become the revised curriculum appears to have been motivated by the spirit of Hunhuism/Ubuntuism, aiming at making it relevant/useful to Zimbabwe. Now given this situation, one wonders; ‘What then is the way forward for Zimbabwe, regarding the implementation of ITKSE?’ It is one act to design/develop a curriculum, and another to implement it! This is where teacher education comes in. According to Moore (1982, in Kwaira, 2007), teaching is an activity in which one consciously accepts responsibility for the learning of another. For meaningful learning, the same individual gets committed to the value judgement of the relevant content. On responsibility and value judgement, Moore (1982) considers teaching to be an intentional matter, where one promotes learning that he/she is able to assess. Logically, this implies the same individual being honest/sincere in his/her dealings as a professional, thereby suggesting the ethical side of the teaching profession. According to Moore (1982), this is only possible where one is convinced that what he/she passes on is worthwhile. This brings in the element of ‘TRUTH’; philosophically, the underlying basis for all knowledge considered worthwhile/useful (Moore, 1982). By implication, nothing is worthwhile without being true. This appears to be the main reason why curricula in any context need to be evaluated, with a view to determining their relevance and validity. Truth, in relation to the value judgement of an activity impacting society, is one of the underlying principles of Hunhu/Ubuntu (Kwaira, 2007). As already noted, teaching and learning bring the teacher and the learner together in an intentional interactive process, where educationists are challenged to articulate their intentions and keep checking on whether they are realistic. Relating the teacher and the learner also means considering their levels of participation, as equal partners in the business of teaching/learning. Brown and Atkins (1988) elaborate on this relationship by placing various teaching/learning strategies on a continuum, comprising

12 Locating Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education …

203

two extremes, i.e. lecture method in which learner contribution is minimal and private study, where there is little control by the teacher. In ITKSE, the ideal is to strike a balance, where teacher and learner learn from each other, with the former mainly facilitating the process. Since, according to Cravens (2003), human culture and technology are continually co-evolving in a dynamic relationship, it is perhaps important for us as practitioners to remain flexible and open-minded. All technologies develop in a particular cultural context as a result of changing needs or constraints. However, once developed, technology changes the culture that gave birth to it (Cravens, 2003). When a technology spreads to another culture, the cultural context determines the speed or way in which the technology is adopted and how it is used. The diffusion of technologies into other cultures changes those cultures in various ways (Cravens, 2003). All this seems to suggest that, changes in culture that one technology creates may then influence the development of another or different technology.

12.12 Conclusions and Recommendations for Further Investigation As implementation of Curriculum Framework 2015–2022 continues in our schools, the need for continuous research and evaluation is going to be critical in order for the curriculum to remain valid. It is, therefore, this scenario that is likely to continue challenging us to keep Teacher Education abreast of events within the context of continuous change, in relation to ITKSE and related factors. In this chapter, where the task has been to locate the place of ITKSE in the Zimbabwean curriculum, there are several issues deserving special and serious understanding by teachers. It is this kind of orientation that teachers need to acquire during their training. Since ITKSE has always been part of human culture in this country, like in the rest of the world, it is important for teachers to be assisted in gaining a reasonably high level of appreciation of this concept, which has actually become a topical issue globally; somehow impacting upon international relations. On the one hand, there are those who see the concept as conflicting with globalisation and capitalism; alleging that the economic system dehumanises people, judging them through wealth. The same camp sees the concept of fighting against powerful forces, keeping people poor and dehumanised. For them, ITKSE is an everyday struggle, reacting and responding to the dehumanising world of individualism, selfishness, materialism, and isolation. The camp on the other hand believes globalisation could work in favour of humanity, taking pan-Africanism into consideration in our context. Regarding the role of ITKSE in promoting sustainable development in Zimbabwe, several parts of this chapter seem to suggest such an outcome being only possible, where the philosophy is infused into all curriculum activities and processes. The idea of promoting this philosophy within the curriculum is likely to help cultivate the spirit of patriotism, where our upcoming generation has the potential to

204

P. Kwaira

develop a sense of belonging, self-identity, self-respect, dignity, unity, responsibility, and achievement. It is this kind of orientation that would enable us as a nation to deal with all our problems effectively by drawing on the humanistic values that we are expected to inherit, cherish, and perpetuate from our history, with the present taking us into the future. Indeed, going through Curriculum Framework 2015–2022, this is exactly what it appears to be standing for. The challenge is then to have all teachers, in training and in-service assisted accordingly, in order to be cultured into such an orientation. To do this, the idea is to recommend the development of a system characterised by programmes founded upon two fundamental principles/perspectives: Teacher/Learner Relationship, being the Crucible for Nurturing Development/Growth and the Curriculum, being a Co-creation between Teacher and Student. Focusing on the teacher/learner relationship, one sees consciousness of the teacher being an essential component in implementing ITKSE within Curriculum Framework 2015–2022. To the extent that teachers are preoccupied with personal issues/problems, there is likely to be an inability to genuinely attend to the needs and potential of their students. Teachers, therefore, need time and resources to cultivate their consciousness. Educational settings would then need to allow opportunities for teachers to establish empathetic relationships with learners. On the other hand, the curriculum as a co-creation between teacher and learner is learner-centred and dynamic, unfolding in accordance with the interests and capacities of learners, where opportunities for growth present themselves in the flow of daily life. Of special concern is the nurturing of a balanced development of the body, feelings, will, and intellect.

References Alvior, M. G. (2015, January 9). Four major foundations of curriculum and their importance in education. Simply Educate Me. http://simplyeducate.me/2015/01/09/4-major-foundations-ofcurriculum-and-their-importance-in-education/ Atte, D. O. (1989, February 21–24). Indigenous local knowledge as a key to local-level development: Possibilities, constraints, and planning issues in the context of Africa. Seminar on reviving local self-reliance: Challenges for rural/regional development in Eastern and Southern Africa, United Nations Centre for Regional Development and Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Africa, Tanzania. Baynes, K. (2006). Design education: What’s the point? Design and Technology Education: International Journal, 11(3), 7–10. Bialystok, L. (2018). Authenticity in education: Curriculum and pedagogy, educational purposes and ideals, educational theories and philosophies, education and society. Oxford University Press. Blowers, A., Boersema, J., & Martin, A. (2012, February 28). Is sustainable development sustainable? Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences, 9(1), 1–8. Brown, G., & Atkins, M. (1988). Effective teaching in higher education. Routledge. Cravens, A. (2003). The dynamic relationship between technology and culture. Environmental Studies, Swarthmore College, USA.

12 Locating Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education …

205

Davis, B. (2021). What is the relationship between technology and culture? Mvorganizing.org. https://www.mvo.mvorganizing.org/ Freire, P. (1985). The politics of education, culture, Power and liberation. Bergin and Garvey. Freire, P. (1990). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum. Kwaira, P. (2007). Effect of a material science course on the perceptions and understanding of teachers in Zimbabwe regarding content and instructional practice in design and technology. University of the Western Cape. Kwaira, P. (2014, July). Prospects for technical education contributing towards the development of early childhood education/development in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe Journal of Educational Research, 26(1), 267–280. Kyriacou, C. (1994). Effective teaching in schools. Simon & Schuster Education. Government of Zimbabwe. (2013). Zimbabwe agenda for sustainable socio-economic Zimbabwe Agenda for sustainable socio-economic transformation (ZimAsset). ‘Towards an Empowered Society and a Growing Economy’ October 2013–December 2018. Government Printers, Harare. Government of Zimbabwe. (2015a). Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education Synopsis; Zimbabwe Education Blueprint 2015–2022—Curriculum Framework for Primary and Secondary Education. Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, Causeway, Harare. Government of Zimbabwe. (2015b). The design and technology syllabus. Ministry of Primary and Secondary. Curriculum Development and Services, Mount Pleasant, Harare. Heeks, R., & Stanforth, C. (2015). Technological change in developing countries: Opening the black box of process using actor–network theory. Development Studies Research, 2(1), 33–50. Manabete, S. S. (2014). Indigenous technology for sustainable development in West Africa. Journal of Education and Practice, 5(37). Manikowska, E. (2019, November 25). Cultural heritage and technology. H-Net-Humanities & Social Sciences Online. http://www.ejournals.eu/SAACLR/menu/521 Moore, T. W. (1982). Philosophy of education—An introduction. Routledge and Kegan Paul. Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (2004). Curriculum foundations, principles, and issues. Allyn and Bacon. Tharakan, J. (2017, September 6). Indigenous knowledge systems for appropriate technology development, indigenous people, Purushothaman Venkatesan. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/ intechopen.69889. https://www.intechopen.com/ Zimbabwe Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education. (2015). Curriculum framework for primary and secondary education 2015–2022. www.mopse.gov.zw/wp-content/uploads/2017/ 03/Zim-curriculum-Framework-4-PSE-2015-22_FINAL-A4.pdf

Chapter 13

Decolonization of Indian Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems Education: Linking Past to Present Kaul and Bharadwaj

Abstract Throughout human history, mankind has harnessed knowledge and experience for ease and improvement. People have sought to leverage abstract concepts of various sciences, including mathematics. Technology is the practical application of sciences, and both are intrinsically intertwined. Like many other prominent civilizations, the Indic civilization also witnessed the application of sciences in the form of indigenous technology. Centuries of colonization has resulted in restricted awareness about India’s indigenous science and technology education systems, both within and outside India. The educational policy implemented by the colonizers was inherently biased against the native traditions and knowledge. As a result of the socioeconomic and political realities of that period, Indian Education did not mainstream Indian indigenous technical knowledge systems. As a result, the latent potential of the traditional technical knowledge systems remains untapped. After independence, the Indian educational framework excluded traditional indigenous knowledge systems. As a result, their continuity and evolution through required pedagogy and integrated curriculum were not prioritized. The National Mission for Manuscripts (NAMAMI), set up in 2003, has listed 3.5 million manuscripts out of the estimated 40 million in India. Two-thirds of these are in Sanskrit and 95% are yet to be translated (Chauhan, 2018). As a result, India is still at the tip of its ancient knowledge iceberg for a large part of ancient literature was in Sanskrit. India needs a strategic plan with focused interventions to establish science and technology as a continuation of the legacy of the past, instead of an import from the West. The establishment of The Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems Division in the Ministry of Education at All India Council for Technical Education in October 2020 is a welcome step in this direction (Indian Knowledge Systems, n.d.).

The authors have tried to use an approximate meaning in English for non-translatable Sanskrit words, wherever possible. Kaul (B) INDICA Courses, INDIC Academy (INDICA), Hyderabad, India e-mail: [email protected] Bharadwaj INDIC Academy (INDICA), Hyderabad, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_13

207

208

Kaul and Bharadwaj

Keywords Indian mathematics · Ayurveda · Inoculation · Rhinoplasty · Indian knowledge systems

13.1 Introduction India has had a rich tradition of knowledge and learning in multiple fields. An objective evaluation of the discoveries by Indian mathematicians, medical practitioners, astronomers, chemists, polymaths, and other researchers, reveals their substantial contribution across various fields of knowledge, including science and technology (Carpue, 1816; Dharampal, 2021; Jain, 2011/2016). The Eurocentric education system continued in independent India resulted in limited awareness and acceptance of pre-colonial India’s contribution to science and technology because it presents it as being inferior to the West, despite ample evidence of numerous aspects of science reflecting in various native traditions and rituals (Joseph, 1997). This chapter traces the evolution of Indian knowledge systems. It elucidates the strides made by ancient India in the fields of Mathematics and Medicine. It also captures the adverse impact of colonization on the indigenous education system and makes few recommendations for the way forward.

13.2 Indigenous Education in India The roots of indigenous knowledge lay in the ancient system of Gurukula (later p¯at.ha´sa¯ l¯a) which initially operated on an individual level, with the father or any elder relative imparting ved¯angas (auxiliaries to the Vedas) to the son. Writing was not used in Vedic India. Education centered around the correct pronunciation (uccharana) to ensure and enable the efficacy of rituals. This concept soon transformed into a system of teaching, apart from linguistics, that focused on the oral transmission of knowledge from the Guru (teacher) to the pupils. The venue of instruction progressed to the Ashram of the Guru with the students looking up to the Guru and his spouse as de facto parents. It later led to the concept of p¯at.ha´sa¯ l¯a where the Guru was the center of the universe.

13 Decolonization of Indian Indigenous Technological Knowledge …

209

Knowledge was offered through fourteen streams of learning, caturda´savidyasth¯ana, and included both sacred and secular texts, comprising of: • four vedas namely the Rig veda, the Yajur veda, the S¯ama veda, and the Atharva veda; • six ved¯angas such as s´iks.a¯ (phonetics), vy¯akaran.a (grammar), chandas (meter), nirukta (etymology), jyotis.a (astronomy, astrology, and prediction), and kalpa (ceremonial or religious practice); and • four up¯angas which included the pur¯an.a (stories with Vedic wisdom), ny¯aya, m¯ım¯am . s¯a, and smr.ti (dharma´sa¯ stra portion of the vedas). The ved¯angas and the up¯an˙ gas included almost all branches of knowledge. The means of arriving at knowledge or truth as established in the indigenous system were called the Pram¯an¸ a. These included pratyaks.a (perception), anum¯ana (inference), upam¯ana (comparison and analogy), arth¯apatti (postulation, derivation from observation of circumstances), anupalabdhi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof), and s´abda (word, statement of past or present reliable experts). The primary objective of Indigenous Education, as distinct from the subsequent colonial and post-colonial models, was to pass on knowledge, inculcate social and religious duties, and build character in the students to impart them with qualities and skills that would facilitate their growth into responsible citizens and conduct their lives in accordance with Dharma (Majumdar, 2013). Paris.ads connected to Brahmin settlements emerged as a center for learning (Keay, 1918) and later grew up into universities and knowledge centers such as Takshashila, Benaras, Nadia, Nalanda, Vikramashila, Valabhi, Sharada Peeth, among others. Impetus for a Centralized University was given in the Vedic age. It was widely held that correct speech was practiced in the northern (udichya) areas of Bharat (India). This led to a centralized movement of students across the Vedic India into the north and led to the formation of Takshashila University, now in Pakistan. Its importance in the pre-Buddhist age is amply demonstrated by its multiple references in the Jataka Buddhist literature. This was followed by universities like Nalanda, in the present-day Bihar in India. Other important centers of learning included the Jayendra monastery in Kashmir, Chinapati monastery in Punjab, and temple colleges in the south such as Salotgi, Ennayiram, Tirumukkudal, Tiruvorriyur, and Malkapuram (Nagaswami, 2017). The highly venerated Vedantist scholar seer Jagat Guru Adi Shankaracharya, born in the eighth century, established seats of learning called Mathas which, in addition to being religious centers, conducted a study of Sanskrit, logic, and Advaita Vedanta. Premodern India was home to many renowned universities of that period. These established universities attracted students from all over India and countries in Southeast Asia and the far east. They were renowned for their quality. The seal of Nalanda awarded to students was held in high regard even in far-off Japan. Scholars from China traveled to India in the quest for knowledge and (Buddhist) manuscripts. Many of them maintained accounts of their visit and translated a few important texts. Some prominent names are Fahien, Sung Yun, Yuan Chwang, I Sting, Hye Cho, Il Yon (Jain, 2011/2016).

210

Kaul and Bharadwaj

Many of these educational institutions were the largest of their time and boasted libraries that contained texts on various streams of knowledge. Nalanda, contrary to commonly held perception, not only taught Buddhist scriptures but also the Vedas, grammar, medicine, and culinary art, among other subjects. At the beginning of the thirteenth century, Islamic invader Bakhtiyar Khilji after killing many occupants, little realizing its value, had this eminent seat of learning razed to the ground, causing an irreparable loss to human civilization. The impact of colonial and post-colonial education systems and curricula can be gauged from the fact that till recently the nearest train junction to Nalanda was called Bakhtiyarpur, named after Bakhtiyar Khilji. The closest analogy would be having to cross a town called Hitler on the way to Auschwitz!

13.3 Indigenous Science and Technology Education of India The unstinted focus of education in ancient India was the afterlife. Attainment of Moksha was considered the finest among the four Purusharthas or the Hindu goals of life. Education could be divided into religious or ritual-related and vocational. The former was restricted to three varn.as of Brahmin, Kshatriya, and Vaishya (incorrectly interpreted as “upper caste” in Western translations) while the latter was open to all. Science, or for that matter, most of the STEM education fields, emerged from religious education itself to meet the requirements of rituals and not necessarily to explore and solve isolated material queries. It may surprise today’s learners that geometry emerged from the Brahmins’ need to conduct Yagnas perfectly or the (incorrectly attributed to) Fibonacci series rose from Sanskrit prosody! (Staal, 1982). Indian STEM formulations used to be put forth in the form of pithy sutras (meaning threads) or rules (Flood, 2003). Be it the grammarian Panini, mathematician Aryabhata, or the polymath Abhinavagupta, they all composed sutras for their formulations. These sutras, composed as verses, enabled better memorization, and passing on, in the absence of writing. Indian scholars were not only familiar with sciences such as Mathematics (fields such as Geometry, Trigonometry, Algebra, Number Series) but also made lasting contributions to the foundation on which modern technology rests. Indian society was well exposed to medicine or Ayurveda (Life sciences), and this was not limited to research. The earliest scholars and practitioners of this field established comprehensive frameworks thousands of years ago. Those tenets govern various aspects of Indian life to this day through practices that are treated as mere rituals, insinuating a lack of scientific foundation. Indians consume many elements of Ayurveda daily, without recognizing or appreciating it as a sophisticated, indigenous stream of science that has been benefiting mankind for centuries. This chapter will use a few examples from Mathematics and Medicine to highlight key issues that have precluded Indigenous Science and Technology Education of India from rising at par with what is considered Modern Science and Technology Education. Modern Indian Education does not take a conscious native approach. In India, due to the colonial influence, these streams have been disconnected from

13 Decolonization of Indian Indigenous Technological Knowledge …

211

traditional indigenous knowledge and are taught largely as “received from the West”, non-native fields of education. It does not matter how these concepts came to be a part of native knowledge systems, to incorrectly represent these as imported sciences play an important role on the learners’ psyche and their ability to identify, understand, and assimilate the knowledge.

13.3.1 Indian Mathematics Arabs called mathematics hindsat, the Indian Art (Lorenzano et al., 2010). Ancient Hindus used special signs for each number without a place-value notation (Struik, 1987). This was unknown in other parts of the world. Islamic scholar ibn Musa alKhwarizmi translated several Sanskrit texts into Arabic. Some of these were translated into Latin. One such translation Algorithmi de Numero Indorum describes Hindu numerals. Though he never claimed the numbers to be Arabic, the world seems to believe that the prevalent system of numeration is Arabic in origin. The renowned scholar Nicolo Fibonacci in his book Liber Abaci (Sigler, 2003) makes a categoric mention of the system of enumeration that he learned from Indians. And yet it is not etched into the global consciousness as an Indian contribution nor has India made any active efforts to address this lack of awareness. The oldest weighing scales of the world have been discovered in the Indus Valley Civilization at Mohenjodaro. Indians were the first to use the binary system of weights and measures. This has been highlighted by archaeological excavations that have unearthed an efficient system that was probably used by traders (Kenoyer, 2010). Islamic scholar Al Beruni has also recorded that Indians had a sophisticated system of weights and measures (M. Jain, 2011/2016). Vedic scholars were familiar with Mensuration. This is evident from Yagna Shulba Sutras, used to build Vedic altars to exact specifications. Arithmetic was also well known. The sheer number of texts that include mathematical concepts highlights that Mathematics was an important component of Indian indigenous education. This is not common knowledge in the country due to the lack of a connection between ancient knowledge and what is contemporary. The polymath Varahamihira gave the Pancasiddhantika in the sixth century C.E. This includes the Surya Siddhanta, a text on astronomy and time keeping. It calculated the diameter of the earth and moon to a reasonably accurate level. It also included trigonometric functions. Xuanzang, who lived in India for fourteen years after arriving here in 629 B.C.E mentioned native people using the lunar calendar and measuring time, with kshana being the shortest portion of time (M. Jain, 2011/2016). This word is still a part of spoken and written language. A fifteenth-century record also mentions Indians dividing the year into twelve months, which they named after the signs of the zodiac (Major, 1857). Aryabhata’s measurement of the distance between the earth and the sun remained the most accurate measure until the nineteenth century. His Aryabhatiya contained an idea that resembled the heliocentric model theory. Varahamihira talked about the

212

Kaul and Bharadwaj

earth and the sky being held together through gravity. Decimal-based numeration, without which not much could have been achieved in sciences, was known to the ancient Indians. They considered irrational roots as numbers that contributed a lot to algebra and were familiar with (what is called) the Pythagorean theorem, calculation of square roots and the value of Pi (Boyer & Merzbach, 2011). A team of researchers from the universities of Manchester and Exeter has established that scholars and mathematicians from the “Kerala school”, of fourteenthcentury India, identified the “infinite series” somewhere around the year 1350. Dr. George Gheverghese Joseph, a member of the research team, through his book, has highlighted that scholars from the Kerala School, notably Madhava and Nilakantha, deserve due recognition for discovering the infinite series—the other great component of calculus (Joseph, 2011). In the absence of writing, knowledge was conveyed orally. Texts were composed in meters to enable memorization and facilitate the transmission thereof. Pingala was the composer of Pingala sutra or chanda´sa¯ stra (prosody text). His work described the binary numeral system through the systematic enumeration of meters with fixed patterns of short and long syllables (binomial theorem). It also included material related to what is now referred to as the Fibonacci numbers. This was in the second century BCE (Indian Liberty Report, 2019). Unconcerned and apathetic toward its own indigenous science and technology education systems, India never sought to campaign for Pingala’s name to be associated with it. Manjul Bhargava, a Canadian American of Indian origin, won the Fields Medal in 2014. His reference to Pingala at the time got the media to write about the scholar (Klarreich, 2014). The ancient Indians made extensive use of mathematics to enhance their lives. The Harappans made bricks in the ratio of 4:2:1—a practice that was carried forth by Indian Architects until the twentieth century. This is the optimal ratio for making bricks for the Indian environment. Bricks that exceed this proportion are bound to develop inner gaps and break and smaller bricks smaller would create gaps and inherent weakness in the wall (Khan, 2013). Temples and monuments were constructed in accordance with Vastu Shastra which has been of the Indian tradition beginning with the Vedic times. It involved, among other aspects, the repetition of style and structures as a practical application of spatial geometry. The symmetry and mirror-like, identical structures that one finds in various ancient and medieval Indian Temple complexes are a testimony to their knowledge and application of geometry. Temples like the Kandariya Mahadev in Khajuraho and Virupaksha temple in Hampi demonstrate the extensive application of geometry even to the casual visitor (Rian et al., 2006).

13.3.2 Indian Medical Science and Technology Ayurveda, a holistic life science, made its appearance in India thousands of years ago. Sushruta, who lived about the fifth or fourth century B.C. and wrote Sushruta Samhita, is considered the Father of Surgery. Charaka, born later, is recognized as one

13 Decolonization of Indian Indigenous Technological Knowledge …

213

of the greatest scholars in the field. The Indian approach to health and wellness was governed by Br.hat-Tray¯ı, the great triad of (native) medicine, comprised of Charaka Samhita by Charaka, Sushruta Samhita by Sushruta, and Ashtanga Hridayam Samhita by V¯agbhat.a. A plethora of ancient knowledge contained in many earlier collections have disappeared over the ages; some of it was preserved through these texts attributed to Sushruta, Charaka, Bhela. The native physicians were called Vaidyas. Men of great knowledge, wisdom, and practice were trained in the science of Ayurveda, which is still practiced in India. However, it has not been mainstreamed in health care. It receives backlash from the practitioners of Western medicine, from time to time, who seem to consider allopathy (Western medicine) superior (Express News Service, 2010). Despite the documented evidence of Western medical science borrowing heavily from Indian indigenous medical science and of Ayurveda positively influencing human lives across the globe, there is a marked lack of acceptance and respect for this ancient native discipline. In addition to documentation of surgery in Shalya Chikitsa, there are various British accounts of Rhinoplasty (nasal surgery). This surgery used to be successfully conducted by Kumhars, the skilled native practitioners from the potters or brickmakers caste (Carpue, 1816). Since Western Indologists label them as “low caste”, it is intriguing that the accounts have not caused any revaluation of their interpretation of Hindu social organization. Inoculation, the centuries-old medical practice of India (Dharampal, 2021), was introduced in Britain in the eighteenth century (Boylston, 2012; Bird, 2018). Indian Brahmins would go around precisely inoculating the masses against Smallpox (Dharampal, 2021). When first recommended in Britain, many medical professionals and theologians vehemently opposed it. This was before Dr. Edward Jenner created a vaccine for smallpox. In 1802–1803, the effective native practice of inoculation was banned and replaced with vaccination discovered in Europe. How the native population suffered as a result, would be an interesting case study in destructive colonialism and human rights violations. After the outbreak of the COVID-19, many countries issued guidelines on personal hygiene. There is a renewed focus on a wellness-centered lifestyle to address the ramifications of the pandemic. The ancient science of Ayurveda mentions Dinacharya (daily routine) and Ritucharya Western (seasonal routine) which prescribe lifestyle measures to stay healthy and in harmony. Indologists mistakenly interpret Hindu traditions of swachhata and shaucha (cleanliness and hygiene) merely as “purity”. Thanks to the prevalent education system, not many Indians would trace these traditions to the Ayurvedic concept of Dinacharya that offers an excellent daily routine for mental and physical wellness. The use of local spices, the prohibition against few foods, seasonal produce, and herbal remedies for ailments, when examined carefully reveal unconscious, unaware conformance to Ayurveda. Yijing has documented the concept of impure and pure food in India and goes on to say that in his native country China, the distinction of pure and impure food has never been recognized from ancient times (Dharampal, 2021). It is quite unfortunate that in the last 74 years of India’s independence, there has been no continuous organized effort to create an integrated education system

214

Kaul and Bharadwaj

for medicine that would build on the technology pioneered by the native systems— an approach where modern medicine appreciates and advances the knowledge of Ayurveda. In today’s world, more and more people are seeking wellness that leads to a mind–body-spirit alignment. An integrated native educational system, based on the rich and strong foundation of Ayurveda, would create a field of study opening new vistas in holistic life science, capable of enriching one’s mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual health, and leading to a cascading positive impact.

13.4 Colonial Education in India with Reference to Macaulay Wood Impact The charter Act of 1813 put the East India Company in charge of native education. Despite having a budget of one lakh rupees, there was not much progress for almost a decade due to a lack of a clear direction. The General Committee of Public Instruction, formed in 1823 to accelerate the effective spending of the budget, comprised of Warren Hastings, William Jones, Lord Minto, HH Wilson, Mr. Sullivan, Charles Metcalfe, Wilberforce, Reverend Alexander Duff, Thomas Babington Macaulay, Philip Francis, and C. E. Trevelyan, was divided. One group among them, the Orientalists, advocated that education should continue to be imparted to the natives in Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian. They were opposed by the Anglicists who wanted to encourage Western education for the natives with English as the medium of instruction. On the 2nd of February 1835, Macaulay, the chair, sent a minute to the then Governor-General of India, William Bentick, threatening to resign from his post if his recommendations were not implemented. Bentick concurred and, through that one decision, altered the course of Indian Education. What unraveled thereafter, reduced an erudite civilization, responsible for many of the founding principles of science and technology, to a “superstitious”, “lacking the scientific spirit”, “illiterate”, “barbarian” people who required to be “rescued from” the “darkness of ignorance” by the White man who was so valiantly offering to bear that burden. Macaulay had no knowledge of Sanskrit, the language of indigenous science and technology, or the language of important scientific texts. Even when the Arabic translations thereof had thrown light on many subjects in the West, he dismissed it as worthless. He called the native religion false, claimed that it was filled with monstrous superstitions, and said that indigenous education was full of false history, false astronomy, and false medicine. He believed that the implementation of the British code of law in India would subsume native traditions and Western education would help them educate the rising generation as thoroughly good English scholars dissociated from native learning and culture. In his view, the natives could not be educated in their mother tongue and thus had to be educated in English, the preeminent among the languages of the West and the language of commerce throughout the seas of the East, a language that bridged the various arms of the empire. According

13 Decolonization of Indian Indigenous Technological Knowledge …

215

to Macaulay, the British nation with high intellectual attainments was undertaking to superintend the education of a nation comparatively ignorant, to form: a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern, a class of persons Indian in blood and colour, but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect. To that class we may leave it to refine the vernacular dialects of the country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed from the Western nomenclature, and to render them by degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge to the great mass of the population. (Sharp, 1920)

In 1854, Sir Charles Wood, President of the Board of Control, sent a dispatch to Lord Dalhousie, the then Governor-General of India, suggesting measures that further cemented what Macaulay had set out to achieve. He recommended English to be the medium of education at the college level to enhance the moral character of Indians and serve as trustworthy civil servants of the East India Company. Subsequently, an education department was set up in every province and the East India Company established Universities in Calcutta, Bombay. Madras, Punjab, and Allahabad. Macaulay’s minute displays a deep-seated abhorrence of native language, education, and wisdom. His actions created a servile, talent pool that would perpetuate the British rule in India. It is not hard to fathom why he would recommend the complete removal of patronage to native education. It effectively killed the native systems. This chapter focuses on the impact of the second wave of colonization from Great Britain. The impact of the earlier wave would need another chapter. Some people could argue that Macaulay did not go about destroying local centers of learning like the preceding invaders of the past. If indigenous education were a Beautiful Tree, there are myriad ways in which it could be razed to the ground. Axing is one, denying it water and nourishment is another, and declaring it as poisonous and rewarding people for destroying it is yet another. Indians took to Western Education because it held the key to a changed financial position and access to power. Native education could not guarantee an income; English education could ensure employment as a Munshi, at the least. The sociopolitical realities of the colonized people made them aspire for and embrace English education. This human necessity was interpreted and portrayed as native education bereft of merit, irrelevant, and regressive with no connection with science and technology. Bentick sealed the fate of all indigenous knowledge systems, including STEM, and the adverse impact persists. Post-colonial educational system did not utilize or build on the traditional system through modernization of pedagogy and content. Later, despite Indians overseeing education policy, in both pre-colonial or post-colonial India, the education policy was not India centric, or India-inspired. In the year 2017, an Indian magazine published an article entitled “A minute to acknowledge the day when India was ‘educated’” by Macaulay (India Today Webdesk, 2018). The tone of the post reflects the continued influence and impact of all-round colonization of the natives. In his address at Chatham House in London on the 20th of October 1931, Mahatma Gandhi expressed his desire to implement the schooling system of the past which existed before the colonization of the country. Yet, when India was partitioned in

216

Kaul and Bharadwaj

1947, a Western model of governance and policies, not necessarily aligned with the ethos of the land, was adopted. This meant the transfer of power from the colonizers to a group that included colonized natives. The first Prime Minister of India advocated the “adoption of a scientific temper” which seemed to insinuate that science and scientific temper were alien to India needing adoption (from the West). Remember, this is the longest, extant human civilization that discovered mensuration and trigonometry to perform Yajnas in conformance with sacred traditions, created the infinite number series through prosody, and built canals, rock-cut temples, astronomical observatories, and other technological marvels that have survived centuries. Independent India ignored that its renowned educational institutions attracted talent from various countries, long before modern global institutes of repute, such as Oxford, Cambridge, and Harvard, were conceived. It won’t be a hyperbole to state that colonial education policy brought about the derailment of Indian indigenous knowledge systems and traditions, which continued unabated as no concrete steps were taken to undo this sentiment after the British left. The subsequent education system did not formally reacquaint Indians with their heritage in science, technology, and other knowledge streams and facilitating a transformation in their perception and perspective. Many Indians view their past, including history, through the outsider’s gaze, continuously judging themselves against the Western yardstick. The deeply ingrained inferiority and self-doubt, as to their contribution and potential, persisted for a long time. The civilization that respects all life forms, worships animals, trees, and rivers, subconsciously imbibed and idealized the Western anthropocentric worldview and state of being. There has been a subconscious tussle between the civilizational memory and heritage of Indians and what they have been programmed to aspire toward, namely the Western material parameters of success which essentially invalidate the basic tenets of Hindu thought and learning. In many western circles, the earlier colonial attitude towards India continues to prevail. An example is the New York Times depiction of India’s successful launch of Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter). The head of the Indian Space Research Organization is an overtly devout polytheist believer. The mission team included saree-clad, bindisporting, women scientists. The cartoon published by New York Times had a racist depiction of India (BBC NEWS, 2014). The cost of the project at just 74 million US Dollars was less than the budget of the Hollywood movie Gravity, a testimony to Indian innovation and ingenuity (Amos, 2014). Many Indians too seem to have internalized that native traditions and science cannot go hand in hand, when in fact most of them lead their lives according to the principles of Ayurveda! According to Indologist Friedrich Schlegel (Scharfe, 2002): If you want to see religion you should travel to India, the complicated social structure has fascinated others, the arts and literature and Indian achievements in grammar and medicine or mathematics may appear as the crowning glory of India - and yet they all depend on education in the widest sense, on the handing down from one generation to the next of the

13 Decolonization of Indian Indigenous Technological Knowledge …

217

cultural heritage of previous generations, including any innovations they may have made. A study of education then will investigate not only an attempted cloning of the last generation but also selective tradition and shifting emphases, i.e., it will feel the pulse in the life of Indian culture. Education is thus the mother that gives birth and nurtures all other branches of culture.

An unfortunate implication of the continuation of the colonial model of education is that it kept disrupting and breaking down continuity incessantly, to such an extent that the supposedly longest extant civilization is, in many respects, no longer unbroken. India has had an inherent tradition of indigenous technological knowledge systems (ITKSE). It is evident that the pursuit of knowledge began as an exploration beyond the material and into the metaphysical realm. The focus of education used to be on training, raising, and transforming students into cultured, empathetic, responsible individuals who could live in harmony and mutual respect with fellow human beings. Indian knowledge and, consequently, way of being was not anthropomorphic. Belief in transmigration and karma ensured a multi-level, multidimensional pursuit of evolution. The insightful fact that rituals and traditions led to the establishment of myriad streams of science and technology is neither well known nor well understood. The nearly negligible awareness of the Indian knowledge systems, and their contribution to science and technology, is quite evident in present-day India. Padmashri Ashok Jhunjhunwala is a Professor at IIT Madras. He has a B.Tech. in Electrical Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, MS and PhD from the University of Maine. The long list of his accomplishments and awards is quite inspiring (Professor Ashok Jhunjhunwala, n.d.). When a barely educated carpenter, engaged to build his bookshelf, beat him at a simple calculation, using the native method, the highly acclaimed and awarded scientist implored the latter to teach him the calculation technique that helped him to calculate with such accuracy and speed. The carpenter introduced Mr. Jhunjhunwala to a technique that he had never been taught. Intrigued by this discovery, he researched traditional mathematical techniques and went on to pen a book of his own on Indian Mathematics (Jhunjhunwala, 1993/2001).

13.5 Conclusion Ancient, pre-colonial literature on various subjects comes interlaced with the beliefs of the writers. We tend to allude to those as myths. However, that does not diminish the scientific or technological utility of pre-colonial texts. This needs to be recognized so that the colonial tendency of referring to native beliefs as barbarian or obsolete is avoided and the relevant technological inputs gleaned. Our ancestors were not stupid. Just because their beliefs vary from the contemporary times does not diminish the value of their technological knowledge systems or discoveries. This chapter has skimmed the surface of two fields of Indian indigenous technological knowledge systems. Indian indigenous knowledge includes multiple streams such

218

Kaul and Bharadwaj

as ship building, architecture, metallurgy, town planning, wood carving, textiles, pottery, agricultural tools, and a whole lot more. Although there has been a change in the recent years, these knowledge systems have not been mainstreamed after India’s independence. India’s Education Policymakers and implementers must comprehend the importance of inculcating awareness, acceptance, and pride in native science and technology achievements and learning so that STEM is not viewed as a Western import but acknowledged as an integral part of the longest extant civilization. The establishment of Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) under the Ministry of Education at All India Council for Technical Education in October 2020 is a much-needed step in that direction, as is the Board for Promotion of Vedic Education (Central government to set up board for promotion of Vedic education, 2022). This could well pave the way for the mainstream acceptance of Indian indigenous technological knowledge systems in India. A meticulously designed program, sensitive to last mile implementation, can bridge the void between indigenous and modern education over a period. When a billion Indians own their native education and wisdom, things will change. Indigenous education and native spirit were responsible for India becoming one of the richest nations of the world before the two waves of colonization (Maddison, 2001). Western education was essentially foisted to create pliable clerks uprooted from indigenous traditions. India needs a renewed perspective of ownership of indigenous science and technology education systems. There must be focus on translating Sanskrit texts and making the knowledge mainstream. An engaging curriculum that establishes the antiquity of our sciences and encourages native innovation is the need of the hour.

References Amos, J. (2014, September 24). Why India’s Mars mission is so cheap—And thrilling. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-29341850 BBC NEWS. (2014, October 6). India Mars mission: New York Times apologises for cartoon. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-29502062 Bird, A. (2018). James Jurin and the avoidance of bias in collecting and assessing evidence on the effects of variolation. The James Lind Library. https://www.jameslindlibrary.org/articles/jamesjurin-and-the-avoidance-of-bias-in-collecting-and-assessing-evidence-on-the-effects-of-variol ation/ Boyer, C. B., & Merzbach, U. C. (2011). A history of mathematics (3rd ed.). Wiley. Boylston, A. (2012). The origins of inoculation. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 105(7), 309–313. https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.2012.12k044 Carpue, J. C. (1816). An account of two successful operations for restoring a lost nose from the integuments of the forehead in the cases of two officers of His Majesty’s Army; to which are prefixed historical and physiological remarks on the Nasal operation; including descriptions of the Indian and Italian methods / [J.C. Carpue]. Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown. https://wellcomecollection.org/works/bywk8uhq

13 Decolonization of Indian Indigenous Technological Knowledge …

219

Central government to set up board for promotion of Vedic education. (2022, May 15). www.indiatvnews.com. https://www.indiatvnews.com/news/india/central-government-toset-up-board-for-promotion-of-vedic-education-latest-education-news-updates-dharmendrapradhan-pm-modi-2022-05-15-776731 Chauhan, K. (2018, December 27). Sanskrit manuscripts rotting, should be translated: Debroy. Tribune India. https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/himachal/sanskrit-manuscripts-rot ting-should-be-translated-debroy-704931 Dharampal. (2021). Indian science and technology in the eighteenth century: Some contemporary European accounts. Rashtrotthana Sahitya. Express News Service. (2010, October 2). Allopathy: Ayurveda docs take on MCI. The Indian Express. https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/allopathy-ayurveda-docs-take-on-mci/ Flood, G. D. (2003). The Blackwell companion to Hinduism. Blackwell. India Today Webdesk. (2018, February 2). A minute to acknowledge the day when India was “educated” by Macaulay. India Today. https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-currentaffairs/story/a-minute-to-acknowledge-the-day-when-india-was-educated-by-macaulay-116 0140-2018-02-02 Indian Liberty Report. (2019, November 24). True Indology on the Indian origins of the Fibonacci sequence. Indian Liberty Report. https://indianlibertyreport.com/true-indology-on-the-indianorigins-of-the-fibonacci-sequence/ Indian Knowledge Systems. (n.d.). https://Iksindia.org/Index.php Jain, M. (2016). The India they saw (Vol. II). Ocean Books. (Original work published 2011). Jain, S. (2016). The India they saw (Vol. I). Ocean Books. (Original work published 2011). Jhunjhunwala, A. (2001). Indian mathematics—An introduction. New Age International. (Original work published 1993). Joseph, G. G. (1997). Ethnomathematics: Challenging eurocentrism in mathematics education (M. Frankenstein & A. B. Powell, Eds.). State University of New York Press. Joseph, G. G. (2011). The crest of the peacock: Non-European roots of mathematics (3rd ed.). Princeton University Press. Keay, F. E. (1918). Ancient Indian education, an inquiry into its origin, development, and ideals, by the Rev. F.E. Keay .... Oxford University Press. Kenoyer, J. M. (2010). The archaeology of measurement—Comprehending heaven, earth and time in ancient societies (I. Morley & C. Renfrew, Eds.). Cambridge University Press. Khan, A. (2013). Bricks and urbanism in the Indus valley rise and decline. https://www.researchg ate.net/publication/235784941_Bricks_and_urbanism_in_the_Indus_Valley_rise_and_decline Klarreich, E. (2014, August 12). The musical, magical number theorist. Quanta Magazine. https:// www.quantamagazine.org/videos/manjul-bhargava-the-musical-magical-number-theorist/ Lorenzano, P., Rheinberger, H. J., Ortiz, E., & Galles, C. D. (Eds.). (2010). History and philosophy of science and technology (Vol. IV). EOLSS Publications. Maddison, A. (2001). The world economy: A millennial perspective. Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/eco nomics/the-world-economy_9789264189980-en#page1 Major, R. H. (1857). India in the fifteenth century: Being a collection of narratives of voyages to India in the century preceding the Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope. Printed for The Hakluyt Society. https://rarebooksocietyofindia.org/book_archive/196174216674_101538 06947676675.pdf Majumdar, R. C. (2013). Ancient India (8th ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. Nagaswami, R. (2017). Tamil Nadu—The land of the Vedas. Tamil Arts Academy. Professor Ashok Jhunjhunwala. (n.d.). Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT Madras. https:// www.ee.iitm.ac.in/ashok/ Rian, I. M., Park, J.-H., Ahn, H. U., & Chang, D. (2006, July 21). Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho. https://www.academia.edu/7482254/Fractal_geometry_as_the_synthesis_of_Hindu_cos mology_in_Kandariya_Mahadev_temple_Khajuraho

220

Kaul and Bharadwaj

Scharfe, H. (2002). Education in ancient India. Brill. Sharp, H. (1920). Bureau of Education. Selections from Educational Records Part I 1781–1839. Internet Archive. Superintendent, Government Printing. https://archive.org/details/SelectionsFr omEducationalRecordsPartI1781-1839 Sigler, L. E. (2003). Fibonacci’s Liber Abaci: A translation into modern English of Leonardo Pisano’s book of calculation. Springer. Staal, F. (1982). The science of ritual. Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. https://ia802908. us.archive.org/13/items/scienceofritualfritsstaalmlbd_391_Q/Science-of-Ritual%20Frits%20S taal%20MLBD.pdf Struik, D. J. (1987). A concise history of mathematics. Dover Publications Inc.

Chapter 14

Examining the Technological Divide Between Africa and the Western World: A Case of South Africa Joseph N. C. Mnguni and Tomé A. Mapotse

Abstract This chapter examines the technological divide between Africa and the rest of the world, as well as efforts to bridge it for the benefit of South African development. Integrating African indigenous knowledge systems technology into the Western world can help to motivate and support efforts to increase technological literacy in South Africa. The chapter seeks transformative change by combining the processes of action research (AR), which are linked by critical reflection on African and Western technologies. This has resulted in an underestimation of other technological advancements. Besides identifying Africa’s indigenous knowledge system, Western and African development reform programmes, including those in South Africa, should always be fine-tuned, designed, and implemented. The Centre in Indigenous Knowledge Systems (CIKS), the collaboration and coordination of five South African higher education institutions, will serve as the foundation for IKS in African contexts, allowing for a more precise understanding of technology education concerns. Keywords Western world · Action research · African indigenous knowledge system · Technologies

14.1 Introduction In South Africa, we should find success in bridging the technological education gap between Africa and the Western World on global realities (Auriacombe & Van der Walt, 2021). We live in a polyepistemic world where skill, knowledge, attitude, and value (SKAV) systems complement rather than compete with one another. SKAVs from South Africa has the potential to serve as the foundation for Indigenous J. N. C. Mnguni (B) · T. A. Mapotse University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] T. A. Mapotse e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_14

221

222

J. N. C. Mnguni and T. A. Mapotse

Knowledge Systems (IKS) in African settings, allowing a better understanding of technological challenges (Boivin & Crowther, 2021). South Africa and Africa can now take part in the global knowledge economy on their own terms, thanks to IKS, CIKS, and AR attempts. On a national and international scale, AR will orchestrate multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary platforms for the exchange of IKS through and under the guidelines of CIKS. In Mapotse’s (2018) problem-posing and problemsolving method, there are four distinct enterprises: planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. These four major enterprises generate a cycle of research endeavours. Taking part in ARs is to assist or support policymakers in improving educational initiatives, such as incorporating IKS into the curriculum in South Africa. AR practices will influence policymakers on how both African IKS and Western technology education should integrate the two worldviews (Mapotse, 2018). According to the findings of the chapter on the technological divide between the Western World and Africa, technology literacy in both the Western World and Africa, particularly South Africa, causes the integration of both world technology contexts.

14.2 Western Systematic Oppression and Exploitation of Africans for Colonial Gain Africa is an excellent destination to invest in natural resources (Leonard & Musavengane, 2022). Colonialism made African colonies reliant on establishing a monocultural economy (Nkwocha, 2008; von Albertini, 1980). As a result, African workers and merchants were dehumanised. Colonialism forcibly removed Africans from their homes and forced them to work for poor wages on colonial plantations. Instead of providing much-needed development, the proceeds from their extraction have financed state corruption, environmental devastation, poverty, and bloodshed. In the early years of Western progress, Africa was more than just a source of raw materials or natural resources. During this time, many Western powers established colonies in Africa to exploit and export the continent’s resources. This section will describe how explorers and missionaries during the Age of Discovery, as well as imperialists from the seventeenth century to the early late 1800s, spread Western cultures to parts of Africa (Makhubela et al., 2018; Parker & Rathbone, 2013). Africa was more than just a driving force in the early expansion of Western civilisation. During this period, many Western countries established colonies in Africa in order to exploit and sell the continent’s resources. Economic, political, and religious factors fuelled African colonisation. The Westerners were perplexed by the existence of Muslim Swahili commerce (Kusimba et al., 2018), so they imposed the three Cs: Commerce, Christianity, and Civilisation (Houle, 2017; Loimeier & Seesemann, 2006). The Western countries were experiencing an economic downturn during this era of colonialism, with powerful countries such as Germany, France, and the United Kingdom losing money. Africa appeared to be safe, with such a plentiful supply of raw minerals from which the West could profit. Westerners could easily

14 Examining the Technological Divide Between Africa and the Western …

223

get resources such as oil, ivory, rubber, palm oil, wool, cotton, and gum because of the cheap manual labour of Africans. With the rise of the Industrial Revolution, these products became increasingly important. The colonisers established a system of ownership and global exploitation of Africa, and the Africans created a valuable, if not indispensable, resource. Africans’ sale of raw materials aided the development of three continents’ economies: South America, North America, and Europe, while products containing large amounts of cheap African slave labour have grown in popularity. Africans had to pay rent because they owned, bought, and gained the land. In terms of African IKS, this meant that Africans instead grew plants and herbs. They coerced Africans into growing plants and herbs in order to sell them, resulting in large trade enterprises and economic benefits for colonial powers. Missionaries focused on the vast working class with the goal of imparting spiritual salvation to the workers and their families. They made the Bible available to the workers. Introducing various Western religions such as Christianity, Judaism, and Islam changed the challenges for worship for the Africans (Adamo, 2011). Because of their success, they established missions all over Africa. Even though missionaries were not direct agents of Western imperialism, their presence drew Western governments deeper into Africa. As a result, missionary education not only reinforced colonialism but also served as a tool for Westerners to erode African cultural values. Its primary aim was to convert “heathens” to Christianity and teach them how to read the Bible (Adamo, 2011). Missionaries fought to keep the status quo and the master-servant relationship between Africans and Westerners intact. They introduced and promoted the use of foreign products such as clothing and tea, undermining the subsistence economy’s precious self-sufficiency. As a result, it increasingly enticed Africans to take part in the market economy. To clarify, the challenges to African politics in African ontology, authority, and power belong to the entire community, just like vital forces, and individuals or groups or ethnic groups have authority. The challenges of Westernism’s educational technology and technological education, combined with advanced technology, reduced the frequency of African local technological development and oral tradition. The most significant challenges were, of course, technology and pedagogy compared to Africans, which allowed Westerners to govern Africa. By the nineteenth century, Western gun technology had advanced substantially, particularly with the development of the Maxim machine gun, which enabled Westerners to kill many Africans in battle after battle. Foreign culture, particularly Western culture, heavily influenced African development. In African societies, knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes were mostly passed down from generation to generation through word of mouth. African education is transmitted from generation to generation through language, music, dance, oral tradition, proverbs, myths, stories, culture, religion, and elders. Foreign culture, particularly Western culture, has had a significant impact on African development as the Western consumerist lifestyle and patterns of Communication barriers have arisen because of their use of a language other than their ancestral cultural language (Ramadikela et al., 2020). During this period, they promoted Western TE content at the expense of the African IKS context (Gumbo, 2017).

224

J. N. C. Mnguni and T. A. Mapotse

14.3 South African IKS Can Adapt to Accommodate Western Technology Education in a Variety of Human Enterprises and Demands Policymakers should change school curricula to help ensure that Africans’ IKS are fully market-ready for when they leave school. Horsthemke (2021) agrees that rather than artificially including clinical and sterile indigenous examples in TE, policymakers should focus on the shared tenets of African and Western IKS from an ontological, epistemological, methodological, and attitudinal standpoint. We should restructure the South African curriculum to emphasise the acquisition of African IKS by policymakers. In reviewing the South Africa TE curriculum, the policymakers should also foster entrepreneurial and self-employment skills through three key channels: early business training and African IKS upgrades, increased promotion of science, technology, engineering, entrepreneurship, and mathematics, and lastly vocational and on-the-job training. According to Mawere (2014), reviving the use of IKS will boost technological advancement. The integration and effectiveness of African IKS can adapt to accommodate Western technology in a variety of human enterprises and needs, ranging from agriculture and food to health and the environment. South African schools did not have a curriculum called TE prior to implementing Curriculum 2005. Specially trained teachers, appropriate equipment, and physical facilities should support TE (Gumbo, 2017). Most South African teachers are still grappling with the interpretation and implementation of TE in schools, just as they are with the interpretations of soft and hard sciences (Mapotse, 2015; Mnguni, 2013). Integrating the natural and social sciences provides a more complete picture of the meaning and evolution of TE in relation to identified academic controversies and agreements. The major study areas of the discipline are biology (life sciences), chemistry, and physics, but study fields such as biochemistry and geophysics are also considered natural sciences (Siddique & Adeli, 2016). Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, comprehension, and prediction of natural phenomena based on empirical evidence got through observation and experimentation. According to social science theorists, technological terms such as crafts, painting, sketching, arts, drawing, designs, and architecture originated from social science perspectives (Coeckelbergh, 2018). Sociology, political science, anthropology, social psychology, and economics are disciplines that are much more closely related to the social sciences (Dogan & Pahre, 2019). People learn how to interact with the social world through social sciences, such as how to influence policy, build networks, increase government accountability, and promote democracy. The four core content areas of TE required to create a data-driven education system are increased flexibility, evidence-based learning, school efficiency, and continuous innovation (DBE, 2011, pp. 10–11). These four core content areas form the basis of the four strands that must be completed each year in each grade. In the senior phase, the learner should take part in projects that integrate processing, structures, and systems as much as possible, and exercise as much control as possible (Grades

14 Examining the Technological Divide Between Africa and the Western …

225

7–9) (DBE, 2011, p. 11). Paying particular attention to a slew of letters and comments in TE debates (Kauppi & Drerup, 2021), TE literature imported from other countries, particularly Western context, falls short of the objectives of integrating African IKS (Mapotse, 2018). IKS technology in Africa continues to play an important role in the long-term livelihoods of much of the continent’s population. Because of a lack of organised incentives, Western technology contexts, and African IKS technology practitioners and holders, incentive mechanisms should be devised or created as a cornerstone of marketing African IKS technologies, such as traditional medicine and traditional agriculture, which are significant economic activities in Africa, particularly in South Africa. We have shown African IKS technologies in agriculture to be environmentally friendly, resilient, and long-term viable agricultural manufacturing techniques. These activities are typically pragmatic responses to local conditions and logical risk adjustments (Boivin & Crowther, 2021). The section that follows narrows the technological divide to a technological context that is integrated. This section will look at some of the African IKS technologies that have been destroyed, as well as how Western laws and approaches have been critical tools in dispossession and persecution (Parker & Rathbone, 2013).

14.4 Western and African IKS Are Debated Within the Context of South African Curricula The Western derived content of TE in South Africa, in particular, remains too academic and disconnected from the developmental challenges confronting African IKS and local communities. While African scholars have said much about the humiliation of various African TE, they do to date less to examine the technological divide between African and Western technology. African TE researchers have attempted to provide their own clear explanation of the notion of SKAV based on Africa’s own history of ideas and intellectual growth, which is a criticism levelled at this interpretation of what comprises African TE IKS. This could not provide a sound theoretical and conceptual foundation for African IKS’s philosophical development. This section of the chapter will look at how the South African technology curriculum has been heavily influenced by Western contexts, to where South African communities and learners are alienated from the subject. It stressed the contrast between theory and practice in Western TE and research, with South African curricula prioritising theoretical knowledge at the expense of community interaction. Despite massive social upheavals caused by Western contexts’ transformative forces beyond their control, holders and practitioners of African IKS have maintained their distinct worldviews and related IKS in relation to the environment (Birhane, 2020). In contrast to Western contexts, which advocate for a reductionist, discipline-specific approach to cultural and ecological sustainability (Mahabeer, 2020), African IKS advocates for a holistic

226

J. N. C. Mnguni and T. A. Mapotse

approach to cultural and ecological sustainability (Mahabeer, 2020), which will be discussed in the following section. African IKS combines local community technology with social, economic, and philosophical learning based on spiritual skills, practices, and ways of living. African IKS covers a wide range of fields that require practical SKAVs, including farming, law, psychology, and mathematics. The African IKS drive for quality and relevance supports a new paradigm in SKAV production, innovation, and sharing by breaking down barriers between academia, industry, business, government, and local communities through collaboration with African IKS holders and practitioners. As we seek a more pleasurable and sustainable way to live on this planet, the depth of African IKS systems anchored in long-term inhabitation of an environment provides lessons that can benefit everyone, from colonists to young African IKS technologists. African IKS contexts’ curriculum research and development aim to promote inclusive, relevant, and high-quality education that merges African IKS ontologies, epistemologies, axiologies, and research methodologies (Gumbo & Msila, 2017). When Westerns first encountered West Africa in the 1500s, they discovered a civilisation that was far from “traditional” or primitive (Handler, 2009). African IKS had strong urban cultures, exceptional metalworking, hydrological, music, and art abilities, agricultural expertise, particularly in rice production, and vast spiritual diversity that the Western world had yet to witness. African IKS technologies are passed down orally from generation to generation and are based on decades of experimentation (Birhane, 2020). They have identified African IKS technologies as a key catalyst for sustainable development because of their direct relationship with resource management and conservation. The culture of African IKS people distinguishes them from other human societies in the human family. Anthropology is the discipline that studies African IKS culture in all its complexities and breadth since it analyses Africans and investigates their traits and relationships with their environments and resources to adapt to Westerners. Africanisation is the process or medium by which African beliefs, ideologies, cultures, and values are identified, comprehended, and nurtured (Horsthemke, 2017; Msila & Gumbo, 2016). As a result, terms such as African indigenisation, local indigenisation, traditional education, home-grown education, Africology, Afrocentricity, and educational decolonisation are common in African scholarly discourse, all with the goal of preserving African indigenous identity (Msila & Gumbo, 2016). International non-governmental organisations recently reached this conclusion, including the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation, the United Nations, and the World Bank, which developed criteria and specific methods for incorporating African IKS thought and customs into development planning (Kaya & Seleti, 2014). As stated in the following section, Africans, particularly South Africans, should begin receiving professional development in integrating Western and African IKS technologies through the use of AR.

14 Examining the Technological Divide Between Africa and the Western …

227

14.5 Action Research to Bridge the Technological Divide Between Africa and the Western World Collaboration among participants and members of both global views, and CISK members, is one of the most significant components of Mapotse’s (2018). According to Mapotse (2018), the social world, as well as scholars and studies, is constantly evolving. Mapotse’s (2018) approach is essentially a social self-reflective approach used by participants and collaborators from both perspectives to improve the rationality and fairness of their own behaviours, as well as their awareness of these practices and the circumstances under which they occur. This interpretation of the AR model is popular because it places the model squarely in the hands of practitioners—we link it to self-reflection. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (SDGs) provides a once-in-ageneration opportunity to address these issues and ensure that the people of African IKS are not forgotten (Kjaerulf et al., 2016). The CIKS was developed as a strategic tool for social transformation by advancing a paradigm shift in knowledge production, use, sharing, and the reduction of the gap between learning and living in the educational process. North-West University (NWU), the University of South Africa (UNISA), the University of Venda (UNIVEN), and the University of Limpopo are all affiliated with the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN), which serves as the CIKS hub and secretariat University of Limpopo (UL) (Magni, 2017). CIKS is one method of interpreting and implementing the SDG’s inherent ability to encompass the vast majority of African IKS aspects and principles (Kaya & Chinsamy, 2018). Community-based knowledge and innovation systems are critical to implementing the White Paper’s policy intentions for achieving the SDGs, and CIKS members’ research advances them. This is since IKS is culturally and community-based, which increases its relevance in South Africa and the broader SDGs. Mapotse’s (2018) technique for teacher improvement can now apply to a broader and more analytical task of integrating African and Western technologies. It has the potential to bridge the theoretical and practical divides, resulting in a revitalised TE. Allowing African IKS and Western TE analysis to break free from the conceptual constraints imposed by Western knowledge dominance in South Africa for schooling, study, or disciplines allows for interdisciplinary cross-fertilisation of African IKS and Western TE analysis (Gumbo, 2017). Mapotse’s (2018) strategy and priority can help to stimulate and improve this process through participant empowerment, collaboration through participation, knowledge acquisition, and social change by integrating the two worldviews, as well as provide a way to investigate the consequences of combining the two worldviews. It progresses from the first focus on CIKS, African IKS, and Western holders and practitioners to a final phase of school community activity. This AR allows for long-term review and impact assessment at various stages of the integrated enterprise. As a result, we consider the policy document for integrated two worldviews an independent variable, while the impact is considered a dependent variable.

228

J. N. C. Mnguni and T. A. Mapotse

The five institutions can use Mapotse’s (2018) model to communicate the challenges and successes of integrating the two worldviews into South African policymakers. Recognising the complementary potentialities of the partner institutions is a critical component of the AR partnership process. Since 2001, the NWU has been at the forefront of African IKS curriculum development; the UL and UNIVEN have a diverse bio-diversity that includes traditional medicine and African IKS-based rural communities; and UKZN and UNISA have identified African IKS as a tool for transformation in their core business of research, teaching, learning, and community engagement. Mapotse’s (2018) and action research (AR) will be used interchangeably throughout the chapter. The two worldviews and CIKS institutions should work together through a five-step AR cycle that includes action planning, action taking, assessing, specifying learning, and diagnosing. In three rounds of the cycle, baseline analysis, strategy planning, and the development of a requirements specification for a new curriculum that incorporates the two worldviews should all be completed. The AR will provide teams (for the two worldviews and CIKS) with the skills, knowledge, and attention needed to undertake a meaningful inquiry into their professional practice, enhancing it and causing positive changes in the educational goals of the learning community, as shown in Sekhukhune, Limpopo, South Africa (Trapido, 2018). The goal of AR is to empower foremost by prompting and encouraging various levels of sound or best judgement in each partner in two worldviews, allowing a ‘choice-maker’ to push this back upstream. AR will be used as an intervention, which will entail gathering data on current Western and African IKS programmes and outcomes, analysing the data, developing a plan to improve it, tracking changes after the new plan is implemented, and drawing conclusions about the improvements for maximum worldview integration. AR will provide qualitative data that you can use to improve African IKS, as well as the understanding and execution of Western TE for learning and instructional practices and will help you make informed changes. There is evidence that South Africa requires a well-established development model to address the issues raised by the country’s contracting TE. The proposed model must be capable of filling the void left by the identified disagreements. African IKS from all cultures contains valuable and accurate information. We should acknowledge the arrogance and limitations of focusing on a single method of knowing and authenticating SKAVs, as well as consider African IKS questions and experiences (Akpojedje & Ighodaro, 2019). Opening discussions with African IKS practitioners and holders to expand our range of SKAVs resources, not only in terms of content but also of procedures, purposes, and learning and teaching formats, is a good place to start. Another key transformation focus should be to acknowledge the limitations of one way of looking at the world, and we should work to restore the wisdom of African IKS holders and practitioners to our curriculum, realising that we could have a deeper and broader understanding of the world and ourselves if we broadened what we valued and included in our SKAVs. African IKS culture enhances our quality of life and general well-being for individuals and communities by improving learning and health, increasing tolerance, and providing opportunities to connect with others. African IKS culture is fascinating because it varies so depending on where you go.

14 Examining the Technological Divide Between Africa and the Western …

229

In African IKS, each country has its own tribes, dialects, and cultural traits. African IKS culture has great social and economic relevance, besides its inherent value. As described in this chapter, the main goal of AR is to improve the lives of Africans, particularly South Africans, and CIKS institutions can use AR to generate new knowledge directly related to worldviews that are not like their own. AR also promotes reflective teaching, learning, and thinking, as well as a stronger link between practice and stakeholders. AR workshops can also replace singular points of view and ideologies, as well as inadequate Western linear schooling (as a means of professional development activities for the use of the two). AR will guide and provide meaning to the significance of integrating the worldviews and perspectives of both African and Western SKAVs. This not only explains each SKAV but also assists participants in forecasting what they should see if the perspective integration is successful. Every quarter, stakeholder participation can help African IKS integrate into CAPS. We found the AR on the philosophy of ‘each one, teach one’. Various departments will use AR in a chain reaction. Using cascading objectives, employees can see how their contributions can help the department and residents achieve the set goals.

14.6 South African Technology Education Using African and Western Methodologies Western curricula teach Africans that their lives and those of their forefathers are unworthy of study, whereas they taught Westerners that something highly valued them in areas of knowledge and power (Andrews, 2021; Ramadikela et al., 2020). We define Eurocentrism as the tendency to see the world through the SKAVs of the colonisers (Coetzee, 2021). Gumbo (2017) clarifies that CAPS tries to minimise the use of African IKS in teaching and learning by interpreting and employing phrases like “where possible” and “made possible” as ways to integrate African IKS. Western TE systems were critical in promoting and imposing Western worldviews while erasing and subjugating African IKS memories, knowledge, and worldviews (Heleta, 2016). Prior to 1994, the separation of black and white education in South Africa was part of a larger world of unequal access to resources and, as a result, unequal educational quality (Morrow, 1990). Apartheid regimes did this on purpose to dehumanise, disempower, and marginalise black South Africans. Bantustan states like Bophuthatswana and Transkei established colleges and universities to train South Africans to serve the Western and then apartheid states (Duff & Chisholm, 2020). Bantustan university and college students lacked the SKAVs required for critical thinking, innovation, and intellectual leadership. The pedagogy of the Western context was used to distort the past and destroy the future of African IKS contexts (Ramadikela et al., 2020). The pedagogy of the Bantustans’ universities and colleges was focused on the administrative and technical skills required to maintain the apartheid system, including the structures of the Bantustans.

230

J. N. C. Mnguni and T. A. Mapotse

Colonisation has negative consequences, such as resource depletion, capitalist urbanisation, and introduction of alien diseases to animals and humans (Rukema & Umubyeyi, 2019). It influenced the thinking habits of the inhabitants, as well as the African people’s cultural legacy and progress. The apartheid regime appeared to use the Bantustan states of Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and Ciskei, and they were no longer accountable to their communities but to the apartheid regime (Ally & Lissoni, 2017; Ramadikela et al., 2020). The pattern of traditional leadership disintegration appeared to be different in Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and Ciskei (Ndlovu, 2021). The governments of these Bantustans used a variety of political, constitutional, and legal practices and methods to achieve this disintegration. The chapter wants us to know that Western TE contexts have been and continue to be used to distort African history and destroy their future. Western context pedagogy recognised that knowledge is power and that South Africans could use their philosophical assumptions about Western knowledge and culture as raw materials and military strength (Lumumba, 2020). The Bantustan governments enacted several laws to control the institution of traditional leadership, exert control over traditional leaders, and provide them with limited autonomy in their traditional roles. Western contexts’ pedagogy demanded a completely new way of thinking and speaking, in which everything advanced, good, and civilised is defined and measured in the contexts of Western contexts. Western contexts wreaked havoc on Africans, especially South Africans, separating them from their histories, landscapes, languages, social relationships, and distinct ways of thinking, feeling, and interacting with the world. Western pedagogy ensured that they propagated Western ideologies and values in South Africa educational institutions. Western contexts brought not only Western theory but also the assumption that theory is produced in the West and that the goal of African IKS outside the West should be to apply that theory. Western contexts brought not only the Western theory but also the assumption that theory is created in the West. African IKS entails letting go of imposed knowledge, theories, and interpretations in favour of theorising based on one’s own past and present experiences and perceptions of the world (Lumumba, 2020). They have identified rotational farming, shifting cultivation, pastoralism, fishing, agroforestry, and hunting and gathering for African IKS as viable and sustainable. According to Mnguni (2013), South African contexts include all information and activities, regardless of how clear or well understood they are. High flexibility in mobility, authority, and daily life characterised prior interactions and perceptions of South Africans. They made it up of more fluid units that were unique cultures, fluid units that easily accepted community customs and extended beyond the nuclear family. They divided Africans into three groups: those who were stateless, those who were governed by the state, and those who were governed by kingdoms. The concept of ethnic nationalism was widely accepted and practised; the land was held in common and could not be purchased or sold, but other items, such as livestock, were owned separately (Møller & Roberts, 2021). In those societies that were not stateless, the chiefs oversaw the tribe’s daily operations with the help of one or more councils.

14 Examining the Technological Divide Between Africa and the Western …

231

They predicate this on the notion that African IKS is a diverse group of SKAVs that has evolved outside of established educational structures. African habitats could be sought out and adjusted in such a way that the improvement plan covers a wide range of issues from one perspective and the people on the other (Juncker & Balling, 2016). This would cause individual development based on African individuals’ capacity and insight. The South Africa-based SKAVs are viewed as the foundation of local community decisions in many aspects of human life, including education.

14.7 Conclusion The chapter discussed how Westerners colonised Africa, forcing Africans to look down on their African IKS in technology. We should consider African TE as one of many forms of SKAV, not as an alternative. Members of the CIKS have rebuked this approach to African scholarship and higher education for alienating higher education from community issues and producing graduates who are unconcerned about their community and countries’ developmental challenges. In Mapotse (2018), all portions and topics of the two worldviews can engage in recognising all the constraints and restrictions that have caused a split. This implies that the ability to recognise and transmit TE will be required for TE content integration. With the use of AR in teacher development, integrating technology subjects and South African IKS in technology will provide a broader perspective on school teaching and learning. There is a strong link between African and Western IKS on technology, according to Mapotse (2018) in integrating the two broader SKAVs.

References Adamo, D. T. (2011). Christianity and the African traditional religion(s): The postcolonial round of engagement. Verbum et Ecclesia, 32(1), Art. #285, 10. https://doi.org/10.4102/ve.v32i1.285 Akpojedje, F., & Ighodaro, H. (2019). A study on the political economy of transforming indigenous technology in Nigeria through appropriate engineering and technological development. Journal of Advances in Science and Engineering, 2, 1–8. Ally, S., & Lissoni, A. (Eds.). (2017). New histories of South Africa’s Apartheid-era Bantustans. Taylor & Francis. Andrews, K. (2021). The new age of empire: How racism and colonialism still rule the world. Penguin. Auriacombe, C., & Van der Walt, G. (2021). Fundamental policy challenges influencing sustainable development in Africa. Africa’s Public Service Delivery and Performance Review, 9(1), a381. https://doi.org/10.4102/apsdpr.v9i1.381 Birhane, A. (2020). Algorithmic colonisation of Africa. SCRIPTed, 17, 389. Boivin, N., & Crowther, A. (2021). Mobilising the past to shape a better Anthropocene. Nat EcolEvol, 5, 273–284. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-020-01361-4 Coeckelbergh, M. (2018). The art, poetics, and grammar of technological innovation as practice, process, and performance. AI & Society, 33, 501–510. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-0170714-7

232

J. N. C. Mnguni and T. A. Mapotse

Coetzee, J. M. (2021). Biographical. NobelPrize.org. Nobel Prize Outreach AB. Retrieved Monday. 25 October 2021. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/2003/coetzee/biographical/ Department of Basic Education (DBE). (2011). Curriculum and assessment policy statement. Grade 7–9. Technology. Government Printers. Dogan, M., & Pahre, R. (2019). Creative marginality: Innovation at the intersections of social sciences. Routledge. Duff, S. E., & Chisholm, L. (2020). Between worlds: German missionaries and the transition from mission to Bantu Education in South Africa (pp. 757–758). Wits University Press. Gumbo, M. T. (2017). An indigenous perspective on technology education. In P. Ngulube (Ed.), Handbook of research on Indigenous Knowledge Systems in developing countries (pp. 137–160). Hershey. Gumbo, M. T., & Msila, V. (Eds.). (2017). African voices on indigenisation of the curriculum: Insights from practice. Reach Publisher. Handler, J. S. (2009). The middle passage and the material culture of captive Africans. Slavery & Abolition, 30(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/01440390802673773 Heleta, S. (2016). Decolonisation of higher education: Dismantling epistemic violence and Eurocentrism in South Africa. Transformation in Higher Education, 1(1), a9. http://dx.doi.org/10. 4102/the.v1i1 Horsthemke, K. (2017). ‘# FactsMustFall’?–education in a post-truth, post-truthful world. Ethics and Education, 12(3), 273–288. Horsthemke, K. (2021). Indigenous knowledge: Philosophical and educational consideration. The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group Inc. Houle, R. J. (2017). From Christian brother to native: Claiming and rejecting Christianity, commerce, and civilisation in early twentieth-century Natal. The Journal of the Middle East and Africa, 8(1), 41–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520844.2017.1295338 Juncker, B., & Balling, G. (2016). The value of art and culture in everyday life: Towards an expressive cultural democracy. Journal of Arts Management Law and Society, 46(5), 231–242. Kauppi, V.-M., & Drerup, J. (2021). Discussion and inquiry: A Deweyan perspective on teaching controversial issues. Theory and Research in Education, 19(3), 213–234. https://doi.org/10. 1177/14778785211052199 Kaya, H. O., & Chinsamy, M. (2018). Self-assessment report of DST-NRF Centre in Indigenous Knowledge Systems (CIKS) for Centre’s of Excellence Review. Kaya, H. O., & Seleti, Y. N. (2014). African indigenous knowledge systems and relevance of higher education in South Africa. International Education Journal: Comparative Perspectives, 12(1), 30–44. Kjaerulf, F., Lee, B., Cohen, L., Donnelly, P., Turner, S., Davis, R., Realini, A., Moloney-Kitts, M., Gordon, R., Lee, G., & Gilligan, J. (2016). The 2030 agenda for sustainable development: A golden opportunity for global violence prevention. International Journal of Public Health, 61, 863–864. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-016-0887-8 Kusimba, C. M., Oka, R. C., Gogte, V. D., Dussubieux, L., & Bhan, K. K. (2018). In M. Childs (Ed.), East Africans’ connections with South Asians. In Maritime networks and urbanism in the early medieval world. Cambridge University Press. Leonard, L., & Musavengane, R. (2022). The future of community-based tourism amid socioeconomic and political conflicts in Southern Africa. In Conservation, land conflicts and sustainable tourism in Southern Africa: Contemporary issues and approaches. Routledge. Loimeier, R., & Seesemann, R. (2006). The global worlds of the Swahili: Interfaces of Islam, identity and space in 19th and 20th-century East Africa. Slavery & Abolition, 30(1), 1–26. Lumumba, P. L. O. (2020). Delivering a speech in Rwanda about Africa’s future development. YouTube (online video). Viewed 19 February 2021. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g4stsd qOSF8&t=128s Magni, G. (2017). Indigenous knowledge and implications for the sustainable development agenda. European Journal of Education, 52, 437–447. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12238

14 Examining the Technological Divide Between Africa and the Western …

233

Mahabeer, P. (2020). Decolonising the school curriculum in South Africa: Black women teachers’ perspectives. Third World Thematic: A TWQ Journal, 5(1–2), 97–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 23802014.2020.1762510 Makhubela, J. C., Mabvurira, V., & Matlakala, F. K. (2018). Language as an impediment to a resource for the indigenisation of social work education. Southern African Journal of Social Work and Social Development, 30(1), 1–20. Mapotse, T. A. (2015). An emancipation framework for Technology Education teachers: An action research study. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 25, 213–225. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10798-014-9275-y. Springer Publishers. ISSN 0957-7572 (print)/ISSN 15731804 (online). http://download.springer.com Mapotse, T. A. (2018). Development of a technology education cascading theory through community engagement site-based support. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 28(3), 685–699. Mawere, M. (2014). Culture, indigenous knowledge and development in Africa: Reviving interconnections for sustainable development. Langaa Rpcig. Mnguni, J. N. C. (2013). Some challenges in teaching natural sciences in the contexts of National Curriculum Statement, MEd. University of South Africa. Møller, V., & Roberts, B. J. (2021). Africa at war and peace. In V. Møller & B. J. Roberts (Eds.), Quality of life and human well-being in Sub-Saharan Africa, human well-being research and policy making (pp. 29–31). Springer. Morrow, W. E. (1990). Aims of education in South Africa. International Review of Education 36, 171–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01874882 Msila, V., & Gumbo, T. G. (Eds.). (2016). Africanising the curriculum: Indigenous perspectives and theories. Sun Press imprint. Ndlovu, S. (2021). Ethnicity and politics of belonging in South Africa: The case of the Ndebele identity (pp. 257–275). Routledge. Nkwocha, A. E. (2008). Neo-colonialism and the Scandal of African poverty: A review. International Journal of Development and Management Review, 3(1), 170–188. Parker, J., & Rathbone, R. (2013). African history: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press. Ramadikela, P. M., Msila, V., & Abera, T. (2020). Decolonising epistemologies: The paradoxes of a self-colonised state. Developing Teaching and Learning in Africa: Decolonising Perspectives, 185. Rukema, J. R., & Umubyeyi, B. S. (2019). Indigenous knowledge approach in maintaining a livelihood in the face of disastrous climate change: Case of drought in Msinga villages, KwaZulu-Natal. Jàmbá Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 11(1), 1–10. Siddique, N., & Adeli, H. (2016). Brief history of natural sciences for nature-inspired computing in engineering. Journal of Civil Engineering and Management, 22(3), 287–301. Trapido, A. (2018, December 21). Meet the tea makers of Sekhukhune who honour traditions while building a modern business. City Press. Viewed 8 February 2022. https://www.news24.com/ citypress/news/meet-the-tea-makers-of-sekhukhune-who-honour-traditions-while-building-amodern-business-20181221 Von Albertini, R. (1980). Colonialism and underdevelopment: Critical remarks on the theory of dependency. Itinerario, 4(1), 42–52.

Chapter 15

Indigenous Technological Knowledge for Education in Zimbabwe Mercy Rugedhla, Lily C. Fidzani, and Richie Moalosi

Abstract Education is vital to life because it involves a change of behaviour and information processing to meet human needs. Education should help improve lives; thus, the school curriculum should be designed to give students the knowledge to achieve this. The primary purpose of the curriculum seems to prepare graduates for industry. However, the industry in Zimbabwe is collapsing. Many people cannot apply the knowledge and skills they acquired in their day-to-day life since the industry is collapsing. This chapter argues that using a more practical approach to Indigenous Technological Knowledge in the current curriculum will provide a practical focus to enhance people’s lives. This involves a deep understanding of the indigenous materials in the community. This constitutes the application of indigenous technology in the learning process throughout the curriculum. The chapter also examines Zimbabwe’s new competence-based curriculum and recommends applying indigenous technological knowledge to make it more effective. The chapter substantiates that Indigenous Technological Knowledge is more relevant to students in local communities than modern technology. Keywords Indigenous Technological Knowledge · Education · Indigenous materials · Indigenous Technology

M. Rugedhla (B) · L. C. Fidzani · R. Moalosi University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana e-mail: [email protected] L. C. Fidzani e-mail: [email protected] R. Moalosi e-mail: [email protected] M. Rugedhla Solusi University, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_15

235

236

M. Rugedhla et al.

15.1 Introduction This chapter explores the importance of the inclusion of Indigenous Technological Knowledge (ITK) in the school curriculum from primary to tertiary level in Zimbabwe to enhance people’s lives and make education more relevant to life. The chapter begins by explaining the aims of the education system of Zimbabwe and the importance of incorporating ITK into the curriculum. The role of education in transforming lifestyles is discussed. The efforts made by the Ministries of Education from primary to tertiary level are acclaimed. The inclusion of ITK in the new curriculum is recommended to make Zimbabwe’s education more applicable to real-life situations. The chapter expounds upon the relationship between education and ITK in the learning process. In this chapter, ITK is recommended to help learners understand and apply the knowledge gained at school in everyday life, as this could give more meaning to learning. The chapter highlights the African Indigenous Knowledge Systems (AIKS) in the context of Zimbabwe and enunciates the value of indigenous knowledge in advancing life. It also identifies the Indigenous Knowledge Resources (IKR) and how these can enhance the curriculum through ITK. Emphasis is given to the value of ITK and the practical inclusion of indigenous knowledge and practices in the learning process from primary schools to the tertiary level through ITK. Lastly, recommendations are proposed on how to practically apply ITK in the learning process according to the learning areas of Zimbabwe’s new competency-based curriculum.

15.2 The School Curriculum in Zimbabwe Arthur (2017) states that schools need to change structures, culture, and programmes of curriculum and instruction to meet the needs of diverse students. Madondo (2020) also observes that Zimbabwe’s new competence-based curriculum framework aims to treasure children’s cultural identity and values while preparing them for life and work through the acquisition of practical competencies, literacy, and numeracy skills. Zimbabwe’s education has been transforming to find effective ways of using the nation’s resources to address the various needs of the country, including its economic needs. The 1999 Nziramasanga Commission of inquiry into the Zimbabwean education system recommended transforming the structure and curriculum to meet the country’s development aspirations. According to Mawere (2013), the Commission’s conclusions directed the focus of education towards the teaching and learning of science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and entrepreneurship. ITK entails practical knowledge that can be used in everyday life. Unfortunately, the current education system is based on a Western education system that divorces it from the local context. This means that most of the concepts learned at school cannot be applicable at home. This shows that the education system ignores indigenous knowledge and technology. Maunganidze (2016) observed that current development

15 Indigenous Technological Knowledge for Education in Zimbabwe

237

research and practice had witnessed the striking invisibility of IKS. Woodward (2017) explained that the basis for manual training in the introduction of technology courses was to prepare learners for work in industry and not for life. This focus is different from that of Indigenous Technological Knowledge which is inclusive in that it offers appropriate skills and training for the benefit of society. According to the Nziramasanga Report (1999), there was a need for more handson technical jobs to sustain the country’s economy. This led to the replacement of Technology Education with Design and Technology in Zimbabwe. Design and Technology were aimed at helping students to develop knowledge in problem solving, design thinking, communication, technology, management, creativity and innovation, self-reliance, and enterprising skills. Unfortunately, this was not easy to achieve because the concept of design and technology is disassociated from everyday life in terms of the examples used in teaching and the resource materials. An example would be where learners are requested to construct specific objects such as cooking utensils or musical instruments. It would be commendable if the emphasis would be on using the readily available resources from the environment. The learners should construct objects that are usable in real life. Learners should be taught the technologies that exist in their communities (Gumbo, 2017). There is a need to link the concepts being learned at school to reality as much as possible. One of the significant challenges was the absence of relevant resources and textbooks. Teachers and researchers often limit themselves to the purchased resources and do not emphasise the resources found in the learner’s environment. In this context, the learners rarely apply the knowledge gained at school in their everyday lives. It would be more aligned to the aims of Indigenous Technological Knowledge if the learners were able to practise what they learn at school in their daily lives. This would incorporate indigenous knowledge and enrich students’ learning experiences. This would help the learners to master the concepts well. Indigenous knowledge familiarises people with the available resources (Gumbo, 2017), which capacitate them to work out their way almost naturally through the various challenges and tasks that may need to be addressed. McQuaid (2017) cites one major challenge of the current curriculum; for example, in Textile Technology, there is a failure to realise the individual differences of the learners in terms of familiarity with various textile materials and basic knowledge of the equipment used. This poses problems because learners need to be taught to meet these expectations. Gumbo (2017) thus remarks that indigenous technologies are relevant to indigenous learners as they exist in their communities. Hence, this chapter aims to argue and recommend the practical application of ITK in Zimbabwe’s education curriculum. The Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education (MOPSE) introduced a new competence-based curriculum framework in 2017 to enhance the quality of education in Zimbabwe, which is much more inclined to indigenous knowledge and technology. However, the curriculum will not be complete if it does not emphasise the use of indigenous knowledge and technology. The emphasis can be made on using local resource materials for learning and teaching. This would help alleviate the lack of resources as one of the major obstacles to teaching and learning. The competencebased Framework organises the curriculum into three learning levels, which are

238

M. Rugedhla et al.

infant school Early Childhood Development (ECDA) from A to Grade 2, junior school (Grades 3 to 7), and secondary school (Forms 1 to 6). The emphasis in the infant school is on the acquisition of the foundational skills for learning; the junior school reinforces the foundational skills. It starts to give the learners life and work skills. The secondary school prepares learners for various pathways, including university education, technical and vocational training, or entering the professions in various training programmes of apprenticeship and on-the-job training (Ministry of Primary & Secondary Education, 2021). In the infant school, the medium of instruction is the indigenous language used or spoken in the area where the child is learning. The learning areas include Languages, Visual and Performing Arts, Physical Education, Mass Displays, Mathematics and Science, Heritage Studies, and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) (Ministry of Primary & Secondary Education, 2021). The learning areas for the Junior School are Languages, Mathematics, Heritage, and LOP—Social Studies, Science and Technology, Agriculture, Information and Communication Technology, Visual and Performing Arts, Family, Religion and Moral Education, Physical Education, Sports, and Mass Displays (Ministry of Primary & Secondary Education, 2021). Forms One to Four have ten optimal study areas, which are Heritage Studies (Embracing Zimbabwe’s Constitution), Mathematics (Pure Mathematics, Additional Mathematics, and Mechanical Mathematics), Sciences (Physics, Chemistry, Biology and General Science; Geography; Computer Sciences), Humanities (History, Religious Studies, Sociology and Economic History), Literature in Indigenous Languages and English, Indigenous Languages and English Language, Foreign Languages such as French, Swahili, Chinese, Portuguese. Seven learning areas are required. However, learners select additional learning areas based on their interests. The learners who may want to exceed the ten learning areas will need their school’s permission. The idea is commendable because it provides a platform where all learners have the opportunity to learn as many learning areas as possible at the same time. However, the application of ITK would help the learners learn a lot more skills at the same time as they apply their knowledge in producing various items that are needed in their diverse communities. Areas of specialisation have been widened at the secondary level, focusing on technical and vocational learning areas (practical subjects). This is meant to balance academic and practical subjects for learners to gain skills and competencies that will enable them to function productively in society. The new curriculum also emphasises national identity, which requires patriotism, honour, and respect for national symbols, participatory citizenship, and the values of discipline, integrity, honesty, and Unhu/Ubuntu/Vumunhu (Ministry of Primary & Secondary Education, 2021). This curriculum would achieve much, emphasising the practical application of ITK, where the learning resources would be based on the learners’ environments. The chapter will give some examples of applying ITK in some of the learning areas in the current curriculum, from primary to tertiary education in Zimbabwe.

15 Indigenous Technological Knowledge for Education in Zimbabwe

239

15.3 Indigenous Technological Knowledge Systems The fundamental concepts of education and indigenous knowledge, which interpret the environment for application in life, are the same. The main philosophies of education, behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism, indicate that learning has to do with processing information and behaviour change. Education needs context, which can be indigenous knowledge. Learning is an active process; hence the learner must be provided with an environment that promotes their natural tendency to work, research, manipulate, build, and experiment. This supports using local materials and resources, thus, Indigenous Technology (IT). Behaviourism purports that learning occurs through interaction with information from outside the individual and is enhanced by repeated actions, incentives, and verbal reinforcement. According to cognitivism, the learners process information by re-organising or interpreting it. Interpreting information involves finding new explanations or adapting old ones, including problem solving and linking concepts to the real world. Constructivism connotes that learning is based on previous knowledge and experiences and is achieved by reflecting on prior ideas or resolving misconceptions. Gillett-Swan (2017) also suggests that dialogues occur in learning and knowledge retention processes. This shows the importance of the student’s own experience in the learning process. Both ideologies emphasise the significance of interaction in the learning process, which is critical in IK. Chilisa and Preece (2005) define African Indigenous Knowledge Systems (AIKS) as the process of formulating and practising the knowledge embodied in the cultural experiences of the African people, among other things. IKS, thus, naturally lend themselves to enhancing the curriculum to educate the people about relevance and life. Sibanda (2017) notes that some academics view IKS as backward and for the uneducated. Mawere (2015) also advanced how IKS suffered in the wake of colonialism by being branded as unscientific, illogical, anti-development, and ungodly. IKS has been limited to rural communities or relegated to the past in many places and instances. For this reason, many would ignore anything that has to do with indigenous knowledge since rural communities are looked down upon in many areas. Yet, it should be appreciated and benefit all people in the community and nation. Maunganidze (2016) confirms that IKS and practices have not been favoured as solutions to development woes and communities partly contribute to their marginalisation and exclusion from mainstream development discourse by ‘ring fencing’ their expertise. Therefore, IKS is becoming extinct as the custodians depart. Thus, there is a need to preserve IKS through its inclusion in the curriculum. In a general sense, Indigenous Knowledge (IK) refers to societies’ viewpoints and skills developed over a long time to inform decisions and practices for daily living. This includes the way people construct their shelters and the materials they use, and the construction of their cooking or farming utensils and equipment. Many studies have demonstrated the meaning and importance of Indigenous knowledge (Chilisa, 2012; Ezeanya-Esiobou, 2019; Gumbo, 2017; Ngara & Mangizvo, 2013). However, one of the most significant challenges of IK is in the way several authorities define it. It is defined in a way that makes some people believe it is an ancient concept. It is

240

M. Rugedhla et al.

sometimes referred to as traditional, local, or rural knowledge (Adeyeye & Mason, 2020; Maunganidze, 2016; Siamombe et al., 2018). Unfortunately, traditional, local, or rural knowledge is considered backwards and uncivilised by many young generation members. The young people even tend to name something or someone they think backward as ‘local’. Maunganidze (2016) laments that rural or local knowledge has been excluded from mainstream development. IKS is likened to a blank signpost since it is no longer considered for guidance against current development glitches.

15.3.1 Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainability IKS has endured and withstood the test of time. This is evident, for example, in the recommendations for indigenous knowledge under the guise of home remedies in the form of food and herbs during the COVID-19 pandemic and other life-threatening diseases. This chapter recommends the inclusion of ITK in the current curriculum to enhance learning and promote IKS and preserve cultural heritage. Indigenous knowledge is cultural-based, and thus the knowledge is for a particular area. It can vary from place to place. The differences in the representation of Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) make it relevant for specific locations. Studies have shown that IK is a source of creativity and innovation, provides appropriate local solutions using locally available resources, contributes to effective, sustainable community development, forms identity in communities, and is a mechanism for solving problems (De Guchteneire et al., 2002; Gaotlhobogwe, 2012; Greyling, 2008). Research has also shown that IK is linked to global sustainability (Adeyeye, 2019; Adeyeye & Mason, 2020). Students can be taught to sustain life and protect the planet through Indigenous Knowledge rather than exploit it. One can imagine how much can be achieved if, for example, the learners who live in the rural areas could learn skills such as roof thatching and home fencing using the readily available materials in their areas. The rural home would be more comfortable and well sustained. If these skills are learned and practised, they will be improved upon continuously.

15.3.2 Indigenous Knowledge and Technology Technology has to do with life skills that help people interpret and manipulate their environment to sustain their lives. Gumbo (2017) explains that Technology Education (TE) is concerned with technological knowledge, skills, and processes. It is a process of organising the materials and designing to meet life’s everyday expectations. It thus includes all the connections between the products, the people, and the systems involved in life. Adeyeye and Mason (2020) expound that technology signifies applying knowledge and developing solutions to humans’ problems. The role and impact of technology in life can never be underestimated; hence, technological advances have been critical to humanity’s progress in any society.

15 Indigenous Technological Knowledge for Education in Zimbabwe

241

Indigenous technology refers to the technological knowledge, skills, and resources transmitted or handed down from the past indigenous people to the present to meet their needs and wants by investigating, designing, developing, and evaluating products, processes, and systems (Maunganidze, 2016). IK involves creativity. Gumbo (2017) augments that the way of knowing in traditional cultures is multi-dimensional. Nhemachena and Matowanyika (2020) present an extensive list of precolonial industries, science and technology, which includes blacksmithing, wood-carving, textile-weaving and dyeing, leather works/, beadworks, pottery making, architecture, agricultural breeding, metal-working, salt production, gold-smithing, coppersmithing, soap-making, bronze-casting, canoe-building, brewing, glass-making, agriculture, and production of flint guns. This shows the practical application of indigenous technology because the products made in these industries were used in practical everyday life. The different production types mentioned above show some of Zimbabwe’s indigenous technologies. These and many others could be practically incorporated into the learning process so that the learners may develop and practise these skills as they learn and grow. Gumbo (2017, 2019) alludes to the need to decolonise education through indigenous knowledge systems. The skills learned in these industries could be learned at school from an early age as long as the teachers break down the content to the level of the students. The learners’ skills can thus become part of the learners’ lives. This way, the learners can appropriately apply it to their daily lives. Their application in modern society would help address the multiple human needs not addressed by the current curriculum. The learners would be able to produce valuable products from when they are in school and after school. This will then be passed on to the rest of society through socialisation. Industries produce a wide variety of products through modern machinery, and many communities now rely on these for their sustenance. While the industries use modern machines, hand-made production can complement contemporary technology. Therefore, there is a need to revise the curriculum to benefit disadvantaged children in rural areas. Communities need to have curricula that are relevant to their environment. Indigenous materials are appropriate and convenient for diverse communities, yet the curriculum emphasises technology that uses unavailable resources like electricity. If technology education would consider using available materials in different localities, this will allow students to improve the tools or materials or find better and simpler methods of using the available materials in their community to enhance life. From the archaeological point of view, the essence of the Zimbabwe culture is stone walls, dhaka (mud) floors and class distinction (Chirikure et al., 2014) is for one to see the values and beliefs of Zimbabweans. Technology has brought about a change in many production industries: manual production has been replaced by the introduction of machinery which uses various power sources such as electricity. This results in a significant increase in production. However, there are many places in Zimbabwe, such as the rural areas, where the various power sources are scarce or unavailable; hence the practical application of indigenous technology would be very appropriate.

242

M. Rugedhla et al.

15.4 Resources in Technology Education The availability of resources is crucial in the teaching and learning process. Dhlomo and Mawere (2018) observe that the resource shortage is a significant obstacle to implementing the school curriculum. Some schools do not have resources like textbooks, power, and computers. These are some of the challenges to implementing the school curriculum. According to Manwa (2013), inadequate resources discourage teachers. Several concepts are not developed fully in the classroom due to a lack of resources. Yet, the application of ITK would provide the resources from the environment, which would address some elements of the challenge of limited resources. While these resources are essential, this chapter argues that the teachers and learners could turn to their environment for the learning resources, thus engaging IKT. It is sad to note that the teachers, researchers, and learners limit themselves and do not emphasise the resources found in the learner’s environment. The indigenous resources that include the Indigenous Technologies should be used as significant knowledge. The simplest form of technology involves developing and using basic materials and tools. Tools are also part of the material culture of Zimbabwe. Most indigenous tools used are manually operated. These are more appropriate to the majority of communities in Zimbabwe, which are rural. These materials include cooking utensils like pottery, weaving, basketry, carvings, stools and walking sticks, jewellery, and textiles. These can be taught to students and produced at a local level. Figure 15.1 shows some of the household products made from various local resources using some of the indigenous technologies. Most of Zimbabwe’s indigenous materials and devices, including agricultural tools, kitchenware, basketry, ceramics, and textiles and accessories for decoration Fig. 15.1 Material resources for the home

15 Indigenous Technological Knowledge for Education in Zimbabwe

243

such as jewellery, are part of history. This is a sad reality because these should be understood as available resources to enhance people’s lives and not just be something of the past. They should be crucial to technology education which should teach how to produce or use them. This would help ensure the authenticity of learning for students. Sadly, the current purpose of education is to train people for the industry, although efforts have been made to focus on an education that solves life’s problems. Although the current curriculum emphasises that learners should identify problems in their community to be addressed through the production of functional objects, students still concentrate on producing foreign objects. Learners can make instruments such as guitars and flutes for musical instruments in places where these instruments are not popular. It seems as if neither the schools nor the industries have provisions for IKS. It would be of great help if the learners were given a chance to use the various materials found in the community to produce valuable products, as indicated earlier in this chapter. However, there is a need to encourage creativity by using as many alternative materials as possible for the same products, as shown in Figs. 15.2 and 15.3. According to Uwameiye (2015), the classroom is a significant learning component of life. This shows that applying IKS at the school would go a long way in helping the learners apply what they learn at school in everyday life. The inclusion of ITK in the school curriculum would enable learners to learn applicable techniques in life because people generally seem to believe in the knowledge gained in school. Applying ITK in the various subjects practically would help people appreciate ITK and implement it. It would also enhance the learning process in the current curriculum and provide the much-needed resources for successful learning. Often, people ignore indigenous techniques that would be more appropriate and efficient because they are considered old-fashioned.

Fig. 15.2 Basketry using reeds and plastics. Courtesy of Mrs Sarah Chihava

244

M. Rugedhla et al.

Fig. 15.3 Sweeping brooms using reeds and plastic sacks. Courtesy of Mrs Sylivia Mvalume

15.5 The Value of Indigenous Knowledge and Technology Technology is generally a problem-solver, and it can bring about solutions to life’s problems. Local people developed indigenous technology by experimenting with various materials and technologies to solve their challenges. Hence, it cannot be outclassed by any form of technology in terms of relevance. Students need to learn to make products relevant to their modern life from indigenous resources readily available in their communities. McQuaid (2017) highlights that technology helps to provide solutions to problems. Education helps to sustain life. Today’s education will impact many generations’ lives, hence the need to incorporate indigenous technology into the school curriculum. This can be a valuable learning experience for the students. This will also help to implement the anticipated change in lifestyles and development. It will bring meaning to life as learners, and the community will interact more with the resources in their immediate environments. McCombs and Whisler (2017) express that change is a lifelong process that is continuous and ongoing. There is a need for Indigenous Technological Knowledge in the school curriculum for change to be effective. This should be based on the materials and resources available in the environment. Every community needs to understand the resources available and have the necessary skills. ITK will need to be implemented for real permanent solutions to the development of communities. This knowledge and training should be open to all. The authors argue that ITK should be examinable to show its importance.

15 Indigenous Technological Knowledge for Education in Zimbabwe

245

15.6 Recommendations for the Practical Application of IT in Zimbabwe The recommendations for the practical application of Indigenous Technology in Zimbabwe will be organised according to schooling (primary, secondary. and tertiary). The examples will be based on understanding the available resource materials in the immediate environment. Indigenous knowledge naturally lends itself to group or teamwork. This concept needs to be employed in education related to indigenous technology. Thus, learners should be encouraged to work in groups in and out of class. Teams encourage personal growth and development and can provide motivation, challenge, reward, and support for individuals and societies. As much as possible, the activities should bring reality to the student. They should be able to interact with the learning materials. There is a need to visit places and see things in their original nature. Many people live in an area for a long time without knowing the surroundings. For example, many people come with students and study groups to see the caves or gravesites where the missionaries were buried and the dams. Many residents of the Solusi University community have not seen these. Some do not even know about them. The school would also do well to conduct EXPOS, where students and staff can make presentations and demonstrate their various skills and expert innovations. Projects could include research and development of the Tsotso stoves, sack refrigeration and wonder bags, and other relevant indigenous technologies. This should be encouraged to lighten labour and save resources. Indigenous knowledge and technologies can be integrated into the subjects described in the sub-sections that follow.

15.6.1 Heritage Studies The new curriculum has introduced Heritage Studies at all levels. Instead of reading from the books, learners could do practical activities. In this study area, the learners could be referred to the custodians of culture in the community for research. The custodian of culture could be invited to the schools as facilitators, or the learners and their teachers visit these people and the various sites. After the suggested activities, learners can be tasked with the usual assignments of describing, drawing, documenting their findings and many others according to their grade levels (see Table 15.1).

15.6.2 Agriculture, Mathematics, and Sciences Indigenous technology in this area will involve the addition, multiplication, and division concepts embedded in indigenous games and folk tales. This could be taught

246

M. Rugedhla et al.

Table 15.1 Custodians of culture in the society Institutional level

Activities

Early Childhood Development

The students will be introduced to the custodians of culture in their society. They should identify them through their regalia and other things that they use, such as badges, and recite at least one or two values of culture

Primary school

The students should identify the custodians of culture by their dress codes and places of operation. They should be able to draw the custodians, their regalia, and areas of operation, say and demonstrate some cultural rules

Secondary school

The students should conduct research and projects about custodians of culture and make some prototypes of the dress codes and other things that the custodians of culture use. Explain the value of some cultural rules

Tertiary

The students should research and make presentations on the custodians and values of culture. They should also do projects, and products [things] used to uphold culture in their communities

Table 15.2 Mathematical and Science operations in traditional games and folklore Institutional level

Activities

Early Childhood Development The students should play games and do rhymes and songs that emphasise the concepts in these subjects Primary school

Retell the folktales, do games, and explain the meanings of the games and folktales that emphasise the concepts

Secondary school

The students could write stories and games and demonstrate the various concepts that depict cultural values

Tertiary

The students express their creativity by coming up with games and folktales that teach cultural values and produce some of the cultural materials

through exploring the environment; then, learners can collect items from the indigenous environment to facilitate various learning activities such as sorting, examining, painting, drawing, etc. The learners can also demonstrate the fundamental uses of multiple resources in everyday life in their different contexts (see Table 15.2).

15.6.3 Humanities and Mass Displays The curriculum recommends gradual expansion of the Indigenous Languages offering, in line with the 16 Languages recognised by the country’s constitution. Mass displays have been incorporated into the Physical Education and Sport syllabus. The primary resources for these learning areas would be people who speak the given

15 Indigenous Technological Knowledge for Education in Zimbabwe

247

Table 15.3 People from different languages and the significant activities in a community Institutional level

Activities

Early Childhood Development The pupils could do rhymes, games and sing songs representing the different languages and imitate the major life activities of that community Primary school

Sing, and communicate using different languages in Zimbabwe. Note the differences in the languages. Learn simple communications such as greetings from other languages. Imitate the significant activities in their community, e.g. fishing

Secondary school

Learn simple communications from the other languages, and demonstrate the important life skills in their area by making the tools or instruments used

Tertiary

Learn to speak other languages, construct instruments used for everyday life in the community, and demonstrate how they are used

Table 15.4 Business and profit-making Institutional level

Activities

Early Childhood Development

Songs, rhymes, and games about money and profits

Primary school

Identify money, make practical use of money to appreciate its value, and do profit-making projects

Secondary school

Research and do profit-making projects with good documents for accountability

Tertiary

Research, write, and do a profit-making project for oneself, the department, or the school

language, including children. This will encourage peer teaching. Learning activities should also be based on the major activities done in that area (see Table 15.3 in this regard).

15.6.4 Commercials These concepts mainly deal with business and profit-making. Zimbabwe has a situation where nearly everyone is selling something. The educators should take advantage of the situation and engage learners in various practical activities to address the multiple challenges in their given communities (refer to Table 15.4).

248

M. Rugedhla et al.

Table 15.5 Standard practices in the area, for example, cotton growing Institutional level

Activities

Early Childhood Development The students can identify the common material that is used in their day-to-day lives. These could include plants such as cotton and tools such as hoes and axes Primary school

The students can identify and demonstrate various materials that are popularly used in their community. They could draw and make some

Secondary school

The students can engage in practical projects best suited for their area. This could be done as individuals, in groups, or as a class

Tertiary

The students should do research projects on the standard agricultural practices in their areas and note the changes

15.6.5 Practical Subjects Practical subjects are many and varied. They can be done at any time, like mass displays. One of the major resources will be the local people. There are also a wide variety of indigenous resources used by different communities. The learning activities should be directed towards using these in addressing the various challenges in life.

15.6.5.1

Agricultural Technology

Zimbabwe is agro-based, and many indigenous technologies can be applied in the learning processes depending on the standard practices in a given area (refer to Table 15.5).

15.6.5.2

Food Technology and Home Management

Food Technology lends itself to easy access in terms of resources. Every community has a wide variety of foods that they eat. In food technology, learners can develop various ways of preparing foods for the community. Many communities have specific ways of preparing, storing, and preserving foods which are usually limited. Home Management is highly influenced by the nature of the homes and the environment. There are many ways of managing homes and many factors to consider. One of the best ways to teach Food Technology and Home Management is to organise expositions. This will provide the learners with a wide variety of ideas and examples. Examples include traditional preserving food, preparing meals, and outdoor cooking in Home Economics relevant to lifestyle (see Table 15.6).

15 Indigenous Technological Knowledge for Education in Zimbabwe

249

Table 15.6 Resources for the lifestyle of the community Institutional level

Activities

Early Childhood Development Do rhymes, games, and songs about the various resources and food varieties. They should access the natural resources and food varieties Primary school

Identify the various resources and foods. They should also share them and discuss their importance. They can draw, colour, and paint the resources and fruits, including constructing some materials

Secondary school

Construct various resource materials, research how they were made, and demonstrate food preparation, storage, and preservation

Tertiary

Demonstrate, research, and write papers on food preparation, storage, and preservation, including needed materials. They can sell the food on campus

15.6.5.3

Textile and Designing Technologies

Textile Technology and Design was introduced as a subject in 2016 by the Curriculum Development Unit (CDU) under the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education to rebrand the Fashion and Fabrics curriculum to embrace technology and innovation. Unfortunately, the teachers and learners had no teaching or subject reference points when it was introduced. This would not have been the case in Indigenous Technological Knowledge which emanates from the environment. Regrettably, most of what is known about Textile design and technology is derived from England. Sims et al. (2016) affirm that Zimbabwe adopted most of its textile understanding from the machinery, technology, and knowledge brought in by the colonial residents, mainly from England. Clothing technology involves the manufacturing materials innovations that have been developed and used. Arubayi and Obunadike (2011) state Textile design and technology offer the hope of creating simulations of what one wants to create before actually making it. Most communities have resources for textile materials; thus, the learning activities should take advantage of these for learners to get acquainted with the available indigenous materials. These learning areas can be taught through visiting the relevant sites in the area and organising expositions for the learners to observe and share their design experiences (see Table 15.7).

15.7 Conclusion This chapter discussed the role and value of education and how education is implemented in Zimbabwe. Indigenous knowledge and technology were defined, and their roles in the curriculum were discussed. The chapter also presented that indigenous

250

M. Rugedhla et al.

Table 15.7 Textiles: Standard practices and materials used for day-to-day living Institutional level

Activities

Early Childhood Development Pupils can do rhymes, songs, and poems and identify various textile materials Primary school

Identify, group, draw, colour, and even use the textile materials. Make phototypes of the indigenous textile materials

Secondary school

Research indigenous materials, present papers, and construct textile products as research projects

Tertiary

Research, present, and do projects on standard practices and materials used for daily living

resource materials influence indigenous technology. Therefore, some recommendations were made for the practical application of IT in the current Zimbabwe school curriculum by including indigenous resource materials in the learning process. These should be contextual in that they should be based on the everyday life practices of the given communities where the learning occurs. Such an approach will assist in cultural preservation and its development. Any curriculum development should be sensitive to the local needs, and indigenous knowledge systems are a valuable resource that is often undermined. The authors argue that it is time to reflect on and integrate local thought and content into the school curriculum, which resonates with the local needs.

References Arthur, E. (2017). Problems and prospects of curriculum implementation in Nigeria. Information guide in Nigeria. https://infoguidenigeria.com/problems-prospects-curriculum-implementation Adeyeye, B. A. (2019). African indigenous knowledge and practices and the 2030 sustainable development goal: Exploring its uniqueness for quality knowledge sharing. Journal of Humanities and Education Development (JHED), 1(4), 147–152. https://doi.org/10.22161/jhed.1.4.2 Adeyeye, B. A., & Mason, J. (2020). Opening future for Nigerian education—Integrating educational technologies with indigenous knowledge practices. Open Praxis, 12(1), 27–37. ISSN 2304-0707x. Chilisa, B. (2012). Indigenous research methodologies. Sage. Chilisa, B., & Preece, J. B. (2005). Research methods for adult educators in Africa: African perspectives on Adult learning. UNESCO Institute of Education. Chirikure, S., Manyanga, M., Pollard, A. M., Bandama, F., Mahachi, G., & Pikirayi, I. (2014). Zimbabwe culture before Mapungubwe: New evidence from Mapela Hill, South-Western Zimbabwe. PLoS ONE, 9(10), e111224. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0111224 De Guchteneire, P., Krukkert, I., & Von Liebenstein, G. (Eds.). (2002). Best practices of indigenous knowledge. NUFFIC. Ezeanya-Esiobu, C. (2019). Indigenous knowledge and education in Africa. Springer. Gaotlhobogwe, M. (2012). The role of indigenous knowledge systems in addressing the problem of declining enrolments in design and technology. Proceedings of the 2012 PATT conference— Technology education in the 21st century. Linköping University. Gillett-swan, J. (2017). Challenges of Online learningsupporting and engaging the isolated learner. Journal of Learning Design, 10(1), 20–30.

15 Indigenous Technological Knowledge for Education in Zimbabwe

251

Government of Zimbabwe. (1999). Report of the presidential commission of inquiry into education and training. Government Printers. Greyling, E. H. (2008). Preserving indigenous knowledge: A model for Community Participation in African libraries. In TRANS. Internet-Zeitschrift für Kulturwissenschaften. No. 17/2008. http:// www.inst.at/trans/17Nr/8-2/8-2_greyling.htm Gumbo, M. T. (2017). An indigenous perspective on technology education. In Handbook of research on social, cultural, and educational considerations of indigenous knowledge in developing countries (pp. 137–160). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-0838-0.ch008 Gumbo, M. T. (2019). Introduction. In M. T. Gumbo (Ed.), Teaching technology: Intermediate to senior phase (pp. xiv–xvii). Oxford University Press. Madondo, F. (2020). Perceptions on curriculum implementation: A case for Rural Zimbabwean early childhood development teachers as agents of change. Journal of Research in Childhood Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2020.1731024 Manwa, L. (2013). The role of school social climate in assessment of Home economics at High school in masvingo, Zimbabwe. Journal of Sociological Research, 4(1). Maunganidze, L. (2016). A moral compass that slipped: Indigenous knowledge systems and rural development in Zimbabwe. Cogent Social Sciences, 2(1). Mawere, M. (2013). A critical review of environmental conservation in Zimbabwe. Africa specrum, 48(2), 85–97. Mawere, M. (2015). Indigenous knowledge and public education in Sub-Saharan africa. Africa spetrum, 50(2). Mawere, M. (2018). Development naivety and emergent insecurities in a monopolised world: The poloitics and sociology of development in contempora. LAANGA RPCIG. Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education. (2021). Understanding the new competence-based curriculum. http://mopse.co.zw/infographic/understanding-new-competence-based-curriculum Ngara, P. and Mangizvo, R. (2013). Indigenous knowledge systems and conservation of natural resources in Shangwe community in Gokwe District, Zimbabwe. International Journal of Asian Society, 3(1), 20–28. Nhemachena, A. and Matowanyika, J. Z. Z. (2020). Decolonising Science Technology, engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) in an age of Technocolonialism: Recentring African indigenous knowledge and belief systems (pp. 1–62). LAANGA RPCIG. Siamombe, A., Mutale, Q. and Muzingili, T. (2018). Indigenous knowledge systems: A synthesis of Batonga people’s traditional knowledge on weather dynamism. African Journal of Social work, 8. Uwameiye, B. E. (2015). Students’ perception of Home Economics clasroom learningenvironment in Edo State, Nigeria. Litercy, Information and Computer Education Journal (LICEJ), Special Issue, 4(1).

Part IV

Indigenous Technology in the Teaching and Learning of Technology

Chapter 16

Learning Strategies that Promote an Integration of Indigenous Technology in the Teaching of Design Skills Richard Maluleke and Mishack T. Gumbo

Abstract South Africa, like other African countries, is currently struggling to decolonise the education system. As part of decolonisation, the South African curriculum requires Technology teachers to teach indigenous knowledge to their learners. However, many teachers wrestle to integrate indigenous technologies. The indigenous technologies and their relevance in the acquisition of design skills are discussed in this chapter. The authors sought to establish viable learning strategies which can assist Technology teachers to integrate indigenous knowledge into Technology classrooms. This chapter has investigated different learning strategies which can be used to integrate indigenous knowledge in teaching design skills in Technology classrooms. The findings revealed that cooperative and experiential learning may play a crucial role in decolonising the learning of Technology. The two mentioned strategies may propel the integration of IK when learners are acquiring design skills. Recommendations are made for Technology teachers to make attempts to create conducive learning environments which promote harmonious working relationships among learners, in order for the integration of different knowledge systems including indigenous knowledge to flourish. The findings revealed that Ubuntu principles may play a pivotal role in the acquisition of design skills. Technology teachers are advised to motivate their learners to apply Ubuntu principles to promote cooperative learning for their own benefit. The Technology teachers are also advised to use experiential learning to promote both acquisitions of indigenous skills and conventional skills. This will enable them to acquire design skills that are needed to solve technological problems in different contexts as the design is not limited to one context. Keywords Technology Education · Design skills · Indigenous knowledge · Indigenous technology · Cooperative learning · Experiential learning

R. Maluleke (B) Nkone Maruping Primary School, Soweto, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] M. T. Gumbo University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_16

255

256

R. Maluleke and M. T. Gumbo

16.1 Introduction This chapter explores experiential and cooperative learning as pedagogical strategies that can promote the integration of indigenous knowledge (IK) for decolonising the teaching of design skills to Key Stage 3 (Year group 7, 8, and 9) learners. The chapter further explores appropriate techniques which can play a role in incorporating indigenous technology to help learners acquire design skills. The objectives of the study presented in this chapter are to determine the value of the experiential learning strategy in promoting the integration of indigenous knowledge; and to determine the value of the cooperative learning strategy in promoting the co-construction of knowledge. The literature argues in favour of decolonisation of curriculum and teaching to make learning relevant to the learners’ cultural contexts. According to Shidza (2013), there is a need to redefine and reconstruct school curricula in Africa. This is in order to make the school curriculum relevant to the African context and epistemologies. According to Shidza (2013), a redefined and transformed education system should aim at reclaiming and commemorating the African cultural histories. In this light, Shidza (2013) claims that schools should be cultural spaces and centres that provide strategies to reclaim African cultural identities to counteract threats of cultural identity loss. Custer (1995) argued that technology is an expression of culture through artifacts. It, therefore, stands to reason that Technology Education can provide learners the opportunities to design solutions that have reference to their cultural contexts. In support of Shizha, Mwinzi (2016) argues that there is an inevitable need today to decolonise education structures in Africa by means of reclaiming indigenous African voices through curriculum reforms and the transformation of education discourses. The current curriculum and pedagogies, including that of Technology Education, are largely devoid of indigenous perspectives. Loeven et al. (2018) indicate that there is a lack of authentic and relevant learning opportunities for indigenous learners in formalised educational settings. For Technology learners to deepen their acquisition of design skills and knowledge, therefore, Technology teachers should primarily teach the subject from an indigenous perspective. Buntu (2013) believes that within African epistemology, emphasis has been engraved on learning processes, in particular imparting of wisdom and skills from generation to generation. Teachers who work in African contexts (and other indigenous contexts in the world) should therefore make those contexts their basis for teaching and learning. Harris (1988) purports that an Afrocentric epistemology validates reality through a combination of historical knowledge and intuition. Wa Thiong’o (1986) states that how we see a thing, even with our eyes, is very much dependent on where we stand in relationship to it. Thus, learning can only be meaningful if it relates to the context of the learner. The belief that only Western knowledge is valuable needs to be revisited. Hence, this chapter reviews the discourses on African indigenous knowledge and technology, provides indigenous perspectives on Technology Education, and explore experiential and cooperative strategies as indigenous-relevant strategies to teach design skills.

16 Learning Strategies that Promote an Integration of Indigenous …

257

16.2 Indigenous Technology as a Learning Catalyst IK is a vital and unique resource that indigenous people use to execute their daily activities. According to Gumbo (2017), indigenous technology refers to the use of traditional methods and locally available resources to produce essential goods for purposes of sale or consumption. Mawere (2015) concurs that indigenous knowledge is generated by societal members through trial and error as members seek solutions to their daily problems. Bruchac (2014) concedes that indigenous knowledge is learned through phenomenological experience and everyday activities. Indigenous people who possess indigenous knowledge preserve it as they believe that IK plays a significant role in their communities. According to Bruchac (2014), more specialised types of indigenous knowledge and skills are preserved by gatekeepers such as tribal leaders, ritual practitioners, and medicine people. The IK can be transmitted to novices orally from gatekeepers. Bruchac (2014) argues that oral traditions can have both practical and ritual aspects. On a practical level, indigenous peoples have developed technologies that enable successful hunting and gathering. Maluleke and Gumbo (2019a) maintain that indigenous environments are rich in local technological knowledge and skills that can enrich learning in Technology Education. According to Fox-Turnbull (2018), the usage of funds of knowledge from homes, peer networks, and communities may assist Technology learners. The usage of funds of knowledge is a useful way to facilitate inter-student talk in technology. Classroom talk is perhaps more important in Technology than in some other curriculum areas because of its practical nature. Indigenous knowledge may be used in different fields of education. Mawere (2015) observed that many traditional communities have the same content areas as those found in formal education. For instance, many communities teach their members about beliefs and practices related to food preparation and preservation, medicine, animal husbandry, and others. All these areas are also taught at school which means that indigenous knowledge represents an important Technology subject. More transformation is required in order to decolonise the teaching of design skills. Gumbo (2017) points out that in order to transform the conceptualisation of Technology Education, other multiple realities evident in learners’ knowledge and different contexts should be observed, in particular indigenous and other multicultural contexts. There is a distinct relationship between indigenous technology and indigenous knowledge. According to Gumbo (2017), indigenous technology can be defined to cover complex fields in which technological designs and devices are self-expressive, i.e. from woven baskets and handicrafts, to the technologies such as looms, textile, jewellery, and brass-work manufacture, and technological knowledge in agriculture, fishing, forestry, and architecture. Indigenous people utilise indigenous knowledge to design indigenous technologies. Indigenous knowledge is a tacit knowledge and therefore difficult to codify, it is embedded in community practices. Indigenous knowledge can be used in inculcating design skills in learners. According to Lukong (2016), marginalised groups, including indigenous peoples, face multiple barriers to

258

R. Maluleke and M. T. Gumbo

education and are being left behind in terms of educational achievement. HamiltonEkeke and Dorgu (2015) explain that learners of all backgrounds can benefit from being exposed to indigenous education. Technology learners may benefit a great deal if IK is integrated into the Technology classroom. Maluleke and Gumbo (2019b) state that the relevant teaching and learning methods can help Technology learners to acquire design skills. Fox-Turnbull (2018) argues that teaching pedagogies need to become more flexible to facilitate a wide range of learners’ interests and needs and include the development of skills and knowledge vital for the twenty-first century such as collaboration, cooperation, critical thinking, and problem-solving. Gumbo (2017) argues that the cultural aspect of Technology is crucial for consideration, particularly in the teaching and learning situation.

16.3 Exploring the Integration of Indigenous Technology Through a Cooperative Learning Strategy According to Gillies (2016), cooperative learning involves learners working together to achieve common goals or complete group tasks. Schiele (1994) states that the role of the student would be that of a cooperative learner who is concerned with the collective survival of the class. To facilitate collective survival, efforts would be aimed at strengthening weaker learners while providing continued support to learners who are not as weak. According to Gumbo (2014), we feel the substance of Ubuntu when we flock together, share fellowship over a meal, and show solidarity and empathy towards one another. Gumbo further states that our approach to life is communalistic rather than individualistic. The indigenous Tsonga people in South Africa can create circular groups in the evening which are intended for sharing knowledge and skills. Technology teachers should create circular groups which allow learners to learn from each other. In circular groups, learners from different backgrounds can share their distinctive knowledge and skills. Technology teachers can use discussing, brainstorming, and role-playing techniques to promote cooperative learning in their classes for integrating indigenous knowledge. Technology learners can acquire design skills through role-playing design skills in their distinctive circular groups. Technology learners should listen to and re-tell stories told by their elders, and thereafter they role-play the design skills used by indigenous elders. According to Rosenberg et al. (2008), when learners re-write stories, they imagine alternatives. The Technology learners should be told situating stories; they should be told stories that allow them to identify with an issue or concern which needs a technological solution. Collaborative learning methods can be used to promote the integration of IK. Cushner et al. (2003) agree that collaborative classrooms should involve teachers, other school personnel, parents, and community members. In collaborative learning, indigenous people can be accommodated to share their expertise with Technology learners and teachers. The Department of Education (2002) claims that in Technology

16 Learning Strategies that Promote an Integration of Indigenous …

259

classrooms, teachers provide real-life opportunities for learners to interact with each other in their groups when they make products. Technology learners are also in a partnership with the members of their communities. According to Fox-Turnbull (2018), thinking collectively is an activity in which knowledge and understanding are reached through conflict, debate, and cooperation; oral conversation (talk) is a vital component of these processes. Cushner et al. (2003) indicate that collaborative classrooms suggest a shift away from individualism. Technology teachers should promote collectivism in design process activities in order to allow learners to help each other in their groups. Technology teachers should discourage individualism in their classrooms as it can suppress the acquisition of design skills. Initial ideas can emerge easily when learners work in groups and can stimulate each other to think creatively. Even engineers usually work in teams and even consult with other teams that specialise in different fields. A Technology learner who learns in isolation cannot benefit from the knowledge of other learners. Collaboration between learners from different knowledge systems can enhance their design skills in Technology Education. By collaborating in design activity, learners can produce appropriate technological models. Fleischmann (2015) explains that the democratisation of design will allow more non-designers to become involved in generating ideas and producing products. Travelyan (2009) advises that teachers should allow learners to explore possible solutions and identify needs. Technology teachers should allow their learners to work together to identify and solve technological problems. Schiele (1994) posits that in collaborative learning, learners strive to assist each other in learning in order to succeed together as a team. Teachers may assist learners with learning barriers and provide support to those with high intellectual capabilities. Technology teachers are supposed to give full support to learners who are struggling with their design activities. This is corroborated by Schiele (1994), who states that from an Afrocentric perspective, teachers provide support to less capable learners and also allow excellent learners in design to use IK to assist those who struggle with design.

16.4 Exploring the Integration of Indigenous Technology Through an Experiential Learning Strategy Experiential learning plays a pivotal role in promoting active learning in indigenous communities. Indigenous elders use experiential learning to cultivate practical skills in their children. Experiential learning is learning by doing. O’Connor (2010) explains that experiential education is the process of learning by doing which begins with the learner engaging in direct experience followed by reflection. Rosenberg et al. (2008) argue that learning is effective when it is situated in a place. According to Hill (2018), situatedness is learning that is situated in a context where it would be used in the world outside of a classroom. The learning should be situated in real life and the learners’ lifeworld.

260

R. Maluleke and M. T. Gumbo

Technology teachers should afford learners the opportunity to use experiential learning which they are accustomed to in order to promote effective learning. Learning which is situated in a place that is known by learners can make learning meaningful. Technology teachers should attempt to expose learners to the real world in order to develop learners holistically. Ezeanya-Esiobu (2019) advises that learners should be exposed to as much as possible of the real world and not just to a fraction of it, and adds that education should assist individuals within a society to understand their lived reality. Technology teachers should strive to use experiential learning to integrate indigenous knowledge which learners have acquired at home. According to Maluleke and Gumbo (2022), learners’ investigative skills can be developed by designing investigation activities that will encourage them to inquire from elders and indigenous experts in the communities about the design of products and how they are designed. Technology teachers could use case studies, field trips, and videos (of elders making an artefact) to promote an experiential learning strategy in their class for integrating indigenous knowledge. Technology teachers could invite community-based knowledge holders to come to demonstrate indigenous skills to learners. According to Rosenberg et al. (2008), reflecting on indigenous ways of knowing enables learners to situate their learning within their cultural context and draw on their prior knowledge and experiences. The usage of experiential learning to integrate indigenous knowledge can be used to supplement new design skills that learners are expected to acquire. According to Ahmad et al. (2014), curriculum content and pedagogies, therefore, need to be informed by experiences gained in familiar contexts so that knowledge and skills developed can be employed to solve community problems. According to Lewis and Williams (1994), experiential education first immerses learners in an experience and then encourages reflection about the experience to develop new skills, new attitudes, or new ways of thinking. Experiential learning is relevant in teaching learners to acquire new design skills. Lewis and Williams (1994) argue that learners bring to the learning setting a wealth of prior experience and are eager to draw upon their background and previous learning in the classroom. Technology learners should always be allowed to use their indigenous knowledge to solve technological problems. The acquisition of design skills should therefore be related to indigenous contexts in order to allow learners to apply their IK to enrich their design skills. Technology teachers can organise visits to, for example, industries and the homes of indigenous elders to show learners how design occurs in various environments. Sears (2003) is in favour of teaching learners by exposing them to real contexts and states that learning can take place at many sites or in multiple contexts, and not only in classrooms. This is in tune with the traditional approach in many African contexts, which is that learning happens outside the classroom walls, for instance at initiation schools, or when an elder teaches young children how humans can benefit from what is provided by the natural world. Teachers could also invite indigenous experts as para-teachers and consider designing technological activities that connect with different contexts, including indigenous contexts.

16 Learning Strategies that Promote an Integration of Indigenous …

261

Authentic learning in Technology can play a significant role in classrooms. According to Hill (2018), in the context of Technology Education, authentic learning is defined as learning that connects what is learned in school to the world outside of school. The TE content should reflect what Technology learners encounter in real life and should allow them to design from their contexts first. Mays (2014) maintains that how people understand things, and hence what they know, is strongly influenced by their cultural contexts. An understanding of cultural contexts will help Technology learners to design relevant and user-friendly artefacts. Van Putten et al. (2014) state that culture-rich classrooms provide ample opportunities for learners to solve unfamiliar contextual problems and become familiar with other people’s social worlds. According to Slatter and France (2018), the basic premise of authentic learning is that learners develop more engagement with their learning if they can connect what they are learning about inside the classroom to their real world outside the classroom door. Fox-Turnbull (2018) concedes that authentic learning in Technology Education means that learners need to be involved in practices that reflect an understanding of the culture of real technological practice because skills and knowledge are far less relevant and meaningful if taught in isolation. According to Fox-Turnbull (2018), Technology learners should be engaged in context-based problem-solving to understand and develop products and systems. Darling-Hammond et al. (2020) concur that teaching should build on and expand children’s prior knowledge and experiences, both to scaffold learning effectively as it expands to new areas of content and skills and to inform practices that are individually and culturally responsive. According to Hill (2018), in authentic learning, learners select the context for learning that is meaningful to them, for example, a project; learners typically work in groups, and projects can be linked to needs in the community outside the class.

16.5 Cooperative Learning Strategy as a Stimulant to Integrate IK to Inculcate Design Skills A cooperative learning strategy can be used as a stimulant for the acquisition of design skills. Technology teachers can use a cooperative learning strategy to integrate IK into teaching design skills. According to Lewis and Williams (1994), responsive teachers are able to capitalise on the prior experience of their learners as a catalyst for new learning; in experiential classrooms, learners can process real-life scenarios. Kangas and Seitamaa-Hakkarainen (2018) explain that design problems are complex and multidisciplinary in nature and competence in design results largely from interaction and collaboration with other individuals. Darling-Hammond et al. (2020) concur that collaborative learning is an important classroom tool that can be used to provide learners with learning assistance from peers within their zone of proximal development, and opportunities to articulate their ideas.

262

R. Maluleke and M. T. Gumbo

Fox-Turnbull (2018) explains that in authentic technological practice, working collaboratively in teams on the development of products is a common practice. FoxTurnbull (2018) explains further that while working on the collaborative projects at school, learners need to be encouraged to engage in and use home, cultural, and community experiences. The study of Fox-Turnbull (2018) showed that two learners were able to contribute both knowledge and skills when working with wood collaboratively as one father worked in the construction industry and the other had built a tree house with his children. This is evidence that cooperative strategy can be used as a stimulant in helping Technology learners to acquire design skills. As Technology Education is based on hands-on and mind-on activities, Technology teachers can use the cooperative learning strategy to teach learners to coconstruct knowledge. Technology learners should learn to work together in groups to solve technological problems and achieve learning goals, which could be advantageous to all the group members. Cooperative learning can also help learners to acquire social skills. Ubuntu can play a pivotal role in teaching learners to work together in order to co-create knowledge in Technology. The Ubuntu principles such as teamwork, solidarity, sharing, and respect can be used as a catalyst to promote cooperative learning in Technology classrooms. Group work can promote the development of higher-order thinking skills, such as critical thinking skills. The learners can discuss their different interpretations of technological concepts, which will challenge them to think deeply. This may encourage them to create new knowledge in their groups. Technology learners should not rely on existing knowledge only but should be challenged to develop higher-order thinking skills through involvement in group work. Hill (2018) states that learning generally occurs in small groups and enables learners to draw on prior knowledge of the topic area and identify gaps in existing knowledge as they work through the problem-solving process. The Technology teacher as a facilitator of learning can allocate different roles to learners such as being chair, scriber, and spokesperson. The learners who work in groups perform better than those working on their own. In teamwork, learners who are intellectually more advanced can help those with learning difficulties. All learners can learn something from each other. Technology learners should therefore always strive to have a symbiotic relationship with each other. The participants indicated that it is very important to promote the spirit of teamwork by guiding learners. Technology learners should learn to respect the ideas of other learners in their groups, particularly during brainstorming sessions. The Technology learners should not undermine each other and so allow different ideas to emerge. They should never discourage the use of IK and should learn to accommodate each other in their groups. The findings of this study revealed that learners working together in groups and respecting the different views of other learners may be more successful in solving technological problems than those who work alone. Teamwork can be beneficial to all the learners in a group as it helps them to generate many different ideas that can be considered to find the best idea for solving a technological problem. According to Fox-Turnbull (2018), when undertaking technological practice, learners share, discuss, debate, and draw from their funds of knowledge to engage with their peers to design technological products.

16 Learning Strategies that Promote an Integration of Indigenous …

263

Learners’ funds of knowledge are a valuable source of practical and theoretical knowledge in Technology. Technology learners should be taught that knowledge is not static. According to Dakers (2018), from a rhizomatic perspective, knowledge is not fixed; knowledge is constructed within a social milieu. Dakers (2018) explains that in a nomadic classroom, knowledge cannot be transferred from expert to novice. Dakers (2018) adds that knowledge is co-constructed by everyone present in the classroom with each, in turn, bringing their own life experiences to the subject matter in question. According to this author, there is a symbiotic relationship between human beings, the natural world, and the development of technology. Technology learners should be given the opportunity to construct knowledge and skills in Technology classrooms. The teacher’s role is to facilitate, not to impose. Dakers (2018) argues that Technology Education, in particular, is always context-bound and cannot take place in a vacuum. The Technology learning content should be derived from the daily experiences of learners. New learning should be linked with what learners already know. Collaborative designing refers to a process in which learners actively communicate and work together in identifying design constraints, creating and sharing design ideas, deliberately making joint decisions, and producing shared prototypes. Jin (2021) advises Technology teachers should engage learners in collaborative group work with a dialogical or communicative focus, which can promote the acquisition of design skills. Kangas and Seitamaa-Hakkarainen (2018) explain that as with any other form of intelligence, design competence is not a given “talent” or “gift,” but can be learned and developed. The study of Darling-Hammond et al. (2020) revealed that teachers achieved stronger outcomes by seeking to understand and support learners’ thinking in collaborative learning experiences.

16.6 Experiential Learning Strategy as a Stimulant to the Integration of IK for Inculcating Design Skills Technology teachers may use an experiential learning strategy as an agent for integrating IK for learners to acquire design skills. According to Kangas and SeitamaaHakkarainen (2018), design is at the core of Technology Education, and neither design nor technology can be fully appreciated without an understanding of the other. Kangas and Seitamaa-Hakkarainen (2018) advise that learners should be guided to constantly move between thinking and doing activities, in order for knowledge creation to take place on social, material, and embodied levels of interaction. According to Strobel (2018), Technology learners should acquire conceptual and procedural knowledge for designing technological products; for example, if one wants to learn the correct procedures that are necessary to design a car, one first needs to have an understanding of basic concepts such as acceleration and rotation. According to Strobel (2018), there should be a close correspondence between the real-world demands, the practice of technologists, and the academic conditions that

264

R. Maluleke and M. T. Gumbo

Technology Education programmes offer to Technology learners. Technology Education should be aimed at closing the mismatch between what Technology learners learn and what they will experience in the world of work. Technology learning content should indeed match the practices of technologists. Strobel (2018) explains that engineering relies on harnessing the knowledge, expertise, and skills carried by many people, much of it being implicit and unwritten knowledge. Therefore, the Technology subject should include indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems to inculcate design skills. Many Technology learners may benefit extensively when they learn by seeing. Graube and Mammes (2018) state that cooperation between industrial partners, schools, as well as scholarships seems to be meaningful in order to ensure the achievement of the Technology Education objective. Technology learners should frequently be afforded an opportunity to learn on excursions. According to Van As (2018), the excursion is a field trip, instructional trip, or school journey, which is defined to be a trip with an educational intent, where learners interact with the setting to gain an experiential connection to the ideas, concepts, and subject matter. During excursions, learners are taken to locations that are unique and cannot be replicated in the classroom. Each learner observes natural (industrial) settings and creates personally relevant meaning to the experience. Maluleke and Gumbo (2019a) argue that the knowledge and skills that indigenous learners have acquired from their cultural settings are equally valid as conventional knowledge and skills and should therefore be honoured in the teaching of design skills to the learners. It is in this sense that indigenous knowledge should form part of the learners’ learning so that they will graduate not only as conventional designers but as indigenous designers as well. Experiential learning strategy can be used to afford learners an opportunity to learn by doing. According to Sudarman (2018), in experiential learning first, the learner is assigned to carry out concrete experiments. Experiential learning is very relevant in Technology Education; learners are placed in a workshop that has been prepared for practical activities. This is a way to improve thinking skills and achievement related to real-life work activities that can be applied to several population groups. Maluleke and Gumbo (2019a) agree that the ability to link IK with the new situation may facilitate the acquisition of design skills in the learning of Technology. Silver (2021) states that experiential learning is all about hands-on learning and reflection, a learner develops the understanding of a concept that enables deeper learning. According to Jin (2021), the indigenous knowledge holders can guide learners as mentors when learners are engaged with technological activities on field trips. They can guide learners when they are involved in culturally relevant activities; they can offer lectures on cultural traditions via storytelling. According to Maluleke (2013), most creative work can happen if learners are open to their immediate surroundings. Experiential learning can be used in the teaching of design skills to relate learning to the learners’ contexts. The participating teachers described experiential learning as learning that allows learners to learn outside their classrooms. It can occur in different settings, such as a laboratory, a factory, a library, or a home. Learners are taught by allowing them to observe a phenomenon in reality. This kind of learning is crucial in Technology, which is mostly

16 Learning Strategies that Promote an Integration of Indigenous …

265

a practical subject. Seeing how certain products are actually made can help learners to acquire the necessary making skills. Learners should visit their elders to see how they produce indigenous artefacts. Technology learners do not have to be taken to a conventional industrial environment only. Given that teaching in indigenous settings happens spontaneously and mostly in an open environment, the idea of confining technology to the conventional industrial environment is a blunder that denies the vibrancy of IK. Maluleke and Gumbo (2022) state that familiar knowledge can scaffold Technology learners into new knowledge. The usage of familiar knowledge and skills can assist learners to understand new technological concepts which they are acquiring. Learners can have first-hand experience in making products, which will help them to understand different processing techniques such as welding, grinding, sawing, and moulding. Learners can learn the skill of moulding by observing their elders while they are making bricks from mud to build a house. They can acquire indigenous processing techniques at home and apply them at school. This type of learning, which connects formal learning to learning outside the classroom can inspire learners. Technology teachers should avoid teaching only abstract concepts as Technology is a practical subject. The abstract teaching of technological concepts may result in learners memorising learning content without understanding, which is detrimental to learning. Maluleke and Gumbo (2022) claim that if teachers do not teach Technology in a way that relates to the learners’ culture, they might diminish their interest in the subject. The participants indicated that if you teach learners technological concepts that are related to what they know, you promote understanding. Gumbo (2017) posits that the known technologies and technologists in indigenous contexts should be part of the content and celebrated in the subject instead of drawing from western content only. This author believes that this will inspire indigenous learners in their learning of the subject because they will identify with the content easily. The participants indicated that in order to retain knowledge longer, learners should gain a thorough understanding of technological concepts and should also be able to apply their knowledge in real-world situations. In the subject of Technology, learners should learn by doing. Learning by doing enables Technology learners to solve problems; the participants believed that experiential learning is the key to enabling learners to solve real problems in their communities. They also pointed out that when teaching, Technology teachers should use examples with which their learners are familiar. Maluleke and Gumbo (2022) agree that problems are not always similar and learners can use indigenous technology as a starting point for solving new technological problems. Technology teachers should give their learners problems that allow them to find different solutions in different contexts. It was further suggested that Technology learners should use role-play activities to practise what they have seen in the field. Technology learners should be afforded opportunities to observe indigenous experts while they are making products and should then practise duplicating what they have seen. If learners keep on practising those skills, learners will eventually be able to master the design skills taught in their Technology classrooms. Technology teachers should create an environment that allows the learners to use their indigenous knowledge in creating new products.

266

R. Maluleke and M. T. Gumbo

16.7 Conclusion This chapter has argued that experiential learning allows learners to learn outside classrooms, it can be used to incorporate IK in the teaching of design skills. Since learners can learn at home and other out-of-school locations, experiential learning allows them to acquire knowledge and skills from their elders. This study suggests that Technology learners should visit their elders, indigenous experts, and other community members to learn more about the various skills they use to make artefacts. Technology learners should not rely only on the skills and knowledge taught in their classrooms but must understand that some things learned outside classrooms may be helpful when they design new products. Experiential learning can be used to facilitate learning by observing and practising skills outside their classrooms. Technology learners may acquire design skills through interacting with real objects outside their classrooms. This chapter revealed that Technology learners can use Ubuntu principles to promote cooperative learning. This study revealed that Technology learners can work together to identify and solve technological problems in a symbiotic relationship. They should respect each other’s ideas and work together to achieve a common goal. They should also promote indigenous ways of designing products in order for cooperative learning to thrive. Technology teachers should teach learners to understand that all learners are equal and every idea is significant. However, ideas vary in terms of solving technological problems. When learners work together they can help each other, and cooperative learning that acknowledges different knowledge systems can lead to the creation of designs that can solve technological problems. The integration of indigenous technology can benefit Technology learners and their communities in different ways. The incorporation of indigenous technology can help learners to acquire design skills which will ultimately reduce the unemployment rate.

References Ahmad, A. K., Krogh, E., & Gjøtterud, S. M. (2014). Reconsidering the philosophy of Education for Self-Reliance (ESR) from an experiential learning perspective in contemporary education in Tanzania. Educational Research for Social Change, 3(1), 3–19. Bruchac, M. (2014). Indigenous knowledge and traditional knowledge. In C. Smith (Ed.), Encyclopedia of global archaeology. Springer. Buntu, B. A. O. (2013). Claiming self: The role of Afrikology in social transformation. Scriptura, 112(1), 1–12. http://scriptura.journals.ac.za. Accessed on 10 June 2021. Cushner, K., McClelland, A., & Safford, P. (2003). Human diversity in education: An integrative approach. McGraw-Hill. Custer, R. L. (1995). Examining the dimensions of technology. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 5(3), 219–244. Dakers, J. R. (2018). Nomadology: A lens to explore the concept of technological literacy. In M. J. De Vries (Ed), Handbook of Technology Education. Springer.

16 Learning Strategies that Promote an Integration of Indigenous …

267

Darling-Hammond, L., Flook, L., Cook-Harvey, C., Barron, B., & Osher, D. (2020). Implications for educational practice of the science of learning and development. Applied Developmental Science, 24(2), 97–140. Department of Education. (2002). Revised National Curriculum Statement GradesR–9 (Schools) Technology. Government Printers. Ezeanya-Esiobu, C. (2019). Indigenous knowledge and education in Africa. Springer. Fleischmann, K. (2015). After the Big Bang: What is next in design education. Special Issue: 10th Anniversary, 8(3), 123–142. Fox-Turnbull, W. (2018). Teaching and learning in technology: Section introduction. In M. J. De Vries (Ed.), Handbook of Technology Education. Springer. Gillies, R. M. (2016). Cooperative learning: Review of research and practice. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 41(3), 38–54. Graube, G., & Mammes, I. (2018). Industry involvement in Technology Education. In M. J. De Vries (Ed.), Handbook of Technology Education. Springer. Gumbo, M. T. (2014). Elders decry the loss of Ubuntu. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(10), 67–77. Gumbo, M. T. (2017). An indigenous perspective on Technology Education. In P. Ngulube (Ed.), Handbook of research on Indigenous Knowledge Systems in developing countries (pp. 137–160). IGI. Hamilton-Ekeke, J. T., & Dorgu, E. T. (2015). Curriculum and indigenous education for technological advancement. British Journal of Education, 3(11), 32–39. Harris, N. (1988). A philosophy basis for an Afrocentric orientation. In J. D. Hamlet (Ed.), Afrocentric vision: Studies in culture and communication. Sage. Hill, A. N. (2018). Authentic learning and Technology Education. In M. J. De Vries (Ed.), Handbook of Technology Education. Springer. Jin, Q. (2021). Supporting Indigenous students in science and STEM education: A systematic review. Education Science, 11(555). https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11090555. Accessed 27 September 2021. Kangas, K., & Seitamaa-Hakkarainen, P. (2018). Collaborative design work in Technology Education. In M. J. De Vries (Ed.), Handbook of Technology Education. Springer. Lewis, L. H., & Williams, C. J. (1994). Experiential learning: Past and present. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 62, 5–16. Loeven, J., Kinshuk & Suhonen, J. (2018). I-DIGEST framework: Towards authentic learning for indigenous learners. Smart Learning Environ, 5(4), 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-0180053-2. Accessed on 17 April 2021. Lukong, T. E. (2016). Indigenous peoples education: Priorities for inclusive education, a case of Cameroon. International Journal of History and Cultural Studies, 2(3), 17–27. Maluleke, R. (2013). The role of technology teachers’ knowledge in promoting Grade 7 leaners’ higher order thinking skills at Johannesburg West District of Gauteng Province (Unpublished MEd dissertation). University of South Africa. Maluleke, R., & Gumbo, M. T. (2019a). Technology teachers’ knowledge of culturally relevant assessment: Recipe for enhancing learners’ acquisition of design skills. Paper presented at South Africa International Conference on Education, Pretoria, South Africa. Maluleke, R., & Gumbo, M. T. (2019b). A cultural responsive pedagogy for teaching design skills in Technology: An indigenous perspective. Paper presented at 27th Annual Conference of the South African Association for Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education (SAARMSTE), Durban, South Africa. Maluleke, R., & Gumbo, M. T. (2022). Applying a culturally responsive pedagogy to promote indigenous technology in teaching design skills. In P. J. Williams & B. von Mengersen (Eds.), Applications of research in Technology Education. Springer. Mawere, M. (2015). Indigenous knowledge and public education in Sub-Saharan. Africa Spectrum, 50(2), 57–71.

268

R. Maluleke and M. T. Gumbo

Mays, T. (2014). Teaching, learning and curriculum resources. In P. du Preez & C. Reddy (Eds.), Curriculum studies: Visions and imagining. Pearson. Mwinzi, J. M. (2016). Towards the Africanisation of teacher education: A critical reflection. International Journal and Research, 4(9), 377–386. O’Connor, K. (2010). Experiential learning in an indigenous context: Integration of place, experience and criticality in education practice. Canadian Council on Learning. Rosenberg, E., O’Donoghue, R., & Olvitt, L. (2008). Methods and processes to support changeoriented learning. Rhodes University. Schiele, J. H. (1994). Africentricity: Implications for higher education. Journal of Black Studies, 25(2), 150–169. Sears, S. (2003). Introduction to contextual teaching and learning. Phi Delta Kappa Fastbacks. Shidza, E. (2013). Rethinking contemporary sub-Saharan African school knowledge: Restoring the indigenous African cultures. International Journal for Cross Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), 4(1), 1870–1878. Silver, T. (2021). Using principles of experiential learning to promote effective learning among english language learners. Journal of Education & Social Policy, 8(1), 104–110. Slatter, W., & France, B. (2018). Community of practice: Pedagogical strategies for linking communities of practice to the classroom. In M. J. De Vries (Ed.), Handbook of Technology Education. Springer. Strobel, J. (2018). Technology Education as a practiced-based discipline. In M. J. De Vries (Ed.), Handbook of Technology Education. Springer. Sudarman, E. (2018). Experiential versus cooperative learning: Training of shielded metal arc and oxy-acetylene welding at vocational high school Karawang, Indonesia. International Journal of Education and Psychology in the Community, 8(1&2), 157–173. Travelyan, J. P. (2009). Engineering education requires a better model of engineering. Paper presented at the Research in Engineering Education Practice. Symposium. Carns, Australia. Van As, F. (2018). Developing technology student teachers’ volition through curriculum related excursions. Paper presented at PATT36 conference. Westmeath, Ireland. Van Putten, S., Botha, J., Mofolo-Mbokane, B., Mwambakana, J., & Stols, G. (2014). The culturerich mathematics class: Maximising learning opportunities. In S. Vandeyar (Ed.), Good practice in culture-rich classrooms: Research-informed perspectives. Oxford University Press. Wa Thiong’o, N. (1986). Decolonising the mind: The politics of language in African Literature. Heinemann.

Chapter 17

Integrating Indigenous Technology into Science and Technology Rif’ati Dina Handayani

and Triyanto

Abstract Integrating indigenous science and technology in learning needs to be considered as one of the possible ways to learn traditional knowledge, attitudes, and skills. This chapter reviews how to integrate indigenous technology into the science learning classroom. Integration is one way to introduce indigenous technology to the younger generation, especially students. Students must understand, observe, and consider indigenous science and technology. This chapter proposes six stages to integrate indigenous technological knowledge into science learning involving (1) collecting and identifying indigenous technology, (2) selecting a topic and conducting a suitability analysis, (3) designing lesson plans, (4) implementing the learning design, (5) reflecting and evaluating, and (6) developing further consideration. Integrating indigenous technological knowledge in the class will make learning science more relevant and have more profound meaning and more affluent understanding. It will also be appropriate for students with different cultural backgrounds to build their own identities. Therefore, building relations and social networks between teachers and the indigenous community is necessary based on belief, respect, and mutualism. Keywords Indigenous knowledge · Indigenous technology · Science learning

17.1 Introduction Technology is an essential word in the world. Technology has been represented in industry, manufacturing, engineering, and information processing (Dillon, 1993). Agar (2020) defines technology as a means designed to achieve goals. It relates to the activities directed to fulfill human needs and produces alterations. The technology R. D. Handayani (B) University of Jember, Jember, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] Triyanto Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_17

269

270

R. D. Handayani and Triyanto

involves implementing ideas to devices, techniques, methods, and procreation. Technology is an application of scientific knowledge to achieve particular goals. It consists of mental and physical effort to attain exact value and purpose (Lewis, 2000). From a critical point of view, the study of the significance of indigenous technology in the modern era could look at the lives of the elderly far removed from modern technology. Indigenous technology has played a substantial role in the daily activities of people (Huaman & Swentzell, 2021). Indigenous people from time immemorial have been blessed with life skill and knowledge that helps them produce something for their survival (Nhemachena et al., 2020). Indigenous technology derives from applying knowledge collected and experienced over time in accomplishing desired results utilizing guided rules and the resources within the environment (Ngozi, 2014; Osuala, 2012). This technology provides a practical way to certain systematic or methodological aspects of anthropologists’ data regarding accurate and actual world view context. Briefly, indigenous technologies arise when applications of indigenous knowledge into tools, techniques, procedures, and processes help solve problems (Siyanbola et al., 2012). Indigenous technology refers to a product of indigenous peoples’ thought that must be preserved for educational and cultural sustainability. Indigenous technology is the application of indigenous knowledge, skills, and resources passed down by indigenous communities to their youth in their cultural setting to manipulate the environment to fulfill their needs and existence (Maluleka et al., 2006). Indigenous technology is taught in informal education to achieve the indigenous people’s interaction with natural environments. In its development, traditional technology becomes the basis and root of recent technology (Ibitoye, 2011). Differences in technology ideas in the modern and the indigenous context have a natural impact, giving rise to cultural intersections and societal imbalances regarding the loss of values. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce indigenous technology into science rather than focusing on technology as a subject. One of the most effective ways to strengthen and sustain indigenous technology in education is integrating indigenous technology through learning and curriculum in schools (Baquete et al., 2016; McKinley & Stewart, 2012; Regmi & Fleming, 2012).

17.2 Concept of Indigenous Technology The human mind has developed through the assimilation and accommodation process known as a science preconception (Handayani, 2019). Human perception becomes a preconception of science relative to time and places with the culture. The indigenous elders’ experience, thinking, and observations are used as the basis for building perceptions, hypotheses, imaginations, beliefs, and life skills, which during the period between generations become evidence of problem-solving (De Beer & Whitlock, 2009; Hart, 2010). Indigenous knowledge is broadly described as indigenous people’s knowledge of a particular culture in the local community (Zidny et al., 2021). Khupe (2014) defines indigenous knowledge as a complex all-inclusive knowledge that

17 Integrating Indigenous Technology into Science and Technology

271

includes existing technologies and practices of indigenous peoples who still maintain their existence, sustain life, and become accustomed to the environment. It covers historical stories, myths, legends, culture, art, music, speaking, writing languages, scientific discoveries, social networks, technologies, and life skills (Alessa et al., 2016; McInnes, 2017). Indigenous communities have developed a rich array of nature-based technologies constructed upon place-based knowledge-belief-practice methods grown and adapted over considerable ages (Cassin & Ochoa-Tocachi, 2021). The term indigenous technology broadly refers to knowledge and skills about nature and the environment produced, held, and used by indigenous people due to their interactions with nature (Ngozi, 2014). Indigenous technology is the entirety of indigenous tools and technical know-how created by people in their locality to maintain the environment for their survival and fulfill needs (Nhemachena et al., 2020). Ibitoye (2011) defines indigenous technology as the result of the thoughts and experiences of indigenous people in those communities to achieve some purpose for their survival and solve a real-world problem. It is a product of indigenous knowledge that involves art, creativity, and innovation. Also, it is a set of processes, methods, techniques, skills, tools, machines, and products that exist and are developed by utilizing nature by the local community appropriated to environmental conditions. The technologies are passed down from hand to hand from generation to generation (Goldman & Lovell, 2017; Howes, 2009; Sharma et al., 2009). The technology includes accumulating experiences generated by indigenous people and integrating with culture to fulfill life’s needs, solving problems while maintaining sustainability and a harmonious relationship with nature (Hill et al., 2020; Umoh & Jacob, 2020). Indigenous technology is often found in the most straightforward tools and simple methods to manage natural resources (Fig. 17.1), such as irrigation systems, traditional rice threshers, weaving, pottery, and bamboo fishing nets. It is reaching a wide use of human manual for operating. This skillfully shows creativity and art with unique characteristics. The creative and artistic expression of the technology in indigenous products implies the indigenous cultures that produce them (Maluleka et al., 2006). The remarkable characteristics of indigenous technology are ‘local,’ as it is rooted in a particular area and established within more comprehensive cultural traditions. Jha (2006) identified five significant characteristics of indigenous technology: (1) low capital intensive because the implementation and impact usually are environments pleasant; (2) sustainable; (3) local and distinct and have limited adaptability; (4) distributed and spread across small homogenous areas; (5) the output generates not adequate yet, and small increments in production. Briefly, the facets of indigenous technology include (1) a product of indigenous people’s thought and experience; (2) passed down from generation to generation orally and behaviorally for survival and a way of living; (3) holistic or comprehensive and not partially; (4) has the characteristics or uniqueness of a particular region or local; (5) blend with culture, practices, and beliefs; and (6) harmonizing with nature.

272

R. D. Handayani and Triyanto

Fig. 17.1 (a) Gepyok (traditional rice thresher), (b) Garu (traditional leveling the land), (c) Gerabah (poetry) (d) Paletan (yarn spinner). Source (a), (b), (c) copyrights of Handayani (2021), (d) copyright of Triyanto (2012)

17.3 The Significance of Indigenous Technology Indigenous science and indigenous technology are considered branches of knowledge concerned with the set of concepts about the nature of the specific culture to improve the creation of typical structures. Indigenous technology is not a theory but more practice of life skills. The method of life skills is carried out in the most straightforward technology, such as traditional tools made of bamboo and wood. It is seen that indigenous technology is pragmatic and practical since it is a set of repeated experiences as a way of living and problem-solving for human sustainability. Indigenous technology is beneficial for scientists and technologists, not just the local community. Some current technology is developing traditional technology (Goldman & Lovell, 2017; Ibitoye, 2011). In essence, indigenous technology is still relevant to the sciences, such as agriculture, architecture, and nature related. Indigenous technology illustrated how the traditional world works through cultural and scientific processes involving all the senses through physical, logical, and rational (Snively & Corsiglia, 2000). Indigenous technology transforms indigenous peoples’ thoughts and creativity. This raises a reciprocal relationship between humans and nature. The most exciting aspect of indigenous technology is that the intellectual unity that indigenous peoples give on

17 Integrating Indigenous Technology into Science and Technology

273

Fig. 17.2 Reciprocal relationship between humans and nature

thought and experience originated from reflecting and recognizing natural signs and phenomena to meet their needs, as shown in Fig. 17.2. Primarily, indigenous technology is used to fulfill people’s needs by understanding the significance and potential of local knowledge and environmental contexts. For example, a traditional fisherman in Flores makes and uses Bubu or bamboo fishing equipment to receive more fish. Traditional fishers place the Bubu by diving and release it on the seabed, where rocks are placed on the top as ballast so that the Bubu does not move due to waves and ocean currents. The fulfillment of the communities’ needs will achieve survival and sustainability (Burns, 2015; Sandoval-Rivera, 2020). The reason why indigenous technology is relevant is because it is part of the community’s way of life that has value, special skills, and knowledge essential for harmony with nature. Further, indigenous technology provides investment opportunities for local industries with limited capital to continue to survive as a form of conservation, protection, research, and promotion of the heritage.

17.4 Integrating Indigenous Technology in Science Learning Learning plays a central role in the transmission of culture; this is accomplished when preservation is conducted from one generation to further. Education and vulture are integral and complementary with several considerations of interaction. If the learning system changes, the transmission of culture will also be warped. Integrating indigenous knowledge and technology in learning needs to be considered as a possible way to learn knowledge and skills in society. Sadler (2009) posits that the cultural and social environment should provide the context for teaching and learning activities. Learning and instruction in school must involve the socio-cultural aspects held by students (Brayboy & Castagno, 2008). A school is a place for students to learn by bringing individual cultures and experiences into their daily lives (Meyer & Crawford, 2011). Schooling prepares the students with a body of knowledge and various

274

R. D. Handayani and Triyanto

skills. It also preferentially acts as a cultural proxy, strengthening attitudes and values which are typical of a particular community (Haraldson, 1983). Students who join the classes or courses are not empty minds but get different knowledge and learning characteristics due to interaction with the daily environment in their culture (Alessa et al., 2016; Stanley & Brickhouse, 1994). In this context, students already have familiarity with concepts, science materials, technologies, and skills, where with that experience, students already have an intuition about the implementation of science in everyday life. Therefore, learning should be based on daily life and societal circumstances that construct conceptual knowledge to allow students to recognize the meaningfulness of science (Østergaard, 2017). Learning is a process of interaction between students and teachers and learning resources in a learning environment (Handayani, 2019; Handayani et al., 2018). The role of learning instruction is to prepare learners to think responsibly, critically, and creatively in reacting to the social-cultural problems and issues caused by the influence of science and technology (Stuckey et al., 2013; Zidny et al., 2021). The learners must attempt a synergy between indigenous technology and scientific knowledge in schools. They must learn, observe, remember, apply, and develop social skills, attitudes, behavior, and emotional responsibility for their environment (Retnowati et al., 2014). The development of a student’s physical and mental functions depends on inherent strengths (memory, attention, perception, and response to learning stimuli) and socio-cultural strengths (concept development, logical reasoning, and decision making) (Howe, 2002). Introducing indigenous technology to learners can assist as a bridge through which students from varying social-cultural backgrounds cross over to advanced and traditional science. Students can think about supporting life and protecting the rights and wealth of their traditions, nature, and culture from excessive exploitation, which has recently been carried out for various interests that cannot be calculated (Handayani, 2019). The need for culture-based science instruction with indigenous knowledge can facilitate the learners’ conception, skill attainment, behavior, and attitudes (Saylor et al., 2017; Zidny et al., 2021). This chapter views that learners should build and construct knowledge concerning their environment in light of their thought and experience to work toward an understanding of nature. There is a sense of care and belonging by the younger generation concerning their traditional knowledge reference. Integration is a way for traditional knowledge involving indigenous technology to get space and better access to school while at the same time validating indigenous people’s understanding of nature (Glasson et al., 2010). This integration is a form of cultural influence and responsibility for the development of education (Triyanto & Handayani, 2020). The integration also aims to maintain the existence and sustainability of the knowledge in the learning context (Chandra, 2014). The concept of integration in the curriculum can continue by involving practitioners so that learning involves real-life experiences (Fogarty, 2009). Figure 17.3 illustrates the integration of indigenous technological knowledge in the learning process. This integration will produce a more contextualized curriculum (Moyo & Kizito, 2014; Riley & Johansen, 2019), integrating indigenous technological knowledge in science learning will make technology more relevant, have

17 Integrating Indigenous Technology into Science and Technology

275

Fig. 17.3 Integration of indigenous technological knowledge in the learning process

more profound meaning, reacher understanding, and be suitable for students with different cultural backgrounds and building their own identities (De Beer & Whitlock, 2009). The integration reflects diverse student cultural backgrounds and develops their knowledge and building skills (Botha, 2012). Human nature and communal understanding and behavior of the environment are relative to time and place. The integration of indigenous technology in learning can teach students about preserving and sustaining their culture (Lange, 2018; Riley & Johansen, 2019). It is a complex combination of knowledge and skill set. Williamson and Dalal (2015) posit that integrating traditional knowledge into learning will provide sufficient space for students to explore complex cultural intersections. The integration can help learners understand the value, knowledge, and skill of traditional ways of knowing (Zidny et al., 2021). The integration also allows students to conceptualize knowledge development and improve self-identity and self-assurance (Emeagwali & Shizha, 2016; Shizha, 2014). Sterenberg (2013) stated that the purpose of integrating indigenous knowledge and technology in the science curriculum is to make students interested in learning science through their initial knowledge/preconception. Introducing indigenous technological knowledge will also make learning more meaningful and create a pleasant learning environment for learners (Bang & Medin, 2010; Diwu & Ogunniyi, 2012). In this chapter, the integration of indigenous knowledge and technology in learning science has six aspects involving: a. Ensure that there is harmony between the idea, design, and implementation of the curriculum in schools; b. Carefully taught or managed by schools and teachers; c. Easy for students to learn to understand; d. The achievement is measurable; e. Meaningful to be studied as a provision for the continuing life of student education; f. Connecting with indigenous communities or indigenous people because they are a source of valid knowledge and technology. One of the essential components in integrating indigenous technological knowledge in science learning is the teacher. A teacher is an educational agent that can introduce

276

R. D. Handayani and Triyanto

and teach indigenous technology in the science classroom thoroughly. According to van der Heijden et al. (2015), teachers have a crucial role in educational achievement. Teachers are the most crucial factor in training and teaching indigenous technology to students. Teachers are professional agents of change in influencing, making choices, and making decisions that will impact achieving educational goals (Bakkenes et al., 2010; Eteläpelto et al., 2013; Triyanto & Handayani, 2019, 2020). The key to integration is changing the mindset of teachers about the relevance and significance of traditional knowledge and constructing an understanding concerning indigenous technological science. Teachers must rethink the importance of indigenous technology in science learning for students. They must be able to reduce the gap and link indigenous and modern technology for cultural and educational sustainability. It must be noted that generally, teachers are unfamiliar with indigenous technology. It is a challenge when integrating indigenous technology into science learning. Therefore, integration can be organized together or in collaboration with other teachers and indigenous communities as a source of knowledge and skills (Triyanto & Handayani, 2019). This study proposed six steps to integrate indigenous technological expertise into science learning: (1) collecting and identifying indigenous technology, (2) selecting a topic and conducting a suitability analysis, (3) designing lesson plans, (4) implementing the learning design, (5) reflecting and evaluating, and (6) developing further consideration, as shown in Fig. 17.4. a. Collect and identify indigenous technology First, building a group of teachers with a vision to preserve indigenous technological knowledge by integrating it into science learning. This group of teachers can meet periodically to discuss issues regarding indigenous technologies, both formally and informally. Furthermore, the teacher group begins collecting indigenous technology in the indigenous community. In this case, a good relationship with the indigenous people and community is an essential and primary element because the technology to be integrated is generally not documented but becomes a life skill passed down Fig. 17.4 Steps of integration of indigenous technological science

17 Integrating Indigenous Technology into Science and Technology

277

from generation to generation. All the information obtained is discussed by taking into account and considering several aspects, such as the truth or validity of the knowledge, conformity with the school curriculum, and teachers’ competencies. b. Choose a topic and conduct an appropriateness analysis Second, the teacher group chooses an appropriate indigenous technology topic to integrate science learning in the classroom. In these steps, several things need to be considered: the fitness of the substance and concepts, the advantages and disadvantages of the topic, the influence or impact on the community, the fitness of the culture and values of indigenous peoples, and the ability of students. Ideally, learning is entirely academic and non-academic development, involving developing habits of thinking, positive attitudes, intellectual development, skills, and individual and social behavior. At this stage, the chosen topic will be described based on the teacher’s mind. Furthermore, the chosen topic brainstorms on the suitability of the issue with the subject matter at school. The results of brainstorming two pieces of knowledge are aligned by looking at the similarities and differences and the relationship between indigenous technology and science schools. c. Create a learning design The previous stage is used to design and compile a lesson plan. Learning design is arranged together. Furthermore, in discussions on learning design, teachers can predict how students will respond during learning, imagine what activities will be studied, and gain the experiences. When designing the lesson plan, the teacher should be considered the school curriculum and pedagogical aspects such as competencies standard, learning objectives, timetabling, student ability, the advantages and disadvantages of teaching the topic, and students’ responses when studying the subject. d. Implementation of the lesson design Before implementing the lesson plans, the teachers hold a brief meeting for consolidation and coordination. Preparation is arranged as much as possible to achieve learning objectives. One teacher implements the learning design in the class, while other teachers observe student activities during the learning process. Observers make notes about student activities as evidence of the recordings of observations during the learning process. e. Reflection and evaluation After implementation, the teachers held a meeting to reflect on and evaluate the integration process into the science classroom. The reflection process focuses on the learning process carried out by the teacher’s reflection. Teachers will discuss to express their opinions, ideas, and experiences. At the same time, an evaluation process will be carried out by emphasizing student learning activities during the learning process. Reflection and evaluation steps are carried out to recognize the impact of integrating indigenous technology science in learning and the foundation for further learning developments.

278

R. D. Handayani and Triyanto

f. Develop further consideration In this stage, reflection and evaluation are used as the basis for other lessons, such as learning improvement and readjustment of instructional methods and objectives. The teachers express their ideas, viewpoints, and considerations about integrating advanced indigenous technology and look for patterns or essential points obtained as new findings to the base for further strengthening unification. Some of the challenges of integrating indigenous technology in learning are: a. Teachers are familiar with normative scientific knowledge; b. Limited sources of information on indigenous technology in the community, where more indigenous people are older adults; c. Top-down curriculum; d. There is a view that teaching indigenous science and technology is like teaching metaphysics or pseudoscience, which is full of complex and philosophical things; e. There is a conflict that teaching indigenous technological science will restrict learning progress, which is currently always oriented toward modernization. Empirical learning plays a crucial part in the transmission of indigenous technology. The instructional content learned is from the students and the development of sustainable forms of culture for the future. Therefore, education must provide sustainability in all aspects of peoples’ lives that reflect society’s character. Learning about sustainability is crucial for students’ future lives (Gupta, 2011; Magni, 2017; McKinley & Stewart, 2012). Learning and teaching indigenous technology will make students more aware of the indigenous knowledge possessed by their elders/ancestors because it is directly related to their daily lives. Students can learn their primary culture based on school science and traditional technology (Brayboy & Castagno, 2008; Chandra, 2014) and help them fulfill and achieve scientific competence for literacy (Acton et al., 2017).

17.5 Conclusion Learning should be based on everyday life and societal circumstances that construct conceptual knowledge to allow students to recognize the meaningfulness of technology. The reliance of indigenous technology on the natural environment requires preserving the ecosystem from damaging exploitation. Integration of indigenous technology is a way for traditional knowledge to be available to students. This integration is a form of cultural influence and responsibility for education development. The learners should develop a synergy between indigenous technology and scientific knowledge in schools. It will make students interested in science and technology through their initial conception and building self-identity. In the context of integration, the most critical key is the teacher role. Teachers are professional agents of change. A teacher who can facilitate and recognize multiple aspects of students’ lives will bridge the gap between scientific knowledge in schools and traditional

17 Integrating Indigenous Technology into Science and Technology

279

knowledge in the community. Therefore, building connections and social networks between teachers and the indigenous community is necessary based on trust, respect, and mutualism. This chapter is expected to be the groundwork for teachers to integrate indigenous technology in schools. Integration of indigenous technology is very important as a form of cultural preservation and sustainability.

References Acton, R., Salter, P., Lenoy, M., & Stevenson, R. (2017). Conversations on cultural sustainability: Stimuli for embedding indigenous knowledges and ways of being into curriculum. Higher Education Research & Development, 36(7), 1311–1325. https://doi.org/10.1080/072 94360.2017.1325852 Agar, J. (2020). What is technology? Annals of Science, 77(3), 377–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 00033790.2019.1672788/FORMAT/EPUB/EPUB/XHTML/INDEX.XHTML Alessa, L., Kliskey, A., Gamble, J., Fidel, M., Beaujean, G., & Gosz, J. (2016). The role of indigenous science and local knowledge in integrated observing systems: Moving toward adaptive capacity indices and early warning systems. Sustainability Science, 11(1), 91–102. https://doi.org/10. 1007/s11625-015-0295-7 Bakkenes, I., Vermunt, J. D., & Wubbels, T. (2010). Teacher learning in the context of educational innovation: Learning activities and learning outcomes of experienced teachers. Learning and Instruction, 20(6), 533–548. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LEARNINSTRUC.2009.09.001 Bang, M., & Medin, D. (2010). Cultural processes in science education: Supporting the navigation of multiple epistemologies. Science Education, 94(6), 1008–1026. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce. 20392 Baquete, A. M., Grayson, D., & Mutimucuio, I. V. (2016). An exploration of indigenous knowledge related to physics concepts held by senior citizens in Chókwé, Mozambique. International Journal of Science Education, 38(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2015.1115137 Botha, L. R. (2012). Using expansive learning to include indigenous knowledge. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 16(1), 57–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603110903560093 Brayboy, B. M. J., & Castagno, A. E. (2008). How might native science inform “informal science learning”? Cultural Studies of Science Education, 3(3), 731–750. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11 422-008-9125-x Burns, H. L. (2015). Transformative sustainability pedagogy: Learning from ecological systems and indigenous wisdom. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541344615584683 Cassin, J., & Ochoa-Tocachi, B. F. (2021). Learning from indigenous and local knowledge: The deep history of nature-based solutions. Nature-based solutions and water security: An action agenda for the 21st century (pp. 283–335). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819871-1.000 12-9 Chandra, D. V. (2014). Re-examining the importance of indigenous perspectives in the Western environmental education for sustainability: “From tribal to mainstream education.” Journal of Teacher Education for Sustainability, 16(1), 117–127. https://doi.org/10.2478/jtes-2014-0007 De Beer, J., & Whitlock, E. (2009). Indigenous knowledge in the life sciences classroom: Put on your de Bono Hats! The American Biology Teacher, 71(4), 209–216. https://doi.org/10.1662/ 005.071.0407 Dillon, P. J. (1993). Technological education and the environment. International Journal of Science Education, 15(5), 575–589. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069930150510 Diwu, C. T., & Ogunniyi, M. B. (2012). Dialogical argumentation instruction as a catalytic agent for the integration of school science with indigenous knowledge systems. African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 16(3), 333–347. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/10288457.2012.10740749

280

R. D. Handayani and Triyanto

Emeagwali, G., & Shizha, E. (2016). African indigenous knowledge and the sciences. In African indigenous knowledge and the sciences (4th ed.). Sense Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/97894-6300-515-9 Eteläpelto, A., Vähäsantanen, K., Hökkä, P., & Paloniemi, S. (2013). What is agency? Conceptualizing professional agency at work. Educational Research Review, 10, 45–65. https://doi.org/10. 1016/J.EDUREV.2013.05.001 Fogarty, R. (2009). How to integrate the curricula (3rd ed.). Corwin A Sage Company. Glasson, G. E., Mhango, N., Phiri, A., & Lanier, M. (2010). Sustainability science education in Africa: Negotiating indigenous ways of living with nature in the third space. International Journal of Science Education, 32(1), 125–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690902981269 Goldman, M. J., & Lovell, E. (2017). Indigenous technical knowledge. In International encyclopedia of geography: People, the earth, environment and technology (pp. 1–4). Wiley. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0253 Gupta, A. D. (2011). Does indigenous knowledge have anything to deal with sustainable development? Antrocom Online Journal of Anthropology, 7(1), 57–64. http://www.antrocom.net/upl oad/sub/antrocom/070111/05-Antrocom.pdf Handayani, R. D. (2019). Pengintegrasian Pengetahuan Indigenous Konteks Mitologi Jawa dalam Pembelajaran Sains. Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta. Handayani, R. D., Wilujeng, I., & Prasetyo, Z. K. (2018). Elaborating indigenous science in the science curriculum. The International Journal of Learner Diversity and Identities, 19(2), 21–34. Haraldson, S. S. R. (1983). Role of education in preserving traditional cultures and as development factor. Health Policy and Education, 3(4), 289–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-2281(83)900 01-2 Hart, M. A. (2010). Indigenous worldviews, knowledge, and research: The development of an indigenous research paradigm. Journal of Indigenous Voices in Social Work, 1(1), 2151–2349. http://www.hawaii.edu/sswork/jivsw Hill, R., Adem, Ç., Alangui, W. V., Molnár, Z., Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Y., Bridgewater, P., Tengö, M., Thaman, R., Adou Yao, C. Y., Berkes, F., Carino, J., Carneiro da Cunha, M., Diaw, M. C., Díaz, S., Figueroa, V. E., Fisher, J., Hardison, P., Ichikawa, K., Kariuki, P., … Xue, D. (2020). Working with indigenous, local and scientific knowledge in assessments of nature and nature’s linkages with people. In Current opinion in environmental sustainability (Vol. 43, pp. 8–20). Elsevier B.V. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2019.12.006 Howe, A. C. (2002). Engaging children in science (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. Howes, M. (2009). The uses of indigenous technical knowledge in development. The IDS Bulletin, 10(2), 12–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.1979.mp10002003.x Huaman, E. S., & Swentzell, P. (2021). Indigenous education and sustainable development: Rethinking environment through indigenous knowledges and generative environmental pedagogies. Journal of American Indian Education, 60(1), 7–28. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ 840601 Ibitoye, S. J. (2011). Indigenous technology and agricultural production: The case of poultry incubator. International Journal of Poultry Science, 10(6), 493–495. Jha, D. (2006). Indigenous technology and agricultural research system. Agricultural Economics Research Review, 21, 1–4. Khupe, C. (2014). Indigenous knowledge and school science: Possibilities for integration. University of the Witwatersrand. Lange, E. A. (2018). Transforming transformative education through ontologies of relationality. Journal of Transformative Education, 16(4), 280–301. https://doi.org/10.1177/154134461878 6452 Lewis, T. (2000). Technology education and developing countries. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 10(2), 163–179. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008967718978 Magni, G. (2017). Indigenous knowledge and implications for the sustainable development agenda. European Journal of Education, 52(4), 437–447. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12238

17 Integrating Indigenous Technology into Science and Technology

281

Maluleka, K., Wilkinson, A., & Gumbo, M. (2006). The relevance of indigenous technology in curriculum 2005/RNCS with special reference to the Technology Learning Area. South African Journal of Education, 26(4), 501–513. McInnes, B. D. (2017). Preparing teachers as allies in indigenous education: Benefits of an American Indian content and pedagogy course. Teaching Education, 28(2), 145–161. https://doi.org/10. 1080/10476210.2016.1224831 McKinley, E., & Stewart, G. (2012). Out of place: Indigenous knowledge in the science curriculum. In Second international handbook of science education (Vol. 24). https://doi.org/10.1007/9781-4020-9041-7 Meyer, X., & Crawford, B. A. (2011). Teaching science as a cultural way of knowing: Merging authentic inquiry, nature of science, and multicultural strategies. Cultural Studies of Science Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11422-011-9318-6 Moyo, P. V., & Kizito, R. (2014). Prospects and challenges of using the argumentation instructional method to indigenise school science teaching. African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 18(2), 113–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/10288457.2014. 912831 Ngozi, E. (2014). The blight of African indigenous technology in the 21st century: The way forward. Journal of Tourism and Heritage Studies, 3(1), 59–73. Nhemachena, A., Hlabangane, N., & Matowanyika, J. Z. Z. (2020). Decolonising Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) in an age of technocolonialism. Langaa Research & Publishing Common Initiative Group. Østergaard, E. (2017). Earth at rest. Science & Education, 26(5), 557–582. https://doi.org/10.1007/ S11191-017-9906-2 Osuala, U. S. (2012, May). Colonialism and the disintegration of indigenous technology in Igboland: A case study of blacksmithing in Nkwerre. Historical Research Letter, 3, 11–19. Regmi, J., & Fleming, M. (2012). Indigenous knowledge and science in a globalized age. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 7(2), 479–484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11422-012-9389-z Retnowati, A., Anantasari, E., Marfai, M. A., & Dittmann, A. (2014). Environmental ethics in local knowledge responding to climate change: An understanding of seasonal traditional calendar pranotomongso and its phenology in Karst Area of GunungKidul, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 20, 785–794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2014.03.095 Riley, L., & Johansen, M. (2019). Creating valuable indigenous learning environments. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(3), 387–411. https://doi.org/10.1080/15236803.2018.1429815 Sadler, T. D. (2009). Situated learning in science education: Socio-scientific issues as contexts for practice. Studies in Science Education, 45(1), 1–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/030572608026 81839 Sandoval-Rivera, J. C. A. (2020). Environmental education and indigenous knowledge: Towards the connection of local wisdom with international agendas in the framework of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education, 14(1), 14–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/15595692.2019.1652588 Saylor, C. R., Alsharif, K. A., & Torres, H. (2017). The importance of traditional ecological knowledge in agroecological systems in Peru. International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management, 13(1), 150–161. https://doi.org/10.1080/21513732.2017.1285814 Sharma, S., Bajracharya, R., & Sitaula, B. (2009). Indigenous technology knowledge in Nepal—A review. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 8(4), 569–576. Shizha, E. (2014). Rethinking contemporary Sub-Saharan African school knowledge: Restoring the indigenous African cultures. International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education, 4(1). http://infonomics-society.org/wp-content/uploads/ijcdse/published-papers/special-issuevolume-4-2014/Rethinking-Contemporary-Sub-Saharan-African-School-Knowledge.pdf Siyanbola, W. O., Egbetokun, A. A., Oluseyi, I., Olamade, O. O., Aderemi, H. O., & Sanni, M. (2012). Indigenous technologies and innovation in Nigeria: Opportunities for SMEs. American Journal of Industrial and Business Management, 2(2), 64–75. https://doi.org/10.4236/AJIBM. 2012.22009

282

R. D. Handayani and Triyanto

Snively, G., & Corsiglia, J. (2000). Discovering indigenous science: Implications for science education. Science Education, 85(1), 6–34. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-237X(200101)85:1%3c6:: AID-SCE3%3e3.0.CO;2-R Stanley, W. B., & Brickhouse, N. W. (1994). Multiculturalism, universalism, and science education. Science Education, 78(4), 387–398. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.3730780405 Sterenberg, G. (2013). Considering indigenous knowledges and mathematics curriculum. Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, 13(1), 18–32. https://doi.org/10. 1080/14926156.2013.758325 Stuckey, M., Hofstein, A., Mamlok-Naaman, R., & Eilks, I. (2013). The meaning of ‘relevance’ in science education and its implications for the science curriculum. Studies in Science Education, 49(1), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057267.2013.802463 Triyanto, & Handayani, R. D. (2019). Adopting lesson study to enhance pre-service teachers’ pedagogical knowledge. The New Educational Review, 56, 244–254. https://doi.org/10.15804/ tner.2019.56.2.20 Triyanto, & Handayani, R. D. (2020). Prospect of integrating indigenous knowledge in the teacher learning community. Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education, 14(3), 133–145. https:// doi.org/10.1080/15595692.2020.1724943 Umoh, J. O., & Jacob, O. A. (2020). Effective indigenous technology for self-reliance and sustainable economic development. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 4(5), 369–372. www.rsisinternational.org van der Heijden, H. R. M. A., Geldens, J. J. M., Beijaard, D., & Popeijus, H. L. (2015). Characteristics of teachers as change agents. Teachers and Teaching, 21(6), 681–699. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 13540602.2015.1044328 Williamson, J., & Dalal, P. (2015). Indigenising the curriculum or negotiating the tensions at the cultural interface? Embedding indigenous perspectives and pedagogies in a University curriculum. The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, 36(S1), 51–58. https://doi.org/ 10.1017/S1326011100004701 Zidny, R., Sjöström, J., & Eilks, I. (2021). A multi-perspective reflection on how indigenous knowledge and related ideas can improve science education for sustainability. Science and Education, 29, 145–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-021-00194-2

Chapter 18

Technology Teachers’ Use of Indigenous Knowledge to Integrate Environmental Education into Technology Education Tsebo K. Matsekoleng

and Tomé A. Mapotse

Abstract This chapter aims to provide a fresh perspective on Technology Education (TE) and Environmental Education (EE) integrating indigenous practices to mitigate environmental issues. Decolonization of education could embrace the synergy of these disciplines and teach people in general about the environmental issues and offer solutions in turn. Botho and cooperative conceptual frameworks ground the chapter drawing from a qualitative standpoint. Sources cited in the chapter as well indicate the dearth of literature on the studies that explored the synergetic nature of TE, EE, and Indigenous Knowledge (IK) which is a reason for concern. Keywords Environmental Education · Indigenous Knowledge · Indigenous Knowledge Systems · Technology Education

18.1 Introduction Technology Education (TE) and Environmental Education (EE)/Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) embody science philosophies and the possibilities of solving environmental catastrophes through technological innovations. Society depends on the environment for their wants and needs, while the sustainability of the environment relies on people’s actions in the environment. This means that technology, society, and the environment co-exist and are interrelated; for example, the usage of waste materials eases environmental issues and results in less environmental degradation. In the promotion of sustainable development, indigenous people use Indigenous Knowledge (IK) to co-exist with the environment. For instance, indigenous people use grass to make a broom and roof their buildings.

T. K. Matsekoleng (B) · T. A. Mapotse University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] T. A. Mapotse e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_18

283

284

T. K. Matsekoleng and T. A. Mapotse

TE is defined as the use of knowledge, skills, values, and resources to meet people’s needs and wants by developing practical solutions to problems, taking social and environmental factors into consideration (Department of Basic Education [DBE], 2011: 8). Environmental elements should be considered in the process of producing practical answers to social problems during TE pedagogy and didactics, as per the TE definition. The TE policy also emphasizes the necessity for learners to collaborate with others while working on practical projects that need a variety of technological abilities (investigating, designing, making, evaluating, and communicating) to accommodate various learning styles (DBE, 2011: 11). There is a global concern to safeguard the increasingly dilapidated environment (Obiora & Emeka, 2015). Climate change, global warming, pollution, and other environmental issues degrade the environment and these issues emanate from people’s actions on the environment owing to ignorance and/or lack of environmental awareness. In 2013, as estimated by the Blacksmith Institute, an environmental watchdog based in the United States, there were over 200 million people in developing countries who are at risk of health damage caused by pollution (Thanh, 2019). People’s needs and wants consequently contributed to pollution among other environmental issues. For example, the availability of fast food wrapped in plastic bags once consumed is thrown away and causes pollution (Mapotse & Mashiloane, 2017; Matsekoleng, 2017). Lack of environmental knowledge and awareness contributes to the strewing of wastes all over the environment, where wild and domestic animals suffocate or die from the waste materials and/or garbage mistaken for food. However, knowledge does not necessarily translate into action (Matsekoleng & Mapotse, 2020). Therefore, enhancing the school curriculum with indigenous practices/activities is important to develop action competence. The waste management situation is appalling in some schools because they encounter waste management challenges that include a lack of environmental awareness and knowledge on school waste management and attitudes toward waste management (Moyo, 2021) and a lack of environmental programs in schools (Mapotse & Mashiloane, 2017). Ignorance of waste is a problem in most countries (Musthofa & Koentjoro, 2019) emanating from school or household daily activities. Plastic wrappers, bottles, food packaging containers, and leftover food are all examples of solid waste that are regularly encountered at schools (Moyo, 2021) and some of the waste is generated by learners from activities in the classroom. Consequently, waste pollutes water and in turn poses threats to people and animals’ lives. The increase of waste in the environment is contributed by industrial development and economic activity in both developed and developing countries. Therefore, it is time to enhance modern technologies and/or strategies with the utilization of indigenous technologies to mitigate the mishandling of waste among other environmental issues. This chapter aims to share indigenous technologies and/or IK/indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) in mitigating environmental issues and contribute qualitative literature in the field of TE and EE. Moreover, this conceptual chapter will also discuss the integration of the disciplines in the school curriculum.

18 Technology Teachers’ Use of Indigenous Knowledge to Integrate …

285

Some indigenous people have devised methods for keeping their immediate surroundings clean without causing any harm to their cooperative efforts. To minimize litter, local people would soak their old exercise books in a basin, bury the soaked books in the garden/yard, and later scatter the soil as a fertilizer for agricultural purposes. TE teachers are in a space where they can revive these indigenous practices of, for example, manufacturing manmade fertilizer, which could develop competencies in children (Matsekoleng, 2020). The benefits of such practices are threefold: firstly, to minimize or eliminate littering, secondly, to provide nutrients for vegetable gardens and plants, and thirdly, to save the cost of buying fertilizer. As discussed in the next section, this practice is easy to revive through cooperation and is promoted by the indigenous conceptualization of nature.

18.2 Indigenous People’s Conceptualization of Nature Indigenous people benefit greatly from natural resources and the environment. Plants/trees play a crucial role in our everyday lives and show the synergy of TE, EE, and IK. Daily, indigenous people use plants for different purposes. For instance, trees, plants fluids, leaves/branches, stems, and roots offer indigenous people shelter, food, medication, shoes, clothes, protection against strong winds, shade, roofing materials, weapon (knobkerrie), fence, instrumental music, fruits, and oxygen. As such, this avails the opportunity for TE teachers to integrate EE into their teaching. Intrinsically, indigenous people have ways to interact with nature without causing environmental degradation (Seroto, 2020). This is even though traditionally, indigenous people had no written literature regarding their relationship with nature (Obiora & Emeka, 2015) but interact with the environment respectfully for their survival. For that reason, learning is experiential in many indigenous cultures, where constant and continuous exposure and response to environmental conditions develop knowledge of how to handle them and allow response with learning (Ford et al., 2020), and learning becomes meaningful through hands-on activities (Matsekoleng, 2020, 2021). Experiential learning in the context of this chapter refers to daily handson household/indigenous practices/activities that indigenous people use to teach and transfer knowledge to the younger generation such as the utilization of firewood. Experiential learning as a result promotes cooperative learning processes. In some places, indigenous people rely on firewood for cooking and other purposes. The ashes from firewood can cause wildfires or spoil the environment if blown by the wind. The ashes produced are used by indigenous people to perform various tasks. For instance, the ashes from firewood could serve as manure for agricultural activities. The ashes are further used to stop a hiccup by swallowing and applying to the forehead, chin, and cheeks. Indigenous people also use ashes when they are bloated by mixing them with water and drinking it to relieve the discomfort. Moreover, once a cow is slaughtered, the ashes will be sprinkled on the cowhide to prevent it from rotting, developing a bad odor, and for preservation purposes. More importantly, indigenous people use ashes to wash and whiten their teeth. The ashes

286

T. K. Matsekoleng and T. A. Mapotse

are used as a medication to heal body sores. TE teachers need to empower their learners with the benefits of firewood ash as opposed to littering. The firewood and production of ash emphasize the importance of plants in our everyday life. Learners will learn other types of energy sources, fertilizers, and medications available at their disposal other than the application of modern technologies in their everyday lives. Given that, daily, indigenous people make use of resources harvested from nature in an environmentally friendly manner to sustain natural resources in their surroundings. For example, wooden spoons and wooden whiskers made from a plant are used to make food, mostly porridge, which is probably stable in most of Africa. Such food includes wild edible indigenous plants, leaves, and roots. The food is also served on a wooden plate. Indigenous people learn how to recognize plants, what fruits to relish, what roots they should dig out and eat, what plants and animals to avoid, what plants are good for various ailments, what plants they could apply to wounds or burns to speed up healing, and what animals to hunt and not to because they are sacred (Silo & Khudu-Petersen, 2016). This is an indication that for centuries, indigenous populations have learned to adapt to gradual change and adjust their livelihood strategies (Mercer et al., 2007). Above-stated examples indicate how indigenous people have conceptualized nature and the examples offer opportunities for TE teachers to integrate EE into TE. For instance, indigenous people use the Marula fruit tree (Sclerocarya birrea) to make Marula alcohol, and in the twenty-first century, indigenous methodologies have been modernized to produce Amarula alcohol. Accordingly, TE teachers can use such examples to teach learners about TE themes in their lessons. Moreover, tree barks are used to make shoes that are derived from indigenous practices. As such, the above examples reveal ways that TE teachers could infuse real-life situations in their lesson plans to teach learners about environmental topics. There are some special ways indigenous people approach dealing with litter as outlined in the section that follows.

18.3 Indigenous People’s Approach to Litter This section outlines how indigenous people recycle, recover, reduce, redesign, remanufacture, and reuse (6Rs) some products that can potentially cause littering among other environmental problems. Indigenous people recycle discarded plastic bags and weave plastic mats through crocheting. Crocheting among other handson activities calls on people to use their hands, hearts, and minds (Matsekoleng & Mapotse, 2018). The TE teachers can revive such an indigenous crocheting skill, which covers the TE theme of “Processing” since this practice, in turn, reduces litter on the ground and minimizes water pollution. In some rural area schools, learners use a plastic bag and/or shopping bag to store some items such as lunchboxes and carry their exercise books. Despite the issue of financial burden, covertly the practice conscientizes school-going children on littering and reduces rubbish in their immediate environment.

18 Technology Teachers’ Use of Indigenous Knowledge to Integrate …

287

As well, plastic bags are used to make kites and tennis balls/footballs. The use of kites and balls makes children exercise, which improves their health and teach learners about the mechanics and science. Indigenous practices in approach promote cooperative learning as people work together to carry out most of the activities/practices. In addition, indigenous people use bottles and steel water drums as a container to store things including water and thus save the environment from pollution. Indigenous people use steel water drums to make a musical instrument, i.e., drum, and a piece of hosepipe is used to play the drum. Likewise, Bolekana/Masekane (tin container on both sides a hole is drilled and on the opened hole a wire is attached to have a holder) is used to harvest water from the river by pouring it into the water drum and can be used to cook. Further, in a school context, food can be collected from the school kitchen to make, for instance, Mageu from leftover porridge, and some vegetables can be planted to grow in the school’s garden, to address the dumping of food in the school ground that causes litter and to avoid wastage of food. At home, indigenous people use leftover porridge to feed their chickens and domestic poultry. Dried-up leftover porridge and porridge crust are used to feed goats to lure them back home. The recycling of food will teach learners about TE themes of Technology, Society and Environment, and Processing. Nkelekele is the traditional method of petitioning rain practiced by the Tsongas in Zimbabwe. In the practice of Nkelekele, it is believed that if there is insufficient rain or a total absence of rain during the rainy season, it is caused by the rubbish in the environment (Chauke et al., 2021). Rubbish in the environment pollutes sacred places, which ought always to be clean to display a sense of respect. The practice eliminates any unwanted items in the environment. This rain petitioning ritual is conducted during the rainy season when the expected rains would have failed to fall (Chauke et al., 2021). The practice of rain petitioning besides keeping the environment clean also is conducted for agricultural purposes and availability of drinking water. As pointed out in this chapter, most rural areas in South Africa and other developing countries rely on riverbanks for drinkable water. The Nkelekele practice is entrenched in Ubuntu/Botho framework and as well advocates cooperative inquiry. Botho drives the collective approach to the activities of African communities (Gumbo, 2020). Such indigenous practices infuse TE to raise people’s environmental awareness on environmental issues as discussed below.

18.4 Technology Education’s Role to Address Environmental Issues As a subject, TE empowers learners to use readily available materials in their vicinity to save the environment from degradation by making use of 6Rs. This is because TE uses knowledge, skills, values, and resources to meet people’s needs and wants by developing practical solutions to problems and taking social and environmental factors into consideration (DBE, 2011). In this case, TE teachers in the classroom

288

T. K. Matsekoleng and T. A. Mapotse

display posters on the wall and use waste materials to carry out their Practical Assessment Tasks. These resources are found in the physical environment. Thus, the inculcation of the Botho framework in learners could change learners’ attitudes toward the environment and make them approach their learning activities in a manner that respects the environment. TE is an ideal subject in the school curriculum. When TE teachers deliver their lessons in the classroom, they could use waste materials to make wastepaper baskets. This will cover the TE theme of “Structures” thus helping learners to learn about natural and manmade structures, which will educate learners about littering and increase their knowledge of environmental issues. As a result, waste materials can be used cooperatively as learning and teaching resources in schools where teaching materials are scarce. Some natural resources are found in abundance in some countries such as asbestos, coal, or oil could be threatened by technological advancement against pollution and campaigns to reduce occupational diseases caused by fossil fuels. Urban greening and the use of electric vehicles are promoted as they are regarded as environmentally friendly. Vehicles that use diesel and petrol damage the ozone layer by emitting carbon dioxide (Barbarossa et al., 2017: 190). Technology advancement is to some degree blamed for climate change. However, TE teachers could plan learning activities such that learners can debate environmental issues and suggest solutions. In South Africa, there is a collaborative effort between scientists and the South African Government to explore the design of a system that can evaluate the adaptation responses of farmers to current and future climate variability (Ziervogel et al., 2014). Just like farmers, TE teachers in South Africa can be responsive to climate change by engaging learners in activities that are conscientizing learners with issues that affect the climate. Application of waste materials will empower learners with entrepreneur skills in developing a business model of recycling and collecting waste materials around their communities to make a living, which in turn reduces land pollution and scarcity of job opportunities. South Africa has high unemployment affecting mostly youth and if TE avail such opportunities to the learners may reduce unemployment. That is the beauty of TE, advocating hands-on environmental and technological activities leading to the creation of job and business opportunities. Subsequent sections highlight the integration of indigenous technology and environmental matters in the curriculum as guided by several policies.

18.5 Indigenous Technology and Environmental Policy Indigenous people have assemblies like Lekgotla, Kgoro, Koma, etc., where they pass on both indigenous technology and environmental knowledge to the young ones. This transfer of knowledge occurs through the process of Botho and cooperative inquiry. EE is the process of transferring environmental knowledge to give human knowledge about the environment, attitudes, and values that are good for the environment, and environmental awareness of environmental problems (Wongchantra, 2012). The

18 Technology Teachers’ Use of Indigenous Knowledge to Integrate …

289

Technology policy document gives TE teachers direction on how they should implement indigenous technology as they take care of the environment. In a sense, TE teachers create lessons based on the policy in which learners are assigned projects that include indigenous practices that could eliminate garbage in their immediate environment. Policies in any organization serve as a guideline on their daily activities and/or practices. The international community and organizations called for respect for IK within conservation and education, and several regional, country-based policies and advocacy initiatives regarding IKS were taking place (Zazu, 2007). The world bodies consist of the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF), the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) all with a major interest in conservation and education, started to invest into policy advocacy and research aimed at studying the world’s diverse IKS to enhance conservation and education (Zazu, 2007). For that reason, several policies in South Africa were implemented to promote IKS and protect the environment from further degradation. In the year 2004, the IKS policy was implemented to guide relevant stakeholders including DBE on the integration of IKS in the education system. The National Environmental Management Waste Act, no. 59 of 2008, was also implemented to control the illegal discarding of waste. Implementation of policies is informed by developments on the global scale to avoid falling behind with the changes in their counterparts. Learners may benefit from the incorporation of indigenous technology and environmental policies in the school curriculum because they will learn to respect the environment and use indigenous technologies to solve problems in their surroundings. This will help learners to align IK with Western knowledge. This includes the utilization of waste materials in their milieu as discussed in the section (indigenous knowledge in environmental management) follows this one. The subsequent section points out that the use of waste materials in schools infuses IK to manage the environment.

18.6 Indigenous Knowledge in Environmental Management Indigenous people use their IK in their day-to-day practice, with the aspect of the Botho framework as enshrined. Indigenous healers possess an intimate botanical understanding of the environment and the healing properties of plants (EzeanyaEsiobu, 2019). Indigenous people would collect the plants and roots without damaging the environment (Seroto, 2020). Collected plants, plant leaves, and roots serve as medication to heal people and domestic animals. Accordingly, indigenous people harmoniously interact with the environment for their survival. Respect is mutual in this instance as advocated by the Botho framework. Worldwide, culture, religion, and sacred places have contributed to environmental management (Risiro et al., 2013). Indigenous methods are used in land management, conservation of the environment, and clean environment. In most cases, women are behind the rural cultivation of the land as part of making the immediate environment.

290

T. K. Matsekoleng and T. A. Mapotse

The World Bank and other international development organizations uphold that women in rural areas engage in small-scale agricultural activities that could be enhanced at the grassroots level to generate household incomes (Nkosi et al., 2021). For many years, women in Africa have been involved with food processing, like grain threshing, as one of the technology themes. In Africa, the threshing of grain could be a collective effort in which rural farmers collectively assist each other in harvest and processing crops for storage. The threshing process involves rubbing, stripping, impact action, beating by an individual or group, trampling by animals, and the use of mechanical threshers (Kumar & Kalita, 2017). Kumar and Kalita (2017: e8) pertain to Food Technology processing they further stress that, in respect of IKS, food processing methods include sun-drying of food crops such as maize, groundnuts, vegetables, and beans. Sun-dried crops can be stored for about six months or longer, depending on the crop or vegetable. Other practices include the pounding of crops using locally made mortars, winnowing, grinding, and drying over the fire. Some of the storage methods still relevant, depending on context and the availability of natural resources, include the use of sacks, wood ash from any tree, and banana juice.

18.6.1 Land Management Land management is of utmost importance for indigenous people in their daily activities and/or practices in the environment about farming. Each year indigenous people cultivate seeds on their farms. Once they harvest, they allow cows and other domestic animals in their communities to graze on their farms. Despite the practice of the Botho framework, it is a way of fertilizing the soil as cows release cow dung on the ground. In turn, the cow dung serves as manure, which eliminated the use of chemicals in the production of manure. Cow dung is purely organic and can decompose easily, so it does not cause littering. As part of land management, dried-up cow dung was picked from the veld and is used as charcoal. The wet cow dung is also picked and mixed with ashes for Lapa soil strengthening, prevention of soil erosion, decoration, and preservation. TE teachers should expose their learners to the Lapa art, for example, the Ndebele art. In conformity, indigenous people similarly use a mixture of wet cow dung and soil as a mortar to build mud huts, especially in rural areas. Indigenous people use a rectangular box opened on the one end made from discarded timber wood, wire, and rubber to build the huts starting with the foundation and pilling up to the roof level. This will teach learners about Technology, Society Environment, and Structures. More importantly, learners learn about the indigenous architecture exposing learners to Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM). The grass is another important natural resource not only it is the main source of food for the animals but also it is used as a building material, especially in the thatching of huts (Sheya, 2014). However, the grass can only be harvested once it dries up because the harvesting of thatch grass before it had become mature reduces

18 Technology Teachers’ Use of Indigenous Knowledge to Integrate …

291

the future production of grass (Sheya, 2014). Indigenous people likewise use grass and “mogwete” shrub to construct a broom to sweep their house and yard. Once the broom ages, it does not pollute the environment but fertilizes the soil or can be used to prepare the fire. Additionally, the mogwete shrub roots help indigenous people with nasal congestion (Semenya & Potgieter, 2014). These indigenous practices conserve the environment from deterioration and make learning to be relevant for learners in their respective schools.

18.6.2 Environmental Conservation The environmental didactic background is crucial for environmental conversation as it relies more on the EE teacher’s experiences of Complex Environmental Competence. Tovar-Gálvez (2021, p. 10) points out that the experiences that approximate the development of students’ Complex Environmental Competence can be advanced and supported by incorporating the following components: the cognitive, because the teacher promotes multiple learning (conceptual, methodological, attitudinal, communicative, and epistemic) and the integration of subject matters, b) metacognitive, because the teacher engages students in reflecting, administrating, and assessing their learning, c) social, because the teacher organizes students’ work through a cooperative project, d) contextual, because the teacher uses a local environmental problem to develop the curriculum, e) and identity, because the teacher motivates students in reflecting on their role as citizens and future professionals.

It was most popular for indigenous people to do the skills transfer to the next generation to empower them on how to conserve the environment. This practice needed the EE teacher’s competency with the environmental issues. Before the arrival of colonists in Africa, indigenous people used taboos, myths, stories, songs, proverbs, and rituals to conserve natural resources. Some ethical prescription taboos are associated with some rivers and forests to safeguard them from pollution, abuse, and exploitation (Obiora & Emeka, 2015). Stories are undoubtedly both recreational and educative, cutting across disciplines, including philosophy, literature, law, psychology, music, drama, arts, and sociology to mention a few (Ezeanya-Esiobu, 2019). Because of that, indigenous people are taught not to defecate near water sources (Obiora & Emeka, 2015) and it is prohibited to defecate in open areas within the catchment area of the water source (Kanene, 2016). Defecating near water sources pollutes water, which poses danger to human lives and reduces the quality of water. Most rural areas in South Africa and possibly in other countries experience a shortage of water and rely on riverbanks as the source of water. In some instances, water from the rivers is boiled to kill germs for it to be drinkable and eliminate diseases. TE teachers need to integrate IK and EE in their lessons to make learning meaningful using learners’ contexts. It is squarely the responsibility of the municipalities to strike a balance between environmental conservation and job opportunities in the form of

292

T. K. Matsekoleng and T. A. Mapotse

mining. Of interest is that TE teachers in their structure can embark on teaching learners to design a mineshaft.

18.7 Integrating Technology Education and Environmental Education EE focuses on teaching learners about, for, and in the environment and TE teaches learners about design artifact solutions to their immediate problems and processing materials to come with a new product. Integration of TE and EE becomes easy for TE teachers only if they can master the policies of these two subjects. Both TE and EE encourage school-going children to take care of their environment. For instance, instead of buying cleaning materials like floor polish, they could organize learners to produce a candle wax to polish the floor as their TE processing product. Discarded containers will be used to store the candle wax which mitigates litter in the environment. This saves the school or teachers money from buying floor polish from shops and helps learners to be critical thinkers. It is common in South Africa to find indigenous people fencing their homes using recyclable waste materials to enclose their yards. Families fence their yard using discarded wire and round vertical tree branches. These materials are collected in their local environment. Additionally, indigenous people use recycle materials to make products such as gates. A gate is constructed from tree branches and discarded wire, which help to keep the environment clean (Maluleke, 2019). The use of waste materials consequently reduces litter on the ground, displays individual creativity and innovation, and conscientizes people about littering. The richness of IK is also evident in indigenous people who use fermented sorghum to catch fish in the river and/or dam. They sprinkle fermented sorghum in the dam to lure the fish. Fermented sorghum is the result of processing African beer where sorghum, mealie, and water are mixed. If the fermented sorghum is not handled properly, it could cause damage to domestic animals such as goats and cause a bad odor. Dried-up fermented sorghum serves as food for chickens and other domestic poultry. The Botho framework forms part of daily engagement where indigenous people share fermented sorghum among themselves if one asks without paying anything. The use of fermented sorghum emphasizes 6Rs of products that reduce litter on the ground. The process of making African beer infuses TE themes comprising “Processing and, Technology, Society and Environment” and EE of learning about, for, and in the environment. This will make learning to be meaningful for learners in the school curriculum. It is an indication that EE, TE, and IK are synergistic in their approach as discussed below.

18 Technology Teachers’ Use of Indigenous Knowledge to Integrate …

293

18.8 Synergy of Indigenous Technology, Technology Education, and Environmental Education There are many indigenous ways of treating various illnesses such as asthma and dysentery, where treatment mixtures are produced through indigenous technologies. Indigenous technologies such as Tshilo le Lwala (mill and stone) are used to extract substances from plants. Extracts from plants are collected without causing environmental destruction, as products are packaged in discarded plastics or containers, which ease littering. These organic products from indigenous plants help to promote good health as pointed above. Plant and animal tissues have always been crucial in providing building materials, in crafts such as basket weaving and thatching, brewing beer and food preparation, in traditional medicine, and so forth (Gumbo, 2017). Plants play an important role in our daily lives and demonstrate the synergy of TE, EE, and IK. People use plants for a variety of reasons on a daily. For example, trees provide indigenous people with shelter. Indigenous people over the years have been playing a variety of indigenous games that prevent health diseases and conserve the environment. Young indigenous people use discarded plastic bags and plastic bottle lids to make marble to play the “Tswio” game. Such practice eliminates littering in the household and around areas and raises people’s awareness of littering. Mmela (strategy board game) protects the environment by utilizing waste materials to play the game. The game is drawn on the ground or metal sheet or cardboard box and two players collect bottle lids, small rocks, or any small objects to play the game. The game uses freely available garbage such as metal sheets, cardboard, bottle lids, and other objects, and the usage of trash slowly reduces pollution. Moreover, Mpa (skipping rope) game uses a rope that is made from plastic bags. These games reduce litter in the environment and keep people healthy. It could be resolved that indigenous technologies have created a relationship between the TE and EE subjects.

18.9 Conclusion This chapter discussed indigenous people’s conceptualization of nature, indigenous people’s approach to litter, Technology Education’s role to address environmental issues, indigenous technology and environmental policy, indigenous knowledge in environmental management, integration of TE and EE in the curriculum, and the synergy of indigenous technology, TE and TE. The chapter fills the gap in the void of the literature within the TE, EE, and IK disciplines. Indigenous practices/methodologies avail opportunities for TE teachers to integrate EE into their lessons as pointed out in this chapter. The examples discussed indicate how indigenous people conceptualize nature without causing any harm to it. Further, indigenous practices help in keeping the environment free of litter. These include the utilization of tins to play indigenous games and for cooking. Discussed

294

T. K. Matsekoleng and T. A. Mapotse

indigenous practices/methods in this chapter are useful for TE teachers to infuse TE themes of Technology, Society and Environment, Systems and Control, Processing and Structures in their lessons. Assemblies like Kgoro informed ways that indigenous people will take in their societies to address environmental concerns such as the traditional method of petitioning rain. In modern societies, policies are used to inform the direction a country aims to take. This includes their practices and actions. Therefore, indigenous technology, EE, and TE can be educational means to protect the environment from further deterioration. Waste materials among other things avail opportunities for TE teachers to make the curriculum to be relevant to indigenous learners as everyday life activities are incorporated into the curriculum. The waste materials avail opportunities for unemployed youth. Recycling of materials helps indigenous people to make a living while addressing environmental issues and developing environmental awareness. In brief, TE teachers, curriculum designers, and policymakers need to embrace the synergy between the disciplines to make the curriculum relevant to the learners which could in turn help societies address environmental concerns in their communities.

References Barbarossa, C., Pelsmacker, P., & Moons, I. (2017). Personal values, green self-identity, and electric car adoption. Ecological Economics, 140, 190–200. Chauke, O. R., Balotyi, T., Mapindani, A., Chauke, W. S., & Motlhaka, H. A. (2021). Rain petitioning as an indigenous agenda: Fusing ecological traditions with the modern IKS philosophy. Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education, 12(6), 4946–4950. Department of Basic Education. (2011). Curriculum and assessment policy statement grades 7–9 (schools) policy: Technology. Department of Education. Ezeanya-Esiobu, C. (2019). Indigenous knowledge and education in Africa. Springer. Ford, J. D., King, N., Galappaththi, E. R., Pearce, T., McDowell, G., & Harper, S. L. (2020). Perspective: The resilience of indigenous peoples to environmental change. One Earth, 2, 532– 543. Gumbo, M. T. (2017). An indigenous perspective on technology education. In P. Ngulube (Ed.), Handbook of research on indigenous knowledge systems in developing countries (pp. 137–160). IGI. Gumbo, M. T. (Ed.). (2020). Decolonization of technology education: African indigenous perspectives. Peter Lang. Kanene, K. M. (2016). Indigenous practices of environmental sustainability in the Tonga community of southern Zambia. Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 8(1), 1–7. Kumar, D., & Kalita, P. (2017). Reducing postharvest losses during storage of grain crops to strengthen food security in developing countries. Foods, 6, e8. Maluleke, R. (2019). A pedagogy for technology education: An indigenous perspective (DEd Thesis). University of South Africa. Mapotse, T. A., & Mashiloane, T. K. (2017). Nurturing learners’ awareness of littering through environmental campaigns: An action research approach. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 13(10), 6909–6921. Matsekoleng, T. K. (2017). Learners’ environmental awareness, effects on home and school practices towards littering: An action research case (MEd dissertation). University of South Africa.

18 Technology Teachers’ Use of Indigenous Knowledge to Integrate …

295

Matsekoleng, T. K. (2020). Parents’ daily household activities on child litter awareness: An action research case. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 16(12), em1924. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/9343 Matsekoleng, T. K. (2021). Action research and environmental education within a home-based setup to conscientise children towards littering. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 23(10), 14163–14175. Matsekoleng, T. K., & Mapotse, T. A. (2018, September 17–19). Mitigate littering through action research activities: An action-oriented knowledge-based environmental study. Rethinking teaching and learning in the 21st century. In Proceedings of the 5th South Africa International Conference on Education. South Africa, Manhattan Hotel Pretoria. Mercer, J., Dominey-Howes, D., Kelman, I., & Lloyd, K. (2007). The potential for combining indigenous and western knowledge in reducing vulnerability to environmental hazards in small island developing states. Environmental Hazards, 7, 245–256. Moyo, K. (2021). Secondary teachers’ views regarding learners’ awareness on household waste management in Newcastle South Africa (MEd dissertation). University of South Africa. Musthofa, K., & Koentjoro, K. (2019). The engaging of early age children in environmental behaviour through wayang kancil folktale. Journal of Environment and Sustainability, 3(3), 144–169. Nkosi, S. G., Gwandure, C., & Lukhele-Olorunju, P. (2021). Land reform and climate change in South Africa: Adaptation and mitigation through indigenous. Knowledge systems. Journal of Public Administration, 56(1), 93–105. Obiora, A. C., & Emeka, E. E. (2015). African indigenous knowledge system and environmental sustainability. International Journal of Environmental Protection and Policy, 3(4), 88–96. Risiro, J., Tshuma, D. T., & Basikiti, A. (2013). Indigenous knowledge systems and environmental management: A case study of Zaka District, Masvingo Province, Zimbabwe. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 2(1), 19–39. Semenya, S. S., & Potgieter, M. J. (2014). Bapedi traditional healers in the Limpopo Province, South Africa: Their socio-cultural profile and traditional healing practice. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 10(4), 1–12. Seroto, J. (2020). Indigenous history and education before colonial times. In J. Seroto, M. N. Davids, & C. C. Wolhuter (Eds.), Decolonising education in the global South: Historical and comparative international perspectives (pp. 40–58). Pearson. Sheya, E. (2014). Indigenous knowledge and environmental education: A case study of selected schools in Namibia (MEd dissertation). University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch. Silo, N., & Khudu-Petersen, K. (2016). Hearing ancestral voices through creative art—A tool for environmental education for sustainability. International Journal of Education & the Arts, 17(9), 1–22. Thanh, N. D. (2019). Global garbage problem—Addressing waste management woes in stadiums. International Journal of Sports Science and Physical Education, 4(1), 1–8. https://bit.ly/32Q mz0q Tovar-Gálvez, J. C. (2021). Bringing environmental education to the curriculum: Practical elements emergent from teaching experiences and research. Interdisciplinary Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 17(3), e2236. https://doi.org/10.21601/ijese/9606 Wongchantra, P. (2012). Environmental studies. Mahasarakham University Press. Zazu, C. (2007). Exploring opportunities and challenges for achieving the integration of indigenous knowledge systems into environmental education processes a case study of the Sebakwe environmental education programme in Zimbabwe (MEd dissertation). Rhodes University, Grahamstown. Ziervogel, G., New, M., Van Garderen, E. A., Midgley, G., Taylor, A., Hamann, R., Stuart-Hill, S., Myers, J., & Warburton, M. (2014). Climate change impacts and adaptation in South Africa. WIREs Climate Change, 5, 605–620.

Chapter 19

Indigenous Technologies: What Is There for ‘Green’ Technology Education? Margarita Pavlova

Abstract Indigenous technologies can provide appropriate solutions for the environmental, social and economic issues that face humanity today. The achievement of many sustainable development goals (SDGs), which are identified areas for systematic actions required for sustainable development (SD), can benefit from education that specifically addresses SD issues. Teaching and learning about environmentally friendly indigenous technologies that have traditionally helped to support communities’ well-being can be included in measures to make technology education ‘greener’. The greening of the curriculum can be seen as a process of developing knowledge, skills, competencies, attitudes and mindsets that will help students contribute to the economy that is defined by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) (2011) as a green economy, the one that significantly reduces environmental risks and environmental depletion. In its simplest expression, a green economy can be thought of as ‘one which is a low carbon, resource-efficient and socially inclusive’. This chapter argues that case studies based on indigenous technologies can be effectively used in technology education to make it ‘greener’. When combined with student-centred teaching and learning practices, inclusion will help students to develop creative solutions for sustainable development issues. The chapter also provides several examples of indigenous technologies that bring real-life cases into the curriculum to make technology education ‘greener’. Keywords Greening technology education · Sustainable development goals · Indigenous technologies · Student-centred pedagogy · Problem-oriented project-based model · Case studies for learning

M. Pavlova (B) The Education University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong SAR e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_19

297

298

M. Pavlova

19.1 Introduction The critical role of education as the basis for transformation towards sustainability/SD1 has been widely recognised (Pauw et al., 2015; Vare & Scott, 2007). UNESCO (2020) reaffirmed the pivotal role of education as an integral element and key enabler to sustainable development. Education for sustainable development (ESD) can support societal transformation by empowering ‘learners with knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to make informed decisions and take responsible actions for environmental integrity, economic viability and a just society empowering people of all genders, for present and future generations, while respecting cultural diversity’ (UNESCO, 2020, p. 8). The socio-emotional and behavioural aspects of learning are emphasised, in addition to the cognitive skills required to mobilise transformative changes at all levels (ibid.). Technology education, if effectively delivered, can be viewed as an important part of the curriculum that supports the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, particularly by creating design solutions within the context of greener technology that is a backbone of the green economy. The green economy is defined by UNEP (2011) as that which significantly reduces environmental risks and environmental depletion. In its simplest expression, a green economy can be thought of as ‘one which is a low carbon, resource-efficient and socially inclusive’ (UNEP, 2011, p. 2). The important contribution of technology education to ESD has been established by a number of studies (e.g. Pavlova, 2009; Prime, 1993), which highlighted an opportunity to address ‘technical fix’ and ‘value change’ (Robinson, 2004) approaches towards sustainability concerns through teaching and learning. The first emphasised the role of technology in ‘fixing’ existing problems and the second emphasised the role of values in preventing problems. Pavlova (2009) argued that moral values should be at the heart of teaching and learning in technology education in order to develop the fundamentals for value judgement in the ‘designing, implementing and evaluating of technology, in situations that are ethically complex’. This would enable a move beyond the embeddedness of, and conventional association with, the nature of technology education with technical development alone. Critical thinking and sustainability values have been noted to be even more relevant for the teaching of ESD in view of the prevalent illusion that technologies are the ultimate solution to the majority of sustainability problems (UNESCO, 2020, 18). The integration of technology education and ESD produces a mutually beneficial conglomerate. ESD could be seen as a moral framework with which to conceptualise technology education, as it provides a clear set of priorities for teaching and learning and an orientation towards particular ‘goal sets’ (Campbell et al., 1992) and also includes ‘ethical questions’ (Parker et al., 1999). Technology education, on the other hand, can provide an opportunity for contextualised, hands-on learning that is vital for students’ engagement with SD issues. The Education for Sustainable Development: A roadmap (UNESCO, 2020) highlights the importance of fostering a critical and contextualised learning environment. The local community should be engaged as it

19 Indigenous Technologies: What Is There for ‘Green’ Technology …

299

provides a valuable context for interdisciplinary, project-based learning and action for sustainability (p. 28). Technology education, framed by ESD, emphasises learning content and pedagogy that helps unleash fundamental behavioural shifts towards sustainable development, and which simultaneously shifts from an exclusive focus on access and quality measured mainly in terms of learning outcomes (p. 14). Greening of the curriculum is viewed as a process that involves developing knowledge, skills, competencies, attitudes and mindsets that will help students to contribute to the green economy. Indigenous technologies provide a rich context for greener technologies to be included in the technology education classroom for the purposes of understanding and applying ideas of SD. Indigenous technologies are defined by the European Environment Information and Observation Network (Eionet) (2021) as ‘technologies employed by the native inhabitants of a country and which constitute an important part of its cultural heritage and should therefore be protected against exploitation by industrialized countries’. Other definitions also highlight the specificity of context by conceptualising it as ‘locally developed art and science that is unique to a given culture or society’ (Okorafor, 2014). In addition, its purpose has been defined as meeting human needs while responding harmoniously to the ecology in which one lives (Gumbo, 2014; Okorafor, 2014). The notion of indigenous technology is embedded within the broader conception of indigenous knowledge. McGregor (2004) conceives indigenous knowledge as a process of being in a relationship with the natural world, environment or what he coined ‘Creation’. Therefore, knowledge is essentially environmentally friendly because it integrates the person, place, product and process learning as well as personal development. The World Bank identifies indigenous knowledge as the basis for local decision-making with regard to socio-economic activities and recognises its contribution to social development (Gorjestani, 2000). Within this context, the chapter highlights the role of indigenous technologies as a means to achieving effective teaching and learning in ‘greening’ technology education within the framework of education for sustainable development. ‘Green’ technology education is technology education that is conceptualised within the SD agenda and focuses on design solutions underpinned by ideas of the circular economy and practices that limit human impacts on the environment—a condition for the SD of society and the economy. In this regard, this chapter explores how indigenous technology can contribute to sustainability/SD through green skills development in classroom settings. A discussion on the convergence of indigenous technology with sustainable development and greening is first presented. It draws upon the author’s previous study (Pavlova & Chen, 2019) on developing a pedagogical model for greening technology education to support the implementation of the SD agenda. This chapter conceptualises indigenous technology as a rich source of learning content for problem-oriented and project-based learning in greener technology education classrooms. This chapter, therefore, concludes with the proposition of incorporating indigenous technology for the purposes of greening technology education and provides examples of case studies.

300

M. Pavlova

19.2 Greening and Indigenous Technology—Where Do They Collide? 19.2.1 Circular Economy Thinking A connection between sustainable development and the concept of a circular, green economy has been prominent among policymakers, intergovernmental agencies and researchers (Brennan et al., 2015; Geissdoerfer et al., 2017; Murray et al., 2017). Geissdoerfer et al. (2017) define the circular economy as ‘a regenerative system in which resource input and waste, emission, and energy leakage are minimised by slowing, closing, and narrowing material and energy loops. This can be achieved through long-lasting design, maintenance, repair, reuse, remanufacturing, refurbishing, and recycling’ (p. 759). They also note that while both the notions of sustainability and circular economy include the importance of diversification and a multi-disciplinary approach for development under the global perspective of shared responsibility and cooperation, the circular economy is conceived as ‘a condition for sustainability, a beneficial relation, or a trade-off’ (ibid.). The concept of the circular economy that puts forward an economic-centric system that contributes to the environment has been criticised by some as the concept does not include the social dimension (Geissdoerfer et al., 2017; Murray et al., 2017). However, this chapter considers the social facet of a circular green economy and its contribution to all three pillars of sustainability, in particular when indigenous technology is taken into account. Rather than referring to first-world-oriented measures and relying solely on contemporary scientific methods, as if they can be one-size-fits-all solutions to sustainable development, the circular economy can be understood in terms of indigenous knowledge which provides regenerative solutions that fit different contexts and offers new perspectives to inspire novel solutions.

19.2.2 Contribution of Indigenous Technology to Circular Economy Thinking Indigenous technology has a lot to offer to the circular economy thinking particularly in terms of the way it is inherently embedded in the local context and natural world. Indigenous people are the key stakeholders of the natural environment since a significant number of conserved areas have been, and are, traditionally owned or managed by their communities (Garnett et al., 2018; Reyes-García et al., 2021). Their contributions to the preservation of the global natural environment are marked. Biodiversity flourishes a great deal more in indigenous territories than in other protected areas, for instance in Australia, Brazil and Canada (Fa et al., 2020; Schuster et al., 2019), and poses lower anthropogenic pressure to the terrestrial than elsewhere (Garnett et al., 2018; O’Bryan et al., 2020).

19 Indigenous Technologies: What Is There for ‘Green’ Technology …

301

The effective ecological management of indigenous territories can be attributed to the vested interest of indigenous communities in their immediate environment (Reyes-García et al., 2019). Indigenous people directly rely on their local surroundings for their livelihood; hence, sophisticated understandings of the habitat in terms of species’ ranges, baselines, trends and changes have been developed and passed down from generation to generation (Reyes-García et al., 2021). The continuing observation and refined interpretation of the surroundings enable indigenous communities to identify the onset of change in its early stages and act accordingly through local experiment and innovation (Lalonde, 1991). This is where indigenous practices can preserve the biosphere while simultaneously securing livelihoods. Reyes-García et al. (2019) also outlined the active roles of indigenous people in safeguarding and restoring ecosystems. In addition to conscious practices maintained within their habitats, indigenous technology and knowledge can offer historical information and an advanced understanding of the terrestrial to inform global environmental efforts. Nevertheless, indigenous technology has often been excluded in the Western-centric dialogue of sustainability and has been condemned as uncivilised and inferior to modern knowledge (Ocholla, 2007). The sole reliance on modern knowledge, which is validated in the laboratory of brick and mortar, but which discounts indigenous knowledge that is validated in the laboratory of life (Ghosh & Sahoo, 2011), has hindered the progress of sustainability. A realistic and effective direction for the preservation of ecosystems requires the co-production of knowledge from both scientific evidence and indigenous knowledge (Reyes-García et al., 2021) as well as taking into account sociocultural contexts.

19.2.3 Indigenous Technology and Sustainability Values Central to achieving sustainable development is the cultivation of values and attitudes, which are fundamental to conditions for behavioural and systematic change. The global agenda of sustainability promotes a set of values that defy the contemporary emphasis on relentless consumerism and the linear economy in which natural resources are designed to be converted into waste at all stages from raw materials extraction to production, consumption and disposal. The idea that the Earth is a circular and regenerative system has been discarded; instead, the anthropomorphism was adopted to justify human behaviours by imbuing the natural world with the human trait of self-interest (Murray et al., 2017). Among these divergent values and perceptions towards the future of the society, economy and environment, the essential values and attitudes for sustainability have to be explicitly articulated and upheld to guide genuine development (Leiserowitz et al., 2006). The indigenous conception of a holistic and human-inclusive nature imbued with social, cultural and spiritual values (Reyes-García et al., 2021) offers a full-fledged model for applying sustainability values around the globe. The dynamic relationship between humans and nature is embedded in indigenous thinking despite the difference in cultures and practices among indigenous groups.

302

M. Pavlova

Indigenous people conceive of mutual reciprocity between humans and the natural world (Chan et al., 2016; Pascua et al., 2017). This conceptualisation of nature as an interwoven web of life that connects the human and non-human recognises the agency of humans in terms of manifesting their impact and deriving value from nature, without over-exaggerating the human role and superiority in the terrestrial as a whole. This positioning resonates with the idea of weak anthropocentrism as the conceptual framework of sustainable development. Building upon the concept of Noosphere (Vernadsky, 1945) and Frame of Mind (Bonnett, 2002), Pavlova (2009) argued that the development of moral values for sustainable development should promote the mutual prosperity of human and non-human nature when the recognition of the intrinsic valuing of persons who live in harmony with nature is the superordinate goal. In order to develop a mutually reciprocal relationship between humans and the natural world, indigenous technology and thinking provide sophisticated prototypes in different contexts that can be applied to similar communities. The conception of the Pangasananan, an indigenous community in the Philippines (named after an old Manobo word that means ‘a place where food, medicines, and other needs are obtained’), can offer insights into their closed-loop thinking and embedded relationship with their territory (ICCA, 2021). The M¯aori’s interconnected concepts of the territory, basic supplies, human well-being and economic development can inform the conceptualisation of sustainability values and the conjunction between the three pillars (Lyver et al., 2017). These two examples highlight the relevance of indigenous thinking to sustainability development and system/circular economy thinking. Indigenous knowledge about the terrestrial has been the basis for global sustainability and, hence, their insights and technology should be heeded at every level of action (McGregor et al., 2020).

19.3 Indigenous Technology and the Learning of Green Skills 19.3.1 Indigenous Technology Within the Context of Problem-Oriented and Project-Based Learning As an example of the synergy between technology education and ESD, indigenous technology can provide an effective contextualised approach for greening technology education by combining learning of the ‘technical fix’ through embedding circular economy practices as well as ‘value change’ by valuing the intrinsic mutual reciprocity between humans and the natural world. The infusion of indigenous technology for greening technology education is closely related to the Problem-Oriented and Project-Based Learning+ (POPBL + ) Model (see Fig. 19.1). It is designed to apply ESD pedagogy (Pavlova & Chen, 2019) in teaching and learning and to provide a solid ground on which to introduce real-world sustainability issues and

19 Indigenous Technologies: What Is There for ‘Green’ Technology …

303

problem solving into the classroom setting. This model advocates the importance of bringing real-world problems related to SD into the classroom. Examples of indigenous technology presented as case studies can stimulate students’ reflection on their personal/local context and industrial experience to empower them as change agents in the community. The context provided by indigenous technology strongly correlates with each of the dimensions (cognitive, practical and aesthetic) that are needed to be addressed through technology education within ESD (Pavlova, 2008), and which will enable the understanding of sustainable development and highlight the importance of sustainable designs and projects.

Fig. 19.1 Problem-oriented and project-based learning+ (POPBL+ ) model. Source Pavlova and Chen (2019)

The rich knowledge system of indigenous people facilitates both knowledge acquisition and knowledge application for greening technology education. The conscious practices and inscribed values upheld by the indigenous community, as well as their informed historical narrative of the world, contribute to the practical and aesthetic dimensions (Pavlova, 2008) that should be addressed through technology education. Indigenous technology informs the knowledge acquisition in terms of both the designing and making of products, systems and the built environment; and the ethics for sustainability can inform the powerful aesthetic features of product design to inspire sustainable consumption. The real-life constraints faced by indigenous communities can offer practical scenarios for students in problem-oriented learning.

304

M. Pavlova

Following the four progressive processes of POPBL+ , indigenous technology helps ‘bring the world in’ and ‘simulate the world’ in the classroom so students can dissect and engage in the process involving the identification of the problem. Indigenous technology for greening technology education opens up the floor for brainstorming ideas and developing them into actual solutions; this represents a shift towards knowledge application and problem-solving in project-based learning. Through the implementation of projects and experimentation in the context of realworld issues addressed by indigenous technology, real-world learning opportunities are created for students so they experience the progressive processes of ‘visiting the world’ and ‘engaging with the world’ that in turn encourage students to further apply their knowledge to their own personal and industrial settings. The implementation would cohere with the priority area of the ESD roadmap—local level empowerment. Considering that communities are the places where meaningful transformative actions are most likely to take place, actions should be taken to transform the community into a learning laboratory for sustainable development (UNESCO, 2020). Indigenous technology can function as the international and local context to facilitate students’ understanding of local issues with reference to the global context and issues in other communities. Indigenous technology can also be considered as ‘appropriate technology’ or ‘technologies with a human face’ that is relevant and appropriate for particular communities (Pavlova, 2009). While indigenous knowledge systems offer an extensive pool of know-how and insights that are invaluable for sustainable development, not all practices are applicable to the modern age or transferrable to other settings. Therefore, indigenous technology can be integrated with new ideas and scientific knowledge from the modern knowledge system in order to develop an integrated approach towards sustainable development. The benefits of a synthesis of contemporary scientific evidence and indigenous technology that captures the best features from both are illustrated by examples in the following section. The conceptualisation of indigenous technology, as cases to be examined in technology education classes, can serve as the basis for knowledge acquisition about indigenous practices and values, while enabling the application of knowledge from students’ industrial experience and other practices to propose innovative, yet grounded, solutions that are integrated with indigenous technology.

19.4 Applying Indigenous Technology for Greening Technology Education Indigenous technology, therefore, can be a significant source of learning content for greening technology education. Drawing upon the author’s previous study to develop a pedagogical model for technology education in the context of ESD (Pavlova & Chen, 2019), the suggestions here about the incorporation of indigenous technology into technology education take into account the implications from the study, as well as

19 Indigenous Technologies: What Is There for ‘Green’ Technology …

305

pedagogical strategies and learning activities identified for each of the four learning phases in the POPBL+ model. It is suggested that learning content should be created in collaboration with experts from different backgrounds, for instance industry leaders or pioneers in indigenous technology, to provide more real-world learning opportunities for students and to encourage them to address the sustainability issues that exist in their local community. Connections should be made to apply the POPBL+ model in the classroom settings. The four learning phases in the POPBL+ model are transfigured into learning objectives and the corresponding generic green skills for the purposes of identifying pedagogical strategies and learning activities (examples are outlined in Table 19.1) for holistic learning that is both problem-oriented and project-based. Indigenous technology presented through case studies for problem-oriented learning provides real-world sustainability solutions derived from the indigenous knowledge system. Thus, green concepts can be learned about in terms of actual situations and applied in classroom activities. Case studies developed from indigenous technology can moreover serve as the basis for further learning activities and provide the content and context for discussions, simulations or role-plays, as well as references for group projects to relate to industry contexts. The diverse pedagogical strategies and learning activities create a dynamic process for students to experience and practice in identifying problems and solutions in both local and international contexts. The case studies related to indigenous technology can be categorised within specific industrial contexts, for instance, agriculture, architecture and product design, for the purposes of connecting the green concepts to the students’ major study through real-world settings. From this perspective, projects that propose technical solutions with social and environmental considerations are enabled. Students’ attitudes towards sustainability and the skills required for greener practices will be developed through both immersion and contextualised learning developed from the case studies about indigenous technology. Value and attitude change is a recurring process that occurs between, and throughout, knowledge acquisition and knowledge application.

19.4.1 Green Learning with Case Studies on Indigenous Technology While the application of sustainability and greening differs in specific areas of technology education, several green concepts and generic green skills are important for the greening of all industries, as they enable learners to develop a green mindset and adopt generic operational practices that minimise environmental impacts (Pavlova, 2018). Indigenous technology, conceptualised into case studies to illustrate the application of green concepts, can therefore cultivate those skills required to ensure progression towards sustainability. Two examples of using indigenous technology to illustrate green concepts or topics are presented below.

306

M. Pavlova

Table 19.1 Pedagogical design framework developed based on POPBL+ Learning phases

Learning objectives Generic green Pedagogical skills2 strategies (e.g.)

Bringing the world in

• Identify and Cognitive formulate competencies real-world sustainability problems that can be solved via adjustments to current industry practices • Understand the key concepts and the ways the current situation relates to the identified issues

Simulating the world

• Experience the Cognitive and • Stimulus Reflection on dynamics of interpersonal activities/discussion related videos, communication skills photos and • Debates through the documents • Peer-review process of activities identifying solutions • Learn how to deal with various perspectives and conflict resolution

Visiting the world

• Connect students’ learning and working experience to the identified issues

Intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies

• Group discussions • Case studies (Industrial context)

Portfolios, poster presentation (present a real-world sustainability problem explored in a group project)

Engaging with the world

• Propose potential solutions and strategies for dealing with identified issues

Cognitive, technological and interpersonal skills

• Group projects

Interviews Questionnaires Field observations

Source Pavlova and Chen (2019)

Learning activities (e.g.)

• Lecturing Draw a concept map. Analyse • Case studies (problem-oriented) critical incidents within the international and local contexts (e.g. compare different solutions).

19 Indigenous Technologies: What Is There for ‘Green’ Technology …

307

a. Green problem-solving strategies: Water management Problem-solving strategies are effective tools for green technology education as they facilitate the identification of problems and solutions. Indigenous technology, developed within the local context in response to environmental constraints, thereby offers relevant examples for contextual problem-solving. The issue of water management is ingrained in indigenous knowledge systems and it helps indigenous communities to subsist in conditions such as arid lands and to survive in prolonged drought (Johnston, 2012). Case studies on water management practices among different indigenous groups present a series of scenarios with which students can identify problems and solutions for a specific context while recognising it as a common issue that concerns the globe—climate change has resulted in a global water crisis in terms of a scarcity of freshwater as well as rising sea levels, both of which require a systematic response. In response to different weather circumstances, indigenous communities in the trans-Himalayan regions have developed various practices for water conservation and management (Borthakur & Singh, 2020) that inform system designs and actions that prepare for the global water crisis. Namtak and Sharma (2018) observed the extensive use of indigenous technologies in India, such as traditional water storage ponds and irrigation canal systems for water storage as well as how distribution was maintained collectively by the strongly bonded community. In addition, Sharma et al. (2009) noted similar indigenous practices in Nepal, with respect to utilising natural resources in the immediate surroundings. Evidence of traditional water collection ponds, especially in the hilly region, dates back to the historic period when Nepal was divided into several kingdoms… Water stored in the ponds during the rainy season was used in dry periods for many domestic needs including washing, bathing, and drinking. Using roof catchments mostly made of slate and storing run off from the hillsides for both domestic and agricultural purposes has been a practice, which came later in different parts of the country.3

On the other hand, floating agriculture in Bangladesh is an established indigenous technology that may be transferrable to other vulnerable areas for the purposes of food production and livelihood in the context of rising sea levels (Hossain, 2010). Floating agriculture is a farmers’ innovation that is being practiced in low lying areas of middle and southern districts of Bangladesh. Floating agriculture has several advantages: (1) the fallow waterlogged area can be cultivated and the total cultivable area can be increased, (2) no additional fertilizers and manure is required unlike in the conventional agricultural system, (3) after cultivation, the biomass generated can be used as organic fertilizer in the field, (4) during the floods it can be also used as a shelter for the poultry and cattle, and (5) the fishermen can cultivate crops and fish at the same time in same area.4

The use of different case studies related to the same topics can demonstrate the specificity of the problems encountered in different settings, and so the solutions vary. The contextual differences among the case studies illustrate the numerous ways applicable sustainable solutions can be conceptualised in problem-solving strategies. This will inspire students to take the initiative and identify the problem with respect to the context and formulate appropriate solutions accordingly.

308

M. Pavlova

19.5 Circular Economy: Dream Farm Following a study on the endogenous farming communities in the pre-modern age, Sharma and Joshi (2019) noted that the traditional principles of the circular economy have been replaced by the modern linear economic model of agriculture that does not suit the local environment and cultural context. They went on to propose the revival of the circular economic model, based on traditional farming practices in order to emphasise restorative or regenerative processes. The concept of waste is eliminated in this type of farming system as by-products are transformed into inputs and resources for another sub-system in the system as a whole. Despite their origins in different indigenous groups, indigenous systems of farming share similar interdependent designs within the immediate environment to cater to the needs of the whole community in a holistic manner. For example, the bari system of farming (Barooah & Pathak, 2009) can facilitate the introduction of closed-loop thinking to students. The bari system of farming has evolved over the years in the Northeast India and has had great significance from the point of conservation, consumption and management of biodiversity. Bari’s connote an operational unit in which a number of crops including trees are grown with livestock, poultry and/ fish production for the purposes of meeting the basic requirement of the rural household.5

Similar practices are also observed elsewhere, such as among the Wampis Nation in the Peruvian Amazon where a subsistence economy based on reciprocity remains and the majority of needs are fulfilled by the forest (ICCA Consortium, 2021). Learning from these indigenous technologies in agriculture enables modern adaptations to be developed in other contexts. The Dream Farm (Fig. 19.2) is a technology project that utilises community-based designs to develop a farming system that is waste-free and requires no fossil fuel input. The anaerobic digester takes in livestock manure plus wastewater, and generates biogas, which provides all the energy needs for heating, cooking and electricity. The partially cleansed wastewater goes into the algal basin where the algae produce by photosynthesis all the oxygen needed to detoxify the water, making it safe for the fish. The algae are harvested to feed chickens, ducks, geese and other livestock. The fishpond supports a compatible mixture of 5-6 fish species. Water from the fishpond is used to ‘fertigate’ crops growing in the fields or on the raised dykes. Aquaculture of rice, fruits and vegetables can be done in floats on the surface of the fishpond. Water from the fishpond can also be pumped into greenhouses to support aquaculture of fruits and vegetables. The anaerobic digester yields a residue rich in nutrients that is an excellent fertiliser for crops. It could also be mixed with algae and crop residues for culturing mushrooms after steam sterilisation. The residue from mushroom culture can be fed to livestock or composted. Crop residues are fed back to livestock. Crop and food residues are used to grow earthworms to feed fish and fowl. Compost and worm castings go to condition the soil. Livestock manure goes back into the anaerobic digester, thus closing the grand cycle. The result is a highly productive farm that’s more than self-sufficient in food and energy.6

This circular farm model replicates the self-sustaining and productive unit of farming in the example of the indigenous bari system. The application of this alternative model in a circular economy can prompt students to rethink contemporary ideologies in

19 Indigenous Technologies: What Is There for ‘Green’ Technology …

309

Fig. 19.2 Dream farm. Source Webster and Johnson (2008)

consumerism and the linear economy, and simultaneously generate ideas for their projects related to the local context and embedded practices.

19.5.1 Lessons Learned from the Green Skills Hub Project Indigenous knowledge encoded into technologies provides an opportunity for students in technology education classrooms to understand concepts that underpin sustainable solutions. Together with modern examples of the greening industry, indigenous solutions can be explored in terms of different industry sectors, such as water management, architecture and agriculture. While green concepts such as a closed-loop economy, green technology, sustainable innovation, air quality and others are pertinent across sectors, industry-specific applications can highlight the explicit connection between green indigenous technology and the particular industry. This diversity of learning cases should be used to encompass the diverse industrial interests of the students while providing opportunities to inspire students’ perspectives across other industries. Green concepts can serve as the basis for themes in curriculum development as well as being linked with the seventeen sustainable development goals (SDGs). Each case study can also be associated with multiple SDGs in recognition of the

310

M. Pavlova

interconnectivity and complexity of issues addressed by the SD agenda. There are overarching goals that connect all case studies presented above and which pertain to ‘Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities’, ‘Goal 13: Climate Action’ and ‘Goal 10: Reduced Inequalities’. The last one, for example, is central to all case studies as it channels indigenous voices into the Western-centric dialogue of sustainability actions that, until now, has largely overlooked the role and contributions made by indigenous communities. On the other hand, each case study can also be linked to different SDGs to illustrate the many dimensions of proposed sustainable actions. For example, indigenous water management practices and farming systems can be associated with ‘Goal 2: Zero Hunger’, ‘Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation’, ‘Goal 12: Responsible Consumption and Production’, ‘Goal 14: Life below Water’ and ‘Goal 15: Life on Land’. Understanding indigenous technologies in terms of SDGs helps to visualise the multi-faceted nature of sustainability along with the manifold contributions that technology education and green technologies/design can offer to the global agenda. In addition, while case studies about indigenous technology provide examples from real-world settings, activities that steer students towards making connections to local issues and reflecting on solutions adopted by different industries can be better facilitated by well-informed teachers. The capacity building of teachers is also crucial if real transformation is to take place. Indigenous technology should also be incorporated into both in-service and initial technology teacher education for ESD (see Pavlova, 2013 for further explanation).

19.6 Conclusions The adoption of circular economy thinking is indicative of current attempts to achieve sustainable development on the part of policymakers, companies, researchers and other stakeholders. The critical role and invaluable contributions from indigenous people and local communities with respect to providing sustainable solutions within this thinking space should be acknowledged. Indigenous technology can redress the circular economy’s lack of emphasis on the social aspects of development and it offers contextualised models of pioneered efforts towards sustainability. The ecosystem is in better hands in indigenous communities in terms of their intimate relationship with their immediate surroundings, which in turn motivates their regenerative practices and shapes indigenous values and attitudes towards nature. The knowledge system of indigenous communities offers a fully-fledged model validated in the laboratory of life that can be transformed into global actions by integrating it with modern scientific knowledge. Indigenous practices passed down from generation to generation, combined with the mutually reciprocal relationship between humans and nature established by indigenous practices can provide answers to two critical approaches towards sustainability—technical solutions and value change. Education is the key enabler to a fundamental transformation in societies for the purposes of sustainable development. Education for Sustainable Development

19 Indigenous Technologies: What Is There for ‘Green’ Technology …

311

provides a critical avenue to empower learners with knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to make informed decisions and take responsible actions towards SD. Building upon the synergy between technology education and ESD with respect to technical solutions and value alignment, indigenous technology can provide a contextualised approach to green technology education by considering the technical aspects that are embedded in circular practices. Values can also be changed by recognising the intrinsic indigenous conception of mutual reciprocity between humans and the natural world. This chapter suggests using the problem-oriented and project-based learning+ (POPBL+ ) model (Pavlova & Chen, 2019) that conceptualises teaching and learning for ESD, in the technology education classroom as well as including indigenous technology for greening the curriculum by introducing real-world sustainability issues and problem-solving into the classroom setting. Drawing upon the results of that study (Pavlova & Chen, 2019), indigenous technology can be introduced as case studies for greening the technology education curriculum that relates to sustainability concepts, practices of green industries and SDGs. Within this framework, indigenous technology can provide a contextualised approach towards the development of learning activities such as discussions, simulations or role-plays and group projects. Indigenous technology has a lot to offer global sustainability; however, greater attention should be given to its role and contributions. Sustainable actions through technology education classes should start with a conversation with local communities, including indigenous groups, and work collectively to leverage their efforts to empower transformation at local levels. Acknowledgement The author acknowledges the contribution of Ms Jasmine Hei CHAN for her support in the preparation of this manuscript.

Notes 1. Sustainable development and sustainability are used interchangeably in this chapter, although the author is aware of discourses arguing for differences between these two concepts. 2. Generic Green Skills are those skills needed in all occupations and which are required to reduce environmental impacts and support economic restructuring for the purpose of attaining cleaner, more climate-resilient and efficient economies that preserve environmental sustainability and provide decent work conditions. See Pavlova (2018) for a full discussion. 3. An excerpt from Sharma et al. (2009). 4. An excerpt from Hossain (2010). 5. An excerpt from Barooah and Pathak (2009). 6. An excerpt from Webster and Johnson (2008).

312

M. Pavlova

References Barooah, M., & Pathak, A. (2009). Indigenous knowledge and practices of Thengal Kachari women in sustainable management of bari system of farming. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 8(1), 35–40. Bonnett, M. (2002). Education for sustainability as a frame of mind. Environmental Education Research, 8(1), 9–20. Borthakur, A., & Singh, P. (2020). Indigenous knowledge systems in sustainable water conservation and management. In D. Gusain (Ed.), Water conservation and wastewater treatment in BRICS nations (pp. 321–328). Elsevier. Brennan, G., Tennant, M., & Blomsma, F. (2015). Business and production solutions: Closing loops and the circular economy. In H. Kopnina & E. Shoreman-Ouimet (Eds.), Sustainability: Key issues (pp. 219–239). Routledge. Campbell, W. J., McMeniman, M., & Baikaloff, N. (1992). Visions of a desirable future. Australian society. New Horizons in Education, 87, 17–39. Chan, K. M., Balvanera, P., Benessaiah, K., Chapman, M., Díaz, S., Gómez-Baggethun, E., Gould, R., Hannahs, N., Jax, K., Klain, S., & Luck, G. W. (2016). Opinion: Why protect nature? Rethinking values and the environment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(6), 1462–1465. European Environment Information and Observation Network [Eionet]. (2021, Hune 1). Indigenous technology. General multilingual environmental thesaurus—Concepts, version 4.2.1. Retrieved June 2021, from https://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/en/concept/4205 Fa, J. E., Watson, J. E., Leiper, I., Potapov, P., Evans, T. D., Burgess, N. D., Molnár, Z., FernándezLlamazares, Á., Duncan, T., Wang, S., & Austin, B. J. (2020). Importance of indigenous peoples’ lands for the conservation of Intact Forest Landscapes. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 18, 135–140. Garnett, S. T., Burgess, N. D., Fa, J. E., Fernández-Llamazares, Á., Molnár, Z., Robinson, C. J., Watson, J. E., Zander, K. K., Austin, B., Brondizio, E. S., & Collier, N. F. (2018). A spatial overview of the global importance of indigenous lands for conservation. Nature Sustainability, 1, 369–374. Geissdoerfer, M., Savaget, P., Bocken, N., & Hultink, E. (2017). The circular economy—A new sustainability paradigm? Journal of Cleaner Production, 143, 757–768. Ghosh, P. K., & Sahoo, B. (2011). Indigenous traditional knowledge. Orissa Review, 67(6), 66–71. Gorjestani, N. (2000). Indigenous knowledge for development—Opportunities and challenges. World Bank. Retrieved June 2021, from https://web.worldbank.org/archive/website00297C/ WEB/IMAGES/IKPAPER_.PDF Gumbo M. (2014). Indigenous technology. In R. Gunstone (Ed.), Encyclopedia of science education. Springer. Hossain, M. A. (2010, August). Indigenous technology for adapting to water logging situation for sustainable livelihood security in low lying areas of Bangladesh. 19th world congress of soil science, soil solutions for a changing world (pp. 1–6). Brisbane, Australia. ICCA Consortium. (2021). Territories of life: 2021 report. ICCA Consortium. Retrieved July 2021, from https://report.territoriesoflife.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/ICCA-Territories-of-Life2021-Report-FULL-150dpi-ENG.pdf Johnston, B. R. (2012). Water, cultural diversity, and global environmental change: Emerging trends, sustainable futures? United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Lalonde, A. (1991, September 26–29). African indigenous knowledge and its relevance to environment and development activities. In The Common Property Conference. Leiserowitz, A. A., Kates, R. W., & Parris, T. M. (2006). Sustainability values, attitudes, and behaviors: A review of multinational and global trends. Annual Review Environment Resource, 31, 413–444.

19 Indigenous Technologies: What Is There for ‘Green’ Technology …

313

Lyver, P. O. B., Timoti, P., Gormley, A. M., Jones, C. J., Richardson, S. J., Tahi, B. L., & Greenhalgh, S. (2017). Key M¯aori values strengthen the mapping of forest ecosystem services. Ecosystem Services, 27, 92–102. McGregor, D. (2004). Coming full circle: Indigenous knowledge, environment, and our future. American Indian Quarterly, 28(3/4), 385–410. McGregor, D., Whitaker, S., & Sritharan, M. (2020). Indigenous environmental justice and sustainability. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 43, 35–40. Murray, A., Skene, K., & Haynes, K. (2017). The circular economy: An interdisciplinary exploration of the concept and application in a global context. Journal of Business Ethics, 140, 369–380. Namtak, S., & Sharma, R. C. (2018). Traditional knowledge and innovative practices for water management and conservation in Indian cold desert, Leh Ladakh. Indian Journal of Ecology, 45(4), 737–744. O’Bryan, C. J., Garnett, S. T., Fa, J. E., Leiper, I., Rehbein, J. A., Fernández-Llamazares, Á., Jackson, M. V., Jonas, H. D., Brondizio, E. S., Burgess, N. D., & Robinson, C. J. (2020). The importance of indigenous peoples’ lands for the conservation of terrestrial mammals. Conservation Biology. Ocholla, D. (2007, September 3). Marginalized knowledge: An agenda for indigenous knowledge development and integration with other forms of knowledge. International Review of Information Ethics, 7, 236–245. Okorafor, A. O. (2014). Developing indigenous technology for harnessing local natural resources in Nigeria: The place of technical vocational education and training. International Journal of Science and Technology, 3(8), 461–466. Parker, W. C., Ninomiya, A., & Cogan, J. (1999). Educating world citizens: Toward multinational curriculum development. American Educational Research Journal, 36(2), 117–145. Pascua, P. A., McMillen, H., Ticktin, T., Vaughan, M., & Winter, K. B. (2017). Beyond services: A process and framework to incorporate cultural, genealogical, place-based, and indigenous relationships in ecosystem service assessments. Ecosystem Services, 26, 465–475. Pauw, J. B. D., Gericke, N., Olsson, D., & Berglund, T. (2015). The effectiveness of education for sustainable development. Sustainability, 7(11), 15693–15717. Pavlova, M. (2008). Technology and vocational education: A framework for the development of teaching approaches and resources for education for sustainable development. In J. Fien, R. Maclean, & M. G. Park (Eds.), Work, learning and sustainable development: Opportunities and challenges. Springer. Pavlova, M. (2009). Conceptualisation of technology education within the paradigm of sustainable development. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 19(2), 109–132. Pavlova, M. (2013). Teaching and learning for sustainable development: ESD research in technology education. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 23(3), 733–748. Pavlova, M. (2018). Fostering inclusive, sustainable economic growth and ‘green’ skills development in learning cities through partnerships. International Review of Education: Journal of Lifelong Learning, 64(3), 339–354. Pavlova, M., & Chen, C. S. (2019). Facilitating the development of students’ generic green skills in TVET: An ESD pedagogical model. TVET@ Asia, 12, 1–21. Prime, G. M. (1993). Values in technology: Approaches to learning. Design and Technology Teaching, 26(1), 30–36. Reyes-García, V., Fernández-Llamazares, Á., Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Y., Benyei, P., Bussmann, R. W., Diamond, S. K., García-del-Amo, D., Guadilla-Sáez, S., Hanazaki, N., Kosoy, N., & Lavides, M. (2021). Recognizing indigenous peoples’ and local communities’ rights and agency in the post-2020 biodiversity agenda. Ambio, 51(1), 84–92. Reyes-García, V., Fernández-Llamazares, Á., McElwee, P., Molnár, Z., Öllerer, K., Wilson, S. J., & Brondizio, E. S. (2019). The contributions of indigenous peoples and local communities to ecological restoration. Restoration Ecology, 27(1), 3–8. Robinson, J. (2004). Squaring the circle? Some thoughts on the idea of sustainable development. Ecological Economics, 48, 369–384.

314

M. Pavlova

Schuster, R., Germain, R. R., Bennett, J. R., Reo, N. J., & Arcese, P. (2019). Vertebrate biodiversity on indigenous-managed lands in Australia, Brazil, and Canada equals that in protected areas. Environmental Science & Policy, 101, 1–6. Sharma, S., Bajracharya, R., & Sitaula, B. (2009). Indigenous technology knowledge in Nepal—A review. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 8, 569–576. Sharma, D., & Joshi, J. (2019). Securing nutrition through the revival of circular lifestyles: A case study of endogenous rural communities in Rajasthan. In P. Schröder, M. Anantharaman, K. Anggraeni, & T. J. Foxon (Eds.), The circular economy and the Global South: Sustainable lifestyles and green industrial development (pp. 175–187). Routledge. UNESCO. (2020). Education for sustainable development: A roadmap. Retrieved July 2021, from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000374802 United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP]. (2011). Towards a green economy: Pathways to sustainable development and poverty eradication—A synthesis for policy makers. Retrieved March 2022, from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page=view&type=400& nr=126&menu=1515 Vare, P., & Scott, W. (2007). Learning for a change: Exploring the relationship between education and sustainable development. Journal of Education for Sustainable Development, 1(2), 191–198. Vernadsky, V. I. (1945). The biosphere and the noosphere. American Scientist, 33, 1–12. Webster & Johnson. (2008). Sense & sustainability: Educating for a low carbon world. TerraPreta.

Chapter 20

Ways in Which Technology Education Teachers Can Integrate Indigenous Technology Through Action Learning Tomé A Mapotse

Abstract This chapter aims to guide the African teachers of Technology Education (TE) to integrate indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) with success and confidence in their teaching even when they are subjected to Techno-Colonialism. The chapter outlines the pedagogical aspects of the indigenous technological knowledge systems (ITKS) that need to be practised in TE classes. These aspects of ITKS will be realized if TE teachers use the process of action learning (AL) research by experts from Higher Education Institutions. TE teachers are encouraged to be proud of who they are culturally first by restoring diverse learners’ cultural pride on how to implement ITKS during their TE lesson delivery. It should be noted that if teachers’ pride could be restored in implementing ITKS, then the learners will experience both cultural and traditional enhancement in TE class. The chapter further outlines ways in which indigenous technologies could respond to sustainable development goals without being gender focus or being driven by colonial imperatives. This chapter suggests that it is through action research and/or action learning that TE teachers can explore the current reality of TE curriculum implementation in respect of the use of indigenous technological knowledge systems. Keywords Action learning · Action research · Indigenous Technology · Techno-colonialism

20.1 Introduction Before decolonization, a substantial number of African countries in their schooling systems had scheduled sessions where the learners were taught how to do artistic things, projects, artefacts, etc., related to their local communities and those activities were categorized as handwork. Many of the classroom activities done at that time unconsciously incorporated technological design steps and covered numerous themes of Technology Education (TE). Ruttmann (2017) concluded that in handwork T. A. Mapotse (B) University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_20

315

316

T. A. Mapotse

sessions, “it is a privilege to see the different strategies the children employ whilst working their way through a project. Some strategies are suggested, and some are found by an individual or group. The lessons learned in handwork are so immediate and so practical that it is sometimes taken to heart more freely and easily”. Ruttmann further argues that handwork is enjoyable, doable, and fun and most of human nature is of course entering the stream that is humanity’s long history of creatively making objects by hand. It has a wonderfully familiar feel. Many elderly TE teachers in the education system presently have been taught and trained to execute such handwork sessions. Some learning institutions are calling for handwork Craft Education. In the South African context, most of these elderly teachers were trained at the Colleges of Education, unlike these young ones who got their TE teaching skills at the universities the time handwork is no more part of the curriculum or is maintained as a craft. Craft Education is one of the first subjects to be offered in the realm of Technical Education. Design and Craft Education were influenced by the national curricula of New Zealand, Canada, England, and, more specifically, the Icelandic mode for Innovation (Olafsson & Thorsteinsson, 2010). According to Williams (2018), Craft Education is seen as a subject of low status, in the same sphere as Physical Education or Religious Education. One can safely say handwork was the earlier vision of Craft Education and Craft Education was the bedrock of TE. As of now, skills transfer must take place between TE generational groups of teachers. The skills pertaining to doing the handwork can be filtered down to the young TE teachers by these elderly experienced ones. It is now up to those TE teachers to turn away from focusing more on the Western Knowledge systems by returning and reviving African Technology Education (ATE) as it relates to the TE policy of their countries. The TE teachers as agents of change can navigate the value of both indigenous African Knowledge systems and Western Knowledge systems. Many Africans have accepted the racial superiority rhetoric promoted through colonial education and became convinced that Western Knowledge was the only important knowledge. The end of colonial rule in sub-Saharan Africa did not generate a meaningful departure from reliance on Western Knowledge systems, and the colonial perspectives largely persist in many African countries in respect of the treatment of indigenous knowledge in official, formal education curricula, and sadly the post-colonial governments continue to remain dependent on the colonial authorities for education funding (Ezeanya-Esiobu et al., 2021). The Western-European technology coupled with its investigative drive was employed to explore and expose this African technological treasury as practised in some of the African countries. The policymakers, academics, and scholars in Africa have sought to incorporate IKS within the TE curriculum context. Jumba and Mwiti (2022, 1) content that globally the discourse on the integration of indigenous knowledge in the school curriculum in sub-Saharan African countries, Kenya included, continues to be a dominant theme. Despite the numerous pleas for the integration of indigenous knowledge in the school curriculum, most stakeholders feel there is a need to integrate indigenous knowledge into the formal school curriculum (Jumba & Mwiti, 2022). Within South Africa, TE teachers are encouraged to use the action learning (AL) methodologies to conduct research on the technology subject. Gumbo (2018, p. 62) contends

20 Ways in Which Technology Education Teachers Can Integrate …

317

that though TE is a school subject and action research (AR) a research design under research methodologies, it is important to note that the method of teaching TE, the design process, is inherently research-oriented. Once TE teachers can be empowered through AR by academics/scholars from HEIs, they will be able to emancipate their peers through AL. Action learning (AL) as a mode of learning at work can be attributed to Revans (1998). AL places the emphasis on inquiry-led action to affect the skills transfer required in TE. AL is typically associated with a project but can characterize a mode of operation in a workplace (Aubusson et al., 2007). For Technology Education teachers to meet both their sustainable development goal and Agenda 2063 aspirations, it is advisable for those Higher Education Institutions to engage nearby schools with Engaged Scholarship and Societal Impact activities by applying AL. Action Learning has the potential to, respectively, improve learners’ practice as well as enhance their performance especially if the elderly experienced TE teachers will embark on skill transfer processes with the young inexperienced ones. Action learning is collaborative, cooperative, and collegial (Mapotse, 2020). AL promotes conversation, communication, and consultation. It further encourages care, connectivity, and creativity. All of these “Cs” are built on Engaged Scholarship and the Societal Impact of community engagement, community outreach, and community development to improve the teaching of TE. Technology Education teachers are at liberty to incorporate AL to conduct research in the field of IKS as this is strengthened by the African Renaissance protocol and supported by TE policies. For TE teachers to integrate indigenous technological knowledge systems in the delivery of their lessons, they should first embrace the diverse cultures of their learners. This means that indigenous knowledge provides the basis for problem-solving strategies for local communities, especially the poor (Ogbebor, 2011, December 10). It represents an important component of global knowledge on development issues. Meyiwa and Maseti (2015, p. 86) stress that indigenous knowledge research has served as a fundamental basis upon which the historical experiences of ordinary local people can be built. However, since technology is a global phenomenon, it is important that knowledge about it includes technology from different cultural contexts and not merely technologies produced and used in limited parts of the world (Edgerton, 2011; Gumbo, 2017). The chapter will share some ways to incorporate Action Learning/Action Research to liberate TE teachers from ignoring their own indigenous technological knowledge systems and that of their learners. Teachers’ indigeneity needs to be restored and learners’ TE learning should be contextualized to capitalize on the learner’s prior knowledge acquired from home and social informal schooling. The concept of restoring TE teachers’ indigeneity within their learners’ context is unpacked in the subsequent section.

318

T. A. Mapotse

20.2 Technology Teacher’s Indigenous Knowledge “Indigeneity” simply means the quality of being indigenous—that is, being a member of an “indigenous” group (Lee, 2020). It’s a word invented in 1972 by the United Nations Working Group for Indigenous Peoples. The definition has been amended several times (first in 1983) to fine-tune its applicability (Lee, 2020). The term indigenous was not used to identify human groups until recently. Indigenous people are often identified as the First People of a specific regional area. Indigeneity, as applied to First People, came into use in the 1990s, as many colonized communities fought against erasure, genocide, and forced acculturation under colonial regimes. The term indigenous has long been used as a designation distinguishing those who are “native” from “others” in specific locales and with varying scopes (Merlan, 2009). Merlan (2009, p. 303) further argues that in recent decades, this concept has become internationalized, and “indigeneity” has come also to presuppose a sphere of commonality among those who form a world collectivity of “indigenous people” in contrast to their various others. The principal institutional home of international indigenism is the UN system. Most TE teachers in African countries can be regarded as indigeneity or belong to a certain indigenous group. TE teachers are placed in a better position in their communities to excel in orientating their learners with indigeneity within indigenous technology for sustainability purposes. Teachers are the agent of change in society and are supported by their education ministry. Higher Education Institutions can also play the role of emancipating teachers on how to conduct action research in their TE classes. If the local education ministry and neighbouring varsities can support and emancipate TE teachers, they will be heading to a UNESCO clarion call to promote (Technology) Education for Sustainable Development. UNESCO has been promoting Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) since 1992. The organization led the United Nations Decades for ESD from 2005 to 2014 and now is spearheading its follow-up, the Global Action Programme (GAP) on ESD. The momentum for ESD has never been stronger than now, owing to the burning global issues which require the citizens of the world to change their lifestyles and transform the way they live (Mapotse, 2020). To achieve this change, citizens need new skills, values, and attitudes that will lead to more sustainable societies through TE. For a national education system to respond to this pressing need, it must include Technology Education and sustainable principles in its curriculum and management structures, respectively. Education is both a goal and a means for attaining all the other sustainable development goals (SDGs). In 2015, the United Nations set one of the targets of the SDGs to, “by 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, the promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and culture’s contribution to sustainable development”. TE teachers can be the change agent if they can frame their

20 Ways in Which Technology Education Teachers Can Integrate …

319

indigeneity within the scope of the indigenous technology landscape by taking these teachers through four distinct enterprises of action research (AR). According to Mapotse (2018a), AR is a problem-posing and problem-solving method that entails four distinct enterprises: planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. These four major enterprises, in turn, generate a cycle of research endeavours. The goal of engaging in AR, according to Mapotse (2018b), is to assist or support policymakers in improving their educational initiatives. Policymakers equipped with AR skills, attitudes, values, and training will be able to influence the development of TE curricula by incorporating. The field of Teacher Education and Technology integration is also complicit in generally assuming a race-neutral space into which technologies are integrated (Krutka et al., 2019, 2020). Referring to people, indigeneity is about naturally born and belonging to a specific land/region of the world (Kwaira, 2020). Reflecting on the phenomenon of indigeneity within indigenous technology, the struggle has been forever citizenship undertones about whose curriculum should be followed. Mapotse (2019, p. 242) reiterates that it is incumbent upon technology teachers to draw on the knowledge and expertise that may be available in their local community. For example, the TE teachers can invite an elderly person from the local community to come and share how the grinding of diverse seeds was performed.

20.3 Restoring Pride on Teachers to Implement Indigenous Technology If teachers of TE can be proud of their tradition and culture, they may be more likely to instil that notion of self-love in their learners. For a curriculum to produce learners who are aware of the opportunities and challenges within their immediate environment, its contents must reflect the real-life and lived experiences of learners (Ezeanya-Esiobu et al., 2021). It should be noted that the purpose of teaching Technology Education is to equip learners with knowledge and skills that will be needed to sustain the creative economy (Moalosi et al., 2020). TE teachers should be instrumental in according learners the opportunities to apply the technological methods which will guide them to design and develop a wide range of technologies, also developing sustainable green technologies and furthermore assessing the impact of technologies on their society. Problem-solving is the central theme of Technology Education; therefore, it is incumbent of TE teachers to constantly subject their learners to be in the habit of technologically solving the problems of their indigenous community. Axell (2020, p. 210) proposed that TE teachers should engage their learners with the following six themes to implement indigenous technological systems: • • • • • •

Meaning-making through cultural artefacts; Creating links between the past and the present; Contextualization through myths and storytelling; A holistic view of technological knowledge; Collective technological knowledge; and The symbolic value of technology.

320

T. A. Mapotse

Furthermore, AL methodologies could be used to restore pride in TE teachers to implement indigenous technological systems. Action Research (AR) and Action Learning (AL) are mostly confused as one and the same thing by most scholars, not realizing that there two are similar not the same. Firstly, the participants can be taken through AR; then, later the empowered participants can serve as practitioners and engage their peers or colleagues through AR spiral cycles (Mapotse, 2018a, 2018b). Figure 20.1 displays how the AR cyclic methodology can be used to empower the participants. If the cycle can be repeated more than once with the participants, the cycle then becomes spiral activities. According to Somekh (2006,1), AR is a means whereby research can become a systematic intervention, going beyond describing, analysing, and theorizing social practices to working in partnership with participants (Technology Education teachers) to reconstruct and transform them (integration of indigenous technologies), whereas Mapotse (2018a, 2018b) respectfully offers a definition of AL as a highly structured, facilitated process, which unlocks the expertise and knowledge in a person, group, or organization to explore and determine actions to solve problems and move forward to success. Both AR and AL aim at generating collaborative learning, research, and action (Mapotse, 2015). AL will only be at play if the empowered participants took it upon themselves to emancipate their peers or colleagues following AR stages of which some have been outlined by Ferrance. If TE teachers are taken through the process of AR stages, then they will be hindered to deliver indigenous knowledge systems to their learners. Fig. 20.1 Action research cycle (Ferrance, 2000, p. 9)

20 Ways in Which Technology Education Teachers Can Integrate …

321

20.4 Teachers’ Cultural Hindrances to Teaching Indigenous Knowledge Systems Indigenous cultures are at the highest risk of cultural loss through cultural globalization, because indigenous people often lack the power and influence required to protect their ways and lands against the interests of more powerful outsiders (Moulton, 2021, December 22). The cultural loss deprives learners to learn their indigenous culture and indigenous people lack power demonstrating the colonial domineering over indigenous people. Within the African context, TE is connected to a specific traditional cultural practice of that community or society in helping learners to develop artefacts. By using artefacts with a strong connection to culture and a focus on “how” the artefact is used and “why” (James, 2015), the activities become meaningful for the learners. If TE teachers can use the traditional cultural artefacts as a starting point, the learners will be given the opportunity to see that technology is more than modern high-tech; it is an age-old tradition of problemsolving, modification, and adaptation to fulfil human needs (Axell, 2020). The use of traditional cultural artefacts will have diverse benefits for the learners as they will start to embrace TE from their local perspective. Indigenous knowledge includes a local community’s traditional technology, social, economic, and philosophical learning grounded in spiritual skills, practices, and ways of being in nature. It encompasses many areas from farming to law and psychology to mathematics (Keane, 2015, July 15). Indigenous knowledge covers quite a variety of study fields which include also TE; unfortunately, there are socioeconomic issues that serve as a stumbling block to learners’ technology learning. Indigenous peoples suffer higher rates of poverty, homelessness, and malnutrition. They have lower levels of literacy and less access to health services, further contributing to their poverty (Barsh, 2017, September 5). When the policymakers are analysing the TE curriculum, they should make sure it includes more creativity to accommodate the conditions of the indigenous peoples. Moalosi et al. (2020, pp. 269– 270) highlight the procedure to address the challenges that hinder the teaching of at least one of the technological skills termed creativity, and the following methods should be considered: • Curriculum review: The design component of TE curriculum should be constantly reviewed. • Training educators on creativity: Educators should be well trained in creative design methods and tools. • Creative education: A holistic approach to creativity should be adopted at the school level. • Creative physical environment: The physical environment of the school is a primary source of inspiration for creative educators and learners alike. • Establishing partnerships: The school should establish a partnership with local businesses, entrepreneurs, and contractors who can adopt the school in support of learners.

322

T. A. Mapotse

Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) can use one of their pillars of Engaged Scholarship and Societal Impact project (ESSI) (commonly known as Community Engagement project) to engage the schools within their vicinity through action learning to emancipate the TE teachers on the challenges listed above. This exercise by HEIs most probably will restore pride in teachers to implement indigenous technological systems. Creative students can be self-employed, innovative, and invent things that could technologically solve the problems of their community of nations. African Continental Free Trade Area can help learners and their TE teachers establish partnerships within Africa regarding indigenous technology; for instance, South African learners can display through the internet their indigenous technology products to learners in Kenya and exchange their products or ideas. This idea of exchange of indigenous technologies will mutually benefit learners with their indigenous technological knowledge systems and culturally responds to the sustainable development goals.

20.5 Indigenous Technologies’ Relevance to Sustainable Development Goals There are an estimated 476 million indigenous peoples in the world, living across 90 countries. They speak an overwhelming majority of the world’s estimated 7000 languages and represent 5000 different cultures. COVID-19 has posed a grave threat to indigenous peoples around the world, who already lack access to health care and other essential services. Yet, indigenous peoples are seeking their own solutions in their own languages, using traditional and innovative knowledge, practices, and preventive measures to fight the pandemic, assert United Nations (UN), Policy Brief (2020, August). In 2015, the UN General Assembly approved the “2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”. On 1st January 2016, the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the Agenda officially came into force. These goals cover the three dimensions of sustainable development: economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (ASD) provides an opportunity to address these issues and ensure that the people of skills, knowledge, attitude, and values are not forgotten (Kjaerulf et al., 2016). In the face of knowledge erosion and rapidly disappearing cultural traditions, protection accompanied by promotion and development must offer transmission incentives to indigenous knowledge holders to encourage the promotion of informal innovations as a strategy for sustainable development (Suchanandan, 2018, February 2). The colonial governments during the Victorian era possessed norms for male and female roles which influenced the structure of education in the colonized territories (Ezeanya-Esiobu, 2019). For women, domestic management and training schools were established to orient them towards skills in, for example, sewing, dressmaking, baking, cooking, decoration, and general home and housekeeping skills (Oguamanam, 2019) while males from male schools were hired to work in government

20 Ways in Which Technology Education Teachers Can Integrate …

323

offices and establishments. This type of gender-based practice for skills had a negative connotation to indigenous technologies in responding to their educational sustainable development. The (Higher Education Institutions) HEIs are known to stand on three delivery legs/pillars—those are tuition, research, and ESSI. TE teachers need to be taken through some current African indigenous technologies. The HEIs can play a major role in engaging TE teachers with the how of presenting African indigenous technologies to their learners. The following can be the basis of African indigenous technologies to be presented by the TE teachers to their learners: Indigenous technologies dealing with: • • • • • • • • • • • •

battering and trade technical and engineering greening and biotechnology climate and weather focus soils and compost gardening and agriculture plants and vegetation veterinary and animal care medicine and health marketing and entrepreneurship food preservation and culture textile and tradition.

If TE teachers can be best emancipated and empowered through ESSI using AR/AL methodologies (workshops, interviews, reflections, etc.) in circular and spiral cycles, they will be able to differentiate between Western technologies and African indigenous technologies. TE teachers need to embrace African indigenous technologies listed above as this has the potential to set them free from Techno-Colonialism, the phenomenon which is unpacked in the ensuing section.

20.6 African Technology Education Teachers are Trapped into Techno-Colonialism Techno-colonialism is a term coined back in 2000 by Bush (2015) to describe the exploitation of poorer cultures by richer ones through technology. There is a story that governments of wealthy countries like to tell about the rich world’s relationship with Africa. It is a story of generosity, charity, and benevolence. It is a story of selfless aid givers supporting the needy and impoverished people of Africa (Drewry, 2014). The white makes sure they won’t teach the black children about their African ancestry because that will make the level playing field the same, but they are teaching their children about their ancestral history of Europe, regarding Galileo, Aristotle, Newton, etc. Robison and Robinson (2022) stress that unless we know our history we can never know who we are, and we will never reach the maximum potential performance God has put into us because we are miseducated by Whites.

324

T. A. Mapotse

Africa is the mother of all civilizations of humanity, but African TE teachers are still trapped in a Techno-Colonialism quagmire. Most African TE teachers still use the textbooks that promote Western Technology over African indigenous technology. This delays the African child’s growth and love for TE as it makes it difficult for the child to comprehend the subject matter being taught. If TE teachers can contextualize their TE and infuse their African culture by integrating indigenous technology in their teaching, this will set their learners free to be creative. Furthermore, the playing field of TE for African learners will be on the same level as other nations; then, these learners’ performance will be maximized since their innovative capacity and invention dimension will be enhanced. The HELs academics and scholars should not relent in their awareness campaign on how the richer cultures have now lately exploited the poorer cultures of the Africans by using the Techno-Colonialism phenomenon. Like ice cream, Techno-Colonialism comes in many flavours (Bush, 2015). Techno-Colonialism flavours are (a) Classic Capital Exploitation, (b) Vendor Territorialist, (c) Aid Agencies, (d) Exploiting Hero, (e) Agent, (f) Self-Exploitation, and (f) Do-Gooder. I will only unpack (d) and (f) as the two Techno-Colonialism flavours: (d) The Exploiting Hero brings, often inappropriate, technology to gain leverage for personal power or money. They care little for the locals or their needs. They have the righteous solution and will break anything to insert it, take whatever they came for, and leave. I will cite South Africa as an example; during the Presidency of Honourable Thabo Mbeki, the Guptas were awarded a tender to award the schools in Gauteng with computers as part of switching to the technological era and prepare learners for the “Fourth Industrial Revolution”. The Guptas here serve as the Exploiting Hero since they had a close tie and strong connection with the government then. The ICT project was called “Gauteng Online”. The installed computers which cost the government billions of Rands could not even last for three months. Ironically, people ended up calling them “Gauteng Offline”. (f) Self-Exploitation is the saddest case. A person or group of people who are part of the exploited and who start to exploit their neighbours. This should be understandable as they are in a very resource-scarce environment and see leadership as a path to general improvement, self-fulfilment, and the power to improve things. Given the difficulty and complexity of making any significant progress, they become controlling and defensive. Though they speak of passing power to the next generations and to the public, they soon cling to power with their claws, as does any demagogue. Self-exploitation is well mirrored in African politics. In South Africa, for example, the Minister of Basic Education presides over the curricula of the three phases of the General Education and Training Band (GET). It is in the GET Band where TE is housed and it seems like a normal practice in the sense that every Minister of Education comes with a new, improved version, reviewed, revised, or overhauled curriculum. The process causes a lot of confusion to the teachers since the development of the new curriculum is a top-down process. I regard TE teachers as neighbours (the self-exploited ones) to their district officials who are going to force a borrowed curriculum down their throat. I further regard district officials as the exploiting heroes who are making sure the curriculum and the textbook that does not speak to the African culture have a space within the

20 Ways in Which Technology Education Teachers Can Integrate …

325

African context to teach an African child without integrating African indigenous technology. The subsequent section of conclusion emphasise the new knowledge that the chapter contributed to ways in which Technology Education teachers can integrate indigenous technology through action learning.

20.7 Conclusion The chapter opens by reminding the readers of the time of “handwork era” which was transformed into craft education, and later, it was termed Design and Craft Education. Even though Craft Education was a subject of low status, it is the bedrock of Technology Education. Ever since the incorporation of TE into the school curriculum, the policymakers, academics, and scholars in Africa have sought to incorporate IKS. The focus of the chapter was to come up with ways in which TE teachers can integrate indigenous technology through AL. AL should be practised with the TE teachers since it is collaborative, cooperative, and collegial and promote conversation, communication, and consultation; at the same time, AL encourages care, connectivity, and creativity. For TE teachers to integrate indigenous technology they must first be indigeneity (being indigenous or being a member of an indigenous/native group). HEIs need to heed to UNESCO clarion call to promote (Technology) Education for Sustainable Development by taking the teachers through the four distinct enterprises of AR (planning, acting, observing, and reflecting). Once the empowered TE teachers are willing to emancipate their peers or colleagues then AL will commence. This AR process and AL methodologies will restore pride in teachers to implement indigenous technology systems. There are technological themes in this chapter that are recommended to the TE teachers to engage them in driving the implementation of indigenous technological systems. The chapter has outlined how AL/AR methodologies can be used to emancipate TE teachers to teach and revive indigenous technology knowledge systems in TE classes. Teachers must encourage their learners to produce the artefacts as they are busy solving their community problems technologically. The chapter has highlighted some cultural hindrances to teaching indigenous knowledge systems and provided the how of overcoming such hindrances. The teachers are guided on how to use TE skill of creativity with their learners. Learners are also encouraged to use the internet of things to exchange indigenous technological ideas with their peers from other countries. It was clear that indigenous technologies can be used to respond to sustainable development goals. It is reported in this chapter that some of the African indigenous technologies could be presented by the TE teachers to their learners. The chapter closes by revealing why TE teachers are trapped in the Techno-Colonialism quagmire. Only two of the flavours of Techno-Colonialism are unpacked so that TE teachers would use those two examples to free themselves from the remaining traps of TechnoColonialism.

326

T. A. Mapotse

References Aubusson, P., Steele, F., Dinham, S., & Brady, L. (2007). Action learning in teacher learning community formation: Informative or transformative. Teacher Development, 11(2), 133–148. Axell, C. (2020). Broadening the Horizons of Technology Education: Using traditional cultural artefacts as learning tools in a Swedish Sámi School. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 25(2), 192–216. https://ojs.lboro.ac.uk/DATE/article/view/2761 Barsh, R. (2017, September 5). The Challenge we face. In cooperation with ‘First Peoples Worldwide’. http://www.firstpeoples.org/the-challenges-we-face.htm Bush, R. (2015). On techno-colonialism: Talk at Rhodes University. (Online). https://archive.psq. com/150613.ontechnocolonialism.html Drewry, M. (2014, July 16). The lies you have been told about Africa. Health Poverty Action. Thomson Reuters Foundation News. https://news.trust.org/item/20140715174658-x1i3b/ Edgerton, D. (2011). Shock of the old, technology and global history since 1900. Profile Books. Ezeanya-Esiobu, C. (2019). Indigenous knowledge and education in Africa. Springer Nature. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6635-2 Ezeanya-Esiobu, C., Oguamanam, C., & Ndungutse, V. (2021, February 11). Marginalisation of indigenous knowledge in African education. The case of Rwandan traditional medicinal treatments for livestock (Working Paper 24). OpenAIR (African Innovation Research). https://openair.africa/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/WP-24-Marginalisation-ofIndigenous-Knowledge-in-African-Education.pdf Ferrance, E. (2000). Themes in education: Action research. Brown University: Educational Alliance, 34(1), 1–33. Gumbo, M. T. (2017). An indigenous perspective on technology education. In P. Ngulube (Ed.), Handbook of research on indigenous knowledge systems in developing countries (pp. 136–159). Hershey. Gumbo, M. T. (2018). Synergizing action research and technology education: A pedagogical perspective. In T. A. Mapotse (Ed.), Cross-disciplinary approaches to action research and action learning (pp. 62–79). Hershey. James, P. (2015). Urban sustainability in theory and practice: circles of sustainability. Routledge. Jumba, H., & Mwiti, F. M. (2022). Teachers’ perception on integration of indigenous knowledge systems in competence based curriculum at selected primary schools in Buuri East Sub-County. International Journal of Public Policy, 10(1), 1–15. file:///C:/Users/mapotta/Downloads/122Article%20Text-266-1-10-20220420.pdf Keane, M. (2015, July 15). Why indigenous knowledge has a place in the school science curriculum. The Conversation, Academic rigour, journalistic flair. https://theconversation.com/why-indige nous-knowledge-has-a-place-in-the-school-science-curriculum-44378 Kjaerulf, F., Lee, B., Cohen, L., Donnelly, P., Turner, S., Davis, R., Realini, A., Moloney-Kitts, M., Gordon, R., Lee, G., & Gilligan, J. (2016). The 2030 agenda for sustainable development: a golden opportunity for global violence prevention. International Journal of Public Health, 61, 863–864. Krutka, D. G., Heath, M. K., & Willet, K. B. S. (2019). Foregrounding technoethics: Towards critical perspectives in Technology and Teacher Education. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 27(4), 555–574. Krutka, D. G., Heath, M. K., & Mason, L. E. (2020). Technology won’t save us—A call for technoskepticism in social studies. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 20(1), 108–120. Kwaira, P. (2020). African Indigenous Technologies: The answer to sustainable development. In M. T. Gumbo (Ed.), Decolonization of technology education: African indigenous perspectives (pp. 77–92). New York.

20 Ways in Which Technology Education Teachers Can Integrate …

327

Lee, R. C. (2020). What is indigeneity? Ad by University of Cape Town. Online, What is Indigeneity?—Quora. Accessed 1 November 2021. Mapotse, T. A. (2015). From etic action research practitioner to emic action learning facilitator: A community engagement case [Conference session]. ALARA World Congress, Centurion, South Africa. Mapotse, T. A. (2018). Development of a technology education cascading theory through community engagement site-based support. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 28(3), 685–699. Mapotse, T. A. (2018). Technology education teachers’ professional development review through community engagement: An action research inquest. In T. A. Mapotse (Ed.), Cross-disciplinary approaches to action research and action learning (pp. 1–18). Hershey. Mapotse, T. A. (2019). Chapter 10: Structures. In M. T. Gumbo (Ed.), Teaching technology: Intermediate to senior phase (pp. 230–249). Oxford University Press. Mapotse T. A. (2020). Technical education through action learning: Bedrock of sustainable development. In W. Leal Filho, A. Azul, L. Brandli, P. Özuyar, & T. Wall (Eds.), Quality Education. Encyclopaedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-319-69902-8 Merlan, F. (2009). Indigeneity: Global and local. Current Anthropology, 50(3), 303–307. Meyiwa, T., & Maseti, T. (2015). Developing sensitivity towards questions of gender within various academic disciplines through feminist research and critique. Educational research: An African approach (pp. 77–95). Moalosi, R., Rapitsenyane, Y., & Sealetsa, O. J. (2020). Design as an anchor of technology education: An African cultural world view. In M. T. Gumbo (Ed.), Decolonization of technology education: African indigenous perspective. Peter Lang. Moulton, S. (2021, December 22). Cultural globalization and its impact on indigenous cultures. At Study.com https://study.com/academy/lesson/cultural-globalization-its-impact-on-indigenouscultures.html Ogbebor, A. (2011, December 10). The value of indigenous knowledge system based on literature review. Osarome.blogspot.com. https://osarome.blogspot.com/2011/12/write-on-value-ofindigenous-knowledge.html Oguamanam, C. (2019). Indigenous data sovereignty: Retooling Indigenous resurgence for development. Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI) Paper Series, Paper, 234. Olafsson, B., & Thorsteinsson, G. (2010). Examining design and craft education in Iceland. Curriculum development and present situation. FORMakademisk, 3(2). Oppenneer, M. (2011, August 10). The impact of digital technology on indigenous peoples. https:// www.ethnosproject.org/the-impact-of-digital-technology-on-indigenous-peoples/ Revans, R. W. (1998). ABC of action learning. Lemos and Crane. Robinson, E. W., & Robinson, K. (2022, January 23). What makes the black people different? TheNewBackMind. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tsZv-806-9A&t= 2227s Ruttmann, E. (2017, November 13). The joy of teaching handwork. Imhoff Waldorf School, Bringing Learning to Life. http://www.imhoffwaldorf.org/joys-teaching-handwork/ Somekh, B. (2006). Action research: A methodology for change and development. Open University Press. Suchanandan, T. (2018, February 2). Special Reports: Protecting and preserving indigenous knowledge. Staff Reporter, Mail & Guardian. https://mg.co.za/article/2018-02-02-00-protecting-andpreserving-indigenous-knowledge/ Williams, P. J. (2018). Curriculum perspective in technology education: Section introduction. In M. J. de Vries (Ed.), Handbook of technology education (pp. 67–72).

Chapter 21

Transforming Technology Education Curriculum Through Indigenous Technologies Mishack T. Gumbo

and P. John Williams

There is a need to consider indigenous perspectives in Technology Education. We hope the intent of this book, which was to bring indigenous perspectives into Technology Education to ensure transformation of the same, has been at least partly fulfilled. The book has argued that modern technology and indigenous technology are generally polarized in favour of the former. This is due to the marginalization that indigenous technology has suffered from colonialism. The focus has been on indigenous technological knowledge systems education (ITKSE). The chapters in this book have done justice to address this issue. Our concluding thoughts show the synergy and logical flow of the chapters as packaged in the four parts of the book. In this light, Chapters 2 to 21 in this book have been categorized into the following parts: A Case for Indigenous Technology in Technology Education; The Cultural Root of Indigenous Technology and its Practices; Knowledge and Skills, Indigenous Technology and Curriculum; and Indigenous Technology in the Teaching and Learning of Technology. These parts proceed logically from contesting indigenous technology and confronting the canons of colonialism, to teaching and learning based on indigenous perspectives. For one to understand ITKSE, it is imperative to first understand indigenous technologies and their practices. The chapters presented in Part I do this by describing indigenous technologies from different contexts, covering the 4th Industrial Revolution, engineering knowledge, innovation, and intellectual property rights. The case is made in this part that the advancement of technology which is currently accelerated by the 4th Industrial Revolution has a tendency of leapfrogging indigenous technology. This issue hooks into indigenous technologies being visible in engineering knowledge and innovation, which strengthens the case for the need to integrate indigenous M. T. Gumbo (B) University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] P. John Williams Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. T. Gumbo and P. J. Williams (eds.), Indigenous Technology Knowledge Systems, Contemporary Issues in Technology Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1396-1_21

329

330

M. T. Gumbo and P. John Williams

technologies into Technology Education. Furthermore, there is a need to protect the intellectual property rights of indigenous people which are expressed in the technologies to which they have contributed over decades and continue to do so. The chapters in this part uniformly give an account of the richness and existence of indigenous technologies. Part I makes a logical transition into Section B, wherein specific examples of indigenous technical knowledge and education from the Sami tribe in Sweden and toys and temples in India are presented and described. The chapters present the opportunity for one to learn about the cultural flavour that informs the designs of the technologies from these contexts. Furthermore, the chapters highlight the educational value of these designs. This part provides evidence that education and technology are culturally bound, they are determined by culture, and in turn influence cultural change. Hence, there is an opportunity to teach and learn Technology from varied cultural lenses. If there is so much education contained in indigenous technologies and practices, then the opportunity must not be lost to teach and learn about them in Technology Education. Part II of the book builds into Section C in the sense that the latter locates indigenous debates within Technology Education and the curriculum. Some work has been done in Kenya, New Zealand, India, South Africa, and Zimbabwe that sheds light on the transformational policies that serve as vehicles to integrate indigenous technologies into the curricula of these countries. The authors, however, bring their critical minds into the implementation of those policies. In this sense, policies are critiqued, and the indigenous technologies raise issues of transformation and social justice, a critical approach should be adopted in their implementation and associated research. This is because there is so much to learn in the process of integrating indigenous technologies into the Technology Education curriculum considering their complexity, dynamism, and cultural boundedness. One of the critical issues that impact indigenous knowledge, in general, is their contestation within the 4th Industrial Revolution and how the latter can be interpreted from an indigenous perspective. Everything education does not end with the curriculum, but culminates in teaching and learning. Hence, Part III necessitated Part IV on Indigenous Technology in the Teaching and Learning of Technology. This last part of the book is critical as it is about enacting the Technology Education curriculum that should include indigenous technologies. Schools and higher education institutions know that they need to transform their curricula to live up to the varied cultures that they serve in the students that they teach. The challenge is how to integrate indigenous technologies. The attempts of South Africa, Indonesia, and Hong Kong discussed in Part IV of this book provide strategies, methods, and frameworks for integrating indigenous technologies from which other contexts may learn. We need to reiterate that ITKSE should be integrated into Technology Education as it can benefit both indigenous students and non-indigenous students. The main reason for this is that these cultural groups can expand their knowledge of technology by learning both ITKSE and Western Technological Knowledge Systems Education

21 Transforming Technology Education Curriculum Through Indigenous …

331

(WTKSE), thereby enriching each other’s understanding and technological perspectives. Further marginalization of ITKSE is detrimental to the transformation that must be realized in Technology Education. When indigenous students are not considered, their performance in the subject is at stake as they will find it difficult to understand the content because they will not easily identify with it from their own cultural contexts. Transformation in this regard needs a willed effort from (1) policymakers to avoid uni-cultural curriculum designs or curricula which will universalize one culture, which is the prevailing approach and continues to be so to a larger extent with the dominance of Western culture on other cultures—curriculum designs should begin by mapping out the cultural representations in the students, (2) schools and universities to show commitment towards transformation that has to do with ITKSE, (3) Technology teachers to diversify their approach to content delivery and pedagogy, ensuring indigenous perspectives and modes of learning such as orality and experiential learning, and (4) researchers to identify the opportunities that transformation brings about through the integration of ITKSE, so that they can research issues which arise.