Inclusive Education in a Post-Soviet Context: A Case of Kazakhstan 3030655423, 9783030655426

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Tsediso Michael Makoelle Michelle Somerton   Editors

Inclusive Education in a Post-Soviet Context A Case of Kazakhstan

Inclusive Education in a Post-Soviet Context

Tsediso Michael Makoelle · Michelle Somerton Editors

Inclusive Education in a Post-Soviet Context A Case of Kazakhstan

Editors Tsediso Michael Makoelle Graduate School of Education Nazarbayev University Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan

Michelle Somerton Graduate School of Education Nazarbayev University Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan

ISBN 978-3-030-65542-6 ISBN 978-3-030-65543-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65543-3 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

When Dr. Makoelle initially raised the idea for this book, we spoke at length about our past few years working in Kazakhstan and how much had changed in education since we arrived in 2015 and 2016, respectively. We are researchers and academics involved in the development of inclusive education in post-soviet Kazakhstan and passionate about education for all. Dr. Makoelle is from South Africa and brings with him a lifetime of experience in school education as teacher, principal, and academic. I am an early career researcher and from another “big” country, Australia, where we often face similar challenges to Kazakhstan relating to remote and rural education. Many people ask us, “What brought you to Kazakhstan?” For Dr. Makoelle it was about experiencing and learning about inclusive education and its implementation process in other international education contexts. My journey was a little different, but I felt it was important to give back to education what was provided to me. Whichever way we answer that question, I know we would both say that it is our passion for education, and a firm belief that every person has the right to be educated. It is this belief that continues to drive us to keep doing what we do. We have found that the challenges Kazakhstan faces concerning the implementation of inclusive education are not unique and are shared with other countries. However, it is important to recognize the complexity of social and cultural contexts when implementing systemic change of any kind and to ensure that any change does not have a negative impact or further marginalizes vulnerable people or already disadvantaged groups. We highlight the need to respect the social and cultural values of Kazakhstan when re-conceptualizing practices adopted from other contexts. In saying this, it must also be recognized that creating “inclusive societies” that are tolerant of diversity and difference begins in schools and in the classroom through inclusive education. Inclusive education was not initially part of the master’s programs that were offered when the Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education was established in 2011, but it became clear that inclusion and inclusive education were important concepts within education reforms proposed by the Kazakhstani government. Our school accepted the first admissions into our program in Leadership and Inclusive Education in 2015. Even though numbers were small, we have continued to grow and now boast more than 40 alumni in our area of specialty. Knowing most of v

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them personally, I can honestly say that they are all talented individuals who want to contribute to the development of education in their country. Dr. Makoelle and I have had the pleasure of supervising master’s and Ph.D. students in our home countries and in Kazakhstan. The research that they contribute to our and others’ understanding of this developing field in Kazakhstan is very important. Our educational reforms are ongoing and changes happen rapidly, so the research our students do is a valuable contribution to understanding the impact of reforms, the challenges faced by teachers, policy makers, school leaders, and parents in developing inclusive education. There are some parts of Kazakhstan where these challenges are more relevant than in others, particularly in areas that are more isolated, rural, or have transient or migrant populations. Each chapter of this book describes and analyses different parts of the education process and the findings of recent studies. The research presented here serves several purposes. It provides practitioners, researchers, and policy makers nationally, regionally, and internationally with an understanding of educational reforms in the development of inclusive education in a post-Soviet context. This research also highlights the barriers that exclude children from mainstream education and the way in which Kazakh and Russian culture has influenced beliefs and attitudes concerning diversity and educational needs. Not the least, we showcase here the research our students do as part of their thesis work. This book brings together their skills and knowledge in a way that captures a particular facet or dimension of inclusive education set within a body of research literature from other knowledge contexts. We are certain that publication of this research collection will make a valuable contribution to the field and be a useful platform for new and existing scholars doing research in Kazakhstan and the Central Asian context. Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan

Dr. Tsediso Michael Makoelle Dr. Michelle Somerton

Acknowledgments We wish to express our deepest appreciation to the contributors of chapters to this book. Thanks to the Nazarbayev University, especially the Graduate School of Education, for providing us with time, resources, and space to see this manuscript to fruition.

Executive Summary

Part I: Inclusive Education in Kazakhstan Chapter 1: Kazakhstan’s Transition to Inclusion: The Journey So Far This chapter lays the foundation for the discussions in this book, as it provides a general overview of the developments of inclusive education since the independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The overview in this chapter is synthesized in discussions focused on the emergence of educational policy on inclusion, the politics surrounding the adoption and implementation of inclusive education, some achievements or milestones in the process, as well as challenges or barriers hampering the full realization of inclusive education as envisioned in the education policy documents.

Part II: Teachers and Inclusive Teaching and Learning Chapter 2: “Inclusion of Diverse Learners Is a Beautiful Idea but…” Preparing Pre-service Teachers to Cater for Diversity As classrooms continue to accommodate more diverse student populations, there has been global recognition of the need to prepare teachers who are equipped with the appropriate attitudes, skills, and knowledge to work in diverse classrooms. It has been argued that teacher training programs should prepare teachers to engage with learner diversity across ethnic, cultural, linguistic, religious, socio-economic status, disability, or special educational needs dimensions. In Kazakhstan, the process of educational reform in the area of inclusive education is a recent initiative. Little attention has been paid so far to the issue of preparing teachers for working in an inclusive environment, thus there is a need to understand the quality and the extent to which teacher education programs are preparing pre-service teachers for diverse student populations in Kazakhstan. The present study addressed this concern by investigating pre-service teacher educators’ understanding of diversity, their attitudes to inclusion, and their understanding of the pedagogies they employ to educate pre-service teachers. The present study is broadly phenomenological and data were vii

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obtained through semi-structured interviews. Thirteen pre-service teacher educators from different faculties of two pedagogical universities in Kazakhstan were recruited, using a probability sampling technique. The results demonstrate that preservice teacher educators have a broad understanding of diversity; however, they have negative attitudes to the inclusion of diverse learners in mainstream schools. In addition, the study revealed that most participants still employed teacher-centered pedagogies and faced challenges in using innovative teaching methods in their practices. The study further illustrates the critical limitations of sample size and potential biases during analysis. However, this research highlights the urgent need to reform pre-service teacher education programs in Kazakhstan in order to meet the objectives of current educational reforms. Chapter 3: Preparedness of Teachers for Inclusive Education in a Private Supplementary Tutoring Center This chapter reports on a study that was aimed at identifying the level of teachers’ preparedness for inclusive education in a private supplementary tutoring center in Astana, Kazakhstan. The study addressed the following research question: In what ways and to what extent do core subject teachers working in private supplementary tutoring centers demonstrate commitment to inclusive education practices? The qualitative research design of the study, in line with local and international literature, helped to answer the research question. Qualitative semi-structured interviews and reflective journals were employed to address the major research question and sub-questions. Five full-time teachers of different subjects in a selected private educational center participated in this study for data collection. The main research finding was that the majority of the private educational sector teachers were unaware of inclusive education. At the same time, the results demonstrated that in spite of little awareness and understanding of inclusive education, teachers did want to develop knowledge about inclusive education teaching practices. The findings on the preparedness of the teachers will add value for developing professional development programs on inclusive education and inclusive education literature for pre-service and in-service teachers in Kazakhstan.

Part III: Inclusive Pedagogy and Teaching Methodologies Chapter 4: Differentiated Instruction, Perceptions and Practices In this chapter qualitative research was used to explore the perceptions and practices of differentiated instruction by teachers who are in the position of subject coordinators in a school for gifted students in Kazakhstan. Differentiated instruction has become an important aspect of teaching practices in the setting of the selected educational site because of ongoing educational reforms. The research aimed to reveal perceptions of differentiated instruction along with teaching practices and implications of the role of leadership in its implementation. The case study research design was selected to obtain in-depth data in a particular school setting. Owing to the research

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design selected, the data were triangulated by conducting semi-structured individual interviews, lesson observations, and document analysis. The research revealed that participants had varied perceptions of differentiated instruction. Some teachers perceived it as a way to create learning opportunities by accommodating diverse learning needs, interests, and styles. Other teachers viewed it as an ability-based approach to meet the curriculum requirements, as they drew upon the limitations rather than the opportunities that differentiated instruction creates for learning. Second, teaching practices were defined by teachers’ understanding of differentiated instruction as well as their values. Third, there was lack of collaboration that would promote practices of differentiated instruction because of mandatory top-down collaborative practices employed at the research site. Furthermore, the findings showed that leadership plays an important role in implementing differentiated instruction, as it defines attitudes and approaches to collaboration, professional development, and teaching practice. The research findings may be used to inform school policies on differentiated instruction and to build a shared understanding of differentiation in an educational and organizational context at the research site. It is furthermore recommended that bottom-up teacher-initiated collaborative practices be enhanced by encouraging and providing teachers with opportunities for self-learning, professional development, and empowerment of their leadership skills.

Part IV: Student Support and Parental Involvement in Inclusive Schools Chapter 5: The Homeschooling Alternative Chapter 5 analyses factors influencing the parental choice of homeschooling as an alternative to schools. In Kazakhstan, there are two pathways to satisfy compulsory secondary education requirements, i.e., by the school or homeschooling. The situation in Kazakhstan has been that few parents can opt for homeschooling as an alternative form of schooling, because it is only permitted for educating children with special needs and those temporarily residing abroad. While the majority of parents prefer to send their children to school, there has lately been increased interest among parents of children without special needs to choose homeschooling as an alternative form of schooling. Factors influencing this choice have not been adequately and sufficiently examined and documented. This mixed methods study sought to explore the reasons for preferring homeschooling and barriers by identifying factors influencing parental choices for homeschooling as an alternative to schools in Kazakhstan. To address the research purpose, the embedded research design, with the main data coming from a quantitative cross-sectional survey, was used. Qualitative data collected through document analysis played a secondary supportive role. Purposeful sampling was used to select

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documents, sites, and participants for the survey. The constant comparative method and descriptive statistics were used to analyze documents and survey data. The research described the state of homeschooling in Kazakhstan and identified the main factors influencing the parental choice for homeschooling. General dissatisfaction with school and child enrichment, followed by parenting and family concerns, were the strongest factors informing reasons. Legal issues, lack of support and negative attitudes to homeschooling were the strongest factors related to barriers. Chapter 6: Inclusive Classrooms: Perceptions of Social and Academic Achievement The role of teachers and parents is important for inclusive education in schools. This chapter puts teachers’ and parents’ perceptions of academic and social achievement of children in inclusive classrooms into perspective. Almost 20 years ago Kazakhstan started supporting the idea of inclusive education, which is aimed at ensuring equal access to education for all children, regardless of their gender, ethnicity, physical or mental abilities, and at addressing their needs by creating a positive and welcoming learning environment. Since then numerous formal documents regarding inclusive education have been signed that at present constitute a sound legislative base for reform in this field. The implementation of inclusive education in mainstream schools increases year after year; however, the outcomes of inclusion in Kazakhstan have not been evaluated effectively in the country. The purpose of the present qualitative single-case study was to explore teachers’ and parents’ perceptions of the academic and social achievements of children in an inclusive classroom in Kazakhstan. The results of this study showed that in this particular case, placement of children with disabilities brought about social benefits for all children and did not have a negative impact on the academic performance of non-disabled children. Children with disabilities were included socially; however, a low participation rate in class activities and challenges concerning educational programs with which students with hearing impairments are faced show that inclusive practices applied at present in the class are not effective enough. Chapter 7: The Attitudes of Parents and Teachers Towards Inclusive Education in Kazakhstan One of the barriers to effective inclusive education is the attitude of parents and teachers, therefore this chapter analyses the attitudes of parents and teachers to inclusive education. Inclusive education is an emerging field in the Kazakhstani system of education. The state program of education development 2011–2020 defines the development of inclusive education as one of the major aims (MoES, 2010). Numerous scholars have investigated concepts, attitudes, advantages, and disadvantages of inclusive education. Furthermore, many researchers reached the conclusion that successful implementation of inclusive education must be supported by parents and teachers (Powers, 2002; de Boer et al., 2012). Thus, as parents and teachers will play a key role in inclusion, it is important to understand how they perceive this concept of inclusive education. Awareness of the attitudes of parents and teachers to inclusive education would provide food for thought for educational reformers

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in order to shift to inclusion smoothly. The purpose of this study was to examine parental attitudes to inclusive education and to explore the perceptions of teachers and parents in North Kazakhstan. A mixed methods research design was employed in this research. This study showed that generally parents and teachers were positive toward the theoretical aspects of inclusive education, as it has mutual benefits for all. However, parents and teachers expressed concern about not having trained teachers, possible neglect of children with special needs and a school environment that is not adapted to their needs.

Part V: School Leadership and Inclusion Education Chapter 8: Exploring the Role of Distributed Leadership in Managing Inclusive Schools in Nur-Sultan Leading inclusive schools calls for a different approach and leadership styles for inclusion to succeed. This chapter takes stock of the role of distributed leadership in inclusive schools. Leadership in educational organizations such as schools is important, especially in implementing a new reform. Kazakhstan has set for itself the purpose of changing 70% of mainstream schools into being inclusive so that they may offer education for all. This study aimed to explore the role of distributed leadership in managing pilot inclusive schools in Nur-Sultan. It also sought to investigate how distributed leadership is understood and how leadership is applied in those schools. A generic qualitative study with a sample of four positional leaders was conducted in four pilot schools in Nur-Sultan. Structured and semi-structured interviews were employed for data collection and an inductive qualitative data analysis framework was used to analyze the data. According to the study findings, there was little understanding of distributed leadership among participants and in most cases teachers’ contribution to inclusion was not considered. The positional leaders explained what they did to develop the educational process and ensure the success of individual learners but could not describe teachers’ contribution to those achievements, though the teachers were the ones who worked with children. Despite this finding, when semi-structured interview questions were asked about distributed leadership, some respondents mentioned the of importance teachers in implementing inclusion and managing inclusive schools. They talked enthusiastically about teachers who worked productively and displayed initiative and creativity in their work. However, there were limitations in sharing responsibilities between teachers and teacher empowerment, as there was a need for special training, a need for specific skills in working with children with special educational needs and other issues such as the necessity of meeting to collaborate or do joint planning. Thus, capacity building and teacher empowerment in managing inclusive schools are recommended to facilitate the process of implementing inclusion in the educational process in mainstream schools. Finally, the study noted some elements of distributed leadership in the research sites and found that the more teachers’ contribution was appreciated, the more productive work these teachers performed. Moreover, mutual respect between teachers and administration

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had an impact on learner success and parental trust. Therefore, the study pointed out the intertwined nature of distributed leadership and a friendly school environment. Chapter 9: Principal’s Strategies for Enhancing Teacher Leadership: A Case of Kazakh-Turkish High School, Kazakhstan Inclusive education is known to require critical, reflective, and self-leading teachers. This chapter explored how principals can enhance teacher leadership as a significant component of inclusive leadership. The study explored a principal’s strategies for enhancing teacher leadership. Kazakh-Turkish high schools are on the list of highperforming schools throughout Kazakhstan and known for their teacher leadership practice. One of the Kazakh-Turkish high schools was selected as an exceptional case for researching teacher leadership practice and for identifying the principal’s strategies for enhancing teacher leadership. A qualitative single-site case study was adopted to build understanding about teacher leadership and how principals can enhance this. Maximum-variation sampling within purposeful sampling was used, involving the school principal, teacher leaders, and parents. Semi-structured interviews and observations were the main research tools. Three teacher leaders, two parents and one principal were interviewed; two staff meetings were observed. The results of the research showed that in the context of the Kazakh-Turkish high school, teacher leadership is defined by professional expertise, continuous professional development, and collaboration to improve teaching practice. Teacher development activities, networking, individual and financial support and shared decision-making were indicated as the principal’s strategies for enhancing teacher leadership.

Part VI: Inclusive Education in Higher Education Chapter 10: Visually Impaired Students and Their Experiences The increase in the number of visually impaired students at institutions of higher learning in Kazakhstan has prompted an inquiry into their support. Therefore, this chapter explored the experiences of visually impaired students in higher education institutions in Kazakhstan. The adoption of national and international legislation recognizing the principles of inclusive education has paved the way for the inclusion of students with disabilities in the higher education institutions of Kazakhstan. This study investigated emerging patterns of inclusive practices in the Kazakhstani higher education context through exploring the experiences of vision-impaired students at a public higher education institution in the country. To uncover challenges and enablers blind and visually impaired students experience, an exploratory multiple-case study design was employed. One-on-one semi-structured interviews with five students enrolled at the university were conducted. Each student was considered a separate case. The findings of the research revealed that when enrolled in higher education programs, students with vision impairments were challenged by architectural, attitudinal, and information barriers. Meanwhile, family involvement, financial aid, and independent life skills enabled their study experiences. Analysis of the study findings

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suggests the need for the development of disability support provision, intervention programs, training, and counseling services for professors and non-academic staff. Chapter 11: The Aspirations of Youth: Gender and Disability Despite legislative action to develop inclusive education in Kazakhstan, so far, the field of higher education has not received sufficient attention. This is arguably one of the reasons for the low number of students with disabilities enrolled in higher education. To determine factors that influence the decision of students to obtain a higher education, this chapter reports on a qualitative study using a phenomenology research design, which explored the experience of 10 male and female students with various disabilities, such as physical and sensory impairments, at different levels of education, ranging from college graduates to Ph.D. candidates. The intersection of participants’ gender and disability and the effect on the educational and career choices of these students presented an interesting research case. The outcomes of higher education were also analyzed in this study to identify the areas requiring special attention at the current stage of higher education development to increase the number of students with disabilities in higher educational institutions of Kazakhstan. According to study participants, gender had no direct influence on their educational and career aspirations. However, analysis of their answers still revealed certain implicit gender restrictions. Gender, along with social and financial barriers, as well as the general inaccessibility of the environment for persons with disabilities, often had a negative impact on the formation of their aspirations. This may further limit the participation of students with special needs in social life, as well as their career opportunities and professional development. Thus, higher education plays an important role in building general social justice and equality. Chapter 12: A Narrative Account: Graduate Students and Disability Over the last decade, inclusion has become a world trend in special education; following it, Kazakhstan adopted a variety of legislation to develop an inclusive education system. Though inclusion is a controversial topic in educational circles, policy makers and stakeholders are making great efforts to ensure its successful implementation at all levels of education. Higher educational institutions are no exception. The number of young adults with physical diversity entering tertiary education is growing in Kazakhstan, as the government has started creating favorable conditions for them. In this chapter, a study that explored the experiences of graduate students with mobility and visual disability in the educational process are reported. In the literature review the challenges disabled students come across in the academic process were addressed. This research attempted to reveal what kind of support students with special educational needs received from higher educational institutions and government and what challenges they experienced. Qualitative research approaches with a narrative design of qualitative research were employed; oneon-one semi-structured interviews were conducted with two participants. By using this methodology, it was possible to gain deep understanding of attitudinal barriers, particularly from supervisors, instructors, and peers.

Introduction

Notions of Inclusion, Equity, Social Justice, and Inclusive Education The distribution of opportunities to all people such that all have a probable chance of success is referred to as social justice. Therefore, social justice education is assumed to be the provision of equitable and quality education such that all students are provided with equal and equitable educational opportunities to succeed. According to Gerrard (2006) and Shaeffer (2019), education has a better chance of achieving social justice if it is inclusive and recognizes student diversity. This fact is further emphasized by Polat (2011) who avers that inclusion is a first step toward social justice. Therefore, the notion of inclusion could be defined as the process of ensuring all people get a chance to participate and benefit in educational processes aimed at empowerment and the creation of a better life for all. However, the notion of inclusion is influenced by contexts; within these contexts are varied and dominant discourses that are the cornerstones by which inclusion is defined, namely, the human rights, disability, economic, resources, and pedagogic contexts. The notion of inclusion from a global perspective seems to be located within one or more discourses or contexts, which influence how it is practiced and implemented in the community of nations. The concept of inclusion is understood and conceptualized differently throughout the world (Artiles & Dyson, 2005; Dyson, 2001; Florian & Kershner, 2009). Most authors regard it as a context-bound word to such an extent that confusion seems to reign about its use and meaning (Clough & Corbett 2000; O’Brien, 2001). Ainscow (1999, 2010) refers to inclusion as a process of reorganizing the school to be responsive to the needs of all its learners, while other researchers conceptualize inclusion as a goal to bring about an inclusive society (Artiles & Kozleski, 2007). The different interpretations of inclusion as a concept allude to a broad terrain of meanings because it is usually context-dependent. While there are differences in the way the concept is defined, a pattern appears to be emerging in what is said and written about it. The contexts are significant in this book because they continue to dominate any form of discussion on understanding the notion of inclusion throughout the world. xv

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While governments have issued international declarations vowing to implement inclusion, the different contexts have made it impossible to formulate a universal, context-free definition of inclusion. The multiple contexts of inclusion have resulted in different practices of inclusion at a pedagogical level, bringing to the surface a question on the nature of inclusive pedagogic practice. More often than not, the process of inclusion is associated with the goal of governments to bring about equality in societies that are characterized by inequalities and social injustice (Artiles & Dyson, 2005). The concept of inclusion was coined in the United States of America (USA) in the late 1980s as a result of the process the USA had embarked on to bring about social justice (Dyson & Millward, 2000). In the same breath, the British education system adopted the so-called “liberal” principle. The principle is based on the rights discourse, that is, all learners count (should be valued) and all learners have the right of access to education. Furthermore, the liberal discourse as articulated in the United Kingdom advocates the position of nonsegregation, non-stigmatization and non-limitation of access to education for learners with special educational needs. It is also vital to say that inclusion as practiced in the context of a liberal dictum is conceptualized as a socio-political and transformational tool to ensure freedom and equality in society. Inclusion perhaps contrasts with and diverges from the periphery of the hegemonic discourses that seek to exclude and marginalize the vulnerable. Therefore, other authors believe it to be the process of increasing the participation of all learners equally in education regardless of their differences (Landsberg, Kruger, & Swart, 2011). While numerous studies have been conducted on inclusion, very few have been conducted by the victims of exclusion, which has resulted in a growing movement of victims of exclusion in societies challenging the status quo and finding their position in the discourse of searching for a means of inclusion in society. For instance, the research literature reveals that very few disabled people have actually taken control of the available research opportunities on inclusion, and therefore research has been conducted on their behalf by those claiming to be representing their aspirations (Maher, 2007). This has resulted in the emergence of an “emancipatory discourse” focused on power relations in research; for example, the use of narrative research as an important tool to provide an opportunity for those with disabilities to tell their experiences rather than be observed by the non-disabled (Walmsley, 2001). Emancipatory research is different from participatory research in that it is conducted by those who are excluded. The conceptualization of inclusion implies a need to empower those with disabilities to enable them to take charge of their emancipation. The disability movement departs from the premise that research on those with disabilities should to a larger extent be controlled by people with disabilities than is currently the case. While governments have invested considerable resources in ensuring that all their citizens are economically active and viable, the production of a labor force that is responsive to both the service and capital needs of a specific country remains high on the political agenda of many developing countries (Coffey, 2001). Inclusion comes amid debates about how maximum participation of all in the economy

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can be enhanced. The notion of economic participation (participation of individuals in the economy) is regarded as pivotal for the economic growth of a country; hence, inclusion is perceived as access to social goods (a means through which individuals could access economic emancipation), entailing the commoditization of education (Khothule, 2004). However, the notion of marketisation of education is driven by capitalist consumerism, which usually advocates competitiveness for production (meaning education becomes available to those who can afford it) (Nind, Rix, Sheeny, & Simmons, 2003). This casts doubts on how genuine the intentions are not to exclude others on the basis of competition. Therefore, the question of inclusion in these circumstances would still be reliant on the survival of those with trusted production skills and not necessarily include all on an equal basis. However, to other nations inclusion is less a question of economy than of the optimum use of resources. For instance, the Salamanca Statement was signed in 1994, mainly by countries from the developing world (Dyson & Millward, 2000). This might be an indication that inclusion offers an alternative solution to the provision of education to all children where there is a severe shortage of resources (Eleweke & Rodda, 2000). Accessibility of educational resources seems to point in the direction of instituting inclusion to make optimal use of the available resources. The understanding seems to be that through inclusion more learners can be accommodated rather than having separate schooling structures (purported to be expensive) for those perceived to be different. However, what remains a bone of contention is how inclusion can be operationalized at pedagogic level, given these multiplicities of conceptualization. Among these different conceptualizations of inclusion, the dominant discourse (context) has been the one of inclusive education as a pedagogic practice. Inclusive pedagogy looks at how learners are taught at schools and in classrooms, resulting in the conception of the notion of inclusive education. Although the definition of inclusive education is varied and not universal, the concept emerged out of a need to provide equitable and quality education to all students, regardless of their background (Ainscow, 2010; Makoelle, 2014). The concept is a critique on special education, which was meant to provide education for those assumed to exhibit special needs or disabilities. While the provisions of special education formed and continues to form the significant strand in inclusive education, it is basically a flawed assumption to equate inclusive education to education for students with disabilities and to define it as such. Disability is but one narrow stream within the broader inclusive education concept and recent research has already indicated more broadly a “de-coupling” or separation between the two concepts (Florian, 2019; Hernández-Torrano, Somerton, & Helmer, 2020). Ellison (2008) postulates that the discourse of special education continues to have a profound influence on modern conceptions of equity and inclusion. Slee and Graham (2007) in the Australian context cautioned against misconstruing the integration of students with disabilities in the mainstream of education as success in achieving an inclusive education system. The fact of the matter is that inclusive education is broader than just repositioning of students with disabilities in the education system.

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The conceptualization of inclusive education has been influenced by the theoretical positions people take in understanding the concept. According to Clough and Corbett (2000), there are five key theoretical orientations that have influenced trends in the understanding of inclusive education, namely, psycho-medical, sociological, curriculum, school improvement, and disability. However, the psycho-medical and sociological models have been dominant. The psycho-medical model emerges from a deficit assumption about the student. The student is seen through a lens of a medical diagnosis that warrants a special kind of education to address this need. The sociological model is a critique on the psychomedical approach in that special need is regarded as socially constructed; the model laments the negative effect of labeling or placing students into categories. The international trend has been tilted toward moving away from the psycho-medical model to the sociological model. Kazakhstan’s educational institutions continue to pursue a psycho-medical model. The fact that students are identified with special educational needs and segregated into so-called disability centers shows how far the system of education is from embracing education that is integrated and inclusive. However, the transition from a traditional, segregatory and exclusive practice, would require institutions to identify the barriers to full inclusion and address those systematically. Therefore, it is appropriate here to draw on the theory of Bourdieu as central in understanding how learning and teaching are framed within what he calls educational “habitus.” Habitus, according to Bourdieu, is a set of internalized dispositions within an individual or a group that determines how they will think and act (Brubaker, 1993). With habitus, the agents (or actors) conform to the principles and values privileged within the habitus (Nash, 1990). Such principles and values are embedded in the cultural capital, which is fundamental, and is transferred to newly socialized members within the habitus (Tittenbrun, 2016). The habitus thus acts as a mediator and regulator of activities by agents (Makoelle & Somerton, 2018). The Soviet legacy has created a “habitus” that determines attitudes, beliefs, and thinking about inclusion and education. The legacy has planted the principle of segregation based on the pedagogic practice of defectology. This has created a dominant system of separate education for students with special needs and disabilities, and the provision of trained defectologists (special needs educators) specifically for “correctional” or medicalized educational support. This continues to influence the policy of inclusion of the Kazakhstani Ministry of Education and Science, which puts more emphasis on disability and special needs than on other forms of diversity. While the authors of this book understand inclusion to mean embracing all forms of diversity beyond disability, the chapters in the book will be tilted toward debates about inclusion and disability in education, as these are representative of the current educational habitus of Kazakhstan. Nevertheless, the implementation of inclusive education in any educational system requires a multi-dimensional, multi-level, and integrated approach. It requires collaborative efforts on the part of all stakeholders, including governance, pedagogical, auxiliary, and support structures. This book is a collection of recent evidence-based studies in the Kazakhstani educational context, that demonstrates the multifaceted nature of a reform process to realize an educational system that is more inclusive.

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The book highlights some of the fundamental requirements and the challenges for this process to succeed. Inclusive education demands the right attitude and mindset. It also requires that teachers be skilled enough to practice a pedagogy that is inclusive (Panti´c & Florian, 2015). The planning, delivery, and management of the curriculum by teachers require teachers to have deep knowledge about strategies in teaching and learning that would enhance inclusion and minimize exclusion. The inclusion of diverse learners requires that teacher education preparation be re-thought and re-designed to cater for more diverse, inclusive classrooms and schools. Kazakhstan has embarked on a process of integrating students with special needs in mainstream classrooms, among others through the provision of resource centers (Somerton, Helmer, Kasa, HernándezTorrano, & Makoelle, 2020). This calls for better preparation not only of teachers but also of stakeholders such as tutors and teaching assistants who are there to support the pedagogical work of the teacher (Somerton et al., 2020). Inclusive education thrives in an environment in which teachers are empowered through a variety of inclusive pedagogical methodologies. This book highlights studies about some of the well-tested and tried pedagogical methodologies. In this book, the importance and significance of differentiated instruction and its applicability, given various teacher responsibilities, are brought to the fore. The role of parents in the implementation and enhancement of inclusive practices in schools and in the classroom has become one of the critical and pivotal indicators of the success of inclusion in schools. The role of parents in a Kazakhstani context diverges into two distinct dimensions, i.e., homeschooling and support for schools. This book indicates that the role of parents in relation to their choice of either homeschooling or child placement into mainstream schools is currently at the cross-roads. It is apparent from the study on homeschooling in Kazakhstan that homeschooling has some advantages and disadvantages in light of the changing landscape whereby the education system seems to drift toward inclusion. Be that as it may, it also goes without saying that the perceptions of both parents and teachers have not necessarily changed in relation to the inclusion of students with special needs in mainstream schools. Parents raise issues of safety and lack of attention that would differentiate between students with special needs and those without these. There is a belief that students with special needs require more attention and this might distract the teacher’s attention from the rest of the class (Somerton et al., 2020). While students placed in mainstream classrooms have generally benefited from being placed in such classrooms, it seems as though more needs to be done to develop inclusion and support more effective inclusive practices, perhaps by professional training and re-training of teachers. The implementation of inclusive education has called for different leadership approaches across inclusive schools globally. Participatory and collaborative leadership strategies that enhance stakeholder cooperation have become very important for inclusive schools to realize their objectives (Makoelle, 2019, 2020). The studies in this book depart from a premise that distributed leadership is significant in enhancing teacher leadership and thus positioning teachers as change agents that would guarantee the success of inclusion. The principles of teacher leadership, such as the

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sharing of experiences, expertise, shared planning, and decision-making, seem to be crucial for the success of inclusive education in Kazakhstan. While more emphasis has been placed on the implementation of inclusive education in secondary education (kindergartens, primary and secondary schools), the process of implementing inclusive education has transcended into all spheres and levels of education, including the post-school phase. The increase in the number of students with special needs in post-school settings such as vocational colleges, teacher training institutes, and universities, has prompted the notion of reconsidering inclusion and equity in higher education. Studies in this book put this phenomenon into perspective by analyzing the support available to students with special needs in a higher education context. The analysis focuses on how higher education responds to the aspirations of youth with special needs. There seems to be a need to understand the lived experiences of both students and faculty in order to eradicate the attitudinal barriers to the inclusion of students with diverse needs in teaching and learning. Tsediso Michael Makoelle

References Ainscow, M. (1999). Understanding the development of inclusive schools. London: Routledge Falmer. Ainscow, M. (2010). Achieving excellence and equity: Reflections on the development of practices in one local district over 10 years. An International Journal of Research, Policy and Practice, 21(1), 75–92. Ainscow, M. (2010). Developing inclusive education systems: The role of organisational cultures and leadership. London: Taylor & Francis. Artiles, A. J., & Dyson, A. (2005). Inclusive education in the globalization age: The promise of comparative cultural historical analysis. In D. Mitchell (Ed.), Contextualizing Inclusive Education (pp. 37–62). London: Routledge. Artiles, A. J., & Kozleski, E. B. (2007). Beyond convictions: Interrogating culture, history, and power in inclusive education. Language Arts, 84(4), 351–358. Brubaker, R. (1993). Social theory as habitus. In C. Calham, E. LiPuma, & M. Postone (Eds.), Bourdieu: Capital perspectives. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Clough, P., & Corbett, J. (2000). Theories of inclusive education: A student guide. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Coffey, A. (2001). Education and social change. Buckingham: Open University Press. Dyson, A., & Millward, A. (2000). Schools and special needs: Issues of innovation and inclusion. London: Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd. Dyson, D. A. (2001). Special needs education as the way to equity: An alternative approach? SFL: Support for Learning, 16(3), 88–152. Ellison, C. (2008). Children and adolescents with special needs. Prince George: Centre for Excellence for Children and Adolescents with Special needs: University of Northern British Columbia. Florian, L., & Kershner, R. (2009). Inclusive pedagogy. In H. Daniels, H. Lauder, & J. Porter (Eds.), Knowledge, values and educational policy: A critical perspective (pp. 173–183). London: Routledge. Florian, L. (2019). On the necessary co-existence of special and inclusive education. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 23(7–8), 691–704. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2019.162 2801.

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Gerrard, L. C. (2006). Inclusive education: An issue of social justice. Equity & Excellence in Education, 27(1), 58–67. Toranno, D., Somerton, M., & Helmer, J. (2020). Mapping research on inclusive education since Salamanca Statement: A bibliometric review of the literature over 25 years. International Journal of Inclusive Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2020.1747555. Khothule, R. J. (2004). A programme for facilitating effective leadership for inclusive schooling. Ph.D. thesis, Bloemfontein: University of the Free State. Landsberg, E., Kruger, D., & Swart, E. (2011). Addressing barriers to learning: A South African perspective (2nd ed.). Pretoria: Van Schaik. Maher, M. (2007). Inclusive education a decade after democratization: The educational needs of children with disability in Kwazulu-Natal. Ph.D. thesis, Auckland University of Technology. Makoelle, T. M. (2019). Language, terminology and inclusive education: A case of Kazakhstani transition to inclusion. Sage Open Journal SAGE Open, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/215824 4020902089. Makoelle, T. M. (2020). Schools transition towards inclusive education in post-Soviet countries: Selected cases in Kazakhstan. Sage Open Journal SAGE Open, 10, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 2F2158244020926586. Makoelle, T. M. (2014). Pedagogy of inclusion: A quest for social justice and sustainable learning environments. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(17), 1257–1269. Makoelle, T. M., & Somerton, M. (2018). Facilitating inclusive teaching and learning spaces through digital education technology: Teaching and learning through digital education technology. In P. Peres, F. Moreira, & A. Mesquita (Eds.), Educational and social dimensions of digital transformation in organizations (pp. 43–64). IGI Global. Nash, R. (1990). Bourdieu on education and social and cultural reproduction. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 11(4), 431–447. Nind, M., Rix, J., Sheeny, K., & Simmons, K. (2003). Inclusive education: Diverse perspectives. London: David Fulton Publishers. O’Brian, T. (2001). Enabling inclusion blue skies … dark clouds. London: The Stationary Office. Panti´c, N., & Florian, L. (2015). Developing teachers as agents of inclusion and social justice, Education Inquiry, 6(3). https://doi.org/10.3402/edui.v6.27311. Polat, F. (2011). Inclusion in education: A step towards social justice. International Journal of Educational Development, 31(1), 50–58. Shaeffer, S. (2019). Inclusive education: A prerequisite for equity and social justice. Asia Pacific Education Review, 20, 181–192. Somerton, M., Helmer, J., Kasa, R., Hernández-Torrano, D., & Makoelle, T. M. (2020). Defining spaces: Resource centres, collaboration, and inclusion in Kazakhstan. Journal of Educational Change, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-020-09384-1. Tittenbrun, J. (2016). Concepts of capital in Pierre Bourdieu’s theory. Miscellanea Anthropologica et Sociologica, 17(1), 81–103. Walmsley, J. (2001). Normalization, emancipatory research and inclusive research in learning disability. Disability and Society, 16(2), 18–205.

Contents

Part I 1

Kazakhstan’s Transition to Inclusion: The Journey So Far . . . . . . . . Kamila Rollan

Part II 2

3

Inclusive Education in Kazakhstan 3

Teachers and Inclusive Teaching and Learning

“Inclusion of Diverse Learners Is a Beautiful Idea but …” Preparing Pre-service Teachers to Cater for Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . Aisha Mnazhatdinova

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Preparedness of Teachers for Inclusive Education in a Private Supplementary Tutoring Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zhanel Baidildina

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Part III Inclusive Pedagogy and Teaching Methodologies 4

Differentiated Instruction, Perceptions and Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ainur Aliyeva

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Part IV Student Support and Parental Involvement in Inclusive Schools 5

The Homeschooling Alternative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Zarina Khakim

6

Inclusive Classrooms: Perceptions of Social and Academic Achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Zukhra Bisseneva

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The Attitudes of Parents and Teachers Towards Inclusive Education in Kazakhstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Aizhan Alzhanova

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Part V

School Leadership and Inclusion Education

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Exploring the Role of Distributed Leadership in Managing Inclusive Schools in Nur-Sultan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Zhadyra Amangeldiyeva

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Principal’s Strategies for Enhancing Teacher Leadership: A Case of Kazakh-Turkish High School, Kazakhstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Guldana Mukhtarbekkyzy

Part VI

Inclusive Education in Higher Education

10 Visually Impaired Students and Their Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Ziyat Abdykaimov 11 The Aspirations of Youth: Gender and Disability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Natalya Manuilova 12 A Narrative Account: Graduate Students and Disability . . . . . . . . . . 311 Aigul Seidaliyeva Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

Editors and Contributors

About the Editors Dr. Tsediso Michael Makoelle is a former recipient of the prestigious Nelson Mandela scholarship to the United Kingdom (UK). He holds the degrees of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Inclusive Education from the University of Manchester, UK and Doctor of Education (D. Ed.) in Education Management and Leadership from the University of South Africa. Dr. Makoelle’s teaching and research experience extends over 29 years, with the focus being on secondary and higher education. At the beginning of his career Dr. Makoelle began his pedagogical work as a high school teacher, and then head of department, vice-principal, and principal in several secondary schools in the Education Department of the Republic of South Africa. He has worked as lecturer and senior lecturer at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town and University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr. Makoelle began working at Nazarbayev University six years ago in the capacity of associate professor, and then as Director of Doctoral Studies, General Director for Research and recently Vice-Dean for Research at the Graduate School of Education. He has written and published extensively on the topics of inclusive education and educational leadership, management, governance, and administration for both national and international audiences and readerships. Dr. Makoelle has supervised many master’s and doctoral students. He is a member of several international research bodies. He is a reviewer of grants and xxv

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funding applications for the South African National Research Foundation, has reviewed papers for several international Scopus and Web of Science journals and evaluated research theses for several universities in South Africa and abroad. He has also reviewed postgraduate courses and programs for many universities and serves on the editorial boards of several international journals. He has collaborated with universities from the United States, UK, Europe, and Africa. He is passionate about inclusive education, with a research interest in conceptualization and operationalization of inclusive pedagogy in disadvantaged South African classroom contexts and beyond. He has conducted his research work in the framework of participatory action research, informed by notions of critical, reflective practitioners, and transformative epistemologies. Dr. Michelle Somerton is Assistant Professor at the Graduate School of Education and current Academic Program Director of the degree Master in Leadership Inclusive Education. She holds a Ph.D., Graduate Certificate in Research, and a Bachelor of Education with Honors from the University of Tasmania. Her current research interests are investigating educational inequity and barriers to education in Kazakhstan including the diagnosis of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and intellectual impairments, the effectiveness of resource centers in developing inclusive education in Kazakhstan, and developing an instrument to evaluate inclusion in higher education institutions. Her previous research considered reading comprehension difficulties in students with ASD and the design of educational software for mobile technologies, and visual and phonological processing in children with ASD. Dr. Somerton currently teaches inclusive education leadership, policy, global perspectives, research methods, and inclusive practices to master’s students. She has successfully supervised a number of master’s students to completion and currently supervises several doctoral students in Kazakhstan and Australia.

Editors and Contributors

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Contributors Ziyat Abdykaimov Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan Ainur Aliyeva Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan Aizhan Alzhanova Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan Zhadyra Amangeldiyeva Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan Zhanel Baidildina Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan Zukhra Bisseneva Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan Zarina Khakim Nazarbayev Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan

University

Graduate

School

of

Education,

Natalya Manuilova Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan Aisha Mnazhatdinova Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan Guldana Mukhtarbekkyzy Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan Kamila Rollan Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan Aigul Seidaliyeva Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan

Part I

Inclusive Education in Kazakhstan

Chapter 1

Kazakhstan’s Transition to Inclusion: The Journey So Far Kamila Rollan

Introduction This chapter presents an overview of the developments in inclusive education since the advent of the new educational dispensation in the Republic of Kazakhstan since independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. The chapter introduces information about this vast but sparsely populated country, its historical policy metamorphosis on education reforms, and particularly on its milestones and struggles in the quest to ensure accessible, equal, and equitable education for all its children. According to the constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan, no child should be discriminated against, and all children, including children with disabilities, have a fundamental right to education. Kazakhstan has achieved one of the millennium goals to have universal access to primary education. The implementation of criterion-based assessment in school constitutes steps in the right direction (Makoelle, 2020a). The introduction of the State Program, which sets an ambitious target to have all schools inclusive by 2020, serves as Kazakhstan’s compass towards the realization of inclusive education. The current initiative by the Ministry of Education to have the law on inclusive education enacted is to be commended, given the fact that clarity and coherent understanding of the concept and processes of inclusive education at all levels of governance and schooling are urgently needed. Therefore, this question required further probing: How has the Kazakhstani education system evolved and changed since the introduction of inclusive education?

K. Rollan (B) Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. M. Makoelle and M. Somerton (eds.), Inclusive Education in a Post-Soviet Context, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65543-3_1

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Educational Policy After Independence Independent since 1991, the Republic of Kazakhstan is the largest country in Central Asia and the ninth largest by land surface globally. Neighboring Russia, China, and three other Central Asian states, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan has geopolitical significance as a bridging country between the global west and east. For its vast territory, the country is comparatively underpopulated, with its population estimated at over 18 million people by 2019 (Ministry of National Economy of the Republic of Kazakhstan Statistics Committee, 2020). The population is diverse in terms of ethnic and religious composition (Surucu, 2002), but discrimination or other violations of human rights based on ethnicity, language, and religion are prohibited by the criminal code. Nevertheless, the country struggles to outline a clear and cohesive strategy of inclusive identity politics (Burkhanov, 2017). After gaining independence, Kazakhstan underwent significant political changes and policy-making processes, starting with efforts as foundational as adopting the Constitution. According to the Constitution (Kazakhstan, 1995), Kazakhstan proclaims to be a democratic, secular and social state with a presidential form of government “whose highest values are a person, his life, rights, and freedoms” (Section 1, Article 1). Even though the country is more often viewed as an authoritarian regime state by international scholars (Omelicheva, 2016; Schatz, 2008; Schatz & Maltseva, 2012), the official discourse is that political liberalization and democratization are among the priorities for the country’s development (Nazarbayev, 2007). The economy of Kazakhstan has been strengthening since the transition period during the 1990s, which was characterized by hyperinflation, negative economic growth and massive job destruction (OECD, 2017). A resource boom followed economic diversification to lessen dependency on oil, which in turn developed a more favorable business environment that resulted in labor market reforms. In 2006, the country transitioned to upper-middle-income status (The World Bank in Kazakhstan, 2019). Despite an economic slowdown in 2014 and increased inflation, Kazakhstan can still be qualified as a country with a growing economy, with falling poverty rates and increasing employment (ibid). The country set the goal to become one of the 30 most developed countries in the world by 2050 and adopted the Kazakhstan 2050 Strategy outlining steps for economic, social, and political developments. The strategy prioritized not only economic performance but also citizens’ well-being and development in social areas such as education, health, peace and stability (OECD, 2017). The country has continued to invest in the modernization of its educational, medical and social services in order to reach Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries’ standards (Markova & Sultanalieva, 2013). The educational sphere has become an area of significant policy reform, as the Ministry of Education and Science (MoES) introduced state programs aimed at building an educational system that could ensure human capital development and integration into international-level education (Bridges, 2014). Among major trends

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of reformation have been the internationalization of educational policy, improving the quality of education, and updating the curriculum (de-Sovietization) (Bridges, 2014; Yergebekov & Temirbekova, 2012). The country extended secondary education to 12 years of schooling, updating the curriculum at all levels to move away from the knowledge-based paradigm and memorization to critical thinking and problemsolving (Bridges, 2014). Transition to trilingual education (with Kazakh, Russian and English as languages of instruction) should foster the country’s competitiveness in the international arena, while also promoting Kazakh language development, as historically the Russian language became widely used in schooling and general life (ibid). E-learning is another advancement of the current education system to promote innovative and technologically enhanced learning approaches (ibid). New values are continually introduced in the updated content of education. The state program, “Intellectual Nation 2020”, was introduced by the first president, Nazarbayev, with the purpose to foster creative, skilled, and competitive human capital primarily via modernized education (Bridges, 2014). A learner-centered approach, leadership skills development and the strengthening of critical thinking skills became primary characteristics of a newly established net of educational institutions such as Nazarbayev Intellectual Schools (NIS) and Nazarbayev University (NU), aimed at raising the future intellectual elite (Rollan & Somerton, 2019). These institutions receive strong financial and political support and enroll students on a competitive basis upon successful completion of academic and intellectual testing. Nazarbayev Intellectual Schools also serve as a platform for piloting and introducing new student-centered approaches to education. For example, criteria-based assessment was introduced and piloted in the NIS and several leading private schools before being spread more widely to general schools (OECD, 2009). A criteriabased assessment model focuses on students’ progress towards achievement, with set learning goals rather than allowing teachers to measure students subjectively on a standard three-point scale (although an official grading system is five-point, teachers are reluctant to use the lower end of this scale) (OECD, 2009). Therefore, these schools are expected to serve as role models for other educational organizations. However, there is skepticism about the willingness and ability of other schools and universities to transition to NIS and NU models (Bridges, 2014). While the state invests in strengthening elitist education for the gifted, the current educational reform framework also places emphasis on the development of equitable and inclusive schooling (Rouse, Yakavets, & Kulakhmetova, cited in Bridges, 2014). How these two approaches complement or contradict each other is food for further thought. However, the narrative of promoting inclusion and equity is now an evident discourse across all main education programs and policies.

Inclusive Education in Kazakhstan Inclusive schooling is widely recognized by most countries, including Kazakhstan, as the most effective means of combating discriminatory views, creating a supportive

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environment in the community, and ensuring education for all (UNICEF, 2014). Although there is no universal definition of inclusive education, UNESCO proposes it is “a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities, and reducing exclusion from education and from within education” (2005). The concept was developed in response to children being marginalized from education for various reasons, such as poverty, cultural and social exclusion, being a part of minorities and/or migrant populations, segregation due to disability, etc. (UNESCO-IBE, 2007). The Law on Education 2007 (amended 2019) of Kazakhstan defines inclusive education as a process ensuring equal access to education for all learners, considering their abilities and special educational needs (SEN). What SEN specifically entail remains unclear, yet this definition reflects an attempt to employ a broad understanding of inclusive education as aimed at supporting all learners. Despite this, the rhetoric of inclusive education and inclusion in Kazakhstan often tends to focus more strongly on the issue of children with SEN and disabilities (SEND) rather than other minority groups or all children more broadly (Makoelle, 2020a). The link to disability is evident in most documents concerning inclusive education. According to the Law on Education (Article 8, Section 6), with the purpose to ensure inclusive education, the state provides citizens with disabilities with special conditions for learning, “correction of their developmental deficits” and social adaptation opportunities. The selection of terms in this article might imply that inclusive education focuses on not only learners with disabilities, but is also viewed as a specialized and medicalized approach to correcting certain deficits. Article 11 of the law ensures the provision of special conditions for children with SEN to satisfy their individual needs. The emphasis on “special” communicates again that the inclusion is often viewed as related to SEND students rather than those with barriers to learning in general. However, the law also states that for fulfilling the potential of gifted children, specialized learning programs are developed to allow deep learning of some subjects (Article 14, Section 2). Therefore, the state attempts to broaden the definition of inclusive education to include other vulnerable groups of children. A traditionally narrow approach to inclusive education in Kazakhstan can be understood, as historically children with disabilities have been segregated from general schooling and participation in public life (Miles & Singal, 2009; Bridges, 2014). Kazakhstan is not unique in that sense, as most members of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) define inclusive education within a special education framework and reflect a traditional medical model of disability, which was dominant in the former Soviet Union (Rouse et al. cited in Bridges, 2014). The development of inclusive education in Kazakhstan has been gradual, following the World Conference on Education held in 1990 in Jomtien, Thailand. This conference signified the launch of a global initiative, Education for All (EFA) to offer the benefits of education to every citizen in every society. The EFA initiative is aimed at ensuring equitable access to basic and continuing education for children and adults. Following the launch of this initiative in 1994, during the Salamanca Conference, the Salamanca Statement on Principles, Policy, and Practice in Special Needs Education was developed and set a framework for action to ensure the inclusion of

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learners with SEN in schooling. In 2000, the participants in the World Education Forum in Dakar adopted the Dakar Framework for Action, which reinforced the concept of the World Declaration on Education for All developed ten years before in Thailand. Kazakhstan participated in the international forum and declared its shared commitment to ensure the realization of the EFA agenda by moving toward inclusive education (Suleimenova, 2012). In 2015, Kazakhstan ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (signed in 2008), which has the purpose of protecting the rights and dignity of people with special needs. Ratification of these international conventions, in addition to the Convention on the Rights of the Child signed and ratified earlier in 1994, signified Kazakhstan’s willingness to take responsibility for ensuring equity in educational access and participation of all learners, including children with SEND. In 2016, 193 member states of the UN adopted 17 Sustainable Development Goals, one of which is quality education. These international commitments have been supported by the development of an appropriate legislative base at national level. The right to education for every child is ensured by the Constitution (Kazakhstan, 1995), as Article 30 guarantees that all citizens will receive free compulsory secondary education and have access to higher education. The Law on Education (2007) also states that all citizens have the right to free preschool, elementary, general secondary, and vocational education, as well as free higher education on a competitive basis, regardless of one’s gender, ethnicity, social and economic status, language, religion, health status and other individual characteristics. It outlines several laws securing inclusive education as a guiding principle in developing the curriculum aimed at ensuring support for children with SEND and gifted children. In addition, laws “On the rights of the child in the Republic of Kazakhstan” dated 2002, “On social protection of persons with disabilities in the Republic of Kazakhstan” dated 2005, and “On social and health care and pedagogical correctional support for children with limited capabilities”, dated 2002, secure the rights of children, including children with disabilities, to education (UNICEF, 2014). As a planning instrument, the government adopts state programs for education that outline the strategic vision of educational reforms for a specified timeframe. The 2011–2020 and 2016–2019 State Programs for the Development of Education declared Kazakhstan’s goal to “ensure equal access for all participants in the educational process to the best educational resources and technologies.” As an indicator of the implementation of this goal, the State Program envisioned that the proportion of schools with conditions created for inclusive education should comprise 70% of the total by 2020. In 2015, the Conceptual Approach to Inclusive Education, which was developed by the National Academy of Education named after Y. Altynsaryn (NAE) (2015), proposed amendments to the terminology used in relation to children with special needs in order to de-stigmatize disability and accelerate the development of inclusive education. As of 2020, no actual change to effect de-stigmatization in terminology has been introduced.

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Major Stakeholders of Inclusive Education Reform Among central forces influencing educational reforms are state and non-state actors. The state actors range from the government and the MoES at the top of the decisionmaking power hierarchy to regional departments of education to schools and kindergartens as educational providers. The role of the state is central to promoting inclusive education reform, as the MoES exercises centralized governance over the educational system and curriculum standards (OECD/The World Bank in Kazakhstan, 2015). The fact that the state has signed and ratified international conventions and agreements about ensuring education for all and has adopted appropriate national laws communicates its commitment to promoting inclusive education. The State Program of Education Development (mentioned earlier) outlines inclusion as one of the priorities aimed at creating conditions for inclusive education in 70% of schools by 2020. According to the report on the realization of the State Program for Education Development 2016–2019 (MNE, 2019), the proportion of schools with enabling conditions for inclusive education by 2018 was 60%. The indicator considered the following requirements: • • • •

The presence of children with SEN in the school Provision of methodological and learning materials Human resource provision Accessibility of the school.

The report also states that in 2018, there were 4,208 inclusive schools among a total of 7,014 secondary schools in the country. Between 2016 and 2019, the percentage of inclusive education schools increased by 30%. The proportion of inclusive kindergartens was reported as 20.1% and that of technical and vocational education and training organizations as 30.1% by 2018. However, there are apparent differences between the regions. While Almaty city and Nur-Sultan (Astana) are leading with 100% of secondary schools with enabling conditions, the Atyrau region and Almaty region reported only 55% (JSC Information Analytical Center [IAC], 2018). The statistical data were self-reported, which implies that schools could interpret “enabling conditions for inclusive education” differently. Some schools could focus on accessibility, while others focus on learning resources or an inclusive culture or other variables (IAC, 2018). Therefore, the concept of enabling conditions needs to be well-defined at the policy level. Also, despite official evidence of 70% of schools with favorable conditions for children with SEND, the Minister of Education and Science in his speech in 2019 reported that 2,453 schools (around 35% of the total) did not have adequate toilets inside the school building (Human Rights Watch [HRW], 2019). For example, it is unlikely that street toilets, which are especially common in rural areas, are disability-friendly. This issue also makes it possible to question the validity of achieving the reported 70% benchmark. Besides these positive statistics, there is evidence of reluctance or unwillingness of schools to foster inclusive pedagogy, mainly because of misconceptions about

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inclusion (discussed in more detail later). Nevertheless, there are also cases of schools willingly promoting inclusion. For example, a case study described by Kauffman and Popova (2013) presents the case of a small secondary school in Petropavlovsk city, which introduced inclusive education at the initiative of the school leadership. A principal of the school #13, a social activist, in conjunction with the regional authorities discussed the possibility of transforming the school infrastructure in order to include children with mobility difficulties. Using funds from the regional budget, the necessary adjustments to the school building were made to make it accessible and disability-friendly. This was followed by training for teachers and school staff to get used to working with children with special needs and overcome their feelings of skepticism and pity. The research indicates (ibid.) that it took three years for the school to begin seeing changes in the perception of teachers and students and the establishment of an inclusive culture and ethos in the school. The motivation and dedication of individuals and the school leadership allowed for inclusive education reform at one school without waiting for the top-down inquiry or help, which is a sign that leadership for inclusion is emerging in the country. Although some schools might resist inclusive approaches, there are other examples of schools taking the initiative to introduce more equitable access for all children, based on their values. School leaders and practitioners must be willing to internalize the ethos of inclusion to ensure effective implementation of inclusive education, as opposed to mere placement in classrooms without provision of any accommodation or support systems. The Psychological-Medical-Pedagogical Commission (PMPC) is an important actor in determining the type and level of support for children with special needs (OECD, 2009). However, it has been criticized by international organizations and many parents of children with special needs claim that it maintains discriminatory practices when evaluating children to recommend a type of educational setting (HRW, 2019). The PMPC is a state-run organization under the MoES and each PMPC consists of a panel of experts that includes medical doctors, speech therapists, “defectologists” (meaning special educators), and other specialized professionals with a function to assess and diagnose children with SEN. The PMPC makes recommendations to parents on what services are advisable for their child. In accordance with the consultation with PMPC, special learning programs can be developed to accommodate the needs of certain categories of learners (Law on Education 2007, Article 14, Section 2). There are 58 PMPCs in the country, established at a ratio of one center per 60,000 children (UNICEF, 2014). The PMPC issues notes (“spravkas”) about the type of educational setting a child is advised to attend, choosing from mainstream/inclusive schooling, special or so-called “correctional” schools and homeschooling. Human Rights Watch, in its latest report (2019), presented a number of cases when the decision of the PMPC or lack of its note would cause a child to be refused admission to a mainstream school. The schools often require parents/guardians to bring the PMPC note as a mandatory document for school application, even if it is not mandatory in a legal sense, and can use the recommendation as an excuse to exclude a child (HRW, 2019). It fundamentally contradicts the official state discourse aimed at promoting inclusive education. When

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placed into inclusive settings, the schools often do not provide the necessary accommodation, which may ultimately cause difficulties in the progress of a student, and if this happens, the schools may again refer a child to the PMPC or convince parents to choose another setting (ibid.). The role of non-state actors is also important in promoting inclusive education, despite a common misconception that the nature of educational reforms in Kazakhstan is state-driven, with weak engagement of civil society and interest groups (Atanesyan, Batra, York, & Heider, 2015; OECD/The World Bank in Kazakhstan, 2015). Moreover, the OECD/The World Bank in Kazkhstan’s Review of School Resources (2015) mentions that the number of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that are active in the field of education is small and their influence is minor, citing the research of Ibrayeva and Nezhina (2013). However, other research suggests that among non-state actors, NGOs in Kazakhstan are mainly presented as public associations and public funds increasingly contribute to the development of inclusive education reform (Rollan & Somerton, 2019). Local NGOs and grassroots organizations, some run by parents of children with special needs or individuals with disabilities, others run by enthusiasts and professionals in the field, inform policy-makers by making evidence-based recommendations, delivering methodological support to teaching practitioners and developing inclusive cultures in order to de-stigmatize disabilities (ibid). Markova and Sultanalieva (2013) explain that NGOs and parental groups are often very knowledgeable about a particular disability and can offer professional development programs for practitioners. For example, parent-members of the “Ashyk Alem” NGO aimed at advocating the rights of children with autism organized training seminars for teachers to strengthen their pedagogical competencies (Markova & Sultanalieva, 2013). Such groups also often engage in dialogue with the government to inform the policy concerning disability. For instance, access to mainstream education for children with intellectual disabilities became possible as a result of lobbying by NGOs against the law restricting their placement in general schools (Rollan & Somerton, 2019). Moreover, NGOs and civil society more broadly promote inclusive cultures and confront stigmas. For example, NGO activists often conduct informative work in schools to convince parents of non-disabled students that inclusive education is not harmful, but beneficial for all (ibid.). EFA youth NGO provides learning support to students with SEND and advocates an inclusive society in Kazakhstan (IAC, 2018). Thus, non-state actors are among significant stakeholders who can contribute to and shape inclusive educational reform in Kazakhstan. Since 2017, a number of resource centers supporting SEN students have been operating in various areas around Kazakhstan. These centers were established to provide regional support to teachers and parents of SEN children. For many parents this has been important support, given that many children are still turned away from mainstream schools that do not have correctional classes (Somerton, Helmer, Kasa, Hernández-Torrano, & Makoelle, 2020). A review of the description of these resource centers by the IAC (2018) indicates that there is no single shared model of how they work; they are finding ways of operating that best serve their school

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community’s needs and their students with SEN. However, how an inclusive education resource center functions and the services offered are not formally defined in Kazakhstan’s inclusive education policy (Helmer, Kasa, Somerton, Makoelle, & Hernández-Torrano, 2020; Somerton et al., 2020). In a report on a framework for monitoring inclusive education development in Kazakhstan (IAC, 2018) one way forward in implementing inclusive education in mainstream schools that was recommended was to increase the number of school-based inclusive education resource centers. In response, other local NGOs, such as the DARA Foundation, have taken up this challenge and established several inclusive education resource centers in schools to assist teachers and school administrators to accommodate and support the needs of students with disabilities (Helmer et al., 2020; Somerton et al., 2020). Other non-state actors are international NGOs and intergovernmental organizations such as the United Nations’ agencies, which contribute financially and capacitywise to inclusion and inclusive education. The United Nations’ Children’s Fund has recently piloted a program to prevent school dropouts, also focusing on the development of inclusion and retention practices for home-schooled children with disabilities (UNICEF, 2019). Other organizations, such as the World Bank and the United Nations Development Program, and international NGOs such as the Soros Foundation, run programs and projects aimed at supporting the establishment of inclusive societies in the region. Universities and teacher-training and research institutions also play a crucial role in supporting inclusive education development from a methodological perspective. For example, the National Scientific-Practical Center of Correctional Pedagogy (NSPC CP), created in 2004 by a decree of the MoES, is aimed at developing and implementing methodological learning support to children with SEN. The NSPC CP has recently formulated the guidelines and the structure for creating individual educational plans (IEPs) to ensure student-centered planning to accommodate student needs and modifications in the curriculum (Yeliseyeva, 2017). The National Academy of Education named after Y. Altynsaryn developed adapted curriculum standards for different types of disabilities (ibid.). Nazarbayev University offers master’s and doctoral programs in education, with inclusive education as one of the study specializations. Students and faculty conduct research in this area. Some teacher-training universities offer courses on inclusive pedagogy for pre-service and in-service teachers, while other universities are becoming more welcoming to students with SEND. Apart from the aforementioned large stakeholders, there are individual advocates for inclusion, parental communities, and learners as key actors who play a role in the establishment of inclusive education.

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Barriers to the Development of Inclusive Education Despite continuous efforts of the state, intergovernmental organizations IGOs and civil society, there are still barriers to the development of inclusive education in Kazakhstan. Children with special needs can attend inclusive or special kindergartens and primary schools and many stakeholders, including teachers, parents, and state officials, agree that inclusive education is a preferable setting for learning and the development of children with disabilities. However, by 2015, only 27% of children with disabilities were studying in mainstream schools and only 1% in higher education (NAE, 2015). Whether these percentages reflect how many children with disabilities are actually included and have their learning supported with appropriate resources rather than merely being placed in the classrooms is questionable. Meanwhile, there is evidence of schools still refusing to accept children with special needs, despite the laws developed to support inclusion in schools (HRW, 2019). Therefore, there is a need to enhance and strengthen the legislative and normative frameworks to establish clear guidelines and strategies for implementing inclusive education and to ensure compliance (IAC, 2018). The system of specialized education remains a dominant theme when learners have disabilities or SEN. The IAC (2018) explains that there are 100 special schools (serving 14,579 students) and 2,379 special classes for different types of disabilities in 640 mainstream secondary schools (serving 11,352 students). There are 43 special kindergartens and 469 special groups in 201 general kindergartens, but only 15% of kindergartens that create conditions for inclusive education (ibid.). At the preprimary level, there is a lack of well-developed guidelines for inclusion of learners with SEND in general groups and the required skills among nurses and teachers to work with children with SEND (IAC, 2018). Only 1% of students with SEND enroll in universities; even the state program for education sets the benchmark to establish inclusive principles at 15% of higher education institutions (HEI). Currently, HEIs are unable to satisfy the needs of this group of students owing to the lack of material, infrastructural and human resources. Technical and vocational education and training institutions are still not equipped to provide comprehensive training for employability. According to the data for 2015, in Kazakhstan there were 141,952 children under 18 years old who had developmental disabilities, which constitutes 2,8% of the total number of children (NAE, 2015). This indicator is significantly lower than the world average of 10–15%, which implies an underdeveloped system of early diagnosis and a narrow methodology for identification that still considers only the medical aspect of disability (UNICEF, 2017). An OECD report (2009) suggests that early identification and intervention services are underdeveloped in Central Asian countries, including Kazakhstan. Reports (OECD, 2009; UNICEF, 2014) also suggest employing the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), approved by the WHO, rather than the International Classification of Diseases. This would facilitate the development of inclusive education better, as the IFC considers social aspects of disability and opportunities for development rather than the limitations

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of the diagnosis as such. While the identification of SEND remains a grey area, children are at risk of not being diagnosed and referred for support services. This will potentially result in lack of support at community and school level and pose a risk of dropping out. The Law on Education (2007) upholds the right of parents to choose whether to send their child to a mainstream or a specialized school. However, often parents enroll their children in special schools because they do not feel their children would get the necessary support in a mainstream school, or because the PMPC has determined that their child should attend a special school or be taught through homeschooling (HRW, 2019). While some children with disabilities and their parents may choose to attend specialized schools, such a decision should be meaningful and not a result of external pressures or barriers to inclusive education in local schools (ibid.). Children with SEND are also eligible to receive home-based education, and teachers must visit and carry out instruction at the child’s home. This option is not viewed as merely a temporary solution, but can function as a long-term mode of education, and is not monitored by governing bodies or schools. Parents interviewed by Human Rights Watch (2019) informed researchers that their children received on average eight to ten hours of instruction per week. Therefore, long-term homeschooling most likely leads to insufficient and uncompetitive educational attainment, unless quality control mechanisms and protocols are in place to monitor such practices (UNICEF, 2014). These learners can be denied a quality education, which would disqualify them from accessing vocational or higher education, and keep them isolated and separated from their peers, classmates, and the broader society. Many children with hidden disabilities and special needs remain unregistered, owing to existing social barriers, such as discrimination and obstacles related to the participation of people with disabilities in public life. As a result, parents often choose not to report their child’s disability for fear of social stigma and isolation (UNICEF, 2017). Globally, stigmatization, discrimination and ableism are barriers to the formation of inclusive societies and cultures. Kazakhstan is no exception. Historically, these barriers are a feature of the medical model of disability (NAE, 2015). The Soviet legacy in education in Kazakhstan is characterized by a special or “correctional” educational approach in dealing with children with special needs (Rouse & Lapham, 2013). According to Makoelle (2020b), the Soviet legacy is still engrained in the current language and terminology used in the Kazakhstani inclusive education fraternity and a transition to more humane and inclusive language use has therefore become imperative. During the Soviet period, schools were not equally available to all children, and it was standard practice to separate children with disabilities from their peers and educate them in so-called correctional institutions or at home by special educators referred to as defectologists. Special PMPCs were responsible for the diagnosis of children with SEN and for choosing their placement either at a correctional facility or in a home-schooling setting (Rouse et al. cited in Bridges, 2014). These specialists were guided by medical paradigms in their assessments and would concentrate their focus on the deficits of a child, without necessarily appreciating individual strengths. Medical paradigms encourage a way of thinking that ignores the natural neuro- and

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physical diversity of learners (Dirth & Branscombe, 2017). This entire approach can be characterized as a medical model where disability is viewed as a condition that requires treatment and rehabilitation (Brisenden, 1986). Furthermore, the cultural stigmatization of children with disabilities contributed to the commonly accepted traditions of isolating them in special residential care institutions (Gevorgianiene & Sumskiene, 2017). It was believed that children with intellectual disabilities were better off in special institutions, as their developmental level would not allow them to succeed academically. Institutionalization of children with disabilities remains common practice in Kazakhstan. According to UNICEF (2014), with 30,022 out of 5 million children living in state-run residential institutions and boarding schools, Kazakhstan is among the countries with the highest per capita rates of institutionalization of children in the CIS region. Therefore, inclusion in education for these children remains a false hope, as they do not have a chance to engage with their peers and society continuously. Today, many parents are against children with disabilities studying in mainstream classrooms, because of concern that the presence of children with disabilities will distract from the overall quality of education (UNICEF, 2014). Therefore, when stepping into independence in 1991, the educational system of Kazakhstan had many exclusionary legacies. To a great extent, these still exist in the form of segregated institutions, medically oriented educators and the underdeveloped infrastructure of schools, which now serve as barriers to implementing inclusive education. Thus, learners with disabilities are considered vulnerable groups of the population, rather than potentially active and valuable members of society. The psychological unpreparedness of practitioners to work with children with special needs is evident from several studies. For example, an assessment of 87 inservice educational psychologists (Baimenova et al., 2015) in Kazakhstan revealed that the participants had low levels of readiness to work with children with disabilities and were not supportive of the idea of inclusive education. Readiness was described as both willingness and ability. Therefore, training programs that provide both skills and motivations are suggested to prepare teachers and psychologists for working in inclusive classrooms (OECD, 2009). The classroom size and the pacing of the curriculum pose additional barriers, as teachers argue that it is very challenging to teach a standard volume of material during a 45-minute class for 30–45 children in the classroom. Without co-teaching, it would be even harder to accommodate the needs of struggling learners in inclusive classrooms if standards, resources, and class arrangements remain the same. This is another reason for the low motivation of teachers to implement inclusive pedagogical approaches. The methodology for educating children with special needs has been based on defectology (OECD, 2009). The OECD suggests promoting student-centered learning to balance out such deficit-based approaches among both schooling practitioners and PMPC specialists. Parents of children with special needs view the ability to understand the needs of diverse learners and tailor the curriculum accordingly as essential for teachers (UNICEF, 2014). Individual support plans and case management are newly emerging phenomena in schools and have remained underdeveloped

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to date (UNICEF, 2019). Therefore, teachers struggle to create IEPs, assign interventions, adapt and decide on assessment strategies (IAC, 2018). More teacher training programs are necessary to fill these knowledge and competency gaps. Not only skills and competencies, but the scarcity of teaching professionals pose a significant barrier to implementing inclusive education. In 2017, there were 178 speech therapists, 109 teacher-psychologists, 324 defectologists, 66 teachers for students with hearing impairments, 26 teachers for students with intellectual disabilities and six visual impairment pedagogues working in general schools (IAC, 2018). This deficit in human resources, especially when it comes to narrow expertise areas, limits adequate support for children with SEND. As a result, the window of opportunity for further improvement and growth remains very wide.

Conclusion During the last decade Kazakhstan has taken a bold step in adopting and implementing inclusive education. The legislative framework has been enhanced significantly through successive reforms and exemplified by the concept of inclusive education now reflected in the Law on Education as one of the guiding principles in the curriculum. Several additional policy documents recognize inclusive education as an approach to provide equitable access to categories of children such as those who are gifted or disabled, or those who have special needs. Methodological support to reform is mainly provided by research and scientific institutions and IGOs; local NGOs and community members continue to advocate this reform. Despite sustained efforts, it is evident that more needs to be done to cultivate a positive attitude to inclusive education, transform the current educational structure, revise exclusive terminologies, and transition the system from a profoundly medically oriented approach to a socio-ecological model (Makoelle, 2020b). Even though the government can introduce broad umbrella laws, their enactment in an actual classroom might not happen owing to various factors discussed in this chapter. Among such reasons are low motivation, insufficient skills, or lack of knowledge about accommodating children with greater needs. For example, it remains unclear what special needs are and how these are determined and measured. Therefore, specific guidelines are necessary to ensure a clear concept and approach to making schools inclusive. The current initiative by the MoES to enact a law on inclusive education seems to be a step in the right direction. There needs to be clarity about what inclusive education means in the context of Kazakhstan and how it can be operationalized. Inclusive education not only widens opportunities for learners with SEND, but also makes learners with and without identified needs more empathetic, socialized and equipped for life (IAC, 2018). The economic loss of exclusion in Europe and Central Asia is currently estimated to be at least 35% of the gross domestic product (ibid). Therefore, inclusion in education is a political, economic, and social issue that remains an important dimension of developing contemporary Kazakhstan within the wider global community.

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Part II

Teachers and Inclusive Teaching and Learning

Chapter 2

“Inclusion of Diverse Learners Is a Beautiful Idea but …” Preparing Pre-service Teachers to Cater for Diversity Aisha Mnazhatdinova

Introduction The success in creating inclusive education as a key to establishing inclusive societies depends on a number of various important factors. These include the preparedness of school leaders and teachers to meet the needs of their learners and the creation of a safe and equitable learning environment so that all children can learn well and achieve their fullest potential (UNESCO, 2009). As classrooms continue to become populated with students with more diverse learning needs, there has been a worldwide growing recognition of the need to prepare teachers who are equipped with appropriate attitudes, knowledge and skills to work in inclusive settings. According to Makoelle (2014a) changing teacher beliefs and attitudes towards inclusion is critical for its success in schools. The provision of equitable access to quality education for every learner has been highlighted as one the main goals within inclusive educational reform of Kazakhstan, and the country has placed emphasis on the transformation of pedagogical practices of institutions involved in pre-service teacher training. Several studies conducted in Kazakhstan have already indicated the unpreparedness of teachers to comply with the required expertise and to effectively instruct children in an inclusive environment (Denivarova & Abdresheva, 2015; Zhilbayev & Syrymbetova, n.d.). Since little attention has been paid to the issue of preparing teachers for working in an inclusive environment, there is a need to understand the quality and the extent to which teacher education programs are preparing pre-service teachers for diverse student classrooms in Kazakhstan. Thus, the present study examined the beliefs, attitudes and practices of teacher educators in Kazakhstan who are charged with preparing teachers for a changing student population. Despite the fact that some teachers have an understanding of the concept of inclusive education and A. Mnazhatdinova (B) Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. M. Makoelle and M. Somerton (eds.), Inclusive Education in a Post-Soviet Context, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65543-3_2

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receive training on supporting a range of diverse needs, the extent to which they are adequately prepared to do so is not clear (Makoelle, 2020). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate (a) pre-service teacher educators’ understanding of diversity in the context of Kazakhstan; (b) pre-service attitudes towards inclusion; (c) pre-service teacher educators’ beliefs about their pedagogies they use to train pre-service teachers. The study was guided by the following overarching research questions: • How do pre-service teacher educators understand diversity in the context of Kazakhstan? • What are pre-service teacher educators’ attitudes towards the inclusion of children with diverse needs into mainstream education? • And do pre-service teacher educators believe the pedagogies they employ teach pre-service teachers to cater for student diversity?

Literature Review This study focuses on pre-service teacher educators’ attitudes towards inclusion, their understanding of diversity and pedagogies they use to train pre-service teachers. However, to date, limited research studies could be found regarding the role of preservice teacher educators and their preparedness for developing the inclusion agenda (Lambe, 2011). Therefore, the literature focuses on the studies that have investigated pre-service and in-service teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion, their understanding of diversity and pedagogies they use in their classrooms.

Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Inclusion In the context of research in inclusive education, teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion of children with special educational needs (SEN) has been identified as an important area of research (Kalyva, Gojkovic, & Tsakiris, 2007). As Rose stated, examining the attitudes of teachers is considered to be the best method of understanding the on-going practice and the dynamics of the development of inclusive education (as cited in Kalyva et al., 2007). It has been recognized worldwide that the success or failure of inclusive education depends on teachers’ attitudes towards student diversity (Niemeyer & Proctor, as cited in Leatherman & Niemeyer, 2005; Sharma, Forlin, & Loreman, 2008). The attitudes of teachers are a critical element that influences how the teaching and learning processes take place. Being the major element in the education system, it has been explained that teachers can and should create positive relationships among children with and without disabilities, stimulate their active participation in the learning process, and contribute to building a favorable environment for inclusion (Shaukat & Rasheed, 2015). Furthermore, the attitude of teachers has a tremendous influence

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on their level of motivation to work in an inclusive environment. Indeed, teachers’ motivation serves as a crucial function in organising and supporting a pupil with SEN who usually feels ashamed or unable to participate in classroom activities. Therefore, high levels of motivation and willingness to work with special needs children stimulate better dynamics in the classroom and provide children with SEN and other typically developing children with an opportunity to adjust to each other’s presence thereby building positive interactions between them (Kalyva et al., 2007).

Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Inclusion in Post-Soviet Countries Kalyva et al. (2007) investigated 72 Serbian elementary teachers’ attitudes towards the inclusion of children with special educational needs in twelve inner-city Belgrade elementary schools showed generally negative attitudes towards the inclusion of children with SEN. These attitudes seem to stem from the insufficient teaching experience with children who have special needs, since, in Serbia training on special needs has only recently been implemented in universities (Kalyva et al., 2007). However, the study also showed that Serbian preschool teachers with more experience in teaching special needs children were more positive towards inclusion than teachers with less relevant experience (Kalyva et al., 2007). These findings were also supported by research conducted in Romania by Unianu (2012), who found that teachers with a larger professional experience of working with children with special needs are more willing to accept children with diverse needs into their classrooms. These findings suggest that teachers who held positive attitudes had access to relevant course materials and instruction on inclusive education or special education, as well as had a larger professional and/or practical experience of working with children with special needs. However, research (Kalyva et al., 2007) has reported contradictory findings that suggest that teachers who have experience of working with children with SEN do not always tend to hold positive attitudes. In some instances this can be explained by the varying degree of teaching experience correlating with their age (Stoiber, Goettinger, & Goetz, as cited in Kalyva et al., 2007). Research has indicated that often older teachers with many years of teaching experience are less likely to be enthusiastic, motivated to accept children with special needs.

Factors Influencing the Teacher’s Attitudes Research studies identified that the attitudes of teachers are usually shaped and grouped into three broad categories. For example, the factors that are related to the teacher’s demographic and other personality factors may be identified as “teacherrelated”. Other factors include the child’s health/disability condition or other educational problems, and can be categorised as “child-related factors”. The specific

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context and school/classroom environment that also have a significant influence on teacher’s attitudes are termed as “environmental factors” (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002).

Teacher-Related Factors Research demonstrates that pre-service education is considered to be the most effective time for teachers to develop positive attitudes toward inclusion (Lambe, 2011). Sosu, Mtika, and Colucci-Gray (2010) examined student teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion and the extent to which the initial teacher training programme influenced the development of these attitudes. According to their findings, final year student teachers (pre-service teachers) had more positive attitudes towards educational inclusion as compared to first year student teachers. Their attitudes were influenced by their experiences on the four-year initial teacher education (ITE) program which focuses on inclusion and social justice, seen as core elements of teachers’ preparation (Sosu et al., 2010). Similarly, Sharma (2012) evaluated the effect of completing a course in inclusive education on pre-service teachers’ beliefs and confidence to teach in inclusive classrooms. The findings showed more positive attitudes towards inclusion from pre-service teachers after completion of coursework than prior. This research was conducted at Monash University in the Australian state of Victoria. The survey indicated there were significant increases in the participants’ attitudes and confidence in supporting children with disabilities in their classroom at the completion of a 10-week course on special and inclusive education. Research in other contexts have also indicated the benefit of explicit course instruction having a positive impact on the teachers’ attitudes. For instance, research by Shaukat and Rasheed (2008) surveyed 140 student teachers (pre-service teachers) enrolled in Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) and Master of Education (M.Ed.) programs from one public university of Lahore district in Pakistan. They concluded that pre-service teachers enrolled in the M.Ed. special education program demonstrated significant positive attitudes towards practices, concepts and inclusive instruction, whereas their counterparts enrolled in general education and special B.Ed. program and M.Ed. general teacher education program indicated less confidence and willingness to work in inclusive settings.

Child Related Factors The nature and severity of children’s disabilities are also related to teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive practices. For example, students with severe disabilities as opposed to those with mild disabilities are less accepted by mainstream teachers (Somerton, Helmer, Kasa, Hernández-Torrano, & Makoelle, 2020). Gwin Smith (2000) found that secondary school teachers are less supportive to the idea of educating students with severe disabilities in general education classrooms. Results indicated that 85% of teachers that participated in the study reported that they would need retraining in

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order to feel confident to work with children with severe disabilities (Gwin Smith, 2000). The type of disability has also shown to have a considerable influence on the attitudes of teachers towards supporting students with disabilities. Research suggests that general education teachers are less optimistic to the idea of teaching students with emotional and behavioral disorders in their classrooms, and this is due to the beliefs that such students may disrupt and negatively impact other typically developing children (Muwana & Ostrosky, 2014). In many developing countries, children with severe or behavioral and emotional disorders are excluded from general education despite the fact that the legislation and the policy framework ensure for all learners the equal access to general education. This is a case for South Africa (Muwana & Ostrosky, 2014), and many Central Asian countries, including Kazakhstan. Similarly, findings from other research indicate that students with behavioural or emotional disorders are seen to be more challenging to teach in comparison to the other children with different disabilities (Unianu, 2012).

Environmental Factors Environmental factors that influence pre-service and in-service teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education are often concerned with the availability or provision of human (learning support assistants, special teachers, speech therapists), and physical support services (teaching materials, IT resources, a restructured physical environment). Research has shown that when teachers are provided with adequate and appropriate equipment and materials and support from head teachers/special teachers, they are more willing to accept children with special needs in their classrooms (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002). Additionally, “the structure of the school environment”, “school ethos”, “availability of specialist and physical support” and “adopted teaching materials” are instrumental in developing teachers’ self-efficacy and confidence in their own instructional skills which in turn influence “the translation of positive attitudes into action” (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002; Sosu et al., 2010).

Teachers’ Understanding of Diversity With globalisation comes an increasing diversity in terms of nationality, ethnicity, race, religion, ability, disability, socio-economic state, language and gender issues in today’s classrooms. As such, there is a need to prepare teachers who are flexible and reflexive in their practice and able to understand and identify the backgrounds and needs of diverse learners and challenge their own views and beliefs about diversity in classrooms (Mills & Ballantyne, 2016; Ramirez, Gonzales-Galindo, & Roy, 2016). Research indicates that teachers who comprehend the socio-cultural, ethnical, linguistic or religious backgrounds of learners have been found to better understand and address their needs thereby fostering more trusting and caring relationships

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with their students (Ramirez et al., 2016). It was found that students with linguistic diversity are more willing to be involved in classroom activities when their first and/or second language(s) and cultural background are taken into consideration and respected by teachers (Ramirez et al., 2016). Students with linguistic diversity are more engaged in learning a second language when they are given an opportunity to use their first language and draw from their lived experiences (De Jong, as cited in Ramirez et al., 2016). In many post-Soviet countries, including Kazakhstan, disability is typically seen as the primary form of student diversity and catered for under the medical model of disability (Rouse & Lapham, 2013). The Medical model of disability views children with disabilities as “abnormal” or “atypical” who need to be “cured”, “corrected” or “fixed”. This model presumes disability as an “illness” or an “impairment” which resides within the child and does not acknowledge any social, relational or interactional components of disability. Consequently, educators place emphasis on fitting the child into the education setting and attempting to correct his or her ‘disability’ through interventions that have a medicalised approach, rather than adapting the environment and pedagogy to support the child’s learning needs (Mackenzie, Cologon, & Fenech, 2016).

Teaching and Pedagogical Approaches With the increasing diversity of student needs in contemporary classrooms, the training of teachers to effectively implement flexible or inclusive pedagogies to cater to the diverse needs of all learners is imperative. Inclusive pedagogies are generally understood as those that meet the needs of each student in the class to ensure they are accepted, respected, and treated as an inimitable and unique personality and provided with appropriate conditions for his or her full development (Smantser & Ignatovitch, 2015). These teaching approaches aim to accommodate each and every student and to utilize a range of teaching strategies that address the needs of diverse learners (Corbett, as cited in Makoelle, 2014b). Teachers within inclusive education systems will focus on responding to individual differences of children and are expected to adapt pedagogical strategies to the needs of children that will help them be fully, actively and productively engaged in classroom activities. That is, teachers should utilize those pedagogies that minimize the educational barriers and facilitate active participation of all children in the learning process (Sosu et al., 2010). In this regard, learner-centered pedagogy is an approach which seeks to improve teaching practices that encourage student learning and motivation (King, 2003). Learner-centered pedagogical approaches provide aim to cater to individual developmental differences, appreciate student voice, set age and academically appropriate challenges, develop higher-order thinking skills, and create interpersonal positive interactions. Student centred approaches imply that both the learner and the process of learning are central to this model (King, 2003).

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A body of literature has shown that learner-centered pedagogy promotes creating caring communities where students, teachers and administrators work collaboratively with an aim to facilitate learning and achievement for all students while improving the quality of education (Lambert & McCombs, as cited in Alfassi, 2004). Indeed, when students have control over their learning process, and learn with and from each other in safe and trusting learning environments, they are more likely to achieve better learning results (Cornelius-White, 2007). Therefore, it is an important consideration for schools to provide a supportive and trustworthy learning community for a diverse student population which is crucial to increase motivation, learning and achievement for all students (Alfassi, 2004). Critical pedagogy as a learner-centered approach focuses on engaging students in critical dialogue (Larson, 2014). According to a summary of the critical pedagogical approach given by Duncan-Andrade and Morrell, this approach encourages marginalized, oppressed groups of people to question authorities and empowers them to become agents for social change (Larson, 2014). In his study, Larson describes the processes of introducing critical pedagogy in Asian countries, such as Indonesia, Korea, Japan and Hong Kong. For instance, Sekigawa, Sugino, Mimura, and Chaikul (2007) who carried out a study on critical pedagogy in Japan concluded that incorporating critical pedagogy into EFL classes, it is possible to teach students to “voice their opinions and improve their speaking abilities, and promote their critical consciousness”. In the classroom, students were engaged in group discussions regarding the issues of ‘gender/sexism, racism, individualism, lingualism, globalization, advancing technology, traditional culture, generation gaps, violence, and international marriages’ (as cited in Larson, 2014). Silova (2009) explains that many pre-service teachers in post-Soviet contexts have been traditionally educated by using teacher-centered pedagogies. For CIS countries became more evident during the post-Soviet transformation period in the 1990’s, when in-service teacher education reforms were given priority over preservice education programs. Pre-service teachers received training based on ‘old’ approaches and methodologies, whereas schools started to introduce teachers to new and innovative teaching and learning practices. ‘Old approaches’ constitute employing ‘teacher-centered’ learning, where teachers are seen as the sole authority in the classroom (Kumaravadivelu, as cited in Mahmoodarabi & Khodabakhsh, 2015). It was believed that it is the teacher’s role to ‘transmit’ their knowledge to the minds of their students. This approach is recognised as one that leaves the learner as a passive participant in the learning process, that is to say, their role is to receive, memorize and repeat information (Romanowski & Amatullah, 2016). In other CIS countries, such as Kyrgyzstan and Azerbaijan, the status of the teaching profession has deteriorated because of the poor quality of education provided at pedagogical universities, declining salaries, limited financial resources, and state control over schools (Silova, 2009, 2010). Typically, there are many lowperforming students entering pedagogical institutions, although the governments of both countries have made considerable efforts to encourage students to be interested in the teaching profession by providing state scholarships.

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Against this backdrop, the present study set out to determine (a) pre-service teacher educators’ understanding of diversity in the context of Kazakhstan; (b) pre-service attitudes towards inclusion; (c) pre-service teacher educators’ beliefs about their pedagogies they use to train pre-service teachers.

Methodology The present study explored the attitudes and perspectives of pre-service teacher educators concerning inclusive education. The aim was to determine pre-service teacher educators’ understanding of diversity, their attitudes towards inclusion and their beliefs about the pedagogies they use to teach pre-service teachers to cater for diversity. This section discusses the methodology used within this study, namely research design, sample and sampling procedures, data collection instruments, procedures, data collection and data analysis, and ethical considerations.

Research Design The present study employed a qualitative research methodology. This method allowed the researcher to gain insight into the teacher educators’ perceptions of diversity, inclusion and pedagogies they use to train pre-service teachers at two pedagogical universities in Kazakhstan. The study was broadly phenomenological and collected in-depth data necessary to understand the teachers’ perceptions and beliefs about their teaching practices in preparing pre-service teachers. This was viewed as the central phenomenon. The chosen design allowed the researcher to deeply explore teachers’ understanding of diversity, their attitudes about inclusion and everyday experiences of using different approaches/strategies in training pre-service teachers (Creswell, 2014; Denzin & Lincoln, 2003).

Sample The study was conducted using a probability sampling technique to recruit university teachers as participants in this study (Creswell, 2014). This sampling methodology increased the level of accessibility to sample group members. Moreover, this sampling procedure allowed the opportunity for all teachers wishing to participate in the interview to give their voice regarding the preparation of pre-service teachers at pedagogical universities. In a phenomenological study typically 5–25 individuals who have direct experience with the central phenomenon take part in the research. In this instance, a total of 13 individuals participated in one on one interviews as part of the data collection process (Creswell, 2014).

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Data Collection Instruments The study employed semi-structured interviews to gather data. Semi-structured interviews were chosen as a useful instrument which allowed new ideas to be brought up as a result of what the interviewee said and gave a possibility to collect the specific type of information required (Creswell, 2014). The interviews consisted of 10 broad, open-ended questions which were drawn from the studies given in the literature review to investigate teachers’ perceptions of diversity and inclusion and the beliefs they hold about their teaching approaches to train pre-service teachers to cater for diversity. Open-ended questions gave an opportunity to the participants to respond any way they chose (Creswell, 2014). During the interview sessions, the researcher used follow-up questions and probed for further elaboration and clarification of responses when needed. Each interview took no more than 60 min. The language for the interview depended on the choice of participants, and therefore, the sessions were conducted in Kazakh and Russian. Participants preferred to be interviewed at the Universities they worked in even though they were offered a choice of informal interview sites. During the interview sessions the researcher kept field notes, and each interview was audio-taped on the researcher’s phone recorder with the permission of participants. All the recorded files were saved in the researcher’s laptop and deleted from the phone.

Procedures A total of 13 teachers from two pedagogical universities participated in the study. However, inclusionary criteria required the teacher educators to have a minimum of one year of experience of training pre-service teachers. Teachers who have worked with their students (pre-service teachers) for one or more years were more likely to provide answers related to their teaching experience to ensure that the participants who were recruited could respond directly to the central phenomenon (Creswell, 2014).

Data Collection Process After receiving ethics approval the informed consent and a support letter form from the researcher and the Vice Dean of Graduate School of Education at Nazarbayev University was sent to the rectors/principals of pedagogical universities in order to receive permission to conduct interviews. These documents contained brief information about the nature of the study, potential risks, benefits of participation, the anonymity confidentiality of all results and contact details. Additionally, the

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researcher met each rector/principal at their respective university in person, and explained all the details of the research study.

Recruitment of Participants The researcher recruited teacher participants using advertisements which were distributed to all faculties, placed on discussion boards at each of the sites. The advertisement explained the research and its purpose, the criteria for participation, and emphasized the anonymity of the participants’ names and confidentiality of all the results/info received. Relevant contact details (telephone number, email and social network pages) of the researcher were included and those wishing to participate could contact the researcher and arrange a convenient time and place for the meeting. In order to respect the research site and not disturb the learning process, the researcher suggested the participants participate in the interviews in informal settings, such as café, restaurants so that the participants could feel comfortable to speak freely.

Data Analysis The interviews were conducted with pre-service teacher educators, and were transcribed verbatim into textual form so as to explore and clarify any emerging themes. Interview transcriptions were coded into common themes for further analysis. This is an inductive thematic approach to data analysis which is recommended by Denzin and Lincoln (2003) when conducting phenomenological research. While coding each interview, the researcher specifically searched for common and specific phrases and sentences that were related to the research questions. Key elements identified were further grouped into themes by relating them to the research questions. Direct quotations that were drawn from the interviews were added to the findings to demonstrate the range of opinions evident among the group.

Ethical Considerations This research study was conducted according to the ethical principles and guidelines that guide researchers in protecting the rights, confidentiality or anonymity of participants. This means that prior to collecting the data, the researcher obtained permission which was not only a part of the informed consent form, but was also an ethical practice. The researcher explained to each participant before beginning the interview that participation in the research was purely voluntary and the participant had the right to withdraw at any time. Additionally, it was explained that withdrawal from the study at any point was at the discretion of the participant and would not have any negative impact on the participants’ employment or relationship with Nazarbayev

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University. The privacy of all participants’ information was ensured; the participants’ identity was protected and coded by numbers not known to any individual outside of the project, except for the researcher. The interviews were audio-taped on the researcher’s phone recorder with the permission of participants. All the recorded files were saved in the researcher’s laptop and then deleted from the phone. Once the research study was completed, all electronic documents and audio recordings were destroyed by permanent file deletion and all printed materials were destroyed.

Findings The study investigated three critical elements, namely the teacher educators’ understanding of student diversity, their attitudes towards inclusion and pedagogies they use to train pre-service teachers, because these are seen to influence the overall preparedness of pre-service teachers to teach in inclusive settings. Within this section, the findings of the study are discussed. Research question 1: How do teachers in training pre-service teachers understand diversity in the context of Kazakhstan? In general, teacher educators who took part in a study understand diversity as a broad concept and as an inherent feature of a human being. According to the participants’ responses, diversity can be related to learners’ beliefs, values, interests, and learning styles as well as disability, socio-economic status, ethnicity, nationality, religion, culture, language, gender, sexual orientation, special needs, and geographical or contextual factors. Of the 13 participants, five associated diversity with the students’ national affiliation, social class/status, race, religion, culture, and geographical context. It should be said that these characteristics are mentioned mostly by subject teachers as of Maths, Physics, IT technology, and English language. For instance, one of the teacher educators claimed that: “Diversity can relate to nationality, social conditions of students - there are students from well-of or low income families and single or two parent families. Apart from that, diversity depends on the location of students (that is, where they live or come from). For example, some may live in villages, towns or big cities. Depending on this, there are several distinctive features of this or that student contingent.”

In addition, some of the subject teacher educators (3 out of 13) mentioned only “the number of students” and “their age” as student diversity. For example, one subject teacher educator explained: “I think the total number of pupils in class and their age is related to student diversity. If we talk about age differences, in one class there can be students of different ages. For example, although 8 to 10 year-old children should study in the fifth grade, sometimes 12 and even 14 year-old children can be placed in the same class. It is the age diversity. When it comes to the number of students, I would say that there can be 15 or 30 children in one class. This means that student diversity can be related the number of learners in the one class.”

External characteristics such as ability, disability, and special needs were largely listed by defectologists, social pedagogues and psychologists. They highlighted

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the importance of considering psychological and physical features of students while working with them. One respondent who teaches defectology explained her understanding of diversity in the following way: “I would divide the concept “diversity” into several categories according to the children’s abilities and their physical and psychological characteristics. There are children with mild or severe disabilities, for example, speech delay and/or hearing impairment. Next group of diversity can relate to mental peculiarities or intelligence, that is, the ability to understand the reality: there are “audials”, “visuals”, “kinesthetics”, “digitals”. In addition to that, students can be diverse by their gender: males and females. Finally, there are “theorists”, “practitioners”, and “observers.”

They argue that students may be different from each other by the set of values, principles and beliefs they hold: “Values and beliefs are usually shaped by the upbringing, the atmosphere and relationships in the families or interactions with other people. These values and beliefs in turn influence the way they (students) perceive the world, learn new things and their behavior in society and communication with others.”

“Inclusion of Diverse Learners Is a Beautiful Idea but …” Research question 2: What are the teacher educators’ attitudes towards inclusion of children with diverse needs into mainstream education? Among all participants there were only two subject teachers who tended to embrace positive attitudes towards inclusion of children with special needs into mainstream education. They believed that if there are appropriate conditions created, necessary resources provided, education programs adopted, and teachers are properly trained, inclusion of children with special needs is likely to bring benefits for all. These educators supported the idea of including all children regardless of their abilities, disabilities, and backgrounds into mainstream schools. They tended to think that inclusive education helps not only children with special needs to socialize and increase their self-esteem but also other typically developing children to become more tolerant. There was one teacher who held a neutral position to inclusion but was negative towards those who developed reforms. He tended to think that the attitudes of teachers cannot make any influence on the development of educational reforms. When he was asked if he supported the idea of inclusion, he stated with indignation: “It is incorrect to ask such a question because the administration is not interested in what I am thinking about it. That is why; we, teachers, have to fulfill our responsibilities. We just need to follow the requirements of the administration. If teachers do not agree, they can work in another place or in another sphere. As regards inclusion, I personally think that inclusion may be beneficial for children but I am not sure of that.”

All the other participants expressed negative attitudes towards inclusion of children with special needs into mainstream education. As one of the participants claimed, their attitudes are influenced by a number of factors:

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“In general, the idea of inclusive education sounds great and ambitious as all children (regardless of their abilities or backgrounds) can be educated in the general education school. However, I think that the reality will be the opposite. To date, due to the fact that the course on inclusive education has just been implemented in all pedagogical universities across the country, teacher educators and pre-service teachers have quite a narrow understanding of the concept of inclusive education. However, this (understanding) is not enough for the success of inclusive education. There are numerous factors that should be taken into consideration but unfortunately they are not considered. There are no well-trained teachers, adapted study materials, and physical conditions in schools. For example, for a blind or deaf child it is more reasonable and useful to study in a special school. I do not think that an ordinary teacher at a general school can teach Braille to the blind child and children with Downs syndrome, autism or other severe disabilities cannot be educated with other typically developing children as the former can disrupt the latter.”

Several participants highlighted the necessity of appropriate training not only for general teachers but also preparing tutors (or teacher assistants): “The implementation of inclusive education is a complicated issue for Kazakhstan. Firstly, teachers lack necessary knowledge of psychological characteristics of children with disabilities and skills needed for teaching them. Now, teachers cannot use traditional teaching methods. There is a need to use innovative ways of teaching, e.g. individualized and differentiated instruction. Secondly, even though teachers have some understanding of inclusive education, it will be difficult for them to work with both “disabled” and typically developing children due to the fact that the former always require special attention or special instruction which general teachers now cannot provide. Therefore, they will need tutors or teacher assistants who are well aware of how to work with them. Finally, the government should allocate more finance to train or retrain general teachers, increase their salaries thereby motivating them to accept children with special needs. Because we all know that any teacher (anyone, even you, I think) does not want to work under poor conditions, especially for low pay.”

Research question 3: And do teachers believe the pedagogies they use prepare preservice teachers to cater for student diversity? In general, all the teacher educators who took part in the research study believe that teachers should possess not only good knowledge of their subject area but also they need to concentrate on the development of students’ critical thinking, creativity skills, adapt tasks to students’ abilities and needs, focus on student-oriented learning, and serve as a facilitator. Many teachers shared that they utilize different teaching techniques that develop the students’ skills and abilities: “For example, in order to improve oral communication skills, students are usually involved in group works – group discussions. As teachers, we use problem-solving tasks and individual and group projects to enhance students’ critical thinking skills. Students are engaged in independent works so that they can learn how to learn on their own. The role of the teacher is to give tasks, advice, directions, and to make adjustments.”

However, 5 out of 13 participants acknowledged their lack of good knowledge of their subject area, good teaching skills, and abilities to train teachers to cater for student diversity in the classroom. For example, when a Math teacher was asked if she believed that the pedagogies she used trained pre-service teachers to cater for diversity, she responded:

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A. Mnazhatdinova “I try to use different teaching methods that would help my students (pre-service teachers) recognize diversity in the classroom but I am not sure that I manage to do that appropriately, effectively. I have to confess that I personally struggle with applying new methods of teaching and learning in my teaching practice. However, this does not mean I know my subject badly. I know it well. The problem is in my inability to employ new innovative teaching methods. And as I can see, my problem touches upon my students, that is, they do not understand the material well and cannot transmit theory into practice. The students are unable to identify/see intra-subject and inter-subject connections. In addition to that, I can say that most of the students are not interested in enhancing their knowledge themselves. They just receive what we give. I do not want and cannot work with students, who are not willing to learn.”

Several teacher educators mentioned teacher–student practicum as a crucial tool to improve the students’ abilities to apply theoretical knowledge in practice but some of them stated that their experience is inefficient and insufficient: “I think student-teacher practicum has not made any significant positive influence on my students. There are actually several reasons for that. Firstly, I think the program itself is not structured in an effective way. For example, pre-service teachers are not informed with what they are expected to do. They go to schools just to teach. Secondly, I think pre-service teachers do not take this experience as seriously as they need to. Many pre- service teachers are not motivated to upgrade their teaching skills and all the knowledge they receive. … I tend to think that most of them do teaching just for the record. I feel that when they come back and share their experience with uses.”

An educator who teaches psychology to students claimed that her students are unable to recognize the needs of children: “I do not think that my students are able to feel or see the needs of children. Probably, this is because we, teacher educators, do not focus on these issues too much. Also, in my practice I have not seen any students who were highly motivated to learn new knowledge. They learn just for the sake of getting grades/diploma. I tend to think it is our fault.”

However, there were several teachers who stated the opposite. That is, they noticed that their students managed to apply all the theory in practice (at the lessons) during their student–teacher practicum in schools. One ‘defectology’ educator acknowledged that she had not taught her students how to identify the needs or abilities of children and how to address them in the classroom. Surprisingly, she even thanked for the question about recognizing, meeting, and addressing the needs of students/children: “I am teaching defectology to my students, and I know my subject area very well. I am explaining to them (university students) that there are different types of disabilities, different physical and psychological features of children. But I have never thought about recognizing the abilities and learning needs of children. That’s why I like your question. And from now on, I should think about the ways (methods and approaches) to train my students to cater for diverse needs of children.”

Another important issue raised by almost all teacher educators of both universities highlighted the inability of students to speak up. The students experience difficulties in expressing their viewpoints freely as well as constructing their speech in a wellstructured way. In addition to that, according to the participants’ responses, some students are repressed and reserved which can be influenced by their backgrounds,

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specifically, socio-economic state. This means that they have poor communicative and leadership skills. Therefore, having realized the importance of concentrating the efforts on developing the students’ skills to express themselves, the teacher educators of one of the pedagogical universities involved in the study launched a “Leadership Development” project which aims at improving the students’ communicative and leadership skills. One of the respondents shared an example of how she tried to improve the speaking skills of her students. She uses a number of different games on the lessons which she believes develop skills needed to speak in front of a larger audience: “In the lessons, I like to use a game called “hot seat” (gopqi ctyl). I put a chair (hot seat) in the middle of the room and invite students one by one to come and sit in the chair. The challenge for the student is without stopping to speak and share all the knowledge she or he has within a certain time limited (for example, 3 or 5 minutes). And each time the number of minutes is increasing. What I noticed is that there are students who without straying can get out of this difficult situation, that is, they speak absolutely everything they know. However, there can be those who cannot speak anything because they get lost and then feel worried about their inability to cope with this difficult situation. At those times, all of them feel how hot the seat is. I believe that this game is helpful as it “makes” students challenge themselves to speak and learn how to address the difficulties.”

Discussion This section discusses the findings of the present study as well as recommendations for further development of teacher preparation programs, limitations, and implications of the study. The section concludes with an overview of the study.

Teacher Educators’ Understanding of Diversity and Attitudes Towards Inclusion According to the participants’ responses, understanding of diversity can be categorized as “external” and “internal” manifestations of diversity. The internal manifestation of diversity includes learners’ beliefs, values, interests, and learning styles. While the external features pertain to disability, socio-economic status, ethnicity, nationality, religion, culture, language, gender, sexual orientation, special needs, and geographical or contextual factors (Wassell, Kerrigan, & Hawrylak, 2018). In general, teacher educators have a broad understanding of diversity. Most of the subject teacher educators connected the concept of “diversity” with students’ abilities, disabilities, socio-economic status, ethnicity, nationality, religion, culture, language, gender, age, sexual orientation, special needs, and geographical or contextual factors as well as their values, beliefs and learning preferences. However, a few of them demonstrated a narrow understanding of diversity: several participants indicated the number of learners and their age in the same class as the only “categories”

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of student diversity. Further, such specialists as defectologists, social pedagogues and psychologists associated student diversity with health conditions of children (disabilities) and their abilities. The difference in responses between subject teacher educators and special educators can be explained by the fact that the latter have had more experience of working with children disabilities, whereas the former have not met children with disabilities in their practice. This has been demonstrated in other research (Sharma & Chow, 2008). The literature demonstrates that understanding of diversity is critical in developing a certain attitude towards inclusive education. Specifically, teachers who have a broad understanding of diversity are more likely to be supportive of educating children with diverse needs in mainstream schools. The studies shown in the literature review confirmed that teachers who comprehend the sociocultural, ethnical, linguistic or religious backgrounds of learners have been found to better understand and address the learners’ needs (Ramirez et al., 2016). Understanding and respect for diverse backgrounds and experiences of learners contribute to developing a caring and supportive learning environment in the classroom which in turn assist both teachers and students to achieve better results in teaching and learning processes (Ramirez et al., 2016). In contrast, the findings of the present study demonstrate that even as teacher educators perceive diversity as a broad concept, they do not necessarily hold positive attitudes towards including children with diverse needs into mainstream education. Of the 13 teacher educators interviewed for the present study, ten expressed a negative disposition to the idea of inclusive education. Teachers’ unwillingness to include diverse learners into mainstream schools can be attributed to the fact that they do not fully understand a concept of inclusive education (Lopez, 2018). According to the participants’ responses, they view inclusive education as a system that aims to provide equal access to education for children with disabilities. This finding aligns with previous research in the Kazakhstani context, which explains that the inclusive education system focuses narrowly on disabilities which results in a relatively small number of students being entitled to receive support. This could be attributed to the influence of the Soviet legacy, Kazakhstan still utilizes the traditional “medical approach” to education which views disability as “a diagnosis for treatment and rehabilitation rather than just one aspect of a whole child requiring adaptations in the learning environment” (Daniels, as cited in Rouse & Lapham, 2013). Currently, many children diagnosed by Psychological-Medical-Pedagogical Commissions (PMPCs) as having disabilities are still viewed as those who have not the potential to succeed in general schools, therefore, teachers still believe that children with disabilities should be homeschooled or placed in special-correctional centers (Rouse & Lapham, 2013). Therefore, it is argued that the medical model of disability results in negative beliefs and attitudes, shame and stigma towards disability that can lead to underemployment and the isolation of disabled people in the special institutions (Rouse & Lapham, 2013). As one of the respondents stated, “Children with disabilities cannot be educated with other typically developing children as the former can disrupt the latter during the teaching and learning processes”. This view is correlated with other studies conducted

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in this area which demonstrate that teachers tend to hold a negative view of children with disabilities as they understand disability as a problem that detrimentally affects their teaching practices (Sagner-Tapia, 2018). For this reason, the research calls for shifting from a “medical model of disability” toward a “social model of disability” which creates enabling environments and pedagogical approaches thereby encouraging participation of all children irrespective of their (dis)abilities (Mackenzie et al., 2016). It is the environment that must change to suit the child, not the child that must change to suit the environment (Mackenzie et al., 2016).

Factors Influencing Teacher Educators’ Attitudes Towards Inclusion Moreover, the participants mentioned specific factors that contribute to shaping their negative attitudes toward the idea of including children with special needs into mainstream education. As shown in the literature, participants of the study also mentioned factors that are related to teachers’ preparedness, child’s disability/health conditions, and the availability of human and physical resources (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002). Despite teacher training universities across the country are introducing the courses on Inclusive education (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002); the study demonstrates a lack of teacher educators’ understanding of diversity and the concept of inclusive education. This may be because most of them did not receive any training on diversity and inclusion issues; therefore, they cannot provide appropriate knowledge of this area for pre-service teachers. Teacher training universities still focus on preparing defectologists (special educators) who are seen as capable to address children’s special needs, and consequently, other subject teacher educators do not feel responsible for providing knowledge of diversity and inclusion for pre-service teachers. They embrace the philosophy that children with disabilities cannot be educated in general schools, therefore, should be homeschooled and/or placed in special-correctional centers. Teacher educators see the type and severity of disability as another factor that causes the negative attitudes towards inclusion. Data from the study shows that they hold the opinion that general school teacher is unprepared to address the needs of children who have severe disabilities and emotional and behavioural disorders due to the beliefs that such students may disrupt and negatively impact other typically developing children (Avramidis, Bayliss, & Burden, 2000; Muwana & Ostrosky, 2014). Within the literature this is explained that educating children with severe disabilities and emotional or behavioural problems may require significant adaptations or modifications to the curriculum and instruction (Gwin Smith, 2000; Muwana & Ostrosky, 2014). Insufficient provision of human and physical resources has also been found as a reason why teacher educators hold a negative view to inclusion. The participants in the present study stated that the lack of material and technical base in schools

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will restrict the process of development of inclusive education. Several participants mentioned low pay as one the problems that teachers usually faced in many regions of the country. This is supported in the literature which explains that teachers are usually dissatisfied with their job due to undesirable conditions such as poor pay (Busingye, 2016). Teachers who are not paid enough salary, and are demotivated and unsatisfied with their job are less likely to provide quality education for all children in the classroom. As respondents stated in the present study, teaching children with disabilities requires additional time and work; therefore, it is necessary to pay enough salary to teachers in order to increase their willingness to work in diverse classrooms (Busingye, 2016).

Pedagogies Employed to Train Pre-service Teachers With regard to the pedagogies employed to train pre-service teachers to cater for diversity, in general, participants in the present study believe that the pedagogies they use are adequate to develop pre-service teachers’ critical thinking, creativity, and other teaching skills. However, most of the teacher educators acknowledged their inability to try innovative teaching methods and inclusive pedagogies that cater for diversity. As shown within the literature, the inability to modify practices as well as to use teaching strategies that enhance students’ knowledge and skills and encourage them to actively participate in the learning process still remains for teachers a challenging issue in many parts of the world (Lopez, 2018). Data from the present study shows that teacher educators still employ teacher-centered pedagogies in their practices. In other words, they usually give lectures, while students (pre-service teachers) merely retell information they received on the lectures. This is not uncommon in the literature which clearly demonstrates that “the providers of education for pre-service teachers around the world are still largely operating from a teacher-centred pedagogy and have little recent and relevant experience” (Sharma, Simi, & Forlin, 2015). Students (pre-service teachers) are usually taught using “old approaches”, that is, “teachers transmit knowledge from their mind to students’ mind”, while learners just “receive, memorize and repeat information” (Romanowski & Amatullah, 2016). Within the so-called “old approaches” or teacher-centered pedagogies, teachers have the sole authority in the classroom and control over students’ learning, however, some researchers suggest that this makes students feel oppressed because they are required to acquire knowledge rather than construct their own knowledge (Romanowski & Amatullah, 2016). This approach in turn has led to the difficulties students experience in expressing their viewpoints freely as well as constructing their speech in a well-structured way. Moreover, the inability of teacher educators to modify instruction can have a detrimental effect on pre-service teachers’ abilities to connect theory with practice. In other words, they face challenges in transforming knowledge they receive into action. Participants in the present study emphasized the necessity of improving the quality of student-teacher practicum as a way to learn to apply theoretical knowledge in

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practice. This has also been raised as an important issue within the research showing that during practicum experiences pre-service teachers are actively engaged in a teaching process and can connect directly with students (Lopez, 2018). The respondents of the present study mentioned their concerns about pre-service teachers’ unwillingness to constantly improve their knowledge and skills. They tend to feel that pre-service teachers come to learn just for the record. The literature highlights the importance of developing pre-service teachers’ mindset as one of lifelong learning. It points out that lifelong learning increases motivation to keep pace with the rapid and constant changes occurring in the education system (Lopez, 2018).

Conclusion With an increasing diverse student population in today’s classroom, there is a global recognition of the need to prepare teachers to work in diverse classrooms. To date, no research could be found regarding the quality and the extent to which teacher trainers in universities prepare pre-service teachers to work with a diverse student population in Kazakhstan. Therefore, the present study addressed this issue by exploring preservice teacher educators’ understanding of diversity, their attitudes towards inclusion, and their beliefs about the pedagogies they use to train pre-service teachers. The findings of the present study have shown that teacher educators have a broad educators understanding of diversity, however, they tend to hold a negative attitude toward inclusion of learners with diverse needs into mainstream education. Moreover, the findings show that most of the teacher educators employ teacher-centered pedagogies which do not develop collaboration between students, do not allow them to express themselves, ask questions and control their own learning, and do not take into account their individual needs and differences. Moreover, the study revealed challenges regarding teacher educators’ inability to apply innovative teaching methods in their classrooms and pre-service teachers’ lack of abilities to transform theoretical knowledge into practice.

Recommendations for Initial Teacher Training Programs Having analyzed the findings of the present study, some recommendations were designed for further development of initial teacher training programs. First of all, taking into account that some teacher educators have a narrow understanding of diversity and inclusion, there is an urgent need to train or retrain teacher educators on diversity and inclusion issues as they are the “direct providers of knowledge” for pre-service teachers. Without an appropriate understanding of diversity and inclusion, teacher educators cannot shape the attitudes and beliefs of pre-service teachers. Teacher educators should train pre-service teachers to see diversity as an

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asset (Lopez, 2018). With respect to teacher educators’ challenges in employing innovative teaching methods in their practices, it is recommended to identify the causes of the problem and highlight the need to create a caring and collaborative environment within departments and encourage teacher educators to learn from each other by sharing their challenges and experiences. They should feel that they are supported by their colleagues and administration. They should be explained that making mistakes is a way to move forward. As for the pre-service teachers’ unwillingness to upgrade their knowledge, it is recommended that teacher educators utilize learner-centered pedagogies that will develop pre-service teachers’ sense of responsibility and ownership of their learning as well as enhance their self-esteem which can lead to increasing their motivation to learning (Alfassi, 2004). Both teacher educators and pre-service teachers should develop high level questioning skills and see themselves as important actors in creating change in the education system. With respect to pre-service teachers’ inability to apply theory into practice, the recommendations to address the problem can be improving the current integrated student-teacher practicum which contributes to developing practical skills of preservice teachers. In addition, both pre-service teachers and teacher educators should develop their research skills in order to learn to seek new innovative ways of teaching and learning which in turn will increase motivation to lifelong learning.

References Alfassi, M. (2004). Effects of a learner-centred environment on the academic competence and motivation of students at risk. Learning Environments Research 7, 1–22. Retrieved from http:// ezproxy.nu.edu.kz. Avramidis, E., Bayliss, P., & Burden, R. (2000). A survey into mainstream teachers’ attitudes towards the inclusion of children with special educational needs in the ordinary school in one local education authority. Educational Psychology, 20(2), 191–211. Avramidis, E., & Norwich, B. (2002). Teachers’ attitudes towards integration/ inclusion: A review of the literature. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 17(2). https://doi.org/10.1080/ 08856250210129056. Busingye, E. (2016). Teachers’ motivation as determinant of inclusive education in early childhood centers. Kampala district, Uganda. Thesis paper. Cornelius-White, J. (2007). Learner-centered teacher-student relationships are effective: A metaanalysis. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 113–143. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430 298563. Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Denivarova, N. V., & Abdresheva, M. K. (2015). Some peculiarities of inclusive education in Kazakhstan. Boppocy covpemenno nayki i ppaktiki. Univepcitet im. BI Bepnadckogo, 3, 162–166. Denzin, N., & Lincoln. Y. (2003). Collecting and interpreting qualitative materials. Retrieved from https://ru.scribd.com. Gwin Smith, M. (2000). Secondary teachers’ perceptions toward inclusion of students with severe disabilities. NASSP Bulletin, 84(613), 54–60.

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Kalyva, E., Gojkovic, D., & Tsakiris, V. (2007). Serbian teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion. International Journal of Special Education, 22(3). Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ8 14506. King, I. (2003). Examining middle school inclusion classrooms through the lens of learner-centered principles. Theory Into Practice, 42(2), 151–158. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4202_9. Lambe, J. (2011). Pre-service education and attitudes towards inclusion: The role of the teacher educator within a permeated teaching model. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 15(9), 975–999. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603110903490705. Larson, K. (2014). Critical pedagogy(ies) for ELT in Indonesia. TEFLIN Journal, 25(1). Retrieved from http://ezproxy.nu.edu.kz. Leatherman, J., & Niemeyer, J. (2005). Toward inclusion teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion: Factors influencing classroom practice. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 26. https://doi.org/10.1080/10901020590918979. Lopez, A. (2018). Disruptive pedagogy: A critical approach to diversity in teacher education. In A. Lopez & E. Olan (Eds.), Transformative pedagogies for teacher education: Moving towards critical praxis in an era of change (pp. 157–174). United States of America: Information Age Publishing Inc. Mackenzie, M., Cologon, K., & Fenech, M. (2016). ‘Embracing everybody’: Approaching the inclusive early childhood education of a child labelled with autism from a social relational understanding of disability. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 41(2). Retrieved from http://ezp roxy.nu.edu.kz. Mahmoodarabi, M., & Khodabakhsh, M. R. (2015). Critical pedagogy: EFL teachers’ views, experience and academic degrees. English Language Teaching, 8(6), 100–110. Makoelle, T. M. (2014a). Changing teacher beliefs and attitudes towards inclusion in South Africa: lessons from collaborative action research. Journal of Social Sciences, 38(2), 125–134. https:// doi.org/10.1080/09718923.2014.11893242. Makoelle, T. M. (2014b). Pedagogy of inclusion: A quest for inclusive teaching and learning. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(20), 1259. Makoelle, T. M. (2020). Schools’ transition toward inclusive education in post-Soviet countries: Selected cases in Kazakhstan. Sage Open, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020926586. Mills, C., & Ballantyne, J. (2016). Social justice and teacher education: A systematic review of empirical work in the field. Journal of Teacher Education, 67(4), 263–276. Muwana, F., & Ostrosky, M. (2014). Factors related to pre-service teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion: A case for Zambia. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 18(8), 763–782. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2013.835877. Ramirez, Gonzales-Galindo & Roy. (2016). Preparing pre-service secondary teachers in Arizona using culturally responsive approaches to learn from diverse secondary English learners. Multicultural Education. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1097615.pdf. Romanowski, M., & Amatullah, T. (2016). Applying concepts of critical pedagogy to Qatar’s educational reform. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.library.nu.edu.kz/. Rouse, M., & Lapham, K. (2013). Introduction. In M. Rouse & K. Lapham (Eds.), Learning to see invisible children: Inclusion of children with disabilities in Central Asia (pp. 1–20). Hungary: Open Society Foundations. Central European University Press. Sagner-Tapia, J. (2018). An analysis of alterity in teachers’ inclusive pedagogical practices. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 22(4), https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2017.137 0735. Sekigawa, Y., Sugino, T., Mimura, C., & Chaikul, R. (2007). Taking a critical pedagogic turn in L2 teaching. In JALT2006 Conference Proceedings (pp. 948–964). Sharma, U. (2012). Changing pre-service teachers’ beliefs to teach in inclusive classrooms in Victoria, Australia. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 37(10). Retrieved from ro.ecu.edu. au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1851&context=ajte. Sharma, U., & Chow, E. (2008). The attitudes of Hong Kong primary school principals toward integrated education. Asia Pacific Education Review, 9(3), 380–391.

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Sharma, U., Forlin, C., & Loreman, T. (2008). Impact of training on pre-service teachers’ attitudes and concerns about inclusive education and sentiments about persons with disabilities. Disability & Society, 23(7), 773–785. Sharma, U., Simi, J., & Forlin, Ch. (2015). Preparedness of pre-service teachers for inclusive education in the Solomon islands. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 40(5). Retrieved from http://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2660&context=ajte. Shaukat, S., & Rasheed, Kh. (2008). Student teachers attitudes towards inclusion in Pakistan. Bahria Journal of Professional Psychology, 14(1), 72–89. Shaukat, S., & Rasheed, Kh. (2015). Student teachers attitudes towards inclusion in Pakistan. Bahria Journal of Professional Psychology, 14(1). Retrieved from http://oaji.net/articles/2017/6066-152 2726888.pdf. Silova, I. (2009). The crisis of the post-soviet teaching profession in the Caucasus and Central Asia. Research in Comparative and International Education, 4(4). Retrieved from http://ezproxy.nu. edu.kz. Silova, I. (2010). Rediscovering post-socialism in comparative education. Post-socialism is not Dead:(Re) Reading the Global in Comparative Education. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 1–24. Smantser, A., & Ignatovitch, E. (2015). Future teacher training for work in an inclusive educational environment: experimental study results. Procedia - Social and Behavioral sciences, 214. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com. Somerton, M., Helmer, J., Kasa, R., Hernández-Torrano, D., & Makoelle, T. M. (2020). Defining spaces: Resource centres, collaboration, and inclusion in Kazakhstan. Journal of Educational Change, 1–20. Sosu, E., Mtika, P., & Colucci-Gray, L. (2010). Does initial teacher education make a difference? The impact of teacher preparation on student teachers’ attitudes towards educational inclusion, Journal of Education for Teaching, 36(4). Retrieved from Respublike Kazakhstan. [Methodological approaches to the development of inclusive education in the Republic of Kazakhstan]. Otrkytaya Shkola [Open School], 7(118). UNESCO. (2009). Policy guidelines on inclusion in education. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Unianu, E. (2012). Teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education. Social and behavioral sciences, 33. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com. Wassell, B., Kerrigan, M., & Hawrylak, M. F. (2018). Teacher educators in a changing Spain: Examining beliefs about diversity in teacher preparation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 69, 223–233. Zhilbayev, Z. & Syrymbetova, L. (n.d.). Empirical background preparation of teachers for inclusive education in the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Chapter 3

Preparedness of Teachers for Inclusive Education in a Private Supplementary Tutoring Center Zhanel Baidildina

Introduction This chapter concerns the preparedness of teachers for inclusive education in a private supplementary tutoring center in Astana, Kazakhstan. Since the implementation of inclusive education there has been a well-known problems adapting the education environment (the facilities) for the special educational needs students (SEN), and also a lack of professional teachers and teaching assistants who support Inclusive Education (IE) and are ready to implement inclusive teaching (Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, 2014). The purpose of this study was to identify the level of teachers’ preparedness for inclusive education in a private supplementary tutoring center in Kazakhstan. The readiness of teachers to practice inclusive education to accelerate the implementation of creating conditions for inclusive education in Kazakhstani schools cannot be overemphasized. It is important to understand the current issues and explore the strengths and weaknesses of not only government schools, but also supplementary tutoring centers in Kazakhstan in terms of working with children with special educational needs. The results of this study can be useful as they provide a snapshot of current practices in supplementary education centres in Kazakhstan. The study asked the following research question: In what ways and to what extent do core subject teachers working in private supplementary tutoring centers demonstrate a commitment to inclusive education practice?

Z. Baidildina (B) Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. M. Makoelle and M. Somerton (eds.), Inclusive Education in a Post-Soviet Context, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65543-3_3

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Literature Review Development of Inclusive Education in Western Contexts Special Education has been a subject of a constant debate and change over the last decades in different countries (Hodkinson, 2009). Countries such as England were among the first to address issues concerning inclusive education and have a rich history on reforming education systems, particularly in the area of special education and inclusive education. Training for teachers in the area of Special Education Needs (SEN) in England took its roots in 1870 when state educational provision for students with disabilities was established (Hodkinson, 2009). Though many legal attempts were decreed from that point, the current understanding about SEN teacher training appeared only after the Handicapped Children Act (Department for Education and Skills [DFES], 1970). According to this act the Department of Health transferred its responsibility for learners with severe disabilities to the Department of Education. While Initial Teacher Training programs (ITT) observed crucial changes, novice teachers considered themselves still not prepared to work with students with SEN. Among other recommendations made by the Report was that teachers should know how to identify indicators of SEN at an early stage, understand what special education was, and how segregated education functioned. In spite of these positive developments, the Report did not consider appropriate teacher engagement in the study of severe disabilities. The early 1990s witnessed the adoption of special criteria for students who were willing to receive Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) (Mittler, 1992). What is more, programs for hearing impairment and severe disability were excluded from most ITT programs (Jones, 2006). As a result, most SEN training were abolished from ITT and became a part of the continuing professional development courses. Subsequently universities began offering Masters Degrees in special education while ITT was only a preparation for future profession. Nonetheless, some undergraduate programs developed courses for students in order to help them to work with children with SEN in mainstream schools. That year (1990) Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Schools (HMI, 1990) conducted an investigation into the SEN element within ITT and concluded that future teachers were ill-prepared. Despite constructive feedback from HMI, traditional approaches were still being used in teaching. This period was a time of identification of the essence of SEN training and the way it needed to be conveyed. The year 1998 was one of a drastic reformation of ITT structure starting with the creation of the Teacher Training Agency (TTA) (Mahony & Hextall, 1997) and following with certain standards that teachers ought to meet in order to get qualified teacher status (QTS) (Golder, Norwich, & Bayliss, 2005). According to this new format, teachers needed to acquire a whole range of skills such as learners’ physical, intellectual, emotional and social development, and an understanding of disability. New requirements for QTS were introduced in the early 2000 and the government of England stated, “We will work with the Teacher Training Agency and higher

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education institutions to ensure that initial teacher training programs provide a good grounding in core skills and knowledge of SEN…” (DFES, 2004, p. 57). Statistics provided by Vickerman (2007, p. 396) indicate that almost 30% of higher education institutions (HEI) in England offered mandatory courses on SEN and only 42% of HEI offered elective courses, while half of the programs were only theory-based. In 2007 the Teacher Development Agency (TDA) created an inclusion road map (DFES, 2004). One of the projects in collaboration with HEI was threemodeled training on SEN. As a result of this project, another four-week program was initiated in 20 educational institutions which received largely positive feedback from the participants. Interestingly, these projects triggered further debate on ITT program. In the United States, the first steps toward inclusion were not considered very successful and generations of disabled Americans had to survive in poverty and illiteracy because of unequal opportunities (Duncan, 2015). Public education was not available for millions of students with physical impairments till the end of the twentieth century. Eventually, in 1975 the Federal Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) was introduced, and was to grant public education to SEN students free of charge. However, there was strong opposition as many American teachers didn’t appreciate the idea of the inclusion of students with disabilities, particularly those considered more severe than moderate (West, 2000). By 1990, with continued efforts and support from disability activist groups, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (Americans with Disabilities Act, 1990) was introduced. Later the name was changed to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, but the purpose was to create equal educational opportunities. According to Snyder, de Brey, and Dillow (2016), currently 90% of students with SEN are supported in regular public schools. The ADA made this possible for schools to become more inclusive despite numerous stereotypes and attitudes. However, one of the main challenges to IE is ensuring teachers have the necessary skills and knowledge and are equipped with effective inclusive pedagogical practices. Many American educators believe that each classroom is inclusive in terms of ability, gender, and students’ background and this should be valued. Boroson (2017) suggests Universal Design for Learning (UDL) for American teachers as one of the widely applied methods to ensure inclusive education. UDL implies lessons to be flexible in order to meet different needs and also engaging to encourage learning. UDL helps teachers to be better prepared for inclusive classrooms where children learn how they can and express themselves in the most convenient ways for them. UDL can be used in both school and private tutoring center settings.

Teacher Education in the Former Soviet Union Based on Marx’s ideology, collectivity was considered to be very crucial for society and was highly praised and practiced in all educational institutions (Marx & Engels, 1888/1964). Learners studied in similar groups for the duration of their study for

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school syllabus and extracurricular learning as well. As for higher education, universities had similar programs and assessment standards. Soviet education was a system that provided a broad knowledge on all subjects, and teachers and other educators were given a high status among the population. In addition, Soviet teachers’ responsibilities included not only academic instruction but also holistic upbringing of their students. Obviously, this approach developed a very strong sense of unity and solidarity among citizens. Teacher education took place in highly centralized pedagogical and state universities and teacher training colleges. Special education teacher preparation in the USSR was organized in the same standardized way throughout the country. Education of students with SEN was segregated from mainstream education and was controlled through a highly centralised system that muffled any individual initiative from educators. This centralised system determined everything from the number of SEN specialists to be trained, the admission process and study program. This system functioned in other Soviet Republics and Kazakhstan as well. Even after the collapse of the USSR, the system was maintained by newly independent Kazakhstan and remains a legacy today. This legacy is the reason for segregated special education in modern Kazakhstan.

Teachers’ Perceptions on Preparedness for IE When researchers from different contexts started investigating teacher training and initial teacher preparedness to teaching in inclusive classrooms, many disparities appeared. For example, Moran’s (2007) indicated that almost 50% of teachers did not feel prepared to work in an inclusive classroom. The studies conducted by Scruggs and Mastropieri (1996) and Waldron (2007) indicate that the vast majority of teachers feel that they lack the expertise to meet the needs of learners with special needs. Other studies revealed that teachers who were practicing inclusive education had felt that they were not sufficiently prepared to work with children requiring extra educational assistance and thus did not support the development of inclusive programs (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996, p. 63; Waldron, Mcleskey, & Redd, 2011, p. 24). Similarly, Makoelle (2014a) found that for many teachers it was a challenge to objectively and constructively reflect and analyze their current inclusive approaches and to change the way they taught before training and any other professional development initiatives. Findings of the research clearly show that teachers’ perceptions on IE have an impact on the way they feel prepared for IE. The participants’ responses to interview questions enable identifying the teachers’ perceptions on IE.

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Co-teaching Since many schools keep promoting co-teaching in their classrooms as a way to make the school environment more inclusive, a meta-synthesis of qualitative research in co-teaching in inclusive schools made by Scruggs and Mastropieri (2007) shows the benefits for teachers in inclusive classrooms. Typically, co-teaching in inclusive education includes one general education instructor and one special education instructor (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 2007). Special education instructors working with SEN students were most of the time those who just assisted or their roles and duties were not clearly identified which can often lead to misunderstanding between the teachers. It is believed that in order to make co-teaching work well, a certain criteria need to be followed. These criteria are teachers’ preparation, planning time, and sufficient special education expertise, various instructional methods, teacher training, and teachers’ flexibility as well as the curriculum. When these prerequisites were followed, most teachers who participated in the meta-synthesis replied they had gained a lot of professional benefit from co-teaching. Co-teachers also noted that their all students both with and without disabilities learned quite a lot from coteaching strategy as well. Teachers observed a better cooperation between students giving credit to co-teaching as a good example of social behavior for the students and extra attention for every child. Five out of six students in the Drietz (2003) provided positive feedback on having extra attention. At the same time there might be difficulties in co-taught classrooms if learners have very low academic and social skills. This situation took place in eleven cotaught classrooms which were examined by Thompson (2001, as cited in Scruggs & Mastropieri, 2007). Teachers reported that school administration obliged them to co-teach and include children with disabilities whose needs were not likely to be met in their mainstream schools. From this experience most teachers concluded that not all children benefit from being educated in an inclusive setting. Another concern that most teacher-participants expressed was a lack of administrative support. Teachers’ maintained that not only both teacher and co-teacher must be motivated and positively disposed towards co-teaching, but school administration as well by providing adequate support and resources to the teachers. Effective inclusive practices happen when both administration and teachers are willing to collaborate to help each other. For example, principals might be interested in preparing and training teachers for co-teaching beforehand in order to avoid conflicts and make the most out of the co-teaching approach.

Benefits of the Teacher Training According to Scruggs and Mastropieri (2007) systematic teacher training can help to enhance critical thinking, different types of teaching models for inclusive education, and last but not least, awareness among teachers about types and peculiarities of

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disabilities. Similarly, Makoelle’s (2014b) results of the action research demonstrated positive shifts in the teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education after post-action research and training. Such teachers’ reports as “I have learnt to listen and share opinions” and “I have understood that there might be alternatives” were quite frequent (Makoelle, 2014b). There have been many attempts to understand what images teachers have about successfully supporting diverse student needs and whether teachers are sufficiently prepared with the relevant vision and knowledge on inclusive education. This infers that pre-service and in-service teaching training on inclusive education is imperative for teachers. Many inclusive schools worldwide develop special training programs for teachers and employ a process of systems monitoring of their students’ academic achievement. One of the reasons why professional development programs are not very effective to address the needs of inclusive schools is that they are not intense enough and focused on individual teachers (Desimone, 2011, pp. 68–71). Moreover, Desimone (2011) found out that to a greater extent schools develop their own professional development programs which take many forms (pp. 68–71). The Teacher Training Agency (TTA) in England claimed that the curriculum for pre-service teachers did not include practical challenges of inclusion (Mahony & Hextall, 1997). This problem still exists in many contexts. Overall, international literature reports on the poor preparation of teachers for inclusive practices and the lack of empirical research on effective inclusive pedagogical models. They include recommendations that before introducing inclusion in the educational institutions, teachers need professional development training in working with children with different levels of disabilities, techniques for designing and adapting curriculum, and strategies for dealing with other challenging situations (Mahony & Hextall, 1997). Teacher professional development is one of the key factors to make inclusive classrooms effective.

Competence Framework of Inclusive Teachers Leithwood and Sun (2012) believe that a commitment to core values motivates teachers and school administrators to be engaged in the challenging process of school change (Leithwood & Sun, 2012, p. 387). In particular, it is principals who should instill values related to inclusion in the whole school community as these will become part of their school vision. In a case study of effective inclusive schools (Hehir & Katzmann, 2012); findings showed that vision did not work from the bottom-up. Instead, core values were initiated by principals who “were clear about their schools’ fundamental mission…to them inclusion was a non- negotiable grounded in civil rights” (Hehir & Katzmann, 2012, p. 33). Lists of must-have competences which inclusive teachers need to acquire were compiled by “The Teacher Education for Inclusion (TE4I)” (Watkins & Donnelly, 2012). Special teacher trainers and policy makers from 25 European countries took part in identifying the Competence Framework for Inclusive Teachers.

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Private Supplementary Tutoring While reviewing the literature, it was discovered that supplementary tutoring is very popular in different countries. For example, figures for students attending private centers were more than 60%, 80%, and 85% in Japan, Korea, and Bangladesh respectively (Bray & Lykins, 2012, p. 4). Silova (2009) estimates that the number of Kazakhstani students using private supplementary tutoring is around 64.8%. Based on students’ purposes, private supplementary tutoring can be divided into four types: one-to-one tutoring, small group tutoring, large group tutoring, internet tutoring (Bray & Kwo, 2014). One-to-one tutoring implies that the teacher works with one student and this typically means that the cost of the private tutoring is higher than for other types. Both small and large group tutoring enables students to communicate with each other and the tutor as well. Face-to-face communication builds a ground for understanding of the students’ needs and providing assistance instantly. Often, internet tutoring is a way to provide learning support for students and tutorials come in different formats such as video lessons. This type of tutoring is becoming very popular in Asian countries. All four types of tutoring can be found in Kazakhstan as well. Silova (2009) identified two main widespread types of tutoring in the region of Central Asia (Silova 2009, p. 70). They are private tutoring lessons which are more popular among the population than preparatory courses. Many school teachers give individual lessons out of school. This is called private tutoring lessons. By contrast, preparatory courses are organized for large groups of students and are generally held in private schools or centers. Worldwide, a considerable amount of money is spent on children’s tutoring. According to Dawson (2010), US$12 billion were spent by Japanese parents in 2010. The leader among all countries in investing in supplementary education is South Korea with its US$24 billion (as cited in Muraviyova, 2010). As for Kazakhstan, the figure on tutoring expenditure is not as high as in the previously mentioned countries However, Silova (2009) suggests that US$20 million were spent on supplementary education in Kazakhstan, and the figure could be even higher. The education system of Kazakhstan has been witnessing a range of reforms over the last decade which makes studying challenging even for healthy and wealthy students, let alone students with special educational needs and other social, cultural, and financial barriers. Trilingual education policy, for instance, causes additional challenges for many students. Expectations from the school administration, parents, and students themselves are always high, however, a low quality instruction, a lack of necessary resources and technologies, overload, misunderstanding or even bullying at school, and absence of inclusive education (especially in rural areas) make students and parents refer to private supplementary tutoring in order to receive a decent education and treatment. Especially, high school students feel the necessity to receive supplementary tutoring due to upcoming final exams at schools and the need to be accepted to higher education institutions afterwards. Local and international literature has also helped to identify which academic subjects are popular among students in private centers. Certainly, the choice of

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subjects is directly explained by the children’s and parents’ purposes and ambitions. Needless to say, English language is in the greatest demand in all countries due to its international status as the language of instruction. Mathematics, physics, foreign languages are also largely selected since they are somehow connected to local and international exams (Silova, 2009, p. 73). For instance, in Kazakhstan students prepare intensively for mathematics, physics, and chemistry, history of Kazakhstan, Kazakh, Russian Languages, and Foreign Languages. From the literature, it is clearly seen that the main reason that triggers students to opt for supplementary education is an academic factor. Children with different backgrounds and abilities attend private centers in order to succeed academically in exams. However, to what extent teachers in private tutoring centers cope with meeting the students’ diverse needs depends on the teachers’ preparedness for inclusive education.

Methodology Research Design A qualitative research design was chosen to conduct this study. The primary reason for choosing this approach was that an interview-based research design enabled the researcher to hear the participants’ voice, observe their emotional state, reactions, mime, and gestures that in turns lead to a better understanding of the teachers’ answers (Creswell, 2012). Listening directly to the participants’ responses, their thoughts and opinions and being confident in their transparency and sincerity increased the quality of the data. Since the central phenomenon of the current research was the preparedness of teachers for inclusive education, trustworthy data demonstrated the authentic results of the preparedness of those teachers who work in a supplementary education centre. The researcher conducted interviews with teachers who provided detailed information on their experiences, thoughts, beliefs and attitudes towards inclusive education. For example, Wellington and Szczerbinski (2007) consider interviews to be very helpful in obtaining some crucial details while other methods can give mostly superficial information. In addition to semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions, reflective journals for the participants were employed as another tool to gain an understanding on the teachers’ preparedness for IE. The decision of teachers to keep reflective journals for the research was also voluntary. Two weeks’ time was provided for teachers’ self-observation and reflection on their lessons. Four questions provided in the journals enabled the participants to reflect upon their inclusive practices.

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Research Site The research site was purposefully selected. The research site was chosen based on the criteria that the centre had a rich resource base (teaching material, equipment), a considerable number of students and an experienced staff. The main rationale for purposely choosing this selective private supplementary tutoring center in Nursultan was the centre’s twelve experienced teachers, rich teaching material, and study equipment attract a diversity of students and offer the students quality preparation for the local and international examinations such as entrance exams for Bilim Innovation lyceums, Nazarbayev Intellectual schools, Nazarbayev University, and universities abroad. The student cohort is diverse in gender, socio-economic background, rural and urban residency, and has different needs and abilities.

Participants The director of the tutoring center was informed in advance about the research in order to receive permission to engage his employees in the study. Five teachers from a total of twelve teachers currently employed at the centre took part in the study. Creswell (2012) claims that in purposeful sampling “Researchers intentionally select individuals and sites to learn or understand the central phenomenon” (p. 206). To this regard, it becomes significant to choose the participants according to certain criteria. That is why maximum variation sampling is relevant in the context of this study, as it allows “researchers to explore the common and unique manifestations of a target phenomenon across a broad range of phenomenally and/or demographically varied cases” (Sandelowski, 2000, p. 338). The inclusionary criteria for participation were: 1. Teachers had at least 1 year of teaching experience in total; 2. Teachers needed to have at least 1 month of working in a selective private supplementary tutoring centre. Additional information such as diversity in ‘gender’ and ‘education level was beneficial to explore the issue from different perspectives. The researcher selected participants who best suited the principal of the maximum variation sampling that allows “researchers to explore the common and unique manifestations of a target phenomenon across a broad range of phenomenally and/or demographically varied cases” (Sandelowski, 2000, p. 338). These consisted of male and female teachers of various ages, mother tongue, teaching experience, and different education degrees (Bachelor, Masters)… The participants taught such subjects as English, Math, Logics, and History for students of different grades (5–11). The languages of instruction were Kazakh, Russian and English. The participants’ age ranged from 25 years old up to 36 years old. Four female and one male teacher took part in the study. Only one ethnic group was represented (Kazakh). Two teachers with Master’s degrees and three teachers with a Bachelor degree were involved in the study.

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Instruments Five Interviews were conducted individually at a time and place convenient to the participants and all questions were semi-structured and open-ended. All questions focused on how the participants felt about their preparedness to teach inclusively. The reflective journals were provided after the interviews for the second stage of the data collection. The reflective journals enabled the researcher to gain a deeper insight into the participants’ thoughts. Reflective journals were used to understand teachers’ actual practices as the journals opportunity to think on a particular situation that required them to be inclusive by answering the framework questions in the journal. As with the interviews, the decision to keep a reflective journal was made voluntarily by the teachers. The journals consisted of the words of gratitude to the participants, definition of the reflection and a table with four questions in every page of the journal. The questions were concerning the topic of the teachers’ proficiency and skills since the major research question was to identify the teachers’ preparedness for inclusive education and teachers’ proficiency and skills can indicate this preparedness (Did you manage to give an effective lesson for every student today? How? What discipline, academic or assessment problems did you face today? Describe situations when students required an individual approach. What did you do to solve this problem? Why?). In spite of the understanding of the benefits of reflection and willingness to practice it three teachers could not participate due to their tough work schedule.

Data Collection Procedures The director of the selected private supplementary tutoring center who was a gatekeeper to the tutoring center in Nur-sultan was approached in advance about the research in order for the researcher to receive permission to engage his employees in the study. Participants were then contacted by email, telephone, or personal meetings and provided with information about the aim and purpose of the research and provided with an informed consent form that detailed the voluntary nature of participation, confidentiality, and their rights as research participants. Each participant was asked for permission to record their answers before the interview began. To ensure confidentiality, their names were assigned to pseudonyms. The time taken for each interview was no more than 1 h. The recordings were deleted after transcribing the interviews. During the analysis process only, the researcher had access to the data. The participants were advised that they were not required to answer any questions that made them feel uncomfortable. After completion of the interview the participants were advised that they will receive the results of the research once the analysis is completed.

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Data Analysis After the interviews were completed the audio files and written transcriptions were stored on the password-protected personal computer of the researcher. Except for the researcher, nobody had access to the collected data. The following steps describe the analysis process using a six step analysis process (Creswell, 2012). Each interview transcript was translated from Kazakh into English for coding purposes. During coding the researcher highlighted codes which related to emergent themes and ideas. These were written up into a table and then reviewed and revised to ensure a reasonable ‘fit’. There were several codes to each category or theme and these were aligned to answer the research questions.

Findings The interviews and reflective journals included questions answering the main and four sub-questions. The first section addresses the first sub-question and reveals the teachers’ awareness and attitudes towards inclusive education; the second section addresses the second sub-question and reveals teachers’ inclusive practices, particularly, how they achieve that all their learners are included; the third section addresses the third sub-question and reveals how teachers collaborate with parents, colleagues and other educators in terms of inclusive education; the fourth section addresses the fourth sub-question and reveals how teachers are engaged in the professional development in order to learn and practice inclusive education practices. All participants’ names have been changed and replaced with pseudonyms.

Teachers’ Awareness and Attitudes Towards Inclusive Education After analysis the following themes emerged: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Complete unawareness of IE. Partial understanding about IE. Positive attitude toward IE. Negative attitude toward IE.

Awareness of Inclusive Education Responses to the question showed that three out of five teachers were not aware of IE. The remaining two teachers explained their understanding of IE. For example, Math teacher, Maryam with eight years of teaching experience reported

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Two teachers indicated that they had no idea what IE was before the interview. It is worthwhile to note that after the researcher explained and talked with the participants, each teacher shared that they were worried about the issue and how they have wanted to become more inclusive teachers. Another participant stated that “IE could be a new innovative teaching technology concerning students’ assessment” (Marzhan, English teacher, 12 years of teaching experience). Marzhan thinks that 1–5 scale grading does not appropriately evaluate students’ abilities and that there should be another way of assessing at schools. Also, this teacher shared her experience about reading a journal where she came across an article about IE in Europe but could not understand the main idea at that time. Alina, who has worked as a history teacher for 7 years, describes IE in the following way: This is a new methodology that uses smart technologies…I think everything is included. I mean this approach is aimed not only at academic development of the child but also at socio-educational development.

Alina suggested that students’ social development was a main characteristic of IE. This statement can be true to IE when inclusive approaches shape social models. However, Alina was not confident about her opinion. These two teachers admitted they had some assumptions about IE before the interview but were a bit confused. During the interviews, participants were informed that IE in Kazakhstani context is an educational policy according to which children of different ages, gender, nationality, religion, socio-economic status, physical and mental development have an access to quality education (Inclusive Education: The way of the Future, Third workshop of the IBE Community of Practice, Commonwealth of Independent States, Minsk, 29–31 October 2007) (UNESCO IBE, 2007).

Attitude Towards Inclusive Education The teachers’ responses to the questions related to their attitudes towards Inclusive Education indicated that four out of five teachers were strongly supporting inclusive practices and even expressed their willingness to work with children with special educational needs (SEN) in the future. Their positive replies to questions “Do you think that children with SEN should be educated in the mainstream schools?” and “Should private educational centers accept children with extra needs?” were supported by their own vision that absolutely all children regardless of their background and problems have equal rights to be educated in best schools and receive quality support. For instance, history teacher Alina replied, “Why not? They are people like any other. On the contrary, if we put them into special schools, they will lose motivation and have low self -esteem”. She also shared a story of her group mate in a wheelchair, who she graduated with during her study at university. “There were

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no elevators, but there were his friends who were always next to him and helping to move around the university. I liked it very much”, added the teacher. There was another story of a SEN student in the regular school told by an English teacher Marzhan with twelve years of teaching experience. She shared how she taught a primary school student with physical impairment and what problems she faced: Sometimes this child was bullied by other aggressive students. I always was scared that they could hurt him in some way. Of course, I had personal conversations with the students and their parents, but still he was vulnerable. Eventually, he dropped out of school.

This teacher strongly believes that SEN students should and can study in the mainstream environment if the conditions and atmosphere in the school are appropriate. Two more teachers said that they fully support IE principles and feel ready to work in such an environment since every classroom is very diverse and they already faced situations when inclusive approaches were needed. Although the attitudes of teachers were mostly positive, math and logic teacher Marat said that it might be somehow problematic to include children with different needs in one classroom and that this approach does not always work. However, he shared in the interview that he has different students and always tries to meet everyone’s needs and interests individually, though has not worked directly with SEN students before. Before answering the question about the attitude towards IE in the private supplementary tutoring center, Marat was thinking for a while but eventually decided that IE is not feasible in the private supplementary tutoring context. The teacher responded that it can be too challenging for tutors to practice IE in the center due to its limited educational opportunities in the centre. It was apparent that more experienced teachers held more positive attitudes towards IE practices while less experienced teachers were quite pessimistic about IE. In summary it can be deduced that the majority of the participants considered IE as one of the must-do and, effective and humane methods that brings a load of benefits to their students. The teachers’ deficiency of certain knowledge and skills needed for IE did not indicate that they are against IE practices.

Teachers’ Practices and Challenges This section illustrates the kind of inclusive practices the teachers use in their classes in order to have an effective lesson for every student. The participants shared the strategies that help them to teach students with different backgrounds, abilities, and characters. Teachers were asked the following questions: • How do you usually achieve effective teaching in your lessons? • Were there any issues in class you had to address in terms of behavior, understanding of content, assessment? • How do you identify the students who need a special approach? • How diverse is your classroom?

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• What kind of problems do you face while working with the children with extra educational needs? • What methods and approaches do you use to address their needs? • Do you think you are morally ready to teach in an inclusive classroom? • Describe the level of your professional readiness for this work? • Describe your relevant professional knowledge and skills that can be helpful to work in an inclusive classroom? According to the interviews’ responses and reflective journals entries related to the teachers’ inclusive practices, it was found out that teachers face two major challenges: (1) Disciplinary issues; (2) Academic issues.

Disciplinary Issues Most teachers explained that the biggest challenge for them in the classroom was discipline. The participants explained that there were problems in students’ discipline, behavior, and interpersonal communication and, as a consequence felt obliged to tackle the problem at whatever stake. Although teachers could not provide many examples of their problems, they claimed that whenever they see a student’s problem, they first, talk it out with the student, and only then discuss with other members of the center and family. Maryam’s words are an example: First challenge is that some of them are good at math, some are not. Math teachers always need to be inclusive since math is not for everyone. We need to keep motivating and finding individual approaches to make students work hard. Secondly, dealing with some students’ misbehavior makes me worried.

Teacher Marzhan felt it was necessary to create a peaceful and friendly atmosphere at the beginning of the lesson in order to make all students focused on the lesson. This demonstrates how Marzhan is interested in the students’ achievement. Another example: “There were some noisy students. I had to stop the lesson and spend threefour minutes on calming students down and explaining how discipline is important in our class” (Maryam). The third and the fourth questions in the journals were about children with extra needs. Teachers needed to describe the case and write and explain what steps they took in order to help the child. Maryam shared the following situation: Last year, there was a student with a lisp disorder and some of his group mates would laugh at him. It took some time for this horrible scene to be finished after my constant personal conversations with the students. I would explain to them that we need to respect and love our groupmate and appreciate his personal qualities, not physical features. I always gave him an opportunity to talk and express himself during the lesson by providing the right conditions for that in order to raise his self-esteem.

This is an example of a teacher trying to create an inclusive education environment. These examples support the notion that teachers find discipline issues challenging and make their best efforts to abolish inappropriate behavior in the class.

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Academic Issues All participants shared the experiences of having academic issues when it comes to meeting learners’ extra needs because of the specific learning disabilities or drawbacks of the learning environment. This is evident from Marzhan’s response to the aforementioned question who was the most experienced teacher among the participants: I think I am quite strict in teaching. I like when there is a perfect discipline in the class. Though, all students are different and their needs and abilities can vary. To this regard, I use different methods and strategies in order to meet visual, audial, and kinesthetic learners’ needs. I keep improving my methods.

Aknur who is a math teacher expressed her thoughts in the following way: I don’t think it is a problem for me to work with students with extra needs. If I have such students, I use an individual approach to help them. When necessary, I talk to the particular student, look for information on the internet, academic books, or ask my colleagues. I try to do everything to help my students.

The next participant, Marat gave a quite similar answer: When I notice that some students require extra attention, time or different explanations, I work with them individually by providing extra exercises. If it doesn’t help, I turn to parents in order to find a solution. I haven’t had SEN students so far.

For instance, Maryam shared how she understood that the lesson was effective: After finishing explaining a new topic, at the end of the lesson, I started asking questions on the topic individually so that I could understand where my students stand. That helps me to find an individual approach for the students for the next lesson.

Apparently, Maryam used reflection often because she also wrote that she asked the students to solve math on the board one by one. Maryam is a math teacher and she used the best methods appropriate for math. Reflection plays a crucial role in making lessons effective. In order to help a boy who did not understand Kazakh language properly, Maryam tried to explain everything to him in Russian and then invited him to the extra lesson to let him express his thoughts freely in his language. Another example of diverse teaching practices was provided by Marzhan: After extra explanation I asked the student to explain the task to another child. Peer learning is beneficial. I use it to promote my students’ confidence. If used properly, absolutely every student can be a high achiever in the class.

Marzhan described a situation in her reflective journal that most teachers might be familiar with: Single parent’s families can badly influence the children’s full and multifaceted development. I constantly try to motivate students from such families by praising, giving advice, talking about family values, reminding how they are loved and needed by their families, relatives and acting as a good example myself for them.

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This example shows the teacher is trying to motivate students to achieve regardless of their background. Among common methods which our participants used in order to provide effective lesson instruction, constructive assessment and meeting students’ individual needs were group work, pair work, peer assessment, individually designed approaches, and collaboration with parents. It appeared that all five teachers practiced individual approaches for students who are in need. Individual approach includes working together after the lessons, providing extra assignments, having personal conversations both with students and parents. “When I see struggling students who obviously need my help, I explain the topic at their pace and style at the same time as engaging the rest of the class. Sometimes, I make my students help each other”, replied Alina, a History teacher. The responses indicate that teachers have both academic and discipline issues depending on the students’ background, abilities and interests. Despite such obstacles, the teachers make their best efforts to find a solution to the challenges and provide effective lessons for every student. The teachers also shared the situations with students with extra needs and described their feelings and actions they considered were relevant. Though teachers regularly faced situations requiring inclusive practices and lacked the knowledge or expertise on IE, they were always ready to search for relevant information to implement in their lessons. Reflective journals helped a lot to identify and analyze the second research subquestion, teachers’ inclusive practices since the teachers had an opportunity to think on a particular situation that required them to be inclusive by answering the questions in the journal. In addition, the teachers worked with different groups and that means they were analyzing various situations in their classrooms and using them compatible with their students’ inclusive methods.

Teachers’ Collaboration with Parents and Colleagues Participants were asked “Describe your collaboration with colleagues, parents, and other educational experts.” All five participants confirmed that they tried to build reliable relationships with parents and always welcomed both parents’ involvement in the study process and their personal interference if needed to solve children’s problems. When asked what kind of personal interference the teachers used, the teachers responded by asking some relevant personal questions from the students that might shed a light on the reasons of the problem being discussed. The teachers indicated that they were open to the parents’ recommendations which helped them to improve their teaching practices. Math teacher, Aknur shared: I teach 5th and 6th graders. Students of this age are very active and inattentive. Of course, I have children struggling with Math. When I have students facing problems, I inform parents and we together make a plan. Sometimes, interested parents often visit me and ask about the child’s achievements. They can give necessary hints. Also, when my own attempts are not helpful; I turn to parents to discuss them.

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The same open approach was seen with colleagues as well. When teachers of different subjects had one student to teach, they would share their thoughts and ideas and find best solutions together. For instance, Maryam reported: “One student’s results in English test are very poor. He never accomplishes home assignments. I constantly communicate with his parents and my colleagues who teach him as well”

Teachers’ Professional Development The researcher included a question about lifelong learning as numerous professional development programs (PDP) training, seminars, workshops are an integral part of the teacher profession and one of the crucial factors leading to the harmonious professional personality. Through professional development programs and training teachers keep learning, developing new competences and thus, growing professionally as a teacher since necessary specific knowledge and skills are learnt. The researcher also included a question to understand if teachers working in the supplementary education centers have opportunity to develop their skills in the courses provided by the institution or they have to do that by themselves: “Are there any opportunities provided by your center to participate in professional development programs and master specific skills needed for working in inclusive classrooms?” It appeared that training, seminars; workshops to instill new values necessary skills and relevant knowledge are not constantly organized for the teachers of the research site. In this case, for example, teachers need to take courses on IE to improve their methodology but they don’t have such opportunities. As all five participants responded negatively to this question it indicates that teachers working in the private educational centre do not have an opportunity to take part in free and organised professional development courses and thus deepen their knowledge on certain pedagogic topics, particularly on IE and enhance their skills. However, as it was mentioned in the previous section on the teachers’ inclusive practices, the participants pay attention to their self-education. Lack of knowledge and of certain skills needed for IE, teachers tried to eliminate it by searching the information, reviewing relevant literature, and collaborating with the colleagues and parents. Self-education is significant for teachers’ professional development and it is a decent indicator of teachers’ qualification.

Discussion The results of the interviews highlight that on the whole, participants were unaware about IE, its essence, values, goals and consequences. While three teachers shared that they had no idea what IE was, other two teachers confused it with the new innovative educational technologies and new assessment approach. This indicates that inclusive culture, inclusive philosophy and ideology are not well developed across some educational institutions in Kazakhstan. As the researcher described

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in the literature review section, Moran’s (2007) study revealed that a half of the participating teachers did not know how to work in the inclusive environment due to their lack of awareness of IE practices and insufficient understanding and knowledge. The studies conducted by Scruggs and Mastropieri (1996) and Waldron (2007) also indicate that the vast majority of teachers felt that they could not meet the needs of learners with special needs (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996, pp. 59–74; Waldron, 2007, pp. 161–187). Bearing in mind that all the participants of the study had at least five years of teaching experience and some completed a master degree in Education, this is a low indicator for the country that has a priority to developing an inclusive education system. Previous studies show that no or low awareness of IE leads to teachers feeling unprepared for inclusive practices. In turn, it can negatively influence the quality of the learning process and students’ academic results. Taking into consideration that promoting awareness about IE among both educators and non-educators is a prerequisite for a successful implementation of the reforms related to IE. Thus, this field is an area to work on for the Ministry of Education and Science and all educational experts. Two major types of teachers’ preparedness for inclusive education in a private supplementary tutoring center were identified: (1) Teachers who have had special needs students support inclusive education practices; (2) Teachers who have not had special needs students do not support inclusive education practices. Teachers who have taught special needs students support inclusive education practices. The study revealed that those teachers who have already had students requiring an inclusive approach or faced some problems related to this issue, have positive attitudes towards IE in general and tries to make their lessons inclusive. The analysis of the participants’ inclusive practices showed that teachers not only say about supporting IE, but in fact demonstrated their positive attitude through their diverse teaching methods. The age of the teachers themselves and students’ age, years of teaching experience, special teaching training on IE, a lack of other professional development courses, education degree, the major, language of instruction and teachers’ professional skills were not the main factors that influenced teachers’ positive attitudes towards IE. All the participants who supported IE had different aforementioned criteria with some similarities at some points. The only thing four teachers had in common was that all of them have already seen and had special needs students in their classes. This tendency can be justified by the fact that those teachers who had to teach SEN students in their classes have gone through the process of identifying indicators of SEN (themselves or with the help of assistants), learning what kind of teaching it required (thanks to self-education, collaboration) and what possible modifications were needed (teaching experience, collaboration). According to the Warnock Report (1978) in England, teachers who are experienced in working with SEN students are more aware of the home-school relationship and how students’ different background and life circumstances might bring problems in schools. Such teachers also become more informed about students’ physical, mental and emotional development. As a result, such valuable knowledge and skills enable an optimistic attitude for IE, higher self-esteem and effective inclusive practices for teachers.

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However, we should not forget that the teacher, who was not positive about IE, was using inclusive approaches (individualized instruction and collaboration with parents, colleagues). This suggests that the teacher recognizes the need for inclusive approaches but cannot fully perceive the benefits of IE since the teacher doubted its feasibility. Here it is worthy to note that all the participants were informed that IE is not only about disabled students. The interviews with the teachers revealed that those teachers who have not yet met students with physical impairments in their classes were against including them into mainstream classrooms. Though, they explained that IE is not only about disabilities but also about any kind of diversity, difference that might need some adaptation and modification of the curriculum and methods on behalf of the teacher. It means that unless teachers face the problem themselves, they don’t acknowledge and fully recognize it. One teacher was against IE in the mainstream environment. However, when he described his teaching practice, the researcher noticed that his teaching approaches resonate with inclusive approaches. He is a young male teacher, who had been teaching for five years and received a Master’s degree. This situation supports the idea that the researcher mentioned in the section above that teachers’ background did not play a crucial role in making teachers support inclusive practices. It was working in a diverse environment among students with different backgrounds and needs that woke the positive attitude towards IE and understanding the essence and benefits of IE. The data indicated that teachers’ background did not play a crucial role in making teachers support inclusive practices. Even awareness about IE, inclusive values and benefits is not a leading factor to make teachers decide to be inclusive because all the participants did not have a clear understanding about IE at the beginning of the research and even after the explanation and discussion, some teachers did not change their beliefs. It was also evident from the interview recordings and reflective journal entries that all teachers who were positive about IE strongly believed they were ready to work in the inclusive classrooms and considered their professional skills adequate and qualified enough to implement inclusive practices. When explaining why they thought so, the teachers responded that in order to work in the inclusive classroom, one does not necessarily need to have professional skills or special teacher training but rather have feelings that might lead to the desire to help, develop, search information, collaborate with colleagues, school and parents. Leithwood and Sun (2012) stated that commitment to values is the main motivator for teachers and administrators (Leithwood & Sun, 2012, p. 387). Commitment to inclusive values by teachers and principals triggers an inclusive environment. Four teachers did not take any teaching training on IE and think that it’s every teacher’s responsibility to develop and search rather than wait and make excuses that they are not ready to work in such settings. Though we know from Makoelle’s (2014a) study that many teachers responded that regular teacher training enables improvement of the teaching methods, particular if it concerns inclusive education. The study provided good examples how teachers gained positive changes in the attitudes towards inclusive education after training. Thus, our participants can make their teaching strategies even more effective if they take part in the teacher professional development courses on inclusive education. In summary, participants’ experience indicates that their weak awareness

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about inclusive education practices and no preliminary training were not obstacles to provide an effective lesson for every student in their class. Their sincere commitment to quality teaching for every child was the biggest facilitator to improve their teaching methods. Taking into account teachers’ lack of awareness about IE practices, it can be difficult to provide quality professional teaching based on international best standards due to the absence of the special training. The participants in this study shared their methods of effective lessons, what challenges they face, how they identify students who require individual approaches, and strategies they use in order to find solutions in their interviews and reflective journals. The section on Findings describes the teachers’ inclusive practices in detail that are mostly used unconsciously by the teachers. Teachers who participated in the current study considered an individual approach to be the best strategy. To this end, their lesson plans, particular tasks and attitudes towards a certain student were individualized. Even though the participants estimated their efforts to be effective, there is a question about the quality of the inclusive practices they provided. Special professional programs are great means to enhance both teachers’ professional skills in general and in IE, and ease their moral preparedness as well.

Conclusion Finally, it was found that even as teachers were unaware of inclusive education practices, surprisingly, they were willing to learn and implement them in their classes as almost all participating teachers, four out of five implemented practices in classes with children requiring inclusive approaches. Thanks to the interviews and reflective journals, it became obvious that at times teachers needed to handle cases with orphans, physically impaired students, and other children who demanded inclusive teaching. Bearing in mind that every teacher has such diverse classes, preparing teachers for inclusive education appears to be a major priority. Organizing regular special teacher training, seminars, and other professional development courses on IE at workplaces would be a great assistance for teachers. Morally and professionally prepared teachers are likely to use inclusive approaches easier and more effectively. Overall, no preliminary training is not an obstacle to ensure best inclusive strategies in the class. The study revealed that teachers’ sincere commitment to inclusive values is crucial in the development of inclusive education.

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Moran, A. (2007). Embracing inclusive teacher education. European Journal of Teacher Education, 30(2), 119–134. Muraviyova, E. B. (2010). Pegionalny klactep: integpaci vyza c xozctvywimi cybektami. Poccickoe ppedppinimatelctvo [Regional cluster: University integration with business entities. Russian entrepreneurship]. (12-1). Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education. (2014). Development of Strategic Directions for Education Reforms in Kazakhstan for 2015–2020, Diagnostic report. Retrieved from http://gse.nu.edu.kz/gse/MAIN/Research_Institute/Publications/Executive%20summary% 20(09feb15).pdf. Sandelowski, M. (2000). Focus on research methods: Whatever happened to qualitative description? Research in Nursing & Health, 23, 334–340. Scruggs, T., & Mastropieri, M. (1996). Teacher perceptions of mainstreaming/inclusion, 1958-1995: A research synthesis. Exceptional Children, 63, 59–74. Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (2007). Co-teaching in inclusive classrooms: A metasynthesis of qualitative research. Council for Exceptional Children, 7(4), 392–416. Silova, I. (2009). Varieties of educational transformation: The post-socialist states of Central/Southeastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. In International handbook of comparative education (pp. 295–320). Dordrecht: Springer. Silova, I., Bray, M., & Budiene, V. (Eds.). (2006). Education in a hidden marketplace: Monitoring of private tutoring. New York: Open Society Institute. Snyder, T. D., de Brey, C., & Dillow, S. A. (2016). Digest of education statistics 2014 (NCES 2016006). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. The Warnock Report. (1978). Report of the committee of enquiry into the education of handicapped children and young people. Retrieved from http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/war nock/warnock1978.html. UNESCO. (2007). Kazakhstan inclusive education: The way of the future. Third Workshop of the IBE Community of Practice, Commonwealth of Independent States, 29–31 October, Minsk: Author. Vickerman, P. (2007). Training physical education teachers to include children with special educational needs: Perspectives from physical education initial teacher training providers. European Physical Education Review, 13(3), 385–407. Waldron, N. (2007). Teacher attitudes toward inclusion. In J. Mcleskey (Ed.), Reflections on inclusion: Classic articles that shaped our thinking (pp. 161–187). Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children. Waldron, N. L., McLeskey, J., & Redd, L. (2011). Setting the direction: The role of the principal in developing an effective, inclusive school. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 24(2), 51–60. Watkins, A., & Donnelly, V. (2012). Core values as the basis for teacher education for inclusion. Global Education Review, 1(1), 76–92. Wellington, J., & Szczerbinski, M. (2007). Research methods for the social sciences. London, UK: A&C Black. West, J. (2000). Back to school on civil rights: Advancing the federal commitment to leave no child behind. Washington, DC: National Council on Disability.

Part III

Inclusive Pedagogy and Teaching Methodologies

Chapter 4

Differentiated Instruction, Perceptions and Practices Ainur Aliyeva

Introduction In a time of shifting paradigms from teacher-centered approaches toward more student-centered approaches, differentiated instruction has become one of the leading pedagogical strategies to address individual learning needs. As defined by Levine (2002), differentiated instruction is a student-centered approach that places individual learning needs and interests in the forefront of consideration so that teachers can adapt their teaching styles to accommodate a diversity of learners (cited in Stanford & Reeves, 2009). Differentiated instruction is underpinned by an understanding of the concept of inclusive education and its goals. As asserted by Lawrence-Brown (2004), differentiated instruction helps to achieve the goals of inclusive education (as cited in Huebner, 2010). It is evident that differentiated instruction serves the goals of inclusive education, as both rest upon the principles of equity and social justice in education (Makoelle, 2016). In the context of Kazakhstan, differentiated instruction practices might be impeded by lack of conceptual understanding of the principles of inclusive education. According to the Law on Education in Kazakhstan (Kazakhstan, 2007), a diversity of learning needs is recognized through only ten categories, including students with disabilities, orphans and socio-economically disadvantaged students. However, the prescribed list is too narrow to define the concept of inclusive education, as it excludes some vulnerable groups of students from the list, despite the statement on equal access to education for all citizens (Makoelle, 2020). The purpose of the study was to explore the perceptions and practices of differentiated instruction of teachers who are also in the position of subject coordinators in a school for gifted students in Kazakhstan. The study was guided by the following research question (s): A. Aliyeva (B) Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. M. Makoelle and M. Somerton (eds.), Inclusive Education in a Post-Soviet Context, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65543-3_4

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1. How do teachers who are also in the position of subject coordinators of Language Arts, Science, and Social Studies in a school for gifted students in Kazakhstan understand the concept of differentiation instruction? 2. How does the understanding of differentiated instruction shape their teaching practices to ensure meaningful participation and academic achievement of all students in the classroom?

Literature Review Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks of Differentiated Instruction Differentiated instruction has taken its fundamental basis from the socio-cultural theory developed by Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist and a founder of socio-cultural theory in education (Subban, 2006). Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory highlights the importance of the social environment and interaction with peers in the process of learning and development. This development is made possible when learners’ diverse backgrounds are recognized and fostered in the classroom. Flem, Moen, and Gudmundsdottir (2004) discussed the relevance of socio-cultural theory to inclusive practices as it helps to deepen understanding and address learners’ socially and culturally diverse backgrounds. Indeed, each individual learner represents a variety of social and cultural characteristics, such as culture, ethnicity, gender and race, which are brought into the classroom and shared with others. These backgrounds are fostered by a nurturing environment and when communicated to peers they enrich the process of classroom socialization and learning as well (Flem et al., 2004). According to the socio-cultural theory of learning, the multiple backgrounds of learners are important factors to consider in the classroom where learners learn through interactions, respect and collaboration (Subban, 2006). Thus, socialization, which is realized by inclusive education, best serves the development of children and their improved communication skills, as well as promoting acceptance and respect for diversity beyond school communities. According to Tomlinson’s (2000) definition, differentiated instruction is grounded in the teaching philosophy and attitudes that define teaching choices on differentiating or not. As Tomlinson explains, differentiated instruction does not provide any teaching guidance to teachers; rather, it is firmly embedded in the beliefs teachers hold when teaching in their classrooms. Those beliefs, according to Tomlinson (2000) stem from the understanding of teachers that learning should be built on learners’ prior knowledge and experience and take advantage of students’ varied strengths and inclinations. At this very point, differentiated instruction has an immediate relation to the principles of inclusive education, as both draw upon the individual characteristics and differences of learners. This definition mirrors one by Hale et al. (2016), who assert that differentiated instruction serves the principles of inclusive education

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in this era of highly accountable curricular and assessment standards. This perspective resonates with the views of Tomlinson and McTighe (2006), who affirmed that differentiated instruction is compatible with rigorous assessment standards because it is still possible to maintain the same accountable results when differentiating and thus to promote learning to meet those standards. As teachers promote differentiation in their classrooms, they need to know that according to Tomlinson (2000), differentiated instruction implies adaptations of content, process, and product (cited in Corley, 2005). Content is referred to as subjectmatter guided by school curricular documents. This is viewed as a flexible tool to be adjusted to a variety of learning profiles. The process involves wide-ranging approaches and strategies employed by teachers as they plan or actually teach to adapt the content to their learners’ needs. Learning products may vary from learner to learner and reflect the areas of their interest and strengths. Learning profiles are another aspect that should be taken into account when differentiating teaching, as this is closely related to the choices that learners are given to demonstrate their academic achievements through various means of presentation and their pace of work (Corley, 2005). Regarding the use of learning profiles, Thousand et al. (2006) juxtaposed two fundamentally different approaches to planning for the learning process—universal design for learning and retrofitting (cited in Stanford & Reeves, 2009). Universal design for learning represents planning to meet diverse learning profiles and to engage learners in meaningful participation. Retrofitting practices focus on meeting the curriculum and assessment standards, omitting learner interests and needs (Stanford & Reeves, 2009). These approaches presume modifications of the curriculum and planning so that they fit the frameworks. Teachers tend to retrofit the existing environment and curriculum when they face challenges in teaching, but the initial planning does not draw upon learning needs and that is when and why the difficulties with learner participation and achievement occur (Stanford & Reeves, 2009). This means that differentiation lies at the core of teaching philosophy and readiness to accommodate various learning needs rather than only serving curriculum standards. Issues that arise from teachers’ existing curriculum and assessment retrofitting practices are caused by lack of what Wiggins and McTighe (1998, p. 8) called backward design. The issue is engendered by common teaching practices to plan initially, drawing upon the curriculum and assessment standards rather than on a variety of learning profiles, interests, and readiness (Corley, 2005). Teachers tend to plan according to the standards without consideration of how the teaching content relates to their learners. When learners do not understand the relevance and do not see the connections of what is being taught in the classroom and the reality outside its walls, they fail to develop profound knowledge and skills related to the subject matter. As Tomlinson and McTighe (2006) suggest, the core principles of backward design lie in curriculum planning, while differentiation relates to the needs of learners and approaches utilized by teachers.

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Teacher Understandings and Practices of Differentiated Instruction The results of other studies conducted in culturally different school settings show that differentiated instruction is predetermined by teachers’ beliefs and values of diversity and differences to be fostered through careful planning and teaching. For instance, according to the findings of recent large-scale research (Suprayogi, Valcke, & Godwin, 2017) conducted among 604 teachers in Indonesian accredited schools, the implementation of differentiated instruction is challenging because of teachers’ self-efficacy, conceptualizations, and beliefs in constructivist ideas, which are defined by a number of other factors, such as teaching experience, the school environment, and qualifications (Suprayogi et al., 2017). Thus, teachers’ professional self-image and value-grounded perceptions of differentiated instruction are significant for its implementation, since differentiated instruction practices need to be empowered by teaching autonomy over the curriculum and assessment, as well as the “driving” philosophies enrooted in personal values and beliefs. As Tomlinson and Imbeau (2010) claimed, teachers’ personal values and beliefs shape their teaching practices and help them to create differentiated classrooms. Fullan (2007) and Reeves (2009) argued that the effective outcomes of the actions that teachers perform daily in their classrooms shape their values and beliefs, which further determine their pedagogical choices. Furthermore, as Tomlinson and Imbeau (2010) proposed, contemporary classrooms are places that should reflect an inevitably diverse world outside school settings where people have different backgrounds. The role of a teacher’s mindset and its influence on teaching philosophy in shaping relevant attitudes and differentiated practices was found to be important in a research study conducted in 3353 Belgian schools, which aimed to measure teachers’ perceptions of differentiated instruction by using a questionnaire instrument (Coubergs, Struyven, Vanthournout, & Engels, 2017). A ‘growth’ teacher mindset as opposed to one that is fixed, as suggested by Dweck (2014), assists teachers to adapt easily to a variety of learning styles, thus ensuring meaningful participation and achievement of learners (cited in Coubergs et al., 2017). Teaching autonomy is another factor to be considered in determining teachers’ self-efficacy in differentiated instruction. Thus, the results of research in 65 Belgian primary schools among novice teachers revealed that teachers’ autonomy plays a significant role in promoting effective differentiated practices (De Neve, Devos, & Tuytens, 2015). The research observations also showed that mentoring school programs could facilitate beginning teachers’ professional self-efficacy in differentiated instruction (De Neve et al., 2015). The perspective presented by Nicolae (2014, p. 428) concerning teaching practices in Romanian schools showed that it is common practice to “teach to the middle”. In other words, differentiation is not occurring because, as Tomlinson and McTighe (2006) argue, teachers consider differentiation to be happening when they assign tasks of different complexity to higher achieving students and their counterparts and the same situation occurs with the number of assignments. Nicolae (2014, p. 430)

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highlighted the role of differentiated instruction to “… to fill the gap between teaching and learning”, as teachers need to increase their professionalism by learning various teaching strategies and effective ways of classroom utilization, such as “learning centers and stations, orbital studies, tiered activities, learning contracts, independent studies, choice boards, group investigations, problem-based learning, etc. and their positive effects on student achievement” (p. 429). This perspective resonates with that of Norwich (1994), who claimed that differentiation should draw upon the premise that learners’ differences serve as opportunities rather than boundaries for learning. He proceeds by arguing that differentiation is perceived by many teachers as a limitations to learners’ meaningful participation and achievement and refers to Hart (1992): “Differentiation is regarded as a part of [the] problem, not a part of [the] solution” (cited in Norwich, 1994, p. 291). Differentiation is widely employed by teachers in content and language integrated learning (CLIL). As a mixed research study in Finnish schools shows (Roiha, 2014), language is perceived as an issue in differentiated teaching, as students struggle with content acquisition when instructed in another language. Another qualitative study (Raskala, 2014) conducted among Finnish teachers on exploring their differentiated practices in CLIL education revealed that teachers face challenges connected with shortage of time that differentiation in CLIL classes requires at the stage of lesson planning, as well as lack of authentic language resources. Furthermore, Meyer (2010) highlighted the importance of creating relevant methodologies to address various learning needs, as well as understanding of those needs and enabling learners to build meanings in different languages rather than learn the content, as is frequently practiced in CLIL classes.

Challenges and Barriers in Implementing Differentiated Instruction Mandatory top-down collaborative practices at school, as considered in the previous section, are found to be an impediment to creating shared understanding of the practices that teachers employ and building stronger professional communities through which it is possible to implement innovative teaching approaches, including differentiation. Furthermore, the challenges faced by teachers in their differentiated practices can be attributed to a so-called “audit culture”, as revealed by the research findings of a case study conducted in schools in Queensland (Mills et al., 2014, p. 18). A culture of high educational accountability was reported to create barriers to teaching practices, as the practices of differentiated instruction came from the top down and were thus a compulsory pedagogical approach to be undertaken (Mills et al., 2014). Nevertheless, as reported by Mills et al. (2014), the surveillance of school practices brought about some positive changes, such as the actual implementation of approaches that serve

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as a just educational process. Moreover, teachers noted that less rigid top downpressures brought about improved practices (Mills et al., 2014). This also showcases the necessity of giving teachers autonomy over curriculum planning and selection of strategies (De Neve et al., 2015). McTighe and Brown (2005) claimed that the rigorous and accountable school system in the US does not pose obstacles to the implementation of differentiated instruction, as is believed. Educational accountability and differentiation reflect the realities of contemporary life. The curriculum and assessment standards project the long-term targets, while differentiated instruction addresses the immediate learning needs, thus paving the way for reaching high-stakes goals. As McTighe and Brown (2005) believe, the core of the question is what teachers believe and their professional commitment to accommodate the needs of their learners. The assumption that differentiation and standardized tests are incompatible was tested in a study conducted in Alpine rural schools. According to the results of the study, students whose instruction was differentiated did not achieve low results in the state tests (Smit & Humpert, 2012). However, the findings implied that differentiated instruction should be aligned with authentic formative assessments rather than standardized tests. This finding resonates with the perspective presented by McTighe and Brown (2005) as they discuss the importance of meaningful learning and including authentic tasks and scenarios in standardized tests.

Role of Leadership in Promoting Differentiated Instruction In order to understand the role of leadership in promoting the principles of differentiated instruction at school, it is important to understand what is truly meant by leadership and what implications it has for inclusive education and differentiated approaches to teaching. The concept of leadership in education is complex to explore owing to its varied understandings. Leadership is still perceived by many as formal positions of school administrators, governors and officials. However, the paradigm shift in the Kazakhstani context of education emphasizes the need to reconsider understandings of leadership at a time of ongoing multiple reforms and changes. Precey (2011) argues that leadership in inclusive education deals with both the managerial skills and value-driven impetus of leaders. Furthermore, Harris, Leithwood, Day, Sammons, and Hopkins (2007) claim that the leadership role of teachers is highly important in implementing inclusive education. Teachers as leaders are powerful tools for disseminating the principles of inclusive education, as they have to work in rapidly changing educational environments. Shields (2010) proposes three typologies of educational leadership—transactional, transformative, and transformational. The transactional typology is the least relevant to the principles of inclusive education, as it has to do with an authoritarian, mandatory, and military-like leadership style. The other two models, according to Shields (2010), relate to inclusive education, as both tend to create an empowering and

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vision-driven reformative movement. However, a transformative leadership typology is more relevant to building an inclusive environment, as it calls for social equality and justice in case educational sites experience problems with those. The constructivist approach to leadership, which resonates with the constructivist approach to learning, was proposed by Lambert (2003). Lambert (2003) argues that only individuals themselves can identify their leadership styles in the way learners construct meaning of the encountered reality and make connections between learning material and the world outside the school setting. The author also proposes the terminology of “leadership capacity” and “learning community”, which defines the willingness of teachers to participate meaningfully and actively in the process of their school communities’ reform and improvement (Lambert, 2003, p. 425). This approach resonates with the role of each individual teacher in establishing an inclusive school environment, as it shifts the traditional understanding of leadership from a formal position-based model to the active participation of each individual in the process of school transformation. The role of educational leadership in creating inclusionary and differentiated practices at school can be determined primarily by teachers’ moral impetus, which is deeply grounded in their values and beliefs in social equality and equity. MacRuairc, Ottesen, and Precey (2013) pointed out the central role of leadership in establishing an inclusive society, justifying it by the fact that inclusionary practices tend to step outside the premises of a school community and call for social justice far beyond its walls.

Methodology Research Design and Method A qualitative research design was used to explore teachers’ perceptions and experiences of differentiated instruction, as it allows the research to capture the “value depth of meaning and people’s subjective experiences and their meaning making processes” (Leavy, 2017, p. 124). To obtain data in a particular school setting, taking into consideration the characteristics and conditions of the research site, the case study research design was found to be suitable in view of the nature of the research (Zainal, 2007). Case study research design can allow data to be triangulated in order to deal with results characterized by convergence, inconsistency and contradiction (Cronin, 2014). Thus, triangulation helps to validate the research results by enabling the researcher to understand and explain the issue being explored better (Cronin, 2014). Triangulation can be realized in multiple ways and is based on various premises. Following Denzin’s (2007) definition, triangulation is “the combination of methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon” (as cited in Cronin, 2014, p. 26). Furthermore, Cronin (2014, p. 26)

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discussed this premise as “it is the combination of at least two or more theoretical perspectives, methodological approaches, data sources, investigators or data analysis methods.” In the case of the present research, data triangulation was used.

Research Site A school for gifted students in Kazakhstan was selected as the research site. The choice of the site was motivated by a few reasons. The first reason was that the researcher was employed as a teacher at the research site and because of collegial relationships developed over time, it was easier to approach school principals and research participants when working in one community with them. Another reason was that the school had set the improvement of teaching practices on differentiated instruction as a priority for professional development in the light of the ongoing Council of International Schools accreditation process. These were reflected in the subjectrelated curricular documents, as well as in professional development programs aimed at improving teachers’ differentiated instruction practices. Last, but not least, the school had participated in many ongoing educational reforms and had adopted innovative pedagogical approaches. It was consequently assumed that it was open to research studies that may contribute to the improvement of teaching practices and promote inclusive educational settings.

Research Participants For the selection of the research study participants, a purposive sampling method was used. This type of nonprobability sampling ensures a judgmental position of the researcher in the process of criteria-based participant selection (Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, & Walker, 2013). Purposive sampling helps to find the most eligible research participants, as the data they provide will be the most relevant to the research question (Leavy, 2017). The choice of participants serves the central premise for the research, as the data will be richer when participants are closer to the topic (Leavy, 2017). The eligibility of the selected sample was defined by the fact that they actually taught the subjects they coordinated, so they possessed expertise in both subject coordination and in teaching practice. Thus, five program coordinators were selected purposefully to obtain the data. The five school coordinators were located in the fields of Language Arts, Sciences, and Social Studies. The choice was determined by the scope of science and humanitarian subjects that the selected participants taught and coordinated. Another reason for the choice of Social Studies and Sciences was that those subjects are instructed in Kazakh regardless of students’ language track, according to the school trilingual policy. Because of this, teachers were expected to have more experience in differentiated instruction, as language might serve as a barrier to some students’ meaningful participation and academic achievement.

4 Differentiated Instruction, Perceptions and Practices Table 4.1 Participants

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Participant code

Discipline

Arman

Science 1

Marina

Science 2

Aizhan

Science 3

Talgat

Social Studies

Svetlana

Language Arts

Zarina

Administration staff member

Source Created by the author

Hence, the selected sample helped to consider the issue from the perspectives of teachers who teach and coordinate the subject programs by leading other teachers towards implementation of curricula defined by students’ participation and achievement, as well as by addressing the issues that might arise from planning and teaching. The data collected from the selected sample provided insight into the research participants’ understanding of differentiation, as well as their teaching and leadership practices. In addition, an interview was conducted with one administration staff member who is involved in the professional development programs’ coordination for teachers at the research site. The choice of this research participant was determined by the necessity to collect richer data about the differentiated practices employed by school teachers and challenges that they experience. The administration staff member is regularly involved in attestation procedures, which include monthly lesson observations. Therefore, it was important to interview a member of the school administration in order to explore the data from the perspective of someone who sees a broader picture of the differentiated practices employed by school teachers in the school. Table 4.1 presents information on research participants. Pseudonyms have been assigned to all participants owing to ethical considerations. These will be used further in the paper in order to protect the identity of each research participant.

Research Instruments In order to collect rich qualitative data, three methods of data collection were used to explore the main research questions and triangulate the data obtained, namely semi-structured interviews, lesson observations, and document analysis.

Semi-structured Individual Interviews The semi-structured interview was characterized by the flexibility of the design and enabled the researcher to respond to the live discourse by redirecting the course of the interview and adjusting questions to a particular situation setting (Ary et al., 2013,

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p. 466). Participants were asked open-ended questions, which helped to reveal their perspectives without any pressure from the interviewer (Creswell, 2014, p. 240). Thus, the method of interviewing was helpful to explore the perspectives of the respondents in depth, as it was possible to expand each question into further investigation of personal and professional experiences. The questions were designed to allow the respondents to reflect on their experiences, critically evaluate their practices, or receive food for thought through the process of interviewing and give their immediate emotional response, which might reveal their thinking and understanding of the phenomenon being explored. The interview questions included demographic questions in order to understand the different backgrounds of the interview participants.

Lesson Observations Another method that was applied was lesson observation. One of the most common characteristics of observation as a research method, as stated by Baker (2006), is that it allows the researcher to explore people and their behavior in authentic conditions, including workplaces. During lesson observation, descriptive and reflective field notes were taken to enable the researcher to describe the processes further and reflect on the findings (Creswell, 2014). The descriptive and reflective notes taken “on the spot” helped to build a bigger picture of the observed lessons and to draw upon the researcher’s immediate reflections to make meaning of the whole process. Thus, the strategies used in the lessons by the research participants were descriptively recorded, as well as the ways in which these were employed to address the needs of individual learners in the classroom. The reflective notes included the researcher’s thoughts and comments on the strategies and approaches used in the lessons. The data collected from lesson observation helped to triangulate the interview and document analysis data, as these revealed real-life teaching practices.

Document Analysis The third method that helped to validate the results obtained from interviews and lesson observations was document analysis. This method focused specifically on teachers’ unit and lesson plans as aligned with subject programs and course plans in order to determine how coordinators who are also practicing teachers applied their skills of differentiated instruction to outline subject content so that it met their learners’ needs. Furthermore, the document analysis served to see if school curricular documents defined differentiated instruction and provided teachers with sufficient guidance and support in differentiation. The document analysis method is useful, as it is a tool to extract meanings and develop knowledge and understanding of printed or electronic documents (Bowen, 2009). The subject curricular documents, including lesson plans, subject programs and course plans, were freely accessible on

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the school’s server, as the general practice employed at the research site is to share all curricular materials via the server. The study of particular and different subjects’ documents in relation to the research participants’ teaching practices was helpful in building a bigger picture of the teaching practices employed by school teachers and the approaches they adopt to meet diverse learning needs and interests.

Data Collection The qualitative data were collected by triangulated research methods: interview, observation, and data analysis. In order to ensure a rigorous process of data collection and further validate the research findings, it was necessary to design an interview protocol with interview questions and instructions (Creswell, 2014, p. 247). The same protocol was required to be developed for conducting lesson observations and document analysis.

Semi-structured Individual Interviews Each interview lasted for about an hour because of the number of questions and the semi-structured nature of the instrument. The data were digitally recorded after receiving permission from the interview participants. Keeping notes throughout interviews was important to grasp the complexities of participants’ perceptions and attitudes on the spot. Keeping reflective notebooks was a convenient way of accumulating ideas for further analysis and reflection in addition to the recorded data in the qualitative research.

Lesson Observations All five teacher research participants were selected for the lesson observations. The observation protocol was developed to ensure that field notes would be kept strictly organized (Creswell, 2014). In particular, an observational protocol helped to “to record a chronology of the events, a detailed portrait of an individual or individuals, a picture or map of the setting, or verbatim quotes of individuals” (Creswell, 2014, p. 249). The research findings from the observation were then analyzed and categorized according to the themes that emerged (Creswell, 2014). It was important to reflect on the notes immediately after lessons had been observed in order to make additional notes, which were analyzed further.

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Document Analysis The document analysis instrument included examination of lesson plans, subject programs and course plans of five different subjects. The document analysis, as defined by Creswell (2014, p. 245), is “A valuable source of information in qualitative research.” To gain access to pertinent subject documents, the permission of the research participants was not required, as all the documents were freely accessible on the school server. The subject documents were carefully examined for “accuracy, completeness, and usefulness in answering the research questions” (Creswell, 2014, p. 245).

Ethical Considerations First of all, approval for the researched was received from the review board of Nazarbayev University (Creswell, 2014, pp. 232–233) after providing a detailed description of the procedures and ethical considerations of the research, as well as the potential benefits that the research might have for the research site. This procedure was strictly enforced, as the nature of any empirical research involves people and their lived experiences. It is highly important for a researcher to protect the rights of participants and keep them informed about the procedures of the research. The participants in the research took part on a voluntary basis. They were first approached via corporate mail by sending a letter informing them of the purpose of the research and asking their permission to take part in the research. The research participants were asked to study carefully and sign the consent form, which described the purpose of the study, confidentiality, and potential benefits for the research site, as well as for the participants’ professional development. The participants were also informed verbally and on the consent form about their rights to withdraw at any time they chose to do so, even after signing it.

Findings Perceptions of Differentiated Instruction The first set of interview questions concerned participants’ perceptions of differentiated instruction and the role of values in shaping those understandings. Overall, participants perceived differentiated instruction as the use of teaching strategies and approaches tailored to the individual needs, interests and abilities of their learners.

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Individual Learning Needs, Interests and Styles Almost all participants connected differentiation with their learners’ individual interests and needs. For example, Talgat talked about the significance for teachers to observe changes in students’ behavior and to consider those changes as they reflect on interests and preferences that evolve over time. He said that as students become older through one academic year, teachers should reconsider the teaching strategies employed and select those that address their changed preferences and needs. Arman also discussed the importance of selecting appropriate teaching resources as a way of differentiation. He said that it is a way to motivate students when learning resources are relevant to the students’ interests. Svetlana and Aizhan also related differentiation to recognizing their students’ learning needs. As Aizhan said: “I believe that all students are unique. It is the teacher’s responsibility to recognize what students need and engage them in lessons.” Marina said that differentiation is primarily concerned with her students’ interests and their various learning styles. She highlighted the importance of providing her students with multiple forms of presentation that fit their learning styles. The following quotation shows her opinion: “Students like to learn in the way that best fits their learning styles; for example, some students are good presenters, some of them are good writers, or speakers. Some really like to draw or act out their responses.”

Individual Learning Abilities In the responses given by Arman and Aizhan, the focus on differentiation by ability was very evident. As Arman said, it is important to recognize his students’ abilities and develop multi-level tasks in line with these. As he said, differentiation means tailoring teaching to low, middle, and high levels of students’ capacities. The same opinion was expressed by Aizhan, as she connected differentiation with recognizing students’ multiple abilities. However, in the response given by Svetlana, resentment against labeling students by their abilities was expressed as she said: “Differentiation is exactly not dividing students into groups by levels like ‘here we have the strongest students, here we have the weakest students’.” Svetlana explained the uselessness of ability-based approaches to differentiation. She said that she had noticed a tendency among her students to select more complex tasks whenever they were given a chance to choose at her lesson and mentioned that her personal teaching philosophy contradicts dividing students by ability in class or making it visible to other students, as it might humiliate those involved. According to another teacher, Zarina, the majority of teachers perceive differentiation through the lenses of ability-based teaching and therefore limit their differentiated teaching practices to developing multi-level tasks without primarily considering what they need instead of what they are able to do. She added that the abilitybased approach that is mainly used by school teachers restricts learning potential, as

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students are merely assigned multi-level tasks instead of being engaged in lessons through various other strategies. Also, most teachers perceive differentiation as a time-consuming and complicated process that requires more of their time for planning. However, as Zarina explained, it can even be implemented through the use of simple verbs: … for example, when I say to students “Observe how the reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid occurs”, it means that through the use of the verb “observe” I give students the opportunity to observe. If I ask them the following question “Describe what you see”, I can learn a lot of information from the students’ responses, for example that not everyone can describe it.

A follow-up question to Zarina concerned the reasons why teachers mainly limit their understanding of differentiation to tasks of varied levels of complexity as assigned to “stronger” and “weaker” students. In the response, she pointed out that despite the vast body of contemporary literature on differentiated instruction, there is no unanimous understanding of what it is and nobody would ever say exactly how to differentiate because teachers are all different and their students are different. It is therefore up to individual teachers to create conditions for their learners’ academic success. This can be done if teachers, as put by Zarina, “ever ponder on having successful lessons where they can observe and analyze individual students’ achievements and progress.” Zarina mentioned the Soviet past as one of the factors that had an impact on the formation of teachers’ ability-based understanding of differentiation: Why does it happen? Well… this is from our history. In Soviet school, we were usually given cards like ABC. A is easy, B is medium, C is difficult. This is our past and it still lingers. Some teachers, for example, might say that A is a difficult level and C is easy. Everyone differentiates in different ways.

However, Zarina also mentioned that teachers still think that there are right or wrong ways of differentiation, as they still expect someone to teach them how to do it: “You will never find the right answer for how teachers should differentiate. And that is why the understandings on differentiation vary.” The results in this section show that the varied attitudes to differentiation at the research site are mainly shaped by teachers’ personal attitudes to teaching as either the field for creating opportunities for their students or for following straightforward directions because of lack of understanding of the nature of differentiation.

Teaching Practices Differentiation of Content The data obtained from interviews, lesson observation, and document analysis (lesson and unit plans) indicated that the most common form of differentiation was in content. Most of the participants mentioned differentiation of learning resources as a strategy to accommodate their students’ various learning capacities. For example, Arman

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used tasks of varied complexity, especially in classes with students from the Science and Humanities tracks. The following quotation best shows his approach: Well, I have students in my classes from different subject tracks and I believe that it is important to consider their backgrounds. I cannot assign difficult tasks and expect high results from students who are majoring in different subject tracks because the students have different abilities. I, with my colleagues, develop multi-level tasks during lesson planning sessions.

During the lesson observation, it was also evident that he focused on differentiation of learning material, as students were given cards with tasks that varied in complexity. This type of differentiation was also recorded in the lesson plan as differentiation by task. Marina used resources with varied content, drawing on students’ reflections and feedback on her lessons. She said that it was a good way to find out about her students’ needs and interests: The backward design that I use for planning my lessons focuses on student’s reflection and feedback. Therefore, it gives me the opportunity to find out what my students really need. Then I use UbD for the unit planning and assessment at the end of each unit.

Aizhan talked about ways to identify content for differentiation by means of surveys conducted by school psychologists in revealing students’ interests, hobbies, and preferences. However, as she noted, this kind of assistance is helpful only at the beginning of the academic year, as it is important to observe students daily and it is mainly the teacher’s responsibility to uncover what students really need. The assistance of school psychologists to improve differentiated practices at school was also mentioned in the interview with Zarina. She mentioned that surveying students to identify their motivational types was widely used at school; however, it did not provide teachers with meaningful data on what students really needed at lessons. In order to improve the situation at school, she suggested adding questions to help teachers to learn about the needs and interests of their students that change over time and conducting surveys on a regular basis, not only once in an academic year. The opinion expressed by Zarina resonates with that of Talgat, who also emphasized the necessity for teachers to consider learning needs as pertinent to students’ age and bear in mind that learning interests may change over time as students become older. The following excerpt from the interview demonstrates the questions she proposed to improve surveys that school psychologists conduct each academic year: … well, what I did then was that I suggested our school psychologists include five questions such as “How would you like to work in the class?” with response options such as “pair work” or “individual” etc. Also, “What does a teacher need to do in order to help you succeed at a lesson?” or “What help do you expect to receive from the teacher?”

In Zarina’s opinion, lessons conducted by school teachers generally lack what she described as the “wow” effect because of teachers’ lack of awareness of their students’ needs. The following quotation shows her opinion: Teachers tend to plan and conduct their lessons in a formalized and routine way. Students lose motivation because they feel that teachers do not care about their interests. Teachers need to talk with students in an informal manner, individually. Teachers should know about

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A. Aliyeva their students’ needs, what interests them or is important for them in their subjects. This information would serve as good content for their lessons then.

From the data obtained from Talgat’s social studies lesson observation, it was noted that the teaching was focused on differentiation of resources as students worked on original and adapted textual materials in Kazakh. His subject is instructed in the Kazakh language according to the school’s trilingual policy. He said that teachers in his department had to adapt texts to lower and higher levels of language proficiency, as some students found it difficult to understand the original materials. However, the participants who mainly associated differentiation with ability-based teaching also mentioned in their responses the importance of considering students’ interests and their multiple levels of intelligence in developing tasks. For example, Arman said: Developing multiple level tasks is compulsory in planning a lesson. Also, we can develop tasks that draw on the students’ interests, or consider the multiple ways in which they perceive the teaching material best. For example, one student might have good visual perception, another one might be an audial learner, another student might prefer a written form of work as opposed to one who prefers oral explanation. Some students need more life-related examples to understand the teaching material. One method that is applied might work differently for different students. Therefore, it is important to consider all this.

As observed from the responses provided by Arman and Talgat, who highlighted the importance of ability-based teaching, there was a contradiction concerning differentiation in the way they understood the issue and applied their understanding in a team-planning and teaching process. The development of multiple-level tasks was given primary importance when working together with their colleagues in ensuring that differentiation took place in lessons conducted by all teachers of the department. However, participants understood that multiple levels of intelligence and students’ interest and preferences should be considered when planning and teaching. Also, as Arman mentioned, ability-based tasks provide scaffolding to learners to move from easier to harder tasks. It was evident that even though participants understood that differentiation could be based on students’ interests and their learning styles, the focus was placed primarily on differentiation by ability at the stage of lesson planning. This might indicate lack of understanding of what differentiation is, and how teaching can be differentiated towards various learning needs. In addition, another reason for focusing on students’ problem zones and weaknesses rather than offering them multiple ways of achieving the same objectives may be lack of collaboration among teachers, as they do not devote time and effort to addressing the issues that might arise in differentiation. The common practices of developing multiple-ability tasks serve as “quick fix” strategies rather than well-designed approaches to address various learning needs, interests and styles.

Differentiation of Process On the whole, participants mentioned group and pair work as effective strategies of process differentiation. For example, Arman used the strategy of pair work to have stronger students revise the learning material and weaker students learn from

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peers in a way that is more effective than individual learning. He stressed the importance of peer teaching, as it provides an opportunity for stronger students to retain more information, since it is said that “students retain 90% of information when they explain it to someone else”. Furthermore, he described the role of a teacher in the classroom where students work in pairs as active participants as facilitation. During lesson observation, students in Arman’s class worked in pairs on different tasks, where stronger students assisted weaker students in task achievement (differing ability pairs). Talgat said that differentiation works best when students are in small groups and teachers can observe how different students perform different roles and achieve the same learning goals. He said that differentiation in the CLIL classes can be realized in the way a teacher develops tasks and questions to accommodate the multiple language abilities of students: Differentiation is provided in the language tasks developed for different students with different language abilities in Kazakh. For example, one student may have a good command of the Kazakh language’ however he may lack subject knowledge. Another student may be very good at subject matter but may have weak language skills. So, here when differentiation takes place, the language of instruction should vary in each individual case. Also, it is important that this differentiation is not evident; it happens when the teacher asks questions and sets individual tasks to students with different language abilities.

For Marina’s, the use of an understanding by design (UbD) planning framework was described and justified as being an effective tool for helping students to make meaning of and connect the learning materials in the process. Also, she said that UbD was a helpful planning strategy to establish cross-curricular links and organize performance-based learning in her lessons. The lesson that was observed in Marina’s class was at the stage of project completion as students worked on their portfolio management and authentic learning scenario presentations, which were differentiated according to students’ preferences: electronic presentations, posters and writing logs. The differentiation of the process, as well as the learning product, was demonstrated during the lesson, as individual students were given an opportunity to present different learning outcomes, depending on their interests. Another UbD strategy that was demonstrated during her lesson was a mini-discussion of the unit’s essential questions that were posed at the beginning of the unit. As Marina said, essential questions, which are set at the beginning of the unit, are helpful in creating real-life connections and showing students the relevance of what they learn in class to the world outside. Conversely, Aizhan pointed out that unit planning was challenging owing to lack of time, even though she considered it a helpful strategy. She said that teachers in her department planned according to learning objectives and put greater emphasis on skill development as guided by the subject and course programs. Furthermore, she mentioned that her subject was taught in Kazakh, according to the school’s trilingual policy, and she found CLIL strategies helpful in supporting students with a weaker command of the Kazakh language. The strategies that she mentioned included peerteaching, group work and use of graphic organizers for language structuring. During the lesson observed in Aizhan’s class, the “six thinking hats” strategy was applied to develop students’ critical thinking skills as the teacher targeted the development

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of students’ argumentative speech and use of evidence to support claims. Despite the strategy not being described in the lesson plan as differentiation, it was a way to differentiate the learning process in her class, as students presented their arguments from different perspectives and worked first in groups, which also allowed the teacher to scaffold learning through peer-assisted learning.

Differentiation of Learning Outcomes Differentiation of learning products appeared to be the strategy used least by research participants. Marina pointed out the importance of understanding her students’ interests and their various learning styles in providing them with opportunities to present their learning outcomes in different ways, including posters, electronic slides, essays, oral presentations and writing journals. During lesson observation, the students in her class worked on creating different forms of presentations, including posters, electronic presentations and writing logs, as individually selected by them. The rubrics for assessment and various forms of project presentation were shown in the lesson plan and students were given worksheets with task and assessment criteria. The unit plan also included rubrics for multiple means of presentation, as well as strategies for content and process differentiation. During lesson observation in Svetlana’s class, students were also given a chance to make an analysis of either character development or story composition as a final product. The tasks and assessment rubrics were developed and handed out to students at the beginning of the unit. As Svetlana stressed in the interview: “It is important to give students a chance to choose in order to learn more about their interests and let them show the best they can do in the lessons.” The document analysis of curricular documents, which included subject programs and course plans, showed that teachers received insufficient guidance and support in terms of content, process, and learning product differentiation. The number of resources was quite limited and only general recommendations concerning the organization of group, pair, and individual work were given in the documents. This finding showcases the importance of teachers’ autonomous work on improving differentiation of their subject curricula content, organization of the learning process, and differentiation of learning outcomes. Overall, the data obtained from interviews, lesson observations and document analysis showed that research participants applied strategies and approaches of differentiated instruction in their lessons. However, some of the strategies observed in their lessons were not indicated as differentiation in most of the participants’ interview responses and were not necessarily reflected in their lesson plans. This finding indicates an unconscious use of strategies to meet the needs of learners without conscious reflection on the pedagogical choices that these teachers make. As Zarina said, teachers have so-called “pedagogical intuition” in differentiated instruction, which signifies lack of theoretical knowledge in the field of differentiated instruction; more professional guidance in this area needs to be provided. Another finding

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shows that most of the participants used an ability-based approach to differentiation in their team-planning practices, which mainly focused on the development of multi-level tasks assigned to “stronger” and “weaker” students.

Challenges in Differentiated Instruction The participants were asked about the challenges they encountered in their differentiated practices at school. The questions also concerned the role of their leadership position as subject coordinators and the role of school administration in tackling those issues. The responses revealed the following challenges and concerns: (1) lack of time; (2) lack of collaborative practices at school; (3) formalized collaborative practices; (4) lack of professional development; and (5) lack of encouragement. Each of the challenges will be described, with illustrations from the interviews.

Lack of Time The responses of Aizhan and Talgat showed the importance of having time free from other teachers’ daily commitments in order to be able to plan for better differentiation and engage in self-learning. Aizhan said that she realized that UbD was an effective planning model; however, this way of planning required time and because of lack of time she had to plan according to learning objectives lesson by lesson. She also mentioned that she had five different grades of Kazakh- and Russian-track students, which was time-consuming in terms of planning and preparation. Similarly, in the response provided by Svetlana, it was evident that teachers need time for improving their practices through research and reflection: Teachers lack time as they have lots of professional commitments and there is no time left for self -learning and just to have a professional talk with colleagues, or go to the library and read relevant literature … Well, teachers need time for doing research, for meaningful research, no matter primary or secondary, but surely time should be allocated for teachers’ self development, but teachers always have so many commitments at school. Rushing through a day with busy schedules prevents teachers sometimes from reflections, immediate reflections that our teaching practices require …

Lack of Collaborative Practices Another challenge that teachers experience in improving differentiated teaching, in Talgat’s opinion, was caused by the lack of school strategic planning in the process of improving differentiation at school. He expressed the need for creating a shared understanding of differentiation among all school teachers. He believed that the role of school administration was essential in monitoring the school’s advancement in differentiated instruction:

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A. Aliyeva Well, it is the duty of the school administration to ensure that all teachers have a common vision of differentiation and identify the problem zones that teachers may have in their teaching practices. Administration should help teachers to fix those problems and fill in the gaps of knowledge by organizing workshops on how to improve differentiated teaching. Well, I can’t say that our school administration is not working on this … it is, however, I wish they worked more in this direction.

Talgat’s response showcases the role of the school administration in fostering collaboration based on common understanding and a shared vision of differentiated instruction. Svetlana highlighted the importance of creating stronger collaboration among teachers across all school departments through mini-presentations that can be delivered at weekly school-wide meetings. She regarded the format of oral minipresentation that would take about ten minutes as an effective way to share best practices and efficient strategies, involving all teachers at general meetings. This strategy would not require additional time to attend. Marina also considered the role of lesson observation practices an effective strategy to increase teachers’ professionalism and improve their pedagogy. As she said, the practice of lesson observation was well established in other schools and it allowed sharing of best practices and the opportunity to develop professionally. Marina expressed her concern that such practices were not organized at the research site; neither was team-planning. Teachers did not pay due attention to co-planning practice because of either lacking a sense of responsibility and work organization skills or being overconfident of their professionalism. Moreover, the document analysis also showed lack of differentiation in the standard school curriculum documents. This finding signifies the importance of improving team-planning practices at school in order to plan the subject programs collaboratively according to the local educational context and diverse learning needs.

Formalized Collaborative Practices According to the responses given by Marina, the team-planning practice is formally established at the school; however, the practice had a formalized top-down character. This made team planning a formal procedure, which was being slighted by teachers for various reasons, including those already mentioned by her. In her mind, the challenges that teachers encountered were caused by resistance to change, which was determined by the mandatory formal team-planning practices and indifferent attitudes of some department teachers to team planning. Therefore, the conclusion can be made that formal behaviors created by school top-down rigid collaborative practices were the primary cause of the issues that arose in the process of attempting to strengthen collaborative teaching practices at the school. Svetlana mentioned that professional development workshops and seminars at school on differentiated instruction were conducted in a quite formalized way, with specialists from the department for teachers’ professional development in Astana. All teachers were required to participate and those specialists came from quite different

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educational settings and might not know the peculiarities and challenges of the local educational context. Her personal opinion was that this practice was not effective, as teachers needed to work constantly and collaboratively to improve their practices. Talgat in his response about ways to improve collaboration at the research site also discussed the importance of building a shared concept of differentiated instruction by encouraging teachers, not forcing them. Otherwise, as he mentioned, it would turn into a formal procedure that teachers would not do. Furthermore, formalized attitudes of the research participants to their leadership role as subject coordinators may be another reason for the lack of conceptual understanding of differentiation. For example, Aizhan and Talgat said that their primary goal as coordinators was to ensure that teachers had a common understanding of the content and objectives of the subject programs. This may be connected with their role as program developers as they collaborated with other school teachers to improve the subject programs and ensure that local teachers planned and conducted their lessons according to common standards. Most interview participants highlighted the importance of supporting their colleagues, especially, novice and inexperienced teachers, in subject program implementation. This finding is best illustrated in the responses of Aizhan and Arman: There are many questions that I discuss with my colleagues, especially novice teachers, to make sure that they plan and conduct their lessons according to the program’s requirements and their students are engaged in their lessons. We discuss the following questions during lesson planning sessions: What resources would they use in order to realize this learning objective in the lesson? What learning objectives would they select for the lesson? Will those resources help them to develop their students’ abilities? Will students like them? (Aizhan) My task as a coordinator is to make sure that teachers understand the requirements of the program and can reflect them in their lessons. During lesson planning, I explain the standards, especially to novice teachers, share resources, or together select the resources as we together develop plans. (Arman)

The data illustrate the importance the research participants attached to ensuring that teachers, especially novice teachers, could select the relevant resources to meet the requirements of the program. Talgat said that the subject he coordinated had many special features and his role as coordinator was to guide his colleagues towards proper understanding of the program: “Some teachers may have a wrong perception of the program and my responsibility is to explain the program’s features and requirements to them.” Talgat also discussed the fact that being a coordinator required him, as he literally put it, “to correct” the responses of the learners and assist other teachers to identify problem areas: “Differentiation is about correcting. When I see that teachers or students have a wrong understanding of the program, subject, learning objectives, I try to correct them and explain the requirements.” This so-called correctional approach in helping teachers to improve strategies of differentiation referred to the research participant’s personal perception of his leadership position in ensuring that things were made right in relation to the program understanding and implementation, which was also a formalized way of perceiving leadership. In contrast, the opinion expressed by Marina demonstrated the opposite attitude to team-planning practice to strengthen teachers’ autonomy over the curriculum and improve their practice:

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A. Aliyeva UbD planning requires collaboration among teachers in order to develop a shared vision of the subject program from Grade 7 to Grade 12 and identify together the cross-curriculum links because it is important to sit together and identify the spiral development of the program, deepening and widening subject content in order to start planning backwards, not in a formal way as most teachers tend to do. We need to develop a holistic understanding of the program and start planning so that our students can learn meaningful things, they can see a bigger picture of their learning, not just moving from one topic to another without seeing the connections between them.

Moreover, Svetlana and Marina stressed the role of self-learning in teachers’ professional development. This was evident from the following quotations: As a coordinator I think my main responsibility is to ensure that teachers are educated in this area. That they know what differentiation is and how it works, that they are familiar with differentiated strategies and for this there are different approaches. We do have co-planning. I try to coordinate it as much as I can. We discuss the program from time to time when I try to coordinate it. I try to share what I know, what I can do, I try to encourage people to do research in this area. I know that some teachers are doing research into differentiation. That’s all I think I am doing. (Svetlana) Teachers need self -education; they need to read, to learn more about teaching not only from seminars and workshops, but from books they read, from collaboration with their colleagues, and international colleagues. Teachers can do action research, lesson study, they can research their practices. Everything depends on their willingness to learn. As a coordinator, I try to encourage as much as I can. I can’t push them, but I try to show by my personal example; for example, I always share good resources with my colleagues through the school server. (Marina)

This opinion clearly demonstrates the fact that school coordinators, who officially lead the process of program coordination and its implementation in daily teaching practices, serve as a powerful tool in fostering the process of teachers’ development and self-learning in the area of differentiated instruction. Instead of communicating the standards and requirements of the program, subject coordinators can encourage teachers to learn about various teaching strategies and explore their own practice to identify their strengths and weaknesses, as well as the various needs of their learners. This is a way of leading change that is not imposed from the outside by mandatory powers, but comes from within and has an empowering effect on teachers. However, this perspective was expressed only by Marina and Svetlana, as opposed to the opinion the three other participants shared about the importance of accountability to curricular standards. This contrast in opinions can be explained by different perceptions of leadership, as well as experiences of self-learning and professional development, including team planning and team teaching.

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Discussion Perceptions of Differentiated Instruction The first set of questions in the interview explored participants’ understanding of differentiated instruction. The findings reveal that teachers’ understanding of differentiation is seen in the way they respond to different learners, different learning abilities, interests, and learning styles. Research participants regarded it as the teacher’s responsibility to ensure that learners are engaged in the learning process by using different strategies of differentiation. However, despite the fact that the teachers had an understanding of core approaches in differentiated instruction, it was revealed that participants in their practice focused primarily on abilities rather than on a spectrum of learning needs, including students’ interests and readiness (Corley, 2005) and their learning styles (Coubergs et al., 2017). This finding also has an immediate consequence for teaching values and beliefs, as discussed by Tomlinson and Imbeau (2010). The values that the research participants considered important to be promoted in the differentiated classroom included openness and respect for students’ needs, concerns and preferences, as well as respect for students’ differences in accommodating those needs. This finding relates more directly to what Dweck (2014) called the teacher growth mindset (cited in Coubergs et al., 2017), whereas Tomlinson and Imbeau (2010) mentioned teaching students respect and tolerance for diversity, which is an essential part of the world outside the school premises. Even though diverse learning needs and styles were pointed out when defining differentiation, most of the research participants still drew on students’ abilities in developing differentiated tasks and activities. This finding was also reflected in a research study conducted by Nicolae (2014, p. 428) who revealed a common practice among Romanian school teachers to “teach to the middle”, resulting in only a small number of students receiving instruction that met their needs. Furthermore, the research participants mainly viewed differentiation as development of multilevel tasks. This finding is consistent with what Tomlinson and McTighe (2006) argued to be labeling practices, not differentiated ones. The premise upon which teachers draw when stigmatizing students by their abilities is also consistent with what Dweck (2014) described as a teacher fixed mindset, a tendency to “teach down” because of underestimation of what students might be capable of and willing to do (cited in Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010, p. 32). The tendency of the participants to draw primarily on abilities signifies the importance of a fundamentally different understanding of what differentiation is. There is a need to shift understanding of differentiated instruction from what learners are not capable of doing to what they are able to do when teachers view their differences as learning opportunities (Norwich, 1994). The ability-based approach to differentiated instruction that was found to be commonly employed at the research site provoked a negative understanding and biased attitudes to differentiation (Norwich, 1994). Another finding revealed that teachers who take a more autonomous approach to planning and teaching, by implementing innovative teaching approaches and

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adjusting the curriculum standards to their learners’ needs, had clearer concepts of differentiation. This finding is reflected in a study by De Neve, Devos, and Tuytens (2015) in which they discuss the importance of teacher autonomy over subject-related curricular documents in developing the understanding and practices of differentiated instruction. Furthermore, the data collected from interviews and lesson observations regarding differentiated practices showed that those teachers who had experienced positive outcomes of differentiation in their classrooms by using differentiated approaches, both in planning and teaching, had shaped the value of learning diversity, which is grounded in the premise that every learner is able to participate meaningfully in the learning process and achieve successful results (Subban, 2006). This finding is consistent with the arguments presented by Fullan (2007) and Reeves (2009) who claim that actions and choices that teachers make in their classrooms serve as a starting point for shaping values and beliefs, or conversely, that the values that teachers hold determine their differentiated practices (as cited in Tomlinson, 2016).

Teaching Practices A number of questions in this research study explored teaching practices employed by the research participants to implement differentiation. It was generally revealed that the teachers used different approaches and strategies to differentiate their instruction to satisfy learning needs. However, the most frequently used approach to differentiation was ability-based teaching. This finding was described by Dweck (2014) as a way of undermining learners’ capability (cited in Tomlinson, 2016). Understanding by design (Wiggins & McTighe, 1998) was another strategy employed at the research site as a way of planning that substantially relies on students’ readiness, considering their educational and personal backgrounds, as well as multiple learning styles, taking into account their multiple levels of intelligence (Santamaria, 2014). As the data from lesson observation and document analysis showed, the UbD approach provided more autonomy over curriculum and assessment, which allowed, as discussed by De Neve et al. (2015), an increase in teacher self-efficacy by providing opportunities for self-conceptualization and understanding of what differentiated instruction is and how it is possible to implement its multiple approaches in planning and teaching. The backward design approach, another strategy used in teaching at the research site, also helps learners to participate meaningfully in the learning process, as the learning material selected and tasks developed by the teacher have an immediate relation to the real world, being authentic and relevant to diverse learning needs (Corley, 2005; McTighe & Tomlinson, 2006). Furthermore, the findings revealed that the participant who employed backward design had more autonomy over the curriculum (McTighe & Tomlinson, 2006) and differentiation enabled her to connect the curriculum requirements with the needs of her learners. This finding is in line with the perspective presented by Norwich (1994), who claimed that teachers who

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differentiate their instruction reduce the gap between the curriculum and learning needs in their classes, thus addressing the issues of equity in education (p. 293). As most of the findings showed, teachers generally employed retrofitting practices (Stanford & Reeves, 2009) as opposed to differentiation. The use of ability-based differentiation by most of the research participants indicated their teaching practices, which focused on curriculum and assessment standards accountability. It was showcased when participants discussed their responsibility for accommodating different levels of students’ cognitive capacities. Retrofitting practices were employed by the participants who drew primarily on students’ abilities; they expressed their concerns about having learners with different academic capacities in their classes. This finding corresponds with the view of Elliot, who asserts that retrofitting practices are employed when teachers face problems in their instruction (Stanford & Reeves, 2009). Therefore, it can be concluded that most of the participants perceived retrofitting practices as differentiation. This finding is similar to that presented by Bray and McClaskey (2013), who claimed that differentiation, despite its many overlapping areas with individualization, is a different way of planning and teaching. It presents diversity of learning needs as an essential part of planning and teaching, and focuses on the individuality of learners and accommodation of their needs, regardless of the diverse classroom environment. This finding highlights the importance of the learning opportunities teachers need to offer their learners for better socialization in the world, which “is rapidly becoming everyone’s backyard” (Tomlinson, 2016, p. 29). Besides, the finding that revealed a tendency among the research participants to adjust curriculum standards to the abilities of their learners was described in the literature (Stanford & Reeves, 2009) as the opposite of what differentiation is. The data indicated that those participants who taught in CLIL tended to develop multi-level tasks because of lack of time. The practice of resource selection and multiple-level task development was found to replace other planning approaches. This practice is consistent with the findings presented by Raskala (2014) in a qualitative study with Finnish teachers who implemented CLIL education and differentiation. According to the results of the Finnish research, teachers also found it easier to develop multiple-level tasks and select resources in the original language, which the internet offers in abundance nowadays, rather than take the time and effort to think about ways of instruction differentiation in CLIL-based classes.

Challenges in Differentiated Instruction The present research also targeted the challenges that teachers in the position of subject coordinators face in implementing differentiation. As suggested by these data, the main challenges that participants faced related to lack of understanding of the concept of differentiated instruction, as well as lack of collaboration. It is interesting to note that despite the officially established and scheduled practices of team-planning at the research site, there was lack of collaboration in improving teaching practices. Furthermore, it was revealed that the participants needed support

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and recognition of their practices. This finding was similar to that of Suprayogi et al. (2017), who claim that collaboration is a key factor in defining teachers’ well-being as well as their professional self-concept. Moreover, lack of time resulting from many work commitments was pointed out as one of the factors creating obstacles to improved differentiated practices at school.

Role of Leadership in Promoting Differentiated Instruction Alongside the teaching practices of research participants, their leadership roles as subject coordinators were explored in the present study. Generally, it was evident that participants employed managerial or transactional leadership typology as proposed by Shields (2009), as opposed to transformational and transformative styles that serve the principles of inclusive education and differentiated teaching (cited in Precey, 2011, pp. 38–39). A transactional typology was reflected in the responses to questions on how participants perceived their main duties. However, these data demonstrate the division between leadership as management and leadership as change. Thus, support and professional guidance of the participants resonated with both leadership styles, presumably ensuring that the subject programs were reflected well in the lessons and the requirements of the curriculum and assessment were followed unanimously by all department teachers. Moreover, a transformational leadership typology is essential for implementing innovative planning and teaching approaches, with UbD being one of these, in order to lead changes on the transformational way towards differentiation. As Precey (2011) claims, the role of transactional leadership should not be undermined, because it has relevance to inclusive education by being a straightforward way of promoting inclusivity in the educational setting with a high level of accountability, which needs to be managed for precision. This perspective explains the opinion expressed by most research participants that it is important to ensure that all teachers understand and implement subject programs in the same manner to the point of subject-content accuracy and relevance. It was furthermore found that all participants took responsibility for communicating the requirements of the subject programs to their colleagues. The limitations of a managerial leadership style can be seen in expectations of subject coordinators in terms of differentiated instruction. The findings show that subject coordinators regarded it as the responsibility of school administration to promote differentiated practices by setting illustrations or demonstrations as best differentiated practices within the school professional development framework. However, it was revealed that school administration held opposing views and regarded it as the responsibility of teachers to create their own differentiated practices through trial and error and research of their practices. This perspective is reflected in Tomlinson and Imbeau (2010), who claim that teachers gain knowledge and understanding of differentiation from their daily experiences with all the pitfalls and successes of these. In the present study, subject coordinators who perceived it as their responsibility to set changes in motion in order to improve their teaching practice expressed

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a more positive attitude to differentiation, as they could exercise more autonomy over curriculum and assessment standards by implementing innovative approaches and accommodating multiple learning needs. This finding also resonates with the concept of increased teacher self-efficacy through increased professional autonomy and actualization of the improved practices (De Neve et al., 2015; Tomlinson, 2016). Teachers improve their perceived self-concept and professionalism by becoming more autonomous decision-makers and leaders. However, the research findings suggested a need for professional development programs to help teachers at the research site in building an accurate conceptualization of differentiated instruction and establish stronger collaborative practices. Furthermore, it was the coordinators who perceived differentiation through the lenses of democratic values, including learning diversity and difference, who significantly fostered self-learning and professional development of their colleagues, exemplifying the constructivist approach to leadership (Lambert, 2003). They considered it their responsibility as subject coordinators to ensure that teachers were involved in research practices and had opportunities to develop their teaching skills through improved collaborative practices, including team-planning, demonstration lessons and mini-presentations to colleagues from other departments. This finding resonates with what Lambert (2003, p. 425) called “learning community” for the enhancement of all individual teachers’ “leadership capacities”. The central claim of constructivist leadership proposes that every teacher is a leader on the premise that they can learn and construct meaning of their learning, thus promoting the key principles of inclusive education and creating the contextual, cultural, and pedagogical framing for differentiated instruction.

Conclusion and Recommendations In summary, the perceptions of differentiated instruction varied among research participants. Some of them perceived it as a way to accommodate learning needs, interests, and various learning styles. Some participants still perceived it as an abilitybased approach relating to accommodating curricular and assessment standards rather than primarily meeting the needs of learners. Furthermore, those teachers who perceived it as a way to accommodate learners’ cognitive abilities believed that differentiation can be taught and learned, as opposed to those who perceived it as an individual empirical practice that can be explored and shared. The present study indicates that the teaching practices of participants are defined by teachers’ understanding of differentiated instruction. Those teachers who perceive it as a way to create multiple learning opportunities use innovative planning and teaching approaches, such as backward planning, understanding by design and strategies that draw on multiple learning profiles. The challenges that the participating teachers encountered were mainly caused by lack of collaborative practice and an ability-based approach to differentiated instruction. There was a dearth of school-wide collaboration that would identify the

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priorities for creating shared understanding of differentiated instruction and how it should be promoted through planning and teaching practices, as well as collaborative work along and across school departments. Because of the deficit of informal, intrinsically driven collaboration grounded in common goals and priorities, planning and teaching practices also lacked vision and the main principles of differentiated instruction. The retrofitting practices that were evident accounted for curricula and assessment standards rather than differentiation of content, process, and learning outcomes based on learners’ interests, readiness. Profiles created barriers to learning and deprived teachers of the opportunity to increase their autonomy and self-efficacy. As the research results show, the role of leadership in differentiated instruction is mainly defined by a transactional leadership style, as coordinators perceive it as their responsibility to develop and revise the subject program and ensure support and guidance to novice teachers in relation to curriculum standards and requirements. Coordinators who foster self-learning and enhancement of their teaching practices through research apply a constructivist leadership approach. However, because of lack of bottom-up, teacher-initiated informal collaboration, this approach is rare and few participants apply it.

Recommendations The recommendations made are consistent with the research findings and addressed to the research site community. First of all, it is important to create a common understanding of differentiated instruction by means of improved collaborative practices. Collaboration should become a priority for promoting and improving differentiated teaching at school. Teachers need to receive professional support and encouragement through informal professional development sessions, including improved practices of team-planning, lesson observation and research-based practices. The policy on differentiation should be developed collaboratively at the research site. It is important for the school management and leadership at the research site to create a learning community that will, in its turn, create school leaders and set changes in motion by pursuing common visions and missions. Furthermore, professional development programs need to be established to help teachers build an accurate concept of differentiated instruction in order to enhance their teaching practices. The finding concerning research participants’ unconscious use of strategies of differentiation without reflecting on them shows that there is a need to develop a concept of differentiated instruction to enhance the differentiated instruction that takes place in their classes.

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Limitations and Implications for Further Research Despite the fact that all research questions in the present study were answered, there are a few limitations that need to be addressed. First of all, in the light of a qualitative approach to the present study, saturation of the collected data was not reached, as the findings varied among the participants. Second, since only one lesson in each research participant’s class was observed, the data did not provide sufficient evidence for data triangulation. Furthermore, the research findings cannot be extrapolated to similar educational settings, as the patterns observed, including similarities and differences in perspectives and practices, were not data-saturated. This implies that the research results need to be enhanced by conducting similar research in schools for gifted students in a similar educational context.

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Tomlinson, C. A. (2016). Why differentiation is difficult: Reflections from years in the trenches. Australian Educational Leader, 38(3), 6. Tomlinson, C. A., & Imbeau, M. B. (2010). Leading and managing a differentiated classroom. Alexandria, Virginia US: ASCD. Tomlinson, C. A., & McTighe, J. (2006). Integrating differentiated instruction and understanding by design: Connecting content and kids. Alexandria, US: ASCD. Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (1998). What is backward design? Understanding by design (pp. 13–34). Alexandria, Virginia US: ASCD. Zainal, Z. (2007). Case study as a research method. Jurnal Kemanusiaan, (9), 1–6. Retrieved from http://psyking.net/htmlobj-3837/case_study_as_a_research_method.pdf.

Part IV

Student Support and Parental Involvement in Inclusive Schools

Chapter 5

The Homeschooling Alternative Zarina Khakim

Introduction Homeschooling or home education is an alternative to a private and public schooling form of education that happens when parents take the primary responsibility for the education of their children (Chapman & O’Donoghue, 2000). This is to facilitate an appropriate learning and teaching environment for a school-aged child at home, rather than at school (Basham, Merrifield, & Hepburn, 2007). After the introduction of compulsory schooling laws in the 19th century, homeschooling became almost extinct (Ray, 2016). Before that, educating children at home was the natural practice in many countries (Basham, Merrifield, & Hepburn, 2007; Staroverova, 2011). In recent years the homeschooling movement has been experiencing a rebirth (Mayberry & Knowles, 1989; Arai, 1999; Jackson & Allan, 2010). The interest in homeschooling has also become evident in Kazakhstan (Atoyanc-Larina, 2015). However, the factors influencing the choice of parents to homeschool their children have not been adequately and sufficiently researched or documented. Why would parents like to take their children out of school and pursue different forms of homeschooling? It is important to explore this gap in the literature and to pose the following research question: Which factors influence parental choices for homeschooling as an alternative to private or public schools in Kazakhstan?

Z. Khakim (B) Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. M. Makoelle and M. Somerton (eds.), Inclusive Education in a Post-Soviet Context, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65543-3_5

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Literature Review Policy Context of Kazakhstan The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan (Kazakhstan, 1995) and the National Law on Education (Kazakhstan, 2007) are two major documents shaping education in the country. Both respect principles and norms of international law (Kazakhstan, 1995, Article 7; Law on Education, 2007, Article 2), guarantee certain rights and impose obligations on the citizens and institutions of Kazakhstan. The Constitution (Kazakhstan, 1995) also asserts the protection of family and parental rights. In particular, Article 28 of the Constitution indicates that “care of children and their upbringing shall be a natural right and responsibility of parents,” which is in accordance with Article 26 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, stating that “parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children” (United Nations, 1948). At the same time, similar to many other countries, Article 30 of the Constitution (Kazakhstan, 1995) guarantees and imposes free secondary obligatory education. However, as suggested by Petrie (2001, p. 480), educational policymakers “often ignore the existence of home education” as a legal form satisfying compulsory education requirements. In fact, international laws recognize “a child’s right to education and they have wisely not specified the form this education should take” (Petrie, 2001, p. 480) with respect to parental rights to choose. The inability of some parents to choose to pursue a desired form of homeschooling in Kazakhstan seems to be a clear impediment to parental freedom to choose from a variety of existing educational options. In Kazakhstan, homeschooling has an ambiguous status; it is not defined as a permissible form of education, but satisfies the compulsory secondary education requirements for children with special educational needs and those temporarily residing abroad via externship or distance learning (Decree 61, 2016). Such separation between permission to homeschool some, but not others, is rather exclusive in its nature and contradicts the principles of inclusive education. Inclusive education in a broader sense stands for “a process that ensures equal access to education for all learners” (Kazakhstan, 2007, Article 1, No. 214), and thus requires provision of equal access to all educational options without excluding one group of people. In this case, all other learners whose parents want to choose homeschooling, externship or distance learning, but cannot because of policies compelling children to attend educational institutions, are disadvantaged. According to Article 49 of the Law on Education (Kazakhstan, 2007), parents have to “ensure the attendance of children in educational organization” and within those “walls” only, when exercising their right to secondary education.

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Understanding Homeschooling There is an extensive body of international homeschooling literature (Kunzman & Gaither, 2013), both quantitative (Butler, Harper, Call, & Bird, 2015; Collom, 2005; Green & Hoover-Dempsey, 2007; Isenberg, 2007) and qualitative (Arai, 2000; Ahmed, 2012; Marshall & Valle, 1996), that covers a wide range of topics, including demographics, the curriculum, socialization, academic achievement, reasons for homeschooling, barriers, legal aspects, relationships with the school, and transition experiences of homeschoolers. Most research in general, as well as in this review, comes from the United States (US), Canada and Australia, followed by Europe. Research that specifically addresses the homeschooling phenomenon in Kazakhstan and neighboring Central Asian countries has not been found. A number of sources, including databases, books, journals, and open-access libraries, have been scrutinized to provide an overview of the most prominent literature on homeschooling. The process of literature detection included a search using key terms, the use of reference lists, bibliographies and summaries by Kunzman (2013) and Ray (2015) on homeschooling research.

Conceptualization of Homeschooling Homeschooling or home education, also referred to as family education and unschooling (Gray & Riley, 2013), is defined as the education of school-aged children based at home (Basham, Merrifield, & Hepburn, 2007). According to the United States National Center for Education and Statistics, children are considered to be homeschooled if their total enrollment in public or private school is less than 25 h a week (Princiotta & Bielick, 2006). Home education ranges from being highly structured “school-at-home” to being highly unstructured “unschooling”. Other homeschooling forms fall somewhere between these two extremes and could be referred to as “hybrid” models (Seibert, 2002, p. 9). In the school-at-home method, parents move the teaching and learning from school to home or to some other location. They conduct lessons using prepared materials for teaching their children at home, as in school (Shields, 2015, p. 27). Some of these modes of homeschooling include on-line and correspondence distance learning, dual and part-time enrollment in local schools, as well as other pre-packaged ready-to-implement curricula courses (Shields, 2015, p. 29). With technological advancement, many homeschooled students engage in distance learning. It was reported that more than 40% of students in the US use distance learning media in their homeschooling practice, including mail, internet, video, audio and other resources (Princiotta & Bielick, 2006, p. 17). However, some homeschooling families prefer to “keep their children out of schools and not do anything like schooling at home” (Gray & Riley, 2013, p. 2). Unschooling is often referred to as a branch of homeschooling (Gray & Riley, 2013, p. 2). In contrast to formal learning, unschooling consists of learning through

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day-to-day ordinary experiences and “can happen anywhere and anytime” (Seibert, 2002, p. 12). For unschooling families, it is more than a method, it is a “way of life” through “initiative-based learning” that goes beyond “artificial structures” such as private and public-school settings (Seibert, 2002, p. 12). Unschoolers do not test, grade and rank children. This approach is seen as a way to nurture and support a child’s natural desire to learn. The term unschooling was coined by John Holt, who was an influential educational reformer, publishing in the late 1960s and the early 1970s (Knowles, Marlow, & Muchmore, 1992, p. 200). A former school teacher, Holt advocated a child-directed educational philosophy. He believed that children will not learn if they are not interested in the topic in the first place (Lines, 1993, p. 20). In the beginning he was among proponents of school reform change; like many others he was enthusiastic about the idea of “making schools into places in which children would be independent and self-directing learners” (Holt, n.d., pp. 1– 2). However, as he described in the book, Teach Your Own (n.d.), Holt started to question the necessity and effectiveness of schools as places for learning for many reasons, including their “bureaucratic and inept” nature (p. 18). Other approaches to homeschooling use classical (trivium), unit studies, Waldorf, and Montessori approaches as a base. As suggested by Seibert (2002, p. 15), hybrid models constitute the majority of homeschools and reflect the flexible nature of homeschooling. That is, parents are free to choose and adjust the curriculum and instruction or not to have it at all, depending on individual subjects or a particular child’s abilities and desires.

Theoretical and Conceptual Approaches to Study Homeschooling Homeschooling takes on various classifications, depending on the way it has been investigated (Seibert, 2002), leading to homeschooling being studied under diverse frameworks. For example, as a phenomenon, it has been studied within the social movement theory (Collom & Mitchell, 2005) and Bourdieu’s cultural capital theory (Kašparová, 2015). Motivations for homeschooling have been studied within a parental involvement theoretical framework as well (Green & Hoover-Dempsey, 2007). Homeschooling has also been looked at and studied as a social movement (Collom & Mitchell, 2005; Knowles et al., 1992), an educational (Gray & Riley, 2013; Princiotta & Bielick, 2006) or legal topic (Kunzman, 2009, 2012; Yuracko, 2008), as well as a “more general issue of citizenship” (Arai, 1999, p. 1; Lines, 1993). Early classifications of home educators’ primary reasons for homeschooling led to a study of homeschooling under Van Galen’s (1988) ideology/pedagogy theoretical framework (cited in Knowles et al., 1992), and an extended variation (Mayberry & Knowles, 1989) or mixture (Arai, 2000; Nemer, 2002) of these views. Van Galen (1988) divides parents into two categories: the ideologues are those in ideological

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conflicts with school, and the pedagogues, who are not satisfied with pedagogical approaches taken in traditional schools (cited in Nemer, 2002, p. 1). Although initially that grouping was useful as theoretical framework, many authors (Arai, 2000; Brabant, Bourdon, & Jutras, 2003; Chapman & O’Donoghue, 2000; Marshall & Valle, 1996) have asserted the importance of using broader topologies to describe reasons for homeschooling that accurately reflect “evolving opinion” and the intricate nature of parental motivations (Brabant et al., 2003, p. 115). Chapman and O’Donoghue (2000) proposed studying motivations prescribing the degree of importance of each reason. Most up-to-date studies and reviews are mindful of such a broad classification of homeschooling motivations (Basham et al., 2007; Ray, 2015) and researchers design their studies accordingly. Brabant et al. (2003) employed the motivation framework in their quantitative study of the Quebec homeschooling population in Canada. In the study 203 participants who were selected with the help of local homeschooling agencies and associations completed the questionnaire with 50 statements about motivations. Statements were “invoked in the specialized and scientific literature on the subject, and from an analysis of discussions over a Quebec web-based discussion forum on home education” (Brabant et al., 2003, p. 116). The five-point Likert scale was used to indicate the degree of importance of each reason. The study used advanced statistical techniques, including factor analysis, and resulted in the identification of seven main motivational factors: family reasons; objections to the social or pedagogical organization of schools; concerns about a child’s academic and socio-affective development; the transmission of religious, moral or spiritual values; negative schooling experiences; and the child’s particular characteristics (Brabant et al., 2003, p. 112). A similar approach was taken by Ray (2016) in his paper, “International comparative study of the barriers to parents choosing to home educate their children” (in progress), presented at the Global Home Education Conference. According to the author, there is little or no research on “what parents think are the barriers to them choosing to home educate” (p. 4). The purpose of this international study was to identify, understand and compare the barriers parents encounter and to propose solutions for removing them. Ray used purposive, stratified sampling, indicating that there is “no way to randomly sample from all parents in any given nation” (p. 6) to collect the data via online anonymous surveys across several nations, including Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia and Australia. The sample resulted in 1 132 subjects being identified via home education organizations (Ray, 2016, p. 6). Ray used a five-point Likert scale ascribing a level of importance to each barrier previously identified as potentially relevant from past research. The survey instrument comprised 106 items. Preliminary findings suggested that among the strongest barriers globally were “opinions and actions of various persons and groups” about homeschooling, financial resources and costs. Overall, the research design seemed to work adequately to judge the importance of each motivational and discouraging factor by the degree ascribed to each reason and the barrier within that factor. The present study followed a combination of these two approaches to explore the factors influencing parental choices for homeschooling as an alternative to private or public schools in Kazakhstan. The factors that influence parental choices for

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homeschooling positively and negatively were derived from the literature described above concerning the reasons for and barriers to homeschooling. Therefore, the discussion of literature on reasons for homeschooling and barriers to it is essential to understand the rationale behind the empirical approach to the present study.

Reasons for and Barriers to Homeschooling The motives for the choice to homeschool have always tended to be a complex mixture of reasons; nevertheless, earlier studies have attempted to categorize them within ideological and pedagogical orientations. Parents who desired to control the ideological content of the curricula, type of knowledge, and values their children were taught were classified as “ideologically oriented” (Mayberry & Knowles, 1989, p. 215). On the other hand, parents who wanted to provide their children with superior “learning experiences” for academic reasons were included in a “pedagogically oriented” group. Later studies revealed that parents often educate their children at home for a mixture of reasons rather than one particular reason (Arai, 2000, p. 214). Nemer (2002, p. 9) suggested that the growing complexity of parental motivations could be the result of a growing population of homeschooling families. Below is a summary of the most prominent motivational factors for homeschooling as guided by the literature:

School-Based Factors Many parents turn to homeschooling because of partial or general dissatisfaction with public schools. Some parents are not happy with the educational philosophies of schools (Lange & Liu, 1999), the forced curriculum (Chapman & O’Donoghue, 2000, p. 24), failure to account for children’s individual needs, poor quality and environment (Arai, 2000). In a study by Brabant et al. (2003), a school-based factor was found to be the second most important factor, after family reasons. Within that factor dissatisfaction with the social structure of schools was found the most significant. Concerns about the school environment extended to safety, negative peer pressure and drugs. According to Basham et al. (2007, p. 11), parents also wanted to avoid exposure to alcohol and premarital sex by providing more controlled “positive peer social interactions”. Other objections comprised dissatisfaction with teaching methods, the learning experience, and schools’ promotion of conformism (p. 121). School-based factors include other reasons and are considered to be among the main factors influencing the growth of homeschooling (Isenberg, 2007).

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Family-Based Factors The desire to maintain strong family unity has been found to be an influencing factor across many studies. It was found that family projects have been a unifying factor within the two aforementioned categories of ideologues and pedagogues (Mayberry & Knowles, 1989). Parents in this category wanted their children to be raised in communities (Lines, 1993) and to socialize around home in an atmosphere of love and security (Chapman & Donoghue, 2000, p. 30). Research by Brabant et al. (2003) indicated that motivations related to family projects were of major importance for Quebec homeschooling families. Specifically, family-based reasons included “the pleasure of shared discovery”, “happiness and freedom of all family members”, and “close family relationships” (p. 122).

Child-Enrichment Factors Most homeschooling parents desire to create the best conditions for learning and the development of their children. That is, they want to provide children with “a superior educational and social environment” to what is offered at school (Mayberry & Knowles, 1989, p. 220). For example, instead of sending children to school, parents may decide to engage them in extracurricular activities, since they perceive these to be more beneficial. Studies show that an enrichment factor was associated with “statements about a child’s precocity, desire to offer curriculum enrichment” (Brabant et al., 2003, p. 123) and the intent to provide “higher academic performance through one-to-one instruction” (Basham et al., 2007, p. 10).

Values and Beliefs Factors Many parents choose to home educate their children because of both religious and non-religious beliefs. Religion was found to be an important motivational factor for homeschooling in many countries, ranging from the US (Chapman & Donoghue, 2000), to the United Kingdom (UK), to China (Sheng, 2015) and to South Africa (de Waal & Theron, 2003). As estimated by Petrie, the approximate proportion of families educating children at home for religious reasons in the UK was around 40% of the total of homeschooled children (Petrie, 2001, p. 494). Many religiously motivated homeschoolers were conservative Christians who would object to the secular curriculum of schools and resist state intrusion in their natural right to educate their offspring (Chapman & O’Donoghue, 2000, p. 26). There are representatives of other faiths among homeschoolers as well (Ahmed, 2012). Religiously inspired homeschoolers were on the frontier of the early homeschooling movement in the US (Gaither, 2009, p. 338). The recent trend, however, is that ideological beliefs seem to become less important reasons for homeschooling than pedagogical ones (Green & Hoover-Dempsey, 2007, p. 266). For instance, a study by Brabant et al. (2003, p. 126) found that in Quebec homeschooling families’

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“motivation directly related to God and religion rank at the lowest level of importance.” In this case parental values and beliefs may stem from other sources. As suggested by Lang and Liu (1999), at times parents opt for homeschooling because of their personal parenting philosophies.

Parenting Factors Findings by Brabant et al. (2003) revealed that parents wanted to be actively involved in decisions concerning the curriculum, educational materials and other aspects of a child’s education, which many educational systems do not allow. Results from a study of 136 homeschooling parents by Green and Hoover-Dempsey (2007, p. 264), grounded in parental involvement literature, suggested the importance of parental “active role construction” in the decision to homeschool. Some reasons related to parenting include transmission of their own cultural capital to their children rather than the cultural capital imposed upon them from a broader educational system. As suggested by Kašparová (2015, p. 165) in her study of the Czech homeschooling population, some homeschoolers “perceive themselves as promoters of a different cultural capital.”

Barriers In comparison with abounding literature on homeschooling motivations, literature on barriers is rather scarce. Based on past research by Ray (2016, p. 5), there are seven factors related to barriers: “legal aspects, support systems, opinions or actions of various groups, personal experiences, costs and resources, concerns about children, personal views”. Among barriers enumerated in a number of articles are restrictions of parental rights to homeschool, school resistance to homeschooling, and its inhibition by various institutions (Ray, 2016, p. 4). Other barriers include financial obstacles, the curriculum workload, legal frameworks and “narrow restrictions applicable to homeschools” (Nemer, 2002, p. 5). Kašparová (2015, p. 167) indicates that these barriers are based on “structural discrimination intrinsically built in the requirements” for homeschooling, a negative school attitude and little school cooperation, the dominant role of the school as a gatekeeper for granting permission to practice homeschooling, legal issues, financial resources, and lastly, hindrances arising from remnants of the former political regime. Gray and Riley (2013) studied the challenges and benefits of unschooling among n = 232 international participants via an online survey. “Overcoming social pressure” and “deschooling of the parent’s mind” were the two most frequent challenges among parents, i.e. families found it difficult to go against prevalent societal norms, were often criticized for their practice, and were in internal conflict between their choice and older beliefs (p. 14). Other barriers were of less importance, except “legal issues”, which differed among countries. In particular, 5% found legal issues to be an important challenge in the US, 33% in Europe, and 75% in France (Gray & Riley, 2013, p. 15).

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The Kazakhstani Context In Kazakhstan, little change concerning the regulation of homeschooling has been introduced since the communist regime, when it was a prohibited practice unless a child had special health needs. Under Article 49 of the Law on Education (Kazakhstan, 2007), parents are responsible for ensuring the attendance of educational institutions (school) by their children. Failure to do that results in legal consequences. Home education in the form of externship or distance learning is still permissible for children with special needs only (Order 61, 2016; Order 137, 2015). In contrast, some post-communist countries have introduced friendlier homeschooling policies. For example, home education is a viable educational form satisfying compulsory secondary education requirements in Russia (Russian Federation, 2013). Albania is another country that is moving away from the homeschooling practice being illegal to becoming accepted (Hagen, 2011, p. 54). Many researchers coming from the post-Soviet context emphasize the struggle over the power pertaining to education (Hagen, 2011; Kašparová, 2015). Hagen (2011, p. 64) links mandatory governmentcontrolled schooling to the power of controlling ideas taught to the next generation, suggesting that those in control of education are not willing to share it easily. However, some parents around the world have been able to exert their own control through the unschooling ideology. In a recent study by Makoelle (2020), it was found that although homeschooling is favored by some parents as an alternative to regular schooling, some parents expressed interest in the concept that to some extent their children should be allowed to attend school with their peers for socialization purposes.

Methodology Research Paradigm and Epistemological Stance The research paradigm leads “the investigator, not only in choices of method, but in ontological and epistemological fundamental ways” (Guba & Lincoln, 1994, p. 105). Making the statement about the researcher’s positionality is believed to assist in gaining better understanding of the research (Egbert & Sanden, 2013, p. 38). With this in mind, the researcher would like to state a personal overall worldview, which is a critical interpretivist paradigm in the context of Islamic values. In this study, the intention with regard to the issues concerning the homeschooling phenomenon in Kazakhstan is rooted in a critical emancipatory view, particularly when it comes to official permission to choose homeschooling as a legal option that satisfies the compulsory educational standards of secondary education.

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Research Design The study employs mixed methods, which are used when a single method may not be enough to answer the research questions and account for all details (Creswell, 2014, p. 565; Ivankova, Creswell, & Stick, 2006, p. 3). The justification for integrating qualitative data into the predominantly quantitative data in this research is grounded in the idea of development in tailoring the instrument, as well as expansion to augment, supplement and add richness to the findings (Conrad & Serlin, 2011, p. 153). An embedded mixed method design with the main data coming from the quantitative cross-sectional survey was employed to address the research purpose of the study. Creswell (2014, p. 570) describes the embedded mixed method design as the collection of quantitative and qualitative data with “one form of data playing a supportive role to the other form of data”. In this study the qualitative data collected through document analysis played the secondary role with the purpose to inform, support and augment the main quantitative data from online surveys. The data were collected sequentially using different methodological approaches. Because of the dearth of research on this topic in the Kazakhstani context, the first part included a qualitative document analysis of news reports involving interviewed members of the target population. These data helped to obtain preliminary information about homeschooling experiences of parents from the target population and to tailor the survey instrument to the Kazakhstani context. This was followed by a cross-sectional survey, which is the collection of data “at one point in time” in order to determine “attitudes, beliefs, opinions or practices” of parents and their homeschooling choices (Creswell, 2014, p. 403). An online survey service at au1.qualtrics.com was used to collect the data from subjects. Data analysis, particularly descriptive statistics and factor analysis, was completed using SPSS (version 22) statistical software.

Participants The target population for the study was parents interested in homeschooling who identified themselves as supporters and promoters of alternative forms of education in Kazakhstan. These were members of two online groups created on one of the social networking platforms available in Kazakhstan. For the purpose of this study, these are referred to as group A and group B. Group A was a publicly accessible group with about 400 members and group B was a closed group with approximately 20 members. These two virtual online groups that were created on one of the social networking platforms were chosen as the primary research site for the present study. The researcher intentionally does not disclose the name of the site and groups to maintain the confidentiality of the participants.

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Instrument Survey Instrument: Questionnaire The choice of instrument for the survey was a self-administered anonymous online questionnaire. This instrument “enables researchers to reach difficult populations under the cover of anonymity and non-traceability” as well as providing “greater authenticity of responses” owing to free choice participation (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2011, p. 280). The questionnaire started with a welcoming statement and an indication of importance to motivate respondents. Then, an online consent form was displayed to respondents with “Yes/No” response options, allowing them to proceed or to terminate the survey. The questionnaire was adapted and modified from the instrument designed by Ray (2016) for his “International comparative study of the barriers to parents choosing to home educate their children” and the instrument used in the study “Home education in Quebec: family first” by Brabant et al. (2003). The necessary permissions to use, enrich and modify the instrument items, questions, and statements was received by directly contacting Dr. Ray and Dr. Brabant via email. The questionnaire consisted of two parts. The first included general questions on homeschooling and demographics, including gender, family income, religious preference and other issues. Then, respondents were asked to ascribe the degree of importance to each item from 27 statements on motivations and 21 statements on barriers influencing their choice of homeschooling (from strongly disagree to strongly agree). These statements were carefully selected from the two above-mentioned instruments, modified and enriched as guided by the literature review and findings from the qualitative document analysis in order to adapt them for the Kazakhstani context. All questions included “don’t know” options to avoid forced answers (Cohen et al., 2011, p. 284). The last question in the questionnaire was open-ended and asked participants to elaborate on the previous questions or to provide additional comments. The instrument was translated and launched in Russian. Before that, a pilot version was distributed to two people independent of the present study for further improvement and identification of potential weaknesses. The survey link was then posted on the social media platform and sent in Messenger to around 50 members of the social media platform groups.

Data Collection The study was conducted in accordance with a sequential embedded mixed methods design, which assumes separate sampling procedures for qualitative and quantitative strands. Purposeful sampling, in which the researcher uses “special knowledge or expertise about some group to select subjects who represent the population” (Berg & Lune, 2011, p. 50) was used to select the virtual research site and two online groups within it. Those groups were chosen on the basis of active interest in homeschooling, as reported in several media reports.

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Document Analysis According to Merriam, Tisdell and Ivonne (2015, p. 162), ‘document’ is an “umbrella term” for many sources of written, visual material and digital information. In this study, four text-based national news reports on interviews with members of the target population were used. Data coming from news reports provided preliminary information on factors influencing parental choices for homeschooling to tailor the main survey instrument for the Kazakhstani context. Moreover, data coming from documents enabled the researcher to enrich the final findings by adding textual comments to them. On the homepage of public group A, links to 14 media reports about the phenomenon of homeschooling in Kazakhstan were pinned and posted by the group moderator. Three of these reports were purposefully sampled to choose reports with actual interviews with members of the target population. Special attention was paid to forms of homeschooling, reasons for homeschooling and barriers to homeschooling. These data collected from documents helped the researcher to tailor the following survey instrument to the Kazakhstani context.

Survey Instrument: Questionnaire As asserted by Lines (1993, p. 23), “researchers can only sample discrete populations of home schoolers. They can only sample lists; and homeschoolers get on these lists only through self-selection”. With this in mind, two strategies were used to ensure a larger sample. First, the link to the online anonymous instrument at au1.qualtrics.com survey services was posted on the virtual site. Secondly, approximately 50 active members of group A were “hand-picked” and the link to the survey instrument was sent directly to them via Messenger, asking them to participate in the survey (Cohen et al., 2011, p. 157). The sampling resulted in 30 completed and 10 partially completed questionnaires.

Data Analysis Document Analysis Document analysis was guided by the following research sub-questions: • What homeschooling forms, options, and experiences are popular among parents interested in home educating their children in Kazakhstan? • What are reasons (if any) and barriers (if any) for homeschooling among parents interested in home education in Kazakhstan? Four news reports on homeschooling were analyzed, using a constant comparative method (Thomas, 2011, p. 70). Documents included five interviews with parents who

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decided to homeschool their children with no special needs in Kazakhstan. Reports described homeschooling forms, as well as parental motivations and the struggles they underwent for their choice of home-based education in Kazakhstan. The analysis included coding, categorization and abstraction of the data according to the research questions. Particularly color-coding of “key ideas” led to the identification of preliminary temporal constructs and second-order constructs and categories (Thomas, 2011, p. 71). A storyboard technique was used to see the logic and connections among identified constructs, labeling main constructs as themes. Then, descriptive and meaningful statements by each parent from four reports were extracted and translated into English (since the original text was in Russian).

Survey Instrument: Questionnaire Once participants had completed the survey, data were uploaded to the SPSS software (version 22) directly from au1.qualtrics.com survey services. This was to avoid potential input errors and to allow for the automatic process of variable computation in SPSS. The responses to the main two questions asking about reasons and barriers to homeschooling were provided in the form of a five-point Likert scale. For each item (statement) the average mean and standard deviations were calculated. Those statements on barriers and motivations that scored the highest mean from 4 (agree) to 5 (strongly agree) were qualitatively analyzed to sort the statements into guided categories. As suggested by Combs and Onwuegbuzie (2010, p. 3), in mixed research “researchers from all paradigmatic traditions potentially can utilize both quantitative and qualitative analyses”. The process of analysis was continually cross-checked with the analysis procedures used in the studies by Ray (2016) and Brabant et al. (2003). Results and findings were presented narratively and by using tables and figures.

Ethical Considerations The study was conducted in accordance with the general ethical principles for educational research. Strict measures were taken to protect anonymity, confidentiality and non-traceability to ensure that “participants do not leave the research worse off than when they started it” (Cohen et al., 2011, p. 104). The survey was anonymous. Respondents’ answers were sent to the link at au1.qualtrics.com, without collecting any identifying information, including IP-addresses. Data were stored in password-protected electronic format and processed confidentially.

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Findings This section presents major findings of the mixed methods study aimed at exploring factors influencing parental choices for homeschooling. Qualitative results will be presented first and survey results (quantitative) will follow.

Document Analysis Four news reports were obtained from public reports, which are “official, ongoing records of a society’s activities” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 164). These documents were selected purposefully and analyzed using a constant comparative method. Data from reports came from interviews with five families from the target population, including three fathers, interested in homeschooling their children without special needs in Kazakhstan. Among five families, three reported that at least one of the parents in their family had a pedagogical qualification. In order to protect confidentiality, the names of parents are not disclosed. Instead, they are referred to as Alia, Madina, Alen, Ruslan, and Gena.

Qualitative Result One: Homeschooling Forms and Experience This subsection presents findings pertaining to the following research sub-question: What homeschooling forms, options, and experiences are popular among parents interested in home educating their children in Kazakhstan? Document analysis revealed that parents pursued homeschooling via externship and distance learning. Despite the legal prohibition on home educating children with no special needs in Kazakhstan, these parents were able to find ways to choose the desired forms officially. However, to pursue the option, these parents had to “think out of the box” and to adjust to the given circumstances. Table one below provides a summary of key information received from document analysis pertaining to the above question (Table 5.1). Most parents interviewed for the reports chose a distance learning form of homeschooling, followed by externship. This form is legally available to families enrolling their children at schools abroad or to families residing abroad themselves. Therefore, to comply with the national law, Ruslan and Alen had to look for schools providing distance education in Russia and Gena’s family had to leave the country to pursue the distance learning option at a Kazakhstani school. These findings suggest that the distance learning experiences of the families differed a lot, specifically when it came to the use of technology. Ruslan (NR3), whose two children were enrolled in a Russian school, stated that the children attended virtual classes “with no more than 10 students in each” several days a week. He mentioned that “there are no schools

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Table 5.1 Homeschooling forms and experiences Parent

News report#

Characteristics

Form of homeschooling

Description

Struggle over choice and losses encountered

Alia

NR1

Female

Home education/externship

Education is primarily received at home; child attends teachers’ classes from time to time

The child experienced deterioration in health

Madina

NR1

Female, has teaching qualification

Externship

Established Waldorf homeschool

Stopped homeschooling owing to legal prohibitions

Alen

NR2

Male, has Ph.D.

Distance learning

Children are taught at home; distanced teacher supervision

Had to register children at a school in Russia; children will receive Russian high school diplomas

Ruslan

NR3

Male, has teaching qualification

Distance learning

Children take online classes; individualized curriculum

Had to register children at Russian school; children will receive Russian high school diplomas

Gena

NR4

Male, wife has teaching qualification

Externship/ distance learning

Education at home; emphasis on practical application of knowledge

Had to leave the country in order to register the child as a distance learner at Kazakh school

providing such services in Kazakhstan” (NR3). On the other hand, the distance education school form described by Gena rather resembled an externship that lacks the use of technological advancement. It is clearly seen in Gena’s comment, “Due to legal requirements, my child Olga needs to travel to Kazakhstan (from abroad) in May to take an exam” (NR4). Other parents had also struggled over their choice of homeschooling. Alia (NR1) stated that in the beginning the system did not allow her to homeschool for “almost a whole year. I was fighting for that opportunity.” To get permission, Alia had to undergo many inspections and commissions, which resulted in wasted time and a deterioration in the health of her son. Only when this happened did the family receive permission to homeschool.

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When it comes to homeschooling learning environments and educational practices, reports suggest that parents tend to use diverse teaching methods and techniques. Alia (NR1) said that they “take the same subjects as in schools, but explain them differently using videos, posters and cards.” Also, at times they have visiting teachers. Similarly, Gena (NR4) mentioned using “many demonstrational materials and practical activities.” He explained that his seven-year-old daughter, Olga, “already knows the first grade Kazakhstani school curriculum, as well as half of the second and third grade material”, which they downloaded electronically several years previously (NR4). The findings indicate that there is a lack of services, a technological base and available school options that create hindrances for families desiring to homeschool their children in Kazakhstan.

Qualitative Result Two: Themes on Reasons and Barriers This section presents responses to the research sub-question: What are reasons (if any) and barriers (if any) for homeschooling among parents interested in home education in Kazakhstan? Document analysis revealed four major themes in relation to the reasons for homeschooling and two major themes (last two) in relation to barriers: an individual approach, enrichment; health concerns, school-based reasons, parenting and legal issues (see Table 5.2). All the themes derived from these data appear to be relevant and important to all five parents. In general parents believe that they are in better positions to make choices about their children’s education and learning environment. Throughout the reports, emphasis was placed on ‘an individual approach’ and a ‘child’s enrichment’. For instance, Alia explained that the customized approach she used helped her child not only to avoid falling behind the class, but actually to learn faster than former classmates. When it came to enrichment, parents mentioned that they wanted children to think analytically, attend diverse extracurricular activities, and grow in many creative ways free from ‘conveyor education’.

Survey Instrument: Questionnaire Description of Sample The survey resulted in n = 40 completed questionnaires with a 78% response rate (as reported by the survey system). Among these respondents, several cases were excluded from the main analysis owing to mismatch with the stated selection criteria, as the target population for this study was a group of parents interested in home educating their children with no special needs in Kazakhstan. Three out of n = 40 respondents (see Table 5.3) were excluded because although they were interested

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Table 5.2 Themes on reasons and barriers Themes

Quotation from the text to represent the theme

Individual approach

“We use more individualized programs … The child studies no more than four hours per day” (Alia, NR1) “First reason is an individual approach. Every child is different. Everyone has an own biological rhythm, temperament, character, interests, and mood and so on. It is impossible to account for all that if there are 30 students in the class” (Gena, NR4)

Enrichment

“We did not want conveyor education for our child; the one that was received by us or our nephews. We wanted something different, with the emphasis on creative, intellectual, and moral development” (Madina, NR1) “Now the children have more time to spend on their favorite hobbies, attend sport clubs, and engage in theater, dance and singing activities” (Ruslan, NR3)

Health concerns

“A child attending school is chained to a desk for almost half of the day. There is a range of diseases due to this, including scoliosis, vision problems and so on” (Gena, NR4) “My child experienced trauma at birth. Though, by the age of seven, after the long treatment he was absolutely ready to attend school. Problems with health reappeared when I sent him to the first grade. … When he tried to focus in school, he began to get a headache and sometimes bled from the nose; he was pale and tired” (Alia, NR1)

School-based

“There are too many students in class” (Alia, NR1) There are too many subjects in school and children carry these heavy bags from morning till evening. They see almost nothing except school” (Alen, NR2) “I see a lot of shortcomings in the system of modern education … I fundamentally disagree with the objective pursued by traditional schooling, which is writing exams. It leads to the fact that children learn not to acquire knowledge and apply it in practice, but only to pass tests. Also, memorization of historical facts, it dulls our children” (Ruslan, NR3)

Parenting

“We do not refuse schools or traditional education systems. It is just that parents and children should be have an opportunity to choose” (Alia, NR1) “Another reason is parental control. When children go to school, almost for 11 years, six hours per day they are out of the home. At the same time, I do not choose any of his teachers, cooks, and environment. What is he/she doing in the meantime? What is he/she being taught? After all, school is also an educational upbringing. What is he/she being fed with? What is happening to him/her in school or on the road? There was a case when a student killed his classmate with a pen in the class. Another instance in city B, when one student stabbed another. And who is responsible? The child could not be returned. And how many little things happen every day that may leave a mark for a whole life?” (Gena, NR4) (continued)

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Table 5.2 (continued) Themes

Quotation from the text to represent the theme

Legal issues

“In Kazakhstan such measures (referring to distance education) have not yet been discussed. The law says that all students have to attend educational institutions with externship and distance learning options available only for children who physically cannot attend classes” (Alen, NR2) “They did not allow us to homeschool at first … There were problems with inspectors. We had to go through many committees” (Alia, NR1) “We had to stop homeschooling, since an externship option became restricted to children engaged in professional sport and those having special needs” (Madina, NR1)

Table 5.3 Are you a parent of at least one school-age or pre-school age child? Valid

Missing

Frequency

Percentage

Valid percentage

Cumulative percentage

Yes

34

85.0

91.9

91.9

No

3

7.5

8.1

100.0

100.0

Total

37

92.5

System

3

7.5

40

100.0

Total

in homeschooling, they appeared not to have children yet. There were also n = 5 respondents who indicated no interest in choosing homeschooling as an alternative to school education for their children (see Table 5.4). Lastly, cases were excluded where respondents answered only demographic questions and did not respond to the main questions on motivations for homeschooling and barriers to it. Overall, the selection resulted in the exclusion of n = 15 cases from the analysis, leaving n = 25 analyzable questionnaires. Table 5.4 Would you like to choose homeschooling as an alternative to school education for your child? Valid

Missing Total

Frequency

Percentage

Valid percentage

Cumulative percentage

Yes

32

80.0

86.5

86.5

No

5

12.5

13.5

100.0

100.0

Total

37

92.5

System

3

7.5

40

100.0

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Demographic Information From n = 25 respondents, n = 22 (88%) were identified as female and n = 3 as male (12%) (see Fig. 5.1). The majority reported being married (72%), followed by 12% who were divorced (see Table 5.5). There were n = 12 respondents (48%) who reported holding bachelor’s degrees and n = 10 respondents (40%) who indicated that they had obtained master’s degrees (see Fig. 5.2). All respondents’ academic attainments were higher than a secondary school diploma, with one respondent holding a doctoral degree (4%). The highest attainment for a spouse or a domestic partner was a master’s degree (20%). The majority or n = 16 (64%) indicated that their income was average. Five respondents (20%) reported a high income compared to others in the country. Two respondents (8%) indicated their earnings to be very low. One participant reported earning a very high (4%) income and another one a low income (4%) (see Figs. 5.3 and 5.4). Most the respondents (48%) reported being “spiritual, but not religious” and 20% indicated they were agnostic, atheist, or did not have any preference (none). Another Fig. 5.1 Gender of participant

Table 5.5 What is your marital status?

Valid

Frequency

Percentage

Valid percentage

Cumulative percentage

Married

18

72.0

72.0

72.0

Widowed

1

4.0

4.0

76.0

Divorced

3

12.0

12.0

88.0

Not married

1

4.0

4.0

92.0

Not married, living 2 with significant other

8.0

8.0

100.0

Total

100.0

100.0

25

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Fig. 5.2 Highest academic attainment

Fig. 5.3 Household income

32% identified themselves as religious, including Islam (16%), Christian (8%), and other (2%). Other religious preferences included the Baha’i faith and Shintoism (Table 5.6). Findings suggest that the two most popular forms of homeschooling among the parents in this study were unschooling (48%) and distance learning (32%), followed by externship (12%) and other (8%). An example of a comment from parents choosing the “other” form, is, “We want to have a mixture of all the forms, the one that combines the strengths of all those mentioned above.”

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Fig. 5.4 Forms of homeschooling Table 5.6 Religion

Valid

Frequency

Percentage

Valid percentage

Cumulative percentage

Agnostic

3

12.0

12.0

12.0

Atheist

1

4.0

4.0

16.0

Spiritual but not religious

12

48.0

48.0

64.0

Islam

4

16.0

16.0

80.0

None

1

4.0

4.0

84.0

Christianity

2

8.0

8.0

92.0

Other (please specify)

2

8.0

8.0

100.0

Total

25

100.0

100.0

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Reasons and Barriers Descriptive statistics were used for analysis of the data. The mean responses to potential reasons and barriers to homeschooling ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The mean of potential reasons (Table 5.7) and barriers (Table 5.8) to homeschooling was calculated and presented in ascending order below. The number in front of the statement corresponds to the order of statements in the questionnaire.

Factors Derived from Reasons and Barriers Findings suggest that dissatisfaction with some element of school and concerns about child enrichment were the main factors positively influencing parental choices for homeschooling. Other important factors included views on parenting, as well as values and beliefs (no religion is mentioned). Negative attitudes, lack of support and legal issues were a significant group of factors negatively influencing parental choices for homeschooling. Among n = 27 statements about reasons for homeschooling, the importance of n = 18 fell into the category between “agree” and “strongly agree”. Table 5.9 presents the statements with the strongest reasons (the highest mean values) for homeschooling among parents in this study. These are dissatisfaction with some elements of school (n = 8 statements), child enrichment (n = 4 statements), family factors (n = 3), parenting (n = 2) and values and beliefs (n = 1). The internal consistency scale Cronbach’s Alpha was used to ensure reliability. Among six factors influencing parental choices for homeschooling, the school and child enrichment were found to be of most significance. These two factors have a Cronbach’s Alpha above 0.7 (see Table 5.10) indicating their acceptability (Muijs, 2011, p. 217) as a scale factor. These were followed by parenting and family. One explanation of a Cronbach’s Alpha below 0.7 on the parenting scale is that it is more of a conceptual name at times, apparently incorporating issues that are uncorrelated to power, choice, and control. Therefore, looking at its mean value is still perceived as important. Three factors were derived from the strongest barriers with the highest means between 4 and 5. These factors that influence parental choices for homeschooling in this study negatively include legal issues (n = 3 statements), lack of Support (n = 2 statements), and negative attitudes (n = 2 statements) (Table 5.11). Table 5.12 represents the means and Cronbach Alpha coefficients for factors negatively influencing parental choices for homeschooling. Based on the internal consistency reliability scale using Cronbach’s Alpha, negative attitudes scale and lack of support have significant coefficients equal to 0.8 and 0.7 (Muijs, 2011, p. 217).

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Table 5.7 Reasons for homeschooling in ascending order of strength Questions

N

Mean

Statis-tic Statis-tic Std. Error 19. I find the school environment physically harmful to my child (prolonged sitting, heavy bags, meals, safety)

25

4.76

.087

17. I am dissatisfied with the quality of educational materials used at school

25

4.68

.138

12. I don’t want to leave my child to teachers whose values and competences I don’t know

25

4.68

.138

18. I am dissatisfied with the curriculum and teaching methods 25 at schools

4.56

.154

11. Competition and evaluation at school are harmful to 25 self-esteem and do not respect individual learning rhythms

4.56

.183

21. I want to provide more guided social interaction

24

4.54

.159

20. I would like to protect my child from unwanted influences 25 (drugs, negative peer pressure)

4.52

.184

3. An individual approach and small-group teaching are more efficient and improve learning

25

4.52

.201

16. I am dissatisfied with teachers’ attitude to children at school

25

4.48

.131

15. School encourages conformism

25

4.48

.165

14. Family and community life is more favorable than school for a child’s social and psychological development

25

4.40

.163

5. I want to develop closer, stronger parent-child relationships and spend more time with my child

25

4.40

.183

13. With the widespread availability of educational resources, technology, and the internet, there is no need for the traditional school

25

4.32

.206

4. I want to develop my child’s morality and character

25

4.24

.226

9. My child has access to more information and stimulation outside school

25

4.24

.210

2. Homeschooling is a family project, for the pleasure of living 25 and discovering together

4.20

.245

1. We can offer superior academic instruction and enrichment at home

25

4.20

.224

10. Education is my responsibility, not the state’s

25

4.08

.215

27. I cannot find the school with alternative educational approaches I desire (Montessori, Waldorf etc.)

25

3.92

.237

7. I want to provide my child with values and a lifestyle in conformity with my philosophy

24

3.88

.265

6. I want to provide my child with values and a lifestyle in conformity with my religion

25

3.68

.269

22. School attendance is not compatible with my child’s particular activities (sport, competitions, art)

25

3.56

.239 (continued)

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Table 5.7 (continued) Questions

N

Mean

Statis-tic Statis-tic Std. Error 8. I want to have more control over what my child is learning

25

3.52

.265

24. We had a negative learning experience at school

25

3.40

.283

26. My child has other particular needs that school cannot cater for

25

3.36

.316

23. School attendance is not compatible with my professional activities or those of the other parent

25

3.08

.276

25. My child has a physical or mental health problem, therefore I want to homeschool

25

1.92

.237

Valid N (list-wise)

23

Discussion As indicated by many researchers, the homeschooling population is not easily accessible, as it tends to be “unwilling to participate in studies by unknown researchers” (Collom, 2005, p. 312). This fact is definitely reflected in the number of just n = 25 usable questionnaires resulting from the survey. Kunzman (2013, p. 5) suggested that a low response rate of homeschooling populations could be due to the “deinstitutionalized nature of the phenomenon” as well as “the distrust with which many homeschoolers regard external surveillance”. Admittedly, the participation of homeschooling families in this kind of study under the present regulations for homeschooling in Kazakhstan may put the homeschooling practice of other parents at risk. This is because currently only children with special educational needs are permitted to be homeschooled. The measures taken to protect the identity of respondents, including the anonymous survey questions, were designed in an attempt to avoid any differentiation between families who are currently engaged in home educating their children and those who are just interested in it. Among the respondents to the survey the majority were female (88%), married (72%) and from middle-income families (64%). These characteristics of the homeschooling population under study were similar to the demographic profiles of the homeschooling population from other studies. Brabant et al. (2003) indicated that females comprised 95% of respondents, and 88% of homeschooled children in the US came from two-parent households (Princiotta & Bielick, 2006, p. 11). Collom and Mitchel (2005, p. 278) indicated that homeschooling parents tend to have higher academic qualifications than the average American adult. The data on the academic attainment of parents in this study support the previous findings. Specifically, 92% of respondents in this survey hold bachelor’s, master’s or doctoral degrees. The findings suggest that the majority of participants (68%) are not religious and 48% of them consider themselves spiritual, but not religious. In fact, only n = 8 respondents from n = 25 identified themselves as religious, with the preference given to Islam, followed by Christianity. The dominance of Islam in this case, as opposed

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Table 5.8 Barriers to homeschooling in ascending order of strength Questions

N

Mean

Statis-tic Statis-tic Std. Error 6. Lack of homeschool support systems and centers

25

4.24

.194

2. Homeschooling is not legal for my child, since it is allowed 25 only for some categories of children in which my child doesn’t fall

4.20

.238

16. Lack of school cooperation

25

4.16

.197

5. Lack of legal support

25

4.12

.211

3. Rules regulating the process of homeschooling are burdensome

25

4.08

.172

9. Schools’ and regional educational administrators’ negative attitudes to and comments about homeschooling

25

4.00

.224

10. Biases towards homeschooling families

25

4.00

.252

7. Lack of Kazakhstani educational programs and curriculum adapted for home education

25

3.96

.255

15. Lack of governmental support

25

3.96

.241

17. Lack of technological and educational resources in schools 25 to provide some home educating options (for example, distance learning)

3.92

.258

20. Being deprived for a long time from access to alternative to school’s educational options, parents in the country are afraid to take responsibility for children’s education at home

25

3.84

.229

4. Homeschooling is legally prohibited in my country or jurisdiction

25

3.52

.272

1. Homeschooling is legal, but policies and conditions giving permission to homeschool are burdensome.

25

3.48

.259

14. Negative comments and attitude to homeschooling from government structures

24

3.29

.285

11. Experts claiming that homeschooled children are not well socialized

25

2.80

.311

8. Most of my relatives, friends, and acquaintances are not supportive of homeschooling

25

2.76

.233

12. Public opinion that homeschooling may influence unity in my country negatively

25

2.64

.310

13. Public opinion that homeschooling may decrease literacy among students

25

2.56

.271

19. Lack of parental time for homeschooling

25

2.56

.232

18. Homeschooling requires financial resources that we cannot 25 always afford

2.52

.246

21. I am uncertain of my homeschooling abilities

25

2.16

.256

Valid N (list-wise)

24

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Table 5.9 Factors derived from the strongest reasons #

Factor

Statement

Mean

1

School

19. I find the school environment physically harmful to my child (prolonged sitting, heavy bags, meals, safety)

4.76

2

School

17. I am dissatisfied with the quality of educational materials used at school

4.68

3

Parenting

12. I don’t want to leave my child to teachers whose values and 4.68 competences I don’t know

4

School

18. I am dissatisfied with the curriculum and teaching methods at schools

4.56

5

School

11. Competition and evaluation at school are harmful to self-esteem and do not respect individual learning rhythms

4.56

6

Child enrichment

21. I want to provide more guided social interaction

4.54

7

School

20. I would like to protect my child from unwanted influences (drugs, negative peer pressure)

4.52

8

Child enrichment

3. An individual approach and small-group teaching are more efficient and improve learning

4.52

9

School

16. I am dissatisfied with teachers’ attitude to children at school 4.48

10 School

15. School encourages conformism

4.48

11 Family

14. Family and community life is more favorable than school for a child’s social and psychological development

4.40

12 Family

5. I want to develop closer, stronger parent-child relationships and spend more time with my child

4.40

13 School

13. With the widespread availability of educational resources, technology, and the internet, there is no need for the traditional school

4.32

14 Values and beliefs 4. I want to develop my child’s morality and character

4.24

15 Child enrichment

9. My child has access to more information and stimulation outside school

4.24

16 Family

2. Homeschooling is a family project, for the pleasure of living and discovering together

4.20

17 Child enrichment

1. We can offer superior academic instruction and enrichment at 4.20 home

18 Parenting

10. Education is my responsibility, not the state’s

4.08

to Christianity in studies from countries such as the US (Ray, 2015) or South Africa (de Waal & Theron, 2003), could be explained by the general predominance of the Islamic faith in Kazakhstan. However, the demographic data from the present study presents evidence in support of Kunzman’s (2009, p. 313) argument suggesting great diversity among homeschooling families and the impossibility of generalizing about them. Unschooling, followed by distance learning, was found to be the most popular approach to homeschooling among parents in this study. These findings were similar to those about the n = 232 international families from the study by Gray and Riley

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Table 5.10 Scale statistics and Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients for factors derived from reasons Factors

Scale label

School

Statements

Number of items

Cronbach’s Alpha

Scale mean

Std. deviation

Item mean

School scale 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,24, 27

10

0.806

46.68

5.566

4.368

Child enrichment

Enrichment scale

1, 3, 9, 21, 22

5

0.752

21.13

3.710

4.225

Values and beliefs

Value scale

4, 6, 7

3

0.704

11.88

2.997

3.958

Family

Family scale

2, 5, 14, 23 4

0.479

3.893

2.768

4.020

Child’s particular characteristics

Child character scale

25, 26

2

0.453

16.08

2.246

2.640

Parenting

Parenting scale

8, 10, 12

3

0.265

12.28

4.127

4.093

Table 5.11 Factors derived from the strongest barriers # Factor

Statement

Mean

1 Lack of support

6. Lack of homeschool support systems and centers

4.24

2 Legal issues

2. Homeschooling is not legal for my child, since it is allowed 4.20 only for some categories of children in which my child doesn’t fall

3 Lack of support

16. Lack of school cooperation

4.16

4 Legal issues

5. Lack of legal support

4.12

5 Legal issues

3. Rules regulating the process of homeschooling are burdensome 4.08

6 Negative attitudes 9. Schools’ and regional educational administrators’ negative attitudes to and comments about homeschooling

4.00

7 Negative attitudes 10. Biases towards homeschooling families

4.00

Table 5.12 Scale statistics and Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients for factors derived from barriers Factor scale

Variable name

Statements

Number of items

Cronbach’s Alpha

Mean

Negative attitudes

Attitude scale

8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14

7

0.845

3.155

Legal issues

Legal scale

1, 2, 3, 4, 5

5

0.332

3.880

Resources

Resource scale

17, 18, 19, 20, 21

5

0.489

3.000

Lack of support

Support scale

6, 7, 15, 16

4

0.660

4.080

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(2013); n = 12 parents (48%) in the present study preferred unschooling, which is an unstructured initiative-based form of homeschooling (Seibert, 2002, p. 12). The results of this choice may suggest that these parents prefer child-directed educational strategies (Holt, 1964) and dislike being constrained with defined curricula. According to the literature, unschoolers are among the first to dislike close supervision of their homeschooling practice by the state (Seibert, 2002). They prefer less control over everything, including the evaluation of their practice. Thus, certain implications pertaining to this preference are presented in the findings. That is, they prefer to have their children evaluated less frequently if at all, contrary to supporters of other homeschooling forms. In a country with restrictive homeschooling laws, to find such a result, where the majority of parents in the study prefer unschooling, is rather interesting. Distance learning was the second preferred form of homeschooling among the respondents. As suggested by Klamm (2012, p. 55), this choice of a home-based online form of education is greatly influenced by the expansion of technology and the spread of the internet. Some advanced distance learning techniques allow for online access to various public and private schools (p. 57), others are limited to the use of telecommunication devices to facilitate correspondence at a distance (Law on Education, 2007, Article 1, No. 38). Results from the document analysis support the quantitative findings. There was interest in pursuing home education via distance-learning technologies. However, because of legal prohibitions on choosing such homeschooling options for their children without special needs in Kazakhstan (Order 137, Ministry of Education and Science [MoES], 2015), some families had to look for educational institutions providing these services abroad. It is important to highlight that parents have been given the right to choose an educational establishment “in accordance with their children’s individual needs” (Kazakhstan, 2007, Article 49) without any geographical restrictions. Among the implications of such a choice is that Kazakhstani children will end up receiving foreign high school diplomas and be deprived of local citizenship education because of the desired homeschooling options permissible in those states. The other homeschooling form chosen by n = 3 of n = 25 respondents in this study was externship. Again, according to Order 61 of 22 January 2016 by the MoES (2016), homeschooling via externship is permitted to students on two conditions only. The first is special needs and the second accommodation of children of citizens’ temporarily residing abroad. As a consequence of such regulations in compliance with legal requirements (to be able to choose a desired form of home education), some families may decide to leave Kazakhstan. The qualitative results from the present study provide evidence in support of this. A parent whose family temporarily moved to another country in pursuit of home education commented as follows: Olga officially studies at the first grade, transferred to distance education. Distance education in Kazakhstan is available only for children with disabilities and those living outside the country. Because my child is not disabled, to go abroad is the only opportunity to remain law-abiding citizens and to act in accordance with Kazakhstan’s law on education. (Gena, NR4)

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While some parents may decide to leave the country temporarily, others could decide to leave the country permanently. That is, there is a potential risk of losing a number of citizens wanting to exercise their right to choose a homeschooling form of education for their child, yet comply with the compulsory secondary education requirements. Therefore, it seems to be in the best interest of the country to ensure equal access of learners to all educational forms, including externship and distance learning. School and child enrichment were found to be the most important factors influencing parental choices for homeschooling among parents in this study (mean = 4.368 and mean = 4.225 respectively). Secondary factors were related to parenting and family (mean = 4.093 and mean = 4.020 respectively). These general findings were consistent with the factors identified in the literature, although it was evident that there were some major differences specific to local parents taking part in the study. During the rebirth of homeschooling in the US (Knowles et al., 1992; Nemer, 2002) and some other countries (de Waal and Theron, 2003; Sheng, 2015), there were two major trends influencing parental choices for homeschooling, i.e. dissatisfaction with schools and parental religious beliefs. The present findings seem to support only the first part of the claim. That is, school-based reasons have been found to be of most importance for the respondents in this study. Three main areas of objections to Kazakhstani schools among parents included concerns about the school environment, academic quality and teaching staff. Similar to the US National Center for Educational Statistics survey results, which revealed that 85% of students were homeschooled, in part owing to dissatisfaction with the school environment (Princiotta & Bielick, 2006, p. 14), this investigation also indicated the importance of such reasons. In fact, the statement, “I find school environments physically harmful to my child”, scored the highest degree of importance (mean = 4.76) above all the others. Such concerns presented themselves during the document analysis as well. This is seen in the comment by Gena: “A child attending school is chained to a desk for almost half of the day. There is a range of diseases due to this, including scoliosis, vision problems and so on” (Gena, NR4). Some concerns about the school environment could perhaps be explained by “chronic underinvestment” in the maintenance of schools in Kazakhstan (Pons et al., 2015, p. 19). According to an Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) review of Kazakhstani school resources, there are schools “that fail to heat properly in the winter, or are too expensive to heat, threaten students’ health and ability to learn in one of the world’s coldest climates” (Pons et al., 2015, p. 19). Therefore, parental concerns about the environment might have some factual base. These data from the present study are consistent with Gaither (2009) and others’ findings (Marshall & Valle, 1996; Ray, 2015) concerning homeschoolers’ dissatisfaction with academic standards, the curriculum, the quality of educational materials and teaching approaches. Statements of this nature were among the five top statements in respect of the average mean of importance. For example, “I am dissatisfied with the quality of educational materials used at school” scored the second highest mean value (mean = 4.68), followed by “I am dissatisfied with the curriculum and teaching methods at schools” (mean = 4.56) among all the other statements. As explained by Holt, “One reason people take their children out of school is that they

130

Z. Khakim

think they aren’t learning anything” (Holt, n.d., p. 13). The present findings seem to support that argument, especially in the light of recent OECD Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2012 results, which showed that students in Kazakhstan are behind their peers in other countries: In PISA 2012, Kazakh students scored on average 432 points in mathematics (the main area of assessment), 393 in reading and 425 in science, while students in OECD countries scored on average 494, 496 and 501 points respectively. The difference in the mean performance in mathematics suggests that Kazakh 15-year-olds are on average two years behind their peers in OECD countries. (Pons et al., 2015, p. 41)

In fact, based on UNICEF 2012 data, it was reported that “Anecdotal evidence suggests a rising trend in school dropout rates as the national curriculum is increasingly perceived as irrelevant to the modern job market, but official numbers are not available” (Pons et al., 2015, p. 41). Therefore, it seems reasonable to see the school as a factor influencing parental choices for homeschooling in Kazakhstan. Another factor that was found to be important is connected to child enrichment. Parents in this category wanted to provide superior academic enrichment and more guided social interaction for their children. Individual approaches and the possibility to incorporate flexible learning schedules with extracurricular activities are the general rationale for this factor. In particular, some parents believed that time spent by a child outside school was more beneficial, since children could attend different clubs and activities. Also among the important and frequently cited reasons were “the provision of higher academic performance through one-to-one instruction” (Basham et al., 2007) and “to accomplish more academically than in schools” (Ray, 2015). The present study has indicated similar findings, suggesting the importance of academic and social enrichment to parents in the education of their children. Further criticism of homeschooling is the argument that homeschooling children tend to be socially isolated. In this regard, it is interesting to highlight that some parents in this study, particularly those influenced by the child enrichment factor, expressed their concern about socialization in school. They wanted to provide a better context for socialization than the one provided in school. As mentioned by Basham et al. (2007) about homeschoolers in the US and Canada, “despite a widespread belief that home educated students are not adequately socialized, the preponderance of research suggests otherwise. The average Canadian homeschooled student is regularly involved in eight social activities outside the home.” The qualitative findings of the present study support such statements. To illustrate, one of the parents’ commented on the benefits of homeschooling: “Now children have more time to spend on their favorite hobbies, attend sport clubs, and engage in theater, dance and singing activities” (Ruslan, NR3). That is, homeschooling for some parents was in a sense a solution to the problems arising from the inability to combine certain extracurricular activities with everyday school schedules. As suggested by the qualitative findings, some parents did not want ‘conveyor education’ for their children; others disliked assessment or disagreed with some other school practice. In a sense, this is similar to the findings of Arai (2000, p. 209), who concluded that the choice of homeschooling as an alternative among his participants

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would start with “a general dissatisfaction with some element of the public school, which led to an investigation of alternatives.” It must be considered though that the legal context affecting parents in the study by Arai (2000) in 2000 was more favorable than the context affecting respondents in this study in 2016. Homeschooling was more acceptable at that point in the US than now in Kazakhstan. Perhaps Kazakhstan is in its initial state of contention (Knowles et al., 1992, p. 198). Therefore, in order to opt for homeschooling, as happened in the early homeschooling years in the US, parents have to have a certain resilience and be committed to their ideas about parenting and education. Parenting and family were the other two factors positively influencing parental choices for homeschooling. The findings of the present study show that the parenting factor was constructed as guided by the review of the literature and the analysis of the results. It is more of an umbrella term, incorporating the following ideas: parental control, freedom to choose, and parental responsibility for the education of children, as opposed to the state. Qualitative findings also suggested similar themes. A father’s comment that was relevant to describe the motivations for the parenting factor is as follows: Another reason is parental control. When children go to school, almost for 11 years, six hours per day they are out of the home. At the same time, I do not choose any of his teachers, cooks, and environment. What is he/she doing in the meantime? What is he/she being taught? After all, school is also an educational upbringing. What is he/she being fed with? What is happening to him/her in school or on the road? There was a case when a student killed his classmate with a pen in the class. Another instance happened in city B, when one student stabbed another. And who is responsible? The child could not be returned. And how many little things happen every day that may leave a mark for a whole life? (Gena, NR4)

It can be seen that parents influenced by such factors want to have control and freedom in decisions pertaining to their children. These parents take on active roles and full responsibility for their children’s well-being and education. This is similar to what Green and Hoover-Dempsey (2007) found important among parental motivations for homeschooling and referred to as parental active role construction, which corresponds with parental beliefs about what parents should do in relation to a child’s education (p. 268). Overall, many studies have illustrated the complexity of parental motivations for homeschooling, suggesting that parents tend to choose to homeschool their children for a combination of reasons, rather than for one particular reason (Ray, 2015). The present findings confirmed that. The desire of parents to enrich a child both academically and socially and dissatisfaction with school results in parental realization of being able to do something about it, i.e. to look at homeschooling as an alternative. Besides, some parents choose homeschooling as a family project for the pleasure of living and growing together (Brabant, 2003). Lack of support, legal issues and negative attitudes were found to be the most important factors negatively influencing parental choices for homeschooling as an alternative to schools. Studies by Ray (2016) and Gray and Riley (2013) showed that the strongest barriers to homeschooling as perceived by parents in the US, Europe and many

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Z. Khakim

other countries were negative attitudes of various persons and groups. As stressed by researchers, “It’s difficult to go against cultural and societal norms. It is especially difficult if relatives and those around you don’t seem to understand or support what you are doing” (Gray & Riley, 2013, p. 14). The present findings partially confirm the results of these two previous studies and indicate the presence of a negative attitude to homeschooling in Kazakhstan. For example, the mean value of the statements “Schools’ and regional educational administrators’ negative attitudes to and comments about homeschooling” and “Biases towards homeschooling families” were positioned among ‘strong factors’ (mean = 4.00), which seems to correspond to the situation where homeschoolers “were in a precarious position – misunderstood and held in suspicion by neighbors and family members, distrusted and occasionally persecuted by authorities” (Gaither, 2009, p. 339). However, while negative attitudes to homeschooling are still among important factors influencing parental choices, the strongest factors in this study are lack of support and legal hurdles. Particularly lack of support refers to the lack of homeschool systems (mean = 4.24), including support centers, and lack of school cooperation (mean = 4.20). In the discussion of the success of the homeschooling movement, Gaither (2009 p. 339) asserted that in the initial stage of homeschooling in the US in the 1970s and 980 s, homeschooling parents were able “to organize themselves into support groups all over the country”. He further described that there were leaders, i.e. education reformers such as John Holt and Raymond Moore, who would travel the country to speak at homeschool group meetings and when necessary at courts, advocating the right to homeschool (Gaither, 2009, p. 339). These support groups would assist homeschooling families in their educational practice and “especially expertise regarding how to navigate the educational and legal system” (Gaither, 2009, p. 339). Definitely, the lack of such organizations and strong educational reformers to motivate, convince and help homeschooling parents is a factor negatively influencing parental choices for homeschooling in the present study. Lack of support could be extended to lack of legal support and legal grounds to pursue home education in general. The second important factor influencing parental choices for homeschooling is thus the legality of homeschooling practice in Kazakhstan. In fact, the mean score of the statement “Homeschooling is not legal for my child, since it is allowed only for some categories of children in which my child doesn’t fall”, has been found to be the second most important statement on barriers to homeschooling among this group of n = 25 respondents (mean = 4.20, se = 0.238). According to the legal documents consulted in the study, homeschooling in Kazakhstan has an undefined status. While there are definitions of externship, distance learning and other forms of education, there is no definition of homeschooling or home education or family education in the definition section of the Law on Education (Kazakhstan, 2007). Moreover, according to Order 61 (2016) and Order 137 (2015), home education via externship and distance learning is available for students with special needs and those residing abroad only. However, as described in the findings section, despite such exclusive laws, families in Kazakhstan who are firm in their decision to homeschool find ways to maneuver the existing laws and rules by choosing educational institutions abroad or leaving the country. Nevertheless,

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legal prohibitions and complicated rules for receiving permission to homeschool are serious factors that could negatively influence parental choices for homeschooling of other families. When it comes to other barriers, this study found no evidence to support Ray (2016) concerning costs and resources, regarded as the second greatest barrier to homeschooling. This could in part be explained, as the study did not differentiate between families who are homeschooling and those who are just interested. Some families may have not yet have experienced financial losses associated with homeschooling. While Ray (2016) also targeted both parents interested in homeschooling and those currently home educating, the author indicated that “almost all respondents are already homeschooling parents.”

Conclusion The aim of the present study was to explore the reasons why parents in Kazakhstan choose to homeschool their children and the barriers they have encountered in doing so. As a result, the present study identified four factors as ‘reasons for homeschooling’ and three factors associated with ‘barriers’. Specifically, the present study found concerns about mainstream schools and child enrichment, as well as parenting and family, to be important factors influencing parents to look at homeschooling as an alternative form of education for their children. Lack of support, legal issues and negative attitudes were other major factors negatively influencing parental choices for homeschooling in this study. As noted by Kunzman (2013, p. 9), reasons that make parents opt for homeschooling are not independent of “their particular circumstances”. Therefore, the study has attempted to look at the context affecting the phenomenon of homeschooling in Kazakhstan. Among the remnants of the former political regime in Kazakhstan is that inclusion in the educational system is “totally dependent on the health of the child” (Kašparová, 2015, p. 170). While the former Soviet regime did not account for a child’s special health needs in the provision of education at school, the present regime does not seem to account for a child’s other particular needs in the provision of education at home. Along with introducing inclusive policies welcoming diversities among all learners in school, the next call for educational policy is to welcome diversity among all educational forms and to respect the freedom of citizens to choose the desired one. This will ensure that all learners, notwithstanding their abilities and disabilities, are assured the best means to education, which is a bigger concept than schooling limited to the educational institutions provided by state and public institutions. There is no place like home, which is a legally accepted place for the provision of compulsory secondary education in countries around the world (Jackson & Allan, 2010; Kim-Soon, Rahman, Bin Sulaiman, & Sirisa, 2015).

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Validity of the Study There appears to be a debate on the use of terms associated with the quality of mixed methods research (Onwuegbuzie & Johnson, 2006). The discussion of validity in mixed methods research is concerned with not only quantitative measurements; rather “validity means that a research study, its parts, the conclusions, and the applications it is based on can be of high or low quality or somewhere in between” (Onwuegbuzie & Johnson, 2006, p. 48). In this regard, validity carries the same meaning as trustworthiness in qualitative research. That is, a researcher “should be self-reflective about his or her role in the research, how he or she is interpreting findings, and his/her political history that shapes his or her interpretation” (Creswell, 2014, p. 283). To this end the researcher was mindful of objectivity, thus contributing to the trustworthiness of the research (Creswell, 2014). In order to validate the accuracy of the findings and results, continuous reference to documents and collected survey data ensured that each theme was supported by multiple sources of information (Creswell, 2014).

Limitations of the Study A number of limitations were associated with the study, including those related to the study approach, sampling, analysis, and interpretation of results. The methods of data collection did not allow an opportunity for face-to-face interactions, which tend to provide deeper understanding of the context affecting the central phenomenon. Sampling procedures were not statistically valid to provide generalizations to a whole population owing to the use of purposive sampling and the resulting sample size. However, purposive sampling is the only type of sampling available to study homeschooling populations (Ray, 2016). When it comes to the instrument and analysis, more selective categorization of statements should have taken place to keep the internal consistency reliability index using Cronbach’s Alpha for scale variables such as parenting above 0.7.

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Chapter 6

Inclusive Classrooms: Perceptions of Social and Academic Achievement Zukhra Bisseneva

Introduction UNICEF (2012) has underscored the importance of monitoring and analyzing the practice of inclusive education, to work on its downsides and disseminate worthy ideas. However, there are no inspections for educational facilities and national arrangements to assess the educational processes of children with special needs (OECD, 2009). Considering that there is no systematic approach to evaluate and monitor practices and outcomes of inclusive education in Kazakhstan, the researcher found it necessary to investigate one particular case of inclusion and find out whether current practices lead to inclusion of all children who study in an inclusive school. This present study is aimed at exploring the perspectives of teachers and parents on the academic and social achievements of children in an inclusive classroom in Kazakhstan, focusing on three main areas: the interaction between teachers and peers, the academic achievement of children with and without disabilities, and activities and materials that are used to cater for the needs of the students in an inclusive classroom. This study was aimed at analyzing a particular case of inclusive education practices in Kazakhstan to identify the outcomes of inclusion. The purpose of the present study was therefore to fill the gap in literature by providing evidence-based findings about teachers’ and parents’ perceptions of academic and social achievements of children in an inclusive classroom in Kazakhstan. Therefore, the following research question served as a compass for achieving this goal: What are teachers’ and parents’ perceptions of academic and social achievements of children in an inclusive classroom?

Z. Bisseneva (B) Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. M. Makoelle and M. Somerton (eds.), Inclusive Education in a Post-Soviet Context, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65543-3_6

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Literature Review Parents’ Perceptions of the Outcomes of Inclusive Practices This section overviews the literature concerning the academic and social outcomes of all children in an inclusive classroom from the perspective of teachers and parents and examines academic studies about educational strategies, which are applied in inclusive classrooms with the aim to enhance the achievements of all students. This review helped to illustrate the overall picture of parents’ and teachers’ perceptions in the international context and to find an approach for investigating academic and social achievements in the present study. The literature demonstrated that in the international context, parents of groups of children with and without disabilities have positive perceptions about inclusion; among authors reporting this are Giangreco, Dennis, Edelman, and Schattman (1993), Garrick Duhaney and Salend (2000), Peck, Staub, Gallucci, and Schwartz (2004) and Ryndak, Downing, Jacqueline, and Morrison (1995). For instance, Giangreco et al. (1993) examined the perceptions of n = 81 parents of children without disabilities of preschool age up to eight years and found that the emotional and social development of children was positively affected and that the placement of children with disabilities did not interfere with their educational experiences. The findings revealed benefits such as increasing personal enjoyment and friendship, an increasing, constructive sense of responsibility, appreciation of individual differences and broadening of children’s personal experiences. The research of Peck et al. (2004) led to the same conclusion, emphasizing the idea that inclusion had social benefits for children without special needs and they became more attentive to the needs of other people. Similarly, parents of children with disabilities held overwhelmingly positive perceptions of the inclusion outcomes for children with moderate or severe disabilities (Ryndak et al., 1995). According to Ryndak et al. (1995), students with disabilities enhanced the acquisition of academic and communication skills such as reading, application of knowledge, interaction skills, language acquisition, breaking down barriers to learning and demonstrating the appropriate learning behavior. However, some parents expressed concerns and negative beliefs alongside with positive perceptions on inclusion. Leyser and Kirk (2004) state that despite social benefits such as the opportunity to be engaged in non-academic activities with their peers and to live in real-world conditions, which has a positive impact on their selfconcept by allowing them to feel comfortable interacting with others, there are three main concerns related to a negative impact on the emotional development of children without disabilities, namely less individualized instruction, the ability of teachers to handle inclusion and the attitudes of parents of children without disabilities (Leyser & Kirk, 2004). Similarly, Leyser and Kirk (2011) examined parents’ views on the inclusion and schooling of children with Angelman syndrome. Their findings revealed that parents tended to worry about social isolation and teasing from peers and teachers’ ability and professional readiness to educate children with such a diagnosis. One of the most striking findings of this research was that despite the support for inclusion,

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parents either did not want their children to continue education in mainstream classes or were unsure about it (Leyser & Kirk, 2011). Another major resentment expressed by parents of children with special needs was about lack of decision-making in terms of the content of educational programs for their children. Despite their dissatisfaction with the content of education in inclusive settings, they were very positive about opportunities for their children to interact with classmates without disabilities (Ryndak, Downing, Morison, & Williams, 1996). Hill (2009) pointed out that parents also mentioned adequate attention and effective educational resources (Hill, 2009). He found that some parents preferred children with controlled behavior to be included, otherwise the situation could negatively affect the time teachers spent on them (Hill, 2009).

Teachers’ Perceptions of the Achievements of Children in Inclusive Classrooms One of the questions that touched off a violent argument among researchers was whether the experience of working with children who have special needs influenced educators’ perceptions of the effectiveness of the inclusion. For instance, Downing, Eichinger, and Willliams (1997) found considerable differences between the attitudes of special and general educators from fully inclusive, partially inclusive and noninclusive settings. The findings indicated that teachers from contexts of full and partial inclusion have more positive views on the benefits for all children than those from non-inclusive schools. As a result of the interviews some benefits, such as a rich learning environment, appropriate behavior, social skills, friendship, role models for children with disabilities, acceptance of diversity and an opportunity to teach others for children without disabilities, were indicated (Downing et al., 1997). Subban and Sharma (2005) supported the idea and argued that past experience of working with children with disabilities stimulated positive perceptions of teachers of the benefits of inclusion. The results of their study demonstrated that generally, teachers had positive attitudes to inclusion. In addition, those who had a family member with a disability or who used to work closely or communicated with people with disabilities were much better prepared for inclusion and held more positive views (Subban & Sharma, 2005). By contrast, Soodak, Podell, and Lehman (1998) claimed that the opportunity to work with children with disabilities and the length of teaching experience had a negative influence on teachers’ perceptions. They suggested that “receptivity of the inclusion diminishes with the experience of teachers” (p. 492) and connected this phenomenon to the disappointment that teachers faced when their efforts dis not have positive effects (Soodak et al., 1998). Whitaker (2011, p. 102), who compared the perceptions of teachers from inclusive and non-inclusive settings, challenged the conclusion of Soodak et al., stating that there was “no significant difference between the perceptions of both groups of teachers in the area of benefits”. Heiman

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(2001) also claimed that the background of teachers did not influence their views on the advantages and disadvantages of inclusion. Similarly, Wu-Ying, Chang-Ming, Ostrosky, and McCollum (2012) found that the length of teaching experience and having experience of working with students with disabilities in the past did not interfere with the perceptions that teachers expressed. Numerous studies came to the conclusion that teachers have neither positive nor negative attitudes (D’Alonzo, Giordano, & Vanleeuwen, 1998; Hodge et al., 2009; Horne & Timmons, 2009; Soodak et al., 1998; Wu-Ying et al., 2012). This point is clearly illustrated in the study of D’Alonzo et al. (1998), who claimed that teachers had uncertain or skeptical views on inclusion and its outcomes for all children. The survey of n = 336 general education teachers showed that they tended to have mixed opinions on or skepticism about the possible benefits of inclusion and agreed that students would face more problems. It is necessary to point out that according to the authors, all participants were aware of the concept of inclusion and 72% of them had special training on inclusion (D’Alonzo et al., 1998). Wu-Ying et al. (2012) suggested that it was likely that participants’ lack of awareness of the concept of inclusive education could be a reason for uncertain attitudes. Horne and Timmons (2009) concluded that additional support from administration and special education training were essential to foster positive perceptions about inclusion among teachers. It should be noted that the literature indicating uncertain attitudes to inclusion also reveals some concerns that affect teachers’ attitudes (D’Alonzo et al., 1998; Heiman, 2001; Hodge et al., 2009; Soodak et al., 1998). For example, several findings suggest that teachers’ attitude depends on the types of disabilities they face in the class (Hodge et al., 2009; Soodak et al., 1998). Soodak et al. (1998), echoed by Makoelle (2020), posits that teachers are more willing to educate students with physical disabilities and fear working with those with behavior disorders, mental retardation, or a learning disability. Analogical interpretation appears in the study of Hodge et al. (2009), who examined teachers’ perceptions on four different cases of inclusion and found that the “level of acceptance in teaching students with disabilities” varies depending on the following types of disabilities: hearing impairment, visual impairment, learning and physical disabilities (414). Another concern was about the lack of time to give instructions to deal with the diverse needs of students (Heiman, 2001; Hodge et al., 2009; Horne & Timmons, 2009). Heiman (2001) pointed out that teachers fear that inclusion may reduce the time they can give to children without disabilities. Horne and Timmons (2009) indicated that some teachers believed that distractions caused by students with special needs during the lesson could possibly result in detrimental effects on the achievement of children without disabilities. Doubt about the ability to handle inclusion was mentioned by D’Alonzo et al. (1998). At the same time, other studies found that teachers felt as if they did not have enough professional preparation and that resources for inclusion were inadequate (Heiman, 2001; Hodge et al., 2009; Horne & Timmons, 2009).

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Impact of Inclusion on Children Without Disabilities One of the concerns indicated by parents’ and teachers was the negative effect of placement of children with disabilities in mainstream classes. Several meta-analyses covered the literature regarding the impact of inclusion on children without disabilities (Hunt & Goetz, 1997; Kalambouka, Farrell, Dyson, & Kaplan, 2007; Ruijs & Peetsma, 2009; Spenser & Duhaney, 1999). Kalambouka et al. (2007), for instance, examined n = 26 studies and found that a total of 81% reported positive and neutral effects: 58% and 23% respectively. Based on this finding, they drew the conclusion that inclusion “is unlikely to have a negative impact on academic and social outcomes for pupils without SEN” (p. 376). The same idea is reflected in the work of Hunt and Goetz (1997) and Spenser and Duhaney (1999). The impact of inclusion of children with various types of disabilities was scrutinized in detail by many investigators (Follansbee, 1996; Kalambouka et al., 2007; Ruijs & Peetsma, 2009; Sermier & Bless, 2013; Staub & Peck, 1995). For the most part, the literature shows that placement of children with disabilities does not influence the academic achievements of children without disabilities. For example, Sermier and Bless (2013) analyzed the academic progress of low, average and high achieving students in inclusive and non-inclusive settings over a year. The statistical analysis indicated no difference in the progress of all children (Sermier & Bless, 2013, p. 28). Similarly, Follansbee (1996) compared the academic achievements of n = 195 children studying in 13 different inclusive classrooms, applying pre-test and post-test measures, and found that almost half of these children had mild disabilities and had no negative effect on the academic achievements of all children across the 13 schools (Follansbee, 1996). By contrast, Farrell, Dyson, Polat, Hutcheson, and Frances (2007) and Ruijs, Veen, and Peetsma (2010) argue that students’ achievements deteriorate with an increase in the level of inclusivity. This means students without disabilities studying in a school where the proportion of children with disabilities and their level of disability is higher register lower achievements than those of similar students from less inclusive schools (Farrell et al., 2007; Ruijs et al., 2010). The authors suggest that students with behavioral problems might demand more attention from teachers or prevent the learning process (Ruijs et al., 2010). However, Hollywood, Salisbury, Rainforth, and Palombaro (1994) and Hunt and Goetz (1997) examined the amount of time that teachers allocated during observation and revealed that the time spent on students without special needs was not affected by the placement of children with special needs (Hollywood et al., 1994; Hunt & Goetz, 1997).

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Academic and Social Achievements of Children with Disabilities Another issue related to inclusion is whether it is socially beneficial to children with disabilities. Some researchers compared the interactions of children with disabilities in inclusive and special settings and found that the level of communication was higher when children with disabilities were accommodated together with peers without disabilities (Bunch & Valeo, 2004; Foreman, Arthur-Kelly, & Pascoe, 2004; Meyer, 2001; Peetsma, Vergeer, Roeleveld, & Karsten, 2001). The study of Foreman et al. (2004), who focused on children with motor and hearing impairments, showed that interactions of children with disabilities and their peers took place during 49% of the observations in an inclusive class, by contrast to 27% in special classrooms (Foreman et al., 2004). Different forms of child interaction have been identified in the literature. Evans, Salisbury, Palombaro, Berryman, and Hollowood (1992) suggest that talking with each other is the most common form of communication among children, from which children with disabilities were often excluded. This study also revealed that children without disabilities initiated more interactions, while students with disabilities did not begin as many interactions with their peers without disabilities. He pointed out that interactions between children with and without disabilities included physical support and care, mainly from children without disabilities, in this way resembling parent-child relationships (Evans et al., 1992). Friendships served as another type of communication (Meyer, 2001). It was indicated that there was no significant difference in the best friend nominations of children with and without disabilities (Meyer, 2001). By contrast, Seymour, Reid, and Bloom (2009) stated that those without disabilities had a wider spectrum of friends, including relatives, neighbors and curricular friends, while children with disabilities had friends only from their educational environment (Seymour et al., 2009). The authors concluded that even when children without disabilities regarded children with disabilities as their friends, they did not prefer them as playmates (Seymour et al., 2009). Buysse, Goldman, and Skinner (2002) drew a comparison between the rate of reported friends in fully and partially inclusive settings and found that those who were fully included had significantly more playmates than their peers in specialized settings (Buysse et al., 2002).

Academic Achievements of Students with Disabilities Turning to the effect of inclusion on academic performance, previous research has shown that overall, there is good potential that children with disabilities can achieve positive learning outcomes in an inclusive classroom (Hunt & Goetz, 1997). The evidence for this statement is illustrated in a study of Rea, McLaughlin, and WaltherThomas (2002), who compared the academic achievements of children with learning

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disabilities in inclusive and pull-out programs, and found that children in inclusive settings registered higher achievements in Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies (Rea et al., 2002). Almost similar findings were indicated by Meyer (2001), who claimed that students in inclusive settings performed better than those in segregated settings by achieving higher scores on the post-test measures (Meyer, 2001). The improvement in adaptive behavior of children with disabilities and completion of the program objectives during the year served as more evidence of academic achievements of children in an inclusive classroom (McDonnell et al., 2003). Cole (2006) found that students with disabilities demonstrated better progress in reading skills compared to those in special settings. However, Rogers and Marie (2003) examined the reading skills of children with learning difficulties who were removed from specialized instruction to inclusive settings over a 12-week period, through reading examinations (Rogers & Marie, 2003). The results showed that the reading skills of four out of five children with learning disabilities decreased over that period.

Educational Structures and Practices to Support Diversity Literature on the effectiveness of inclusion indicates the importance of appropriate educational programs and inclusive practices for better outcomes of children with and without disabilities. Inclusion can be enhanced when teachers apply different pedagogical practices (Makoelle, 2014, 2020). In the development of the inclusive education movement, many researchers become more interested in educational practices that could meet the diverse needs of students and enhance academic and social achievements of children in an inclusive classroom. Downing et al. (1997), for example, examined the perspectives of teachers on additional needs for successful inclusion. The study revealed that from the teachers’ perspective, the needs of all children could be satisfied by applying strategies such as collaborative teaching with highly skilled paraprofessionals, curriculum adaptations and cooperative learning approaches (Downing et al.). These strategies were considered effective for inclusive education by other researchers (Makoelle, 2020; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2001). Studies on collaborative learning in inclusive classrooms showed that children with learning barriers could benefit from this teaching strategy. For example, Magiera, Smith, Zigmond, and Gebauer (2005) made observations in eight Mathematics classes that included children with disabilities and interviewed four teachers and special educators. They came to the conclusion that well-organized co-teaching can be effective in terms of engaging students with diverse needs in the process of acquisition of mathematical knowledge. Scruggs et al. (2007), in turn, analyzed different qualitative research dedicated to collaborative teaching, and found that co-teaching is not only beneficial for teachers, but also positively influences the academic achievements of children with learning barriers. Another strategy is the cooperative learning approach, which is aimed at bringing students together so that they can solve a

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common problem and motivate one another for better learning. Many studies indicate that cooperative learning is especially beneficial for children with special educational needs (Dugan et al., 1995; Jenkings, Antil, Wayne, & Vadasy, 2003). Three main benefits of cooperative learning, namely “improved self-esteem, provision of a safe learning environment, and greater success rates on classroom tasks, and/or better products” were found in the study of Jenkings et al. (2003, p. 287). Jenkings et al. also suggest that cooperative learning enables children with disabilities to be engaged in classroom activities and to enhance their learning. Curriculum adaptation is about actions aimed at adapting content for the needs of children with a range of learning needs (Lee et al., 2006). Curriculum adaptations are effective in terms of facilitating inclusion. Children with a diverse range and level of abilities could reap benefits in individual learning outcomes if multilevel instruction is applied in the same curriculum (Giangreco & Doyle, 2000). Lee et al. (2006) identify different types of curriculum adaptations, including graphic organizers, chinking (linking ideas together), mnemonic strategy, a student-directed learning strategy and self-determination. The authors claim that the application of these adaptations will allow students with disabilities to achieve better academic outcomes in the general curriculum (Lee et al., 2006).

Methodology Research Design A qualitative single-case study design was applied in the present study with the aim to explore the perceptions of teachers and parents of the academic and social achievements of children in an inclusive classroom in Kazakhstan. According to Hamilton and Wittier (2013, p. 3), the case study in educational research allows the researcher to gain deeper understanding of teaching practices, the learning process, the communities in which education takes place and the individuals concerned. The application of a case study design in the present research provided an opportunity to explore a unique example of the application of inclusive education settings in Kazakhstani schools and opened up avenues to determine the outcomes of present inclusive practices. To conduct this research, one particular type of case study identified by Yin (2009, p. 53) as a single-case design, which focused on one inclusive classroom in Kazakhstan, was used in this study. One of the most valuable advantages of applying a case study design in this research is that it initiates action towards analysis and evaluation of inclusive education settings. The findings could promote inclusion further.

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Participants and Research Site The research site for the present study was an inclusive classroom in Kazakhstan selected by using purposeful sampling. The reason for using this type of sampling was that teachers and parents of the children who studied in this particular inclusive class possessed the knowledge and experience necessary for the present research. A fifth-grade inclusive class was selected for a number of reasons. First of all, this class had practiced inclusion from the time the school was opened. Secondly, the children of the class had just recently finished primary school and had experience of studying in both settings: primary and secondary. Finally, this class included children with different kinds of disabilities and most of them had moved to this class after being in a special school, which allowed the researcher to determine the impact of inclusion on the academic and social achievements of these children. According to the supervisor of the class, there were n = 25 children in the class: the performance of n = 5 was excellent, that of n = 17 good, and only n = 3 merely had satisfactory marks. There were n = 4 children with disabilities (three were hearing impaired and one had cerebral palsy). Five parents were involved in the present study on the basis of their insights and knowledge of their own children’s needs. They were informed about the research and invited to participate in this study during the regular term teacher-parent meeting. Two of the parents had children with hearing impairments (WHI). One child WHI and one child without any disability joined the class in the second grade; the remaining three children had been studying in the class since the beginning. The perspectives of teachers are also important for the present study, since they facilitate the inclusive setting and have the opportunity to observe the process and application of inclusive practices and their outcomes directly. To engage teachers for the present study, the researcher personally approached each of them and explained the purpose of the study and the conditions of participation. Overall, five teachers were interviewed. Only one of them had experience of working in a different school setting (school for children WHI) and another one had worked for more than a year in the present class. Before working in this inclusive class, four out of five teachers were trained for inclusion on a two-month in-service training program. All teachers and parents participated on a voluntary basis.

Instruments Two types of methods, interviews and observations, were employed to conduct qualitative research. Both methods provided data from different perspectives, which enabled the data to be triangulated. Such triangulation is advantageous, since it allows the researcher to build “converging lines of inquiry”, thus making the finding of a case study more precise, accurate and valid (Yin, 2009). The data collected for

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the present case study included written observations, interview notes and interview audiotapes.

Interview The interview is regarded as the most powerful instrument for obtaining data in the framework of a case study (Yin, 2009) as it gives participants the opportunity to express and convey their own interpretations and perceptions of the world they live in (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2011). One of the main advantages of this instrument is that it provides the researcher with an elaborated personal experience (Creswell, 2014). The present research was based on an open-ended interview protocol, which provided the avenue to gain solid and deep perceptions about the central phenomena. Two different interview protocols, one for parents and another for teachers, were prepared. Both protocols included 10–12 questions drawn from the literature review that were divided into three sections in correspondence with the three main research questions. The first section concerned the social achievements of children, the second was about academic performance, and the last was dedicated to the teaching strategies and methods used in the present class to enhance the achievements of children. To avoid risks concerning the sensitivity of the research topic, personal one-onone interviews were conducted with each participant. All interviews lasted approximately 30 minutes and were held in the school’s study rooms. Before conducting the interviews and signing the informed consent forms, all participants were verbally informed about the aims of the study and were advised of their rights in relation to voluntary participation, the confidential nature of the research and the risks and benefits of participation. Five parents agreed to be audio-taped; however, the teachers did not consent to digital data recordings and their responses were therefore recorded as field notes. The interviews were held in Russian and then transcribed and translated into English.

Observation Observation is an approach to data collection that enables researchers to obtain firsthand information by observing the behavior of people and research sites (Creswell, 2014). The purpose of observation in this instance was to enrich the data concerning students’ interactions inside and outside the classroom, and their academic skills and participation during the lessons. One inclusive class was observed on four separate occasions by applying a non-participant observer approach, defined by Creswell (2014) as an observation in which researchers observe on the side without any involvement in the activities. Observations in the present study were focused on particular categories, such as student-teacher interactions, peer interactions, teaching

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strategies and materials used at the research site. All the information gathered during the observations was entered into an observational protocol. To record the observation data the observational protocol included four dimensions required for the research. The field notes were written in a reflective format, which implies that the personal thoughts of the researcher were included, as well as the ideas and themes that emerged during the observation (Creswell, 2014). The observations were conducted over two days and each took 45 minutes: three lessons on the first day and one on the day after.

Data Collection The research procedure began after institutional ethical approval had been received following identification of the research site and negotiation with the administration of the school. The data collection lasted one week. Prior to beginning the data collection, discussions were held between the researcher and the supervisor of the class to obtain a class schedule and to find a way to contact the parents of the children studying in the class. The supervisor invited the researcher to a teacher-parent meeting and a short presentation of the research aims, protocols, risks and benefits was made. Potential participants had an opportunity to ask questions about the research prior to providing their voluntary written consent to observe their children in class. During this meeting there were parents who volunteered to participate in the interviews. The interviews with parents were conducted over three days and each conversation lasted approximately 30 minutes. The time and place of the meeting with parents were scheduled in advance via phone. Interviews with teachers were discussed prior to the lessons and conducted after the observations. This process was completed over a twoday period. After the data collection had been completed, the researcher transcribed and translated all interviews from Russian into English, prepared a database for the analysis and saved each data set in password-protected secure files on the researcher’s personal computer.

Data Analysis Data analysis began with the interview field notes and transcripts, which were divided into three themes that addressed the main research questions. Coding was undertaken by looking for particular codes in each section in the data. Kerlinger defined coding as a process of labeling a piece of the data into a specific category that could emerge from the participant’s response or could be decided in advance (Kerlinger, 1970 as cited in Cohen et al., 2011, p. 559). The process of coding enabled the researcher to find similarities in information gained from different participants, as stated by Cohen et al. (2011). To facilitate the data analysis process the researcher worked on printed transcripts, marking the evidence in the categories, simultaneously

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comparing the categories of two groups of interviewees, and found similar frequencies of different events in the evidence of both groups. These frequencies were united into subcategories and named. After that, the results of analysis of the responses were matched to observation notes, which were also split into three themes and coded. After completing the data analysis, the researcher proceeded to the interpretation of the results. The results of the data analysis are presented in the form of narrative discussions. Findings are organized by applying several strategies. Firstly, they are presented in accordance with the data sources: parents, teachers, and observation. Secondly, the data description includes findings of the present research that are divided into three themes, which provide the answers to the main research questions. Each theme includes categories and subcategories that were extracted during the analysis.

Ethical Considerations Because of the sensitive nature of the research, ethical considerations are very important when interacting with human subjects. Ethical approval was provided by the institutional ethics review committee of the Graduate School of Education. The application and accompanying informed consent form provided information on the purpose, methodology, possible risks, the benefits of the present research and participants’ rights to anonymity and confidentiality. The essential part of this approval is an informed consent form prepared especially for participants to give them a choice to participate or not. This form includes brief information on the research and its possible consequences and the dangers and regulations of the participation and was provided to participants in Russian or Kazakh. Participants were also provided with a copy of their signed informed consent form, giving them the opportunity to contact the researcher, should any issues arise.

Findings Data Themes The interview data are divided into emergent themes that correspond to the main questions of this research. Each theme includes categories and subcategories that are organized according to the triangulation of interviews with parents and teachers, and the observation data. The first theme concerns the social achievements of children in an inclusive classroom, which answered the following question: “How do students interact with their peers and teachers in an inclusive classroom in Kazakhstan from the perspective of teachers and parents?” The second theme is about the academic achievements of children and presents findings on the research question, “How did

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inclusion affect the academic achievements of all children in an inclusive classroom?” The third theme concerns the strategies applied in the present inclusive classroom, thus answering the remaining research question: “What kinds of teaching strategies and resources are used by teachers in an inclusive classroom in Kazakhstan to address the needs of all children in the class and enhance their academic and socialization skills?” The final section of this chapter presents triangulation of the data summary on the same themes from the different sources of data.

Theme 1: Interaction “How do students interact with their peers and teachers in an inclusive classroom in Kazakhstan from the perspective of teachers and parents?”

Perspectives of Parents Category 1: Friendship. The first theme is friendship among all children, a subject that was mentioned by all parents. Discussing the relationships among children, most of the parents mentioned the friendship between children with special needs and their peers without disabilities. Here are two concrete examples: Inclusion affected the behavior of my daughter. Considering the fact that she did not attend preschool and that she is the youngest child and there are only adults in our family, she had a lack of experience of interaction with children and was a bit shy. However, when she started to study, she became more sociable and demonstrated passion about attending the school, especially when she saw that there were children who are different (children with hearing impairments); she wanted to know them better and even started to learn sign language. They still have kind relationships and common interests and when she is at home they usually interact through social networks and phone. (Parent 2) There is a great friendship among them; they create such a warm atmosphere, which plays an essential role in their socialization. I am glad my child is studying in this class. Besides Alena (another girl with hearing impairment, her best friend from childhood) she has other friends; they interact through social networks and sometimes they go outside together with the parents. (Parent of child WHI1)

A parent whose daughter without disability joined the present class in the second grade noticed that her child spends more time with her present classmates than she did at her previous school. She often asks permission to stay longer at school with her classmates; they play or discuss home tasks together sitting in the canteen. From to time they meet outside the school, but mostly they use social networks to communicate. (Parent 3)

These quotations demonstrate that children in this inclusive class have close relationships. They interact not only within the school but also outside, by using different

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social networks, phone applications and outside activities. Parents noted that friendships develop between children with disabilities and children with no disability, as well as between children without disabilities. It can also be inferred from these quotations that children without disability are eager to learn sign language to form close relationships with those WHI. One of the most striking features in talking with parents is their accuracy while they talk about children with learning barriers, which shows their tolerance of them. They avoid the terms disability or special needs, saying instead “children with weak hearing abilities” or “girl with motor difficulties”. Category 2: Acceptance of diversity. Another essential component of the microclimate of the present class is the high level of acceptance of diversity among the children. Two parents of children with disabilities pointed out that their children were accepted without problems from the first days of schooling and their children never mentioned difficulties in socialization in the class community or about feelings of exclusion. The mother of the child WHI 1 whose daughter was moved to the present class from a special school found it is unusual that her child feels more confident among the present classmates. She never had difficulties in communication with her classmates; all children accepted her easily. By nature she is shy, but in these surroundings she feels comfortable and speaks her mind freely and sometimes can even admonish someone’s inappropriate behavior. (Parent of child WHI 1)

Another parent of a child WHI, who came to this class in the second grade, answered: She was accepted normally; the class itself was very supportive, children were brought up with values of unity and cohesion by their primary teacher. (Parent of child WHI 2)

Two parents of children without disabilities also noted that inclusion of children with special needs made their children more open and flexible in terms of communication with diverse people: Studying in such an atmosphere, my child forgot the term “invalid”; now she understands that these children are the same, they just hear and walk in different ways, but it does not mean anything to her. (Parent 2) Studying with children with diverse needs, my son became tolerant; he adequately perceived children who did not look like him. Children with cerebral palsy or other diagnoses are not a wonder to him. I am sure in the future he will never discriminate against such people. (Parent 1)

Parent 1 regarded the increased level of acceptance of people with different needs as one of the benefits a child reaps when studying in an inclusive classroom. In general, from the parents’ point of view, children in the present inclusive class have positive peer-to-peer interactions and relate to one another with kind respect. Category 3: Peer support. The next subcategory of the positive microclimate is peer support, which was mentioned in each transcription of the interview with parents. According to parents, children of the present inclusive class were very supportive and emphatic. Parents pointed out that children helped the girl with cerebral palsy (WCP) to carry her bags and other belongings when they moved from one class to another:

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When I saw how children from our class helped Aigul (pseudonym) to walk and care for her belongings, I understood that children learnt how not to be indifferent to the troubles of others. (Parent 1)

Another parent mentioned that children without disabilities also assisted children WHI when there was no tutor with them: In the beginning children with hearing impairment spoke very poorly, but children without disabilities involved them with care and attention, assisting them during the lesson and explaining things they did not understand afterwards. (Parent 2)

Parent 3 mentioned that sometimes his/her daughter without disability does homework together with other children after the lessons. “They gather in a group of five to seven children and assist one another with the home task. … As far as I know this group work was initiated by the children themselves”. According to Parent 3, his/her child alternates the roles of tutor and tutee, depending on the situation. This finding was unexpected and suggests that students practice a peer tutoring learning approach. In contrast to peer tutoring that is usually set up by teachers, in this case it was initiated by students. Category 4: Student-teacher interactions. The present subcategory is based on one of the following interview questions: “How do you think teachers in your class cope with the necessity to meet the needs of all children? Are you and your child satisfied with the amount of attention being paid by the teacher during the lessons and outside the class?” All parents responded positively. Parent 3, for instance, said: “My child never complained about insufficient attention from the teacher, that is why I think everything is fine.” Two parents stated that teachers managed to pay equal attention to every student: “Especially now, when children with hearing impairments better perceive the information given by teachers, I think that the attention given by teachers is enough for them too.” Two parents of children WHI, whose children were moved from special school settings, said that compared to the special class, where the class size was smaller and teachers could spend more individual time with each child, there was no such opportunity in the mainstream class. However, they were absolutely satisfied with the amount of time and attention teachers spent on their children while there was a tutor with them: “Now there is a tutor with them and I am absolutely satisfied with that, otherwise I can imagine that it is not easy to pay attention to every child.” Parents also pointed out that all teachers are accessible so that children can approach them at any time to ask support.

Perspective of Teachers Category 1: Friendship. In general, teachers believe that there is a benevolent atmosphere in the class and children relate to one another with mutual respect and kindness. In one of the interviews the teacher pointed out that peer-to-peer relationships in the present class are much better than those in non-inclusive classes of the same grade. Teacher 2 confirmed it by saying following:

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While working with this class I have never observed conflict situations. All children are very kind and considerate, compared to their peers from non-inclusive classes.

Three teachers stated that there is mutual willingness to build relationships between children with learning barriers and children with no disability. Children with special needs are good at socialization with other students; for instance, X (the girl who has cerebral palsy) is a very active girl, she is the soul of the class; everybody loves her and she reciprocates their feelings. Girls with hearing impairment also strive to be a part of the class community. (Teacher 5)

Two other teachers claimed that children without disabilities look with favor at children with learning barriers, but three children WHI spend most of the time together and to some extent are closed in their surroundings. As I observed, children with hearing impairment have a welfare mentality … I mean that children with no disability relate to them with an open heart, but they do not get the same attitude from those with hearing impairment. Mostly I see those three girls talking together. (Teacher 2)

Teacher 2 assumes that the close friendly relationships of the parents of these three girls could be the reason for their friendship. Another teacher (4) just mentioned that in the class children WHI interact well with all classmates, but outside they usually go together. He/she supposes that girls WHI could feel more comfortable with one another for this reason and prefer being together. Category 2: Acceptance of diversity. According to teachers, children without disabilities have tolerant attitudes to children with learning barriers. Most teachers mentioned equal relationships between children with and without learning barriers, by which they meant that children shared class responsibilities equally, respected different opinions and never abused one another because of the differences among them. Teacher 1 stated: “Children with special needs are treated exactly like normal children, and nobody labels or excludes them for any reasons”. Teacher 3 supported this opinion, saying that: All children interact as there are no differences between them. Even if there are some situations when, for example, children with hearing impairments are struggling with the answer, their classmates do not get irritated or hurry them up. Children without disabilities are aware of the difficulties these children have and never emphasize those difficulties.

This quotation shows that children without disabilities accept those with learning barriers the way they are and focus on their abilities rather than their disabilities. From the teachers’ point of view such an attitude allows children with learning barriers to feel comfortable in the class, which in turn affects their personal development positively. Speaking about the learning experience of the girl WCP, Teacher 4 provided an example of how children with learning difficulties develop when they are accepted equally: The girl with cerebral palsy does not feel as if she is different. She strives to study on the same level with others; despite the fact that she has difficulty in walking, she always comes up to the blackboard and participates in class activities. She even refused to use a wheelchair in order to feel like a normal child … All the children admire, respect and rally around her.

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Category 3: Peer support. All teachers like parents, mentioned peer support. From their point of view peers without disability usually support children with learning barriers. Teachers indicated that students without disabilities assist their peers with learning barriers physically and intellectually. By physical support, they imply actions such as bringing a chair, carrying children’s bags or other belongings and helping them to move. Teacher 5 stated: “Children without disabilities are learning to be tolerant and to demonstrate kindness towards children who have difficulties. They carry X’s bag and other belongings from one class to another and someone always walks next to her to support her.” Teacher 4 told the following story: In the first days of working in the present class X and her friend were late for class, and when they came in there were no extra chairs. After a short time, when I was about to ask someone to bring more chairs, one boy gave his chair to X, went out and brought two chairs even without my request. This was surprising for me, because usually children need to be pushed or kindly asked to help someone, but not in this class. I think these children were brought up by their primary teacher to be supportive to those who need it.

With regard to intellectual support, some teachers mentioned learning assistance. Two teachers pointed out that children without disabilities often help those WHI during the lesson. For instance, Teacher 5 explained that “children without disabilities take responsibility for tutoring when he/she is absent from the class. They repeat the questions or tasks and explain to them how to cope with that”. Another one said: I often notice that while talking together (children WHI and children without disabilities) or discussing something, it appears as if one of the girls WHI do not understand a word. In such a case all the children start to explain it to her by using gestures or words. (Teacher 4)

Theme 2: Academic Achievement “How did inclusion affect the academic achievements of all children in an inclusive classroom?”

Perspective of Parents Category 1: No negative effect. Three parents of children without disabilities concur that inclusion did not affect the academic performance of their children negatively. Parent 1 stated: “Inclusion does not influence the development of students with no disability negatively. For instance, my son’s performance was excellent from the first grade. I think the opposite is even true, because any time he has a problem he could ask other children to help him.” Parent 2 also said, “My child gets high grades in all subjects; she/he never had problems with studying, so that is why I think there is no effect.” Overall, the interviews with parents showed that the influence of inclusion is positive rather than negative. Some benefits of inclusion that children reap from

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studying in the class were also indicated. Those benefits are presented in this section as a separate category. Category 2: Academic challenges of children WHI. Two parents of children WHI pointed out the challenges connected to the transition of their children from a special to an inclusive classroom. A parent of the child WHI 1 mentioned that his/her daughter had difficulties in coping with particular subjects, which made her tense: Since the curriculum is more intensive here, it is more difficult to study in this school, even though for some tasks we get a discount; for example, children WHI can learn only half of a poem. New subjects such as Kazakh and English have been introduced and she is struggling especially with these. In the beginning we were told that there was an opportunity to skip these subjects and instead work with a speech therapist on pronunciation. However, it was not allowed and now my child has to attend these lessons.

She/he also stated that sometimes the child finds it difficult to understand the speech of other children and specific terms in Mathematics. In contrast to the previous opinion, the parent of the child WHI 2 said that challenges that his/her daughter faced in the present class positively influenced her studying process. According to him/her, after the special class the child was moved to another mainstream class, where her academic performance became even poorer and she/he intentionally requested the administration to send her/his daughter to the class with higher academic requirements. She/he said that “I found that in the present class she became more organized and diligent; I suppose that when the requirements are higher the child learns better.” Category 3: Academic benefits of inclusion. As mentioned before, a number of benefits of inclusion were mentioned in the interview with parents. The researcher classified the benefits into two subcategories, namely motivation and skill acquisition. Subcategory 1: Motivation. Two parents whose children attended the class observed in the present study later pointed out that their child’s level of motivation to study had increased in the present class. One of them commented: “I see that my daughter became more diligent and responsible for her studies and as a result her academic performance was enhanced.” Parent 3 of a child without disability assumed that it was to some extent connected to the inclusiveness of the class, saying “It seems to me that her friends with weak hearing somehow motivate her to study better, to explore new things and to demonstrate decent conduct.” This view was echoed by Parent 1: In terms of academic achievement she always strives to get as high marks as her friend, (a girl WHI). The academic achievement of that girl motivates her to study better. (Parent 1)

The comments above illustrate that children with disabilities are likely to encourage other students to achieve better academic results. Subcategory 2: Skill acquisition. This category showcases the evidence on skills and interests of children studying in the present class. For instance, Parent 2 and Parent 3 both noted that placement of children WHI widened the horizons of their children. Both of them reported that their children without disabilities learned sign language to understand their friends WHI better. The parent of child WHI 1 emphasized that during the time the child spent in this class, his/her vocabulary level increased. He/she supported the argument by saying:

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The inclusion is beneficial for my child since it is a speech atmosphere, where she learns many new things and practices her vocabulary potential. Within this class she explores the world and adapts to it. It gives her an opportunity to see different people and learn how to socialize with them. (Parent of child WHI 1)

In discussing the benefits, the parent of the child WHI 2 commented that “Active participation in various events and collaborative learning with other children made my daughter more versatile and interesting.”

Perspective of Teachers Category 1: No negative effect. Teachers as well as parents believe that inclusion has no negative effect on the academic achievements of all children. Talking about the effect of inclusion on children without disabilities, one teacher reported: It does not seem as if inclusion had a negative impact on the performance of other children; everybody works at his own pace. Children who are better at doing tasks continue to do other tasks, not waiting for the classmates who have not completed the first one yet. (Teacher 1)

This opinion was supported by Teacher 3 and Teacher 4, who expressed the belief that the grades of children without disabilities would be the same without placement of children with disabilities in the class. The other two teachers held the opinion that inclusion does not affect the learning potential of children without disabilities negatively, but it affects the time and the amount of attention given by teachers during the lesson, which in its turn reduces the opportunity of children without disabilities to perceive more information and a better quality education. The comments illustrate the evidence for this statement: Sometimes it happens that I pay more attention to children WHI, at such times other children stop doing their tasks and I feel as if I lose control over the class. I think in these cases there is a risk that children without disabilities can suffer from insufficient instruction. … But, it is only when the tutor is not in the class. (Teacher 2) I gave the task to the students and then started to work with children WHI, who have different books and themes for the lesson. While working with them I could not pay attention to others and the lesson came to an end. There is a lack of time to check the work of other children who mostly work independently, and to give them additional instructions if they need those. I think that children without disabilities are somehow slighted in terms of the time I spend on them and the quality of the knowledge they receive. (Teacher 5)

In both situations, teachers mentioned that this happens only when there is no tutor in the class, who usually gives instructions to those WHI. Category 2: Academic challenges. Some challenges encountered by children with disabilities were indicated in interviews with teachers. Teacher 1 pointed out that “The girls WHI do not usually work on the blackboard or give theoretical answers. They have difficulties in doing that.” Teacher 5 also stated that during the lesson these girls work in their places only. Another teacher mentioned problems with understanding information in the Kazakh language. He/she said “I give them instructions with the

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translation, because they do not recognize the articulation of the sounds in other languages except Russian.” Interestingly, the remaining two teachers did not notice any challenges children WHI have and none of them said anything about challenges the girl WCP might experience. Category 3: Motivation. Speaking about academic achievements, Teacher 5 characterized the whole class as a class with “good academic achievements.” He/she said that the children were attentive to school work, and they always did the tasks on time and actively participated during the lesson. Teacher 3 suggested that their good academic performance was connected to their high motivation for the learning process. However, even though both these teachers considered motivation as a recipe for the success of the class, they did not connect it with the inclusion of children with disabilities in the present class. By contrast, Teacher 4 suggested that inclusion influenced the motivation of other children. He/she reported that X—the girl WCP— was actively engaged in the learning process and influenced others to do so. He/she stated: She strives to study on the same level with others; despite her difficulties in walking she always comes up to the blackboard and participates in class activities … All the children admire and respect her and rally around her. She is an example of a student who motivates others to learn better. (Teacher 4)

Turning to the girls WHI, Teacher 1 pointed out that children WHI were not motivated to study, saying the following: “I don’t see that they are motivated to study, it often happens that they are not prepared for my class.”

Theme 3: Teaching Strategies “What kinds of teaching strategies and resources are used by teachers in an inclusive classroom in Kazakhstan to address the needs of all children in the class and enhance their academic and socialization skills?” This section includes all three data sources. Category 1: Teaching strategies and methods Subcategory 1: Group work. Group work was the common teaching method mentioned by almost all parents. Most of them claimed that in primary school their children practiced collaborative learning, which they considered effective in terms of socialization and engagement of children in the learning process. One of the parents commented: I don’t know what happens in the class at present since I haven’t visited them this year, but during primary school their teacher applied group work. She usually divided them into groups and gave them tasks to find the information using the internet, smartphones and other gizmos, which are available to most of the students. Working in the group every child was engaged, so that all of them could add information and then everything that was found was discussed and analyzed in collaboration. I appreciated this approach, because it helped every child to contribute to the task and to remove the competitiveness among them. (Parent 1)

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Turning to the teachers’ data, only one teacher reported the application of group work, saying, “I from time to time practice pair work by combining children with different levels of performance together to enhance the knowledge acquisition of weak children” (Teacher 1). Subcategory 2: Curriculum adaptation. The interview with teachers and observation provided data on specific adaptations that were used to meet the diverse needs of children. Parents and teachers mentioned that in some subjects the program was simplified for those WHI. Most of the participants mentioned that these children used different books in English and Kazakh and the requirements for the tasks in this subject were reduced. A parent of the child WHI 1 stated: Even though for some tasks we get a discount, for example, children WHI can learn only half of the poem, new subjects such as Kazakh and English languages have been introduced and she is struggling especially with these.

Two teachers indicated that such adaptations were used in language disciplines, since children WHI have difficulties with language acquisition. Teacher 2 and the parent of a child WHI mentioned that some teachers wore red lipstick that helped children WHI to lip-read. Subcategory 3: Tutors. Almost all interviewees agreed on the point that tutoring is one of the main resources used to enhance academic performance. The parent of the child WHI 1 claimed that the academic achievements of students WHI hinge upon the tutor’s instructions; he/she confirmed that by saying the following: During the time when the grade four children WHI were instructed without a tutor, I observed a regression in the academic performance of my daughter. I understand that a tutor is of great importance for an inclusive classroom, since he/she helps them to be on par with other students. What is more, our tutor used to work in a special school with other children WHI. He/she understands our children and has close and warm relationships with them.

It was unexpected to hear the same opinion from parents of children without disabilities, for example Parent 1, who said, “These children need a tutor because they do not always understand information the first time and the tutor could help them with that.” From the perspective of teachers, the tutor served as a facilitator of the instruction delivery process in an inclusive classroom. Teacher 2 stated “The tutor helps me to conduct the class in a more effective way. It is more convenient for me to give instructions to him/her and then work with other students, while he/she is working with children WHI.” However, even though all teachers realize the benefit of having a tutor in the class, some concerns were found about tutoring. For instance, Teacher 4 pointed out that a “tutor is essential for children with special needs, but I often notice that he/she does the home tasks for children, which I consider not useful for them. I request him/her not to do it, because I need objective results.” Another teacher mentioned the noise caused by the special educator while giving instructions, saying, “It is sometimes a bit distracting when the tutor gives instructions to children WHI …”. Category 2: Additional findings Subcategory 1: Assessment. In speaking about assessment, most of the teachers claimed that children with disabilities are assessed as doing better than their real

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achievement. Teacher 1 confirmed this statement in these words: “I usually award higher grades to children with disabilities, because I do not want to discourage them …”. Other teachers held almost the same opinion, except Teacher 2 who said that even though overall he/she gives these children good marks, he/she may give lower marks if they do not prepare home tasks. Parents also know about such approaches to the assessment of children with disabilities in the present class. Both parents of children WHI agreed that such an approach motivates their children to learn better. When I asked the parent of the child WHI 1 about her attitude to it, he/she stated: It is 50/50; everything depends on the child’s personality. For instance, my child likes getting good marks and it motivates him/her to strive for better achievements. But maybe it could influence other children in a different way and even make them lazier.

The parents of children without disabilities suggested that it is fair, since children with disabilities have less potential. Parent 1 commented on this statement, saying that “it is a support for such children, because they already have physical difficulties and if the teacher shows that it is somehow reflected in their performance it will hurt them twice.” Subcategory 2: Teacher’s commitment. Most of the participants mentioned that the dedication of the primary teacher of the present class to his/her profession and his/her commitment to the goal to make children more inclusive played an important role in their further social development. Parent 2, for instance, said: “A warm and friendly atmosphere of the class is a great merit of their first teacher. She united them and taught them how to live and study together.” Another parent confirmed that by saying the following: Till the fourth grade we had one teacher who put all her effort into making this class inclusive. She contributed to the children’s understanding of diversity and taught them to accept one another the way they are. Now there are different teachers working in the present class. Many of them never had the experience of working with children with diverse needs. It is very important for these teachers to accept such children and to have a positive attitude to inclusion, because these children are very sensitive and understand every gesture of the teacher.

Teachers also mentioned the contribution of the first teacher. For example, Teacher 2 mentioned that “while working with this class I have never observed conflict situations. All the children are very kind and considerate, compared to their peers from non-inclusive classes … I think this is the impact of their first teacher who saturated them with such morals.”

Observational Data Observational data showed that overall the microclimate of the class is positive and warm. All children maintain friendly relationships and no negative events or conflict situations were observed during the two days of observation. Children without

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disabilities treat children with disabilities in a respectful manner. The common interactions among children without disabilities are playing and talking to each other, while interaction among children with disabilities and those without them mostly take the form of children without disabilities providing physical and learning support or approaching those with disabilities and initiating dialogue. It was found during the observation that three students WHI tended to communicate with one another during the lesson and breaks. One of the most striking features of the interactions between children WHI is that they usually sit next to one another during the lessons and every lesson they switch their pairs, thus sharing the company of the others. For instance, during the first lesson the student WHI 1 and the student WHI 2 sat together, while the student WHI 3 shared the table with a peer without disabilities. In the second lesson, the student WHI 2 was sitting alone, while the student WHI 1 and the student WHI 3 were together. For the third lesson the student WHI 2 and the student WHI 3 were together and the student WHI 1 was sitting alone. The physical support dimension was observed on the second day when the girl with WCP attended the class. When the girl WCP entered the class, she was assisted by one girl, but when the class ended, another girl approached her to help with her belongings. Thus, it was found that this type of support was mostly provided by the girls, who shared this responsibility among them. During the lesson the girl WCP was active and participated in class activities on a par with children without disabilities. She had interactions with her peers, which were mostly initiated by her. During the lessons children without disabilities demonstrated active participation in classroom activities, which included question and answer activity and work on the blackboard. On the contrary, students WHI did not participate in those activities. Only during the Kazakh lesson did the teacher try to engage them in the active learning process by asking questions, but a student WHI did not understand the question and when even his classmates translated it, this student still had difficulty in answering. In language subjects students WHI used a different text edition. The time different teachers spent especially on students WHI varied from five to 15 minutes. When approaching a student WHI all teachers talked more loudly than usual and articulated their ideas clearly and slowly. Generally, teachers worked alone and the tutor that was mentioned by parents during the interviews was not observed. In one lesson, classroom tables were arranged as three big tables so that children were sitting in three groups of eight students per group. It was found that in that arrangement the interactions between children with and without disabilities were enhanced and those WHI were engaged more actively in talking.

Triangulation of the Data “How do students interact with their peers and teachers in an inclusive classroom in Kazakhstan from the perspectives of teachers and parents?” Overall, from the perspective of parents and teachers, inclusion had a positive effect on the class environment. Children in the present class demonstrate tolerance

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to diversity and have close, friendly relationships. From the parents’ point of view there is a mutual initiative to build friendship. Some teachers agreed on this point; however two of them thought that children WHI tended to spend more time with one another. Three hours of observation in three different lessons also showed that those WHI always sat together; they rotated seats in each lesson, thus sharing the company of the others equally. It was also found that usually children interact in the form of talking with one another, but although children WHI engaged in this process, in most cases those interactions were initiated by children without disabilities, usually girls. In the case of the girl WCP, she could easily initiate interactions and be in the center of these. It was also found that interactions of children with and without disabilities could be enhanced when the class arrangement is adapted for a group work. Sitting in one group with peers without disabilities encourages children with disabilities to be more involved in talking. Speaking of peer acceptance, both teachers and parents held the same point of view. All of them claimed that diversity was recognized and respected. Parents whose children only joined this class later found no difficulties in the socialization of their children. Teachers in turn said that children easily got used to the diversity of the students and tolerated them. The observation also revealed no signs of exclusion of or discrimination against children for any reason. Peer support was another finding reflected in the data from three different angles. Parents and teachers mentioned physical and intellectual support. From the parents’ point of view there is mutual support between children, which means that children without disabilities do not help only children with disabilities; support is also offered among children without disabilities. The teachers’ opinion to some extent contradicts the opinion of parents, since they generally place emphasis on support from children without disabilities to those who have learning difficulties. However, caution must be applied, as the duration of the observation might not be sufficient. “How did inclusion affect the academic achievements of all children in an inclusive classroom?” The findings on academic achievements of children in inclusive classrooms suggest that in general inclusion has no negative impact on the academic performance of children without disabilities. This statement was supported by the respondents from both sides. However, according to the parents of a child WHI and teachers, for children WHI it causes stress. During the observation the researcher noticed that children WHI mostly worked independently and did not participate in question and answer activities. Sometimes it was also difficult for them to be aware of the progress of the lesson and tasks owing to their weak hearing ability. There was a general sense among teachers that inclusion reduces the time teachers spend on children without disabilities, which in turn affects the quality of knowledge. The observational data showed that when there was no tutor, different teachers spent from three to five minutes on the instruction of children WHI. In response to this issue, parents expressed satisfaction with the time their children got from the teacher in the present class. These data were presented in the section on social achievements. A comparison of data provided by parents and teachers showed that parents considered increased levels of motivation a benefit of inclusion, whereas most teachers

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claimed that motivation took place was evident in the present class, but was not influenced by inclusion. Observation illustrated that in general the children demonstrated active participation during the lesson and enthusiasm in performing tasks. The subcategory of “skill acquisition”, which is presented as one of the benefits of inclusion, emerged only in the data provided by parents. “What kinds of teaching strategies and resources are used by teachers in an inclusive classroom in Kazakhstan to address the needs of all children in the class and enhance their academic and socialization skills?” In general, most of participants expressed satisfaction with the adaptation and readiness of the class for inclusion. The findings from the interviews were split into two categories, “teaching strategies and methods” and “resources”. Teachers and parents pointed out methods such as curriculum adaptation and group work and tutoring. Besides those teaching strategies, two additional findings, namely assessment and teachers’ commitment, emerged from this research. However, teaching strategies mentioned by parents and teachers were not noticed during the observation. For instance, Teacher 2 mentioned wearing bright (red) lipstick in order to assist children WHI to read better from verbal articulations, but during the observation the teacher did not use it. At the same time another strategy, class arrangement (when students worked in a group), was mentioned by teachers and a parent, and was found to be effective in terms of increasing interactions between children with and without disabilities.

Discussion Finding 1: Friendship The present study indicates that friendships are formed among children with and without disabilities. This finding is supported by a number of researchers (Buysse et al., 2002; Evans et al., 1992; Meyer, 2001). Even though children WHI are welcomed by their peers, they tend to have better friendships with others WHI. Nevertheless, the girl WCP built friendships with children without disabilities. One possible explanation for this could be that children WHI find it more comfortable to interact with others WHI because of their common language; they can understand one another more easily and faster. The presence of a child with the same type of disability in the environment could prevent children with disabilities from leaving their comfort zone and interacting with peers without disabilities. The type and level of disability could also be considered a factor that frames friendship in the present inclusive classroom; since the girl WCP had better articulation and communication skills, she was able to interact better with children without disabilities. In contrast to this finding, Evans et al. (1992) found that the disability level does not correlate with the number of friends children with disabilities have. It was found that students with extremely high levels of disability were judged as popular by peers,

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while those with less severe disability were not necessarily perceived as friends by their peers (Evans et al., 1992). Buysse et al. (2002), as well as Evans et al. (1992), denied the fact that disability could influence friendship formation.

Finding 2: Peer Acceptance In the present study, the acceptance of diversity is regarded as an important social achievement of children without disabilities in the class. From teachers’ and parents’ points of view, children in the present class appeared to be welcoming and tolerant to those who were different from them. Parents identified the acceptance of diversity as a key for illumination of discrimination barriers: “Studying with children with diverse needs, my son became tolerant; he adequately perceives children who do not look like him. I am sure in the future he will never discriminate against such people” (Parent1). The triangulated data suggest that peer acceptance, which stimulates students with disabilities, gives a feeling of social importance. According to Downing et al. (1997), teachers regarded awareness of the needs of other children as a main benefit of inclusion. In the study of Giangreco et al. (1993), parents also indicated that appreciation of differences positively affected social and emotional growth and expanded the horizons of their children without disabilities. The authors suggested that when the parents of children without disabilities were aware of the social benefits for their own children, they could contribute to support for the movement of education for all (Giangreco et al., 1993).

Finding 3: No Negative Effect of Inclusion The present findings suggest that there are no negative effects on the academic achievements of children without disabilities in inclusive classrooms. This finding was mentioned in a number of studies (Follansbee, 1996; McDonnell et al., 2003; Sermier & Bless, 2013). McDonnell et al. (2003) compared the achievements of children in six different schools with a high and low proportion of children with disabilities and found no evidence for any negative effect of the placement of children with disabilities. However, it is necessary to point out that even though all participants agreed that there was no detrimental effect on the achievements of children without disabilities, some parents expressed concern about the negative effect on instructional time when the tutor was absent from the class: “Sometimes it happens that I pay more attention to children WHI. At such times other children stop doing their tasks… I think in these cases there is a risk that children without disabilities can suffer from insufficient amounts of instruction.” These teachers suggest that this could lead to lower academic achievements of children. Heiman (2001), who also examined

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teachers’ perceptions of inclusive schooling outcomes, revealed the same concern, claiming that it prevented teachers from providing more comprehensive instruction and affected discipline in the class.

Finding 4: Skill Acquisition Skill acquisition was presented in this study as the academic achievement of all children in an inclusive classroom. For different students it implies different things; for example, it includes enriching their vocabulary and widening horizons for children WHI and learning sign language and widening the horizons more broadly for children with disabilities. According to these findings, it can be inferred that children with and without disabilities could both benefit from inclusion. The study of Ryndak et al. (1995), who examined teacher’s perceptions, also regarded skill acquisition as one of the benefits of inclusive education, but mainly for children with disabilities. According to that study, the acquired skills were more about social achievements such as increasing vocabulary, having more interaction with peers, demonstrating appropriate behavior, and becoming more independent from their parents (Ryndak et al., 1995). A similar finding was revealed by other studies (Downing et al., 1997; Giangreco et al., 1993; Hill, 2009), but unlike the present study, those benefits were usually identified only for children with disabilities.

Finding 5: Strategies to Facilitate Inclusion This finding includes two strategies; the first one is curriculum adaptation and various challenges, while the second is having the tutor in the class. In the first case a number of adaptations, such as group work or applying red lipstick, simplified learning materials and the tasks indicated in the present study. However, the data suggest that the curriculum is not necessarily based on the learning strengths and weaknesses of children, and they do not have a choice in the content of activities. This was previously mentioned by Giangreco and Doyle (2000) as one of the features of the curriculum for inclusive classes. The same concern about curriculum content was faced by parents in the study of Ryndak et al. (1996), who raised concern about lack of decision-making in terms of defining the content of educational programs. These data reveal the challenges that children with disabilities face in the present class. Teachers are aware of those challenges, as one of them stated: “The girls WHI do not usually work on the blackboard or give theoretical answers. They have difficulties in doing that.” These comments signal the inability of teachers to engage children in classroom activities and the ineffectiveness of educational practices in present inclusive classrooms. These findings are likely to be related to the lack of professional training for inclusion, since the teachers involved in this study had only short-term preparation. Other research indicates that teacher training is essential for

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meeting the diverse needs of children (Downing et al., 1997; Hodge et al., 2009; Horne & Timmons, 2009). Downing et al. (1997) suggest that training provides teachers with the necessary knowledge and skills for identifying and developing effective adaptations and implementing these in different lessons. Having a special educator in the class was another finding concerning teaching strategies. Almost all participants found it essential to have a tutor in the class. Even though all teachers found tutoring useful for academic achievements of children and for facilitating inclusive practices, at least two teachers expressed concern about tutoring. One of them said that the tutor did the home tasks instead of the children, while another was worried about distractions the tutor caused while working with children WHI. These results seem to suggest that poor collaborative practices occur between general teachers and special educators. The literature states that collaboration happens when tutor and general teacher unite their efforts to provide better quality instruction in inclusive classrooms (Mitchell, 2014; Stigler & Hiebert, 1998). Cook and Friend (1995) claimed that the teacher and tutor together should identify students’ needs, plan intervention, implementation and evaluate application. In the present case of inclusion, it is likely that general teachers place the entire responsibility for educating children WHI on the tutor and continue to work only with the rest of the class. Horne and Timmons (2009) also mentioned distractions of tutoring, but claimed that continued training and appropriate planning of the lessons could be a solution to this problem.

Conclusion The purpose of the present research was to explore teachers’ and parents’ perceptions of the academic and social achievements of children and investigate the materials and strategies used to meet students’ needs in a particular inclusive classroom in Kazakhstan. It was revealed that inclusion in the case of the present class was beneficial in terms of social achievements for children with and without disabilities. However, the positive impact on the academic achievements of children in that inclusive classroom was insignificant; it occurred in the form of motivation of both groups of children to study better. Even though no negative effect on the academic performance of children without disabilities was mentioned, teachers had concerns regarding the amount of time they spent on instruction. Speaking about strategies and resources that are applied in the present class, the triangulation of the data revealed that the school provided insufficient strategies to meet the diverse needs of the class. This was evident from the lack of tutors during the observations and group work, which was observed only in one lesson. The other strategies that were mentioned by teachers were not used. Moreover, the assessment system for children with disabilities was unspecified and the curriculum was not adapted for children WHI. These findings indicate the unpreparedness of the educational system for inclusion. This could have an impact on the academic achievements of children without disabilities.

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Chapter 7

The Attitudes of Parents and Teachers Towards Inclusive Education in Kazakhstan Aizhan Alzhanova

Introduction In response to a range of global imperatives for democratic countries, Kazakhstan has highlighted the development of inclusive education as one of the main aims in the State Program of Education Development for 2011–2020 (further SPED 2011– 2020) (Ministry of Education and Science [MoES], 2010). However, based on the experiences of other countries, shifting toward inclusion will be a long process requiring numerous steps. For instance, according to OECD (2014), Kazakhstan is yet to develop feasible and implementable guidelines for inclusive education. UNESCO (2005) indicates the attitudes of stakeholders can in some cases be the main barrier to inclusion. The attitudes of parents and teachers have been found to be at the heart of the success of the implementation of inclusive education (Makoelle, 2014). Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine the attitudes of parents and teachers towards inclusive education in Kazakhstan. In order to explore this topic, the following question was stated as a research hypothesis: “What are the attitudes of parents and teachers towards Inclusive Education in Kazakhstan?”

Literature Review Defining Inclusive Education and Notion of Attitude Inclusion is seen as a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all children, youth, and adults through access and participation in learning, cultures, and communities, and reducing and eliminating exclusion within and from education. A. Alzhanova (B) Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. M. Makoelle and M. Somerton (eds.), Inclusive Education in a Post-Soviet Context, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65543-3_7

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It “involves changes and modifications in content, approaches, structures and strategies, with a common vision that covers all children of the appropriate age range and a conviction that it is the responsibility of the regular system to educate all children” (UNESCO, 2003, p. 9). In the context of Kazakhstan, inclusive education is associated with the education of students with special needs. While there is recognition of diversity, more emphasis is placed on learners with special needs rather than on other categories of diversity. The psychological-medical-pedagogical commission (PMPCs) is a special committee for identifying disability and deciding the educational placement for children with special needs. This placement could mean a mainstream school, a correctional school or class, or homeschooling (Makoelle, 2020). For the purpose of the present research, attitude is defined as “someone’s individual viewpoint or disposition toward a particular object, i.e. a person, thing, idea, etc.” (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996, p. 273). The current view in the literature is that the more the positive the attitude of teachers and parents, there more favorable inclusive education can thrive (Makoelle, 2016).

Parents’ Attitudes Towards Inclusive Education Palmer, Fuller, Arora, and Nelson (2001) explored the attitudes of n = 140 parents of children with severe disabilities enrolled in traditional or non-inclusive schools in the United States. The results of this mixed methods research indicated that almost half (45%) of respondents were positive about inclusion for several reasons such as socialization, location, and belonging, and they felt that their child would learn more in a general education classroom. Other parents who were opposed to inclusion raised issues related to the severity of their child’s disability and did not feel that a general education classroom program would be either welcoming or appropriate for their child. The findings indicate that those parents who support inclusive education have a greater awareness about the concept of inclusion than those that don’t, and therefore, they favor this model of education. Elkins, Van Kraayenoord, and Jobling (2003) examined the attitudes of n = 354 parents of children with special needs and their concerns about inclusion in Australia. About half of the parents agreed that a segregated education program is not the best choice for their children. The authors also found that parents were positive towards inclusive education and possibly this attitude was due to the awareness of the potential benefits of inclusive education such as an increasing academic achievement (70%), an opportunity to gain independence (75%), an opportunity to make new friends (83%), imitation of typically developed children by having them as a role models (80%), and accepting and perceiving positively the diverse needs of all children (88%). On the whole, the study showed that Australian parents of children with special needs have faith in inclusive education remarking only teacher training as a potential barrier or issue.

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Swick and Hooks (2005) stated that participation of parents in inclusion is essential. A qualitative method of study was employed by the authors with the help of the survey, four semi-structured interviews, and observations at school and home, as instrumentations. Regarding the question “What beliefs and experiences lead parents to choose an inclusive placement for their children with disabilities?” This study found that parents preferred inclusive settings to special ones as they help to socialize their children. The authors stated that a segregated model of schooling does not provide socializing skills for their children as mainstream students can serve as a model of behavior (Swick & Hooks, 2005). This study again underlined the benefits of inclusive education and the understanding of these benefits helps to be more supportive for inclusion. Despite a large number of studies with positive attitudes of parents toward inclusion shown above, the researcher also decided to review a few existing studies that also showed negative attitudes of parents in order to understand the reasons that can serve as a barrier to inclusion. After analyzing research of Palmer et al. (2001), Elkins et al. (2003), Ahuja and Sunish (2013), Dimitrova, Radojichich, and Jovanova (2014), Wong, Poon, Kaur, and Ng (2014), the researcher came into conclusion that negative attitudes of parents of children with severe types of disability were in many cases connected with their concerns about the availability and the amount of individual attention for their children, which may be lower in inclusive schools than in special schools. Moreover, large class sizes and the lack of appropriate training for teachers in their opinion may hinder the possible benefits of inclusion. These studies helped the researcher understand that underdeveloped environments in terms of teacher qualifications, school conditions and child-related variables such as their needs for medical support and demonstration of inappropriate behavior prevent parents from being fully supportive for inclusion.

Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Inclusive Education In the previous studies discussed in this chapter, it was found that teacher preparation and readiness to teach in inclusive classes influence the attitudes of parents towards inclusive education. Besides stating that parents are the most influential stakeholders in the school system, Sprowl-Loftis (2013) underlined the importance of attitudes of teachers towards inclusion as they may shape the attitudes of the whole school community. In 2010, Ghergut analysed the attitudes of n = 768 general education teachers in Romania by distributing survey questionnaires. The author tried to examine whether variables such as gender and years of experience influence the attitudes of teachers. Overall, the results of that study showed that only 22.9% of teacher participants fully support the concept of inclusive education. The study revealed that in this instance, gender and experience had no relationship to their attitudes, however teachers reported that having a flexible curriculum, appropriate teacher training, special tutors, adequate school facilities for inclusion, and a fewer numbers

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of students in the class can make them more confident and therefore more supportive of inclusion (Ghergut, 2010). Conversely, Turkish scholars (Rakap & Kaczmarek, 2010) studied the perceptions of n = 194 teachers from mainstream school who completed a questionnaire concerning inclusion of students with disability. One of the main factors influencing teachers’ perception was the type of disability. This study showed that teachers in inclusive schools were not welcoming of children with severe disabilities. The author explained the negative attitudes were because the concept of inclusive education was relatively new in Turkey and that teachers were not ready for it at that moment. Surprisingly, this study revealed gender and age as influencing factors. The authors found that male teachers are more positive than female teachers; just like the youngest and oldest ones are more positive than average-aged teachers. Teacher training was also an influential aspect here; indicating that trained and qualified teachers are more supportive. Further analysis of this study showed that in order to facilitate the process of inclusion, teachers are willing to collaboratively work with parents of children with special needs. Overall, this study is a great example of how aspects like training, age, gender, attitudes and family participation can help teachers to gain confidence to teach in inclusive classes. However, Galovi´c, Brojˇcin, and Glumbi´c (2014) examined the attitudes of teachers towards inclusive education as they believed that teachers’ attitudes can either facilitate the process of inclusion or prevent it from development. This study examined the attitudes of n = 322 teachers and it was found that generally, these teachers were neutral to inclusion. Interestingly, from the sample, the results indicated that preschool teachers and high school teachers were more supportive than primary and secondary teachers. Teachers mentioned the benefits of inclusion make it attractive for teachers, however, many felt that they were not ready enough to meet the needs of all students in inclusive class. Similar to previous studies, gender did not influence teachers’ attitudes, as much as did teaching experience, level of education and formal training. It was surprising that after completing formal training, the attitudes were not more supportive of inclusion. This research showed indifference of Serbian teachers perhaps because implementation of inclusion at school level was a quite new experience there. The study of Hsien, Brown, and Bortoli (2009) explored the conceptions of n = 36 teachers from mainstream and special schools in Victoria, Australia with the use of survey. The questionnaire included three sections (demographics, attitudes and experiences). The last section comprised open-ended questions in order to fully understand the nature of teachers’ attitudes. The results showed that the educational level of teachers did influence their opinion. For example, it was found that teachers who had obtained a Master degree are more positive than those who hold only a bachelor degree. It is noteworthy that in all studies shown above teachers are not rejecting inclusive education. In this way it can be concluded that knowing all the factors and variables that relate to their perception would help school communities to build successful inclusion.

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severity of disability

Attitudes of typically developed students

Teacher training

VARIABLES INFLUENCING PERCEPTION OF TEACHERS TOWARDS INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

VARIABLES INFLUENCING PARENTAL PERCEPTION TOWARDS INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Fig. 7.1 Variables influencing attitudes of teachers and parents towards inclusive education

Conceptual Framework The literature revealed that parents and teachers are willing to be part of an inclusive community if they understand the benefits of it. However, by analysing research on this topic, the author has highlighted the most important variables that affect the attitudes of teachers and parents towards inclusive education. Overall, parents and teachers have expressed common issues. The following venn diagram (Fig. 7.1) visually presents this conceptual framework. The diagram shows the variables influencing teachers and parents’ attitudes towards including students with severe types of disability, as well as other factors such as special training and an inclusive environment in the schools. The other concern mentioned by parents from studies is their fear of negative attitudes towards students with special needs by their typically developing peers. On the other hand, teachers had indicated their need for school administrative support.

Methodology Research Design A sequential mixed research method approach was employed for the present research in order to explore why parents and teachers in Kazakhstan hold particular perspectives toward inclusive education. A mixed method research design is a combination

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of two methods quantitative and qualitative. Creswell (2014) suggests using mixed methods to deeper understanding of the research problem and questions. This study comprises two stages: acquiring quantitative data at the first stage, and then collecting qualitative data to help explain the quantitative results in an explanatory sequential design. In order to obtain an overall picture of participants’ attitudes, the researcher applied a quantitative method first. Quantitative research generally translates human experiences into numbers, explaining cause and effect, correlations, perceptions and average attitudes (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). Basically, quantitative research is used to describe trends, generalize hypotheses and describe how one thing can affect another (Creswell, 2014). The quantitative method was implemented first in this study for several reasons: (1) better for examining attitudes, (2) can be generalized (3) findings are reliable. However, the following limitations can occur due to the emerging field of inclusion: (1) lack of awareness among the participants, (2) lack of inclusive education experience among children of participants. Also, parents of typically developed children can make feint on expressing a positive attitude towards inclusive education due to social expectation. Moreover, the quantitative part gave an opportunity to compare the means of two groups: attitudes of parents from special school and attitudes of parents from mainstream school. A quantitative inferential analysis, namely t-test was used to compare the attitudes (Pallant & Manual, 2010). The qualitative method included in-depth interviews in order to gain a deeper understanding of the factors which influence participants’ attitudes. This part comprised ten face-to-face interviews with parents and teachers from special and mainstream schools. Parents and teachers shared their feelings, underlying potential benefits and risks of inclusion. The narrative design elements were used in order “to collect the true stories about teachers’ and parents’ experiences” (Creswell, 2014, p. 240). In order to acquire understanding of teachers and parents, two research sites were chosen. The researcher explored the perceptions of teachers and parents from two schools, special and mainstream. The research sites were chosen to understand the perceptions of those stakeholders who have not practiced inclusion, but will do so in the future.

Sampling Participants in this study were selected by probabilistic stratified sampling. Creswell (2014) defines stratified sampling as “stratifying the population on some specific characteristics and then, using simple random sampling, sample from each subgroup of the populations” (p. 162). Thus, for the quantitative section the researcher selected fifty participants among parents of children with special needs and fifty-nine participants among parents of typical children. For the qualitative section, two parents from a mainstream school and three parents from special school were interviewed. Also, two teachers from mainstream school

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and three teachers from a correction school (special school) were interviewed. Interview participants were chosen with purposeful homogeneous sampling. Creswell defines this as “sampling individuals or sites based on membership in a subgroup that has defining characteristics” (Creswell, 2014, p. 230). Two schools were selected: one general education school or mainstream school in North Kazakhstan and one special correctional school in North Kazakhstan.

Instruments Two broad methods were chosen for the research, cross-sectional surveys and semistructured interviews. All instruments were initially designed in English language, and then they were translated into Russian. After conducting surveys and interviews, the answers were translated back to English language. The protocols are delineated below: • • • • • •

Survey questionnaire for parents of children with special needs Survey questionnaire for parents of typically developed children Face-to-face interview with parents of children with special needs Face-to-face interview with parents of typically-developed children Face-to-face interview with teachers from special corrective school Face-to-face interview with teachers from mainstream school.

Surveys According to Creswell (2014) surveys can cover large sections of a population in order to examine “attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of the population” (p. 402). Two questionnaires were administered in the fieldwork: both questionnaires contained questions concerning background information and attitudes towards inclusive education using a Likert scale. The survey instruments №1 and №2 “Attitudes of parents towards Inclusive Education” was designed to acquire information about the attitudes of parents, consisting of two main sections: demographic information (gender, age, type of school); parent attitudes towards inclusion scale (included ten statements with which a parent should agree or disagree using five-point Likert scale). The only difference between these two survey instruments was a question for parents of children with a disability asking about the type of diagnosis. Surveys for parents of typically developed children did not include that item.

Interviews The interview instruments № 3 and № 4 were designed to question parents about their perceptions for inclusive education. The semi-structured interviews comprised

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only open-ended questions to let participants tell the story of their experience. Similarly, interview instruments № 5 and № 6 were designed to question teachers about their perceptions for inclusive education. Face-to-face interviews were conducted in Russian and Kazakh in order to gain an in-depth understanding of the factors influencing attitudes from the participants experiences.

Data Analysis The data was analyzed by the means of two methods. While survey questionnaires were analyzed with the help of statistical computer software SPSS, the interviews were analyzed by transcribing and categorizing the themes.

Surveys Each question of the survey was assigned with its own score or value, in order to facilitate the process of analyses (Creswell, 2014). All these data were input into SPSS and then analyzed to indicate the measures of central tendencies in the data— mean, mode and median (for example, the mean of the number of parents with positive attitudes towards inclusion). In order to answer the research question #2 “How the attitudes of parents of children with disabilities differ from the attitudes of parents of typically developed children?”, the researcher compared two variables: the first, statements of attitudes of parents of typically developed children and the second, the statements of attitudes of parents of children with special needs using inferential statistics analyses. A bivariate analysis t-test was conducted through the SPSS program (Muijs, 2010).

Interviews The interview data was analyzed using and inductive thematic analysis through the following steps: (a) Transcribing the data; (b) Coding the data; (c) Description of thematic categories; (d) representing data; (e) reporting the findings and then discussing them (Creswell, 2014, p. 262).

Ethics Due to the sensitivity of the research topic, all steps in the research followed ethical approval based on guidelines set out by the institutional research ethics committee at the university. An informed consent form, which was approved by the GSE Research Committee, contained the information about the purpose of the study and about the

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rights of participation. Prior to participation in the survey, the researcher distributed a cover letter with the informed consent form. All participants were informed that their participation was on a voluntary basis, that they could choose not to participate without explanation. In order to maintain anonymity, names were not recorded in the survey and on transcripts from the interviews. Each questionnaire and interview were assigned either a number or pseudonym. Participants were informed that only the researcher had access to their responses, which were securely stored in password protected files. Each respondent was informed about the benefits and risks of participating in the research and that their participation was contributing to valuable knowledge on the development of inclusive education in Kazakhstan.

Findings Survey—Parents Parents from two different schools participated in the survey. There were n = 50 parents that participated from one special correctional school in the northern part of Kazakhstan and n = 59 parents from a mainstream school. The number of analysable responses was n = 109, most being female (N = 76). The age groups represented were typical of the parents of school-aged children (see Table 7.1), with very few younger than 29 years of age and few over 50 years of age. The average age was 38 years. The table below provides a clear picture of age cohorts of parents. The level of education of participants varied from secondary school education to master degree (see Table 7.2). Half of the respondents held a bachelor degree (n = 55). A number of parents had not completed higher educational institutions (n = 52), and only two of the participants obtained a Master degree. It was interesting to note that the proportion of education distribution differed from respondents of special school to respondents of mainstream school. Thus, out of all parents from the special correctional school setting (n = 50), there were n = 37 parents that had not completed a higher education degree. In contrast, parents from the mainstream school system (n = 59), indicated that n = 42 held Bachelor degrees, n = 15 had secondary education, and n = 2 held a Master degree. The Table 7.3 shows the number of children in each family of participants. The number varied from one child to seven children, where the most frequent number was two or 50.5% of participants (n = 55). The remaining n = 25 parents had one child, n = 24 had three children, n = 3 had four children. There were only n = 2 parents with six and seven children. Table 7.4 presents the type of diagnosis of respondents’ children from the cohort with children in special correctional school. The most frequent diagnosis among children was developmental delay (n = 19). The second most frequent diagnosis among was Down Syndrome (n = 11) and other frequently reported diagnoses were speech delay (n = 5), Cerebral Palsy (n = 5), and Autism Spectrum Disorder (n = 5).

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Table 7.1 Age of participants—survey Participant’s age Frequency Valid

Percent

Valid percent

Cumulative percent

28

2

1.8

1.8

1.8

29

2

1.8

1.8

3.7

30

5

4.6

4.6

8.3

31

2

1.8

1.8

10.1

32

3

2.8

2.8

12.8

33

8

7.3

7.3

20.2

34

7

6.4

6.4

26.6

35

13

11.9

11.9

38.5

36

6

5.5

5.5

44.0

37

8

7.3

7.3

51.4

38

4

3.7

3.7

55.0

39

4

3.7

3.7

58.7

40

8

7.3

7.3

66.1

41

8

7.3

7.3

73.4

42

5

4.6

4.6

78.0

43

6

5.5

5.5

83.5

44

6

5.5

5.5

89.0

45

2

1.8

1.8

90.8

46

3

2.8

2.8

93.6

47

1

.9

.9

94.5

48

2

1.8

1.8

96.3

49

2

1.8

1.8

98.2

51

1

.9

.9

99.1

53

1

.9

.9

100.0

Total

109

100.0

100.0

Table 7.2 Educational attainment—survey participants Participant’s education Frequency Valid

Percent

Valid percent

Cumulative percent

Secondary

52

47.7

47.7

Bachelor

55

50.5

50.5

98.2

2

1.8

1.8

100.0

109

100.0

100.0

Master Total

47.7

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Table 7.3 Family size—number of children Participant’s number of children Frequency Valid

Percent

Valid percent

Cumulative percent

1

25

22.9

22.9

22.9

2

55

50.5

50.5

73.4

3

24

22.0

22.0

95.4

4

3

2.8

2.8

98.2

6

1

.9

.9

99.1

7

1

.9

.9

100.0

Total

109

100.0

100.0

Table 7.4 Types of diagnosis of participants’ children Diagnosis Frequency Valid

Percent

Valid percent

Cumulative percent

Down Syndrome

11

10.1

10.1

10.1

Developmental Delay

19

17.4

17.4

27.5

Speech Delay

5

4.6

4.6

32.1

Cerebral Palsy

5

4.6

4.6

36.7

Autism

5

4.6

4.6

41.3

Behavior problems

1

.9

.9

42.2

Epilepsy

3

2.8

2.8

45.0 100.0

No diagnosis Total

60

55.0

55.0

109

100.0

100.0

The least frequent diagnosis among participants’ children was epilepsy (n = 3), behavioral problems (n = 1) and one child was reported to have no diagnosis at all. The following table (see Table 7.5) shows the age of the participants’ children where the mean age is 9.54. The minimum age is six years and the maximum is 16. More than half of the participants’ children did not attend any extracurricular activities (n = 59) and the type of extracurricular activities differed depending on the school type. Participants reported that some children from the correctional school (n = 19) attend sessions with different therapists, whereas other children from mainstream school (n = 31) attend additional English, math and sport classes. The most frequent activity among children with special needs was indicated as speech therapy (n = 12). Among other extracurricular activities parents of children with special needs reported activities such as art therapy, labor therapy, psychotherapy, and rehabilitation therapy. All extracurricular activities include the word “therapy”. In contrast, parents of typical children indicated they are mainly attending additional English and Math classes. Other activities reported by parents were math classes, swimming, tennis, dancing, playing chess and attending music classes (Table 7.6).

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Table 7.5 Age of participants’ child, attending the school Frequency Valid

6

1

7 8

Percent

Valid percent

Cumulative percent

.9

.9

.9

18

16.5

16.5

17.4

15

13.8

13.8

31.2

9

26

23.9

23.,.9

55.0

10

25

22.9

22.9

78.0

11

7

6.4

6.4

84.4

12

5

4.6

4.6

89.0

13

5

4.6

4.6

93.6

14

4

3.7

3.7

97.2

15

2

1.8

1.8

99.1

.9

100.0

16

1

Total

109

.9 100,0

100.0

Percent

Valid percent

Table 7.6 Extracurricular activities Frequency Valid

Cumulative percent

yes

50

45.9

45.9

45.9

no

58

53.2

53.2

99.1

3

1

.9

.9

100.0

Total

109

100.0

100.0

Attitudes of Parents Towards Inclusive Education Attitudes of parents were measured with the help of ten variables. Parents indicated their answers with the help of Likert scale, where 1 is “strongly disagree”, 2 is “disagree”, 3 is “neutral”, 4 is “agree” and 5 is “strongly agree”. Overall, parents expressed their positive attitudes towards Inclusive Education (see Table 7.7), but three variables measuring attitudes differed between the surveyed parents from mainstream school and the parents from special school. After comparing the means of the variables depending on the school attended by the participants’ children, the following differences were revealed. Attitudes of parents’ towards inclusive education were measured by comparing means of two variables (see Table 7.8). The first variable was the school type, and the second dependent is the perception of parents that mainstream school has all conditions for children with disabilities. The responses on the dependent variable were measured by Likert scale from 1 to 5, indicating 1 as strongly disagree, 2 disagree, 3 neutral, 4 agree, 5 strongly agree. The mean for attitudes of parents from special school is 2.12 (more likely to disagree) and the mean for attitudes of parents from mainstream school is 2.75 (closer to be neutral). By comparing means of two

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Table 7.7 Attitudes of parents towards inclusive education The means of the attitudes of parents towards inclusive education Question

The mean of the attitudes of parents from Mainstream school

The mean of the attitudes of parents from special school

1. I like the school of my child

4.03

4.02

2. Teachers at this school 4.03 respect the needs of my child

4.12

3. Children with special needs should study in special segregated schools

3.20

3.68

4. Mainstream schools have all conditions to educate children with special needs

2.75

2.12

5. Teachers working at 3.17 mainstream schools are ready to meet diverse needs of all students in inclusive settings

2.02

6. My child can make friends with anyone regardless the abilities of other children

4.02

3.70

7. Society is friendly to my child

3.97

3.60

8. My child’s performance will increase in inclusive school

3.39

3.36

9. I want my child to study in inclusive school

2.78

3.76

10. I am positive towards the development of inclusive education in Kazakhstan, and I want its fastest implementation

3.71

4.00

variables it can be seen that the t value is 3.394, df is 107 and the significance level is equal to 0.001. Therefore (the significance level is less than 0.05), the significance level indicates significance. Thus, using the t-test for independent samples, it was found a significant difference between parental attitudes towards the conditions of mainstream school from different schools. The attitudes of parents from special and mainstream schools were compared in order to understand what they think about teachers’ readiness to teach in diverse classes (see Table 7.8). The results of the t-test show that the mean of the attitudes of parents from the mainstream school is 3.17, and the mean of the attitudes of parents from the special school is 2.02 (where, 1-strongly disagree, 2-disagree, 3-neutral, 4-agree, 5-strongly agree). The t-value of this comparison is 6.546, df is 107 and the significance level is 0.000 meaning that the difference in attitudes is significant.

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Table 7.8 Comparisons between attitudes of parents from mainstream school and parents from special school Variable

Type of school

N

General Schools have all conditions for including students with disabilities

Parents from Mainstream school

59

Parents from Corrective school

50

Teachers are ready to teach in inclusive classes

Parents from Mainstream school

59

Parents from Corrective school

50

Parents from Mainstream school

59

Parents from Corrective school

50

I want my child to study in Inclusive class

T-value

Significance value (p)

3.394

0.001

6.546

0.000

−5.523

0.000

The third comparison also showed a significant difference between attitudes of parents from mainstream and special school (Table 7.8). The dependent variable is the attitude “I want my child to study at inclusive school” measured by Likert scale where 1 is “strongly disagree”, 2 is “disagree”, 3 is “neutral”, 4 is “agree”, 5 is “strongly disagree”. The mean for attitudes of parents from mainstream school is 2.78, whereas the mean for attitudes of parents from special school is 3.76. This means that parents of typically-developed children are hesitant to admit that they want their child to study in inclusive school, while parents of children with special needs expressed their agreement to study in inclusive school. The t-value is −5,523, df is 107 and the significance level is 0.000, which shows that the attitudes of parents are significantly different.

Interviews—Perceptions of Teachers and Parents Towards Inclusive Education The findings from the interviews with teachers highlight four main themes. They are: (a) the type of disability; (b) the resources needed for successful implementation of inclusive education, (c) teacher preparation, and (d) parental role. Overall, teachers indicated they were positive towards the development of inclusive education in Kazakhstan, however, their responses indicated that they see inclusive education for children with physical disabilities whereas they believe that children with mental retardation must be taught in special segregated schools. Teachers indicated that they felt unprepared to teach in inclusive classes due to limited resources, both human and material. Equally important to note is that teachers reported that they could not imagine the successful inclusion of children with special needs without active

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parental involvement. In addition to the attitudes of parents towards inclusive education that were analyzed with quantitative methods, these qualitative findings provide a rich description of the perceptions of teachers and parents from both special and mainstream schools towards inclusion. Teachers’ responses reflected each of the following three themes: type of disability, resources, teacher training and parental involvement. All quotations are identified by coding of teachers from special school (SST1, SST2 and SST3) and from mainstream school (MST1, MST2) to ensure confidentiality.

Types of Disability The results show that teachers from both special and mainstream schools are inclined to believe that students with mental retardation should not currently be included currently. For example, one very experienced teacher from the special school said: “Children with only physical impairments only can be included right now. Children with mental problems can be included only when pedagogical staff will be ready to meet their needs” (SST3). Similarly, another two teachers think that children with mental problems should only be included when there will be ideal inclusive settings: “I think, even though we are not ready as teachers we should start inclusion anyway, because every child has a right, and firstly we must start with children who have only physical disabilities…” (SST1). And in almost the same way, the third teacher from special school said: “I think right now only children with physical impairments should be included, because mentally retarded children will be bullied by cruel students from mainstream school” (SST2). Teachers from the mainstream school also favored inclusion only for students without mental retardation. One explained: I imagine inclusive education with few handicapped students in the class. They may have some eyesight or hearing impairments, or other physical impairments. Students with mental retardation should not be included. They should study in special segregated settings. (MST1)

However, in contrast one teacher held a different view: Generally speaking, all children can be included. But, only if parents are supportive and are willing to help. Children with the same diagnosis can develop differently only because of their parental involvement and participation. Some parents are attentive, some are not. At the same time, the only condition for inclusion should be that children with special needs do not disturb the process of teaching and learning in the class. (MST2)

These responses indicate that these teachers hold beliefs that inclusion can only be a reality for children with physical impairments who have the same intellectual capacities as typically developed children. According to their responses, they believe that parents must be integrally involved in their children’s educational development. Parents must pay greatest attention and facilitate the process of inclusion and in addition, students who disturb classes should not be included.

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Resources Another theme that emerged from the interviews was that teachers were not yet ready to teach in inclusive classes due to the lack of material and human resources. According to the responses of teachers, lack of resources is one of the main barriers to inclusion. Teachers reported that they did not feel trained to teach in an inclusive classroom and in order to retrain teachers in mainstream and special schools a great amount of financial resources are needed from governmental provision. Teachers also indicated that inclusive teaching must be facilitated with special tutors in the class and special equipment is needed for students with special needs, for example Braille textbooks and printers, or ramps and elevators should be incorporated inside and outside of the school buildings to meet the physical needs of students. As an illustration, one teacher from special school said: A lot of things should be taken into the account. First of all, physical resources such as special boards, books, material, equipment, computers and so on. Also, having special consultants in school would be great, who would be working in close collaboration with teachers and who would be assisting teachers in managing inclusive class. Having a tutor is vital, as well as having a school psychologist. (SST3)

Another teacher from special school admitted: Inclusive education is acceptance. Inclusion of ill children, of children with different types of disabilities requires special conditions, social and active materials. It requires financial resources. Without proper equipment, resources and pedagogical staff, inclusion will fail. (SST1)

Furthermore, teachers from mainstream school also underpinned the importance of needed resources for successful inclusion: Personally I am not ready to teach, because I do not have the proper knowledge. Therefore I need training, and not only me. Moreover, the tutor in the class should be present, equipment and furniture must be adapted for all needs. And also, I think, class size should include a maximum of 20 students. In addition, I think, each and every school should be reconstructed to meet the needs of students on wheelchairs. (MST2)

These findings provide evidence that inclusion cannot happen spontaneously and there should be a detailed step-by-step plan to implement inclusive education. A lot of specialized resources are needed to achieve results.

Parental Involvement The results of the present study also suggest that teachers are inclined to believe that parents and their attitudes play an important role in inclusion. For example, one of the teachers from special school said: Parents play a crucial role in forming attitudes towards children with special needs in their own children. On the other hand, the family of a child with a disability should also remember that their role is vital. For example, if a parent treats his special child in the same manner

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as a typical child, then the child will not perceive himself as abnormal, and also society will perceive the child just like he is. Families, particularly parents, must be the ones, who will change the attitudes in society. (SST3)

Similarly, another teacher from special school added: The main challenge is in the attitudes of the society. We were raised in the period when children with special needs were hidden and we didn’t see them a lot in the streets. Parents influence their children’s attitudes towards people with special needs. (SST2)

It seems that teachers from mainstream school also put huge emphasis on the role of parents in inclusion: Attitudes of parents should be positive, because their attitudes are equal to the attitudes of their children. And parents of children with special needs should always be supportive of their children. They should take active part in the process of doing homework and work in collaboration with teachers. (MST2)

The results reveal the perceptions of teachers of inclusive education and interestingly the concept of inclusive education was similar between teachers from special and mainstream schools. Overall, teachers held generally positive attitudes towards inclusive education.

Parents’ Attitudes Towards Inclusive Education Five interviews with parents from mainstream and special schools were conducted in order to more deeply understand their attitudes towards inclusive education. The findings of the interviews with parents helped to answer the first two research questions. They revealed four themes: (a) impressions of their current school provision; (b) parental participation; (c) benefits of inclusive education; (d) issues and concerns. Parents’ quotes reflected each of the four themes. All quotations are identified by researcher-assigned names: parents from special school (SSP1, SSP2 and SSP3) and from mainstream school (MSP1, MSP2) to ensure confidentiality. It is important to note that parental satisfaction with the school of their child differs. Parents of typical students were completely satisfied with their school: I really like our school because of our class teacher. She is great, she always tries to be creative in her lessons and tries to engage all children in the class. They work individually, in groups, watch educational films, etc. Teacher tries to approach each student in the class individually. (MSP1)

In contrast, a parent of one child with Cerebral Palsy said: If I had an opportunity to change the school, I would do it. There are no special private schools for my daughter. The only choice we have is homeschooling or this corrective school. I feel that she could do better in better conditions.’ (SSP1)

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These examples indicate that parents have contradicting views about the school of their children. Parent two, SSP2, from the special school also mentioned the lack of choice as one of the main issues in special education. The findings also suggest that these parents participate actively and pay a lot of attention to their children. However there appears to be a difference. The parents of typical children actively participate in the social life of the school, and are always aware about what their child is doing whereas, the results show that parents of students with special needs have limited time and sometimes have to quit their jobs to devote more time to their child’s needs. Parent two from mainstream school said: “I actively participate in the school life, I know what events are going on, what exams my son is passing, I know his friends. I also take him to extracurricular activities” (MSP2). However, It is important to note that both interviewed parents from mainstream school are working parents, whereas all three interviewees with children in the special school had to quit their jobs in order to look after their children. I tried to work after the birth of my daughter, even though she was little, but I couldn’t. I realized that she needs me so much and since then, for almost nine years we are always together. I have devoted my life to her. (SSP2)

Another parent from special school also said: I worked for a while after the birth of my first son. But when the second son was born with the same diagnosis it is impossible to work, your life’s work is to look after your children, because they are special. (SSP3)

It appears that these parents of children with special needs have no choice not only with schools but also with their lifestyle.

Inclusion The results show that most parents understand the benefits of inclusion. As one parent from mainstream school said: “Inclusion will help our children to be tolerant. They will value their lives and will be respecting diversity. I am sure their behaviour will change and bullying that is now present in most schools will somehow decrease” (MSP1). Similarly, another from a mainstream school also supported that view and claimed: “Ideally, inclusion is very beneficial for all students. Our children will be more tolerant, children with disabilities will socialize better in inclusive conditions” (MSP2). Parents with children from the special school shared this point of view as one parent said: “I would love it if my daughter could study in an ideal inclusive school. She would be more open and socialized” (SSP2). One of the main concerns raised by parents were the few professional teachers in the field of inclusive education. Parents of typical children think that teachers are not prepared and that they need to work in collaboration with teachers from a special school. However parents of children with special needs report that they have a turnover of teaching staff each semester, that there are few professional teachers

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in the whole school: “The main issue in special school is the lack of professional teachers. During (her) last year at the school, two or three class teachers changed. I was shocked” (SSP2). These findings show that parents in this study also believe that training and retraining is vital to build successful inclusive schools. The findings also highlight bullying as one of the emerging barriers to inclusion with all five participants mentioning it as an issue. Parents from special and mainstream schools said the current generations of students are cruel and students with special needs might be bullied in inclusive schools. Parents with children from the special school revealed that bullying is the main barrier to inclusion of children with special needs into the mainstream schools. Parents are afraid, and that is why they would probably reject inclusive schools at the present time: I think inclusion can be a reality but at the first stage it would be for students who are intellectually capable. I am afraid mentally disordered students will be bullied. Nowadays computer games and movies make our children cruel. Typically developed children will bully students with special needs. (MSP1) Even if the commission (PMPC) will give us direction to the inclusive school I will reject it. I do not want my child to have additional psychological problems due to the bullying at the school. I think at least 20 to 30 years are needed to change stereotypical attitudes among society. (SSP2) I would love to give my child an ideal inclusive setting, where all children are tolerant and respect diversity. But reality is not that sweet. Students at school are cruel and mean. They will probably bully my sons. I do not want them to feel even more vulnerable than they are now. (SSP3)

Extracurricular Activities The last theme that emerged was the difference in extracurricular activities of the students. Survey findings have already shown that typically developed students attend such extracurricular activities as English classes, sports, dancing, acting and etc., whereas students with special needs mostly attend sessions only with therapists and have treatments. The findings of the qualitative study in this research have provided the reasons for such difference. It is again the issue of teacher preparation. Parents of children with special needs say that they would love to have their children attend different classes apart from treatment; Inclusive schools should provide a variety of extracurricular activities, because it is almost impossible to find a coach for your children. I approached one football coach to ask him to train my sons. He asked me: ‘Don’t you love your children that you have decided to bring them to us? Don’t you understand that all other children will be laughing at them and they will be bullied? I think the position of this coach mirrors the stereotypical attitude towards children with special needs and once again identifies a main barrier. If he had a positive perception, I am sure my sons would never ever be bullied there. (SSP3) I support the concept of Inclusive Education in general. However, currently in our country I am hesitant to completely support it. It is because I think typical children and their parents are not ready to be inclusive. Firstly, society and their attitudes must change, and then I would

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probably be in favor of inclusion. Typical children should understand and accept diversity. I am afraid that if now my daughter will study in inclusive school, she will be bullied by the typical peers. (SSP2)

Overall, parents said that they are positive towards the development of inclusive education. However, interview results show that parents of typical children are more positive towards the implementation of inclusive education currently, whereas parents of children with special needs are afraid of inclusion.

Discussion Attitudes of Parents Towards Inclusive Education The quantitative results show that parents are generally positive towards the concept of inclusive education. It is important to note that during the survey, inclusive education was explained to participants as a process of including children with disabilities into general educational settings where all the needs of children would be met. This finding is similar to the findings of other scholars where parents support the idea of inclusive education (Alanazi, 2012; Dimitrova et al., 2014; Elkins et al., 2003; Peck, Staub, Gallucci, & Schwartz, 2004; Rafferty, Boettcher, & Griffin, 2001; Stoiber, Gettinger, & Goetz, 1998). It can be said that positive attitudes towards inclusive education were due to the understanding that inclusion brings a lot of benefits for all students. Although Wong et al. (2014) found that the education level of parents as a variable that influences attitudes, the current study showed that level of education does not influence attitudes. This finding suggests that after the explanation of the concept of inclusive education by the researcher, parents, even if they were not aware beforehand, they expressed positive attitudes. Descriptive analysis showed a range of diagnoses from participants’ children in the corrective school. This indicates that the special correctional school has students with disabilities that range from mild to severe. The most frequent diagnosis among participants’ children was developmental delay. This diagnosis includes a range of symptoms, one of them is having cognitive impairment and slow development but it is not really specific.

Differences Between Attitudes of Parents of Children with Special Needs and Attitudes of Parents of Typically Developed Children In answering the second research question about whether attitudes of parents of children with special needs differ from attitudes of parents of typically developed children, it was found that attitudes did differ. Parents from the special school are more

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positive in comparison with parents from the mainstream school who are hesitant to decide. The present finding also supports a study by Stoiber et al., in 1998 which revealed a discrepancy in attitudes of parents concluding that parents of children with special needs are more positive towards the concept of inclusion than parents of typically developed children. However, studies done by Rafferty et al. in 2001 and by Kelly in 2001 found no difference between parental attitudes.

Perceptions of Parents Towards Inclusive Education The third research question was posed to understand what teachers and parents think about inclusive education in order to understand their concerns and fears and also to determine what factors influence their attitudes. As mentioned throughout this paper, positive attitudes are seen as a key to successful inclusive education. By seeking the answer to the third research question, this researcher tried to find out how to achieve positive attitudes in order to turn into reality the governmental plan of SPED 2011– 2020 to make 70% of schools inclusive by 2020 (MoES, 2010). According to the interviews with parents three themes emerged during this study.

Impression of the School It was found that parents perceive the current educational settings of their children differently. Parents from mainstream school expressed satisfaction with the school of their children. They reported that they were glad about the curriculum and teachers in the mainstream school. In contrast, parents of children with special needs expressed quite a controversial point of view. They were hesitant to neither favor nor to disfavor special school settings. They expressed disappointment about not having any choice of school settings. The special corrective school was the only educational provision for their children. Home schooling is the only alternative, but none of the parents supported that mode of schooling. Parents criticized the educational provision for their children because they did not even have a choice of private schools. Therefore, lack of choice made parents from special school be unsatisfied. On the contrary, scholars Vaughn (1980) and Wright and Wright (2002) found that parents who were clients of special schools were satisfied with the educational setting of their special needs offspring.

Parental Participation The study revealed the differences in lifestyles of parents from special and mainstream schools. Parents play a crucial role in any child’s life and especially during his or her school years (Shriver & Kramer, 1993). Their participation and their involvement in the learning process give fruitful results (Heiserman, 1994). However, the

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current study showed that the parents of children with special needs have a limited choice in choosing their life preferences. They quit their work and hobbies and devote their life to their child with special needs.

Benefits of Inclusive Education Interviews with parents revealed that several factors influence their perceptions of inclusive education. All parents expressed positive perceptions towards the theory of inclusion by understanding and underpinning the importance of mutual benefits of inclusive education. Parents emphasized advantages such as socialization, having friends and typically developed children as role models, gaining self-confidence and the possibility of maturation for children with special needs and advantages such as gaining tolerance and understanding and accepting diversity for typically developed children. This result appears in earlier literature (Ahuja & Sunish, 2013; Dimitrova et al., 2014; Leyser & Kirk, 2004; Peck et al., 2004, Rafferty et al., 2001) that highlighted benefits of inclusion such as socialization, gaining confidence for students with special needs, and accepting differences, gaining tolerance for typically developed students. In order to meet the diverse needs of students with disabilities in inclusive schools providing only environmental facilities is not enough. The current study revealed that teacher training and readiness to teach in inclusive classes is one of the major factors shaping the perceptions of parents towards the concept of inclusive education. All parents that were interviewed see the lack of professionalism in teachers as barriers to inclusion. Parents of typical children reported that teachers in general education schools need to complete teacher training in order to be ready to teach in inclusive classes. Equally important to note that parents of children with special needs admitted that there is a lack of professional special teachers, and hence there are no teachers to teach in inclusive classes. Teacher training was reported by all parents as a solution. Several previous studies (Abu-Hamour & Muhaidat, 2014; Elkins et al., 2003; Gasteiger-Klicpera, Klicpera, Gebhardt, & Schwab, 2013; Leyser & Kirk, 2004; Palmer et al., 2001; Runswick-Cole, 2008) identified similar concerns and highlighted teacher training as an urgent need to successful inclusion. Another striking finding was a parental concern regarding possible neglect and isolation of children with special needs in inclusive settings. Possible negative attitudes of typical students towards their peers with special needs are perceived as the main issue that hinders a positive attitude towards inclusive education. It is interesting to find different opinions of parents from different schools. Parents from mainstream school think that typical students are cruel and may neglect children with special needs. Parent one (MSP1) reported that films and video games negatively affect students and nowadays they are hard-hearted. In contrast, parents of children from special school think that negative stereotypical attitudes of society have influenced the current younger generation and that is why typical students may hurt the feelings of their vulnerable peers. There are a lot of terms used by parents to underline their fear for children with special needs. Previous studies (Gasteiger-Klicpera et al., 2013;

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Leyser & Kirk, 2004; Palmer et al., 2001; Pivik, McComas, & Laflamme, 2002) also emphasized the factor of bullying as a barrier to the positive attitudes of parents and teachers. It was found that parents are afraid their children would feel isolated and could become the objects of victimization. One of the predictive findings was parental concern regarding the lack of resources for inclusive schools. All parents understood the need for special equipment and a special environment in inclusive school. Besides physical resources, parents stated that human resources are also needed. By that, they meant having special tutors in the class, so that the main teacher could meet every individual’s needs including students with special needs who would have immediate in-class support. Many previous studies (Abu-Hamour & Muhaidat, 2014; Dimitrova et al., 2014; Elkins et al., 2003; Runswick-Cole, 2008) have similar findings. Hence, it can be said that the provision of human and material resources would increase parental attitudes towards inclusion. The results of the present study also suggest that the severity of disability influences the attitudes of parents towards inclusive education. All parents that were interviewed mentioned that inclusive education at the current stage can serve only students with physical disabilities while those with cognitive delay and behavioral problems should study in special segregated schools. It is also important to note that parents were not completely negative towards including children with mental retardation or behavioral problems; they just think that in order to include them, society must change first. By that, they implied that stereotypical negative attitudes towards students with mental retardation would make inclusion harmful for children with special needs, again referring to the factor of bullying. This finding is consistent with findings of past studies such as Palmer et al. (2001). This study found that parents were not positive towards inclusive education for children with severe types of disability as they may take all the attention of the teacher and distract the learning and teaching processes. Similarly, de Boer and Munde (2015) suggest that parents are supportive of inclusion of students with sensory and physical impairments, however are totally against including students with cognitive disabilities. Among the logical explanations for this finding is that parents are concerned that their children’s needs would not be met in the class. It is assumed that parents of typical children want their children to be given full attention and the individual approach of the teacher. Similar to them, parents of students with severe types of disability would prefer their children to be in a supported place to study, predicting that inclusive schools should give less attention and lower quality care for their children.

Perceptions of Teachers About Inclusive Education According to the interviews with teachers, four themes emerged during the study. It was found that these five factors influence perceptions and attitudes of teachers towards inclusive education.

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Disability Analysis of the interviews with teachers showed that teachers hold positive attitudes towards inclusive education for children with physical impairments. Having experience of teaching students with mental retardation, teachers from corrective school reported that they are not supportive about inclusion for such children. They justified their view by saying that children with cognitive delays can be victims of an inappropriate attitude towards them and that they would feel isolated by not understanding general curriculum requirements. They also expressed their concern of disturbance in the class by students with severe types of disability. Teachers from the mainstream schools also expressed their unfavorable perception of including children with behavioral and mental problems, as they would disturb the process of teaching. These findings are in parallel with findings of other scholars (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002; Rakap & Kaczmarek, 2010; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996; Smith & Smith, 2000). It can be said that these findings are not surprising due to the lack of training, knowledge, skills, and awareness.

Negative Attitudes of Parents These findings highlight that these teachers presume the negative attitudes of parents as a barrier to inclusion. Teachers expressed their fear that children with special needs could be neglected, because their typical peers might have stereotypical negative attitudes. It was found that teachers are inclined to believe that parents play a crucial part in forming their children’s opinion. Teachers also think that society must change first and then inclusion will be successful. Similarly, Powers (2002) found that parental view about inclusion is crucial as it affects directly the perception of inclusion of their children. According to this thematic category, the importance of attitudes again was emphasized. In this case teachers’ perception of parental attitudes show that the theme of bullying and neglecting children with special needs is in line with the theme of attitudes and acceptance.

Resources Correspondingly with the importance of changing the attitudes of parents it was found that the lack of resources negatively influences the perceptions of inclusive education of teachers from special corrective and mainstream schools. All teachers emphasized the urgent need of material resources such as special equipment, provision of elevators and ramps, as well as need of human resources such as special tutors and supporters in the school. Teachers understand that only their willingness to include is not enough,

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children with special needs require an inclusive environment without any physical barriers. They also understand that there is a need to have special boards, software, methodical cards and other teaching instruments to facilitate the process of teaching and learning in inclusive class. Several scholars (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002; Clough & Lindsay, 1991; Combs, Elliot, & Whipple, 2010) have also highlighted a lack of resources as a barrier to inclusion.

Teacher Preparation One of the most important aspects influencing teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion is their need for training. These findings indicate that Kazakhstani pedagogical universities may not prepare teachers for inclusive schools, general school educators usually study in pedagogical universities, whereas special teachers often study in the faculty of defectology. It is also important to note that pedagogical the staff of special corrective schools after completing defectology training, are perceived to be more medical rather than pedagogical professionals (Rouse, Yakavets, & Kulakhmetova, 2014). For this reason teachers from both schools revealed their unreadiness to teach in inclusive classes. They all reported that they need training programs. Findings of many researchers (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002; Norwich, 1994; Powers, 2002; Rakap & Kaczmarek, 2010) are similar to the current findings about teacher training.

Conclusion In general, the findings of the present study demonstrate that parents are positive towards the development of inclusive education in Kazakhstan. Inferential analysis showed significant differences in attitudes of parents from mainstream and special schools. That is, teachers do not understand the needs of children with disabilities and do not believe that schools and teachers are ready. As for teachers, they are also mainly positive about the theoretical concept of inclusion, however they express concerns about the lack of resources, training, physical barriers and unreadiness of school communities. This present research has contributed to a better understanding in Kazakhstan about the current attitudes and beliefs among parents of children with and without disabilities and those of teachers that work in different educational settings. These findings reveal that although the process of developing inclusive education in Kazakhstan has begun, there are still barriers to further development in the culture, knowledge, and practices of key stakeholders involved in enacting inclusive education.

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Part V

School Leadership and Inclusion Education

Chapter 8

Exploring the Role of Distributed Leadership in Managing Inclusive Schools in Nur-Sultan Zhadyra Amangeldiyeva

Introduction The Republic of Kazakhstan has ratified several treaties related to inclusive education such as the United Nations Convention on the rights of child (1989), Salamanca statement (1994), Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006), and made amendments in the Law on Social, Medical and Educational Support for Children with Disabilities (2002), and the Law on Education in the Republic of Kazakhstan (2007). This initiative was a brave step forward for the country as it was a signal that the country was keen to implement inclusive education. It meant that Kazakhstan was to embrace the notion of inclusion in support of stimulating creativity enhancing student talent and respecting diversity rather than standardization. Thus, teachers are one of the main stakeholders of the process of inclusion in schools. Their commitment to the realization of inclusive practices are pivotal and as such, leadership is an important part of this. It is believed that collaborative and participatory leadership strategies create favorable conditions for inclusive education (Makoelle & Van der Merwe, 2014). Therefore, in this study distributed leadership is investigated as a collaborative and participatory approach to leadership and its effect on inclusion as an educational process. Therefore, because of the implementation of inclusive education and the establishment of inclusive schools, there is a need to better understand the notion of distributed leadership and how it impacts on inclusive practices in schools within the Kazakhstani context. Although the role of classroom instruction and school conditions that impact on learner success is evident amongst the literature, little is known about how distributed leadership may influencing these conditions in the context of an inclusive school (Day & Leithwood, 2007). Managing inclusive schools is different from managing mainstream schools as there is a need for accommodating diversity and adopting educational processes according to the needs of Z. Amangeldiyeva (B) Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. M. Makoelle and M. Somerton (eds.), Inclusive Education in a Post-Soviet Context, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65543-3_8

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diverse learners rather than standardizing as it has been the case with traditional approach. Kazakhstan has begun the implementation of inclusive education and there are currently four pilot schools in Nur-Sultan, the capital city which implements inclusive education policy. While there is extensive evidence in research as to the conditions that positively impact learning accomplishments, little is known about how principal’s leadership approach may influence those conditions within an inclusive schooling context (Day & Leithwood, 2007). The pilot schools in Nur-Sultan city work within the framework of the national project “Inclusive kindergarten-inclusive schools-inclusive college” and have elements of inclusion: special needs accommodated classes, tutors for every learner with special needs, and seminars for the development of in-service teachers. However, relying on the previous system of standardized educational programs and managing methods will not be able to support successful implementation of the reform. This chapter examines the existing management system of distributed leadership in inclusive schools as they have crucial influence on the inclusive practices. The following research question guided the study: “What is the role of distributed leadership in managing inclusive schools in Kazakhstan?”

Literature Review Defining the Concept Leadership Leadership originally developed from the field of psychology that explains social influence in groups (Calder, 1977). However, a recent interest in leadership in education has been found to often be ambiguous and complex (OECD, 2017). Divergent perspectives on effective leadership styles and the school principals’ role in school achievements are beyond the scope of this study. Nevertheless, a brief overview is provided in this section about the concept of educational leadership worldwide as well as its local assumptions and peculiarities. There exists an abundance of definitions of educational leadership within the literature. However, most explain the term as intentional influence endeavored by one person or a group, over other individuals or groups, to construct actions and communication in a group or institution (Bush, 2013). In his work Bush (2007) and consequently echoed by Botha and Makoelle (2012) allude to the fact that leadership should not be misconstrued with management. Leadership is based on influence and can have tremendous impact on change and improvement processes of the school while management is vested in the authority of the position and its focus is on maintaining and controlling rather than changing the status quo. A body of research has been conducted on the most suitable models of leadership in education and the role of principals in educational outcomes of learners. Bush (2013) provides a helpful categorization of leadership forms i.e. formal (based on formal

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structures); collegial forms (based on cooperation and collaboration of colleagues); political forms (based on exercise of political influence); subjective forms (based on the personality influence of the leaders) cultural forms (based on institutional cultures) and moral forms (based on the exercises of moral values). Transformational and instructional models dominate other educational leadership models. While school principals in transformational leadership can transform school culture or maintain it, (Firestone & Louis, 1999; Leithwood & Jantzi, 1999) and be considered to be a primary source of educational expertise (Conley & Goldman, 1994; Leithwood, 1994) to support and empower teachers in decision making (Marks & Printy, 2003), distributive leadership and teacher leadership on the other hand fosters a collective, participatory and collaborative leadership which pivotal for an inclusive educational environment.

What Is Distributed Leadership? Today, many studies on distributed leadership also concerns educational leadership (Harris, 2009). This model, compared to transformational and instructional leadership in education, investigates the role of a positional leader at the level of school, rather than an individual (Fullan, 2005). In this context, leadership is seen as an activity that is shared among personnel rather than an inherited role as principalship. According to this model, the concept of leadership has changed from being a “leader-centered” position to a more collective leadership approach. Spillane (2004) explains that “from a distributed perspective, leadership practice takes shape in the interactions of people and their situation, rather than from the actions of an individual leader” (p. 3). The model has been studied thoroughly by Gronn and Spillane and their understanding as well as the structure of the distributed leadership model will be discussed.

Models of Distributed Leadership Spillane’s Model of Distributed Leadership Spillane, Halverson, and Diamond (2001) view leadership as an interaction between school stakeholders and the environment. Spillane’s focal point reached out past the customary perspective on leadership that would in general spotlight on “an individual’s ability, personality and other characteristics” (Spillane et al., 2001, p. 11). Spillane’s applied structure does not focus on the demonstrations of a solitary individual yet rather the gathering of on-screen characters engaged with different components of initiative. Subsequently, Spillane’s work moves from administration as a sole ownership of leadership and toward the initiative of others as an aggregate undertaking. In this way, administration was characterized by Spillane et al., as the result

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of the connective snare of the school actors’ communications, utilization of artifacts, and the situation. Spillane’s work on distributed leadership yielded another emphasis on the idea of numerous people or actors’ partaking in school leadership, including formal leaders, informal leaders, and their supporters. Elmore (2000) stated, “The idea behind distributed leadership is that the complex nature of instructional practice requires people to operate in a network of shared and complementary expertise rather than in hierarchies that have a clearly defined division of labor” (p. 24). The web of collaboration among school faculty is only one segment of Spillane’s hypothesis of distributed leadership practice. Spillane’s hypothesis likewise centers around the manner by which artifacts are utilized (e.g., motivation, pacing guides, information checking, and so on.) and the way that social standards are separated from yet in addition included under the umbrella of artifacts (e.g., school’s vision, goals, norms).

Gronn’s Conceptual Framework Gronn (2002) added an additional element to a distributed leadership model by presenting concertive action, which implies that individuals work to pool their drive and aptitude with the goal that the result is more prominent than the entirety of their individual activities. Gronn (2002) sketched out three types of concerted activity that can be seen in the act of distributed leadership: unconstrained cooperation; instinctive working connections; regulated practices. Gronn, similar to Spillane, contended that the investigation of initiative consisting of solo or brave followers is not a precise depiction of the truth inside schools. He envisaged an added substance or various authority approach that reclassifies leadership to mean the accumulated initiative of an association, which is scattered among others in the school. This dispersed leadership structure requires a division of work that Gronn characterized as the totality of the undertakings and the innovative capacity utilized for the consumption of those assignments by specialists. Taking into account the work of Spillane and Gronn, leadership in schools is substantially more than the characteristics, initiative style, and learning of a person individually. The test of improving the instructive result for school leaders mean including different actors or stakeholders, and working with different approaches, conditions, and responsibilities. Distributed leadership has been used to portray different kinds of authority, including but not constrained to, shared authority, facilitative initiative, and community administration. Terms that are related with distributed leadership incorporate a majority rule government and strengthening. Wilson (2005) wrote, “Schools that will effectively produce the kinds of reforms that accountability demands must have administrators who build capacity for leadership in the school and who help to focus the efforts of the school on learning” (p. 4).

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Leadership in the Post-USSR Countries The concept of leadership in post-communist countries such as Kazakhstan differ from the ones that are successfully practiced in Western countries. According to Ardichvili and Gasparishvili (2007), the internal work culture assumptions and leadership style in Kazakhstan show the highest level of paternalism and fatalism compared to Russia, Kyrgyzstan and Georgia. The results of this survey-based study highlight the managerial culture of the Republic of Kazakhstan as the fruit of cultural peculiarities. Moreover, the case of leadership culture in Kazakhstan has been studied by international organizations and national reports (OECD, 2014; The World Bank, 2014) where the importance of increasing the quality of leadership in Kazakhstani schools is raised along with extending the level of autonomy for principals. A recent study on the structure of school leadership in Kazakhstan demonstrates that school principals often spend great energy and time in communicating the implementation reforms to their staff (Frost, Fimyar, Yakavets, & Bilyalov, 2014). Leadership in this context is understood as a one-sided process where principals are responsible for every change in educational process and teaching staff are the followers. Moreover, the leadership style practiced by the school principals also has limitations in concerns of their own view on leadership. The implementation process is mainly refocused or transformed according to the positional leader’s view on the reform and lacks organizational developments (Frost et al., 2014).

Inclusive Leadership The leadership of the school has become more complex with an increased diversity of students from different backgrounds i.e. disability, language, culture and socio-economic circumstances. As a result, continuous change is impossible to be led, managed and controlled by one leader and there is a need for support from co-leaders and specialists or any other kind of volunteer that would help to handle any activity. Therefore, leaders and followers join hands to work and achieve organizational goals. In this view, the Catalyst Training Manual (2017) describes the followers as leaders: “Followers are also leaders. The first follower turns a lone nut into a leader! Followers are leaders in their own right, and in fact, inclusive leaders make space for others to lead, by following them” (p. 6). On the other hand, Bortini, Paci, Rise, and Rojnik (2019) discuss several theories on inclusive leadership and make a conclusion: All of these theories refer to the concept of ‘inclusiveness’ in a very broad sense. They fundamentally have ‘everybody’ in mind, regardless of cultural background, age, sexual orientation, gender, disability, personality type, and ways of working etc. (p. 12)

Therefore, the concept inclusive leadership differs to other forms of leadership in that the attitude of a leader is oriented to accepting others with all their strength as well as weaknesses. It is aimed at their empowerment to take ownership and drive inclusive school processes through collaboration, cooperation and team work.

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Characteristics of Inclusive Leadership Inclusive leadership is progressively seen as a key test for educational leaders. For instance, Leithwood, Jantzi, and Steinbach (1999) talks about leadership that supports students. They propose that schools flourish when vulnerable students are supported and are taught learning skills such as critical thinking and schools have the capacity to react to a more extensive scope of students support. Conversely, Fullan (2001) postulates that leadership must take into account the importance of administration. Fullan mentions five common elements vital for powerful administration in the midst of progress: moral purpose, understanding the change procedure, relationship building, knowledge creation and sharing, and coherence making. These elements are key for school transformation towards inclusion. However, Sergiovanni (1992) indicates current leadership practices are likely to impede school improvement endeavors. Sergiovanni proposes two primary disadvantages of these methodologies i.e. there is an inclination to see initiative as conduct instead of activity, as having to do with people instead of thoughts and the accentuation on bureaucratic, mental and specialized experts has prompted the disregard of professional authority. The notion of an inclusive leadership is perhaps exemplified by Lambert et al. (1995, p. 24) who talk about ‘constructivist’ perspective on leadership. Lambert et al. note constructivist leadership as “the reciprocal processes that enable participants in an educational community to construct common meanings that lead toward a common purpose about schooling”. From their point of view, leadership involves an intuitive process entered into by students and teachers. Thus, there is a requirement for shared leadership. At various levels leadership must be characterized by shared aims, objectives and vision. Constructivist leadership allows all stakeholders of the school community to determine shared values, customs and traditions which promote an inclusive culture which does not exclude anyone. On the other hand, Riehl (2000) propose “a comprehensive approach to high school administration and diversity” as crucial for inclusive leadership as it focuses specifically on the work of the principal. Riehl concludes that school leaders must attend to three broad kinds of tasks: fostering new meanings about diversity; promoting inclusive practices at intervals; schools; and building connections between teachers and communities. She goes on to explain the importance of the way these tasks are accomplished, exploring the idea of observation, particularly discursive observation, can contribute to a better and clearer understanding of the work of principals. Furthermore, inclusive leadership requires principals to have positive interactions in inclusive, transformative developments. She concludes: When wedded to a relentless commitment to equity, voice, and social justice, administrators’ efforts within the tasks of sense creating, promoting inclusive cultures and practices in faculties, and building positive relationships outside of the varsity, might so foster a brand new variety of observe. (p. 71)

Spillane et al. (2001) expands upon this view and they contend that ‘distributed leadership’ challenges the notion that school leadership as residing in any one individual. They indicate that leadership requires collective effort, joint strategic planning and

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shared vision by all parties to ensure that the goals of the school are achieved. However, not everyone has leadership qualities, as a result the professional development is significant in enhancing an understanding of distributive leadership and its impact on individuals.

Factors That Promotes Successful Use of Distributive Leadership Organizations with successful active distributed leadership are not under the illusion that an organization can be successful if all its tasks and activities are performed by a single person (Spillane, 2006). Any school will require a collective effort to achieve the goals the school community has set for itself (Harris, 2009). There’s a relationship that has to be maintained between leadership, structures, school vision, and school culture (Elmore, 2000; Hallinger, 2010). To achieve a harnessed leadership and structural relationship, Harris (2009, p. 173) avers that while participants have the “potential to exercise leadership,” the organization should examine “the approach that leadership is expedited, orchestrated and supported” (Harris, 2009, p. 173). As a result, to expedite, orchestrate and support the school leader should manage individual actions, take care of the interrelations between school structures and be aware of cultural pressures inside and outside the school. An inclusive school leadership should enhance the process of school improvement by facilitating collaborations among all stakeholders of the school community (Grenda & Hackmann, 2014; Hallinger, 2010). Therefore, its important to determine the methodology of how leadership is distributed such that school improvement is enhanced (Camburn, Rowan, & Taylor, 2003; Davis, 2009; Hallinger, 2010; Halverson & Clifford, 2013; Jacobson, 2011; Spillane, 2005). As participants have varied skills, information, involvement and experience, it is important to assess their capacity to contribute institutional processes, culture and structure and allow “different kinds of leadership to emerge” (Day et al., 2004, p. 859). While distributed leadership is crucial for inclusive schools, Ainscow notes that it would be important to ensure that the needs of all role players are taken into consideration and dealt with (Ainscow, 2005). Avramidis and Norwich (2002) suggest coaching as a strategy to address the needs of those whom tasks could have been distributed to in a quest to improve teaching capacities expected to execute inclusion. The provision of resources to those who should carry the task is very important for the overall success of task distribution. The school leaders as the main figures in t making available the resources that help teachers meet the needs of various students must be well trained and prepared (Ainscow & Sandill, 2010; McLeskey & Waldron, 2002). The inclusive school leader has to keep up with recent advances in research to meet the needs of those with different abilities (McLeskey & Waldron, 2002). The attitudes and beliefs about inclusion are important for inclusive school leaders. Lindqvist and Nilholm (2013) suggest that teachers’ attitudes regarding inclusive

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education is vital because it can have a significant impact on the way teaching and learning is organized to accommodate the diverse needs of learners. The realization of inclusive processes also relates to the school leader’s approval of inclusive educational methods that could be practiced in the school (Schmidt & Venet, 2012) and can be seen by encouraging teacher’s self-development as well as collaborating to develop student success. However, when a school leader does not support the inclusive education approach the process of inclusion fails (Guzmán, 1997) because this could lead to the insufficient provision of instructional leadership, learning and teaching resources, knowledge on existing and newly discovered inclusive practices and experiences (Schmidt & Venet, 2012; Sergiovanni, 2009). Nevertheless, the result of a lack of support from the school leader could if leadership has been distributed be compensated by teachers/co-leaders with certain capabilities and enough knowledge to manage inclusive educational processes. Thus, distributive leadership allows other teachers also learn from each other and as a consequence the implementation of inclusion in the school can be facilitated (Schmidt & Venets, 2012). Blase and Blase (1999) examined the views of over n = 800 participants regarding required training for school principals and employed five research techniques to investigate the effect of the training. The methods included: (i) creating suggestions, (ii) giving feedback, (iii) modeling, (iv) victimization inquiry and soliciting recommendation and opinions, and (v) giving praise. The methods had a powerful impact on participants’ attitude and supported them to succeed in planning and preparation for inclusive classes. Moreover, the training courses on leadership helped the principals develop stronger management methods like supporting the various needs of learners. Teachers also mentioned the positive impact of these methods on motivating initiative taking, self-efficacy, and creating a warm atmosphere in the school. Additionally, according to the study results, there were effective principals who employed six teacher capacity building techniques: (i) action the study of teaching and learning; (ii) supporting collaboration efforts among educators; (iii) developing work relationships among educators; (iv) encouraging and supporting design of programs; (v) applying the principles of adult learning, growth, and development to any or all phases of workers development; and (vi) implementing an action analysis plan identify strategies that develop higher cognitive processes in lessons. In the same way, leaders instruct the development processes of professional teachers (Sergiovanni, 2006) through motivating and encouraging teacher leaders by collaborating and allowing them to make decisions in the educational process (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2006). Principals acknowledge the importance and direct impact of communication to teachers as well as the learners (Sergiovanni, 2006). To be accurate, insufficient partnership between teachers leads to insufficient partnership of their learners as well. Moreover, the principals acknowledge the engagement of the learners in their own academia and with collaboration, lead to bigger achievements. Therefore, there will be a need for teachers’ self-development to meet the needs of their learners, to meet their level of academic progress and be ready to adopt inclusive teaching methodology in the learning process.

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Leithwood (2005) claims it is the principal who employs transformational leadership and builds appropriate platforms for teachers’ professional growth through supporting collaboration as joint planning and joint decision making (Sergiovanni, 2009). Whilst the process of learning itself does not mean just repeating what has been taught, it is also about adding new ideas. That is why changes can be successfully implemented when institutions offer occupational learning platforms where the process of cultivation and progress improve. Liontos (1992) proposed an effective system to decrease educator seclusion, encourage social meaning, collaborates in taking responsibilities through strengthening authority, and effectively conveys the school’s standards and convictions. Accordingly, teachers are educated to be more professional (Hallinger, 2010). Nevertheless, Fullan (2005) warned that the efficacy of instructor coaching as well as the way it is used in educational institutions is crucial and indicates the importance of actions conducted for a certain purpose before implementation. As a consequence the implementation of inclusion will be able to provide an appropriate platform for teachers as well as the learners with diverse learning needs (Day & Leithwood, 2007). School principals and other positional leaders take the responsibility to equip, accommodate and adapt the school according to diverse learning needs despite all issues that they currently face. In this case there is a need for a positive inclusive view to instruct the educational process and learning environment with a whole school approach. Hence, there is a need for good management techniques in empowering teacher leadership that will support and develop teacher capacity to implement, develop the process of inclusion in the educational process. As a result, leaders play a very important role in motivating teachers to develop and maintain comprehensive class rooms. However, in addition to this teacher leaders must have an impact on their colleagues in implementing the culture of inclusion among in-service teachers. Moreover, sharing experience within each other and conducting joint planning for further actions to develop inclusive educational processes and acquire the necessary skills and knowledge to support continuous professional development is part of this, as inclusion is about flexibility and denies any standardization or habitual teaching methods.

Methodology Research Paradigm Research paradigms basically represent our understanding of the world that is surrounding us (Lather, 1996). Gephart (1999) divided research paradigms into three philosophically separate categories: positivism, interpretivism, and critical postmodernism. This study departs from the interpretative paradigm. Researchers describe an interpretative paradigm where there is no “correct” or “incorrect” theory

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(Walsham, 1995; Willis, 1995). This philosophical category attempts to extract theoretical constructions from the selected site through in-depth investigation of the phenomenon of interest. An interpretative paradigm is achieved through observation and interpretation. Therefore, the function of an interpretative paradigm is, firstly, to observe, thus to gain data on specific subject or event, and secondly, interpret by making meaning of the collected data by making conclusions or discussing the correlations between the data and existing literature (Aikenhead, 1997). The following peculiarity of interpretive paradigms is noted in Reeves and Hedberg (2003) investigation as they stress the need to put analysis in context. Here the interpretative paradigm is presented from participants’ subjective views or experiences. Usually an investigator uses measurement oriented methodology as an interview or observation where data collection is based on the subjective relationship between observer and subjects. Kaplan and Maxwell (1994) state that interpretative paradigms do not predetermine dependent and independent variables, and instead consider the whole multiplicity of the subject, or event as the situation arises. Therefore, the interpretative approach attempts to analyze and explain the subjective causes and significance that are behind social action. However, interpretivists do not aim to generate a new theory; they rather discuss or evaluate interpretative theories. Walsham (1995) shows three distinct usage of theory in interpretative case studies: theory guiding the design and collection of data; theory as an iterative process of data collection and analysis; and theory as an outcome of a case study. The following study applies the theory as an iterative process between data collection and analysis. An interpretative paradigm is more qualitative in its orientation as it depicts reality as seen by participants, hence the choice of qualitative research approach.

Research Design A qualitative study helps investigators understand people in their social and cultural contexts (Myers, 2009). This research design provides researchers with the multiplicity and specific peculiarities of the subject’s unseen world to be examined and represented. In qualitative research, various knowledge demand, enquiry strategies, data collection methods, and analysis are employed (Creswell, 2014). In qualitative designs, data sources consist of observation, fieldwork, interviews, questionnaires, documents and texts, and the researcher’s representations and reactions (Myers, 2009). The other sources of information in a qualitative research design can also be data collected from direct observation of behaviors, from interviews, from public documents, written descriptions of people, events and certain environments. As this study is qualitative in nature, the aim of the chapter is to explore the role of distributed leadership in managing inclusive schools. Therefore, there is a need to analyze the natural process of implementation of inclusion in pilot schools. Only by

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analyzing the real setting can the researcher understand the role of distributed leadership in the local context. This requires the researcher to be open and not limit the respondents from describing their work, experiences, and views on managing inclusive schools. As it is impossible to predict the results there are no certain dependent or independent variables. A qualitative design was chosen because it is naturalistic and focuses on the investigation of the ordinary life of various individuals and institutions in their natural setting. The data was collected through structured and semi-structured interviews from positional leaders. The purpose of selecting positional leaders is to identify how they use teacher capacity in implementation of a new reform in the Kazakhstani context of inclusion. The concept of distributed leadership can be best analyzed through phenomenological lens as it focuses on participants’ experience and view in constructing a theory. Phenomenology is an exploratory approach to qualitative research, “seek[ing] to explore, describe, and analyze the meaning of individual lived experience” (Marshall & Rossman, 2010, p. 19). Participants in phenomenological research must describe “how they perceive [the phenomenon], describe it, feel about it, judge it, remember it, make sense of it, and talk about it with others” (Patton, 2002, p. 104). In the interview, participants are asked to describe their experience and view on distributed leadership, and it is important to identify how teacher responsibility taking or empowerment is important to positional leaders. The successful use of distributed leadership lies on the positional leader’s attitude to teacher’s active participation in conducting lessons or organizing educational processes.

Research Sites The research sites are four inclusive pilot schools in Nur-sultan. The schools have learners with different health impairments as inclusive education in the context of Kazakhstan is typically understood as for children with physical or mental limitations. One secondary school began the process of inclusion before Kazakhstan ratified international and national treaties, another school with less experience in the implementation of inclusive education is governed by an experienced school principal who implemented inclusion previously in one of the other four schools. Thus, the implementation process in this school is conducted by experienced positional leaders. The number of learners with special education needs also differ according to the school resources and school size from five students up to one hundred in each pilot school. The students attend general classes but also have correctional rooms for individual learning when required. Moreover, educational programs also differ from general standardized programs but with the same assessment requirements. The teachers in these schools have no previous teaching experience or specialization in teaching students with special needs, but there are tutors who are responsible for each student with special needs to support them throughout the educational process and physical maintenance if needed.

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The schools were selected as they are the first schools practicing inclusion in education without any professional preparation. The study examines the positional leaders’ understanding of teacher empowerment and contribution to successful implementation of inclusion; the effect of distributed leadership in implementing inclusive education in pilot schools; and the distribution of leadership within the context of teacher collaboration in existing formal collaborative structures.

Participants According to Patton (2002), purposeful sampling gives the opportunity for the researcher to select “information-rich cases” for the in-depth study. Merriam (1998) states that purposeful sampling is used when a researcher can select a participant who is directly related to the purpose of the study. Therefore, most qualitative studies employ this sampling technique for the rich information it can provide. As a consequence, more information can offer more issues of central importance to answer the research questions that guide the studies. Patton (2002) describes the benefit of purposeful sampling as “Any common patterns that emerge from great variation are of particular interest and value in capturing the core experience and central, shared dimensions of a setting or phenomenon” (p. 169). In the present study a positional leader responsible for inclusion from each of the four schools was chosen. In order to explore the positional leaders’ perceptions of distributed leadership within their organization an interview protocol was constructed. Due to the limitations of schools and the number of positional leaders there four participants in total, one from each pilot school in Nur-sultan. The selection of the interviewee for this qualitative study is based around the following criteria: 1. The participant must work in a pilot school in Nur-sultan; 2. The participant must be a positional leader working with inclusive education teachers; 3. Willingness of the leaders to participate in the research; Common acknowledgement that the school has an open and democratic attitude to and philosophy of distributed leadership and community engagement;

Instruments Interviews A generic qualitative interview was chosen as a data collection method. Kvale and Brinkmann (2009) explain that interviews are most appropriate for understanding individuals’ assumptions as well as explaining and expounding their viewpoints.

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Thomas (2009) asserts that the face to face interview is seen to be invaluable as it allows direct contact. The interview was designed with five questions and paying attention to the kind of data that answers the purpose of the research from the interview (Merriam, 1998), it is important to use both structured and unstructured interviews. Thus, the first part of the protocol with two questions is more structured to obtain data about the participants’ experience in inclusive education process, for instance, their work experience and knowledge of teachers’ collaboration in managing the school. The next section of the interview protocol is semi-structured, thus allowing flexibility to focus on experience and practice in managing inclusive schools.

Data Collection Prior to the interviews, the researcher met with the school principal and asked permission to conduct an interview with the positional leader and then decide the time of meeting in accordance with his/her availability. This process took approximately one month to receive permission and conduct an interview with a positional leader from each school. Before data collection could begin, the interviewee was provided with an informed consent as per ethical approval. The location for the interview was chosen by each participant, and these were in the correctional classrooms when they were free. Moreover, the participants wanted to show the accommodated classes and methods that they use to meet diversity of their learners with special needs. Each interview was conducted in Russian and approval for digital recording was obtained from each of the participants prior to beginning the interview.

Data Analysis Each of the recorded interviews were transcribed for the process of analysis. This began with categorization of information into logical patterns, similar views, critical themes that appear in the data. According to Bogdan and Biklen (2003) this involves “working with the data, organizing them, breaking them into manageable units, coding them, synthesizing them, and searching for patterns” (p. 147). Transcriptions were printed and then read twice with the researcher taking notes on key words. After this emergent themes or codes were highlighted in different colours.

Ethical Consideration Ethics Approval was received from the NUGSE Research Committee and the research was conducted following the guidelines of the NUGSE approval and taking the necessary precautions to protect the participants’ rights. Participants were provided

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with an approved consent form and were informed about the confidentiality of their responses, their name and the research sites. Participants were provided with the opportunity to ask questions prior to giving consent to participate in the research and were advised of the voluntary nature of participation, and their right to not answer a question if it made them uncomfortable or to withdraw their data from the research altogether. The participants’ interviews were recorded only after they provided permission by and signing the informed consent form. The interviews were conducted in the rooms which were prepared by the participant. The interview was recorded on the researcher’s mobile phone which had a personal password to have access. Each interview was given a code which was later written onto its respective written transcription. The recordings were deleted from the researcher’s phone after the transcription was completed.

Findings The data analysis conducted on the four interviews revealed the following broad themes on the exploration of the role of distributed leadership. Understanding of distributed leadership, forms of distributed leadership in these inclusive schools, the school environment and effective ways of applying distributed leadership. The support for these themes will be presented in detail below. A discussion of the themes follows. Codes are used to identify the four schools and the participants as I#1, I2#, I#3 and I#4 refers to interviews at each of the schools.

Theme 1: Understanding Distributed Leadership Distributive leadership through the sharing of responsibility with colleagues. It is not only teachers but also the entire staff who must trust each other and take responsibility for others whenever it is needed. Here it implies inter-dependency rather than dependency embracing how leaders of different types and in different situations share responsibility. Although each pilot school has its unique background, practices, and experience, few distinct features between each participant emerged from the qualitative findings. It became evident during the interviews, that participants were not familiar with the concept of distributed leadership. It appeared that the concept was more implicit rather than explicit as the participants did not think of the need for distributed leadership among non-positional teachers. In our school teachers should be flexible in teaching the learners. To support this, we have supporting specialists as defectologist and speech therapist, and tutors. Every specialist has an individual working plan with children with special educational needs and all they work to develop the child. (I#4) We work together with other teachers to develop these children, (I#1)

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Before selecting a teacher for an inclusive class we talk to her/him and explain our choice, how we believe in her/him and support her/him throughout an academic year. (I#2)

The participants (as positional leaders) felt they were responsible themselves for the school and student success as part of their role. However, they did not mention the importance of the fruitful work done by teachers who conducted jobs beyond their work responsibilities.

Theme 2: Leadership Practiced in the Inclusive Schools The findings show that there were different styles of leadership in all schools, however, the representation and the structure of active followers differed according to the leadership forms of the school. These descriptions of teacher responsibility describe the structures: We organized a group of teachers who work only in inclusive classes, we try to solve problems together. Usually we face problems in the beginning of a new academic year but class teachers together with psychologists and tutors take responsibility and apply needed actions. (I#1) I never call teachers together, I just talk to them individually, and divide responsibilities on my own according to their competencies. (I#2) Our defectologist has experience of 4 years working in this field and she helps other teachers. (I#4)

Hierarchical Leadership The analysis indicates a hierarchical leadership form where the responsibility to support teachers with knowledge (medical) and teaching equipment was on the positional leaders, where every new teacher or tutor first went through instructions and was told what to do, and how to do their work. It appeared that the intention was to support, empower, and build trust among teachers rather than giving commands. According to one participant: In our school teachers should be flexible according to the needs of the learners. To support subject teachers our school offers teacher advisors, supporting qualified specialists like defectologist, speech therapist. Each specialist has an individual plan for every child with special needs and that specialist conducts developmental educational actions throughout the academic year. Subject teachers also have educational plans adopted to the needs and capabilities of those children with special needs…. (I#4)

A similar response appeared that indicated support for subject teachers through facilitating the teaching process and sharing responsibility working with special children: For sure it is not easy to work with those children. Sometimes teachers say that they do not know how to work with them, that they are afraid of them. However, we try to support those

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teachers and organize a team of teacher leaders who have enough experience and qualified knowledge. Afterwards when those new teachers get accustomed to their new job and learn how to act in different cases. Then they do not usually have problems in working with special children. (I#1)

Positional Leadership Another peculiarity of hierarchical style of leadership is the essence of positional leader’s decision-making. By distributing leadership, it is not cancelling the positional leadership at all, it is to facilitate and reduce a principal’s tasks. Thus, a good distributed leadership takes place when a positional leader defines the right person to give the responsibility. In one of the interviews, it is posited: As inclusion is a new term for our society it is first of all hard to work with parents. The reason is that they ask everything from teachers and those have to be ready for every circumstance, they must be dedicated to their job and responsibility… Thus, before choosing a tutor or class teacher for those children we first talk to that teacher, I talk to them why we have chosen her, why she can only do this. So we choose special teachers with deep spiritual wealth. (I#2)

Although the main responsibility lies on positional leaders who are responsible for certain tasks there is an important element of distributed leadership that shows parallel leadership. That is having mutual respect, shared purpose and allowance for individual expression of teachers. Teachers who are facing certain difficulties can ask for advice and share a viewpoint on the further development of a child. Then that individual educational plan can be included in one of the specialist’s individual plans that can work out physical or medical action to support educational development of the child. Thus, a child can get all-around support from different specialists.

Participatory Leadership The other form of leadership that was evident was participative leadership. It satisfies the instructors’ needs to add to issues that influence them, then affect the successful organization of the educational process. The importance of participative leadership in the current school context is that it builds better relationships between colleagues and reduces the workload of the head of the school through distribution of leadership functions and roles (Sergiovanni, 2009). The essence of participatory leadership form in schools is articulated by a participant who remarked: We live like one family. I cannot say it is good governance or management. In the beginning of the academic year, we showed our children to the new security guide and informed him that only parents can take them out of the school. This can be called a human factor. This facilitates and does not need to be discussed. If one child goes to the toilet even a technician can open the door and hand toilet paper…. (I#3)

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Expertise Leadership Analysis of the data showed that participants mention that not everyone can handle various types of tasks. The responsibilities are shared among experienced, skilled and knowledgeable teachers. Thus, expert teachers in certain types of tasks are mainly eager to lead the team and new teachers likely to follow that expertized instruction. A participant expressed: …Moreover once a year we devote a decade for correctional classes. Throughout 11-12 demo lessons as well as events we show how to work in these classes and with learners with special needs. There usually we show practical seminars, and even invite teachers from other local schools, we instruct teachers and practitioners in inclusive education. (I#3)

In the other interview, there was mention of a number of teams who were responsible for certain types of tasks. The school principal cannot handle the entire educational process, the best can be done here is to share responsibilities among teachers who possess better skills, experience or knowledge to realize the tasks appropriately. The I#4 stated: “According to different tasks we have educational department, organizers, social pedagogues who have their own responsibilities for every occasion.” On the other hand, it is difficult for a new or inexperienced teacher to do something out of her wish or incapability in certain tasks. This is also mentioned in the interviews, and it is said: Now we have new children with epilepsy, it is very difficult to see them for the first time. Even for me, with 11 years of experience, it is hard to look at them. I want to say that I am a teacher, I am not a doctor, I do not want to be responsible for their health. When I am responsible for something that I am not experienced in I am afraid, and other teachers too. We want teachers to be able to take some special medical courses at university before getting their qualifications. (#I3)

After demonstrating the role of distributed leadership, the interviewee thought of a school management without the invaluable support of the entire collective. And started to realize what aspects of teachers lead to the development in inclusive education and in what cases they realized their potential as a teacher leader. The ones that were mentioned were respected teachers who were dedicated to their job, who had theoretical educational background and some personal peculiarities in concerns of life stamina, life principles to help a person without any pay or expectation. Moreover, the teacher leaders are supposed to be experienced ones. Throughout the interviews there is a significant emphasis placed on the importance of personal experience or years of work experience in the field of inclusive education. Those teachers with these experiences are mainly eager to lead, support the team and are more trusted in being empowered by principals. The analysis has described three forms of distributed leadership practiced in the research site schools: hierarchical, participatory and expertise. In fact, all of them are evidence of distributed leadership. This type of leadership places emphasis on group decision-making and leadership contributions of entire school staff in the context of institution management. An experienced principle who consciously adopts these forms would appreciate how it facilitates the school management, especially when there is a new policy implementation.

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Theme 3: School Environment The study has illustrated that the use of distributed leadership was influenced by the school environment. The environment that is provided by the administration of the school has a significant impact on the quality of the educational process. Building a warm atmosphere and friendly environment is a pivotal point for the principal as promoting better relationships, leaders can “unite the school around shared values and high-order purposes” (Hopkins & Jackson, 2002, p. 101). Therefore, distributed leadership firstly derives from mutual trust and respect, where staff can feel themselves supported. The more elements of distributed leadership appear in the school the more the interviewee feels dedicated to their job and appreciated other staff’s work. Moreover, the school environment makes not only the teachers, but also the student relationship and parents’ attitude towards the school. This can be proved by the participant’s response: “teacher leaders are very helpful, those children with special needs, even their classmates are happy to see that treatment, they are psychologically happy. For example, in 3rd grade we have a child and all the classmates are ready to help even though there are always teachers and his own tutor nearby…” (I1). And “The parents of newcomers have a positive attitude towards our school. As they have respect for our teachers we do not face any difficulties with them. (I#2)

Moreover, such warm relationships that support distributed leadership have a significantly positive impact on student and school success. Learners see the positive attitudes of their teachers and accept the children with special needs with their own peculiarities. Thus, the school environment facilitates socialization, educational development of children with special needs. According to one participant: Learner success comes differently according to the diagnosis they have…. This was a long lasting issue teaching a learner colors. Then as soon as he leant it there was a dramatic rise in his intellectual development. He started to learn numbers, and we all did everything we could do to stretch the memory, we sought for different gaming activities. (I#3)

The school’s interrelations endorse positive development. Interdependency contributes to all-round work of several leaders, and difficulties in this case become opportunities for self-development and the development of educational programs. One of the participant stated: We did everything to stretch his memory, sought for various gaming activities, then he learnt geometric figures, it is not easy, it so individual and in the end we even released a book….Several years ago I defended an educational program stating that children’s speech abilities lie on their fingertips. Then I released a number of exercises for parents and other teachers so they could use them during their classes. (I#3)

Distributed leadership and warm atmosphere in relationship among stakeholders are two intertwined issues that lead to success. By collaborating as a whole school, it is easier to develop and easier to overcome difficulties, sometimes it is a good challenge that makes everyone respect each other and understand the importance of people around. Moreover, through supporting distributed leadership a principle can make each teacher feel the sense of accomplishment and become self-motivated.

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Theme 4: Application of Distributed Leadership in Inclusive Schools The study has identified many obstacles in inclusive schools that work against the use of distributed leadership. There is an abundance of limitations to teacher collaboration at school. Especially when there is lack of teachers or tutors who conduct everyday lessons: some have all day long classes, or planning for the following day, other personal problems: “We have to instruct teachers individually, every child is different from others and there is no need for collaboration” (I#4) and “We never meet as we do not have time when every teacher is free, lessons are all day long, so maybe we can only meet on Saturdays once a month” (I#2).

Sub-theme: Distributed Leadership Is Shared Responsibility However, these schools do find time and occasions to meet and share responsibilities. Depending on the school capacity, the bigger the school the more difficult it is to gather all teachers together. Starting from the smallest one, it has only one hall and all the classes are in row for two floors. One participant says: “If a child with special needs is not on his best, then the next class teacher is informed about it just in a break time, and the child is not disturbed to be on his own for some time when he gets ready to participate in the class” (I#3).

Sub-theme: Distributed Leadership Is Vehicle for Collaboration From the perspective of the participants, it appeared that it was teachers who had the greatest opportunity to collaborate in conducting seminars. During seminars teachers share how they manage with certain problems, discuss and learn. Moreover, these kinds of seminars are held among different schools, not only one school. Additionally, training and presentations are also a good method of application of distributed leadership. Teachers choose one theme that they are good at, then they cultivate their product and share it with other teachers so they also could use them in their classes. The attendance of the teachers responsible for seminar, presentation or training is voluntary, they do just what they can do best: “We create a work plan together. For the Open Day teachers as well as other staff is engaged, this is even never discussed. We live like a family” (#I3).

Sub-theme: Distributed Leadership Is Joint Planning When the participants were asked how they would develop distributed leadership in managing their school, the majority answered through planning. Positional leaders advised to meet once a month and create an individual learning plan for a child and

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work on it throughout a month then the next meeting share the results so that plan was studied and developed during the meeting (I#2). Another advice was to conduct personal talks with teachers so they were motivated and worked on their own efficacy, especially new teachers were afraid of taking any responsibilities and they needed more instruction and support from experienced teachers or positional leaders: “In collaborating with teachers there must be a work plan, firstly. I think discussing these work plans once a month can lead to success” (I#2). Similarly, “Education programs change every year according to the abilities and success of a learner, so we need to join our experience and develop educational plans accordingly” (I#4). Finally, “I want teachers to work on their self-development. Now teachers come and say “I can conduct a brilliant lesson on it, but I do not know when a child’s convulsions start and how to treat him, I am just a teacher, thus we need new teachers with some basic medical knowledge”. (I#3)

Discussion This study investigated the role of distributed leadership in managing inclusive schools in Nur-Sultan. It has also attempted to explore positional leaders’ experience in effective leadership practice among teachers working in inclusive classes, the influence of distributed leadership on school and learner success and to identify effective ways of practicing distributed leadership in these selected pilot schools. The discussions in this chapter, supported by both empirical data and insights from literature, attempt to respond to the research questions that guided this study. This section presents the discussions that were collected and analyzed during the investigation. It is organized around the overarching question that guides the study: What is the role of distributed leadership in managing inclusive schools?

Understanding Distributed Leadership As the data taken from the interview demonstrates, there is no certain understanding of distributed leadership among positional leaders working in selected pilot schools. Although some elements of distributed leadership as collaboration of teachers, sharing responsibility exist in the school experience, participants did not think it is important in managing inclusive school. This view is specific to the current condition of distributed leadership as it is not a totally new type of leadership, it is rather a new approach to the understanding of leadership. Bennett, Harvey, Wise, and Woods (2003) explored leadership studies between 1996 and 2002, and summarized the concept of distributed leadership as “… a way of thinking about leadership. If we

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understood it this way, it challenges many current assumptions about the nature of leadership and the community within it occurs” (p. 2). Positional leaders felt the responsibility of the process of inclusion only themselves. They believed everything depends on them, their actions, control, and ideas. They did not take into account teachers’ certain attempts in achievements in inclusion. This finding correlates with the study conducted on leadership styles in postcommunist countries and defined that leadership in Kazakhstan shows the highest level of fatalism compared to others (Ardichvili & Gasparishvili, 2007). Moreover, the positional leaders’ responsibility to take control of every action in all selected schools, this has also been studied by Frost et al. (2014), and the study also proves principals’ great energy and contribution to implementation of reforms whereas teachers show less responsibility. Therefore, it can be said that teachers, despite the fact that they are one of the important stakeholders of the process, stay apart, limited in making decisions or developing their professional capacity. It weakens the implementation of inclusion in the school. Harris (2005) conducted a case study in n = 22 schools and she identified distributed leadership as “maximizing human capacity within the school organization” and concludes that the school where the principals together with teachers take responsibility on school improvement and are involved in leading has influence on the school’s success. Spillane, Hallett, and Diamond (2003) identify distributed leadership as “an influence that motivates, enables, and supports teachers’ efforts to learn about and improve their instructional practices” (p. 1). Therefore, limiting teachers’ or school personnel’s active participation in school improvement or leadership deprives them from opportunities of professional development, job satisfaction and consequently valuable attempts to facilitate the inclusion process in school.

Leadership Practiced in the Inclusive Schools Every school practiced different styles of distributed leadership though they did not call it so. In a couple of schools there were used hierarchical and positional leadership styles which is peculiar to Kazakhstani schools, however, as implementation of inclusion is new and cannot be done by only principal, there are certain positional leaders responsible for teacher support both emotionally and practically. Thus, teachers’ contribution in conducting inclusive classes and planning is welcomed and appreciated. Teachers can address the principal or positional leaders in case they need any help. Consequently, the process of inclusion is distributed among stakeholders and it facilitates the implementation of the project and builds a bridge between positional leaders and teachers that have certain responsibilities. This finding goes in line with the study by Sergiovanni (2009) where participative leadership supports better relationships between principal and the teachers and reduces the workload for

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positional leaders. Thus, hierarchical and positional leadership styles build participative leadership style in school after supporting teacher participation and sharing the responsibility. As mentioned in the literature review, leadership styles changed according to years of experience. The more the school implemented inclusion the more distributive it was. The most experienced school practiced distributive style of leadership. There, less responsibility was on the principal, in contrast, there were teacher leaders who were dedicated to their job and they took responsibilities without any command or motivation. In this school, not only the teachers but also the technician and security guard knew about inclusion and their part in this process. What is more, the participant from this school accepted the word “governance” negatively, and tried to tell every colleague’s contribution to the organization of the educational process throughout the inclusive education project. This peculiarity of the distributed leadership is described in the conceptual framework demonstrated by Spillane et al. (2001) where school administration is not the only responsible action taker, but the entire school collective is engaged with different components of initiative according to situation and ability. Another style of leadership practiced in schools is expertise. Every participant said that it was hard to work with children with special needs not because they caused any kind of trouble but because no one knew what to do and how to deal with certain problems. Thus, there was a strong need for expertise to ask for advice. Once there is at least one person with suitable knowledge then there are found volunteers to work with those classes and take responsibility in organization of the educational process. Moreover, when participants were asked how to facilitate school management, most of them said about teacher training seminars, and the need for practical methodology in conducting lessons or treating different children with different abilities. This issue has been studied internationally by Avramidis and Norwich (2002), and they emphasized the high priority of training opportunities for in-service teachers. They believe that teachers will be more committed to lead a change if they receive support in mastering the abilities they need to implement inclusive education. The above mentioned types of leadership were practiced in the selected schools. As mentioned previously, no participant knew about the notion of distributed leadership however, schools practiced elements of distributed leadership in managing inclusive schools at different levels. Thus, it can be said that implementing inclusion in schools cannot be done by only positional leaders and there is a significant contribution of every worker of the school which facilitates and leads to successful implementation of the educational reform. Additionally, these elements of distributed leadership build mutual respect between the entire collective and positive learning atmosphere at the schools.

School Environment According to the results of empirical data, the school environment is influenced by the administration. Positional leaders were the ones who built the school atmosphere

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among and with other staff. The level of taking initiatives correlated how administration treated the staff. One school vice- principal said that teachers do not lead or contribute in doing anything, they are just asked to do certain tests and help in child movements around the school only. All other educational processes are done as it is appointed to someone from administration. And if a teacher does not cope with her/his job they just fire and hire another one. MacBeath (2005) states that trust is an important condition for success in managing schools and there was no trust between teachers and administration. In this school, there was a more hierarchical style of leadership and despite the fact the administration supported teachers, teachers themselves did not feel appreciation in what they do, they did not feel committed to inclusion but limited to commands. This school, consequently, had problems in working with teachers. Though the school offered a good salary and cash bonus they did not have much success as the one school where everyone’s contribution was appreciated. The success of the school was clear from the achievements they reached, for example, in the first school the participant talked about how they construct educational plans but did not mention student success according to those programs. In contrast, the second school always shared how one action led to student success and other teachers also tried to help children with special needs, though they were not given any bonuses to what they do. This case is essential as the negative school atmosphere, poor human relations between teacher and administration will hinder the distribution leadership. Principals can raise teachers’ morale, and motivate them by empowering and giving them voice of decision (Kruger & Steinmann, 2003). The high personal principles additionally would be increased by offering instructors more independence, demonstrating shared regard and giving them acknowledgment in concerns of educational endeavors in work with children with special needs (Steyn, 2002).

Application of Distributed Leadership in Inclusive Schools Applying distributed leadership in schools needs extra time, conditions and efforts. Despite the fact that all participants positively responded to distributed leadership they named limitations in meeting times. Teachers had classes at different times, some started working from early morning whereas others could work till late evening. Thus, meeting weekdays was almost impossible. However, to share responsibilities or conduct practical seminar classes there must be meeting hours when everyone can attend. Bennet et al. 2003, concerning collaboration of teachers, claims the setting up a cooperative condition in educational institutions, as well as support for close interrelationship among teachers and staff is considered as the most significant factor for school improvement. Thus, it is a big limitation for distributed leadership in those schools. Without proper communication and collective discussions, it is hard to draw clear job descriptions for the empowered teachers and pace in one direction all together (Bennet et al., 2003). On the other hand, one school vice-principal said that on Saturdays they do not have any classes and they dedicate that day for meetings. They always have planned

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for Saturday and one day in a month they can devote to distribution of leadership in concerns of inclusion. For the effective application of distributed leadership most of the participants said joint planning, individual planning, training and presentations according to their field of work. Spillane (2006) states that distributed leadership is context bound, thus team-based empowerment is essential that leads to success in managing inclusive schools.

Conclusions and Recommendations The effect of distributed leadership in managing inclusive schools is obvious. It facilitates problem solving issues in concerns of different learning needs of children with different diagnosis, firstly. Secondly, it builds close relationships between teachers and administration as well as parents. All the stakeholders communicate to solve common problems. And finally, it motivates the entire staff to work more and get job satisfaction. The empirical data shows some elements of distributed leadership in inclusive schools. There are given models of distributed leadership on the basis of data analysis. Although most participants omit teacher contribution in school or learner success, they understand the importance of supporting teachers: instructing them, or motivating them to do some tasks. The models of Distributed Leadership in schools are hierarchical, where administration and certain specialists support teacher; positional, the principle makes decisions in supporting teacher initiative; participative, where teachers participate in making changes and taking responsibilities that are beyond job obligations; distributive, where teachers and school staff share certain tasks through collaboration; and expertise leadership, when teachers capable in certain skills help other teachers. As it was mentioned above, distributed leadership is not about set structures but about new lenses through which managerial strategies could be viewed and organized. The study identified one significant theme in concerns of the role of distributed leadership in managing inclusive schools—the school environment and practice of distributed leadership are two intertwined phenomena in managing and achieving educational success. The school administration which practiced more elements of distributed leadership offered a more friendly atmosphere, and where there existed a warm atmosphere, mutual respect between colleagues’ teachers and staff were eager to take responsibility, and motivated to take initiative. As a result, they became self-motivated to develop teaching skills or be more responsible for their job. In spite of the positive effects of distributed leadership in managing inclusive schools, participants mentioned limitations of its application. Schools worked all day long and teachers had lessons at different times and there is almost no possibility to meet everyone. Moreover, they noted lack of leadership expertise, that there was a need for teachers with some knowledge or experience in working with children with special needs. They needed more practical seminars. Thus, there is a need for

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meeting times and capacity building among teachers so they could take responsibility to do certain tasks beyond subject teaching. As possible solutions for successful application of distributed leadership the respondents said that collaboration of teachers once a month and discussing individual plans devoted to the development of children with special needs could bear fruitful results and facilitate the learning process. Additionally, joint planning of educational programs, developmental programs also are welcomed as the learners with special needs adopt more adopted ones and they continuously change as the learner changes, or continues to the next level. Several findings of the study would be helpful for stakeholders of inclusive education management for instance conducting training and seminars on distributed leadership to principals and positional leaders to maximize human capacity and developing capacity building within teachers and advocate the elements of distributed leadership and build a friendly school environment for all.

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Chapter 9

Principal’s Strategies for Enhancing Teacher Leadership: A Case of Kazakh-Turkish High School, Kazakhstan Guldana Mukhtarbekkyzy

Introduction Leadership is an act of influence and persuasion on others to do certain activities or to achieve organizational or the personal goals of a leader (Bush, 2003). Teacher leadership encompasses a quite similar characteristic with the prior concept, and can be defined as a process of influence to fellow teachers, and other stakeholders for an advancement of teaching and learning with the purpose of improved student performance (York-Barr & Duke, 2004). The Kazakhstani State Program of Education Development (2011–2020) aims to increase “competitiveness of education and development of human capital through ensuring access to quality education” (Ministry of Education and Science [MoES], 2011). One of the objectives of the State Program is to have 70% of schools inclusive by the end of 2020. To achieve the goal of inclusive education, principals and teachers are considered as some of the main actors in educational improvement. For instance, Makoelle (2016) avers that teachers are in their own right leaders of change and their role in the attainment of an inclusive education environment is very crucial. However, there are few empirical studies in Kazakhstan concerning teacher leadership and more so, the implementation of inclusive education has created a need for teacher leadership that recognizes diversity and social equity. Therefore, the theme of teacher leadership deserves an empirical investigation into its role in a context of a transforming school environment towards inclusion. Many authors agree that teacher leadership develops with the support of school principals (Chew & Andrews, 2010; Crowther, Ferguson, & Hann, 2009). This chapter reports on a study that explored principals’ strategies that can enhance teacher leadership as it has become more significant today given the changing nature of schools towards inclusion and equity. In order to achieve this goal, the following G. Mukhtarbekkyzy (B) Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. M. Makoelle and M. Somerton (eds.), Inclusive Education in a Post-Soviet Context, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65543-3_9

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research question was stated to guide the study: Which strategies do school principals employ to enhance teacher leadership and how do teachers enact teacher leadership in everyday school practice?

Literature Review What Is Leadership? Leadership is considered to have different characteristics such as the influence and persuasion of others that are connected to values and goals (Bush, 2003; Gardner, 2013). When Bush regarded influence as “a central element” of leadership, Gardner supported this by stating that persuasion provokes people to do certain actions to achieve goals either set by a leader or whole organizational structures. Conversely, Walker and Dimmock (as cited in Dimmock, 2003) identified generic qualities of leaders such as values, knowledge, skills and attributes. These four qualities need to be “meaningful and professionally relevant” in a leader (p. 16). According to them, values are significant as they help to formulate the vision of leaders which in turn determine and influence their strategies, styles and priorities (Dimmock, 2003, p. 10). This means vision is critical for effective leadership, as Bush (2003) posits that the vision of a leader is important as it enhances healthy relationships between colleagues or unites of people. Hence, leaders create followers who act with accordance with leaders’ thoughts and vision. However, Gardner (2013) refuted the notion of followers, as it implies a circumstance of submission, so he proposed the notion of constituents. It is understood that constituents will collaborate and complement actions of their leaders rather than just follow instructions.

Teacher Leadership and Its Characteristics The concept of teacher leadership is closely connected with notions like influence, learning, professional expertise, collaboration and reflective practice. Characteristics of teacher leadership are; empowering colleagues and students, and possessing positive personal traits that allow participation and collaboration (Grant, 2006; Leithwood & Jantzi, 2000; Snell & Swanson, 2000; Stone, Horejs, & Lomas, 1997). Teacher leaders influence by changing typical teaching practice for improvement of student learning (Wasley, 1992). Wasley assumes that teacher leaders may not be willing to take formal leadership roles, because they prefer to stay in their primary role and to develop the learning of their students. This role of teacher leaders according to Ash and Persall (2000) is not limited by organizing activities inside or outside of the classroom, but mostly focused on the development of the learners. Effective learning of the students will happen when teacher-leaders are open-minded

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to learn new knowledge (Baumgartner, 2000; Lieberman, 1992; Vernon-Dotson & Floyd, 2012). According to Lieberman (1992) the process of teacher learning leads to professionalization of teaching and it involves “collaboration, problem solving, problem posing, doing teacher research, creating new knowledge, peer-evaluation and authentic assessment” (p. 163). Andy Baumgartner who is a practicing teacher leader postulate that a teacher leader must be lifelong learners because it is “a top requisite for daily teaching duties” (p. 23). This view of is echoed by Troen and Boles (1992), Harris and Muijs (2002) who define teacher leadership as “catalyst of teacher learning”, that may lead to “the professionalization of teaching” (p. 321). However, teacher leaders need certain power and authority to influence peers and to initiate collaboration for aspiring the better results in teaching practice (Wasley, 1992). Grant (2006), points to a collaborative culture where everyone takes part in decision-making and vision-sharing processes, so common values are used to develop this collaborative culture. Similarly, Troen and Boles (1992) believe that collaboration of teachers is important and may lead to improvement of the quality of education. The culture of collaboration enhances the shared expertise which is the main element of excellence, in the quest for teacher leaders to be involved in collegial learning to increase reflective practice and polishes collaborative skills (Snell & Swanson, 2000). This also create opportunities for development by building partnerships with and across teachers in institutions or with administration (Crowther et al., 2009). Thus, professional learning takes place in various formats either networking with teachers or group activities for developing pedagogic practices (Crowther et al., 2009). Professional learning is encouraged when teacher leaders are reflective. The reflective practice of teacher leaders is important for stimulating appropriate changes in schools which may lead to school improvement (Crowther et al., 2009; Reagan, Case, & Brubacher, 2000). From their learning teacher leaders are empowered to take part in the decision-making process and have courage to make serious decisions for school improvement, to increase student performance or the quality of the curriculum (Stone et al., 1997; Troen & Boles, 1992). Likewise, Grant (2006) states that once teachers are confident about their knowledge, they become teacher leaders’ initiators, who can make changes to usual teaching practices. Similarly, Frost and Durrant (2003) regarded teacher leadership as “a matter of teacher’s agency and choice to initiate and sustain change whatever their status” (p. 17). Teacher leaders are characterized by certain traits, capacities, practices and outcomes (Leithwood, 2003). This means that teacher leaders possess certain traits and personal characteristics such as; being a committed person to the school and profession, being humorous and hard-working, sympathetic, selfless, intelligent and being a visionary individual with high standards (Leithwood, 2003). Beyond that, Grant (2006) also mentions characteristics such as “risk-taking, perseverance, trust as well as enthusiasm within a culture of transparency and mutual learning” as important traits for teacher leaders (p. 529). On the other hand, in the Teachers as Leaders Framework by Crowther et al. (2009), teacher leaders are characterized as individuals who are interested in “students’ needs and well-being” (p. 3). They are very sensitive to student related issues and negotiate with administration to help students

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when they experience trouble hence their role as teacher leaders is important for the success of inclusive education (Makoelle & Makhalemele, 2019). Generally, teacher leadership means a teacher can create a positive influence with other colleagues or a group of teachers by collaborating to improve school performance. The culture of teacher leadership can be extremely helpful for identifying and solving educational problems within a unique school context. Moreover, it is good for facilitating teaching and sharing experiences and ideas for creating an effective learning environment for students.

Teacher Leadership Practice in Developed Countries Teacher leadership is practiced in many ways, depending on educational cultures and policies around the world. For instance, in the United States of America (USA) teacher leaders are known as teachers who practice collaboration for different purposes, namely, mentoring, division of labor, and partnering (Wasley, 1992). Furthermore, the teacher leaders required to hold professional expertise for mentoring, enough authority for delegation of responsibilities, and can share common values with colleagues (Wasley, 1992). Collaboration is regarded as a preferable actions of teacher leaders for sharing expertise, accomplishment of certain tasks and sharing equal power relationships for improving teaching and learning. It is also believed that teaching mission and leadership are like two sides of one coin, the teacher leaders are strongly connected to collegial relationships. The fact that collaboration is central for teacher leadership means inclusive education would benefit immensely to this effect (Makoelle, 2014). However, teacher leaders have often found it challenging to balance time and leadership (Fay, 1992). Lieberman (1992) also mentions the importance of time for teacher leaders. Time is an asset for teacher leaders for reflection, planning, experimenting and for building relationships with colleagues (Lieberman, 1992).

Teacher Leadership Practice in Developing Countries One example of the enactment of teacher leadership was shown in the work of Vranješevi´c and Frost in Serbia (2016). Using teacher-led developmental work, the authors argue that every teacher can exercise leadership and act as change agents. Therefore, teacher leadership is regarded as a process of innovation, evaluation, and experimentation for improving aspects of teaching and learning. The study examined teacher leadership in Serbian schools and concluded that teacher leadership could transform education from monocultural to multicultural education. It was possible when teachers took initiatives and collaborated with parents for the inclusion of minority groups of their community (Vranješevi´c & Frost, 2016). Another significant achievement of Serbian schools was the deconstruction of teacher-parent

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perceptions. Since teachers and parents give the impression of opposite stakeholders (Vranješevi´c as cited in Vranješevi´c & Frost, 2016), participants of the teacher-led project were able to build the partnership with parents for successful the best interests of the learners. Here we see that teacher leadership can be a powerful tool for the implementation of serious changes in schools when teachers are motivated through “enhanced sense of moral purpose” (Vranješevi´c & Frost, 2016, p. 76). However, the centralised, or top-down ruling system such as those in Iranian schools might be detrimental for teacher leadership practice (Aliakbari & Sadeghi, 2014). The qualitative study examined teacher leadership practices in some Iranian schools concluded that in the current top-down system “leadership is distributed among the few rather than the many” (Aliakbari & Sadeghi, 2014, p. 587). Nevertheless, in those schools where the study was conducted, the teacher leadership was practiced in forms of participatory decision-making processes, being respectful for professional roles, and sharing ideas. The results of the study indicate that variables such as age, gender, teaching experience, and even educational degree were not criteria for determining teacher leadership roles (Aliakbari & Sadeghi, 2014). According to Makoelle and Makhalemele (2019) in South Africa, teacher leadership is influenced by two lines of thinking. Firstly, the thinking that teacher leadership could be measured by the professional competency of the teacher leader i.e. the mastery of the teaching work. Secondly, teacher leaders are thought to be influential politically as they can influence the decisions of management because of their personal reputation and success.

Teacher Leadership and Support of Principals There are a number of studies that assert the idea that teacher leadership develops with the support of principal (Aliakbari & Sadeghi,2014; Crowther et al., 2009; Demir, 2015; Frost, 2014; Frost & Durrant, 2003; Lai & Cheung, 2015; Leithwood, 2003; Mangin, 2005, 2007; Wasley, 1992). This section will discuss different strategies that principals use which can enhance teacher leadership. In the frame of developing instructional reform, Mangin (2005) highlights certain strategies of supporting teacher leadership. The research conducted in the USA shows these strategies are setting expectations, promoting instructional change, and offering guidelines. The findings indicate that for introducing instructional change in schools, setting expectations was crucial for successful work of teacher leaders work with other teachers. When the principal familiarizes staff members with the aim of teacher leaders, it was easy for all of them to concentrate on main issues. Furthermore, promoting instructional change was also useful for teacher leaders, since teacher leaders were viewed as facilitators of a change process rather than a group of people who dictate what to do. The last strategy is offering guidelines that can give useful insights to teacher leaders, rather than leaving them alone to figure out the next step or to interpret the situation (Mangin, 2005). A further study by Mangin (2007) on teacher leadership focused on the relationship of principal’s knowledge concerning

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teachers as leaders. The results of the study showed that a high degree of knowledge of principals about teacher leaders and interaction with them, can show greater support for teacher leadership. Frost and Durrant (2003) suggest two types of support for teacher leaders as: external and internal. External support means collaborating or becoming partners with agencies for providing appropriate teacher leadership development. For instance, conducting site-based academic research or attending courses provided by universities. They suggest that leadership development work should be held in three steps: scaffolding for reflection planning and strategic action, supporting critical discourse and extending critical discourse through networking (pp. 181–182). All these steps for teacher leadership should be initiated and monitored by school principals (Frost & Durrant, 2003). Internal support means creating internal school structures which are favorable for practice of teacher leadership. The authors claim that internal support is capacity-building leadership which is called transformational leadership (Leithwood & Jantzi, 1999). Therefore, principals and teachers who occupy formal leadership positions should facilitate teacher leaders to plan, to monitor, and to evaluate the implementation of changes and exercise their leadership roles (Frost & Durrant, 2003). Leithwood (2003) concluded from several studies on the theme teacher leadership and identified principal’s several strategies for developing teacher leadership: providing individualized support, building collaborative cultures (Hart, 1995), providing intellectual stimulation, modelling, identifying and selecting potential teacher leaders (Leithwood, 2003). Individualized support takes place in form supporting initiatives of staff members, avoiding criticism and recognition of achievements of teachers. A collaborative culture occurs when principals delegate responsibilities and encourage teachers to work freely without any pressure. Intellectual support is encouraging teachers to take courses to develop their knowledge, listening and supporting ideas of teachers. Modelling is related to a positive personality like being open-minded and ability to share leadership when it is needed. The last identifying and selecting potential teacher leaders is among staff members and providing opportunity for developing their leadership skills (Leithwood, 2003). In the frame of a principal’s role of developing teacher leadership Crowther et al. (2009) summarizes tenets for enhancing teacher leadership: “setting school strategies and values; showing appreciation and recognition of teacher’s work; intellectual stimulation by asking questions and letting teachers to brainstorm about school-related issues; provide opportunity for individual growth; trusting and relying on pedagogical views of teachers in decision-making process; experimenting unusual things for developing teaching and learning as well as to form “culture of success” by sharing achievements of the school through media or in “weekly assemblies”. (p. 93)

Furthermore, a study conducted in Hong-Kong confirms that teacher leadership develops through participation in a decision-making process for defining curriculum or some other pedagogical practices (Lai & Cheung, 2015). In order to increase a teacher’s participation in decision making, Lai and Cheung (2015) suggest that principals should

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share decision making authority among teachers, encourage and support the development of collaborative culture in schools, reshape organizational structures supporting the practice of teachers, and to provide resources, such as finance and time, for teachers to carry out their decision making responsibilities. (p. 689)

This means that encouraging teachers to take part in a decision-making process, developing collaborative culture and supporting them with resources are regarded as principal’s strategies for enhancing teacher leadership. Another strategy discussed by the Turkish researcher Demir (2015), recommends that showing trust to teachers is conducive for developing teacher leadership. He suggests that school administration should create an interactive setting for teachers, students and parents, so they can communicate and build trust with each other (Demir, 2015). Therefore, trust of administration towards teachers can transform into trusting relationships among staff members which enhance professional development of teachers and collaboration for solving school related problems (Demir, 2015). Trust can be an effective tool for serious transformation of teachers, students and school. In summary, the literature says that the notion of leadership, and teacher leadership have similar traits such as influence, values, vision (Bush, 2003; Dimmock, 2003; Gardner, 2013). On the one hand, teacher leadership is concerned with professional expertise, problem-solving, and participating in the decision-making process (Lieberman, 1992; Troen & Boles, 1992). Hence, many scholars agree that teacher leaders always learn and develop their teaching expertise and are willing to share their aspirations with other people through collaboration (Wasley, 1992). Furthermore, teacher leaders are able to mentor other teachers, to delegate responsibilities and to build partnerships for school improvement (Wasley, 1992). If teacher leaders have certain authority and a role among staff members given by the administration, they work more confidently. As it is described from prior studies, not all schools provide conditions for teacher leaders in top-down systems like in Iran, where teacher leadership practice is limited because of hierarchical school culture (Aliakbari & Sadeghi, 2014). However, teacher leadership becomes an essential element for transforming schools that need serious support from school principals (Crowther et al., 2009; Frost, 2015; Hart, 1995; Mangin, 2005, 2007). School principals can nurture teacher leadership in their schools, implementing strategies such as empowerment, intellectual stimulation, recognition or demonstrating trust (Crowther et al., 2009; Demir, 2015; Frost & Durrant, 2003).

Methodology The present study employed a qualitative research design within a single-side case study to study one of the Kazakh-Turkish High schools as a network of high-performing schools in Kazakhstan.

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The Case The case of Kazakh-Turkish high schools is an educational phenomenon in Kazakhstan (Gaipov, Yaylaci, Çi˘g, & Guvercin, 2013). The selected school for this study has a history of 13 years of teaching in four languages: Kazakh, Russian, English, and Turkish. The school is in the list of top five of the city for its teaching excellence and high student achievement (Sagymbekov, 2015). Students of the school participate and show good results in the Olympiads and project competitions of the republic and international level (Sagymbekov, 2015). The school is composed of n = 358 students and n = 31 teachers and each class have teacher assistants who facilitate the teaching and learning process and help to organize extracurricular activities for students. The staff consist of local and international teachers. They extend their knowledge and expertise by attending professional courses on district and international level.

Sampling Participants Within the Case Maximum-variation sampling is purposeful sampling that allows researchers to study different perspectives from different sorts of participants to develop in-depth understanding of the phenomenon (Babbie, 2013). The present study recruited three types of participants: school principal, teacher leaders, and parents. The school principal is sampled by means of convenience sampling as the person who is available and volunteered to participate in the study (Babbie, 2013).

Instruments In this single-site exploratory case-study, interviews and observations were the main data collection instruments. Interview is one of the ways of gathering data for qualitative studies, which can be conducted face-to-face with one participant at time. It is regarded as a flexible tool of data collection, because a wide range of information, as facts, views, stories can be articulated during the interviews for finding answers to research questions (Atkins & Wallace, 2012). However, participants may not be able to articulate all the experiences and procedures by words, so observation was also adopted as a secondary method for obtaining more data. In this single-site case study, it is very suitable to use observations to obtain enough understanding about the practice of teacher leaders and to learn the principal’s strategies for enhancing teacher leadership in the site, such as attending staff meetings. The researcher adopted a role of observer-participant that allows access to

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many people and an extensive amount of information, but the level of information is under the control of participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).

Data Collection The schedule for interviews and observations were prepared for the principal, teacher leaders and parents beforehand and consent forms were signed prior to data collection. The interviews were conducted on a one-to-one basis with open-ended questions. The questions were written in the interview protocol. With the permission of the participants, the interviews were recorded with an audio recorder. Each interview with the school principal and teacher leaders lasted for one hour, interviews with parents were about 15–20 min. Interviews were arranged in separate rooms without an intervention of other people, in order to ensure the confidentiality of the participants. Two staff meetings were observed, in order to determine the strategies of the principal for enhancing teacher leaders and to observe teachers’ leadership roles in practice. The behavior, communication skills, and the motivation of teacher leaders were observed. Their reaction to different issues discussed during the meeting was recorded on the observation protocol.

Data Analysis A meaning condensation method by Kvale and Brinkmann (2015) was used as a tool for analyzing interviews. This method categorizes the meanings expressed in the interviews. Interview transcripts are coded and compressed into shorter statements and a main sense of small chunks of interviews are rephrased to few words (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2015). All six interviews were transcribed, translated and analyzed by meaning condensation method. The meaning was attached to the observation notes and compressed into major themes. Themes were written as descriptive sentences.

Findings In this case study, one principal, three teacher leaders, and two parents were interviewed. Two staff meetings were observations. The age of participants varies from 30 to 52. The teaching experience starts from 9 years up to 32 years. The audiotaped interviews were transcribed and analyzed with the help of meaning condensation method.

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RQ: #1 What Is Teacher Leadership? Five themes appeared from interview analysis, they are knowledge, skills, personality, attitude, and relationship.

Knowledge Sub-theme—A Subject Knowledge and Teaching Methodology The participants frequently mentioned exceptional subject knowledge, using a sound teaching methodology according to the needs of students, knowing how to approach students and their parents, and being aware of the interests of modern youth. As one teacher said, “I try to read modern authors which my students read, even if they are not interesting to me, because I should know the preferences of my students”. Teacher leaders should have significant knowledge about the certain subject in order to ensure effective teaching and learning. Beyond knowing your subject, teacher leaders excel in using different teaching methodology in everyday practice. From interview results and observation notes, it is obvious that all six participants agreed on the point that effective teaching is a side effect of professionalism. As one participant stated “You should know your subject to such a level that you are able to imbue your students with that knowledge”.

Sub-theme—Knowledge of Students Needs Teacher leaders know very well their students, their parents and can find ways of approaching and communicating with them. One of the teacher leaders said that teacher leaders also consider the needs and thoughts of school students. It means that teacher leaders always discover new things about their subject and use them to maintain students’ interests on a subject. In one of the interviews with parents, the participant asserts that good pedagogues know about the emotional and mental development of each student they teach and know how to tap the potential of students applying different techniques.

Skills Teacher leaders have mastered different skills as organizational, communicational, interpersonal, critical thinking and mentoring. Organizational skills are important to conduct different sorts of activities to deliver subject content. For example, the

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principal stated “Teacher leadership is about ability to work with people building positive relationship”.

Sub-theme—Communication Skills Participants highlighted the importance of the communication skills of teacher leaders and their importance for building rapport with students, parents etc. As one teacher leader underlined “ …teacher leaders should master communication skills in order to collaborate on improving teaching practice”. As long as teacher leaders develop communication skills, they develop interpersonal skills. Interpersonal skills are important to deal in many school situations, to avoid conflicts and arguments with administrations, parents or students. One of the participants told the advantage of having good interpersonal skills to encourage students to do extra tasks as extensive reading after classes.

Sub-theme—Critical Thinking and Mentoring Critical thinking as a domain-general thinking skill is an essential part of learning and teaching. Teacher leaders described how they apply critical thinking to plan their lessons, to select materials and to design their curriculum. For instance, one teacher leader said “… teaching gifted and talented students requires a variety of teaching approaches because students get bored of the same instruction and activities, so I always look for new things. By introducing novice methods, I promote critical thinking and creativity of my students”. Therefore, the findings indicated that these teacher leaders are highly concerned about reflecting their own work and giving critical evaluation for themselves. In this way, they know their strengths and weaknesses, so they always work on improving their teaching practice applying critical thinking.

Sub-theme—Mentoring The final skill mentioned by all participants was a mentoring skill. The results show that participants believe that true teacher leaders are eager to share their knowledge and experience not only with students, but with their own colleagues, and colleagues across schools. They are keen to listen, develop capabilities, provide feedback and show future perspectives to students and teachers. One teacher said, “I like sharing ideas and discussing teaching methods with my colleagues, it really inspires me.”

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Personality The interview results revealed participants believe that personal characteristics of teacher leaders are important, such as responsibility, excellence, self-motivation, empathy, open-mindedness, creativity and efficiency. During the observation, it was seen that both principal and other staff members listen very carefully to comments and suggestions of the teacher leaders. The behavior of the principal demonstrated trust and respect to the concerns of the teacher leaders. It could be seen from the data that teacher leaders take high responsibility for their initiatives, as well as for professional development of themselves and other staff members. Teacher leaders work very hard to harmonize between the bureaucratic part of schooling and actual work with students. The local educational system requires filling some papers that take time from teachers. Thus, teacher leaders fill the papers in a timely manner, and devote more time for actual teaching and communication with students. One teacher leader said: There are teachers who cope with papers very well, but don’t have time for students. It’s not a secret that we are to submit a lot of formal reports. Some teachers got lost in paperwork and lack of building relationships with students. Thus, in order to manage, you work more than needed. Teacher leaders become very skillful in filling their official papers with years, and delegate more time for spending time with students.

The school principal said that teacher leaders are usually self-motivated people and this could be confirmed in looking at the results of interviews. The principal noted: “teacher leaders are very mature and committed to the school, they know what to do and usually do not expect much support and motivation from administration”. They may expect some encouragement from outside but mostly they have intrinsic motivation for their profession. They are also compassionate. One of the teacher leaders shared her experiences from the first years of her teaching career when one teacher leader demonstrated an understanding of relationships and helped to find answers to many professional questions of the young teacher. The results indicate that teacher leaders stay curious about teaching and always look for fresh ideas and methods. Continuous work on professional development and professional expertise of teacher leaders make them respected among staff members. One teacher leader commented, that good personality is not connected with teacher leadership, whereas teacher leaders sometimes might be straightforward or harsh to claim truth. That might be the result of their critical approach to the profession. “You can enjoy the presence and personality of some teachers, but they may not be professionals, unlike [teacher leaders] are absolute experts and not crowd pleasers, so they might be conflicting, severe and very truthful”.

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Attitude Attitudes of teacher leaders appeared as a separate theme across interviews and can be divided into two categories as attitude towards teaching profession and towards people around them.

Sub-theme—Attitude Towards Teaching Profession It appeared that these participants as teacher leaders love their profession and came to teaching voluntarily. They have values, vision and mission, and the activity they initiate are for long-term effect. “Teacher leaders are those who love, know and are able to teach their subject. They come to the teaching profession voluntarily” says one teacher leader. Therefore, attitude towards the teaching profession defines their practice and decisions.

Sub-theme—Attitude Towards People Teacher leaders try to develop the emotional development of students. They try to focus on strengths of people rather than weaknesses and show approval and support to develop strong sites of students, young teachers or other colleagues. “Teacher leaders strongly believe for bright future of their students. We have taught so many students and now we are witnessing their achievements. Teacher leaders provide solid ground for emotional and intellectual development of students”.

Building Relationships Building relationships was another theme emerging from interviews and observations which included the types of relationships teacher leaders build with students, colleagues and partnership for collaboration. One teacher leader shared her early years of teaching saying “I would spend all my daytime in the school with my students and would visit their families in the evenings. That proximity helped me to build trust between us and gradually the performance of the whole class was increased.” Another participant re-told a story where one teacher leader helped a student whose parents were about to divorce. The emotional bond between the teacher and the student helped to overcome the difficulties of that student. The data indicates that these teacher leaders work as partners with the school principal and make a partnership with external institutions for professional development. One teacher leader shared her early memories when there were not internet

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resources, she would travel to another country to teacher training courses, that developed to further partnership with that educational institution “ …in the third year of my visit, we worked as a partners and I shared my teaching practice with local teachers”. Furthermore, this partnership enhanced collaborative works among teachers.

RQ #2: How Teacher Leaders Enact Teacher Leadership? Four themes emerged from all participants’ interviews and observations in response to the questions on how teachers leaders enact leadership. The themes are excellence in teaching, mentoring and collaboration, continuous learning, and professional development.

Excellence in Teaching All participants claimed that teacher leadership primarily is about teaching practice. Their responses show that as a person who is devoted to the teaching profession, teacher leaders prioritize the interests of students. One teacher leader said that “we should conduct our classes to the needs of our students, in their level of intelligence and interests”. They discussed how they encourage students to explore subjects independently using a variety of teaching methods. In the interview, one participant underlined the importance of freeing students’ learning process by boosting metathinking for further development of critical thinking skills. Some participants related their own experience of introducing international teaching practice with adaptations to Kazakhstani educational culture and integrated with local values. The school principal said, “The foreign teaching methods are not always effective in our educational system, so teacher leaders adapt these methods to our students and schooling traditions”. In this regard, teacher leaders are playing the role of mediator between Soviet teaching practice and modern educational innovations. One parent participant remarked that we can’t wipe out our past experience for the sake of international standards, when we can benefit using both of them “I have gone through the Soviet educational system which was quite fruitful, so teacher leaders should mediate between traditional methods and use innovative teaching methods”. As a support to this statement, teacher leaders also shared how they use new learning techniques such as Project Based Learning (PBL) and sometimes adapt it for the content of learning material. One teacher leader said about her experience of using PBL “I frequently use PBL in my classes and sometimes adapt its principles according to the topics”. Teacher leaders described how they integrate technology to the learning process like making students create 3D worlds about particular subjects or broadcasting lessons with other schools. Beyond the implication of technology in their classes, one teacher leader shared her experience of establishing an English language book reading time among students. As she says, it might seem a simple task to perform, but it needs

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precise planning and good motivation for students to keep reading. As an outcome, it has become fashionable to read English books in that school. One teacher leader said “ …teacher leaders are ones who can start and carry out positive trend among students”. These teacher leaders explained and reflected on their practice and the way they may conduct experiments and research about certain topics for achieving better student learning. One teacher leader shared her concerns about her research work: “This year I am working on developing four basic skills in our students and how they can be effectively utilized within one lesson”. Their considerations about student learning prompt them to ask colleagues to provide critical feedback on things they do and discuss it. Such kind of activities enhance mentoring novice teachers and collaboration among them which will be discussed next.

Mentoring and Collaboration The principal and one teacher leader explained that competent teaching staff assist each other and share their knowledge and experience. For example, “4-5 teacher leaders can make a positive influence on other teachers and lead them in our school.” Here, the main force is teacher leaders who are able to demonstrate their teaching expertise and to provide critical feedback to each other. Moreover, a collaboration of teachers itself can enhance leadership among teachers and they compensate each other for the successful accomplishment of certain projects. One teacher leader said: “I have colleagues with whom I frequently collaborate, and we perfectly complement each other. One is good at generating and synthesizing ideas; one is good at recording and so forth.” One teacher participant in the interview mentioned that as a human being, even teacher leaders have their weaknesses, but they compensate for that gap collaborating with other staff members. It is a golden opportunity for learning and synthesizing their knowledge for finding best solutions to different problems and the following theme will discuss a continuous learning practice of teacher leaders.

Continuous Learning The learning of teachers occurs in daily practice, as the participants indicated they are keen on developing their knowledge in the educational field. Internet resources such as open access web-portals for educators and web-blogs regarded as useful tools for learning. One teacher leader said, “The Internet has all the information which I need, there are lots of websites and forums for teachers where I can find new methods of teaching.” For instance, one teacher leader said that she leads a blog like a teacher’s diary, and reads articles of other teachers. She said, “It immensely helps me reflect on my teaching practice and learn from considerations of other teachers.” In this

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way it could be said that the participants believe that continuous learning of teacher leaders is an inseparable part of their teacher leadership enactment which promotes professional development.

Professional Development The data show that these teacher leaders take very seriously the issue of professional development and look for different means of extending their knowledge. From the interviews with teacher leaders, the researcher noted that the principal was not necessarily in charge of professional development of teachers, whilst teacher leaders should ensure their professional development for themselves. One teacher leader said “Usually professional development courses do not depend on the principal, but he uses all opportunities and sends me to those courses. However, professional development is the personal responsibility of the teachers”. They decide where or whom to join and find specific courses for themselves. For example, one of the participants attended one course abroad and covered all expenses herself. In addition, these data show that teacher leaders were open to the exchange of ideas by organizing seminars or through social media by posting their reflections or articles. Thus, these teacher leaders believe that professional development leads to teaching expertise and cultivates leadership skills. Overall, teacher leadership is a versatile concept and findings of this study identify characteristics such as in-depth knowledge about teaching and learning, soft skills like communication and critical thinking, strong personality and ability to build a relationship for improved practice of teaching and learning. These characteristics will determine the actions and behavior which formulate a whole practice of these teacher leaders.

RQ#3. What Are Principal’s Strategies of Enhancing Teacher Leadership? All interviews and observation notes concerning the strategies the principal used for enhancing teacher development were compressed to seven themes: teacher development activities, sharing and networking, financial support, delegating responsibilities, interpersonal support, shared decision-making, and creating a positive atmosphere in the school. These are presented as follows.

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Development Activities When asked in what ways can teacher leadership be developed, the school principal explained that teacher leadership development should be continuous, through activities such as conducting open lessons once a quarter, or organizing subject decades. These activities are documented and evaluated by the Senior Management Team of the school. The principal stated, “We make a plan for each teacher and monitor their development with vice-principals.” Although the activities mentioned may seem quiet standard ones, the principal believed that if teachers perform them in a timely manner, with good quality, they would certainly help the professional development of teacher leaders. To support this finding, one of the teacher leaders admitted that she learned a lot of things by conducting open lessons, receiving critical feedback and reflecting on them. Another activity mentioned was attendance at seminars and professional courses. Here, teachers of Kazakhs-Turkish High Schools benefit from professional development courses held by Kazakh-Turkish Educational Foundation (KATEV) which build capacity of teachers throughout the network. The school principal explained: “It is good when teachers visit other schools where they can observe, compare and learn new things and add to their teaching practice.” Teacher leaders of other schools can take the opportunity to share their insights and effective teaching strategies in seminars held every quarter. This is a good platform for all teachers to stay connected and receive support from each other.

Networking and Sharing The KATEV is an established teacher association for each subject domain with a chairperson who is a distinguished teacher for his/her teaching expertise. All the subject teachers can communicate with each other either formally or informally. Formal meetings of subject teachers held at least twice a year for collaboration, planning and sharing the best experiences. Informally, they have common chats in a social network such as EDMODO where they can ask questions on different topics, post useful materials in an everyday manner. For example, the principal stated: The association of subject teachers under KATEV is useful for teacher development and they keep in touch through social media. It is an open space where each teacher can ask questions and receive answers from their colleagues who work in other Kazakh-Turkish High School and they share their experience. They find answers to the questions that we [the senior management team] cannot give good answers. Sometimes I can ask their head to explain certain things related to teaching methodology to one teacher of my school because views of heads of associations sound more professional to my teachers.

Thus it can be seen that the principal believes that networking is crucial for teacher leader development where they receive personal-professional support. The principal explained how he encourages teachers to give open lessons/seminars during the yearly August conference. The August conference collects all teachers of

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the district to share their knowledge and at the same time promoting the leadership skills of teachers. The principal said “Our teacher leaders give open lessons in the August conference where they can share their practice and develop leadership skills. We need people to know about our school more and we use mass media to share news and achievements of our school.” In the same way, one participant explained how district teachers of the network meet in educational contests where they can demonstrate leadership skills. All the achievements of the teachers are published in mass media, as well as teachers publish their own articles. These activities are monitored and supported by school principals.

Financial Support Two teacher leader participants acknowledged how important the principal’s financial support for a classroom decoration was and financial proviso buying the learning materials for the students and for the teachers. One teacher leader explained: “When we moved to a new building last year, each subject teacher received a separate class and he helped me to buy all things needed for the decoration, also additional learning materials for students.” In addition, teacher leaders mentioned how they can receive a promotion when their students show good results on subject Olympiads at national or international level. These participants felt that financial support of teacher leaders’ initiatives plays a role of extra motivation for achieving better results. However, they also indicated that the school principal does not limit his support on a financial level, as he also provides interpersonal support for teacher leaders.

Interpersonal Support In the data analysis this theme overlapped with the concept of motivation and how the principal motivates teacher leaders in different situations. For instance, teacher leaders described an example of how the principal set an example for the rest of staff and encouraged them to share their strategies for teaching or working with students. In the observation, the principal frequently refers school related questions to teacher leaders. In the second observation, which was meeting with all teachers summarizing the end of the year, the principal rewarded achievements of teachers in forms of special letters. The principal described how he felt it was important to take time for informal communication with teacher leaders, for chatting about their ongoing projects, students’ performance or just for telling one good story related to school life. He said “I communicate with teacher leaders more informally, during lunch or in their free time. I do it to learn about their daily work. I do not usually make formal meetings with teacher leaders”.

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Creating a Positive Atmosphere Four participants out of six mentioned how a positive atmosphere at school makes the learning process quite enjoyable. They felt that a result, students feel free to communicate with teachers, teachers are comfortable to interact with each other or with the administration. One teacher leader said: When I came to this school, I had time for creative work and took part in different competitions for teachers. I feel free for self-development because there is no pressure. We are not involved in extra jobs given by the local government; we do not clean streets like teachers of other schools.

To maintain that level, the principal tries to organize team-building activities in holidays, exceptionally for uniting staff members. One teacher leader shared: We usually never celebrate the New Year as a staff, our activities limited on the class level. This year I was quite surprised when our principal organized a party only for teachers for a celebration of the New Year. Such kind of activities helped to unite teachers and created a positive atmosphere among staff members. The positive relationship among teachers gives some motivation and makes me work more effectively.

The organization of parties may seem very small in terms of the overall duties of the principal, but the results indicate it was a factor that motivates teachers to commit to the school development and to do more for their students which enhance their leadership skills.

Shared Decision-Making The principal explained it was important for him to consider the thoughts of teachers because administration perceives student related issues differently whilst teachers scrutinize the problems as pedagogues. The principal said “In the meetings we look at the problems related to students from the perspective of administration, whilst teacher leaders are seen as pedagogues. Thus, we consider their opinions in the decision-making process and obtain the best decision for all of us”. Another strategy that emerged from the interview was the egalitarian way of treating staff members through providing the opportunity for them to vote on certain decisions. This was observed during the staff meetings.

Delegation of Responsibilities From the results of the interviews and observations, the data showed it was clear that the principal shares responsibilities among teachers for developing in them a sense of accountability and commitment. For example, they appoint one teacher leader

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responsible for organizing certain school activities, but other teachers are expected to help him/her. The principal supports finance or establishing a connection with another organization if it is needed. All these strategies made develop teacher leadership from different perspectives including sharing duties, co-operating and developing accountability of teachers. In addition, the principal delegated responsibility of monitoring teacher’s work and setting expectations with vice-principals. The principal with governing bodies motivates teachers to take some initiatives and show directions when it is necessary. The principal stated: I try to support initiatives of teacher leaders which align with the interests of our school and students. If the teacher leader suggests ideas which are less important to our school policy, we negotiate and try to change that project. We always discuss school issues with the senior management team and evaluate teacher developmental work.

Here we can see that the development of teacher leaders is not the sole responsibility of the principal, but the collective endeavor and they act in accordance with the vision and values of the school.

Discussion According to results of interviews and observations, several themes emerged such as excellence in teaching, mentoring and collaboration, continuous learning, and professional development. All these findings prove the existence of teacher leadership practices in the Kazakhstani educational arena, developing peculiar to a local school culture.

RQ: #1 What Is Teacher Leadership? It was seen that teacher leaders possess different sorts of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Knowledge includes teaching methodology, subject knowledge, and knowledge of students which were similar to the findings of Leithwood (2003). Leithwood explains that teacher leaders have certain capacities which are presented in seven dimensions, and two of them are “declarative” and “procedural knowledge” (p. 106). Declarative knowledge is knowing teaching methodology, your subject and students. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to communicate with administration and parents, how to run meetings and how to fill official papers. Similarly, the participants recognised the importance of good communication skills. Communication skills are the ability to find a common language with other people and to be able to deal with different problems. Demonstrating support to staff members and motivating them are also regarded as the sign of good communication skill. These features were also mentioned in the findings of Leithwood (2003). Communication skills were also considered an important asset for teacher leaders in the findings

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of Stone et al. (1997). Overall, communication skills are needed for building relationships with other people, for making a positive influence and for creating an atmosphere of mutual respect and trust. Other skills that participants mentioned include the use critical thinking skills for refining their teaching practice and also endeavor to develop this skill in their students. They critically evaluate their own practice and identify their strengths and weaknesses. It leads to innovating, experimenting and implementing novice techniques in their classrooms. Vranješevi´c and Frost’s (2016) findings confirmed that teacher leaders use critical thinking skills for developing daily teaching practice. The study suggests that participants as teacher leaders were usually empathetic individuals who try to help other people and perceive their work with a high degree of responsibility. The studies of Grant (2006) and Leithwood (2003) confirmed that teacher leaders are often hard-working, very responsible, and dedicated people. These participants as teacher leaders are enthusiastic and devoted to the teaching profession and similar with those from the research of Grant (2006). Their character helps to advocate students’ interests and supports them in different situations, which was also touched upon by Crowther et al. (2009) as was striving for equity and justice. The findings show that these teacher leaders chose the teaching profession voluntarily and perceive it as a very meaningful job that contributes to the well-being of students. These findings are similar to those of Crowther et al. (2009). A positive attitude towards the teaching profession of teacher leaders impacts their relationship with students and makes students enjoy the learning process. In the same way, these teacher leaders believed in supporting the success of the students and would try to instill positive convictions. This was also observed by Crowther et al. (2009), that teachers demonstrate genuine interest for the students’ needs and their development. The findings of the Stone et al. (1997) confirmed that teacher leaders build trust and acknowledge the strengths and achievements of their colleagues. Teacher leaders motivate people through recognizing and articulating people’s accomplishments, which is a cornerstone for future cooperation. The results of the study indicate that these teacher leaders build relationships with learners for enhancing their performance and for collaboration with teachers. The interviews revealed that when they know students very well, they can help them to overcome learning difficulties and obstacles. The findings of Grant (2006) and Frost and Durrant (2003) have similar highlights and they say that, teacher leaders’ mainly concerned about students’ learning and initiate extra classes to ensure better learning. Hence, the relationship with students helps to spend more time on activities initiated by teacher leaders. A similar scenario happened with colleagues through daily interactions, where teacher leaders explained how they recognized the strengths of other teachers, so teacher leaders build relationships with them to create small groups or to propose partnerships. It is beneficial for all group members because they can complement each other to do certain activities and to reach common goals. Such kind of collaborative activities are also discussed in works of Crowther et al. (2009) and Leithwood (2003).

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RQ #2: How Teacher Leaders Enact Teacher Leadership? Teacher leadership is associated with excellence in teaching and it rejects Bolman and Deal’s (as cited in Reagan et al., 2000) statement that teacher leadership does not have a relationship with teaching excellence. The results support this statement that teaching excellence goes along with leadership activities for improving teaching and learning processes. The arguments of other authors (Ash & Persall, 2000; Crowther et al., 2009; Miller, 1992; Snell & Swanson, 2000; Stone et al., 1997; Troen & Boles, 1992; York-Barr & Duke, 2004). about teaching excellence were confirmed by the findings of this study. Being expert teachers, they exercise leadership in the forms of engaging with mentoring or collaboration activities with colleagues. The participants in the present study indicated that as teacher leaders they are involved in mentoring because they have enough experience and hold teaching expertise. This point is aligned with the findings of Wasley (1992), Snell and Swanson (2000). Teacher leaders collaborate with colleagues, with the administration or with parents. Collaboration and networking take place for differing purposes for finding solutions of school related problems or for professional development. Crowther et al. (2009) and Wasley (1992) discuss collaboration among teachers for professional development purposes. Another type of collaboration is building partnerships either with the administration or with institutions for professional development was one of the examples from this study. This type of collaboration is presented in works of Crowther et al. (2009). Frost and Durrant’s (2003) study provided another example of teacher leaders collaborating with parents. Aliakbari and Sadeghi (2014) indicate a collaborative experience of teacher leaders, which are quite similar to the case of this study. Based on the analysis of results, continuous learning emerged as a practice that appears to be inseparable from teacher leadership practice. In the literature, this topic is discussed by Baumgartner (2000), Crowther et al. (2009), Lieberman (1992), Vernon-Dotson and Floyd (2012). For instance, Baumgartner (2000) said that effective learning of students takes place when teachers also carry out learning new things about their profession. The learning of teacher leaders happens via the internet or in teacher training seminars, through conducting research and reflecting on daily teaching practice. Particularly, reflective practice of teacher leaders was an argument of Reagan et al. (2000), claims that teachers learn from their own mistakes, analyzing and reflecting on their work. Vernon-Dotson and Floyd (2012) add, teacher leaders figure out for themselves what to learn according to the needs of their students. Similarly, in the present study professional development was regarded as a primary responsibility of teacher leaders. This finding aligns with the findings of Crowther et al. (2009). Professional development is very important for individual growth and teacher leaders to become a model for other staff members developing their professional expertise.

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RQ#3 What Are Principal’s Strategies for Enhancing Teacher Leadership? The findings of this study say that principals should provide opportunities for teachers to enrich their knowledge and refine skills needed for a successful teaching career. The research of Crowther et al. (2009) agrees that principals can provide intellectual stimulation to teachers by asking questions, giving time for brainstorming and discussing school related issues. For the successful nurturing of teacher leadership, Leithwood (2003) mentioned about identifying and selecting teachers among staff members and it is the initial step for planning individualized support for teachers. Identifying potential teacher leaders is also exposed through this research. Consequently, teacher leadership development should be carefully planned and supported by different means, such as professional learning community or financial support. One of the facilitators of teacher leadership development work is a network of teachers across schools. The networking of teachers and sharing their experience is a useful strategy which may also involve external agencies and universities. These findings partially confirmed with the results of Frost and Durrant (2003), as they mention collaborating with universities for attending courses and for conducting research. In the current case study, teacher leadership development occurs with collaboration of all subject teachers of KTHSs. This network is known as the association of subject teachers which is led by teacher leaders. Participants felt that this network of teachers makes a tremendous impact on improving teaching practice by offering seminars, sharing their reflections and experience and supporting each other either in person or through the internet. Here, the teacher leadership development happens with the involvement of external agencies, Frost and Durrant’s (2003) suggest that principles control planning and scaffolding of development actions happening in the teachers’ network and show support for critical discourse. Their arguments sound almost the same with the findings of this study. Thus, networking can contribute to the personal and professional growth of teacher leaders. The present study shows that teacher leaders may initiate certain activities with their students, in order to strengthen their relationship or to realize certain projects for student development. Naturally, these need financial support. The financial support is touched upon in the study of Lai and Cheung (2015) and they also underline the role of financial support for enhancing teacher leadership. When principal provides financial support for teacher leaders to realize their initiatives, or gives promotions for their achievements, teacher leaders feel more motivated. Interpersonal support of the principal can stimulate the interest of teachers towards their daily job and they feel more motivated. The results say that in this context, interpersonal support is seen as showing trust or supporting ideas of teachers and offering guidelines. The role of trust is discussed in the study of Demir (2015), which is regarded as one way of supporting teacher leadership. The school principal can listen to the initiatives and offer guidelines for improving initiatives of teacher leaders which best align with the strategies and values of the school. Here, articulating the strategies and values of the school for providing effective guidelines mentioned

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in the studies of Crowther et al. (2009) and Mangin (2007). Showing trust for the pedagogical views of teacher leaders and support to their initiatives are very important for gaining confidence and developing leadership skills. This results in creating a positive atmosphere in the school and can promote collaboration among teachers. The importance of developing collaborative culture was argued by authors such as Demir (2015), Leithwood (2003). Demir (2015) believes that providing space for free interaction with colleagues will enhance leadership skills of teachers for experimentation and creative work. Teacher leaders produce creative work and thrive when they are free of any critiques and pressure. Shared decision-making in this case study was evident through observations and interviews that demonstrated the consideration of suggestions from teacher leaders in the decision-making process. The studies by Lai and Cheung (2015) and Aliakbari and Sadeghi (2014) make the similar conclusions that taking into account the views of teacher leaders are conducive for enhancing teacher leadership. It should be noted that participating in the decision making process is not the usual practice in hierarchical school cultures like Iran (Aliakbari & Sadeghi, 2014). However, the study of Aliakbari and Sadeghi (2014) could be said to be closer to this particular school context, because teacher leaders themselves have the courage to express their own ideas during the decision-making process. If the school principal relies on the opinions of teacher leaders in the decision-making process, it increases the chance of teachers to initiate more and to lead their projects. The development of teacher leaders is not the sole responsibility of the school principal and teachers in formal leadership roles can also facilitate this process. The sharing responsibilities may happen among vice-principals who can help to plan, to set expectations, to evaluate and to support the work of teacher leaders. These findings partially were confirmed by the study of Frost and Durrant (2003). They assert about internal support which is enabling the internal school structures for teacher leaders to exercise leadership roles. This statement has implementations in terms of involving formal leaders of the school for facilitating teacher leaders, giving stage to teachers when it is needed. Moreover, the idea of distributing power is mentioned in the works of Crowther et al. (2009) and Grant (2006). Thus, by distributing responsibilities and power the principals can promote teacher leaders.

Conclusion The present single-case study was conducted to identify the principal’s strategies for enhancing teacher leadership in a Kazakh-Turkish High school in Kazakhstan. The results of the study revealed the existence of teacher leadership practices in the selected school. Teacher leaders are individuals who have devoted themselves to teaching profession and strive for excellence. They are concerned about the development of student learning and contribute to their personal growth. Teacher

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leaders carry out learning about their profession regardless of their teaching experience and age. They are open to share their knowledge and experience and collaborate with colleagues for professional development or to find solutions to problems. However, teacher leadership needs support from formal leaders of the school. The study suggests that the principal can enhance teacher leadership in various ways. The strategies include encouraging professional growth, providing emotional and financial support, enabling school structure for teachers to take initiatives. The mutual respect among teachers and administration regarded as conducive to building relationships with teachers, students and parents. The principal tries to maintain that level of understanding in the school, organizing team-building activities. It is worth indicating the contribution of KATEV for training and creating the network of teachers KTHSs throughout Kazakhstan. This kind of association of teachers is a golden opportunity for collaboration, innovation and experimentation new things among teachers. The findings of the study have similar highlights with the literature. Even though there are specific strategies for enhancing teacher leadership, the principal does not grant any advantage to teacher leaders. The teacher leaders of the selected case are very bright and popular in the school, but the principal maintains egalitarian position. Further research needed for examining strategies for developing teacher leadership in other high performing schools which are not in the network of KTHSs.

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Part VI

Inclusive Education in Higher Education

Chapter 10

Visually Impaired Students and Their Experiences Ziyat Abdykaimov

Introduction This chapter reports on original research that attempts to shed light on how students with a visual disability experience higher education (HE) in the Central Asian Republic of Kazakhstan. There are about 150 000 children with disabilities in Kazakhstan (Information-Analytical Center [IAC], 2015), 10,500 of whom are blind and vision-impaired (BVI) students studying in both general mainstream and special boarding secondary schools (Ospanov, 2014). However, the total number of students with disabilities enrolled in HE programs is only 570. This number is less than 0.1% of the total of student population in the country (IAC, 2015). No data on the number of BVI students at higher education institutions (HEIs) was found. However, it is apparent that the figure for BVI students could be much lower. The data demonstrate how deep inequity in access to HE is for this under-represented group of Kazakhstani students. Secondary school students could become potential participants in the educational process at the tertiary level if they are provided with equal opportunities to succeed academically at HEIs. Even though applicants with any type of disability are currently given priority for admission to state-funded postsecondary education institutions, all qualifications (e.g., Unified National Testing score) being equal (Kazakhstan, 2007), they encounter a great number of challenges and barriers when enrolled. Since reliable data on the performance of BVI students and drop-out rates among them are non-existent in Kazakhstan, tendencies revealed by Western studies are extrapolated. Research conducted in Western countries shows that BVI students are more vulnerable to academic failure and more likely to drop out owing to the challenges and barriers they face (Reed, n.d.; see the literature review section for a more extended discussion of the barriers). Hence, to equalize access to

Z. Abdykaimov (B) Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. M. Makoelle and M. Somerton (eds.), Inclusive Education in a Post-Soviet Context, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65543-3_10

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and enhance the quality of HE for BVI students, an understanding of the challenges and enablers they experience is needed. The primary research question the present study seeks to address is, “What are the experiences of blind and visually impaired students at a higher education institution in Kazakhstan?” The study attempts to build in-depth understanding of the barriers BVI students encounter in HE, investigate what challenges (if any) are associated with studying and participating in classes, what affects their academic performance and everyday routines in HE, how they deal with the challenges and what opportunities they have, if any. The central phenomenon of the study is the experiences of vision-impaired students in the HE context of Kazakhstan. The study explores the central phenomenon through understanding challenges and enablers for BVI students at the university. The challenges include all types of barriers that the BVI students encounter in accessing HE. The enablers imply any conditions favorable to inclusion, either created for students upon request or promoting inclusion by virtue of circumstances.

Literature Review Although more research devoted to different aspects of HE for the broader category of students with disabilities in countries such as the United States of America (USA), Canada, the United Kingdom (UK), Australia, Norway, and South Africa has been found, a paucity of research on the experiences of BVI students was observed internationally. Some studies focus on a particular barrier of students with disabilities in HE, while others focus on issues stemming from peculiarities of teaching BVI students or specific aspects of disability in the HE context, such as using assistive technologies for special educational needs (Foley & Ferri, 2012; Mushome & Monobe, 2013; Seale, Georgeson, Mamas & Swain, 2015). Still others focus on students with a particular type of disability, whereas some study a single HEI involving students with different disabilities without distinguishing them by type (Brandt, 2011; Fuller, Bradley & Healey, 2004a; Goode, 2007; Kioko & Makoelle, 2014). Much of the research reviewed here was conducted in Western countries to address a growing need for knowledge on HE inclusivity, since the number of disabled students enrolling in HE has been steadily growing after the passage of legislation setting out policies for equity and inclusion of persons with disabilities in education. As early as the 1990s, universities in the USA, UK, and Canada have launched inclusive policies for disabled students upon enactment of national legislation obliging educational institutions to provide students with disabilities with the support needed (Gamble, 2000; Goode, 2007; Vickerman & Blundell, 2010). Because most of the studies focus on the broader category of disabled students (Brandt, 2011; Dowrick, Anderson, Heyer & Acosta, 2005; Fuller et al., 2004a; Hockings, 2010), it is worthwhile to include in this review not only studies that investigate experiences of students with vision impairments, but also those examining different aspects of disability in

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the HE context. As no relevant research on the experiences of students with disabilities and BVI students in HE in Kazakhstan could be found, this section relies heavily on international research.

Inclusion of Students with Disabilities in Higher Education: International Perspective In the 1990s, in response to a rise in the global move towards equity and social inclusion of persons with disabilities, many countries adopted legislation stipulating non-discrimination on the basis of disability (Fuller, Healey, Bradley & Hall, 2004b). Education has come to be a pivotal element of disabled people’s movement for their civil and socio-economic rights. While on the primary and secondary school levels, inclusion stands for abolition of previously practiced segregation and integration of children with disabilities in the mainstream education system, on the postsecondary level, the discourse of inclusion was concentrated on widening participation and ensuring access for under-represented groups, including persons with disabilities. To ensure access, meaningful participation and achievement of persons with disabilities in HE, it is insufficient to adopt non-discriminatory legislation. There is a need to develop holistic policies backed by appropriate resource provision. The notion of reasonable accommodation was enshrined in legislation such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 in the USA and the Special Educational Needs and Disability Act of 2001 in the UK. In response to statutory obligations, institutional support structures (e.g., disability services for students) have been introduced in many Western universities. Their main purpose is to provide accommodation and make reasonable adjustments to reduce existing barriers to full inclusion of persons with disabilities in HE. Today, practices of promoting inclusion in HEIs vary from country to country. Because of a great deal of variety in policies and practices in different countries, it is difficult to single out commonalities in the provision of support and services for students with disabilities. Different countries provide universities with various incentives to admit persons with disabilities and forms of support after enrollment. The forms of support and accommodation for disabled students usually include study materials in alternative media (e.g., Braille), special examination arrangements and human assistance (e.g. note-taking). American and European universities are often obliged by law to establish at least a contact person, a disability officer, coordinator or disabled students’ unit (Arcola Research LLP, n.d.; Gamble, 2000). A survey of Canadian universities (Reed, n.d..) shows that most universities in Canada have disability services/counselors who provide students with special support, including assistive technologies. While universities in affluent countries often have well-developed disability services to provide disabled students with the necessary support, this may not be the case in colleges in developing countries (Mushome & Monobe, 2013).

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Challenges and Barriers of Higher Education Many studies reveal that students with disabilities at HEIs face multiple barriers. Transition from high school to university for students with disabilities in itself may be a challenging experience. Students with vision impairments are most vulnerable to challenges when moved from sheltered school settings to the rigorous and demanding environment of a university (Hewett, Douglas & Keil, 2014; Keil & Crews, 2008; Reed, n.d.). Lack of communication between high schools and universities leads to lack of awareness of university recruiters about special educational needs of BVI applicants, which entails constraints for them at the very application stage, the beginning of their HE journey (Hong, 2015; Reed, n.d.). The literature reveals three major categories of barriers for BVI students while in HEI—environmental, attitudinal, and those of information access. Environmental barriers refer to difficulties in accessing buildings, locating classrooms and campus navigability. Attitudinal barriers result from unfavorable attitudes of people to a person with a disability and information access includes assistive technologies and pedagogical considerations. Using this classification adapted from Bishop and Rhind (2011) as a framework, this review continues to explore those barriers in different aspects and at different stages of HE for BVI students.

Environmental Barriers The primary barrier students with disabilities encounter in HE settings is posed by inaccessible architectural structures of university campuses. Despite a recent worldwide move towards inclusive and disability-friendly environments for all, research demonstrates that educational terrains are still physically challenging to access for students with disabilities, including those with vision impairments (Lourens & Swartz, 2016). Lourens and Swartz (2016) claim that university campuses are “foreign” to disabled students. Their abilities are not taken into account when designing the educational environments. Furthermore, the environments are hazardous to walk independently owing to hindrances caused by traffic and obstructions (Joseph, 2010; Lourens & Swartz, 2016). These barriers make students with disabilities dependent on external factors such as the weather, often forcing them to skip their classes. The difficulties of accessing infrastructure leave the students little chance to be involved in social activities on campus, which in turn hampers their social integration. On top of that, difficulties engendered by these obstacles cause emotional tensions and distress among students when each walk from place to place may become a challenge because of their “struggles with [the] physical environment” (Lourens & Swartz, 2016, p. 246). These accounts suggest that while declaring commitment to inclusive and universal design in principle, HEIs in practice still fail to enable basic physical access to their campus environments.

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Access to Information and Study Materials International research suggests that one of the critical barriers in HE for students with so-called print disabilities, including BVI ones, is the failure of HEIs to provide equal access to study materials, both textual (Fuller et al., 2004a, b; Harpur & Loudoun, 2011) and graphical (Butler, Holloway, Marriott & Goncu, 2016). The notion of “print disability” implies difficulties with reading regular print materials owing to vision limitations, dyslexia or an inability to manipulate hard copies of prints. While it is a daunting task for non-disabled students to tackle a great mass of course material accompanying university study, students with print disabilities are deprived of basic access to those resources, which disadvantages them and considerably limits their study opportunities. Although there has been dramatic progress in the development of assistive technologies for BVI students over the last decade, substantial barriers remain in accessing information for them. To search materials on the shelves, BVI students have to rely on reference librarians or someone’s assistance. Having located the source, unlike their sighted peers, BVI students cannot have direct access to print materials. Print texts first need to be adapted into an accessible format, tactile or audio (Lourens & Swartz, 2016; Saumure & Given, 2004). The adaptation and quest for sources involve human assistance, effort, time and assistive technologies, which may not be readily available. It is even more time- and labor-consuming to adapt graphically presented information such as diagrams, tables and charts (Butler et al., 2016). Electronic sources, though increasing students’ study options, have also proven to bring about disadvantages owing to processing or copyright. Requesting accessible versions of textbooks from publishers may take a while and the material may arrive well into the semester (Reed, n.d.). All these considerations pose substantial challenges for BVI students and put them in a disadvantageous position in comparison with their non-disabled peers. To eliminate these barriers, it is vital that involved parties such as libraries and publishers collaborate to enable BVI students’ access to study resources (Bodaghi, Cheong, Zainab & Riahikia, 2016).

Attitudes Attitudinal barriers, often referred to as ‘social barriers’, imply the impact of the attitudes of peers, faculty, and staff with whom the BVI students interact. In academic settings, this may manifest in professors’ resistance to provide the students with reasonable accommodation and/or lack of understanding of the students’ additional needs. Instructors often tend to lower expectations for disabled students or vice versa, do not take into account students’ individual health conditions (e.g., fatigue, headache and eye strain) caused by long periods of reading and working on a computer (Bishop & Rhind, 2011). Difficulties to cope with the high rigor of HE caused by these

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conditions or lack or inaccessibility of resources to study may be viewed as a sign of failure, which could in turn lead to psychological tension among BVI students (Bishop & Rhind, 2011). Byrne (2014) goes further in defining the role of such attitudes, claiming that they form dominant social oppression structures based on a person’s implied inability rather than ability. According to Byrne (2014), these assumptions make it difficult for disabled students to participate in tertiary education. Attitudinal barriers entail a necessity for counseling services for staff and faculty. To minimize the negative effects of unfavorable attitudes and make educational environments more disability-friendly, faculty and staff need to be trained. Bishop and Rhind (2011) highlight the importance of proper training of non-academic disability service staff because they are a main source of support for both students and faculty members in solving arising issues. They deliver disability services and advise faculty members on creating accessible classrooms.

Internal and External Enablers Internal Factors: Personal Traits Although there is a dearth of research investigating what factors enable students with disabilities in general and those who are visually impaired in particular to overcome the barriers and cope with the challenges of HE, the existing research identifies personal traits, knowledge and skills needed to persist and succeed in HE (Galdi, 2007; Getzel & Thoma, 2008; Joseph, 2010). Self-advocacy and self-awareness are key factors contributing to students’ success in their educational pursuits. Research emphasizes that a student with disabilities needs to have a clear understanding of self as a learner. That is, the student needs to be well aware of his or her capabilities, needs, strengths and limitations caused by impairment (Swart & Greyling, 2011). Understanding one’s disability and knowing how it affects learning abilities is crucial to speak up for oneself and advocate services and support needed to keep up with challenges and overcome barriers (Getzel & Thoma, 2008). Self-awareness is directly linked to self-advocacy and crucial to articulate one’s needs while advocating accommodation.

External Factors: Family and Friends’ Support Familial support is a key external factor enabling BVI students to manage the challenges and rigors of HE. Galdi (2007) found that family members (e.g., parents, siblings and spouses) serve as a primary source of support for BVI students. They help students with practical tasks such as reading and transportation, as well as assisting in coping with emotional stressors by providing encouragement and motivation. Other studies suggest that familial support may be both enabling and disabling. On the one hand, parents and siblings often become overprotective, trying to protect

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students with disabilities from challenges and barriers they inevitably experience. This may lead to reverse results (e.g., overdependence of the students on someone’s assistance). On the other hand, families and friends greatly contribute to the success of the students, encouraging them in their endeavors and maintaining their morale (Bishop & Rhind, 2011; Joseph, 2010).

Inclusion in Education in Kazakhstan: Policy and Practice The endeavors to include students with disabilities into mainstream education in Kazakhstan fall into the broader context of the current educational reforms in the country and the Soviet practices of the past underlying the contemporary state of the country’s education system (Rouse, Yakavets & Kulakhmetova, 2014). To alleviate the inertia of segregated education based on the so-called ‘defectologist’ approach and establish a foundation for systemic inclusion in the inclusive education reform agenda, Kazakhstan has proclaimed inclusivity as one of the priorities in the State Program on Educational Development for 2011–2020 (MoES, 2010) and the latest program for 2016–2019 (MoES, 2016). Strategic objectives of the programs regarding inclusion set to be achieved by 2020 are the following: • 70% of secondary schools are anticipated to create favorable conditions for inclusive education. • 50% of children with special needs are to be included in inclusive schooling. • 100% of HEIs are to have created an inclusive educational environment. These objectives are based on the provisions of the following national legislation: • The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan (Kazakhstan, 1995) • Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Social Support, Medical and Pedagogical Correction of Children with Disabilities (Kazakhstan, 2002) • Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Social Protection of Persons with Disabilities (Kazakhstan, 2005) • Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Education (Kazakhstan, 2007). In Kazakhstan, the imperative for the inclusion of students with disabilities is only now being recognized and equalizing opportunities for them in HE is in its early stages. There is no specific disability legislation equivalent to the US ADA. Regulations on different aspects of disability are scattered in many national policy documents. Legislation only occasionally contains references to inclusion. The provisions of the documents appear to be vague and do not prescribe mechanisms for implementing inclusion in practice (Makoelle, 2020). Although the Law on Education (Kazakhstan, 2007) stipulates that HEIs in Kazakhstan may not discriminate against students with disabilities, the legislation neither sets a legal mechanism to enable equal access for persons with disabilities, nor procedures ensuring the provision of resources that would assist students with disabilities to overcome existing barriers in accessing HEIs. The notion of reasonable accommodation is non-existent

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in the law or other national policy documents. The needs of students who manage to be accepted into HEIs are fundamentally underserved (Yussupzhanov, 2016). Most Kazakhstani universities do not have established disability services and intervention and transition programs tailored to meet the special needs of students with disabilities. Only sparse anecdotal evidence can be found on practices of accommodating disabled students at universities. This review shows that to offer equal opportunities to disabled students in HE, many countries have been promoting policies of equity and inclusion. In practice, these policies have led to substantial advances in enabling access and participation for students with disabilities. In response to the call for inclusion, disability support services are now well established on university campuses in Western countries such as the USA, UK and Canada, among others. The establishment of disability services has changed inclusionary practices in those countries. At the same time, the review of the literature shows that there are still many challenges and barriers confronting disabled students in HE. The literature review indicates the nature of these challenges and barriers (architectural, attitudinal and information access) for BVI students in accessing HE. Given sufficient resources, the architectural and information access barriers can be significantly reduced, but the most challenging barrier of all may be people’s deep-seated attitudes (Bishop & Rhind, 2011). To eliminate a discriminatory culture and oppressive practices, inclusion needs to be re-conceptualized to go beyond physical accessibility and resource provision (Bishop & Rhind, 2011). The literature also revealed that factors enabling students with disabilities are of both an internal and an external nature. Internal factors relate to personal characteristics and skills, whereas external factors imply support provided by family members and friends.

Methodology Research Design The present study adopts a qualitative research approach. Strauss and Corbin (1990, p. 17) broadly define qualitative research as “any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification.” Qualitative research seeks a deeper, not quantifiable type of knowledge, gives more detailed insights and thus more meaningful illumination of quality features of the phenomenon under study and examines it in more depth to understand the processes or experiences of participants (Hoepfl, 1997). Moving from the broad post-positivist definition, it is helpful to delineate more specific characteristics of qualitative inquiry. Creswell (2013) posits that qualitative inquiry is interpretive, reflective of the researcher and is closely bound to the social and cultural contexts

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of the research. Its data collection strategies are naturalistic in that data are gathered via procedures and in settings natural for participants (Creswell, 2013). A qualitative study is appropriate in this case, as the phenomenon is new or not yet carefully examined (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Examining the phenomenon using a new sample or a marginalized group might be helpful (Creswell, 2013). This research aims to build an understanding of emerging patterns of inclusion in a new context and addresses the phenomenon of BVI students in HE. To gain insight into the experiences of BVI students previously not examined in the context of Kazakhstan or Central Asia, the cases in the present research require a qualitative approach. It also helps to hear the voices of previously silenced visually impaired students (Creswell, 2013). Research on the phenomenon might be further elaborated by means of a quantitative approach when its initial variables are identified and can therefore be quantitatively tested (Hoepfl, 1997). The research design employed in this qualitative research is an exploratory multiple case study of the experiences of BVI students at a public university in Kazakhstan. A case study is a research design in which the unit of analysis (e.g., a bounded case) is ‘what defines whether the study is a case study’ (Merriam, 2014). A case is understood as a bounded system, that is, boundaries of the phenomenon under study are to be clear in time and place in order for it to be a case. There are two types of case studies—multiple and single (Yin, 2014). The single case study implies an analysis of a single within-site unit, while the multiple case studies employed in the present research analyze more than two cases (Creswell, 2013; Yin, 2014). According to their intent, case studies are categorized into two types—intrinsic and instrumental. Whereas an intrinsic case study explores and describes in detail a unique case of interest for qualitative research because of its idiosyncratic nature, an instrumental case study intends to understand and/or solve a particular problem manifested in specific cases, which are selected for their representation of the problem (Stake, 1995, cited in Creswell, 2013). In this research, both intents are equally important because the cases under study are rare enough, albeit not unique, and therefore, need to be studied in depth. In the meantime, it is of interest to understand emerging patterns of inclusion in the HE context of Kazakhstan and illustrate those examples of specific cases (Creswell, 2013). Each respondent in this research is considered a separate case. The case study as a design has multiple strengths and is particularly useful in educational research seeking to inform policy and practice (Merriam, 2014). Although generalizability of a case study is limited, it offers rich insights through thick description of a phenomenon being studied and thereby enriches the reader’s understanding. The present study focuses on the experiences of individuals with a visual disability in HE, and explores those experiences in a particular time frame (undergraduate or graduate study) and space (the research site—a public university in Kazakhstan).

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Sampling A purposeful snowball sampling strategy was used to locate the individual participants who possessed the characteristics that the study identified as central to the phenomenon. The purposeful sampling technique is the sampling strategy used most often in qualitative research and allows the researcher to select participants who are of particular interest for the purposes of the study (Creswell, 2012). After two of the participants who expressed willingness to participate in the study had been identified, they were asked to refer the researcher to other potential participants who might fit the purposes of the study and might be interested in participating. Thus, through purposeful snowball sampling, six students with visual impairments were selected. They were sent emails requesting preliminary consent to participate in the study. After being granted ethical approval for research by the Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education (NUGSE) Research Committee, participants were approached via phone calls. One student failed to take part in the study because she was hospitalized when the data collection period started. In the end, the research involved five students currently enrolled in HE programs at the university in Kazakhstan.

Participants The participants in the research are all visually impaired. There are two sub-categories of participants—totally blind (four male students) or partially sighted (one female student). The age range of participants varied from 21 to 34. The 34-year-old student was pursuing his master’s degree and was married. The remainder were undergraduate single students. The researcher considers each student a separate case and provides descriptions below of their backgrounds, using pseudonyms to refer to them.

Participant 1 Madi is a male student pursuing his master’s level degree. He is studying under a state grant and majoring in history education, that is, teaching History as a subject in secondary school. Madi is 34 years old and lost his vision at age 21 owing to retinal detachment and is now totally blind. He is married, lives in a small town in a suburban area of the city and commutes to the university from home every day. He is currently employed as a secondary school teacher and has earned his bachelor’s degree in history.

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Participant 2 Peter is a male senior student majoring in law. He studies on a tuition basis. He experienced a thermo-chemical scald at 11 years of age and is currently totally blind. He graduated from a special school for BVI students in the same city where the university is located. He is 26 years old and lives with his mother.

Participant 3 Diyas is a male third-year undergraduate student. He has a state grant and majors in Pedagogy and Psychology. He is congenitally blind. He graduated from the same special school for the blind and visually impaired as Peter. He is 22 years old.

Participant 4 Nazym is a third-year undergraduate female student. She is partially sighted (defines her vision acuity as 10% of a normal vision). She can read print and information from the screen. Nazym has a municipal grant from the local city administration (Akimat) and also majors in Pedagogy and Psychology. She is 22 years old.

Participant 5 Shyrak is a 21-year-old undergraduate. He is in his second semester at the university. His major subject is Psychology. He has been totally blind from birth. He is from another region of the country and stays in his uncle’s apartment with his father near the university campus.

Research Site The research site for this study is a large public university located in an urban area in Kazakhstan. The university was selected because at this institution more than five visually impaired students were identified and, therefore, it was assumed that it might offer rich data (Creswell, 2012). The university is one of the oldest HEIs in the country and was founded in the late 1920s. By 2015, it had a pool of around 15,000 students, six of whom were identified as having a visual disability.

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Data Collection Instruments Data were collected by means of one-on-one semi-structured interviews. Interviewing was the primary data collection technique, allowing the researcher to gather first-hand evidence on the phenomenon under investigation from the participants. The semi-structured interviews allowed participants to generate their own ideas and share their thoughts. At the same time, it enabled the researcher to be flexible, explore and address emerging themes, rephrase questions and collect as much data as possible (Creswell, 2012). To answer the research questions posed in this study, five qualitative in-depth interviews were conducted. Each interview lasted from 45 to 60 min. These interviews allowed the unique voices of the individuals involved to be heard.

Data Collection Procedure The interviews were held face to face in a place that was convenient for the respondents. The researcher took the responsibility of ensuring that the interviewing sites were quiet and comfortable for the participants. Each one-on-one qualitative interview was based on a semi-structured interview protocol. The protocol consisted of two parts. The first part probed for demographic information. The second part consisted of 15 questions addressing the themes coming from the literature reviewed. All questions were open-ended and, where needed, were followed up with additional questions. With the permission of the participants a voice-recording device was used. The data collection was conducted from 18 March to 26 March 2016.

Data Analysis Data were analyzed using a general inductive analysis strategy. An inductive approach to the analysis of qualitative data consists of a set of coding procedures through which the researcher derives the most frequent key themes that are significant and/or relevant to the research aims (Thomas, 2006). Higher-order themes may be pre-determined by research aims. In this research these are challenges, barriers, opportunities and enablers of BVI students in HE settings. Lower-level categories derive from the data collected (Thomas, 2006). The process of inductive analysis represents a set of stages of coding the unstructured mass of raw data given. It includes preparing the text by transcribing, close reading of the text, labeling and dividing the most frequently recurring meanings into categories, and, finally, developing from three to eight higher-order themes drawn from those categories (Creswell, 2012). Interpretation of findings has been based on themes emerging from the literature reviewed and informed by the researcher’s personal immersion. The results of the study are presented in descriptive form (Creswell, 2012).

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Limitations and Delimitations of the Study There are some objective limitations to the study. Since the study explored the experiences of BVI students at one university, findings of the research might be influenced by contextually bound factors and, therefore, could not be generalized and transferred to other universities. Lack of triangulation of data sources limits the results of the research. Gaining access to alternative data sources proved to be impossible in this project. Involving the university’s administration and instructors’ perspectives on the inclusion process at the university would have strengthened the research findings. Another factor that could potentially limit the research findings was that some of the participants were alumni of the secondary school from which the researcher graduated. Although the researcher knew only one of the students (closely) prior to the interviews, there might have been a possibility of censored answers based on the students’ own judgements of what was expected from them. On the other hand, the other participants also knew the researcher, which helped to build a relationship of trust in interactions and may have allowed for obtaining more extended responses. To address this limitation, the researcher used a member check technique before starting the analysis (Hoepfl, 1997). The participants were sent emails with transcripts to confirm or deny what was recorded during the interview. Language may pose an additional threat at the stage of interpretation of data. Translation of interviews from Russian to English could result in limitations owing to differences in understanding the concepts used by speakers of the two languages. Moreover, the research and interview questions were initially formulated in English and translated into Russian. Translating transcripts into English might also have led to a loss of contextually bound meanings. However, the researcher’s immersion in and awareness of the context from personal experience helped avoid mistranslations and misinterpretations.

Ethical Considerations Before the data collection began, full ethical approval for the research was granted by the NUGSE Research Committee. All the terms and conditions under which the approval was granted were met. Informed consent forms clearly articulating the terms of participation in the research and potential risks described below were provided in advance to interviewees in an adapted format (e.g., large print, Braille or electronic), depending on the participants’ optimal mode of communication, so that they could read through them on their own. The audiotapes and their transcripts were kept separately to avoid disclosure and were destroyed immediately after the completion of the study. To ensure ethical use of the data, the member check technique was employed when the respondents were asked to corroborate raw data before analysis took place (Hoepfl, 1997).

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The primary risk associated with this research was whether the participants’ confidentiality could be maintained in view of the nature of the study, as it explored a unique case at one university. Because enrolling five visually impaired students by itself would be a rare case in Kazakhstani HE, there was a risk that the respondents might be identified. Although the research could not fully guarantee the confidentiality of the respondents’ identity, every possible step was taken to secure participants from potential risks.

Findings This section is a summary of the extant research exploring experiences of BVI students in a selected HEI. It presents findings to answer the primary research question in accordance with the initially identified themes of challenges and enablers. The major themes detailed below emerged from the study and are categorized by the sub-questions they pertain to. Architectural barriers and lack of access to study materials are the themes pertaining to sub-question 1: What challenges (if any) do students with visual impairments experience in the HEI? Financial aid, independent life skills and family involvement are the themes answering sub-question 2: What are the enablers students with visual impairments encounter in the HEI? The last theme of people’s attitudes reveals dual results, suggesting both the enabling and challenging nature of the attitudes of peers, professors, and non-academic staff to the participants in the study. All in all, these themes describe the twofold nature of the examined experiences. These are discussed below according to the research questions they pertain to.

Theme: Architectural Barriers The physical environment in and around the university and in the city overall seem to bring about many challenges for the participants in this research. The poor design of buildings, inaccessible transportation, and the dangerous terrain around the university campuses are key barriers hampering students from independent navigation. The participants were quick to mention the poor accessibility of the buildings throughout the university when asked, “What were your first experiences at the university?” Most participants emphasized the lack of orientation aids both inside and outside the buildings. Diyas commented: I often have a hard time trying to locate a classroom or office because there are no Braille duplicates of door plates. When I go up to the seventh floor where we have almost all our classes, I prefer to use the stairs, since the buttons in elevators are not brailled, either. And, you may get out on an earlier floor. You know there are no announcements about which floor you are now on. (Personal communication, March 2016)

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Despite these difficulties, the students agreed that it was still possible to navigate independently inside the buildings, using a white cane and different orientation techniques. For example, Madi explained: “You know, to locate my classroom in a long corridor I go to its very end and count doors back from that end because my classroom is closer to that end.” This suggests that to navigate their way, students need to have learned some orientation and mobility skills. As expected, the participants who had skills in using a white cane proved to be more independent than those relying on someone else. Navigation to and from the university is even more challenging for the visually impaired. The terrain around the university campus and high traffic in the city pose inextricable dangers to a visually impaired person because there are no accessibility aids in the environment. The university premises are located on four campuses scattered around the city. Students have to commute between these locations when they take classes other than their major subjects. Peter said, “While it is still possible to navigate inside, commuting from home and back and between the buildings without a sighted guide, you just jeopardize your life.” The students suggested that this was the main barrier, which prevented them from being independent while at the university. Madi asserted, “That is an incredibly inadequately designed terrain outside, which makes me depend on my wife and classmates.” All the participants, except for Nazym, who is partially sighted, use a sighted guide to get around in the city. Nazym, a female student with partial sight, had concerns about the design inside the buildings. Because of her residual vision, she is able to navigate her way around within and outside the university. She indicated: “There are hallways where lighting is poor and there are many offices with small-sized signage and door plates. But the difficulties I experience pale in comparison with the risks that the students who are totally blind encounter.”

Theme: Access to Study Materials Whereas the students overcome the obstacles arising from environmental barriers at the university and transportation by relying on peers and family members, their meaningful participation in the academic process is much more contingent on the university itself and the provision of access to study materials. The participants claimed that the university provided no resources to accommodate access to information. Diyas said: I bought a laptop when I was studying in high school and use it with screen-reading software. Rarely do I use Braille to prepare for classes. I get most of the materials from the internet and don’t use the university library at all. They don’t have anything to allow me access. (Personal communication, March 2016)

The other students confirmed this and reasoned that making use of the library resources is not feasible, because there are no accessible sources or assistive technologies to enable access to print materials.

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In classes, the participants mostly rely on recording lectures on a dictaphone. Permission to record lectures is usually given, although Madi reported that he faced cases when professors forbade it. Lack of accessible materials is compensated for by occasional human assistance. Professors assign someone from among the peers to read printed material and describe chalkboard writing for the students. Peter explained: “When lecturing, professors usually forget about me. I have to rely on my friends’ explanation of what’s being presented. But there are situations when they don’t understand and need explanation themselves.” This illustrates that dependence of the students on their peers’ assistance is not a solution to ensure participation. More complex support measures are needed.

Theme: Family Involvement In the absence of accommodation services provided by the university, the main factor enabling the participants to fulfill their educational pursuits is family involvement. Family members support students by covering their study expenses, helping with reading inaccessible materials, and transporting them to and from the university. Whereas for Peter it is tuition paid by his mother, for Shyrak it is his father who helps him to commute to and from the university. Shyrak also thanked his uncle who lives near the campus for providing board and a room, “I live with my uncle in his apartment not far from the university … My dad often visits me when I need some extra help with my study, for instance during exam periods.” Madi attends his classes with his wife. He explained: I live in … (the name of a town outside the major city) and so sometimes it’s not reasonable for her to go home for several hours and then return back to pick me up. And she just stays with me. She can barely help me in class because she also has low vision. (Personal communication, March 2016)

Overall, the experiences of the participants reveal that family members contribute to their success more than any other enabling factor discussed further in this research.

Theme: Financial Aid Findings show that the university implements financial aid policies to support those in need (e.g. tuition discounts, free meal plans, low-income allowance). Students with disabilities are usually placed into this category automatically without prior means-testing. As a student studying on the basis of tuition, Peter is not eligible for the state student stipend, but benefits from discounts for tuition given because of his disability status. “I had from 30% to 50% discounts throughout my study,” he said. Diyas reported, “In the past semester, the university provided me with meal tickets. They are helpful but not provided on a regular basis.” Shyrak said:

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I was entitled to receive a 5000 tenge allowance once a semester but they asked me to submit so many documents that I just said “No, I don’t need those”. 5000 tenge, you know. What can one get for that? (laughing) (Personal communication, March 2016)

These remarks indicate that financial aid provided may serve as an enabler, but it often proves to be insufficient.

Theme: Independent Life Skills The students participating in this research highlighted independent life skills as a precondition of success in HE. Being fluent in assistive technologies and having orientation and mobility skills, among others, are a must for students with visual disabilities. The participants have different levels of proficiency in using assistive technologies and a white cane. Diyas seemed to be most skillful in both assistive technologies and orientation and mobility. His background of pre-university study in a special secondary school for the BVI benefitted him vastly in comparison with the others. He said, “We didn’t have any particular training but I was lucky to have a blind friend who taught me how to use a cane. We together walked a couple of blocks and then I went by myself.” Shyrak admitted that he was not good at using a cane and depended on his classmates most of the time at the university: “I would feel much better if I could go around myself rather than asking someone’s assistance, even if that assistance is readily offered.” Madi also stated that using his wife’s assistance was not a matter of choice, but rather of unfavorable conditions making the students depend on someone else, “I would get around myself had the city and campus been adequately designed to allow us to navigate without a guide.” Unlike the others, he is illiterate in computer technologies, too. He reasoned: At the time I studied in high school in the late 1990s and early 2000s there were no computers in schools, let alone assistive technologies for the blind, but maybe my assertiveness and desire to earn a degree led me to the master’s level. (Personal communication, March 2016)

Theme: Attitudes as a Challenge and Enabler The participants described their relationships with peers as positive. All participants mentioned that their peers were willing to help them with academic tasks such as reading printed documents in class, describing visual elements in in-class activities, and helping outside the classroom – getting around in the university, taking them to and from the bus stop. Shyrak said he had “… never experienced a situation when I was left alone going from class to class. There’s always someone who helps me”. Peter referred to a classmate as “my personal secretary”, implying that she serves him as a scribe and note-taker, and also describes all visual in-class activities. Diyas appeared to want someone to help him. However, “Nobody rejects any request for assistance if I ask”, he claimed. Most of the participants seemed to be experiencing

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welcoming and supportive attitudes from their peers, who appeared to contribute greatly to facilitating the students’ study experience, thus enabling their inclusion in the academic process. Regarding faculty’s attitudes, the study shows dual results. The participants reported that most professors accommodated the students’ needs as much as they could. However, further probing questions showed that in fact these attitudes did not result in substantial support or accommodations for students in the academic process. Professors appeared to be reluctant when there was a need to make substantial efforts. For instance, Shyrak said, “I’ve had a couple of professors who didn’t permit tape-recording of lectures.” This also manifests in the form of compromising coursework requirements for the students and lowering expectations for them. Madi, a master’s student, quite often encounters professors who say, “Let’s not complicate your and our lives. You will be fine in the exams. Just be prepared to tell the basics orally.” All the participants expressed regret that many professors tended to lower their expectations because they did not view persons with visual impairments as able to meet requirements on the same level as non-disabled students. Diyas said: “I try not to allow such a disservice to happen. But you can’t do much to change your professors, right?” The students seemed to interact only rarely with the administrative personnel at the university. When asked whether the university provides any support, Nazym was surprised, saying: “Support? … Um … I haven’t seen a single staff member so far, let alone any kind of support from them. Maybe that’s just because I don’t ask them. I don’t know.” Peter said that when applying for tuition discounts, he experienced two types of attitudes: Those who are at the top level are always helpful and find means to solve the issues I come to them with properly. But the officials in lower positions always prevaricate when processing any requests. They often ignore me when I come to their offices. Using their vision, some of them may try to avoid meeting me. You know it’s silly, but that happens. (Personal communication, March 2016)

The very fact that non-academic staff at the university are not present in the lives of the students attests to the level to which the administration is involved in and concerned with the students’ problems. In summary, the present study found that while challenging experiences of the participants were related to inaccessibility of transportation, facilities, and study materials, enabling factors included family support, independent life skills and financial aid from the university. The most frequently recurring theme regarding people’s attitudes was that it was deemed to be both enabling and challenging.

Discussion As all the students participating in this study indicated, the university campus leaves much to be desired in terms of accessibility. The interviews showed that most participants in this study encounter difficulties with navigating around the buildings and

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campus of the university, as well as accessing transportation while commuting to and from the university. Four out of five participants are being helped to overcome these barriers by someone else. They feel uncomfortable that they have to depend on someone’s assistance and concur that they would have felt better if they could be independent of family members, friends, and classmates. This resonates with the findings of Joseph (2010) and Lourens and Swartz (2016) in that HEIs still fail to ensure accessible physical environments. Poor design of campuses remains a primary impediment for disabled students in HE settings. Being a barrier by itself, it is compounded by the repercussions for the emotional well-being of the students (Lourens & Swartz, 2016). Thus, emotional distress seems to be a challenge on top of the physical barriers posed by inaccessible environments, negatively affecting the overall well-being of the students. The present study found that lack of access to study materials is a crucial academic barrier preventing students with visual disability from full participation in class. Taking into consideration that the university does not have electronic library resources, the participants use open-access electronic resources on the internet as a major source of study materials. When sources cannot be obtained through the internet, students have to scan print versions of books, which involves a lot of effort, time, and resources that the students may not have. These results are similar to the findings of Brandt (2011), who suggests that inaccessibility of study materials slows down disabled students in achieving learning outcomes and may ultimately impede their academic success. The lack of accessible study resources attests to the deficiencies of resource and support provision. The current state of available accommodations seem to be similar to the experiences of the visually impaired student population in the USA prior to the passage of the ADA in 1990 when American universities were not legally obliged to provide accommodations and did not have disability services as they do now (Joseph, 2010). The participants in the study by Joseph (2010), who studied in the 1980s, had no or fewer accommodations, which caused more difficulties for them than for those who enrolled after the adoption of the ADA in 1990. Likewise, the participants in this research reported that they did not receive accommodations other than permission to do assignments orally and record the lectures. They relied on their peers for help with reading and writing in-class assignments. Joseph (2010) states that visually impaired students’ dependence upon peers’ assistance compromises their study, since this is unreliable and they may end up not achieving learning objectives and outcomes. International research suggests that appropriate resource provision to both students and faculty significantly reduces academic barriers for disabled students (Bishop & Rhind, 2011; Reed, n.d.). Provided with sufficient funding, these barriers may seem relatively easy to remove using assistive technologies and universal design of facilities, as well as enabling access to the internet. However, in the Kazakhstani context these issues are hampered by lack of qualified administrators and awareness of educators. The findings of this study show that the families of students are involved in students’ academic pursuits to a great extent. The literature supports these findings, as for many disabled students, family members are a key source of support

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(Galdi, 2007). Family members of the student sample are helpful in assisting to read inaccessible study materials, providing rides to and from the university, and paying tuition. Previous research shows that familial involvement is also crucial as a source of moral support and encouragement for students with disabilities (Galdi, 2007; Joseph, 2010). Although the university does not provide any disability-specific resources, it provides financial support to those in need. According to the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Education (2007), persons with disabilities are entitled to a 75% increment on the monthly student stipend. Besides the governmental allowance, the university has its own financial aid mechanisms to support those in need (e.g. tuition discounts, free meal plans, low-income allowances). However, the findings suggest that the financial aid is insufficient and provided on an irregular basis. Thus, it contributes little to the enhancement of the quality of the participants’ study experiences. Financial aid is provided based only on a disability, without any means-testing. While it can be helpful for some, students with disabilities are not necessarily in need of direct financial aid. What is more important in academic settings is access to vital resources and services to study and participate in academic life. The experiences of the students in the present research emphasize the role of independent life skills to achieve educational pursuits. Computer literacy, communication and orientation, and mobility skills are among those enumerated as key elements to succeed in HE for blind and visually impaired students. These skills may be taken for granted by someone without a disability, but persons with visual impairments need to learn them prior to entering HE programs. The present results clearly show that the attitudes of peers, professors, and nonacademic staff at the university can be both enabling and disabling. On the one hand, positive communication between actors of the interactive academic process and efforts of individual peers or professors, even in the absence of support provision mechanisms, create a welcoming learning environment in a classroom (Kioko & Makoelle, 2014). On the other hand, some professors tend to set low expectations for blind students rather than support them to achieve their full potential. This does them a disservice. Students report that there is lack of understanding of the challenges that they face. Students have to go and talk to professors who are aware of special needs, but do not quite understand how to accommodate these. Because there are no regulations obliging university staff and faculty members to accommodate students’ study-related needs and provide reasonable accommodations, students are dependent on the good will and awareness of individual instructors and administrators. Overall, this study confirms the findings of many previous studies, which show that BVI students face academic, institutional and environmental barriers. The most challenging barrier of all may be people’s deep-seated attitudes (Bishop & Rhind, 2011).

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Conclusion This study has shown that HE is a challenging experience for students with vision impairments. The challenges have multiple dimensions and manifest in architectural, information access, and attitudinal barriers. Transition from secondary school to university appears to be the most challenging period in visually impaired students’ academic lives. As opposed to Western countries, the challenges and barriers of HE are even more vivid in Kazakhstani universities, since support and resource provision institutionalized in most universities in the West are not present in Kazakhstani HE. Despite these challenges, the most determined students manage to get to the HE level. The study unveiled factors enabling the students to access, participate, achieve and see through the challenges they experience in HE. These are independent life skills, family support and financial aid from the university. Only financial aid can be described as university’s support. This calls for centralized institutional policies to address the challenges of students with disabilities holistically.

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Chapter 11

The Aspirations of Youth: Gender and Disability Natalya Manuilova

Introduction Studies on a national and international level show that despite government actions to effect social and educational inclusion, vulnerable populations still tend to be limited in the academic and work sectors because inclusive strategies are not properly applied (Gale & Hodge, 2014; Gore et al., 2017; Grant, 2017; Ospanov, 2014). Low enrollment rates among young people with disabilities entering higher education and their inadequate representation in mainstream education in Kazakhstan is one example. As indicated in the state statistical report on higher education in Kazakhstan for 2016– 2017 (Ministry of National Economy of the Republic of Kazakhstan [MNE], 2017), of the total number of 422,516 students (aged 18–29) enrolled in higher educational institutions in 2017, only 576 had disabilities. The total number of assigned educational grants was 31,702. Of these, 252 students received this grant on the basis of the disability quote in the 2017 academic year (Kazakhstan, 2016). Literature focused on the participation of students from vulnerable backgrounds in higher educational settings highlights the need for more research on student aspirations in response to the global trend of raising the aspirations of disadvantaged social groups and widening their participation in higher education (Gale & Hodge, 2014). This is largely due to the simplistic representation of these aspirations when it comes to decision-making and policy consultancy, which limits the development of equality initiatives (Gore et al., 2017). The present study explored how the intersection of gender and disability shapes aspirations and outcomes of higher education among youth in Kazakhstan. The underlying purpose of this study was to use the voice of students as the source of informed actions and decision-making in education (Miller, 2008) and to promote transformative action in the field of inclusive higher education to raise the participation of young N. Manuilova (B) Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. M. Makoelle and M. Somerton (eds.), Inclusive Education in a Post-Soviet Context, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65543-3_11

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people with disabilities, based on the lived experience of study participants. The overarching research question in this study is, “How does the intersection of gender and disability shape the aspirations and outcomes for higher education among youth in Kazakhstan?”

Literature Review Accessibility of Higher Education With the focus on establishing nationwide inclusive education by 2020 (Altynsarin National Academy of Education, 2015) tertiary institutions in Kazakhstan are expected to enroll students with diverse abilities and needs (Makoelle, 2016). Research signals that it will only be possible to achieve this through major structural changes in terms of funding for higher education, inclusive pedagogy, accessibility of educational institutions and admission practices for diverse students, which so far remain unaddressed (Makoelle, 2016; OECD, 2015). Some scholars (Smolentseva, 2012) argue that this is largely due to the massified and centralized education planning and leadership inherited from the Soviet regime in many post-Soviet countries, including Kazakhstan. The focus on outdated standards aimed at a mainstream population limits the opportunity for higher education to accommodate diverse student needs proposed by the modern educational reforms aimed at inclusion (Florian, Rouse, & Black-Hawkins, 2016). According to Ainscow (2005), accessibility also refers to the modern inclusive education framework commonly used in writing policies and action plans aimed at the positive presence, acceptance, participation and achievements of diverse students in mainstream educational settings. However, there are different approaches to what defines accessibility to higher education. Some studies have focused on socioeconomic factors that limit participation of students from low-income and workingclass families in higher education (Basit, 2012, 2013; Lehmann, 2009). Some have studied limitations imposed by certain cultural norms or of gender education shaping the experiences of men and women in higher education differently (Harris & Rainey, 2009). Others focused on unequal access to higher education for students with disabilities and inadequate care for their needs during the educational process (Gayle, Lambert, & Murray, 2009). Although inclusion is not limited to disability, special education with its primary focus on disability and ways to adapt the person to the general society still plays the major role in the discourse on inclusive education (Florian & Becirevic, 2011). A review of state actions and the legislative framework for inclusive education in Kazakhstan shows that its development is mainly focused on mainstreaming persons with disabilities (Rouse, Yakavets, & Kulakhmetova, 2014) and is largely dominated by the pedagogy of special education or defectology. This aligns with the medical model of disability focused on correcting those with special needs and “fixing” the

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existing defects (Barnes, 1996; Dumbayev & Popova, 2006; Florian & Becirevic, 2011; Makoelle, 2016). This burdens inclusion at different levels and negatively affects social attitudes and actions because according to the medical model, special needs are best addressed at special schools (Makoelle, 2016; OECD, 2015). The accessibility of physical environments for persons with disabilities is in some ways a reflection of the general social attitudes to them (Birenbaum, 1979). The current level of unpreparedness of Kazakhstani universities to accommodate the diverse needs of students, especially those with disabilities, is arguably an example of such embedded social marginalization (Gazalieva, 2014).

Understanding Aspirations for Higher Education The term “aspiration” is a complex notion to define. Some state that it is an individual view informed by the lived experience of one person or “individualist psychological register” (Zipin, Sellar, Brennan, & Gale, 2015, p. 3), one’s personal goals, achievements, and expectations (Oymak & Hudson, 2018). Others argue that it is formed as the result of social attitudes to and expectations of a certain group of people (Gale & Parker, 2015; Grant, 2017; Walker, 2016). Overall, aspiration can be defined as an individual view based on the experiences resulting from social attitudes to a certain social group. Research claims that in any society there is a dominant group that explicitly or implicitly dictates the norms and goals for other minority groups (Appadurai, 2004; Burke, 2009). In a recent study by Grant (2017), it was found that students from lower socio-economic backgrounds tend to have lower career expectations of themselves in the future because this is what the general society expects from them. By contrast, students from wealthy families rarely see themselves working in middle-class careers. Wealthy groups form lists of desired occupations, in other words, prestige postitions. Nonetheless, practical experience shows that people from vulnerable groups tend not to see themselves as suitable for these commonly desired positions (McMillan et al., as cited in Gale & Parker, 2015). If connected to the medical model of inclusion, students with disabilities are likely to consider themselves incapable of vying for prestige careers owing to their lack of capability as perceived by their mainstream peers (Brisenden, 1986). Contextual factors play a significant role in shaping an individual’s aspirations either explicitly or implicitly. External expectations, social support, and barriers are considered the main factors in students’ decision-making processes about continuing education (Oymak & Hudson, 2018). This can be attributed to the gendered education in families with differing values imposed on girls and boys (Kelly & Elliott, 1982) or varying academic interests across genders, with females giving preference to social sciences, and males preferring engineering or technology (Rowan, Knobel, Bigum, & Lankshear, 2002). Those with disabilities often see themselves as unable to do some things; however, this is often solely due to the social norms and standards

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of certain cultures following the medical model of inclusion, which reinforces this thinking by focusing on one’s limitations. Purcell (2011) links aspirations for higher education with academic performance. Higher academic standards are likely to break the culture of low aspirations, especially among vulnerable groups, allowing more opportunities for their upward social mobility (Gorard, See, & Davies, 2012; Purcell, 2011). The opportunity to receive a quality higher education creates a certain level of satisfaction with one’s abilities, along with the professional knowledge acquired through this experience, which forms an individual’s confidence to strive for more success in life (Abbas, cited in Basit, 2013). The same is true of students of different genders. Research shows that even within cultures limiting women in career perspectives and social mobility, the pursuit of higher education is not compromised and is even supported by families, given that cultural norms are respected and followed (Abbas, cited in Basit, 2013). In many post-Soviet countries, including Kazakhstan, there is a shared perception of higher education as a key to guaranteed employment and better income opportunities (Smolentseva, 2012). In these contexts, the majority of student aspirations for higher education are linked to the expected upward social mobility. Although advantages in employment are not guaranteed in these modern days, young people from post-Soviet countries still strive to receive higher education before starting their career, considering the university experience as a facilitator in achieving their social goals (Smolentseva, 2012). Aspirations are usually contextual and derive from an individual’s social situation. However, studies demonstrate that the aspirations of vulnerable or minority students can be changed in an upward direction (Walker, 2016). Because of differences in the social experience of every student with a disability aspiring for higher education, it is very important to give these students a voice and collect their unique stories to understand the impact of inequality and develop informed solutions (Finnegan, Fleming, & Thunborg, 2014; Gray, 2013).

General Factors Shaping Aspirations for Higher Education Financial and Environmental Difficulties Based on the experience of many non-traditional students, including those with disabilities, it is clear that financial complications are a significant barrier to continuing education (Bowl, 2001). In Kazakhstan, a number of state scholarships are offered to students with disabilities and some may argue that this barrier is not relevant in this context. However, other scholars (Hästbacka, Nygård, & Nyqvist, 2016) argue that the full social integration of students with diverse needs and abilities is considerably more costly than general tuition. As indicated in the State Program of Education Development (2011), at the current stage of inclusive education implementation, not all higher educational institutions are adequately equipped with special technology and educational materials suitable for students with diverse needs. This

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creates additional disadvantages for students who need assistive technologies, accessible study materials or other support for equal participation in the study process (Butler, Holloway, Marriott, & Goncu, 2017; Fuller, Bradley, & Healey, 2004). An additional barrier is the lack of inclusive education policies in Kazakhstani universities that would describe the type of support to be provided for students with special needs (Rouse et al., 2014). This results in students being responsible for providing the necessary resources and support materials for themselves, implying additional expenses that not all families can afford. This situation results in an overall tendency toward an elitist higher education system (Leach, 2013). Education becomes non-equal in terms of financial concerns that primarily affect students with disabilities who often come from lower-income families. Another important factor is the physical accessibility of educational institutions (Fuller et al., 2004). Educational environments are usually designed without regard for students who have special needs and disabilities (Lourens & Swartz, 2016), which limits participation of these students in on-campus events. However, higher educational institutions in Kazakhstan lack opportunities to improve their physical environments owing to insufficient allocation of resources and inadequate funding (Ministry of Education and Science, 2010). As a result, students with disabilities remain disadvantaged, which affects their motivation to continue education after secondary school negatively.

Difficulties Caused by Social Attitudes Attitudinal barriers play a major role in forming the aspirations of vulnerable youth through social interactions in different environments. Social attitudes are often based on the unjust treatment of those with disabilities and reinforce negative assumptions of young people about themselves and their abilities to participate in academic or professional settings (Bishop & Rhind, 2011; Byrne, 2014). This can be attributed to the phenomenon of disablism—stereotypical and discriminatory attitudes to people with disabilities in educational institutions that reflect general social insensitivity and lack of awareness about the needs of people with disabilities (Madriaga, 2007). It often happens that while institutions include vulnerable students, there is mass skepticism about their performance or capability, which creates an additional obstacle for them (Clouder, Adefila, Jackson, Opie, & Odedra, 2016) and results in fewer opportunities to express their potential, lowers expectations and demands for their performance, and results in more lenient teacher attitudes. Students with disabilities enrolling in higher education are contingent on particular circumstances in different parts of the world (Herath, 2014; Wilks & Wilson, 2012). Research on the motivation of students with disabilities signals that they tend to have stronger internal grounds and to take more initiative in academic participation in the first year of higher education. However, senior-year students attend classes

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less often and tend to drop out in response to social pressure and limited employment opportunities (Lehmann, 2009; Reed, Kennett, & Emond, 2015; Schömer & González-Monteagudo, 2013). In Kazakhstan, because of the medical model of disability, people with disabilities are generally seen as the recipients of service (Barnes, 1996). They are considered to have lower social mobility, be unable to serve and provide for themselves as a result of limitations caused by their impairments (Gazalieva, 2014). In other words, a person with disability is an object of social and government support, but not a subject of action. Such social perceptions affect educational inclusion among students with disabilities, with particularly low enrollment rates in higher educational institutions—about 3,7% among students with disabilities aged 18–29—and limited employment perspectives afterward; only 18,5% of the total number of young people with disabilities in Kazakhstan are employed (Gazalieva, 2014).

Gender-Related Difficulties There is a general tendency to view people with disabilities as a collective heterogeneous unity, which translates into the majority of resources for students with disabilities in higher education not being gender-based (Hästbacka et al., 2016). Gender itself, however, appears in a vast number of studies following the work of Oakley in 1972 (Dillabough, 2006), which viewed gender as a social construct that has an impact on basic social arrangements (Francis & Skelton, 2001). The feminist movement in educational research is quite strong and scholars argue that the intersection of gender and disability presents more challenges for females with disabilities, as they are prone to at least twice the rate of stress and depression than that experienced by men with disabilities (Nosek & Hughes, 2003). Such psychosocial challenges can limit participation of women with disabilities in education and in work. Disproportionate use of resources and bias in research on the needs of men with disabilities in comparison to studies of women with disabilities is alleged (Eccles, 1994; Nosek & Hughes, 2003). Female participation in the academic arena is marked by lower expectations and consequently lower academic demands to realise student potential (Preece, 1995). In many cases the lower academic and professional expectations of women can be attributed to the traditional norms and cultural perceptions of certain societies (Sachs & Schreuer, 2011). For instance, in some rural areas, the role of education is downplayed in exchange for the traditional position of women as homemakers and housewives, in contrast to men as breadwinners (Don, Salami, & Ghajarieh, 2015). Although there are females with disabilities who succeed in education in spite of low expectations and lack of motivation, psychological influences of feeling inadequate still affect their performance negatively. These feelings, along with the masculinist values and expectations dominant in the university curriculum, tend to impose more inequalities on female students with disabilities in the educational process (Schömer & González-Monteagudo, 2013).

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Even so, educational research focused on the female experience has raised aspects of an alternative perspective and advocacy movement stating that the perspective has now changed towards the underrepresentation of men (Rowan et al., 2002). This stance has inspired research inquiries on classroom behavior, feminization and the gendered nature of the curriculum, as well as the underachievement of male students (Dillabough, 2006). Scholars come to the conclusion that masculine interests and behaviors tend to be undervalued and even marginalized in the modern educational system (Dillabough, 2006; Francis & Skelton, 2001). Direct influence of gendered education and social values on individuals’ identity further affects their aspirations for higher education and future career perspectives. In this regard, it is crucial to stop seeing males and females as opposing binary forces and to avoid contrasting their natural skills and qualities; instead, the differences in the way they perceive the world should be appreciated in order to achieve maximum inclusion of both genders (Ghaill, 1994). Recognition of gender in the educational process leads to the development of transformative educational practices aimed at the success of all students with respect to their diverse interests and needs (Rowan et al., 2002). In Kazakhstan non-discrimination and gender equality are priorities in all state sectors, including education (Kushnir & Kiling-Schneider, 2013). This is highlighted and described in the Constitution of Kazakhstan (Kazakhstan, 1995, art. 14), in the developed and implemented Strategy for Gender Equality (Ministry of Justice [MJ], 2015), as well as in the Law “On State Guarantees of Equal Rights and Equal Opportunities for Men and Women” (Kazakhstan, 2009) and the Law “On Education” (Kazakhstan, 2007). The consistent and positive objectives of the constitution and related policies in Kazakhstan ensuring gender equality in education are recognized as exemplary for other Central Asian countries. Nonetheless, access of women to economic opportunities and their political empowerment are still quite limited (Asian Development Bank [ADB], 2013). According to the Country Gender Assessment (ADB, 2013) and National Human Development Report (United Nations Development Program [UNDP], 2016), women in Kazakhstan are underrepresented in political office and have little influence over policy and decision-making; they are less involved in the formal economy and are mainly engaged in the public sector, self-employment or in domestic care. Men, on the contrary, are employed in the technical fields and managerial positions that offer the highest salaries (UNDP, 2016). Reports highlight a similar gender pattern in higher education enrollment and aspirations, with female students mostly engaged in social sciences and healthcare, while most male students enter technical training or technology (ADB, 2013; UNDP, 2016). Because of the gender segregation in the academic and work environment along with a wage gap, there might be a significant decrease in the enrollment of women in higher education. The situation is even more problematic for women with disabilities entering higher education, with additional concerns about the accessibility of educational institutions and the availability of the necessary support for their needs (ADB, 2013).

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Research Methodology This research followed a phenomenological research design to gain understanding of the ways in which the intersection of gender and disability affects the aspirations for higher education among young people in Kazakhstani post-secondary institutions. Through interpretative phenomenological analysis, the present study described the meaning behind the lived experience of vulnerable students in mainstream educational settings to explore the issue of their low enrollment rates in higher education in more detail (Lester, 1999; Smith & Osborn, 2004). Aspiration is a complex notion that needs exploration and deeper understanding, particularly given the context and the dearth of research in this context. Therefore aspiration is presented as the central phenomenon in this research (Creswell, 2002). Phenomenological methodology focuses on interpreting personal perspectives and reasoning motivations and actions of participants, and allows for comprehensive understanding of how the higher education aspirations of vulnerable students are formed and how intersections of gender and disability affect this process (Lester, 1999). Therefore, this study approached this topic from a critical perspective to examine the experiences of young people representing two genders (male, female) and different disabilities (sensory and physical) in the Kazakhstani higher education system to interpret motivations for receiving or not receiving a post-secondary degree. The critical perspective in this context is the lived experience of individuals from vulnerable and marginalized social groups. For instance, the experience of students with disabilities in higher education advocates the elimination of inequalities in this social group (Carspecken & Apple, 1992; Thomas, 2006). Analysis of student aspirations through the lens of intersection addressed low enrollment rates in higher education among young males and females with disabilities to promote changes allowing inclusion in the current educational system.

Participants This study recruited a heterogeneous group of ten male and female adults over 18 years old with different disabilities, including visual, hearing and mobility impairments (see Table 11.1). These participants were recognized as a vulnerable population because in addition to their impairments, which limit their participation in different areas of social life, some of them are also economically disadvantaged. Among the participants, who were recruited via purposeful sampling, were students currently enrolled at universities, students who had graduated from universities, and those who had obtained a vocational education but had not continued education at university level. This approach was chosen because the participants in this study belonged to a hard-to-reach population, given that there is only a small number of students with disabilities pursuing university education in Kazakhstan. In

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Table 11.1 Characteristics of participants in the study Name

Age

Disability type

Education level

Employment Entrepreneur

Female participants Dariga

26

Visual impairment

VET and Bachelor’s degree

Sabina

26

Visual impairment

VET and bachelor’s degree Self-employed as a masseuse

Medina

25

Visual impairment

VET, bachelor’s and master’s degrees

Works in education

Olga

24

Mobility impairment

Bachelor’s degree

Self-employed as a tutor

Zarina

20

Mobility impairment

Bachelor’s degree

Works as a sales manager

Male participants Damir

26

Blind

VET and bachelor’s degrees

Unemployed

Samat

24

Visual impairment

VET

Unemployed

Andrey

32

Blind

Bachelor’s, master’s and unfinished Phd degrees

Self-employed as a tutor

Adil

30

Blind

Bachelor’s and master’s degrees

Works in education

Sergey

26

Hearing impairment

VET

Works in entertainment

the context of working with a hard-to-reach population, snowballing or respondentdriven sampling, as described by Goodman (2011), was the most suitable strategy to give this research a sound grounding for comparable analysis (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). The researcher asked male and female students with disabilities to provide the contact information of two or three potential participants who fit the sample criteria. Given the peculiar characteristics of participants, it was expected that students with disabilities would be likely to be associated with or know other students exposed to similar circumstances. Having received the contact information, the researcher compiled the sample from this list without informing the recruiters of their contacts who had participated in the interview. The participants were interviewed on a voluntary basis to identify their aspirations for higher education, as well as the outcomes of receiving a post-secondary degree in Kazakhstani higher educational institutions, based on the intersection of gender and disability. The researcher avoided coercing or persuading any participant to engage in this research (Plano Clark & Creswell, 2014) by any means other than explaining the essence and purpose of this study, its direct benefits to the participant and to other stakeholders. Overall, direct engagement via snowball sampling was the most convenient and confidential technique for the purpose of this study, since only the researcher and participants were involved in the data collection. This eliminated tension and allowed

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participants to speak openly, as they felt confident and secure knowing that no official organizations or other people were informed about their participation. This definitely helped to build trust between the researcher and participants, which is crucial in phenomenological research aiming to explore the first-hand experience of participants about a certain phenomenon. This view is supported by Plano Clark and Creswell (2014), who also highlight that studies with a critical approach should aim to establish a positive and trustworthy relationship between the researcher and the participant during the study to collect valuable data and allow the researcher to promote the marginalized social group. Research participants can also be engaged in data collection, help establish a clear focus of the study and assist in formulating research questions (Creswell, 2012). In this study, participants were active recruiters of the research sample.

Instrumentation For data collection this research employed semi-structured one-on-one interviews in order to avoid distractions and peer pressure and to allow for a deeper personal discussion about the lived experience of students entering and/or considering higher education, through the lens of gender and disability. The semi-structured interviews implied the use of a set list of questions; however, the researcher was not limited and could ask follow-up questions when there was a need for it to obtain informative and valuable data from the emerging themes (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007; Creswell, 2012). In this research, semi-structured interviews were chosen to gain more detailed insight into the aspirations of young adults with disabilities in terms of higher education in the context of Kazakhstan.

Procedure Interview protocols for this research were designed with emphasis on the central research question to understand the effect that the intersection of gender and disability has on the decision of young men and women with disabilities to receive or not receive higher education in Kazakhstan. In total 15 questions were focused on collecting information about the educational and work experience of participants based on gender and disability, as well as their civic and cultural engagement in the context of higher education. For participants who had obtained a university degree there were additional questions about barriers and challenges, as well as opportunities, for this educational experience. Participation in this study was grounded in individual interests of individuals from vulnerable social groups to contribute to developing informed policies and practices in higher education by sharing narratives about their first-hand experience. Prior to the interview, all participants were offered the opportunity to familiarize themselves with the interview protocol. Some of them reviewed

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the questions and asked questions about the procedure to eliminate the stress factor of not knowing what the researcher was planning to ask. However, most participants preferred to continue without reading the list of questions.

Data Collection Once ethical permission had been obtained from the Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education Research Committee, participants were contacted and they received voluntary consent forms and information from the researcher. A series of dates was arranged to conduct the interviews. All interviews took approximately 60 minutes and were conducted in the Russian language. During the interview, the researcher took notes and recorded the conversation, with the consent of participants. The interviews took place in a setting that allowed participants to feel comfortable and secure and to speak freely; some interviews were conducted via Skype. The use of semi-structured interviews in qualitative research is an effective instrument of data collection and sensible ethical considerations assured that the rights and confidentiality of participants who represented the vulnerable population were protected. As described above, the participants in this study faced quite sensitive issues, therefore having this security established more open conversations with the researcher.

Data Analysis Upon completion of data collection via interviews, all information was analyzed using an inductive reasoning method based on the principles of hermeneutical phenomenology. This implied that the narratives of participants about their general educational aspirations and experience of entering and obtaining higher education were carefully analyzed through the intersectional lens of gender and disability. Having distinguished significant statements of participants and developed the description of their lived experience, the analysis proceeded to broader meaning units. This process revealed three main themes, namely the intersection of gender and disability; the intersection of gender, disability and higher education aspirations; as well as the intersection of gender, disability, aspirations and the outcomes of higher education. Following the work of Creswell (2013), these themes were further used to identify common patterns in the ways different participants experienced the same phenomenon, combining their subjective and objective experiences. These findings were used for developing the interpretation of the essence of the central phenomenon of this study—low enrollment of students with disabilities in Kazakhstani higher educational institutions.

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Ethical Considerations At all times, the participants were treated with respect, integrity and confidentiality. Upon participants’ agreement, the interviews were audio-recorded on the researcher’s phone, protected by password. All the essential information about the nature of this research, its central purpose, potential benefits and risks were provided prior to the interview. The interview summary notes were also shown to the participants to ensure that the information obtained was presented carefully, without deviations from their words. The participants were asked for permission to cite direct quotations from what they said in future research publications. Because of the low number of students with disabilities enrolled in university education in Kazakhstan, there was a potential risk of revealing the identity of participants in spite of guarantees of confidentiality. The researcher recognized this possibility and was careful to hide any information that could reveal participant identity, even if this meant not using some of the gathered data. The researcher did not include the detailed participant characteristics in the findings, focusing instead on the themes and patterns in the data. The contact information used to reach the participants was used only for the purpose of this study and not given to any other person, organization or institution, to ensure the full confidentiality of participants. No information deemed personal, such as names, contact details and occupations, was used in the presentation of this research; the author used codes instead. Vulnerability characteristics of this population could result in a sensitive context for data collection, as the participants could feel sad, angry or embarrassed when asked about their impairments or when reflecting on their experience. To minimize this risk, the researcher assumed a non-judgmental attitude and tried to rephrase questions when needed. The interview summary notes collected in hard copy were destroyed after analysis. Audio interview recordings were transferred to a USB device and will be stored in a locked cabinet for a period of five years. This time period was chosen because of the possible need for justification of the published findings. After that time, the electronic data will be permanently deleted. Participation in this research was not seen to cause more discomfort than the normal daily activity of participants. The direct benefits for the participants of this research included the opportunity to reflect on their educational experiences, share their stories and express their opinion about their university experience in an atmosphere where their voices were respected and valued. As for other benefits, this study is expected to initiate a discussion on the topic of inclusive higher education in the academic community and provide suggestions for further research on the topic. Understanding of the aspirations of students with disabilities in higher education can be used to improve school professional orientation work, particularly at special schools. In the long term, these findings will help to improve the quality, standards, and accessibility of higher education in Kazakhstan to empower people from vulnerable social groups to continue education.

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Findings According to the interview protocol structure used in the data collection, there were three main theme blocks in this study. The first related directly to the intersection of gender and disability. This section focused on building understanding of how the participants view themselves and assess their personal development within general society in order to build a backbone for the further discussion of their experience, following the principles of semi-structured interviews. The second section reviewed what influence the intersection of gender and disability has on the participants’ aspirations for higher education. The third section combined the intersection of disability and gender, aspirations for higher education and the outcomes of this experience with the purpose of exploring its benefits and drawbacks for the life of students with respect to their professional or further academic development, namely receiving a master’s degree. This section also discussed the differences and similarities between female and male participants. In total there were ten participants, five male students and five females, with different disabilities and special needs, including sensory and physical impairments. Their academic backgrounds were varied, including some with a vocational education or a college diploma and others with a bachelor’s or master’s degree. They also came from diverse personal, socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds.

Intersection of Gender and Disability This section explored the differences and similarities in the way female and male participants talked about their disability during the interviews. It was noted that most male participants avoided saying the word “disability”, especially when applying it to themselves. Instead they used expressions such as “people with the same conditions” or “people with vision as poor as mine”. At the start of each interview, when they were unsure of what the researcher wanted or expected to hear from them, the researcher noted that all male participants tried to showcase their masculinity and independence. When asked about their disability or special needs, some subtly tried to move to another topic and others made jokes about it. As the conversation proceeded, they felt more open and then, though still avoiding talking about disability, they shared the challenges in their lives and academic development posed by their conditions. Women were different in this respect, as during the interviews they were quite open with the researcher and appeared more comfortable discussing their disabilities or special conditions right from the beginning of the interviews. While discussing their disabilities, most female participants were generally focused on justifying their independence in mainstream society. However, unlike men, they mainly focused on the skills they had developed over time in response to their health limitations. Besides, during the interviews women often referred to the application of these skills in different social situations to justify their independence. They also actively

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reflected on their interactions with other people and the ways their disabilities shaped these experiences. For instance, some of them noted that these interactions were complicated and often negative if other people could not recognize their disability at once. However, all participants highlighted that living with disabilities is equally difficult for men and women owing to the health challenges and social participation barriers. Overall, the participants were quite confused when asked questions about gender. As some of them reflected later during question probing, this was because gender is not something they often discuss; more typically the focus is on people with disabilities as a group.

Intersection of Gender, Disability and Aspirations for Education In this section, participants reflected on the role of gender, either implicit or explicit, in their decisions to receive higher education and their expectations of this life experience. The role of family was also highlighted in the interview questions based on this section. The results indicate that gender did play a role for these participants in making a decision about education by presenting different sets of values for men, being responsible for providing for the family, and women, being mainly associated with knowledge transition in the family. Personal development, however, highlighted the core value of higher education regardless of gender. For example, during the interview Damir stated: Education is important for everyone, everyone should have it. It does not depend on being a man or a woman. Maybe our education does not give us much professionalism or experience, but it develops us personally. In our family, we have matriarchy and I know that women should have education themselves to give it to children. As for the man, we should earn money, and education helps to start a career.

As mentioned earlier, the participants in this study were not familiar with talking about gender and its influence on their lives. Most of them expressed the notion that education is of high importance for all young people; as one of them said “education sets the basis of life.” Some of them said that they saw the need for higher education because a university diploma is typically required for better employment opportunities, but they themselves did not attach much value to it. One of the female participants also mentioned that women need higher education more than men do to start their career or to build a family; this makes women with and without disabilities more motivated to study. Dariga said: I think women usually need higher education more than men, because men can just finish school or maybe college and then find a decent job, but it is not the same for women. This is why we have so many women in higher education and they are very motivated to get a degree, unlike most men in my experience.

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Some of the male participants also reflected on the theme of male employment. They highlighted that males usually expected to earn money in their family models; therefore, despite their disability, it was expected of them, which put them under high pressure. Higher education is not the first priority for men in this context. Samat, who had not continued education after completion of VET training, mentioned: “Well, higher education is important and I want to get it one day, but I just do not have time for that. My family wants me to find a job and work there, not waste time preparing and studying.” The female participants, on the other hand, mainly reflected on the impact of higher education on their personal development and the ability to be in charge of their lives by being more independent in the future. Contrary to the men, they did not talk about earning money and providing for the family. Instead they talked about what impact university training would have on the upbringing and development of their future children. The results indicated that women were not expected to get a higher education to provide for the family, but their desire to pursue a professional degree was appreciated and supported in participants’ families, and they had freedom to choose the specialization themselves. Men were also supported in pursuing higher education, based on the participants’ narratives, but in their case, the decision to enter university was reviewed from the position of what results it would yield in the future for their career and usually the focus was on vocational education rather than on their academic development. The nature of a disability also played a significant role in forming the aspirations for higher education of both male and female participants. All of them mentioned that they were choosing a profession based on their abilities. For example, those who had visual impairments were looking for a profession that did not require a lot of writing and working on a computer, for example, something involving working with other people, such as tourism or teaching. Some participants, particularly those who had completed a higher education degree, were also quite skeptical about their employment prospects because of their health. For instance, Adil said: Of course, I never expected to work in any physically demanding position, I could never do that. But I figured that with my health conditions and my personal interest in history, I can become a school history teacher. But now having tried to find such a job, I see this is not realistic. In a few years, I will probably work in a call center or as a shoe repairman. This is what people like me do.

When participants shared their educational background as well as their general aspirations, hopes, and concerns about pursuing higher education, those participants who had studied in special or boarding schools at the secondary level first highlighted the environmental barriers of the new educational settings, including inaccessible environments, lack of educational material suitable for diverse needs and ineffective teaching practices. Andrey said: I think more people like me would be interested in university education if there were services available for their needs. But, you know, in our society, we do not have that. Then, after the boarding school with its “greenhouse conditions” and services, it is a huge stress that not many agree to deal with.

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For those who had studied at mainstream schools and needed special provisions there was not so much concern about the limitations of the environment. Nevertheless, they also mentioned lack of teacher support as a significant barrier in their decision to continue higher education. Scholars also considered teachers as the main actors of developing and implementing inclusive practices at all educational levels (Smith & Smith, 2000). During the interview Zarina, who has a mild mobility impairment, highlighted that: University teachers do not know what to do with us, this is why most just try to avoid dealing with us or placing their responsibilities on our peers instead. Only some teachers are willing to accommodate my needs and do this without me constantly asking for it, but they are the exception.

Intersection of Gender, Disability, Aspirations and Outcomes of Higher Education In general there appeared to be no difference in the way participants reflected on the outcomes of receiving vocational or higher education based on their gender. All stated that this was a beneficial experience for their socialization, developing their personal and professional qualities, and only a few of the participants saw themselves working in their field of study in the future. Some said that this was because they did not make the right choice, others were concerned that they would not be able to satisfy the requirements because of their disability or special needs. Men again indicated that they felt under more pressure from their families, since as qualified professionals, they were expected to find a decent job with a good salary. Participants’ views on their future and the outcomes of their educational experience tended to vary between opportunities for participants with a vocational or bachelor’s degree and those who had continued their education at the master’s or doctoral level. The aspirations that participants held before entering university played an important part in this reflective process as well. In this context, male participants more often appeared to be disappointed in their studies at VET or bachelor level and were not motivated to continue education. They were confident that their higher education was unlikely to be linked to their career. Knowing this even before entering post-secondary education, male participants explained that they did not have high expectations from this experience. In the interviews they often referred to the quality of their education, highlighting that it was not fully capable of making them skilled professionals to compete for a job in mainstream society. For instance, Damir said: University education was a hope for me to become a professional in the field and to be able to compete for a job. Now I see that our universities cannot prepare good professionals and I do not feel ready to enter any job, I simply lack competence. Most students know this and lose interest in studying as well; it is just whatever. You just get the diploma and then maybe get a job.

Some male participants and most females, on the contrary, highlighted the element of professional development in higher education as the most important part of their

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experience. This may be largely due to the opportunity to secure their future social positioning. As they explained, this experience allowed them to get a job where they could apply the skills they had acquired and continue growing professionally. Overall, those participants who reflected positively on their first university experience tended to continue their education, even if it was possible only on a self-funded basis. This was especially true of women, as based on their narratives, it was not the profession itself that was important in relation to university education, but the skills it developed, which they could apply in other spheres of life. As Olga mentioned: Education means a lot for my social status; people treat you differently if you have higher education, and they respect you more, especially for your courage to study with a disability. This is probably why some people are willing to hire me because they want to give me the opportunity to do more. This is true only of some people. I had to try hard to get a job, but I got it.

Besides, several participants of both genders noted that success in education gives a sense of achievement and improves one’s self-confidence. This is important for people with disabilities who are generally seen as passive and dependent in the mainstream society. Educational achievements appear to be a quite effective way for these students to fight such stereotypical attitudes in their surroundings. Thus, according to Medina: “When you have a disability and have a higher education, I think people treat you differently; they sort of respect you more for being able to do this. This is why I decided that after school I should go to college and then to university.” Several of the male participants made similar observations when talking about their disability or special needs, their educational aspirations, and further employment. For example, most of the male participants felt unsure about their future. They felt that they did not have much control over the decision on their academic program and were more concerned about the profitability of their choice. Their decisions to continue education appeared to be directly shaped by family attitudes. Thus, the family focused on the participant’s potential employability and certain limitations caused by their disabilities rather their personal interests guiding the choice of profession. However, they explained that they were choosing fields in which they could not or did not want to continue working. As Samat expressed: I did not choose my specialty; it was difficult to be enrolled for any position in general. You know, my family had to find ways and use connections [to enter university education]. I just got to study administration, but I never expected to work in this position, especially with my poor vision.

Conversely, female participants stated that even if their families advised them to pursue a certain profession out of concern for their future employment opportunities; they believed they still had a level of autonomy in making the choice on a future specialty. Such an opportunity to choose a profession based on their interests overall turned out to be a satisfying and beneficial experience for them. Medina said: “My mother wanted me to study economics like her, and I was good with numbers. But I always liked studying English, so this was my choice for my future career and my family had to agree. Now that I succeed in my field they see that it was good.”

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All participants highlighted the lenient attitudes from professors to them over the course of study mainly because of their special needs. This was a quite discouraging experience for most of them, as they felt that it limited their opportunities to reveal and develop their potential. Others tended not to view this experience negatively and attributed such attitudes to the lack of professors’ experience in working with students with special educational needs. Nevertheless, all of them were confident that their educational experience as well as its outcomes would be different for them if the universities could be properly equipped to respond to the diverse needs of students. In their responses to questions, most participants mentioned that socialization, namely their interactions and connections with peers and professors, was something that had really made their university experience valuable and important. This was especially evident among those participants who used to study in boarding schools at the secondary level. Sabina reflected on this experience in the following way: I was very shy before coming to college, but three years here taught me how to behave around normal people. I knew they had their own judgments about me and it was very stressful to stand up for myself and my needs. But then it was easy to go to university because I already knew how to act and explain my condition to everyone on the first day. This created an open atmosphere in my group.

Nevertheless, the particular needs of participants played a big role in shaping student-peer interactions. According to most female participants, their conditions made them constantly dependent on other people in different aspects of student life. Even though they regarded this condition as something expected in mainstream educational settings, it was not always easy to communicate their needs to others, making this a very stressful experience. Thus, Zarina said: My friends helped me a lot during my studies. I would not be able to move around the campus by myself in my position. They are also my emotional support. But … I do feel like a burden at times, because they do not have to do some things, like reading for me or navigating, yet they do this.

This chapter presented the main research findings and described the influence of the intersection of disability and gender on the participants’ decisions to receive higher education or to continue studying for a higher academic degree. The impact of attitudinal and environmental barriers on the higher education aspirations of participants was also given. The next section will focus on a discussion of these research findings.

Discussion To answer the main research question and gain in-depth understanding of the aspirations of a vulnerable student group in entering higher educational institutions, the interview questions were divided into several theme blocks, including aspirations for higher education as related to gender and disability, as well as the outcomes of this experience. These themes helped to structure interviews in a way that allowed

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participants to reflect on their experience in a logical manner, share their perceptions of their higher education experience, and collect their stories. These themes were further used for analysis, synthesis and interpretation of findings to answer the research question: How does the intersection of gender and disability shape the aspirations and outcomes of higher education among youth in Kazakhstan based on their narratives?

Theme 1: Intersection of Gender and Disability In this section participants reflected on their place in society in general. The analysis highlighted differences in the way that male and female participants viewed their disability or special needs. Most evident in the discussion of gender with all participants was their confusion on why it was necessary to discuss the issue of gender at all. This finding underscores the findings of others that indicate that people with disabilities are often seen as a heterogeneous unity (Hästbacka et al., 2016). However, in this case, participants’ responses indicated that they too perceived themselves as part of a heterogeneous group, thus specific issues that relate to gender were overlooked. These could be the issues of self-identity and masculinity for males, evident in the way they avoided talking about their disability. Too often this is negatively associated with being dependent and contradicts their general perceptions of themselves as providers. In this context, education is not perceived as a priority, especially to men from disadvantaged backgrounds, owing to the opportunity they have to join the workforce in manual or service-type jobs without receiving higher education first (Weaver-Hightower, 2010). Research shows that this option appears to be less attractive to females, often because of the significant wage gaps in this work sector (Weaver-Hightower, 2010). For females, there was less evidence in the data related to issues of self-identity, as they felt a great sense of achievement in higher education. Thus, higher education was more about self-enrichment, which they believed could make them good and effective parents. This finding connects to studies that discuss implicit lower expectations of female participation in society overall. However, despite the success of women in education in some contexts or cultures, they are generally not expected to work actively and contribute to family finance, being primarily responsible for caregiving and the upbringing of children (Thompson & Walker, 1989). Such perceptions affect the educational choices of women, which may explain why they often enroll in the humanities and social sciences that pay less in comparison to the fields of engineering and technology, commonly dominated by men (Eccles, 1994). Besides, some research suggests that women tend to underestimate their occupational aspirations, which self-limits opportunities for them to develop their potential fully (Eccles, 1994). The current demographics of university enrollment among students with and without disabilities indicate the prevalence of women relating to the overall feminization of higher education (Dillabough, 2006; Francis & Skelton, 2001; Leathwood & Read, 2008). This feminization significantly affects student positioning and their

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aspirations by diminishing masculine values in education, such as competition, expertise and individual accomplishments over collaboration, personal reflections and sharing (Lazzari, 1991). Inclusive higher education, however, with its focus on cooperation and socialization of minorities, benefits from this feminist discourse and has the potential to raise participation in higher education across both genders. To illustrate, research shows that the number of men with disabilities in higher education is rising at a reasonable rate (Weaver-Hightower, 2010). Most participants noted that discussions on gender are not particularly relevant for people with disabilities. They indicated that in this context it is the disability that makes things hard for everyone, regardless of gender, and limits socialization owing to the different social barriers and stereotypes associated with disability. As indicated in the study by Herath (2014), environmental and attitudinal barriers are indeed of major importance for people with disabilities entering higher education. However, specific issues of gender are part of the overall process of the formation of one’s self-identity. This aspect should receive substantial attention to raise the participation of this social group in higher education and reduce marginalization of people with disabilities (Herath, 2015).

Theme 2: Intersection of Gender, Disability and Aspirations When discussing higher education, all participants highlighted that it is a commonly accepted norm in Kazakhstani society to have a university degree. They mentioned that this is important for socialization for students from vulnerable backgrounds, namely those with disabilities. This socialization for them is further linked to the hope of opportunities for upward social mobility and better employment. The labor market in Kazakhstan today is complicated for people with disabilities and data show that this is especially true for males. This may be linked to overall market competitiveness and the general expectations for men to be able to earn money, placing them under more pressure in comparison to women (Pettinicchio & Maroto, 2017). This relates to other discussions on the post-Soviet higher education legacy, with its guaranteed employment of university graduates (Smolentseva, 2012). Such perceptions, however, are often the result of family upbringing, as some of the participants noted. In families, higher education is often seen as the opportunity to fit the norms of general society better (Florian & Becirevic, 2011; Makoelle, 2016). Nevertheless, given that higher educational institutions in Kazakhstan are not currently equipped to meet diverse student needs, higher education for young people with disabilities is important in view of the opportunities for personal rather than professional development (Prodonovich, Perry, & Taggart, 2014). Discussions on student aspirations revealed another interesting observation, as most participants mentioned that education is more important for females who are responsible for the further education of their children or siblings. As for the males, they noted that higher education is of less importance because they can start working

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and making some money for themselves and the family straight after finishing school or vocational education. The nature of a disability also played a central part in making a decision about continuing higher education and most participants agreed that they had to think carefully whether they could satisfy the high university standards. In this case, entering VET first was a test of their abilities. However, not only their abilities but also lack of special support in the form of inclusive teaching and accessible study materials at educational institutions were key factors in the decision to continue education. All participants agreed that there would be significantly more students with disabilities if institutional conditions should respect the diverse student needs by providing equal educational opportunities for everyone (Birenbaum, 1979; Riddel, Wilson, & Baron, 2001).

Theme 3: Intersection of Gender, Disability, Aspirations and Outcomes of Higher Education Reflections on the outcomes of university education showed additional differences in how men and women perceive and evaluate this experience. Women were generally satisfied with the university education and highlighted the profound development of their skills. In addition, study successes and positive achievements were significant factors in improving their self-confidence, inspiring them to continue education further (Abbas, cited in Basit, 2012). This was true for them regardless of the educational barriers imposed by an inaccessible environment or insufficient teacher support. Having experienced less pressure to earn money for the family and having lower occupational aspirations, women with disabilities were more likely to join the workforce having received a bachelor’s degree (Eccles, 1994). As for male participants, most expected strong professional development upon completing higher education, but were disappointed in the quality of the instruction they received. As they explained, this was largely due to the lack of study resources available to students with special needs in higher educational institutions. This limited their opportunity to study and develop in comparison to their mainstream peers. Lenient attitudes of teachers and administration also affected their motivation to study, given that academic expectations of students with disabilities were set low. According to Purcell (2011), such attitudes promote lower social expectations of people with disabilities in general, which continues their marginalization (Purcell, 2011). Overall, male participants showed the tendency to assess the university experience as a waste of time, which they could spend working and supporting their family. They did highlight the socialization benefits of this experience, but still thought that it could be achieved by different means, for example extracurricular activities with their mainstream peers at secondary school level. Nevertheless, some male participants enjoyed the university experience because of the career opportunities it offered them; they were the ones who chose to continue further education. There

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was a pattern of shared characteristics among them, including their socioeconomic background—upper middle class members, employment according to their higher education specialty, and general satisfaction with the quality of university education. In this regard, it can be suggested that for men, employment prospects and future stability (Shuttleworth, Wedgwood, & Wilson, 2012), along with the quality of university instruction, were key factors in decisions on continuing higher education (Reed et al., 2015). The socioeconomic background of participants was also evident, together with its role in raising the participation of students in higher education due to upward aspirations arising from this experience. This was also linked to hopes of stability in future (Gray, 2013; Weaver-Hightower, 2010). This interpretation of the research findings demonstrates that in these cases, the intersection of disability and gender does affect students’ educational aspirations and the outcomes of this experience. Aspirations are generally shaped by the different gendered expectations for young people within their families and society overall, with men being expected to earn money and women being responsible for the family’s upbringing. In discussing their disabilities, students admitted that key aspirations for postsecondary education were aimed at reducing stigma around people with disabilities as being the recipients of service and improving their socialization. Nevertheless, gender played an important part in this process, with women being focused on selfdevelopment and men aiming for greater professional development. It is these factors that contribute to the differences between male and female participants in higher education outcomes. Thus, women tended to be more satisfied with their experience, having obtained positive academic achievements over the course of study. Men, on the other hand, were often disappointed with the quality of higher education, not having achieved the expected level of proficiency owing to the inability of educational institutions to accommodate their needs. However, given that higher education improved their occupational opportunities, men were also satisfied with this experience and willing to continue education.

Conclusion This research has shown that the process of forming aspirations for higher education among young people with disabilities is quite complex. These decisions are largely influenced by such contextual factors as accessibility of educational settings, study materials, and attentive teaching, as well as gendered perceptions about education in the family and general society. The intersectional approach of this study allowed for the exploration of aspirations between male and female participants. With ongoing reforms in the Kazakhstani education system that involve inclusive education, and current legislation and policy that enshrine gender equality, these findings are revealing. They uncover norms and values that are often implicit rather than explicit in a specific context and culture, and how these play out in the decisionmaking processes of Kazakhstani youth today. These findings show that although the decision-making process involved in choosing a higher education is more complex

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for those with disabilities, there are more nuanced issues that can be accounted for based on gender. The present research has captured these issues and provided the basis for future studies This research presents a substantial grounding for future research inquiries in the field of intersectional and transformational studies in inclusive education. In order to become a more inclusive society in Kazakhstan, the aspirations of vulnerable populations are one area of development in terms of social justice and improving an individual’s quality of life; therefore, more attention should be paid to actions aimed at raising and supporting those aspirations.

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Chapter 12

A Narrative Account: Graduate Students and Disability Aigul Seidaliyeva

Introduction Only around a century ago, globally most children with disabilities were unschooled (Robinson, 2015). In the beginning when they started receiving education, they attended isolated schools and learned in separate classes (Torreno, 2012). Today, because of inclusive education, it is common in all developed countries to have students with disabilities learning with other students in inclusive classrooms. In recent years, the growing number of graduate students with disabilities has also become a focus of specialists and teachers and society in general. The integration of students with different kinds of disabilities into regular classrooms goes back to the 20th century when some educators argued that deaf and blind students could make more progress in ordinary schools. For instance, in the United Kingdom (UK), building on the idea that inclusion is possible, the Warnock Report (1978) promoted the “integration” of children into mainstream school communities. Later, Warnock’s recommendations and the ‘Warnock report on Special Educational Needs’ were placed into the legislative framework of the UK. In an international context, policy has been moving towards inclusive education since the 1990s and the Salamanca Statement (1994). The promotion of positive attitudes among students with disabilities in mainstream schools and equal opportunities in the educational domain are a likely result of Kazakhstani national policy on inclusive education. This involves all sectors of education, including higher education. However, Korosteleva (2012) has stated that access to higher education in Kazakhstan for students with a disability is a rarity. The challenges are not exclusively economic or medical in nature, but are also A. Seidaliyeva (B) Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected]

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psycho-pedagogical. In most cases faculty staff members and non-disabled students’ attitudes to peers with disabilities are intolerant (Zaytsev, 2009). Korosteleva (2012) explains that implementation of integrated education in Kazakhstani higher educational settings will contribute to the protection of the rights of students with special educational needs. According to the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of the Republic of Kazakhstan, only 1.0% of the total number of people with limited opportunities (this includes students with disabilities) have a higher education degree (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2018). In spite of that, the number of students with disabilities completing secondary education is steadily increasing every year. However, these students are less likely to gain entry to or complete tertiary programs than their non-disabled peers (Korosteleva, 2012). This problem is not unique to the Kazakhstani context. Dailey (2008, p. 15) suggests that although higher educational institutions made it possible for students with disabilities to enroll, their disability services may not be assisting students to the level that creates an equal chance for success to that of their non-disabled peers. Students with disabilities confront many obstacles, such as limited access to materials. Moreover, they meet with difficulties because of the insufficient awareness of faculty members and staff about efficient methods of teaching and instructions to assist these students (p. 1). Bayirkenova (2014) indicates a state of unreadiness of Kazakhstani universities to accept students with special educational needs. This is mainly due to a lack of facilities, specially designed programs and specialized support equipment. Against this backdrop it was important to ask the overarching research question. “What are the educational experiences of graduate students with visual and physical disabilities in universities in Astana?”

Literature Review The purpose of reviewing the literature “is to look at how other writers and researchers discuss, debate and use existing literature to contextualize the work they present” (Wellington, Bathmaker, Hunt, McCulloh, & Sikes, 2005, p. 73). Kisanji (1999) describes the history of disability in Europe as marked by abuse of human rights. People with different kinds of impairments were treated as a social threat. Later, they were placed in asylums, and thus, a period of institutionalization began. International conventions such as the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UN, 1948), Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) and The UN Convention on the rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006) shaped the concept of inclusive education. The World Conference held in Jomtien in 1990 on Education for All, the Salamanca Statement on Special Needs Education in 1994, and Dakar World Education Forum in 2000 expanded and clarified the importance of inclusive education.

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Definition of Inclusive Education and Inclusive Pedagogy So, what is inclusive education? There is often confusion about a definition and understanding of inclusive education, depending on the time and context; however, it can be generally defined as follows: Inclusive education is a system of education in which all the pupils with special educational needs are enrolled in ordinary classes in their district schools, and are provided with support services and an education based on their forces and needs. Inclusive schools are based on the basic principle that all schoolchildren in a given community should learn together, so far as is practicable, regardless of their handicaps or difficulties. (UNESCO, 2009)

Many versions of this concept are located in the literature and in this chapter, the definitions are provided from the perspective of scholars whose area of study is inclusive education. Waitoller and Kozlesski (2015, p. 4) explain that: Inclusive education has been a global movement in response to the systemic exclusion of those considered different from the dominant culture of schools e.g., racial, language, religious, and ethnic minorities, females, students with disabilities, and students from low-income backgrounds.

On the other hand, according to Angelides, Stylianou, and Gibbs (2006, p. 514), Inclusive education is about participation and learning in the school as a whole. Inclusive education is designed as an educational reform that aims to eliminate barriers in the education system (Ahsan, Sharma, & Deppeler, 2012, p. 3). Furthermore, Moshenskaya (2012, p. 31) presents another dimension of inclusive education as mainstream education of all children regardless of religious and ethnic backgrounds, regardless of their physical and mental development, of any economic or social status in the studying. Although the notion of inclusive education varies from country to country, researchers generally agree with one another and present a broader idea of inclusive education based on human rights and social justice. Makoelle (2014) indicates that there is no universally accepted definition of inclusive pedagogy. More study is required to formulate the concept of inclusive pedagogy, since only a few researchers have attempted to define this notion in their studies. Makoelle (2014) describes inclusive pedagogy as recognizing participants with all their diversity and in fact putting their diversity at the forefront of the educational process. Another, but similar, line of thought on inclusive pedagogy is presented by Florian and Black-Hawkins (2011). According to their research, inclusive pedagogy is defined as an approach of working with learners, respecting their virtue and morality and accepting them as full members of the community of the classroom as well. Inclusive pedagogy is a method of teaching that combines different practices and learning patterns. Makoelle (2014) concludes that teachers usually employ various techniques to cooperate with students. The preference for a specific technique or method is prioritized by the quality of teaching materials, learners’ characteristics and teacher’s competence to manage the academic process. Consequently, “a democratic society needs students who are respectful and have a sense of justice so teachers who use this pedagogy help to promote such students” (Ferguson-Patrick, 2012).

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Rovira (2014, p. 11) defines the term “inclusive classroom” as the idea of a regular education classroom, that is made up of typically developing students and those with special needs.

The Kazakhstani Context The Move Toward Inclusion As for Kazakhstan, Rouse, Yakavets and Kulakhmetova (2014) noted that Kazakhstan’s special education was affected by its Soviet legacy. During the Soviet period, education was not equal for all children, particularly children with special educational needs who were segregated. The conventional approach, known at the time as defectology, outlined disability as a diagnosis for medical care and rehabilitation. For this reason, education for those with special needs took place in so-called “correctional schools”. It was believed that only specially trained professionals could work with these students. “Currently, much of the education of children with disabilities is provided in residential schools or orphanages” (OECD, 2009, p. 98). However, the situation started changing when Kazakhstan became a signatory to the Salamanca Declaration, where it reaffirmed that those with special educational needs must have access to regular schools. Therefore, the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan experienced a number of amendments. Guarantees of the right of children with limited opportunities in educational development are fixed in the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan (Kazakhstan, 2014). The laws “About the rights of the child in the Republic of Kazakhstan” (Articles 31, 32) and “About social and medicopedagogical correctional support of children with limited opportunities” are within the legislative framework for children with special needs. Even though it is written in Article 8 of the “Law on Education” (Kazakhstan, 2007) that every child has the right to education and is guaranteed free pre-school, primary, general secondary and basic vocational education, the principles of inclusive education are not highlighted there. Inclusive education is the government policy, aimed at including all children regardless of their ethnicity, social status, physical and intellectual abilities, in the general educational process. (Yersarina, 2012. p. 10). The statistics of 2014 indicated that in that year there were 138 513 children with disabilities, or 2.8% of school-aged children. The legislation of Kazakhstan (Law “On Social Protection of Disabled Persons in the Republic of Kazakhstan”) provides the following definition of a person with disabilities: “[A] disabled person is a person who has health problems with a persistent disorder of body functions, caused by diseases, injuries, and their consequences, defects, leading to a physical dysfunction and the need for his/her social protection” (Definitions and stipulated rights of children with disabilities in Kazakhstan—Kazakhstan, 2005). Currently, Kazakhstan is experiencing the implementation and development process of inclusive education in the school system. In the initial stages, one of the priorities was outreach and the raising of awareness, not only for the pedagogical

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community, but also among society as a whole. The legislative framework was developed and arrangements were made for educational materials and facilities. This was done following the experience of developed countries (Yesirgepova, 2014). There is a strategy in the State Program of Education Development in the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2011—2020 to include students with disabilities in mainstream schools. To date, 30% of schools have created conditions for inclusive education and it is intended to raise the ratio to 70% (of the total number) (State Program of Education Development in the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2011–2020, p. 17). Alimkhanov, Ongarbayeva, and Madiyeva (2015) note that the government annually allocates grants and scholarships for university entrants with special educational needs. For example, over the last three years 680 students with different kinds of disabilities have been enrolled in Kazakhstani universities. It was reported that 39,984 children with special educational needs are going to secondary schools and approximately 106 schools and 1,219 special classes offer inclusive education in Kazakhstan. The Minister of Education and Science states that inclusive education is being implemented in stages. Firstly, psychophysical and developmental disorders of children at an early age have to be identified. Next, the inclusion of children with special needs in mainstream schools and the creation of a barrier-free environment are planned (Inclusive Education Development in RK, 2014). As directed by the President’s instruction in 2004, the “Research and Practical Center for Social Adaptation and Rehabilitation” was changed to the “National Research and Practical Center for Correctional Pedagogy”. The primary objective was to conduct research on the development of special education and the transition to inclusive education. The center designs special programs and evolves methods for teaching children with special educational needs (Inclusive Education Development in RK, 2014). There are 58 psychological-medico-pedagogical consultation centers across the country. Every year teachers participate in professional development in order to be able to work with children with additional needs. As international experts note, implementation of the inclusive education policy in Kazakhstan is being carried out actively in comparison with other Central Asian states (Makoelle, 2020). The agenda of inclusive education is overcoming barriers to participation experienced by students with disabilities, thus they can be integrated socially with their peers. However, it is possible that developing the concept of inclusion within the wider society will not be without challenges. Suleimenova (2014, p. 14) argues that the level of teachers’ and society’s tolerant attitude to human diversity will not provide psychological comfort for exceptional children in schools.

Higher Education Article 5 of the Law on Social Protection of Citizens of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2013) determines “ accessibility and equality of disabled persons, on par with other citizens, to health care, education and free choice of profession.” It was recently reported that approximately 2,800 disabled students are attending universities and

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vocational colleges (Bayirkenova, 2014). Every Kazakhstani citizen has an opportunity to obtain a degree in higher education on a competitive basis, through state grants; 0.1% of the total grant amount is allocated to candidates with a disability. In addition, scholarships are awarded by the local authorities, universities, university partners and individuals, for example the Scholarship of Yerzhan Tatishev, the Soros Foundation in Kazakhstan, and the like (Alimkhanov, Ongarbayeva, & Madiyeva, 2015). In Kazakhstan teacher training for teaching students with special needs exists but requires review, as generalist teachers are often inadequately prepared to deal with students with disabilities in the classroom. Leonov (2014) provides an excellent example on the basis of his research undertaken in a Kazakhstani city. A survey was conducted among the faculty and staff of an international academy, where graduate school teachers’ tolerance of students’ physical and mental disability was measured. The findings of the study showed that almost 85% of the respondents indicated that the presence of a disabled student/students in their class made them feel uncomfortable. Another finding of this study was that 21% of the participants’ felt that the integration of students with disabilities would cause a decrease in the quality of education in the graduate school. Along with this, “graduate school faculty members provided some negative opinions concerning students with impairments, the most significant is the challenges of graduate students to adjust themselves to a disabilityunfriendly environment and lack of willingness of faculty members to tolerate these students” (pp. 777–781).

Educational Experiences of Students with Disabilities Graduate students with disabilities in Kazakhstan are a rare group of students, since they have to reach the culmination of academic learning notwithstanding the challenges of the educational process. Moreover, they must manage to pass through an educational system that is not always supportive to students with physical impairments and many graduate students with disabilities have to be persistent in order to succeed (Bethke, 2004). Several studies (Dailey, 2008; Hardell, 2013) have found that inclusion of physically challenged graduate students in tertiary education is possible. Bethke (2004) found from research conducted with graduate students with disabilities that inadequate resources, an unsupportive graduate school environment, variable attitudes and lack of knowledge of disability from faculty are some of the main challenges. Other research, such as that of Marshak, Wieren, Ferrel, Swiss, and Dugan (2010), highlighted lack of compatibility with accommodation and negative experiences with professors as the main problems students indicated they had faced. Frequently, research outcomes show that students with special educational needs are at risk of academic and emotional barriers to learning, are expected to have lower grades and to be put on an academic trial period; they consequently assume themselves as not coping with their assignments compared to their non-disabled peers.

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However, along with the negative experiences, graduate students also point to positive ones. As Rose (1999) notes, each participant in her study distinguished at least one faculty member who was humane, kind and supportive. It was that person who influenced these students in a positive way, so they felt themselves encouraged. An exploratory investigation carried out by Maggiolini and Molteni (2013) describes the inclusion of students in higher education. Many universities established “specialized tutorial services” to support disabled students. It means that every student with limited opportunities based on his/her disability was assigned a specialized tutor, the tutor taking into consideration the student’s impairment. The basic mission of the specialized tutor was to stimulate students to attend university to avoid dropout (Maggiolini & Molteni, 2013. p. 252).

Visual Impairments The term visual impairment refers to “a wide range of vision disabilities from totally blind, legally blind, to partially sighted. Totally blind refers to a status where an individual has a high degree of vision loss where one’s fingers cannot be distinguished at three meters or less” (American Federation for the Blind, 2018). Steele (2015) gives a definition of visual impairment as “impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects educational performance” and Brian and Haegele (2014, p. 13) make a distinction between legal and educational impairment. In the case of a legal definition of visual impairment, “individuals must undergo assessment of both visual acuity and visual field. Legal blindness requires (a) a visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with best possible correction (eyeglasses or contact lens) or (b) a visual field that subtends an angular distance or arc of 20 degrees or less in the better eye.” The educational definition of blindness “is applicable to those individuals who are so severely impaired that they must learn to read Braille or use aural methods” (p. 15). The definition of blindness that will be employed in this study is the one shared by Jernigan (2005, cited in Bolt, 2005) who postulated that blindness is the extent to which the individual finds alternative techniques to do those things efficiently that he would do if he had normal vision. There is another definition of blindness, given from the medical perspective: “blindness is defined as the state of being sightless.” A blind individual is unable to see. In a strict sense the word ‘blindness’ denotes the inability of a person to distinguish darkness from bright light in either eye. The terms blind and blindness have been modified in modern society to include a wide range of visual impairment. Many studies on the experiences of visually disabled students have been described in the literature and the findings have indicated that blind or visually impaired students confront some obstacles at universities, such as reluctance to accept them in class or insufficient supply of relevant teaching materials (Galdi, 2007; Joshi, 2006; Siew, 2003). Galdi (2007) provides an example from his survey conducted on factors that enable graduate students with visual disabilities to succeed in their educational pursuits. Most of his research participants reported negative attitudes from some

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professors who did not believe that they could succeed in their course work; moreover, they were not cooperative at all. The professors often discussed concerns about the students’ disability using comments such as, “You will not be able to make eye contact”, “There is no way a blind student could take that class” or “How are you going to be a blind journalist?” (pp. 77–78). Apparently, visually impaired students often meet teachers who are not willing to work with them. Joshi (2006), an investigator from Russia, notes that one of the most crucial factors for visually disabled students’ adaptation to the academic environment is sociability among the student body. Students who are sighted expressed opinions about their visually disabled peers: “Blind students are viewed as helpless, hopeless, incompetent and hostile.” Some of them were even scared of blind people, as if blindness were contagious (Joshi, 2006, p. 17). Joshi (2006) states that students with visual problems need to be dealt with on an individual basis. Both Galdi (2007) and Joshi (2006) highlight that adequate services and course materials were often inaccessible to the students. Such items could be adaptive computer equipment for reading materials or a Braille printer. Another major barrier frequently mentioned by visually impaired students was financial burdens. There is considerable overlap in the research of Siew (2003) and Joshi (2006). Both researchers note financial barriers as the main challenge cited by most blind or visually impaired students. “Participants expressed having an extreme lack of financial resources appropriate to suit their needs” (Joshi, 2006, p. 11).

Mobility Impairments According to Musser (2003), mobility impairment means a limitation or interference with a person’s performance of elemental physical activities: walking, moving, climbing stairs or lifting objects. In addition to other conditions, physical disability can be caused by different essential conditions, such as spinal cord injuries or cerebral palsy. Mobility impairment can exist in various patterns, even feeling pain when walking a short distance or moving up and down stairs falls under the notion of mobility impairments (Musser, 2003). However, Seeley (2005) provides a more specific definition of mobility impairment as “an unqualified deviation from the normative health standard”. It is evident from the above that physical disability can include any inability of an individual to move around as easily as others or lack of competent movement in arms or legs. The concept covers amputees such as those who have lost upper or lower limbs as well. Several researchers (Agarwal, 2011; Cooper, 2012; Simonson, 2012) explain in their studies of students with physical disabilities that students with physical disabilities are still stigmatized in the school environment because of their impairments. They report that they often experience indifference and intolerance from faculty staff and their peers. In contrast, alternative perspectives illustrate that some disabled students view their school life more positively than negatively. Examination of the findings of studies revealed that facilities and services were accessible to students with orthopedic disabilities. Beyond the fact that disability services for disabled

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students have made progress and created a welcoming school environment, teaching staff described how they have adapted classroom teaching methods and instructional practices necessary to provide acceptable accommodations to serve their students’ needs (Simonson, Glick, Ellen, & Nobe, 2013).

Research Methodology Research Approach A qualitative research approach means in-depth probing and investigation (Ritchie, Lewis, MacNaughton & Ormston, 2014). Qualitative research methodology was used to understand the central phenomenon better. In this case, as Creswell (2014, p. 145) states, the central phenomenon, which is “experience”, is a focus explored in qualitative research. Qualitative research has the following advantages that made it relevant for this study: cases and objects can be assessed thoroughly and it is an appropriate approach to perceive the target audience and the way in which the audience relates to certain situations. Compared to quantitative methods, the qualitative method suits this research best, since the researcher deals with the experience of disabled graduate students enrolled in tertiary education, the challenges they face and the support they receive.

Research Design The research design determines the approach or methods taken to collect, analyze, and report research (Creswell, 2013). To develop better understanding of the participants’ experiences in this study, the researcher explored the central phenomenon through a narrative research design that involved in-depth interviews with two graduate students with mobility and visual disabilities. Creswell (2012, p. 22) explains that “a narrative research design is a qualitative procedure in which researchers describe the lives of individuals, collect and tell stories about these individuals’ lives, and write narratives about their experiences. In education, these stories often relate to school classroom experiences or activities in schools”. This study employs a narrative research method. The key advantages of narrative research design are mentioned by Moriarty (2011). He states that narrative research design corroborates the experiences of individuals. This type of approach can include a description of participants’ life stories, since narratives are built on the principle of dialogue; individuals have an opportunity to share their experiences (Cresswell, 2014). The present study tells the stories of two individuals. Through these narrated stories first-hand information was obtained, on the basis of which one can offer an insider perspective on the experience of studying at Kazakhstani universities. The

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narrative interview was a conversation between the participants and the researcher and these conversations were recorded. The researcher did not have a set of prearranged questions and ensured to the best extent possible that personal biases were not influencing or directing the conversation. The conversations were open and the participants were supported to share their experience as master’s students at university.

Participants and Sampling A purposeful sampling technique was used in this study to intentionally select participants who could provide rich data about the phenomenon of interest. With purposeful sampling the aim is to select participants who allow the researcher to understand the phenomenon in depth (Creswell, 2014, p. 230). The researcher purposefully selected two graduate students with limited opportunities, who shared the similar characteristic of physical disabilities, had experience of studying at universities in Kazakhstan, and who were mature enough to describe their academic practices. The two graduate students were purposefully selected as they met the following criteria: • They were studying in graduate school at universities in a city in Kazakhstan. • Both students self-identified as physically challenged students.

Instruments The principal data collection instrument for this study was unstructured individual interviews. Zhang and Wildemuth (2009) define an unstructured interview as an “interview where the researcher does not come into the interview with a list of prepared questions. Instead, an open-ended question is asked, which allows the coresearcher to tell his story. Subsequent questions which explore meaning and understanding will arise from [the] co-researcher’s telling.” This may lead the researcher to want to focus on specific themes or a specific thread in the story and could lead to a shift to semi-structured questioning. As the main interview questions were mostly about the graduate students’ educational experiences, the researcher started by asking participants to retell their educational stories. Attempts were made to establish rapport with the participants by discussing current and more general topics until the participant appeared relaxed and the main question could be asked.

Data Collection The participants were recruited through personal contacts at the two universities. Once prospective students had been identified they were contacted by telephone

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and meeting dates were arranged to discuss the purpose of the research. During the meeting, the researcher provided an overview of the research aims and purpose, the voluntary nature of participation and the risks and benefits of participation. Participants were given an information and consent form to sign if they wanted to participate. After they had signed the consent form, a venue and time were arranged with each participant to conduct the interview. For the convenience of the participants and in consideration of their disability, a number of locations at their university and/or the participants’ homes were offered. Each interview lasted approximately an hour and was conducted in English, as both participants were fluent in English.

Data Analysis Each interview was audio-recorded with the participants’ consent. After collection the data were transcribed. A thematic approach was used to analyze the data in this study and all efforts were made to maximize the accuracy of the data and minimize potential bias. Gale et al. (2013, p. 2) state that the thematic analysis framework is “most commonly used for the thematic analysis of interview transcripts.” Having gathered all the necessary data and information through the interviews, the researcher compared all the underlined words, statements and phrases frequently used by the participants. A frequency count and notation were conducted within the dialogue with open, axial, and thematic coding. By pattern corresponding, all the pieces of speech were arranged to form categories. Common themes were classified as a consequence of narrowed categories. A special portfolio for each participant was created. The main question was prepared before reaching the research site and after the interviewing process had started, follow-up questions supplemented the original question.

Trustworthiness Creswell (2014, pp. 252–253) focused on three primary forms of establishing trustworthiness typically used by qualitative researchers: triangulation, member checking, and auditing: 1. “Triangulation is the process of corroborating evidence from different individuals, types of data, or methods of data collection in descriptions and themes. 2. Member checking is a process in which the researcher asks one or more participants in the study to check the accuracy of the account. 3. External audit occurs when the researcher hires or obtains the services of an individual outside the study to review different aspects of the research”.

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Having transcribed the interviews, member checking was obtained through mailing each participant to offer an opportunity for reviewing and validating the reliability and truthfulness of the document. “A poorly described study cannot be trusted. Once the design and methods used in a study are made clear, then it is possible to begin judging how believable the findings ought to be” (Gorard, 2015). This study contains evidence from thorough observations, extracts and fragments from interviews, and detailed literature review evaluation, which were used to help support the trustworthiness of the study. Gorard (2015) expresses the opinion that researchers are usually biased and research is never objective. However, not all research shows that exploratory works are biased or subjective. Shenton (2004) illustrates an alternative perspective that “findings should signify, as far as possible, the specific situation being investigated as opposed to the beliefs, pet theories, or biases of the researcher”. Efforts were made to connect the integrity of the results properly with the process of analysis and findings, so that readers can verify the soundness of the data. The trustworthiness of this study was maintained in the following way: to assure the trustworthiness of the transcriptions, the interviewees were sent the transcribed conversation so that they could assess the truthfulness of the text. At the same time, the participants were offered an opportunity revise and change their transcriptions. In addition, to develop the reliability of the data, the data from the conversations that were classified into themes and subcategories were emailed to the respondents to confirm clarity and accuracy.

Limitation of the Study The research relied only on the qualitative method and a limited number of participants were involved; thus, the findings cannot be generalized to the population. It means that the educational experiences of the graduate students with visual and physical disabilities the researcher explored may not be shared by all disabled graduate students in Kazakhstani universities. Data were collected from graduate students with special needs from universities in Astana city, not from all Kazakhstani higher educational institutions, as there was a time limit. Inability to involve a focus group of more participants and teachers to investigate their experiences from different perspectives is one of the main limitations of this research.

Ethical Considerations Prior to beginning the research, ethical approval was received through the Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education research committee. As the topic of the research could be considered sensitive in the Kazakhstani context, measures had to be taken to ensure that the rights of the participants were upheld. Creswell (2014, p. 253) suggests that as participants may be asked to discuss private details of their

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life experience, this process requires a sufficient level of trust. Especially vulnerable populations (in this case physically disabled individuals) are to be considered carefully as participants to assure that the rights and welfare of participants are upheld at all times. The interview questions were developed thoroughly to ensure they did not contain discriminatory language or sensitive statements or caused the participants distress. An informed consent form was provided prior to arranging the interviews. The participants thus had time to consider the risks and benefits of participation in the research and could receive answers to any questions they had. It was important for the participants to be aware that their participation was on a voluntary basis and that they could withdraw their data or themselves from the study at any stage. All possible efforts were made to maintain confidentiality in terms of their identity. The participants’ names have been changed here for the purpose of maintaining confidentiality. The names that appear in this publication are the names they have either asked the researcher to use or have agreed to use. The terms “disabled graduate students” and “graduate students with disabilities” are used to refer to the participants in the study.

Findings The aim of the research was to explore participants’ experiences in the context of higher education in Kazakhstan and studying with a disability. As soon as all the available data had been gathered from the participants, the researcher began transcribing the recordings. During the information data processing the transcripts and notes were re-read several times, to understand the experience as a whole and in detail. For example, common words that came up frequently during the conversation with the participants were “issues”, “coping with challenges”, “support” and “inclusion”. These expressions to some extent demonstrated the participants’ state of academic life. Each story is presented here as a case narrative and the stories are then considered together in the final section. Excerpts from face-to-face participant interviews are included. As Kioko and Makoelle (2014) state, the experiences of students are varied, as they evidence individual degrees of satisfaction. This research is based on the narratives of two graduate students, Alina and Kanat. The participants, who had mobility and visual disabilities, studied at Kazakhstani universities and were selected purposefully. The research was conducted at two different sites, at two separate universities, one public and one international. The findings were based on their narrative accounts of their educational experience.

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Part One—Alina’s Story Background Alina was born to a single mother in the southern part of Kazakhstan and was placed in an orphanage at birth. She never knew her father. Alina had a birth defect, as she was born without a limb. This was the main reason she was placed in an orphanage and rejected by her mother. By the age of 27 she had undergone a number of surgical procedures and now moves with a prosthetic limb, which makes her limp badly. In spite of her disability she leads an active life and is completing her graduate program. Being brought up in an orphanage in the southern part of Kazakhstan, Alina always felt herself inadequate. She shared her memories of school: Notwithstanding the fact that I had good relations with classmates and we had good teachers, there is that sense that you are from an orphanage and it always gave me the strongest feeling of loneliness and marginalization. I did not want to think about the future. It always seemed so grey, hopeless, as if it was nothing.

There is nothing better than the sense of being part of a community where one feels understood. Usually orphans go through many difficulties and they typically become very independent and learn to solve their problems by themselves, as was the case with Alina. Despite this, Alina described herself as a child as “very energetic and sociable” and believed it was because of these very features she had achieved a lot.

Relationships Alina explained that she had good relationships with her group mates and that they had a positive attitude to her. She believed that this positive attitude was due to her knowledge and communication skills. After leaving the orphanage she had nowhere to go, but achieved success through her foresight and forethought. She applied for admission to a public university and received a scholarship. Another reason she felt she was easily accepted by her peers was her intelligence. Usually orphanage graduates have great difficulties in establishing interpersonal relations with peers; however, she never disclosed that she was an orphan. Alina told nobody her life story or about her congenital defect. If asked, “Why are you limping badly?” she always tried to avoid answering. Alina stated that her adaptation to the class and university was highly dependent on faculty members. As a hardworking student she was soon able to prove to the professors that she was one of the best students in her class. She believed it was through her ability to study that she earned both her peers’ and teachers’ trust and respect. Alina was proud of her achievements. The most important thing was that she was highly appreciated by her friends and teachers. Her group mates often asked her advice and treated her on equal terms.

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Difficulties and Challenges There were 20 students in the class and Alina was the only one in her class who was physically challenged. Nothing was perfect, she said, and there were a handful of female students who did not like Alina at all. She supposed they were just envious of her: Those girls sometimes tried to humiliate me because of my disability. It hurts me, I have a sensitive soul. But I do not show them my frustration, because when you show your weak points it is easy to beat you. I always held my head high, as I got used to dealing with life challenges by myself. All my life starting from birth consisted of struggles. I often think that if I had not been abandoned by my mother, I would not have been in these circumstances. Probably, my mother thought I would be confined to life in bed or to a wheelchair. But I survived.

When Alina hears remarks about her limping, she tries not to pay any attention. She reveals; “I got used to such kinds of humbling. In the orphanage staff members often did that to us. And the kids in the orphanage were very cruel. They could apply harsh epithets to me or show physical abuse.” Another concern noted by Alina is architectural accessibility. There is just one elevator in the whole building. For a university with approximately 10 000 students it is a big problem. One single ramp is set in front of the building, but it is very difficult to go up and down this ramp, as it is too steep and dangerous, since standards and safety issues have not been observed. Because of her physical inability it is a challenge for her to walk up and down stairs, especially when she has classes in a study room on the upper floors. It takes time, which is why she explained that she leaves the dormitory early in order not to be late. Or instead of having a break, she said she had to cope with moving up and down the stairs. As for the ramp; the slope angle of a ramp should be ± 5º. As the one at the building entrance is more than this, Alina does not use it. She said that she used the stairs as non-disabled students do. In the dormitory there are up to eight students sharing a room, even though rooms are designed to accommodate no more than six persons. The dormitory building is located on the campus, so she can walk to the university building. For “average” people it takes about ten minutes to get there, for Alina half an hour. However, the most important issue for Alina is lack of financial support: I receive a monthly scholarship of 43 thousand tenge, which is certainly not enough. This is the prime source of my financial aid. I am not able to work as other students do. My leg hurts when I walk for a whole day. I need to have a rest frequently.

Opportunities At present, Kazakhstan’s system of education is experiencing a number of reforms. Inclusive education is the government policy, aimed at including all students regardless of their ethnicity, social status, physical or intellectual abilities, in the general educational process (Yersarina, 2012, p. 10). According to the principles of inclusive education, all students, regardless of their abilities or disabilities, should have equal

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opportunities and access to education. As the respondent in this study reported, one of the greatest opportunities for her was to get a scholarship: This possibility to earn a master’s degree is an investment in my bright future. I want to live an independent life. It was not easy to get a state grant, but the government took into account that I am an orphan. Also, I achieved good results in the entrance examinations. Sure, I could not afford myself to pay the tuition fee.

Another positive for Alina was that she said the faculty staff accepted her on an equal footing with other students: The professors never segregate me. In spite of that, I have problems with my health. Yes, they know from my personal history that I am a charity girl. Still they treat me with dignity and respect. This really helps me to believe that I can study better.

Kanat’s Story Background Kanat is 26 years of age and completely blind. He is a graduate student at an international university and gets to his classes using his white cane. He lost his vision in childhood at the age of eight, and was diagnosed with visual disability in his school years. The vision loss was the consequence of surgery he had in childhood. Later, he was transferred to a school for blind children in a city in Kazakhstan. After graduation from the school, he entered the state university and started studying politics. Kanat studied in the United States of America (USA) as an exchange student for a year. Usually, Kanat uses a screen reader for his studies, as well as a personal computer. He also uses Braille books. The conversation was focused on the differences that Kanat experienced as a blind student in state and international universities, since he had studied in both. The researcher was interested to hear how his impairment affected his decision to go to school for a degree. Kanat described the advantages and opportunities he was given as a special needs student and highlighted some prominent barriers he had come across.

Relationships Kanat described how he had a number of supportive relationships that helped him to overcome challenges that he faced as a visually disabled graduate student. I felt that most of them tried to be nice and positive. Some of them were very open and tried to make contact with me themselves, while others probably felt unsure how to approach me. I myself had no problems making contacts. I was quite comfortable with everyone since the very beginning, but sometimes felt that some of my classmates did not feel the same way … You know those kinds of awkward behavior when people get too obliging. The only thing was that I could not always right away recognize who was who in the class. It seemed to me that there were so many ladies. I could remember neither their voices nor backgrounds when they had introduced themselves.

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However, sometimes students did not know how to communicate with a disabled person, since they had never had a student with a disability in their class before. Kanat went on to discuss making friends with his group mates and felt there was a difference in attitude between him and his group mates. Kanat also confessed that he was not the type of person who made friends with everyone at once. He needed some time to get used to people around him: Well, if we call ‘friendship’ our everyday routine, hi’s and byes, I think I made friends right away, though at the beginning I didn’t even recognize all my classmates … Overall, I am that type of person who rarely has close ties with many people, that is, I do have close friendships with a few. That said, I mean that probably that’s my personality rather than my disability influencing relationships with people around me. Though the disability for sure has its influence in everyday interactions and might have some kind of implications for someone. This is not to say that others were unapproachable or showed negative attitudes. No, but everyone has his own experience and perception and these may have affected their initial carefulness.

In his graduate program, Kanat mentioned his supportive relationship with his professors. He noted that the positive attitude of the major professors was a key factor that contributed to his success. Kanat especially valued the way most of the professors stimulated him to try for the best by holding him to the same standards as other students: I started letting the leadership of the school know about my needs before arriving at the university. There was a Skype talk about how to make the library accessible to me and long correspondence with administrative staff about what and how to prepare for my study. Regarding the professors, I sent an email with some links to specialized websites and faculty guides of Western universities where they could find some useful information on how to make a classroom accessible to visually impaired students. Also, I suppose there were some staff meetings on planning how to accommodate my study at the university.

Difficulties and Challenges Following the conversation about situations requiring great effort, the participant was asked to recall if he had had problems at the graduate school. When asked about his visual impairment at this point, Kanat answered that he considered himself a “walking alone” blind graduate student. He saw his disability as something that made him unique. QI. What kind of difficulties do you encounter while getting your master’s degree? Lack of time, I think, is the first thing I would note in my study here. The intensive nature of the program does not allow me to study in depth. I feel as if we are skipping really important matters and picking up only a smattering of what’s necessary to be a professional in the field. The necessity to read a vast number of sources in a quite limited time is a major problem for me. My reading speed is very slow because I have to listen to mostly e-texts through screen-reading software on my computer. Navigability of electronic texts, usually scanned from print copies, is a major problem if they are accessible at all. By navigability I mean locating a needed place in a text to read. Scanning/skimming the text is barely possible using a screen-reader. So I spend a great amount of time reading. Accessibility of electronic books, papers, websites and materials overall is another basic issue. The most important thing at a

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university, especially if you are in a graduate program, is access to study materials, right? To succeed I would really like to have full access to all the resources at the library, including databases, prints, etc.

It is anticipated that a student with a disability would experience many difficulties during the educational process. Challenges can be either personal or related to other issues such as infrastructure. When it came to his studies, Kanat explained that he was aware that he would have to dedicate extra time and effort to his preparation compared to his peers: You know, I had an experience of studying at a Western university. And comparing that experience with this university, I find that the university lacks specialists, whom I can ask for counseling on disability-related issues and specialized training in using assistive technologies, as well as navigating through university websites. Each new website has its own layout, tools, etc. and even if it is accessible, I need to learn how to navigate the site quickly. This is what I can’t ask anyone here because I am the only person who uses a screen-reader. And because of the intensiveness of the program, I can’t spend much time on learning that by myself. Otherwise, I won’t be able to just keep up with my deadlines.

According to Kanat, one of the challenges he encountered in graduate school was lack of accessibility to the instructional materials he needed for his studies. Kanat, as a visually disabled student, described how he experienced some issues related to the availability of and access to needed materials during the program, as he was mostly dependent on assistive technology. Another prominent issue was the absence of a university disability service office: More systematic work is needed, I think, in preparing for the inclusion of students with disabilities on a regular basis. I would suggest that there should be a dedicated staff member who has credentials in the field and experience of work in inclusive schooling. You know at Western universities there are disability resource centers whose staff work to provide the university community (meaning students, staff members and professors with disabilities) with services that meet their special needs. Inclusion is a complicated process requiring team efforts of many people and departments throughout a university. In Kazakhstan, it can be started at least by creating a paid position of coordinator for disability issues on a university’s staff. The coordinator would be a professional in charge who should deal with fostering an inclusive culture in the university community and coordinating efforts to include students with disabilities in higher education environments.”

Having obtained some information about the challenges, the next question to Kanat was how he managed the challenges that he faced: I didn’t even think about that. I don’t have any special coping strategies. I just go as it goes. And if it goes wrong, I advocate for myself, meaning I request the people who are in charge of solving the arising problems to do their work.

He explained that he had tried to be proactive in getting access to study materials and to all resources.

Opportunities In the process of applying for admission to the graduate school, Kanat initially contacted the staff of the graduate program. He said he was impressed by the positive

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attitude of the faculty members. They reassured him they could support him in his studies and that made him feel more confident and willing to study. Even so, he felt that studying at an international university made this experience easier for him than it would have been at a public university: Well, I guess self -advocacy wouldn’t be so easy in a public university elsewhere in Kazakhstan, but here at the international university I have not encountered an unsolvable issue so far. Not only my department’s people do their work, but other departments at the university also make efforts to create an accessible environment.

Part Two—Summary The data were divided into four themes: background, relationships, challenges and opportunities.

Background According to the findings of the interviews, both participants described themselves as very hardworking and active, both pursuing degrees in the field of education in spite of their different disabilities. In a narrative by Alina, she said “I pay great attention to my studies. I try to fit in on the level of the students I study with, because I want to be recognized as a regular human being.” Similar characteristics of students with disabilities were described in the literature review, which characterized disabled students as dedicated to study, effective and purposeful. This inner strength and motivation were evident in both participants despite their efforts to blend into be like regular students.

Relationships The research findings revealed that the respondents of the study felt that on the whole, they had positive relationships with their peers and relationships were important. Both participants were well-educated, open-minded graduate students. Alina established a number of relationships that let her get over the challenges she faced as a graduate student with mobility impairment. Generally, Alina appreciated the help and approval of the faculty members who contributed to her success in her studies: “I have not noticed any negative attitude to me from the professors at all. On the contrary, they always give me support and guidelines.” At the same time, she acknowledged that she had experienced some strains with several female graduate students. “Those girls sometimes tried to humiliate me because of my disability. It hurts me, I have a sensitive soul.” According to Kanat, while he considered himself not to be as sociable as he wished to be, the students around him were friendly and sociable. Overall, Kanat said that

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he had a supportive relationship with people in his department, except for the fact that some of the students felt unsure about how to approach him. It can be explained that some people are uncomfortable talking with people with disabilities.

Challenges As a matter of course, students with different kinds of disabilities face various difficulties in the educational environment. Alina, as a graduate student with a mobility impairment, felt she led a life similar to those without impairments, except for some particular challenges she faced in her daily life with her mobility regarding the buildings and infrastructure: “There is just one elevator in the whole building. For a university with approximately 10 000 students it is next to none.” In Kanat’s experience the problem was mostly time. He explained: Lack of time, I think, is the first thing I would note in my study. The necessity to read a vast number of sources in a quite limited time is a major problem for me. My reading speed is very slow because I have to listen to mostly e-texts through screen-reading software on my computer. Also, I find that the university lacks specialists whom I can ask for counseling on disability-related issues. I would suggest that there should be a dedicated staff member who has credentials in the field and experience of work in inclusive schooling. You know at Western universities there are disability resource centers whose staff work to provide the university community (meaning students, staff members and professors with disabilities) with services that meet their special needs.

Both participants in this research study claimed that they did not necessarily have any strategies to cope with challenges. Alina, who was raised in an orphanage, felt that confronting difficulties were just part of life. She said: “I got used to such kinds of humbling. In the orphanage staff members often did that to us.” As for Kanat, because of his blindness, it was much harder for him to solve his problems with no outside help: “I don’t have any special coping strategies. It just goes as it goes. At the beginning of the academic year my sister was with me. She helped me to adjust to the new environment.”

Opportunities The participants’ definition of opportunities was almost the same and both of them mentioned that they had a full scholarship. Alina and Kanat also reported having a number of positive and supportive relationships, which they believed help them in their graduate program: professors, teachers, mentors and peers. Along with supportive relationships, Alina mentioned the state support she had received since her birth. “I was raised in an orphanage. I never had a family. It was only the government that supported me. I am optimistic by nature; this trait of my character helped me a lot to build positive relationships with people.” Kanat, in turn, commented on a positive attitude on the part of the graduate school faculty staff and the role of

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institutional support. “Not only my department people do their work, but also other departments at the university make efforts to create an accessible environment.”

Discussion The educational experiences of graduate students with visual and mobility impairments in higher education in Kazakhstan are defined through the narratives and answers of the present research. The participants discussed difficulties as well as supportive factors. In the literature reviewed earlier, Bethke (2004) indicates that “graduate students with disabilities are an exclusive group of students.” The results of this study confirm this claim; both participants are outstanding graduate students in spite of their disability problems. A number of researchers (Dailey 2008; Hardell, 2013) have also indicated that the inclusion of visually and mobility challenged graduate students in tertiary education is possible. However, they still have to deal with a range of obstacles to succeed in their graduate programs, such as trying to build social interactions with peers and teachers, coping with the academic challenges of graduate school and overcoming barriers to the use of accommodations or infrastructure issues. In qualitative research carried out by Marshak, Wieren, Ferrel, Swiss and Dugan (2010), students with disabilities highlighted negative experiences with professors as the main trouble they had faced. Another study by Willsher (2009) also indicates “emotional uncertainty and stress-problems encountered by participants’ in their relationships with other college students, faculty and staff”. However, the results of this theme in the data show different outcomes. Neither of the participants mentioned a negative relationship between them and their professors, and only one, Alina, had some difficulty with other girls in her class. The relationships that developed with faculty members and group mates were always positive and supportive. Even so, both participants talked about helpful interactions with other graduate students, when they felt themselves being part of a group and belonging to a group, and felt themselves to be respected. The results from the present study focus attention on the barriers and challenges they may confront during their master’s programs. The literature review describes similar findings. According to Summers and Svinicki (2007), students with disabilities are often afraid of disclosing their disability needs to their peers and professors. In this case, Alina had never discussed her disability with people, although it is visibly evident. She confessed that she was afraid of being rejected and cast away. Kanat believed he could always fend for himself if something went wrong. Difficulties and challenges faced by disabled graduate students in other tertiary education institutions follow similar themes. These include accessibility, financial support, lack of time due to slow preparation and not having full access to all the resources at the library, which compound their own learning challenges in comparison to those of their peers. Summers and Svinicki (2007, p. 58) advise students with a disability to use learning strategies and learning style strategies because of “the importance of how

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adult students with disabilities must advocate for themselves and initiate communication with their college professors.” However, both participants noted that they did not implement any specific strategies to cope with challenges they faced in graduate school. Usually, they met the same academic requirements as their non-disabled peers. Perhaps they had not come across serious difficulties in their graduate program. Willsher (2009) states that graduate students with disabilities have the right to obtain information and access to educational opportunities. In Kazakhstan, opportunities available for young people with different kinds of disabilities and promotion of the rights of people with limited opportunities are based on legislation and fixed in the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Understanding the support mechanisms and educational provisions for blind and physically challenged graduate students was an important question. Although according to both participants there appeared to be a level of satisfaction with the opportunities that currently exist at their universities, this finding may be oversimplified, as the current conditions for inclusion are only being developed through educational reforms. The provision of specialized equipment, environmental access and a welcoming and inclusive campus may take more time to catch up with more developed Western contexts.

Conclusion The purpose of this qualitative research was to explore the experiences of graduate students with mobility and visual impairments at universities in Astana city. An unstructured interview was conducted to follow their history of difficulties, obstacles as well as supportive relations. The findings of the study generally overlap with previous studies analyzed during the literature review process. The study provides a snapshot of the lived experiences of two graduate students with disabilities at two separate Kazakhstani universities and is set against the background of ongoing educational reforms. These findings indicate that the participants’ level of satisfaction with their studies might be related to the fact that they were both exceptional students with a high degree of self-motivation, overcoming a great deal of adversity to achieve their goals. For other individuals in the same circumstances, the current barriers must be eliminated to ensure that access to education is not only for those who have an indomitable will to succeed despite what may at times feel like impossible barriers.

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Conclusion

The implementation of inclusive education in Kazakhstan is in its infancy and the process will continue to require proper planning and the development of coherent laws, policies, guidelines and procedures. These need to be encapsulated in a clear, coherent and well-articulated vision, and a mission that espouses measurable action plan activities. The chapters in this book highlighted some of the successes and challenges we have witnessed as a result of initial educational reforms. The foundations have been laid and the seeds have already been sown. These chapters have made audible the voices that need to be heard. Key stakeholders such as parents, students, teachers, and administrators are the people who can bring about the greatest change. However, there are other issues in the field that need attention. For example, while there have been efforts to train teachers in the practices and philosophy of inclusive education, more is needed to improve the teacher education curriculum. At the same time, the content of in-service teacher professional development courses needs to be revised and aligned with best international practice that combines locally and contextually appropriate practices in teaching, learning facilitation and support, as well as coordination. Through action research processes among teachers, local theories about inclusive teaching and learning in the Kazakhstani context can be developed. This will require teachers to possess reflective, critical, and innovative skills. The research presented in this book highlights the many opportunities for developing inclusive education in the Kazakhstani context. The notion of homeschooling, which is conceptualized differently from international literature, seems to present itself as a cradle for parental involvement. However, it will be important to re-think the whole concept of homeschooling, who it is for, why, and how it can be done, so that it does not represent exclusion of those perceived as not suitable for mainstream schooling. The opportunity is there for homeschooling re-imagined and re-designed as a support feature for integration and inclusion. These processes will require an understanding of leadership, rather than following the historical, hierarchical, and

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. M. Makoelle and M. Somerton (eds.), Inclusive Education in a Post-Soviet Context, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65543-3

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well-trodden path of formal models of management. While schools are being transformed to be inclusive, it is of paramount importance that leadership at schools embrace the ethos of distributed leadership to promote a more distributed responsibility among teachers as agents of change to achieve the goal of contextually relevant mechanisms, tactics, practices and strategies for inclusion. The perceptions of parents and teachers reflected in the research presented here are crucially important for the success of inclusion. These focus attention on the realities of those whose voices may not be heard. Parents and teachers are those who work hard for change and as a result are some of the strongest advocates for inclusive education. These voices at grassroots level do have an influence when their owners are given a seat at the table. Their ideas and suggestions can be elaborated into clear policy guidelines to make Kazakhstan’s journey towards inclusive education realizable. It is important that inclusive education is viewed across all levels of education from kindergarten to post-school level as lifelong learning. On a global level, universities are grappling with the support needed to deal with ever-growing student diversity. The development of inclusive education in higher education should move beyond the idea of only involving students with disability to a platform that uncovers the many hidden barriers to education that students face. In Kazakhstan, as in many other countries, the practices of inclusive education are still loosely articulated, emphasizing the need for a coherent higher education strategy that can address the unique needs of the country. While the authors cannot claim to have solved and covered all the complex issues related to inclusive education in Kazakhstan, this book lays a solid foundation for further discussions and debate that can lead to better understanding of what is needed from various stakeholders to eventually realize inclusive education and a more inclusive society for the Kazakhstani people.