Improving the Pedagogy of Islamic Religious Education in Secondary Schools: The Role of Critical Religious Education and Variation Theory 0367151995, 9780367151997

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Improving the Pedagogy of Islamic Religious Education in Secondary Schools

This timely book focuses on the central issues and questions that emerge in relation to the teaching and learning of Islam in confessional and constructivist religious education. Considering the consequences of a lack of diversity in the Islamic Religious Education curriculum, the text also explores the challenges faced by Muslim pupils in connection with secularism and radical Islam. Through rich analysis of research carried out across Muslim and public secondary schools in the UK, this book develops a meaningful pedagogy of Islamic Religious Education. In particular, the volume investigates the benefits of Critical Religious Education and Variation Theory frameworks on students’ learning in religious education classrooms and illustrates how these didactic frameworks can help ameliorate distinct problems seen across Islamic Religious Education. Chapters identify discrete pedagogical issues that arise in the confessional and constructivist approaches to Islamic Education, such as students’ difficulties in relating to concept of Islam and progressive approaches taken in public schools. In addressing these, the text proposes a new theoretical and pedagogical approach to the teaching of Islam, which draws on the philosophy of Critical Realism, the theories of Critical Religious Education, and Variation Theory. This book will be of great interest to postgraduate students, research scholars and academics in the fields of religion and education, and Islamic studies. In addition, it will be of interest to social equity professionals and public policy decision makers. Ayse Demirel Ucan is Researcher in the Religious Education Department at Marmara University, Turkey.

Routledge Research in Religion and Education Series Editor: Michael D. Waggoner, University of Northern Iowa, USA

Migration, Religion, and Schooling in Liberal Democratic States Bruce A. Collet Teaching Religion Using Technology in Higher Education Edited by John Hilton III Public Theology, Religious Diversity, and Interreligious Learning Edited by Manfred L. Pirner, Johannes Lähnemann, Werner Haussmann, and Susanne Schwarz Religious Education as a Dialogue with Difference Fostering democratic citizenship through the Study of religions in Schools Kevin O’Grady Investigating Political Tolerance at Conservative Protestant Colleges and Universities George Yancey, Laurel Shaler and Jerald H. Walz Faith, Diversity, and Education An Ethnography of a Conservative Christian School Alison H. Blosser The First Amendment and State Bans on Teachers’ Religious Garb Analyzing the Historic Origins of Contemporary Legal Challenges in the United States Nathan C. Walker Improving the Pedagogy of Islamic Religious Education in Secondary Schools The Role of Critical Religious Education and Variation Theory Ayse Demirel Ucan For a full list of titles in this series, please visit www.routledge.com

Improving the Pedagogy of Islamic Religious Education in Secondary Schools The Role of Critical Religious Education and Variation Theory Ayse Demirel Ucan

First published 2020 by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2020 Taylor & Francis The right of Ayse Demirel Ucan to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Ucan, Ayse Demirel, author. Title: Improving the pedagogy of Islamic religious education in secondary schools : the role of critical religious education and variation theory / Ayse Demirel Ucan. Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2020 | Series: Routledge research in religion and education | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2019026211 (print) | LCCN 2019026212 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367151997 (hardback) | ISBN 9780429055706 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Critical pedagogy—Great Britain. | Islamic religious education—Great Britain. | Education, Secondary—Social aspects—Great Britain. | Critical realism—Great Britain. Classification: LCC LC196.5.G7 .U23 2020 (print) | LCC LC196.5.G7 (ebook) | DDC 370.11/50941—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019026211 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019026212 ISBN: 978-0-367-15199-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-05570-6 (ebk) Typeset in Sabon by Apex CoVantage, LLC

To my husband, Serkan, and daughter, Hanne Nisan

Contents

List of Tablesx Series Editor Forewordxi Credits Pagexiii Acknowledgementsxiv 1 Introduction 1.1 Problems of Teaching Islam in Confessional and Constructivist Religious Education  2 1.2 Absence of Diversity in the Islamic Religious Education Curriculum  7 1.3 A New Theoretical and Pedagogical Approach to Islamic Religious Education  11 1.4 The Aim of the Study  13 1.5 Structure of the Book  14 2 Critical Realism and Islam 2.1 Critical Realism  21 2.2 Religion, God, and Critical Realism  26 2.3 Critical Realism as Applied to Islam  28 2.4 Critical Realism as ‘Underlabouring’ Islamic Religious Education  37 Conclusion 40 3 Applying the Framework of Critical Religious Education and Variation Theory to Islamic Religious Education 3.1 Critical Religious Education  44 3.2 Phenomenography 52 3.3 Variation Theory  54 3.4 Learning Study Model  61 Conclusion 64

1

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viii  Contents 4 Research Methodology 4.1 Research Approach  70 4.2 Implementation of Learning Studies  72 4.3 Sampling of Research Participants  74 4.4 Data Collection Tools  77 4.5 Data Analysis  81 4.6 Ethical Considerations and Trustworthiness of the Study  87 4.7 Reflexivity 88 Conclusion 89 5 Implementation of Critical Religious Education and Variation Theory in RE Lessons: A Learning Study on ‘Islam and Being a Muslim’ 5.1 The First Lived Object of Learning  93 5.2 The Intended Object of Learning  112 5.3 The Enacted Object of Learning  116 5.4 The Second Lived Object of Learning  135 Conclusion 142 6 Implementation of Critical Religious Education and Variation Theory in RE Lessons: A Learning Study on ‘Equality in Islam’ 6.1 The First Lived Object of Learning  146 6.2 The Intended Object of Learning  156 6.3 The Enacted Object of Learning  162 6.4 The Second Lived Object of Learning  180 Conclusion 187 7 RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices Before and During the Learning Study 7.1 Theoretical Background  190 7.2 Themes 191 Conclusion 211 8 Discussion and Conclusion 8.1 Summary and Discussion of the Findings  215 8.2 The Theoretical and Pedagogical Implications for Islamic Religious Education  224

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Contents ix 8.3 Limitations of the Study  229 8.4 Future Research  232 8.5 Concluding Remarks  233 Appendices238 Index241

Tables

4.1 Outline of the analysis 5.1 Categories of description of understanding Islam and being a Muslim 5.2 Overall results of pre-test for both classes 5.3 Critical aspects 5.4 Overall results of pre- and post-test for both classes 6.1 Categories of description of understanding equality in Islam 6.2 Overall results of pre-test for both classes 6.3 Critical aspects 6.4 Overall results of pre- and post-test for both classes

82 94 111 113 141 147 156 159 187

Series Editor Foreword

The opening years of the 21st century brought increased attention to religion as an important dimension of culture and politics. Early in this period, the dramatic multi-pronged attacks of 11th September, 2001 came as a jolting reminder of the potential for violent action that can have basis in religious motivations. Over the same period, we came to see an increase in religiously motivated activity in politics. In the US, we see this in the evolution from the Moral Majority movement that emerged as a force in the late 1970s as the beginning of the New Religious Right. On further reflection, however, we can see the involvement of religion extending much further back as a fundamental part of our social organisation rather than a new or emerging phenomenon. We need only recall the religious wars of early modern Europe through to the contentious development of US church and state relations as evidence of the longstanding role religion has played as a source of competing values and beliefs. We also recognise religion as a positive source of motivation for social action seen in the 19th century abolitionist movement, the social gospel and its humanitarian contributions, and the civil rights movement to name a few. That said, there has indeed been a significant upturn in research and scholarship across many disciplines relative to the study of religion since the first decade of the 21st century. This is particularly the case in the area of the interplay of education and religion. While religious education—study toward formation in a particular faith tradition—has been with us for millennia, religion education— study about religion as an academic subject apart from theology—is more recent. Whereas theology departments proceeded from religious assumptions aiming to promulgate a faith tradition, the religious studies field emerged as a discipline that sought to bring a more objective social scientific approach to the study of religion. The origins of this approach date back to the European research centres that influenced US scholars beginning in the 18th century. The formalisation of this trend, however, is a fairly recent phenomenon, as illustrated by the 1949 formation of Society for the Scientific Study of Religion with its own scholarly journal and the creation of religious studies departments across the US in the

xii  Series Editor Foreword wake of the US Supreme Court decision in 1963 that allowed teaching about religion (rather than for) in public education institutions. It was also that same year that the American Academy of Religion was born out of a group of scholars that had since 1909 been meeting under various names related to biblical studies. It is out of this relatively recent increase in scholarly attention to religion and education that this book series has emerged. Routledge Publishers has long been an important presence in the fields of both religion and of education. It seemed like a natural step to introduce a book series focused particularly on Research in Religion and Education. My appreciation extends to Max Novick for guiding this series into being and now to Elsbeth Wright, for continuing Routledge’s oversight. In this 15th book in the series, Dr. Ayse Demirel Ucan’s Improving the Pedagogy of Islamic Religious Education in Secondary Schools argues for a new theoretical and pedagogical approach to teaching about the Islamic faith tradition—one that is more nuanced, honouring adherents’ truth commitments and contributing to their identity development. It is not just an approach that goes beyond the essentialist aims of basic ­literacy—names, dates, and beliefs—but one that enables a teaching environment in which the truth claims of Islam may be taken, with integrity, into the realm of not only comparative religion education, but in confronting the challenges of Western secular values. This is an important contribution to the work of religion education and literacy. The initial basic approaches of teaching for (religious formation) and teaching about (academic) religion (or whether they may be called sectarian and secular, confessional and non-confessional) have attempted to establish distinctive rationale, purposes, and methods for each kind of education. What Dr. Demirel Ucan proposes takes religion education and literacy to another level. Another book by P. Jesse Rine, coming later in this series, makes a similar argument for Christianity from a different philosophical base. Dr. Demirel Ucan is critical of what she calls a liberal/constructivist app­roach that she argues has deeply influenced teaching about Islam in ­multi-faith, multicultural contexts in the United Kingdom, with the consequent disregarding of truth claims in the interest of “suppressing potential conflict among students from diverse backgrounds.” Using Critical Realism and Variation Theory employed in a learning study model, Dr. Demirel Ucan proposes and illustrates a new approach to Islamic Religious ­Education (IRE). Michael D. Waggoner Series Editor Research in Religion & Education

Credits Page

Excerpts from the article “Improving the pedagogy of Islamic religious education through an application of critical religious education, variation theory and the learning study model” in British Journal of Religious Education (2019) by Ayse Demirel Ucan & Andrew Wright. Reprinted by permission of the publisher (Taylor & Francis Ltd, www.tandfonline.com).

Acknowledgements

First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Andrew Wright. I thank him for providing guidance and support during all stages of my study. This work would not have been possible without his intellectual inspiration, constructive criticism, support, and encouragement. His expertise and input regarding Critical Realism, Critical Religious Education and Variation Theory was invaluable in guiding my research. My gratitude extends in particular to Dr. Elina Wright for her valuable contributions and academic advice on the earlier drafts of the work. I have also greatly benefitted from various conversations with Prof. Ference Marton on a number of occasions, for which I am grateful. I owe immense thanks to the Ministry of Education of Turkey for sponsoring my doctoral study, from which this book is derived. Without them I might not have been able to have this experience in the first place. My special thanks go to the teachers and students whose participation in this research provided me with insightful and useful information that contributed to the successful completion of this work. I conclude with special thanks to my family and friends for their unconditional love, continuous support, and for keeping me sane during my studies. My heartfelt gratitude goes to my parents who have always supported me throughout my studies. Most importantly, I wish to express my deepest thanks and love to my husband, Serkan, and my lovely daughter, Hanne Nisan, for bringing happiness to my life and for always being there. Their love, understanding, support, and encouragement will always mean the most to me.

1 Introduction

Young Muslims around the world are grappling with clarifying their religious identities in the globalised world, now more than any time in the past. They have to face the dilemmas of modern life, which sometimes seem contrary to—or are often absent from—the classical Islamic education. Moreover, regardless of the country or nation they belong to, they are surrounded by diverse religious and secular worldviews due to constant changes in the economic, political, and cultural dimensions of contemporary societies. Islamic Religious Education (IRE) in both Muslim and Western secular contexts does not seem to be catching up with or appear suitable for addressing the ever changing religious and pedagogical needs of modern young Muslims. As a Turkish researcher and having taught religious studies to young Muslim girls in Turkey, I have been able to closely observe the problems and challenges of IRE in practice and have become particularly sensitive to pupil’s questions and dilemmas about their faith and practices. Living in a Muslim country, yet surrounded by Western-secular values, they are struggling to identify their relation to God and to the world in general. However, IRE as it is currently practiced has hardly moved away from the classical rote learning that was once the methodology adopted in the madrasas of the medieval era in the Muslim world. Moreover, while IRE holds fast to the ultimate truth claims of Islam that were laid down in the Qur’an and Sunnah, it fails to engage with the diverse historical, sectarian, and cultural understandings of the Islamic scripture, which has a significant influence on contemporary Muslims’ identity formation. Furthermore, it does not enable learners to engage with religious phenomena in an attentive, intelligent, and reasonable manner. These issues motivated me into pursuing this research. In order to address these problems, this book offers a new theoretical and pedagogical framework for IRE based on the philosophy of Critical Realism (CR), and the theories of Critical Religious Education (CRE) and Variation Theory (VT). The focus of this study is IRE, explored with references to teaching of Islam in Muslim-faith and non-confessional community schools in the UK, in Turkish formal education, and some practices in Europe such as

2  Introduction in Finland and Sweden. The UK and Turkey have been particularly taken into consideration in order to give a better insight into IRE in both Muslim and non-Muslim contexts. Before presenting the aim and structure of this book, the following sections discuss the issues regarding teaching and learning of Islam in confessional and constructivist RE as well as absence of diversity in the IRE curriculum. Moreover, the challenges faced by Muslim pupils regarding the issues of secularism and radical, fundamental Islam are addressed throughout the sections.

1.1 Problems of Teaching Islam in Confessional and Constructivist Religious Education Confessional IRE refers to teaching according to Islam. The content and resources of IRE are mainly based on the Qur’an and Sunnah. Learners are trained to acquire knowledge not merely for intellectual and worldly purposes, but more importantly, for evolving as rational and righteous beings who relate and submit to the will of God in accordance with His teachings (Hussain & Ashraf, 1979; Halstead, 1995). In that sense, knowledge is not an end in itself, but rather means to reach the reality and knowledge of God. Accordingly, in Islam, all knowledge is believed to come from God and thus functions to raise awareness of Him and His relation to the world and human beings (Qutb, 1979). “The pursuit of knowledge should stimulate the moral and spiritual consciousness of the student and lead to faith (iman), virtuous action (amal salih) and certainty (yaqin), which are constantly emphasized in the Qur’an” (Halstead, 2004, p. 525). The aims of IRE can be examined in terms of different levels. At the individual level, it provides young people with religious and spiritual guidance by which they are expected to form an Islamic identity consisting of faith, virtuous action, and morality. This form of education is called as tarbiyah in Arabic and refers to Islamic education in general, aiming to “facilitate growth by guiding and attending to the needs of the learner in the hope of bringing about a balanced and faithful personality” (Sahin, 2013, p. 183). Thus, its aim is “not to cram the pupil’s minds with facts but to prepare them for a life of purity and sincerity” (Badawi, 1979, p. 110). Yet, IRE is not only focussed on individual development, but also seen as a means for social integration and belonging. The word ummah pertains to a religious community bound by Islamic faith and religious and cultural traditions. Confessional RE differs from liberal, constructivist RE on many levels. Firstly, there is a stark difference between the way knowledge is acquired in confessional approach and the way it is done in constructivist approach. Influenced by liberalism, in constructivist RE knowledge is constructed; it is contextual and fallible. Confessional RE, on the other hand, adopts a realistic take on the acquisition of knowledge claiming that the reality

Introduction 3 of the world exists regardless of human interest and knowledge. Learners are believed to be “discoverers who build copies or replicas of reality in their minds” (Bodner, 1986, p.  3). In confessional IRE, all knowledge comes from God, while human beings are only expected to receive and interpret this knowledge (Al-Attas, 1979). Therefore, knowledge is imparted to students in order to cultivate faith. The methodology of IRE is prescriptive in nature, with the Qur’anic verses, hadith, and the scholarly interpretations of these being used to explain content. For instance, in Turkey, the focus of RE has been Qur’an centred and content oriented, and the identification of content is grounded in the main Islamic sources of the Qur’an and Sunnah (MEB, 2010; Zengin, 2013). Influenced by the classical madrasa tradition, the pedagogy of IRE has been based on listening, rote memorisation, and regurgitation, a method that still remains an influential mode of delivery in many Muslim countries (Talbani, 1996). The majority of IRE teachers, who come from a confessional background, are perceived as the deliverers of religious knowledge and respected authorities. They usually adopt teacher-­ centred/subject-matter focused strategies in their teaching and are not usually open to interactive and challenging teaching and learning methods (Selçuk & Valk, 2012). Their pedagogic focus is mainly on the delivery and transmission of knowledge regarding Islamic beliefs and practices. As such, they tend to view learning as acquiring and accumulation of information, which mostly involves memorisation, recall, and reproduction processes. Accordingly, students’ prior knowledge is not considered important; they are simply expected to learn pre-established facts, but not given any real chance to challenge these or to reconcile them with their prior knowledge and understanding of the learning subjects. Therefore, they are not able to develop an intelligent and mature faith understanding. However, the Qur’anic discourse itself embraces a learner-centred strategy that aims to lead the listeners to critically reflect on religious issues, moral issues, and their life choices, so that “they engage with a process of self-transformation” (Sahin, 2013, p. 181). For instance, the Prophet was led through the Qur’anic guidance to reflect on his life and to experience psychological and spiritual transformation (Sahin, 2013). The Qur’anic ­methodology—including the arrangement of verses, the use of storytelling method, considering the learners’ personal qualities and needs, and adaptation of a critical, reflective discourse—can be seen as learner-centred (Sahin, 2013). The same strategy was followed by the Prophet and the early Islamic scholars as well. However, over time, the classical Islamic education grew distant from its primal practices, came to constitute the well-known madrasa tradition and influenced deeply the current IRE practices in many Muslim contexts. In general, there is a tendency of shifting from confessional to liberal RE in Europe (Rissanen, 2012). However, it has been argued that the IRE curriculum for minorities in the Western countries still represents a

4  Introduction confessional character. It is because there is a demand for Islamic education in Western countries, which accelerated recently due to the increasing number of Muslim pupils. For instance, in Finland Muslim students are entitled to receive RE according to Islam. The first IRE curriculum, founded in 1995, was claimed to be confessional as it merely included Islamic theology and practices aiming to raise committed Muslim pupils (Sakaranaho, 2006). In the recent IRE curriculum, the goal is still to strengthen the Islamic identity of pupils. The difference might be the adoption of constructivist learning theory in teaching Islam as well as “the overt emphasis on tolerance” for other religions and worldviews (Sakaranaho, 2006, p. 361). The confessional way of teaching and learning had been useful and sufficient in the past since the authoritative body of knowledge was alive and responding to the problems of Muslims (Kaymakcan, 2007). However, it does not meet the needs and expectations of young Muslims today due to it being so deeply instilled in the traditional-historical form of Islam (Selçuk & Valk, 2012). Over and above this, it does not include interand intra-religious as well as socio-cultural diversity within the Islamic community. Simply delivering facts and information about Islam does not help these students to form a well-informed and dynamic Islamic identity. IRE is required to promote a deeper understanding of Islamic principles, while at the same time developing the minds of the young by introducing them to the diverse perspectives around them (Thobani, 2007). Hence, it is argued that the pedagogy of confessional IRE generates an appreciation of the Qur’anic knowledge but fails to provide a critical and attentive learning environment in which pupils will be able to develop a deeper discernment of their faith (Selçuk  & Valk, 2012). Consequently, there appears an urgent need for young Muslims to be well educated so as to make sense of their religious, spiritual, and moral lives in the contemporary world. The teaching of Islam in constructivist contexts gives rise to some significant problems as well. The focus of constructivist RE is on the individuality of learners’ experiences and their autonomy in creating meaningful learning for themselves (Grimmit, 2000). Consequently, teachers of RE who adopt a constructivist approach to their teaching, are mainly concerned with adopting student-centred teaching strategies through which they aim to improve students’ cognitive reasoning skills and to provide them with the opportunities to construct their own understanding. A liberal/constructivist approach has deeply influenced teaching of Islam in the multi-faith and multi-cultural RE classrooms in the UK, through the learning ‘about’ and learning ‘from’ religion targets. The main goal of this approach has been to encourage students to create their own accounts of religious phenomena so as to achieve meaningful learning. It is also aimed to fulfil learners’ personal development and develop social cohesion. Therefore, students are highly encouraged to

Introduction 5 be empathetic, tolerant, and appreciative of different religious and nonreligious worldviews (Barnes, 2001). Similarly, although the goal of the curriculum for Islam in Finland is described primarily to be strengthening students’ Islamic identity, it is also aimed at helping students encounter diversity in the classrooms (Rissanen, 2012). However, such an approach to RE is criticised for disregarding the ultimate truth claims of religions in order to avoid and suppress any conflict among students from diverse backgrounds. With regards to teaching of Islam, this results in Muslim pupils gaining only superficial and common knowledge about their faith, whilst also limiting the opportunity of critically engaging with other faith traditions. For instance, in Norway, Islam is taught along with other religious traditions and secular worldviews in the same compulsory module. The curriculum mostly represents Christianity as the major religion in the country. Therefore, Islam is taught only in a simplistic way, including information about basic Islamic faith issues, practices, and symbols (Gelici, 2018). Another problem with teaching Islam in constructivist contexts, particularly in Western countries, is the way this religion is portrayed within the curriculum. In Norway, the RE textbooks have been reported to include controversial theological discussions and historical facts regarding Islam, such as issues related to women and jihad, while this is not the case for other religious traditions. For instance, when discussing the relationship between radicalism, fanaticism, and religion, examples are only given from Islam, as in the example of ISIS (Gelici, 2018). Influenced by the Western-liberal tradition, the constructivist, pluralistic approach has been also adopted as the pedagogical approach in Turkish RE since the 2000s. The idea was that in a democratic and secular society RE should have inclusive and pluralistic characteristics, thus mirroring the religious, denominational, and cultural diversity in the country, in order to empower “religious citizenship development” (Genç, ter Avest, Miedema, & Westerman, 2012, p. 292). With the new curriculum proposed in 2000s, it aimed to move away from the traditional denominational Islamic education that was simply based on delivering Islamic knowledge and beliefs to pupils towards a modern, constructivist, and pluralistic approach (Ev, 2010). The new programme had promoted the values of tolerance, critical thinking, and reflection on traditional Islamic sources and references were provided from other holy books regarding ethical matters (Kaymakcan, 2002). However, other religions were only taught on a basic level such that students would acquire basic academic knowledge about them (Genç, ter Avest, Miedema, & Westerman, 2012). It is argued that despite adopting a constructivist, learner-centred approach in theory, due to some practicalities, such as lack of necessary teacher qualifications and an inadequate curriculum, RE could not move away from the traditional, teacher-centred approach (Buyrukcu, 2006; Ev, 2010). The majority of RE teachers were reported as not having

6  Introduction sufficient knowledge about the objectives of the constructivist approach and depending mainly upon direct teaching methods (Kaymakcan, 2009). Moreover, the curriculum does not submit a proof of having included satisfactory information on religious and denominational differences in the content (Kaymakcan, 2007). Similar to confessional IRE, constructivist IRE is limited too, in addressing the problems of young Muslims. The tendency of liberal constructivist RE to view all religious perspectives as equally valid manifestations of the same truth gives rise to a serious problem for Muslim minorities in Western countries (Yousif, 2000). Moreover, this approach emphasises the cultural representations and individual experiences of believers, which in turn effectively discredits the ontological reality of religious phenomena as learning is reduced to self-expression deprived of the transformative potential of ontological reality (Wright, 2016). Personal autonomy in decision making and critical thinking skills become essential during the process of learning. That being so, a focus on mere methodology that does not consider content and its relation to the learner is inadequate in generating an engaging and transformative learning environment for students. Consequently, once again, we are facing a RE that is not engaging students with complicated and diverse religious understandings (Wright, 2016). Students do not get the real chance to negotiate and discuss the contrasting truth claims of Islam and other traditions in the classroom. However, it is argued that RE should provide the learners with opportunities to deal with diverse, contested religious truth claims, because “avoiding controversial issues only exacerbates the inevitable conflicts that will surface in a diverse and free society” (Moore, 2006, p.  279). Additionally, such RE that embraces­ liberal-secular values and acknowledges religious truth claims as divisive to the unity of society might not be sufficient for Muslim children to develop a more comprehensive understanding of their faith as desired by their parents and the Muslim community. This situation already creates a high demand from Muslim parents for a good quality Islamic education, as has happened in the UK (Ipgrave, Miller, & Hopkins, 2010). Similarly, in Sweden, Muslim parents are not satisfied with the secularised RE lessons in which students only learn facts about Islam, but rather request confessional IRE lessons whereby students are educated according to Islamic norms and values (Berglund, 2010). The problem with the two aforementioned approaches to IRE is that they ignore the relationship between the absolute and transcendent reality of religious phenomena and the contingent and relative nature of value judgments regarding them. This leads to either an accumulation of given knowledge devoid of learners’ own perspectives, or construction of knowledge against the transcendental reality of phenomena, both away from enabling learners to pursue a more complex and intelligent account of these phenomena in relation to the objective reality (Wright, 2016).

Introduction 7

1.2 Absence of Diversity in the Islamic Religious Education Curriculum Absence of diverse religious understandings within the curriculum is another problem of the current IRE. One possible reason for this, amongst others, is claimed to be the political motivations underlying the designing of IRE curriculum and textbooks. That is, some contend that protecting national unity and identity by inspecting ethnic and sectarian divisions has become a justification for states to present Islam in a contained and controlled way in the official curriculum (Altan, 2003; Thobani, 2007). The aim thus becomes to create “a single, unified Muslim identity through the suppressing of national, ethnic, and denominational differences of the students” (Thobani, 2011, p.  540). For example, it is argued that in Turkey, the purpose of RE is to foster a monoculture that emphasises the Turkish culture and Turkish Islam (Özdalga, 1999), one that is in harmony with the laic nature of the state, and is against extremism and radicalisation (Leirvik, 2004; Kaplan, 2006). In the end, a monolithic understanding of Islam results in the non-orthodox interpretations being perceived as deviant as well as culturally and historically formulated (Thobani, 2011). Generally speaking, when teaching Islam, diversity within Islam as well as between Islam and other religious traditions are not sufficiently emphasised in the RE curriculum and textbooks, both in the confessional and constructivist contexts. For example, in the UK, in non-denominational schools, Islam is taught through a focus on the commonality of the world religions, while freedom of expression, respect, and tolerance for differences are the key themes that emerge in order to contribute to social cohesion (Thobani, 2011; Panjwani, 2005). Another example could be Finland, where the current IRE curriculum focuses on the idea of universal Islam, eliminating the diversity within the Islamic tradition. The teachers of IRE there also avoid dealing with the diversity of interpretations regarding Islam (Sakaranaho, 2006). In a similar vein, although the IRE curriculum and textbooks in Muslim contexts are based on the main teachings of the Qur’an and Sunnah, they mostly represent the distinctive identity and practices of the mainstream Sunni tradition. Other religious divisions, such as the Shi’a and Sufi traditions are not given any considerable attention or coverage in order to avoid any conflict and intolerance amongst students. To illustrate, in Turkey, the Sunni-Hanafi school, the most common tradition in the country, has been adopted as the “official standard interpretation” when teaching Islam in public schools (Özdalga, 1999, p. 434; Aşlamaci & Kaymakcan, 2016). This is mostly to do with the political, nationalist motivations just stated above, yet at the same time the aim was to follow a general religious instruction so that RE would not promote a controversial version of Islam and would avoid generating a biased attitude towards one group over another. According

8  Introduction to Özdalga (1999), this standardisation of RE has resulted in the content becoming repetitive throughout primary and secondary education, while having undergone only insignificant changes. Ignoring inter- and intra-religious diversity in the curriculum does not help achieving a comprehensive, inclusive IRE for all, for it requires “a structure within which differences can meet, listen to and learn from each other” (Ipgrave, 2004, p. 117). As known from the reality of all religions, one cannot claim that there is only one form of Islam that is practised by all Muslims around the world in the same way (Arkoun, 2006). Quite the contrary, in fact there are several different interpretations within Islam with regard to theology, law, and religious practices—for example the Sunni and Shi’a divisions—as well as differences within these traditions, such as the Wahhabi and Sufi schools of thought within the Sunni tradition, or the Alawis as a branch of the Shi’a. There is also vast ethnic, political, socio-economic, and cultural diversity. Furthermore, often these diverse groups do not feel that they are represented in the curriculum and textbooks, and call for fair representation of their religious identities. For example, some Alawi groups in Turkey are of the opinion that RE in Turkey imposes Sunni teachings on them and therefore functions to assimilate their children into the mainstream Sunni majority. They demand either a right to withdraw their children from attending such RE classes or inclusion of sufficient and satisfactory information about Alawi Islam in the curriculum and textbooks1 (Kaymakcan, 2002). With several changes made in 2010, the RE curriculum in Turkey became more inclusive. The textbooks included information about the various denominational and cultural interpretations prevalent in the country such as the Alawis, the Yasawis and the Naqshbandi. Similarly, the new curriculum also included information about major religious traditions. (MEB, 2010). However, the content provided about religions was rather vague and generic, reflected through the lens of Islam and mostly emphasising the commonalities between religions (Meral, 2015), therefore not allowing students to critically engage with ultimate truth claims. Moreover, it is argued that diverse interpretations within Islam is represented from the Sunni-Hanafi perspective, the dominant Islamic sect in the country, which might result in intolerance and prejudices against people who hold non-Sunni Islamic beliefs (Meral, 2015). In general, religious instruction that is not inclusive of diversity, but rather seeks to deliver pre-established religious knowledge does not meet the expectations of young Muslims as it falls short of providing a deeper insight into their faith tradition and of contributing meaningfully to developing their religious identity. It is equally insufficient in enriching young children with secular backgrounds as it becomes no more than a burden for them to memorise religious facts. Therefore, to achieve a comprehensive IRE, alongside a solid and foundational knowledge of Islamic beliefs and practices, students need to engage with diverse religious and cultural

Introduction 9 interpretations within Islam. For them to better understand the conflicts in the Muslim world, including the current tensions between Iran and Saudi Arabia, or the political and religious motivations of groups, such as Al-Qaeda or IS, they have to critically examine them in the classroom (Panjwani, 2005; Moore, 2006). Furthermore, there is also the problem of students’ faith backgrounds not being acknowledged properly, being only recognised and represented at a mere general level in the curriculum (Ipgrave, 2004). Muslim pupils often come to the classroom with a strong prior Islamic knowledge because of their strong cultural and parental heritages (Ipgrave, 2010). However, this knowledge is not taken into consideration, or is mostly taken for granted by the teachers, curriculum designers, and policy-­ makers of IRE. Students coming from different streams of Islam are usually silenced, which also results in mainstream students not getting a chance to explore the diverse, rich variety within Islam. Muslim pupils cannot develop an Islamic identity in a purely Islamic context, within Islamic parameters, in the modern global world. They are exposed to non-Islamic, Western-liberal, secular ideologies, mostly exhibited by their peers in a non-Islamic context, but also through the media, the Internet, and other forms of communication. This is also valid, though not equally, for Muslims in Muslim countries. These young people struggle between the Islamic knowledge they receive in their schools, their own faith understanding as well as their parents’ culture and values. They are more likely to incline towards Western, secular worldviews through direct exposure in Western European contexts. Issues such as democracy, the role of women in Islam, relationships with the opposite sex that can be interpreted differently in Islam are making it more challenging for these people. However, all these dilemmas and problems are not explored in the classroom, within its harmonious and inclusive atmosphere. On the other hand, particularly in diasporic societies, some young Muslims are inclined to put Islam at the centre of their lives and become more religious due to the discrimination, prejudice, and stereotypical assumptions they face in Western countries as well as due to their constant sense of struggle between the cultural values handed by their parents as traditions and those offered by the Western-liberal social norms (Schmidt, 2004; Chaudhury & Miller, 2008; Thobani, 2011; Berglund, 2013). To be more specific, in the UK, with the second and third generation Muslims, there has appeared to be a shift from holding on to cultural bonds to searching for an authentic, pure Islam. This is to some extent attributed to them receiving no systematic Islamic education from their parents or gaining an unsatisfactory education in schools and mosques, as well as perceiving a clash between their own cultural-religious values and British-Western values (Panjwani, 2008). Furthermore, segregating other Muslim groups in particular districts, away from the native non-Muslim communities (Ipgrave, 2010), as well as being portrayed as

10  Introduction ‘different’, or ‘other’ in the media (Revell, 2010) has accelerated the rate of young Muslims adopting a monolithic, essentialist, and political form of Islam that stems from a literal and selective reading of the Qur’an and the Sunnah. For example, in the UK, 2000 Muslims—many of them young—were reported to have travelled to Syria to join the extremist jihadist group IS (Mendick, Verkaik, & Ross, 2014). A similar dilemma can also be seen among young Muslims in Turkey. Being a bridge between the East and West, Turkey occupies a significant place in incorporating diverse religious and cultural traditions. The modernisation of society, particularly the confinement of religion to the private domain, accelerated the spread of secularism mainly in the big cities. Secularism is one of the hallmarks of Turkish modernity. However, it is contested and cannot be understood without reference to Islam (Keyman, 2007). The Turkish laicity is different from the French laicity where the church and state are fully separated from each other. In Turkey, the state defines itself as laic and does not advocate any religious tradition while at the same time it is directly responsible for accessing and regulating religious affairs, for example banning the headscarf or providing compulsory RE in schools with the aim of controlling religion in the public sphere (Gole, 1997). In fact, Turkey never lost its penchant for traditional Islamic religiosity, which is still very common in the peripheral areas (Okumus, 2008) and constitutes one of the major characteristics of the Turkish national identity (Kucukcan, 2003; Silverstein, 2003). The Islamic identity of Turkey became more visible after the 1990s with the rise of political Islam and became a prominent factor in forming Turkish secularism (Keyman, 2007). The deep influence of laicity and secularism in Turkish history paved the way for a moderate form of Islam among the majority of Turkish people, through which they were able to negotiate and reconcile their faith with Western-secular values, such as democracy and human rights (Somer, 2007). As a result, it has been possible to see different variations of Islam, ranging from the mystical to folk, from conservative to moderate. However, the fundamental and extremist forms2 of Islam are also visible here, particularly among young Turkish Muslims. They have been influenced by the extremist Islamist groups, mainly because of the geographical proximity of Syria and other Middle Eastern countries. According to one Turkish MP, around 5000 Turkish young Muslims have joined IS in Syria, who were convinced to do so through social media channels and some small Muslim organisations around the country (DHA, 2014). Taken together, in order to help Muslim pupils develop a comprehensive Islamic identity and deal with religious extremism, it is necessary to engage with their prior knowledge and experiences of religious phenomena in the classroom, along with the historical, cultural, and denominational differences within Islamic tradition as well as between Islam and other religions.

Introduction 11

1.3 A New Theoretical and Pedagogical Approach to Islamic Religious Education Regarding the problems and challenges mentioned earlier, it is clear that the current IRE, in both Muslim and non-Muslim contexts, fails to help Muslim young people in understanding and interpreting their faith in relation to God, to themselves and the world they live in. To address these problems, this study offers a new theoretical and pedagogical approach to IRE grounded on the philosophy of CR, and the theories of CRE and VT. The problems and challenges of IRE have necessitated a search for a philosophical framework to understand and interpret Islam in the contemporary, multi-faith world. CR is seen as a promising philosophy for interpreting and consolidating Islamic knowledge in the modern world. It can help to reinterpret the principles and methodology of the classical Islamic theology (kalam) in negotiating the primary and secondary sources of Islam in order to engage with the contemporary problems of Muslims (Wilkinson, 2013). The philosophy of CR has emerged in order to investigate and explain natural and social phenomena that builds on the key insights of positivism and post-structuralism. Generally, CR posits that a material reality exists independently of human subjectivity and experience (ontological realism), whilst at the same time recognising the subjectivity and contextually-dependent nature of human knowledge (epistemic relativism). This middle-ground approach thus allows for judgments and understandings of phenomena to be non-determined but nonetheless based on the best currently available information and research methods (judgmental rationality). CR offers a useful support to IRE by introducing a philosophical framework that moves away from the limitations of its classical form that is only aimed at students learning the Islamic facts and stories, whilst not falling into constructivism either, in which students are seen as the agents in constructing knowledge. It could be used as an ‘underlabouring’3 tool for IRE and is expected to bring to the subject “theological height and philosophical depth, as well sociological breadth, to make the subject more engaging and useful for young Muslims” (Wilkinson, 2015, p. 191). Perhaps more importantly, it will allow young people to negotiate their Islamic identities, and the contemporary problems of Muslims around the world in a classroom by following a systematic framework. The CRE approach focuses on the search for the ultimate reality of the order of things, that is, ‘truth’ and ‘truthfulness’, as the most prominent features. It is grounded on the three principles of CR; ontological realism, epistemic relativism and judgmental rationality (Wright, 2007). According to CRE, the transcendental truth claims are contested and in order to understand the reality of these claims, we bring into play worldviews, symbols, narratives, questions, and praxes that are also contested.

12  Introduction In contrast to liberal RE, it does not focus on the constructive power of learners, but rather, regards “knowledge acquisition as a process of discovery” through active engagement with the reality of the objects or phenomena (Wright & Wright, n.d.). It offers a ‘mutually transformative’ relationship between learners and the object of learning, whereby both have power in establishing knowledge, although the learner is allocated only a limited role. This study proposes that the use of CRE can create opportunities for IRE to seek ways for the discovery of non-negotiable, ontological critical aspects of Islamic knowledge. Subsequently, it can help identify the epistemically diverse ways in which this knowledge is understood—in more or less differentiated ways—in the Muslim community. In sum, it can thus encourage pupils to engage in an attentive, intelligent, reasonable, and responsible learning process, and hence to discern a more complex and differentiated understanding of Islam than before. VT is adopted as a pedagogical approach in this study. Established within the phenomenographic research tradition, it aims to develop new and powerful ways of perceiving an object or phenomenon by introducing students to varied accounts of it. It is a learning theory that holds, “learning proceeds, as a rule, from an undifferentiated and poorly integrated understanding of the whole to an increased differentiation and integration of the whole and its parts” (Marton & Booth, 1997, p. viii). The reason for choosing this pedagogical approach is because of the close affinity of its theological underpinnings to CRE. Like the latter, VT highlights the learner and the object of learning relationship and defines learning as getting closer to the reality of the object through seeing it in a new and more complex way. Applied to IRE, it can create possibilities for Muslim pupils to develop a deeper discernment of Islamic knowledge through the use of variation. The originality of this study lies in generating a new theoretical and pedagogical approach for IRE based on the theories of CR, CRE, and VT. Despite the public debate and academic discussions with regard to its theory and philosophy, there has been little empirical research on the content and pedagogy of IRE as well as on student learning. For instance, in Turkey, the research mainly focuses on either some theoretical issues such as plurality in RE or how to capitalise on the constructivist approach in IRE by means of developing engaging and creative teaching methods and strategies and thus delivering the content to the students (see, for example, Akyürek, 2003; Arpacı, 2012; Ceylan, 2006; Çınar, 2016). Similarly, in Europe, the majority of studies have focused on Muslim schools, and thus integration of Muslims to the wider society (Berglund, 2010; Rissanen, 2014). The theoretical and pedagogical approach proposed in this study can encompass both the confessional/ traditional and liberal/constructivist approaches, and could be applied in both European countries including the UK and Muslim countries. Additionally, this framework could help students make sense of their religious

Introduction 13 and spiritual beliefs and practices, live religiously literate lives, as well as enhance RE teachers’ pedagogical perspectives and practices. Overall, the originality of this study is threefold: Applying CR, CRE and VT to IRE; generating a pedagogical framework for IRE; and applying it to the actual classroom context.

1.4 The Aim of the Study This study is aimed at improving teaching and learning in IRE through a new theoretical and pedagogical approach grounded on the theories of CR, CRE and VT. The purpose is to explore the teachers’ and students’ understanding of a specific object of learning, to identify the subject matter knowledge, particularly in relation to the primary Islamic sources of the Qur’an and Sunnah, and subsequently, to organise the teaching and learning environment through the learning study model, based on this knowledge. I  argue that the outcomes of this study can contribute to generating theoretical and pedagogical knowledge that can be used by researchers, practitioners, and teachers of IRE. Thus, this study primarily aims to respond to the following research question: 1. What can we learn from the theoretical and pedagogical framework of CRE and VT regarding the development of the pedagogy of IRE? It is important to note that Islam was not studied as the object of research  per se, but rather a specific topic from the curriculum was chosen as the object of learning; ‘Islam and being Muslim’ in the first, and ‘equality in Islam’ in the second learning study. In order to find out whether, and if so how, the new pedagogical approach was effective in terms of student learning, a second research question is aimed at exploring the change in the students’ understanding of the objects of learning. The question asked is: 2. What kind of variation in understanding the object of learning did Muslim students have prior to the introduction of the framework of CRE and VT in RE classes? How did their understanding of the object of learning change/evolve during the learning study? The central focus of this study is on student learning, as the aim is to help them gain a more developed understanding of the object of learning. Following the steps of learning study, first, the students’ prior understandings of the object of learning were explored through a phenomenographic analysis. Second, the teachers with the researcher drew on this knowledge, along with the subject matter knowledge, to plan and design a number of research lessons through the application of the CRE and VT principles. Finally, for the third level, a post-test was carried out in order

14  Introduction to identify the change in the students’ understandings after the research lessons. The second focus of this research is on documenting the effects of the aforementioned framework study on the participant teachers’ beliefs and practices. VT suggests a relational pedagogy, whereby the acts of understanding, teaching, and learning are considered as inseparable. Because of this internal relationship, it is argued that what teachers believe has an effect on how they act and teach, which then influences student learning (Hella, 2007). As a consequence, it was seen necessary to explore the teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding the use of the CRE and VT framework in order to draw implications for the development of the pedagogy of IRE. For this purpose, the following question is addressed: 3. What were the pedagogical perceptions and practices of the RE teachers before this study? Did this change during the use of the theoretical and pedagogical framework of CRE and VT and if so, how? In order to address the research questions, the results of two learning studies are reported, which were carried out in one Muslim and one nonfaith community girls’ school in London with 58 Muslim students and their RE teachers. Learning study is a form of action research developed within the phenomenography and VT research tradition (Pang & Ling, 2012; Lo, 2012). Employing it made it possible to apply the theories of CR, CRE. and VT to IRE. Phenomenography and VT have also been used as analytical approaches in expounding and illustrating the students’ pre- and post-understandings of the objects of learning as well as in the analysis of the research lessons in both learning studies. Overall, this study discusses and outlines a systematic and evidence-based pedagogical approach to IRE, which is aimed at improving teaching and learning about Islam through a dynamic and continuous interaction between the teacher, the students, and the object of learning.

1.5 Structure of the Book This book consists of eight chapters. The first or the introduction presents a brief background to the study and mentions its aims, also introducing a new theoretical and pedagogical approach to IRE. Chapter 2 presents an overview of the philosophy of CR with a particular focus on Classical CR and addresses the question of whether CR can be applied as an underlabouring tool in understanding and explaining Islamic theology and hence, informing IRE. Chapter 3 presents the theory and pedagogy of the CRE approach, an overview of the phenomenographic research tradition, and consideration of VT as an empirical, educational research approach. Finally, learning study is proposed as a research model through which the theories of CR, CRE and VT can be applied to IRE. The purpose of

Introduction 15 this chapter is to establish the grounds for offering a legitimate and useful pedagogy for IRE. Chapter 4 outlines the research methodology. It starts with a description of the aims and research questions of this study. Then, the research approach, the ontological and epistemological assumptions that underpin the work are explained. Subsequently, the learning study process, the sampling of research participants, data collection tools, and data analysis process are explained and justified. Finally, the issues of ethics, trustworthiness, and reflexivity are addressed. The results of the data analysis are presented in chapters 5, 6 and 7. Chapters 5 and 6 provide the results of the two learning studies on the objects of learning ‘Islam and being Muslim’ and ‘Equality in Islam’, respectively. Both chapters follow the same structure such that, first, the students’ pre-understandings of the object of learning are presented through phenomenographic analysis; then, the intended object of learning is introduced, including the plans and designs of the research lessons; following this, the description, analysis, and discussion of the research lessons are presented in the enacted object of learning section. The final section includes the students’ post-understandings of the object of learning. Chapter 7 involves the final analysis and discusses the focal teachers’ beliefs and practices of teaching and learning in IRE before and during the learning study. The aim here is to find out whether there has been a change in their perceptions and practices after applying the proposed framework into their teaching. Chapter 8 summarises the main findings from the empirical studies in relation to the literature review. It also examines and discusses the theoretical and practical contributions the outcomes of this study can offer for IRE in Muslim and non-Muslim contexts. Lastly, this chapter  discusses the limitations of the study and the implications for practice as well as proposes future research avenues.

Notes 1. In Turkey, RE is compulsory and the right to withdraw from RE lessons is only given to students who belong to Christianity and Judaism. The majority of Alawi community ask this right to be also granted to them. Alawis constitute around 15% of the population in Turkey and are regarded as a heterodox sect that is closer to Shi’a and follows the Caliph Ali as their imams (Özdalga, 1999). Since they consider RE in Turkey as ignoring their existence, some Alawi parents sued the Turkish government in the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) in 2000 with the accusation of assimilation and violation of their right of freedom of belief. ECHR judged that Turkey must reform RE in schools so as to ensure respect for different beliefs, which resulted in the Ministry of Education providing more information about Alawism in certain grade textbooks (ECHR, 2007; Council of Europe, 2014). 2. Islamic fundamentalism is born out of a desire for the revival of the early Islamic period. It “refers to a strategy by which Islamic ‘purists’ attempt to

16  Introduction reassert their construction of religious identity and social order as the exclusive basis for a re-created political and social order  .  .  . They try to fortify their interpretation of religious ways of being through selective retrieval of doctrines, beliefs and practices from a ‘sacred’ past” (Hassan, 2006, p. 319). 3. The concept of underlabouring is first used by Locke (1895) as “clearing the ground a little, and removing some of the rubbish that lies in the way of knowledge” (p. 14). Bhaskar describes the role of the philosophy of CR as an ‘underlabourer’ (2008, p. xxxi) to guide research and practice in natural and social sciences with regards to ontological, epistemological, and methodological issues.

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Introduction 17 Cınar, F. (2016). Din öğretiminde çoklu zekâ kurami: Ilköğretim DKAB dersi öğretim programının kuram açısından analizi ve uygulama örnekleri [Use of multiple intelligence theory in RE]. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 37(2), 191–243. Counsil of Europe. (2014, September 16). Court: Turkey must reform religious education in schools. Retrieved August  10, 2015, from www.humanrights europe.org/2014/09/court-turkey-must-reform religious-education-in-schools/ DHA. (2014, July 20). CHP’li Mehmet Şeker: 5 bin Türk IŞİD’e katıldı. Retrieved June 1, 2015, from www.bugun.com.tr/gundem/bomba-iddia-haberi/1196654 ECHR (E.C.o.H.R). (2007, October 9). Case of Hasan and Eylem Zengin v. Turkey. Retrieved August 10, 2015, from http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001–82580 Ev, H. (2010). İlköğretim din kültürü ve ahlak bilgisi ders öğretim programı hakkında bir değerlendirme. DEUIFD, XXXII, 139–167. Gelici, Z. (2018). Norveç Devlet Okullarında Okutulan Din Dersi Kitaplarında İslam Dininin Sunumu [Presentation of Islamic religion in textbooks of religious instruction in Norwegian public schools]. Journal of Values Education, 16(35), 141–158. Genç, F., ter Avest, I., Miedema, S., & Westerman, W. (2012). A conversational analysis of developments in religious education in Europe and in Turkey. British Journal of Religious Education, 34(3), 281–297. Göle, N. (1997). Secularism and Islamism in Turkey: The making of elites and counter-elites. The Middle East Journal, 51(1), 46–58. Grimmitt, M. (2000). Constructivist pedagogies of religious education project: Rethinking knowledge, teaching and learning in religious education. In M. Grimmitt (Ed.), Pedagogies of religious education: Case studies in the research and development of good pedagogic practice in RE (pp.  207–227). Great Wakering, Essex: McCrimmons. Halstead, J. M. (1995). Towards a unified view of Islamic education. Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, 6(1), 25–43. Halstead, J. M. (2004). An Islamic concept of education. Comparative Education, 40(4), 517–529. Hassan, R. (2006). Globalisation’s challenge to the Islamic Ummah. Asian Journal of Social Science, 34(2), 311–323. Hella, E. (2007). Variation in the understanding of Lutheranism and its implications for religious education: Meaning discernment of students and teachers in Finnish upper secondary schools (Unpublished PhD thesis). University of Helsinki, Helsinki. Retrieved from https://helda.helsinki.fi/handle/10138/21572 Hussain, S., & Ashraf, A. (Eds.). (1979). Crisis in Muslim education. London: Hodder & Stoughton. Ipgrave, J. (2004). Including pupils’ faith background in primary religious education. Support for Learning, 19(3), 114–118. Ipgrave, J. (2010). Including the religious viewpoints and experiences of Muslim students in an environment that is both plural and secular. Journal of International Migration and Integration/Revue de l’integration et de la migration internationale, 11(1), 5–22. Ipgrave, J., Miller, J., & Hopkins, P. (2010). Responses of three Muslim majority primary schools in England to the Islamic faith of their pupils. Journal of International Migration and Integration/Revue de l’integration et de la migration international, 11(1), 73–89.

18  Introduction Kaplan, S. (2006). The pedagogical state: Education and the politics of national culture in post-1980 Turkey. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Kaymakcan, R. (2002). Religious education in modern Turkey in the context of freedom of religion or belief. In L. Larsen & I. T. Plesner (Eds.), Teaching for tolerance and freedom of religion or belief (pp. 51–54). Oslo: The Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief. Kaymakcan, R. (2007). Pluralism and constructivism in Turkish religious rducation: Evaluation of recent curriculum of religious culture and ethical knowledge lesson. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 7(1), 202–210. Kaymakcan, R. (2009). Öğretmenlerine Göre Din Kulturu ve Ahlak Bilgisi Dersleri, Yeni Eğilimler: Çoğulculuk ve Yapılandırmacılık. İstanbul: DEM Yayınları. Keyman, E. F. (2007). Modernity, secularism and Islam: The case of Turkey. Theory, Culture & Society, 24(2), 215–234. Kucukcan, T. (2003). State, Islam, and religious liberty in modern Turkey: Reconfiguration of religion in the public sphere. BYU Law Review, 2, 475–506. Leirvik, O. (2004). Religious education, communal identity and national politics in the Muslim world, British Journal of Religious Education, 26(3), 223–236. Lo, M. L. (2012). Variation theory and the improvement of teaching and learning. Göteborg: Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis. Locke, J. (1895). An essay concerning human understanding (A. C. Fraser, Ed., Vol. 1). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Marton, F., & Booth, S. A. (1997). Learning and awareness. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Elbaum. MEB. (2010). İlköğretim Din Kulturu ve Ahlak Bilgisi Dersi (4,5,6,7 ve 8. Sınıflar) Öğretim Programı ve Kılavuzu. Ankara: Author. Mendick, R., Verkaik, R., & Ross, T. (2014, November 23). Muslim MP: 2,000 Britons fighting for Islamic state. Retrieved June 1, 2015, from www.telegraph. co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/11248114/Muslim-MP-2000-Britonsfighting-for-Islamic-State.html Meral, Z. (2015). Compulsory religious education in Turkey a survey and assessment of textbooks. Ankara: United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. Moore, J. R. (2006). Teaching about Islam in secondary schools: Curricular and pedagogical considerations. Equity & Excellence in Education, 39(3), 279–286. Okumuş, E. (2008). Turkey-religiosity and the PRA. The Muslim World, 98(2– 3), 345–362. Özdalga, E. (1999). Education in the name of “order and progress”: Reflections on the recent eight-year obligatory school reform in Turkey. The Muslim World, 89(3–4), 414–438. Pang, M. F., & Ling, M. L. (2012). Learning study: Helping teachers to use theory, develop professionally, and produce new knowledge to be shared. Instructional Science, 40(3), 589–606. Panjwani, F. (2005). Agreed syllabi and un-agreed values: Religious education and missed opportunities for fostering social cohesion. British Journal of Educational Studies, 53(3), 375–393. Panjwani, F. (2008). Religion, citizenship and hope: Civic virtues and education about Muslim traditions. In J. Arthur, I. Davies, & C. Hahn (Eds.), Handbook of education for citizenship and democracy (pp. 292–305). London/Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Introduction 19 Qutb, M. (1979). The role of religion in education. In S. M. Al-Attas (Ed.), Aims and objectives of Islamic education (pp. 48–62). Jeddah: Hodder & Stoughton. Revell, L. (2010). Religious education, conflict and diversity: An exploration of young children’s perceptions of Islam. Educational Studies, 36(2), 207–215. Rissanen, I. (2012). How Finnish Muslim students perceive and deal with religious and cultural difference: Negotiating religious tradition with modern liberal and postmodern ideals. Education Research International (Article 978317). doi:10.1155/2012/978317 Rissanen, I. (2014). Developing religious identities of Muslim students in the classroom: A case study from Finland. British Journal of Religious Education, 36(2), 123–138. Sahin, A. (2013). New directions in Islamic education: Pedagogy and identity formation. Leicestershire: Kube Publishing Ltd. Sakaranaho, T. (2006). Religious freedom, multiculturalism, Islam: Cross-reading Finland and Ireland. Leiden: Brill. Schmidt, G. (2004). Islamic identity formation among young Muslims: The case of Denmark, Sweden and the United States. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 24(1), 31–45. Selçuk, M., & Valk, J. (2012). Knowing self and others: A worldview model for religious education in Turkey. Religious Education, 107(5), 443–454. Silverstein, B. (2003). Islam and modernity in Turkey: Power, tradition and historicity in the European provinces of the Muslim world. Anthropological Quarterly, 76(3), 497–517. Somer, M. (2007). Moderate Islam and secularist opposition in Turkey: Implications for the world, Muslims and secular democracy. Third World Quarterly, 28(7), 1271–1289. Talbani, A. (1996). Pedagogy, power, and discourse: Transformation of Islamic education. Comparative Education Review, 40(1), 66–82. Thobani, S. (2007). The dilemma of Islam as school knowledge in Muslim education. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 27(1), 11–25. Thobani, S. (2011). Pedagogic discourses and imagined communities: Knowing Islam and being Muslim. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 32(4), 531–545. Wilkinson, M. L. (2013). Introducing Islamic critical realism: A  philosophy for underlabouring contemporary Islam. Journal of Critical Realism, 12(4), 419–442. Wilkinson, M. L. (2015). A fresh look at Islam in a multi-faith world: A philosophy for success through education. London: Routledge. Wright, A. (2007). Critical religious education, multiculturalism and the pursuit of truth. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Wright, A. (2016). Religious education and critical realism: Knowledge, reality and religious literacy. Oxon/New York, NY: Routledge. Yousif, A. (2000). Islam, minorities and religious freedom: A challenge to modern theory of pluralism. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 20(1), 29–41. Zengin, M. (2013). Din kulturu ve ahlak bilgisi ogretmenlerinin egitim ogretim yeterlik algilari. Sakarya Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 15(27), 1–28.

2 Critical Realism and Islam

CR is adopted as the philosophical approach for this study. There are several reasons for adopting a philosophy for this study in the first place. First, there is a general need for adopting a philosophical approach so as to inform the theory and practice of research as it is argued that even if people are unaware, they usually have “an unconscious philosophy, which they apply in their practice—whether of science or politics or daily life” (Collier, 1994, p. 17). A philosophical perspective thus helps to shed light on the ontological and epistemological foundations and approaches to research. However, it is argued that a ‘dialectical mediation’ has to be achieved between philosophy and empirical research. That is, while philosophy informs research, in its turn research can elucidate the nature and practice of philosophy by introducing empirically grounded theories and a distinctive methodology for specific sciences (Yeung, 1997). Therefore, while the philosophy of CR study is adopted to identify and structure the ontological and epistemological assumptions of this study, the empirical research reported here can also help to inform the theory and methodology of CR. Second, Andrew Wright, exponent of CR, has argued/claimed that since the Enlightenment Age, the academic study of religion and theology has steadily waned and taken a backseat in comparison to the empirical sciences. Additionally, the historical secularisation of the West helped to significantly move religion and theology from public to private sphere. These historical processes brought about a relativist understanding and approach to religious doctrines and traditions, which ignore the need for a critical scrutiny of and comprehensive epistemological engagement with the ontological truth claims of religions (Wright, 2013). CR on the other hand, makes it possible to deal with the truth claims of religious and secular traditions on an academic level and helps to make sense of the ultimate reality that human beings participate in. This chapter reviews the philosophy of Critical Realism (CR) and discusses its relevance to and application in meeting the research objectives of this study. The first section provides an overview of the principal tenets of CR and discusses its theological applications. In the second section,

Critical Realism and Islam 21 the principles of CR are applied to a theoretical analysis of the essential characteristics of Islamic theology. The aim here is to establish the rationale behind the conversation that is to be generated between IRE and CR. The final section introduces the key insights from CR that can help inform IRE.

2.1 Critical Realism CR is a philosophy of science that was originally developed by Roy Bhaskar in the 1970s (Collier, 1994; Archer, Bhaskar, Collier, Lawson, & Norrie, 1998). It offers a theoretical approach for understanding and explaining natural and social sciences and transcends the positivist, constructivist, and postmodernist paradigms by introducing a coherent alternative framework (Smith, 2008). The aim of this philosophical approach is identified as to develop “a systematic realist account of science” against positivism (Bhaskar, 2008, p. 12). CR rejects the philosophical frameworks of positivism and postmodernism. Positivism is repudiated because of its uncritical reliance on and approach to empirical sense data (Scott, 2010). Postmodernism, on the other hand, is critiqued for its overly relativist ontology, i.e. for its claims that that there is no objective knowledge of the world. Although critical realists do not deny the value-ladenness of knowledge, they claim that both positivism and postmodernism fall into the ontic and epistemic fallacy by rejecting the existence of objective knowledge of the world both epistemologically and ontologically, and reducing the reality to human knowledge (Archer, Collier, & Porpora, 2004). Aditionally, CR posits that natural and social phenomena have objectively real underlying structures and causal mechanisms (Dobson, 2001). In other words, according to CR, “the world is composed not only of events, states of affairs, experiences, impressions, and discourses, but also of underlying structures, powers, and tendencies that exist, whether or not detected or known through experience and/or discourse” (Patomaki & Wight, 2000, p. 223). Bhaskar’s work is mainly concerned with establishing a common ground between natural and human sciences (Collier, 1994). He argues that CR can also be used in understanding social sciences; however, it would act in an explanatory way as opposed to the predictive nature of science methods, since there is no possibility of closure in social sciences (Bhaskar, 2008). While the tenets and aims of CR have developed and evolved over the last 30 years, this study draws on the insights from initial period of CR a.k.a Classical CR, as these are the ones most relevant for this study. 2.1.1 Classical Critical Realism In classical CR there is a greater emphasis on the distinction between the intransitive (ontological) and transitive (epistemological) domains

22  Critical Realism and Islam of knowledge (Bhaskar, 2008). Even though “the intransitive realm (ontology) is relatively enduring, its description or knowledge of it (the epistemic or transitive dimension) is relative to ideologies (as extant bodies of thought) which exist in particular societies” (Scott, 2010, p. 36). However, this does not mean that there is a dualistic ontology. Rather, CR seeks ways of connecting the context-dependent descriptions of the world with the ontological reality that exists independent of the endeavours to describe it. The intransitive and transitive worlds of being are regarded as connected and human beings are seen as an intimate part of the world, though they experience it only partially (Bhaskar, 2008). Hence, although our cultural ideas could be incoherent, fallible, and are only able to provide an incomplete view of reality they could still impact on the nature of reality, and in time, could develop a more truthful representation of the world (Scott, 2010). That is, our thoughts and actions can bring about change in the reality of the order of things over time, as a result of investigation and interpretation process, though this change is rather small compared to the totality of all things (Wright, 2007). However, conflating the epistemology of knowledge with the ontology of being results in an epistemic fallacy, whilst reducing knowledge to being generates an ontic fallacy because our knowledge about the world is different from the world itself (Bhaskar, 1986). According to Sayer (2000), CR is thus different from empirical realism—which regards the reality as identical to our experiences—as well as from literary realism, which ignores the value-laden character of our experiences. There are three chief tenets of CR: ontological realism, epistemic relativism, and judgmental rationality, each of which are explained in the following sections. Ontological Realism Ontological realism asserts that something may exist independently of our knowledge of and attempts to describe it, and it does not matter whether we get mistaken about it or totally ignore it (Bhaskar, 2008; Collier, 1994). For example, the world did not change shape when it was discovered to be round (Bhaskar, 2000), which means “people’s changing of their objective world views does not mean that reality changes as well” (Archer, Collier, & Porpora, 2004, p. 2). Our experiences of the world are intrinsically and simultaneously subject to reality rather than dependent on our minds’ conceptions. On this reading, judgments about reality such as claims of beauty and evil are based on the intrinsic value of the actions that are called beauty or evil rather than the perceptions of people (Bhaskar, 1998). Thus, our statements about the world could only be true as long as they relate to its ontological reality. Bhaskar (2008) puts forward a stratified ontology consisted of the empirical, actual, and real domains of reality. Our experiences take place in the empirical domain that pertains either to real or actual, yet has a

Critical Realism and Islam 23 contingent and relative nature. The actual domain includes the descriptions of the objective totality of the events experienced in society. The real domain refers to mechanisms or structures of events, whether they are physical or social, that exist as well as act independently of the actual event patterns they generate so that we can identify them (Bhaskar, 2008). For instance, performing experiments is subject to the actual pattern of events while ascribing them is subject to real mechanisms or structures. This domain transcends experiences in the empirical domain and explanations in the actual domain and requires iterative, retroductive investigation of reality. According to Bhaskar (2008), reality is stratified, open, differentiated, and emergent. Reality is open because causal laws and mechanisms not only exist but also act independently of the events and the patterns of phenomena they generate. Reality is stratified, that is, phenomena can be understood and explained in terms of its generating structures and mechanisms that are found at a deeper layer. Reality is also emergent: Although a higher stratum cannot be reduced to the lower one, there is a relationship between them as each stratum is emergent from the previous one. In this reading, social sciences emerge from biology, which again is preceded by chemistry, while all are grounded on physics due to the first initial forces being physical forces. A well-known example of the emergent reality is water, which differs from its constituents, hydrogen and oxygen, and cannot be reduced to these components (Bhaskar, 2008). Similarly, this emergence can be observed “in the social world”, as “people’s roles and identities are often internally related, so that what one person or institution is or can do, depends on their relation to others”, and “the powers which they can draw upon depend partly on their relations to one another, and to relevant parts of the context, such as educational institutions” (Sayer, 2000, p. 13). Epistemic Relativism Epistemic relativism takes place in the transitive domain of reality and is subject to human actions such as “established facts and theories, paradigms and models, methods and techniques of inquiry available to a particular scientific school or worker” (Bhaskar, 2008, p. 21). This premise is pertinent to the relationship of human beings with the ultimate order of things in different cultural and historical contexts as “our judgments are conditioned by our circumstances, by what we know at the time and by the prevailing criteria of evaluation” (Archer et al., 2004, p. 4). Epistemic relativism offers a path beyond epistemic certainty and scepticism and prioritises ontology over epistemology (Bhaskar, 2008). According to Scott (2005), CR in this sense is critical because any endeavours to describe the world are always fallible; the descriptions of the world cannot be justified in absolute sense, and can be replaced by other descriptions. However,

24  Critical Realism and Islam this does not mean that the world is independent of human attempts to describe and understand its existence. On the contrary, it is necessary to enter into a critical relationship with different ways of describing the world since the knowledge is gained through a relationship between reality and its observed forms (Scott, 2005). In all, “the affirmation of epistemic relativism acknowledges the limits of our knowledge, but does not deny either the actuality of genuine knowledge or the possibility of establishing a better knowledge in the future” (Wright, 2013, p. 13). What refers to truth or how we can reach the actual reality of things is one of the important issues in CR. Positivists claim that truth claims and explanations of natural and social phenomena can only be derived through testable and verifiable empirical criteria and logical reasoning (Ayer, 1967). They, thus, treat theological and religious truth claims, such as God’s existence, as metaphysical issues that cannot be empirically tested or verified, and therefore ascertained. According to Bhaskar, thus, they commit the ontic fallacy by reducing the empirical knowledge that is gained through sense data to the ontological reality of being (Bhaskar, 2008). Postmodernists, on the other hand, are sceptical about the existence of any external reality and about human ability to objectively engage with it, and claim that reality is only to be accessed through linguistic constructions. This philosophy is linked to poststructuralism, which asserts that language itself is an autonomous self-structured system; therefore, understanding reality of the ultimate order of things can be grasped by language games that we constitute (Saussere, 1983). As stated earlier, postmodernists do not accept the plausibility of objective reality independent of our individual, cultural worldviews. Since our worldviews vary, so does the reality of the things themselves. Thus, according to postmodernist philosophers, transcendental issues such as God’s existence cannot be discussed outside of its cultural context (Archer et al., 2004). Some postmodern philosophers claim that the scientific criteria cannot be applied to verify religious claims since these two represent different forms of life and play different language games (Archer et  al., 2004). This generates the epistemic fallacy as reality is conflated with language games claiming that we can only know about the world that is restricted within our linguistic constructions. However, according to critical realists, “language functions to describe and respond to reality, rather than create it” (Wright, 2007, p. 12). In sum, CR rejects both positivist and postmodernist philosophical frameworks, yet it does not claim “a privileged access to the truth and thus involves a kind of foundationalism,” or it is “a form of naive objectivism, claiming unmediated access to the truth” (Sayer, 2000, p. 2). Instead of approaching the knowledge of the world as empirically verified or socially constructed, CR posits an objective reality that can be understood and explained in relation to subjective world of human experiences.

Critical Realism and Islam 25 Judgmental Rationality Judgmental rationality is a pathway between the certainty of positivism and skepticism of postmodernism and argues for the plausibility of relatively secure albeit limited and contingent knowledge of the world (Wright, 2004). It relies on ontological realism and epistemic relativism and is about “meta-epistemic reflexivity and ethical (moral, social and political) responsibility on the part of the cognitive agents concerned” (Bhaskar, 2009, p. 17). According to Archer et al. (2004, p. 2), classical CR posits that: We can publicly discuss our claims about reality, as we think it is, and marshal better or worse arguments on behalf of those claims. By comparatively evaluating the existing arguments, we can arrive at reasoned, though provisional, judgments about what reality is objectively like: about what belongs to that reality and what does not. It is argued that choosing a theory over another one and making value judgments about a particular worldview is only possible with some foundational knowledge of the ontological reality of the world (Scott, 2010). Since there is a close relationship between the transitive and intransitive domains of reality, knowledge is not only dependent on the knower but also related to the ontological reality, which makes it possible to make critical judgments about this relationship (Wright, 2007). In a nutshell, CR takes into account the stratified nature of reality while judging between different competitive claims and argues that a theory is preferable over others when it can: “identify and/or describe and/or explain a deeper level of reality; and or achieve a new order of epistemic (explanatory and/or taxonomic) integration, or at least show grounded promise of being able to do so” (Bhaskar, 1989, p. 82). Our existing knowledge and beliefs constitute the initial point of judgmental rationality from which we begin to evaluate them. Then we go through a constructive process to pursue the best explanation to make sense of the world. According to Bhaskar, “we discover the alethic truths of reality through intuitive moments of abductive insight, from which we generate retroductive explanatory hypotheses that we then iteratively test and revise in the light of alternative explanatory models” (1986, p. 68). McGrath (2009) explains the abduction, retroduction. and iteration processes. The abduction process “entails the intuitive generation of novel insights in response to encounters with new facts or the revisiting of old problems” (McGrath, 2009, p. 44, cited in Wright, 2013). Then, it triggers the retroduction process through which explanatory hypotheses identify the underlying causal mechanisms and respond to our existing knowledge relationship. In the iteration process, the knower revises and iteratively tests the hypothesis in the light of new insights gained from

26  Critical Realism and Islam his/her interaction with the object. Hence, explanatory models can be replaced with the greater ones, “where the arguments for certain claims are so strong that we are ready to consider the case as being virtually settled” (Archer et al., 2004, p. 2). These are called alethic truths such as the law of gravity.

2.2 Religion, God, and Critical Realism Recently, there has been a ‘spiritual turn’ in critical realist studies (Morgan, 2002, p.  35) focusing on theological, religious, and spiritual questions. However, it does not mean that CR is becoming a religious philosophy; rather, critical realists have started to recognise “the potential of their philosophy to address religious thought in a myriad of forms” (Ferber, 2006, p. 178). The idea of ‘spiritual turn’ appeared first in Roy Bhaskar’s work From East to West: Odyssey of a Soul (2000) in the form of a philosophy of meta-reality. With this spiritual turn, critical realists began to recognise it as a moral and spiritual imperative to address metaphysical and theological questions. The primary theological proposition dealt with in critical realist studies is the question of God for it constitutes the foundation of theological discussions (Gironi, 2012). Empiricism reduces reality to observable physical phenomena, and non-physical values to the level of subjective preference. It does so on the basis of an epistemic fallacy that wrongly limits knowledge to our preferred ways of knowing. CR, on the other hand, insists on the reality of non-physical ‘objects’, that is, values are real, they impact on our lives in significant ways and cannot be reduced to subjective preferences (Bhaskar, 2009). CR identifies at least four domains of being: natural, mental, cultural, and transcendent. Whilst the reality and nature of transcendence is disputed, there is a consensus that it is open to critical scrutiny: religious truth claims are as meaningful and potentially true as non-religious truth claims and as such, must be taken seriously (Wright, 2013). Bhaskar (2000) sees dialectical Critical Realism as the level to reach out to the transcendental account of Critical Realism, which he also calls as the philosophy of self-realisation. He also argues that human beings are capable of realising God through self-transcendence and self-­realisation (Bhaskar, 2000). Bhaskar recognises the questions of God and religion as a legitimate part of rational debate and thus, offers the grounds for more powerful explanations than that put forward by classical theism (Wright, 2013). According to him, God is the ultimate “categorical structure of the world”, the ‘ground state’ on which all beings are existentially dependent (Bhaskar, 2000, p. 40). God is ingrained in the world but at the same time transcends it. This line of thinking recalls the panentheistic view of classical theology1 (Wright, 2013). There are some Christian theologians, such as Archer, Collier and Porpora, who have applied CR to Christianity in their book Transcendence:

Critical Realism and Islam 27 Critical Realism and God (2000). According to Archer et al. (2004), God is the alethic truth, the source of the world who gives the world its ultimate meaning. They argue that the three tenets of Critical Realism can be applied to the question of God. The existence of God can be explained through ontological realism: God exists independently of human beings. However, not all people respond to His existence and nature in the same way. There are diverse interpretations of God’s existence either within a religious tradition or amongst different religions, which leads to epistemological relativity. Judgemental rationality, on the other hand, suggests that although the reality of God exists without human perceptions of it, it is still open to critical scrutiny and revisions in light of our perceptions (Archer et al., 2004). From the perspective of epistemic relativity, judgements about reality, including judgments about religion, are fallible and incomplete, depending on the cultural boundaries that shape human understanding. However, it is argued that human beings might experience the sacred to a degree that is close to reality if they maintain religious rituals to capture this meaning. This is because religious experience is seen as the only possible way to gain the primary knowledge of God. Nevertheless, all religious experiences “come to us already partially experienced” and they are fallible like other experiences (Archer et al., 2004, p. 4). Whilst this diversity may lead to pluralism and relativism, a mutual agreement is still possible among the members of society, by which they attain a rational judgemental process about religious experiences. By applying principles of reason, suspicion, and explanatory critique these might become as reliable as any other forms of experience (Archer et al., 2004). It is also possible to observe an application of philosophy of meta-reality to Islamic theology by Wilkinson in his book A Fresh Look at Islam in a Multi-Faith World. According to Wilkinson (2015), the ‘ground-state’ recalls the notion of soul, the essence of being, from a religious point of view and the idea of the ‘cosmic envelope’ is similar to the Islamic notion of God. Thus, the ‘ground state’ has a divine characteristic and exists at the level of the real, whilst the human self occupies the actual and empirical levels. The philosophy of meta-reality suggests the annihilation of the human ego and unity of the ground-state and God, that is, self-realisation means God-realisation at the highest transcendental level (Bhaskar, 2000). Wilkinson suggests that the closeness of God to the human ‘ground state’ is apparent in the Qur’an as in “When my servants ask you [Muhammad] about Me, say that I  am always near. I answer their prayers when they pray to Me. The people shall respond to Me and believe in Me, in order to be guided” (Qur’an, 2:186). Thus, from an Islamic critical realist position, God is absolute, independent of all beings, as He creates and sustains the universe, at the same time, He is the alethic truth, the ultimate source of reality, of all beings and He is worshipped by His creatures. Hence, He is both transcendent and immanent in the universe (Wilkinson, 2015).

28  Critical Realism and Islam

2.3 Critical Realism as Applied to Islam Throughout Muslim history, there has always been an interest in using philosophical perspectives to derive ‘correct’ interpretations of Islamic scripture. Nonetheless, Muslim scholars have questioned whether Enlightenment-Age Western philosophy should be adopted in understanding and explaining religion, since it generally bases explanations of reality on empirical evidence and logical reasoning, while religion bases them on faith (Rahman, 2000). Some Muslim scholars, such as Ibn Taymiyya, are doubtful of both philosophy and mysticism, claiming that the Qur’an does not need any philosophical or mystical interpretation as its message is clear and self-evident (Bektovic, 2012). However, the role of philosophy in introducing rational foundations for explaining and making sense of the ultimate principles of Islam can be derived from passages of the Qur’an, which encourage Muslims to use reason to reflect on and understand reality (Iqbal, 2011). It is argued that there is a need for a contemporary Islamic philosophy in order to deal with the problems and challenges posed by contemporary nationalism, secularism, science, geo-politics, and globalisation. Ebrahim Moosa, in his introduction to Fazlur Rahman’s Revival and Reform in Islam (2000), argues that modernity challenges the Muslim world with the question of “how does Islam as a religious, cultural, political, and ethical heritage deal with a modernizing and rapidly changing world?” (Rahman, 2000, p.  4). Mohammed Iqbal, a prominent Islamic scholar in the 20th century, states that the main gap between Islamic theology and formal education is the absence of an organic relationship between the traditional-religious and the modern-secular (Iqbal, 2011). According to Fazlur Rahman, who is a pioneer in studies of Islamic reform and Qur’anic hermeneutics, the classical Islamic philosophy lacked a deep theological awareness of God, and was therefore, unsatisfactory in dealing with the current problems of Muslim world (Rahman, 2000). On the other hand, the ulama (scholars) of the classical Islamic scholarship abandoned critical thought and innovation that was one of the distinctive features of early Islamic tradition (Rahman, 2000). Therefore, Muslim scholars have pursued a common aim of revitalising, reforming, and reconstructing Islamic knowledge for todays’ Muslims (Arkoun, 1994; Rahman, 2000; Iqbal, 2011). Furthermore, among the new generation of Muslims, particularly those living in the West, there has been a growing interest towards rethinking and reforming Islam through humanistic and Western philosophical perspectives (Bektovic, 2012). In response to the issues mentioned above, Wilkinson (2015) argues that the philosophy of CR can help “to communicate between praxis and context and to revitalise traditional Islamic practice and belief in new multi-faith contexts, together with the tools to disseminate that philosophy into educational settings” (Wilkinson, 2015, p. 35). Therefore,

Critical Realism and Islam 29 CR has the potential of transforming the lives of young Muslims by encouraging them to engage in reflective and critical negotiations about their faith relationship as well as by providing a peaceful and harmonious environment in which they would encounter with people from other faith and secular traditions (Wilkinson, 2015). As such, for the purposes of this study, CR will play an ‘underlabouring’ role in the interpretation of Islamic theology and education. 2.3.1 Ontological Realism in Islamic Theology In the Western-positivist education, reality is restricted to rational and scientific explanations, whilst according to Islam this only represents one level of reality. It is argued that the secular, scientific method lacks the ability to discover the reality of the world since its explanations are dependent on empirical evidence (Al-Attas, 1979). However, in Islam, the scientific method is only used as the evidence of truth to justify and reconcile faith, while reality is to be perceived by more than human senses. That is, as Cook argues, “revelatory experience, intuition and faith are not only valid, but are absolutely necessary in ascertaining the highest of truths, the nature of God” (Cook, 1999, p. 347). From the perspective of ontological realism, Islam makes ultimate truth claims, which are belief in the nature and in the existence of God, the concept of tawhid (unity of God), the Day of Judgement, the holy books, divine destiny, the prophets, the reality of the Qur’an, and the authority of the Sunnah as the complementary source to the Qur’an, prayer and morality. The critical realist distinction between the empirical, the actual, and the real domains of events and structures could apply to Islam. For example, the experience of God during the prayers or the impression that is received from reading the Qur’an are emotional, intuitive experiences that are located in the empirical domain. The actual domain includes our Muslim identity, which comes from adherence to the Qur’an and the Sunnah, as well as being part of the Muslim community. The ontological truth claims of Islam take place in the real domain that includes but also transcends personal faith, religious practices and communal relationships (Wilkinson, 2015). God In theology, ontological realism refers to the claim that God exists independently of human beings’ knowledge of or belief in Him. This also applies to other spiritual beings and phenomena, such as angels, divine spirit, and divine destiny. However, this ontological justification does not seek to prove the existence of such spiritual phenomena, but rather it claims that ontological reality of God’s existence and other metaphysical beings are possible (Wilkinson, 2015). Belief in the existence of God is

30  Critical Realism and Islam the first and foremost ultimate truth claim of faith (iman) in Islam. God is the creator of all beings; He is the necessary being (wajib al wujud), the cause for other beings to exist. In Qur’anic terms, He does not owe His existence to anybody or anything: “Say, ‘He is Allah, (who is) One. Allah, the eternal refuge (samad). He neither begets nor is born. Nor is there to Him any equivalent.’ ” (Qur’an, 112:1–4). God’s existence is explained with the concept of tawhid that recognises Him as the supreme creator, planner, and designer of the universe (Rahman, 1980). God has revealed himself in the Qur’an. His divine nature has a transcendent characteristic (e.g.  Qur’an, 112:1–4). The idea of God being immanent in the universe is rejected in the mainstream Muslim tradition. However, it is mainly accepted that God intervenes in His creatures as the Creator2and Provider of the universe (e.g. Qur’an, 35:3). According to Avicenna, God cannot be comprehended in a complete way since His essence is so sublime and majestic; He can only be known through His attributes (sifat) which are based on His relation with the created beings (Acar, 2005). Thus, it is possible to follow God’s signs on the earth and access His knowledge: “We will show them Our signs in the horizons and within themselves until it becomes clear to them that it is the truth. But is it not sufficient concerning your Lord that He is, over all things, a Witness?” (Qur’an, 45:53). Therefore, human beings are required to know Him and worship Him in light of the guidance of the Qur’an. The Qur’an The Qur’an contains the words of Allah, and was revealed to Prophet Muhammad for him to then communicate to humankind (e.g. Qur’an, 3:5). As with other holy books its goal is to reform humanity, by outlining the truths about and knowledge of God, and providing essential guidance for believers in terms of faith and worship. The Qur’an is the primary source of Islamic knowledge including different areas such as law (shari’a), economics, and education: “We have neglected nothing in the Book” (Qur’an, 6:38). The main issues of the Qur’an are the existence and the Oneness of Allah, the creation of the universe and human beings, belief in the Day of Judgment, angels, holy books, and prophets. Worshipping God is also explicitly mentioned through five duties—­ declaration of faith, prayer, fasting, almsgiving, and pilgrimage—through which Muslims are expected to pursue the moral order and spiritual perspective of Islam. The Qur’anic reality is congruent with the critical realist vision of reality (Wilkinson, 2015). The Qur’an symbolises the absolute word of God for Muslims, which extends the specific events that occurred in a specific time by including general principles (Ramadan, 2001). With CR terms, the essence of the Qur’an is ultimate and real; however, the natural reality of its divine message is understood and experienced within different

Critical Realism and Islam 31 historical-geographical and cultural contexts in order to respond to the contingent problems of each generation. CR can function as “an interpretive framework for accessing the essence of the Qur’anic meaning” (Wilkinson, 2015, p.  61) for the contemporary Muslim society. It can provide a necessary relationship between the ontological and epistemological domains of religious and spiritual beings. Hence, human beings are constantly reminded of the necessity of critical reflection and reasoning in order to gain a more elaborate knowledge of the divine reality, and become righteous. The Sunnah/Hadith The Sunnah/hadith is defined as “the attested reports of the sayings, actions, and tacit approvals and accounts of the Prophet Muhammad” (Haleem, 2008, p. 22). The Prophet Muhammad is recognised as a model and guide for Muslims as well as the leader and legislator of the community. The Sunnah is mainly recognised as the second source of Islamic knowledge pertaining to different religious matters. In the Qur’an, obedience to the Prophet is stated as a duty for believers: “And whatever the Messenger gives you, take it and whatever he forbids you, abstain from it” (Qur’an, 59:7). However, the Sunnah is only used as complementary to the Qur’anic teachings and has an explanatory and commentary role in understanding the Qur’an. For example, in the Islamic law, a jurist only applies to the Sunnah on the condition that he fails to find a solution to a specific problem in the Qur’an (Fahad, 2009). The authority of the Sunnah has an ontological reality, as Muslims are required to obey the Prophet Muhammad. However, the Prophet’s message needs interpretation since many issues addressed in the hadith literature can be better understood only in the context of early Islamic society. Therefore, it is argued that in order to acquire a comprehensive understanding of the Sunnah Muslims are required to consider conditions of the society at the time, the context of hadith, causes, associations and objectives, and most importantly its relationship with the Qur’an (Qaradāwī, 2006). To sum up, the Qur’anic message was ontologically given, transcendental reality, while the Prophet perceived and interpreted it through the lens of prophetic epistemology, and applied judgmental rationality in engaging with the specific problems of the Muslim community at the time (Wilkinson, 2015). 2.3.2 Epistemic Relativism in Islamic Tradition From the Islamic perspective, epistemic relativism refers to beliefs, knowledge, interpretations, and experiences of religious and spiritual phenomena and emerges in the form of religious, sectarian, and cultural positions within the Islamic tradition (Wilkinson, 2015). Thus, it “embraces the

32  Critical Realism and Islam historically conditioned and context-specific nature of all human decisions, including those which are made about Revelation itself” (Wilkinson, 2015, p. 59). In the Islamic tradition, God and the Qur’an are recognised as the universal, sacred realities, however, our knowledge and judgments about the reality of God and the Qur’an are epistemically fallible and partial. The goal of identifying the ultimate and contingent features of religion has appeared within the religious tradition throughout time. The reform and revival debates about Islam among Muslim scholars mostly focus on identifying the universal, sacred principles of Islam as well as its ­context-dependent, historical, and cultural aspects (Bektovic, 2012). Among reformist Islamist scholars of the modern era, the general tendency has been “reconciling eternity and temporality, the sacred and the profane; separating constant and variant, form and substance . . . changing the appearance while preserving the spirit of religion; acquainting Islam with the contemporary age; establishing the new Islamic theology” (Soroush, 2000, p. 30). According to Abdolkarim Soroush (2000), who is a prominent Iranian philosopher of the 20th century, the revivalist scholars fall into the mistake of not distinguishing between religion and religious knowledge, for the former is intact and constant, whilst the latter is a form of human knowledge, which is subject to imperfections and change over the course of time. However, he makes a distinction between individual knowledge and experience of religion and religious knowledge, which he describes as having “a collective and dynamic identity and that remains viable through the constant exchange, cooperation, and competition of scholars” (Soroush, 2000, p. 34). He argues that our pre-assumptions, pre-judgements, and expectations have a bearing on our understanding of the Qur’an and Islamic tradition. Since human experience is subject to change, and constantly evolving, we understand the Qur’an and collective religious experience in many diverse ways. Consequently, diversity and plurality in religion is inevitable and has a significant influence on our religious experiences. Moreover, according to him, viewed from a ‘critical rationalist’ perspective, it might be easier to perceive the idea of plurality within Islam, since this perspective recognises human limitation and fallibility in discerning reality, which results in diverse manifestations (Soroush, 2009). Mohammed Arkoun, who is regarded as one of the most influential Islamic thinkers of the 20th century, also put forward similar thoughts. Having been influenced by Gadamer’s hermeneutics, he too believed in the historicity of interpretation process, that is, because an individual’s understanding of a text is historically conditioned, the process of interpretation never ceases but rather constantly evolves with respect to the interpreter’s changing social-historical conditions (Harrison, 2010). Accordingly, Arkoun (1994) rejects the plausibility of any privileged,

Critical Realism and Islam 33 exclusive access to Islamic truth. He acknowledges the Qur’an as the foundation of the Islamic tradition, but contends that it does not contain a single meaning attainable by all believers. Arkoun (1988) gives examples of the scientific methodology of Islamic law (usul al-fiqh), which was adopted to derive laws applying to diverse social and political circumstances and the appreciation of reason in Islamic theology (kalam) in order to explicate the symbolic and mythical verses of the Qur’an. Therefore, he concludes that socio-cultural and historical conditions have a significant bearing on interpreting the transcendent and absolute message of revelation. Accordingly, he propounds a critical re-examination of the classical methodology of Islamic theology and law. It is possible to see epistemic relativism in the history of Islamic tradition. There has been diversity in the Islamic tradition since the early period, which ranged from political and social to cultural forms, and still exists today with the existence of a variety of religious groups and sects. Different interpretations that pertain to the discipline of the Qur’anic exegesis, Islamic theology, hadith and Islamic jurisprudence have often been mistakenly understood as ontologically real, and universally true. In the following section, the motivations of diverse religious groups for interpreting the Qur’an and Sunnah will be briefly introduced. Revelation and Reason: The Interpretive Methods of Tafsir and Ta’wil Different interpretations of the Qur’an and Sunnah can be better understood in the light of the debate of revelation and reason. The Qur’anic statement about the ambiguity of some verses3 became the very justification for involving the human interpretive element in the classic Islamic theology (kalam). The use of reason in understanding God’s revelation has been acknowledged by almost all Islamic sects as the most important instrument in gaining the truthful knowledge of the Qur’an (Alper, 2012). The Mu’tazilites was the first school of thought who initiated the revelation and reason debate. Their methodology was predicated upon reason in order to determine the muhkam (specific) and mutashabih (unspecific) verses in the Qur’an: The verses that were in conformity with reason were considered as muhkamat, whilst the verses that appeared to be in conflict with reason were regarded mutashabihat. Thus, the Mu’tazilites developed the ta’wil method to interpret the allegorical verses of the Qur’an; for example, they denied the role of God in creation of man’s actions and attributed responsibility to man himself for his actions (Kādî Abdülcebbâr, 1962, cited in Alper, 2012). Accordingly, they denied or interpreted (ta’wil) the hadith that seemed in conflict with the Qur’an. The influence of Mu’tazilites have led to two ways in interpreting the Qur’an: tafsir and ta’wil. Tafsir refers to the search for the literal (zahir) meaning of the Qur’anic text and has been adopted mostly by Sunni

34  Critical Realism and Islam scholars. On the other hand, ta’wil, is concerned with the hidden meaning (batin) behind the text as well as its symbolic and allegorical explanations, and has mostly been preferred by Shi’a and Sufi groups. The following section will introduce a brief overview of the development of diverse religious interpretation within Islam through the methodology of tafsir and ta’wil. The Development of Diverse Religious Groups in the Islamic Tradition There are different religious groups and sects within the Islamic tradition. Looking back at the early Islamic history, for example, we find that the Kharijites were the first group who differed from mainstream Muslims. The differentiation of this group comes from their literal and selective reading and interpretation of the Qur’an (Farah, 1987). For example, according to the Kharijites, practising sin is equivalent to disbelief, and every sinner is worthy of punishment unless they repent. They claimed that those whoever do not judge by Allah’s order are disbelievers and should be punished by death if they insist on repeating their sin. They also believed that if the caliph deviates from justice and consultation then it is obligatory to confront him, which led to events that started their rebellion against Caliph Ali, followed by his eventual murder. They maintained rebellion against the rulers in the times of Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties and deeply influenced some of the other religious groups such as the Wahhabis (Saunders, 1965). Shi’a Islam is the second largest Islamic sect, the official Islamic branch of Iran, and followed by nearly half of the Muslims in Iraq. The crux of Shi’a argument is that the Caliphate should have been left to Ali, the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law, and his descendants. In addition to that, the doctrine of imamah, whereby the imam is perceived as the only rightful ruler, occupies a significant place in their understanding of theological issues. It is believed that twelve imams are chosen by divine order, and they are the successors of the Prophet. The Caliph Ali is known as the first imam. The imams are also conceived as infallible, and ones who are able to grasp the genuine meaning of the divine order (Momen, 1985). The Shi’a jurists believe that in order to extract the true meaning of the text, allegorical interpretation should be adopted since the literal meanings of the text do not always give a ‘true’ interpretation (Dahlen, 2003). In the Qur’anic studies a number of verses have been interpreted in order to justify the doctrine of imamah, although these verses do not literally refer to the meaning attached to them. A well-known verse is: “O you who have believed, obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you” (Qur’an, 4:59). According to the Sunni scholars, the term ulu al-amr (translated above as ‘those in authority among you’) refers to the rulers or scholars. Shi’a imam Al-Baqir, on the other hand,

Critical Realism and Islam 35 claims that this term refers to the imams who are the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad and Caliph Ali (Lalani, 2004). The ta’wil method has also been applied in interpreting the hadith of the Prophet, particularly with the aim to grasp the inner meaning of the Qur’an. Many of the Shi’a hadith sources that applied the tawil method were criticised by Sunni scholars as being not authentic, for this method emphasises the allegorical meaning of the sacred text, which paves the way for interpreting the verses and hadith out of their context. Moreover, some Shi’a scholars agree on the existence of many fabricated hadith in the Shi’a hadith collections owing to the problem of authenticity among the chain of the narrators, which also included Ghulat (exaggerators), who were claimed to be heretics (Shaker, 2009). Sufism (tasawwuf ) is another major Islamic tradition that is defined as a mystical path in Islam, the roots of which are traced back to the Qur’an and Sunnah. It is also another important example of epistemic relativism in the Islamic tradition. In the interpretation of the Qur’an and hadith, Sufis prefer the ta’wil method as well, as they are interested in the hidden meaning (batin) of the Qur’an. For instance, in the verse “There will remain the Face of your Lord, Owner of Majesty and Honour” (Qur’an, 55:27), ‘face’ is taken as metaphorically regarding God’s nature, as well as referring to a deep personal relationship with God (Denny, 1994). Sufis also regard the Sunnah as the second religious source; yet, there are some disputes over the authenticity of some hadith they acknowledge. For instance, the hadith “I was a hidden treasure, and I desired to be known; therefore, I created the creation in order that I  might be known” (Arberry, 1979, p.  28) is reported to be unauthentic in terms of the chain of narrators. In general, these groups agree on the main faith issues as the ultimate truth claims of Islam, the reality and justification of which originates in the Qur’an. The disagreement among them comes regarding different theological aspects. In order to reach a deeper and rich understanding of the revelation, some engage with its literal meaning while others adopt the ta’wil method. The problem is, as stated earlier, that these groups often regard their subjective understanding of religion as the ultimate truth, thus falling into an epistemic fallacy. There is an absence of appreciation of the epistemic fallibility and contingency of knowledge, which makes it difficult to approach different interpretations with humility and an open mind. Furthermore, this hinders a “sound and sophisticated judgmental rationality” (Wilkinson, 2015, p. 60), as the function of that principle is shifted towards justifying the already established view against the opposite ones. 2.3.3 Judgemental Rationality in Islamic Tradition As applied to Islamic theology, judgmental rationality refers to decisionmaking between competed and epistemically varied accounts of religious

36  Critical Realism and Islam phenomena in light of the Qur’anic teachings, the Sunnah, and the theological and philosophical tradition of the early Islamic period. Thus, it provides a “coherent, rational, emotional and experiential grounds for choosing one mode of spiritual access (religious tradition) as opposed to another, for choosing a religious interpretation while leaving another, and for choosing one mode of religious behaviour as opposed to another” (Wilkinson, 2015, p. 60). The Qur’an is the primary source of judgmental rationality in Islam. In the Qur’an the believers are encouraged to engage in an attentive, reasonable, and intelligent conversation with the divine message, and thus transform their lives accordingly. The notions of reflection and reason are recurring themes throughout the Qur’an: “[This is] a blessed Book which We have revealed to you, [O Muhammad], that they might reflect upon its verses and that those of understanding would be reminded” (Qur’an, 38:29). The role of reason has been appreciated in the Islamic theology as it provides the means to acquire a better understanding of the divine text, as well as consolidating faith. However, it is not about simply autonomous reasoning of the mind, and as a result adjusting reality to conform with one’s own knowledge and perceptions. Rather, the knower is required “to recognise the object of knowledge for what it is and what it reveals itself to be, and thereby to bring the mind into conformity with it” (Wright, 2013, p. 186). Use of Judgmental Rationality in the Islamic Law It is possible to see the use of judgmental rationality in the formation of Islamic law. The Qur’an and Sunnah are the main sources of Islamic law; however, over the course of time, Muslims faced different problems for which there was no clear answer in the Qur’an and Sunnah. Such situations first appeared after the Prophet’s death. Especially when the revelation stopped, the Companions of the Prophet had to apply their own judgments to solve such problems. With the contribution of three generations after the Prophet, this led to the emergence of different forms of Shari’a (Islamic law). Ijtihad as one of these forms is a good example of judgmental rationality in Islamic tradition. Ijtihad is personal reasoning and plays a significant role in the formation of Shari’a Law, as it offers solutions to the constantly changing problems of the Muslim community. It means “the total expenditure of effort made by a jurist in order to infer, with a degree of probability, the rules of Shari’a (Islamic law) from their detailed evidence in the sources” (Kamali, 2006, p. 469). The jurists performed ijtihad when they struggled to find guidance in the Qur’an and Sunnah. Ijtihad is usually comprised of “an interpretation of the nass (the Qur’an and Sunnah), or of a rational extension of its ruling” (Fahad, 2009, p. 209). Thus, it originates from the Qur’an and Sunnah. The ijtihad tradition started with the Companions of the Prophet and continued until the 13th century.

Critical Realism and Islam 37 In general, ijtihad is a good example of judgmental rationality in Islamic tradition. The truthful apprehension of an object or phenomenon does not happen directly because of the stratified levels of the real, the actual, and the empirical. As explained earlier, there are three moments in the judgmental rationality process: intuition-abduction, retroduction, and iteration. In the ijtihad method, the intuition moment refers to first experience and identification of the problem as separate from the context it is generated in. Next, in the retroductive moment, the jurist investigates their prior knowledge and presuppositions of the problem, explains and theorises it in the light of new evidence, and identifies its ontological and divine grounds. This moment is highly important since it is necessary to establish deep causal explanations in order to come closer to the reality of an object. However, the investigation for deeper discernment of the object/problem never ceases. It is subject to on-going, iterative revision in the light of new insights or evidence. In the context of this reading, the problem of the Shari’a was the decline of the creative ijtihad practice, and the disagreement on the continuity of its authority.4 This hindered critical thinking and reasoning in the discipline of Shari’a and resulted in failure to address the problems of Muslims in the modern world. In a nutshell, CR as a philosophical and methodological framework can help reproduce the creative atmosphere that was once alive, and generate theoretical and practical knowledge for the Muslim community.

2.4 Critical Realism as ‘Underlabouring’ Islamic Religious Education Constructivism, as the major alternative pedagogy to CR, places emphasis on the internal relationship between knowledge and learner and allows/encourages students to project their own constructed meanings onto neutral/objective ‘facts’ (normally empirical of phenomenological ‘facts’). Thus, it aims for pupil-centred, subjective, critical, and progressive teaching and learning, being seen as preferable to positivist, objective accounts of education (Brown, 2009). Liberal RE, drawing on the principles of constructivism, advocates a religious education that is aimed at knowledge transmission and expansion, personal development, and social cohesion through the targets of learning ‘from’ and ‘about’ religion. So, pupils learn about religious phenomena by assimilating them into their own frames of meaning. In the main, constructivism does not appreciate external knowledge and reduces the ontological (intransitive) reality to human constructed knowledge (transitive) (Brown, 2009), thus failing to acknowledge the ontological depth of religious, spiritual, and moral phenomena. It misrepresents religion as a set of neutral facts or observable phenomena, and undermines the integrity of the learner by rejecting the possibility of transformation and restricting learning to mere self-expression.

38  Critical Realism and Islam The constructivist idea is incompatible with the self-understanding of many religious traditions, Islam in particular. Islam makes truth claims about the ultimate nature of reality and human beings’ place within it. The appropriate responses, from an Islamic position, are not the projection of constructed meanings onto Islam, for they are about relating and submitting to the will of Allah as well as becoming rational righteous beings. CR offers a framework for attending to the self-understanding of Islam (ontological realism), whilst recognising the contingency of human knowledge (epistemic relativism) and the possibility of moving into deeper and more complex knowledge relationships (judgemental rationality). This is why CR is justified, because it does justice both to the object of knowledge and to the integrity of the learner (including the possibility of transformation). It undermines the dualism between objective and subjective forms of reality, reducing the risks of limiting religious reality to subjective human accounts or constructing reality in the minds of learners devoid of ontological reality. As stated before, the transcendental domain of reality is contested and thus requires engagement with deep ontological transcendental questions. Consequently, while it might be relatively easy to identify the ontological and epistemic status of natural, mental, and cultural domains, it might not be the same for the transcendental domain (Wright, 2016). However, transcendental beliefs are necessary parts of education as they exert deep influence on individuals and society, operating as causal mechanisms that impact on moral, intellectual, and spiritual aspects of life (Wright, 2016; Wilkinson, 2015). Moreover, according to CR, we have an intellectual responsibility to strive to, in order to make sense of the whole of reality, not just its individual parts. Thus, those who reject theological, religious, and transcendental ‘ultimate’ explanations have an intellectual responsibility to offer a viable alternative. CRE argues that this is one of the central reasons why RE should be in the curriculum: to make sense of our lives in relationship to the totality or reality and the ultimate meaning and purpose of life. This is saying far more than theology is a legitimate intellectual exercise (Wright, 2013). Therefore, it becomes an imperative to engage with ontological and epistemic questions regarding the transcendental reality. CR claims that all knowledge has the status of ‘faith seeking understanding’, both in science and religion (Polkinghorne, 2000, cited in Losch, 2005). Affirmation of epistemic relativity pertains to affirmation of partial and incomplete human knowledge regarding reality. There is no such thing as objective neutral knowledge; all knowledge is relative to the knower. This does not generate a thoroughgoing relativism, as some faith-knowledge claims may be discerned to be more sophisticated than others. Some descriptions of the world can be better than others as they might produce more powerful retroductive explanations of the world. However, this does not mean that certain descriptions are wrong, but

Critical Realism and Islam 39 rather, they are less complete and less differentiated and therefore, they need to be replaced by alternative ones that can produce deeper levels of explanation. Moreover, each new description is subject to critical assessment, and as it is revised and understood at a deeper level, it can bring the knower closer to the reality (Bhaskar, 1989; Archer et al., 1998; Scott, 2005). Wilkinson (2015) proposes the use of the fulcrum of CR (i.e. ontological realism, epistemic relativity, and judgmental rationality) in a RE pedagogical framework, through extra-faith, inter-faith, and intra-faith modes. According to him, ontological realism can be explored through what he calls the ‘extra-faith’ mode in which students can examine and identify the nature of universal religious and spiritual phenomena without necessarily associating them with a religious tradition. Through this mode, it is argued that students can agree to the fact that religious and spiritual phenomena exist in religious people’s lives whether they be true or false. Once they achieve that, they start exploring these phenomena from the perspective of different religious traditions as well as different denominations within these traditions. This level is called the ‘interfaith’ mode in which epistemological realism is explored. The students can learn and differentiate between universal and contingent religious objects/phenomena. For example, discovering the diversity of sacred sites or diverse prayer forms happens in this mode. Finally, in the ‘intra-faith’ mode, students are expected to explore judgmental rationality. They examine the religious and spiritual phenomena in depth through knowledge, analysis, and discussion and make personal judgments about them. This is also the mode in which students can grasp the deeper meaning and rationality of their already existent beliefs and religious practices, such as the meaning of ablution for Muslims as well as explore different sectarian positions. Wilkinson gives an example of how the notion of transcendental self/spirit/soul could be explored in a classroom in a non-confessional context not only for students of a religious tradition but also for those who do not belong to any faith tradition. Through these modes, students might acknowledge the plausibility of the idea of self/soul and explore its representations in different faith traditions, following which they might come to a decision about its existence. Wilkinson (2015) argues that the pedagogical framework of the ‘extra-faith’, ‘inter-faith’, and ‘intra-faith’ modes can “help to enable pupils to justify and critique their own beliefs and to enter a deep spiritual dialogue with the spiritual understandings of people of other faiths” (p. 213). I also argue that CR can be used as an underlabouring tool in informing IRE through the principles of ontological realism, epistemic relativity, and judgemental rationality. It will allow the teachers of IRE to identify and underline learning subjects with regards to the distinction between the ontological (intransitive) and epistemological (transitive). Making that distinction clear will help learners to recognise the universal, unchanging

40  Critical Realism and Islam theological principles of Islam as well as the dynamic aspect of the tradition, constituted as a result of critical examination of the religious texts. For example, cultural codes, language, ethnic or denominational differentiations might have an impact on variant Islamic representations. Furthermore, there is the fact that learners come to the classroom with already existent beliefs, knowledge, and values regarding their religion. As claimed by CR, attaining epistemically different levels of understanding does not prevent us from making judgments about the reality of the order of things. After exploring the ontological and epistemological nature of Islamic beliefs, values, and practices as well as learning about the contested truth claims of diverse religious and secular traditions, students become involved in a judgement making process in order to affirm the legitimacy of their own interpretations of religious and spiritual phenomena over different accounts that are available to them.

Conclusion In this chapter, the philosophy of CR has been reviewed and it has been proposed as an interpretive tool in informing Islamic theology and education. This chapter has suggested that through the tenets of ontological realism, epistemic relativism, and judgmental rationality, CR can help identify the ontological (intransitive) and epistemological (transitive) domains of Islamic knowledge, which then can be used in informing teaching and learning in IRE. Moreover, this chapter has shown that judgmental rationality had already been used in Islamic tradition as Muslims in the early period of Islam applied to ‘reason’ to understand ‘revelation’, and made judgments based on their critical engagement with the absolute truth claims of Islam. It is suggested in this book that CR can contribute to improving teaching and learning in IRE. It can help in understanding and handling students’ epistemological presuppositions and prejudices. By engaging with the contested truth claims of religions as well as conflicting perspectives within Islam in an attentive, critical, and intelligent way, students will be able to grow a deeper understanding of Islam and other religious and spiritual phenomena. Thus, they will come closer to the reality of their faith and have a higher understanding of their position in relation to God and the world. In the following chapter, the role of CR in a pedagogical framework of IRE, along with the theories of CRE and VT, will be explored.

Notes 1. According to the panentheistic belief, God is immanently related to the world, but at the same transcends it. As God is infinite, unlike the universe, He cannot be limited to the finite universe (Rowe, 2007).

Critical Realism and Islam 41 2. God’s creation has an ontological, ultimate character in the Islamic theology along with the existence and the Oneness of God (Burrell, 2008). In the Qur’an, creation process is spoken of at many times: “Originator of the heavens and the earth. When He decrees a matter, He only says to it, “Be,” and it is” (Qur’an, 2:117). 3. “It is He who has sent down to you, [O Muhammad], the Book; in it are verses [that are] precise (muhkamat)—they are the foundation of the Book— and others unspecific (mutashabihat). As for those in whose hearts is deviation [from truth], they will follow that of it which is unspecific, seeking discord and seeking an interpretation [suitable to them]. And no one knows its [true] interpretation except Allah. But those firm in knowledge say, ‘We believe in it. All [of it] is from our Lord.’ And no one will be reminded except those of understanding” (Qur’an, 3:7). 4. There was an agreement among the early Muslim scholars on the ending date of ijtihad at the end of the 9th century (Hallaq, 1984).

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42  Critical Realism and Islam Burrell, D. B. (2008). Creation. In T. Winter (Ed.), The Cambridge companion to classical Islamic theology (pp. 141–161). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Collier, A. (1994). Critical realism: An introduction to the philosophy of Roy Bhaskar. London: Verso. Cook, B. J. (1999). Islamic versus western conceptions of education: Reflections on Egypt. International Review of Education, 45(3–4), 339–358. Dahlen, A. (2003). Islamic law, epistemology and modernity: Legal philosophy in contemporary Iran. New York, NY: Routledge. Denny, F. M. (1994). An introduction to Islam. New York, NY: Macmillan. Dobson, P. J. (2001). The philosophy of critical realism—An opportunity for information systems research. Information Systems Frontiers, 3(2), 199–210. Fahad, A. (2009). Sources and principles of Islamic law. New Delhi: Jnanada Prakashan. Farah, C. E. (1987). Islam: Beliefs and observances. New York, NY: Barron’s. Ferber, M. P. (2006). Critical realism and religion: Objectivity and the insider/ outsider problem. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 96(1), 176–181. Gironi, F. (2012). The theological hijacking of realism. Journal of Critical Realism, 11(1), 40–75. Haleem, A. (2008). Qur’an and Hadith. In T. Winter (Ed.), The Cambridge companion to classical Islamic theology (pp. 19–33). Cambridge/New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Hallaq, W. B. (1984). Was the gate of ijtihad closed? International Journal of Middle East Studies, 16(1), 3–41. Harrison, V. S. (2010). Hermeneutics, religious language and the Qur’an. Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, 21(3), 207–220. Iqbal, M. (2011). The reconstruction of religious thought in Islam. Lahore: Iqbal Academy Pakistan. Kādî Abdülcebbâr. (1962). el-Muğnî fî ebvâbi’t-tevhîd ve’l-adl: el-İrâde. Kahire: ed-Dârü’l-Mısriyye. Kamali, M. H. (2006). Principles of Islamic jurisprudence. Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society. Lalani, A. R. (2004). Early Shī’ī thought: The teachings of Imam Muhammad ˙ al-Bāqir. London: I. B. Tauris. Losch, A. (2005). Our world is more than physics: A constructive-critical comment on the current science and theology debate. Theology and Science, 3(3), 275–290. McGrath, A. E. (2009). A fine-tuned universe: The quest for God in science and theology. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press. Momen, M. (1985). An introduction to Shi’i Islam. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Morgan, J. (2002). The soul: Plausibility and persuasiveness in realism. Journal of Critical Realism (incorporating Alethia), 5(1), 35–39. Qaradāwī, Y. (2006). Approaching the Sunnah: Comprehension & controversy. ˙ London: The International Institute of Islamic Thought. Patomaki, H., & Wight, C. (2000). After post positivism? The promises of critical realism. International Studies Quarterly, 44(2), 213–237. Polkinghorne, J. (2000). Faith seeking understanding. London: SPCK.

Critical Realism and Islam 43 Rahman, F. (1980). Islam: Ideology and the way of life. London: Seerah Foundation. Rahman, F. (2000). Revival and reform in Islam: A study of Islamic fundamentalism (E. Moosa, Ed.). Oxford: Oneworld. Ramadan, T. (2001). Islam, the West and the challenges of modernity. Leicester: The Islamic Foundation. Rowe, W. (2007). Does panentheism reduce to pantheism? A response to Craig. International Journal for Philosophy of Religion, 61(2), 65–67. Saunders, J. J. (1965). A history of medieval Islam. London: Routledge. Saussere, F. (1983). Course in general linguistics. London: Duckworth. Sayer, A. (2000). Realism and social science. London: Sage. Scott, D. (2005). Critical realism and empirical research methods in education. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 39(4), 633–646. Scott, D. (2010). Education, epistemology and critical realism. London: Routledge. Shaker, M. K. (2009). Methodology of Qur’an interpretation in exegetical hadiths of Shi’ah. International Journal of Humanities, 16(1), 143–166. Smith, C. (2008). Future directions in the sociology of religion. Social Forces, 86(4), 1561–1589. Soroush, A. (2000). Reason, freedom, and democracy in Islam. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Soroush, A. (2009). The expansion of prophetic experience: Essays on historicity, contingency and plurality in religion. Leiden/Boston, MA: Brill. Wilkinson, M. L. (2015). A fresh look at Islam in a multi-faith world: A philosophy for success through education. London: Routledge. Wright, A. (2004). Religion, education and post-modernity. London: Routledge. Wright, A. (2007). Critical religious education, multiculturalism and the pursuit of truth. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Wright, A. (2013). Christianity and critical realism: Ambiguity, truth and theological literacy. Oxon/New York, NY: Routledge. Wright, A. (2016). Religious education and critical realism: Knowledge, reality and religious literacy. Oxon/New York, NY: Routledge. Yeung, H. W. C. (1997). Critical realism and realist research in human geography: A  method or a philosophy in search of a method? Progress in Human Geography, 21(1), 51–74.

3 Applying the Framework of Critical Religious Education and Variation Theory to Islamic Religious Education

This chapter  introduces the theoretical and pedagogical framework of Critical Religious Education (CRE) and Variation Theory (VT) for Islamic Religious Education (IRE). The first section reviews the CRE approach with regard to its theoretical background and main principles such as ‘pursuing truth and cultivating truthfulness’, and hermeneutics. In the next sections, the phenomenographic research and Variation Theory are reviewed and presented as the pedagogical approaches of this study. The last section presents a brief overview of the learning study model, and discusses its application to IRE.

3.1 Critical Religious Education CRE has been developed by Andrew Wright at King’s College London. It has been built on Wright’s earlier work on spirituality and religious education (Wright, 2000). Subsequently, in his book Critical Religious Education (2007), he introduced the theory and pedagogy of his approach. According to CRE, “the unity of religious education is to be found in the common quest for the good life, a quest that inevitably raises fundamental ontological questions about the meaning and purpose of life and hence of the nature and structure of the ultimate order of things” (Hella & Wright, 2009, p. 53). The definition of the good life depends on the ideological standpoints of people; for example, for a Muslim, Allah is the highest entity and living a good life pertains to submitting to His will (Wright, 2016). In the UK, after the 1960s, there appeared a shift from confessional Christian RE. By adopting the phenomenological approach to RE, it is intended to make RE “multi-faith, neutral and ‘objective’—no religion is privileged over another” (Barnes, 2007, p. 22). This approach aims to pursue students’ spiritual awareness and autonomy as well as to aid in achieving social harmony through developing tolerance towards different religious and secular worldviews. It regards the religious truth claims as equally valid, and focuses on the phenomenological knowledge of religions, religious culture, and experiences in order to appreciate

Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE 45 religious differences and eliminate religious discrimination and prejudice (Barnes, 2007). Students are simply given “pre-packaged solutions to disputed religious questions at the stage of syllabus construction prior to classroom teaching and learning” (Wright, 2016, p.  186). Furthermore, any attempt at discussing and exploring contested truth claims of religious traditions is studiously avoided on the grounds that these might have a divisive role in achieving social harmony and produce an undermining effect on individual autonomy and freedom of choice as well (Barnes, 2007). It is argued that in the liberal, phenomenological RE the values of tolerance and freedom are offered in a confessional way (Wright, 2004, 2007). There is a tendency to reject the ontological reality of ultimate truth claims and instead a subjective knowledge construction is acknowledged. Tolerance and freedom are overemphasised at the expense of “establishing a harmonious, multicultural society” (Hella  & Wright, 2009, p. 56). However, the concept of tolerance is not a primary value for the main religious traditions, for transcendental questions of truth lie at the heart of most religions. Consequently, religions cannot be limited to being simply moral systems, and RE being merely a moral education in order to achieve a harmonious and conflict-free society (Hella & Wright, 2009). The spiritual RE developed by David Hay (1985) also has significant problems. This approach is mainly interested in developing students’ spiritual experiences and enhancing their personal development. However, it lacks direct critical engagement with the ultimate truth claims of religious and secular worldviews in dealing with spiritual experience (Hella & Wright, 2009). Nevertheless, it is argued that spirituality cannot be separated from the question of truth and should be considered when developing an interaction between the person and the ultimate values and truths (Wright, 2000). Clive Erricker’s constructive pedagogical approach (Erricker  & Erricker, 2000) is also found to be inadequate for developing a comprehensive RE (Wright, 2004). This approach is criticised because it denies access to the ultimate reality and gives students total freedom to construct a meaningful and useful explanation of it. Such an approach might lead to relativism, that is, projecting the idea that religious truth claims are not absolute, but relative to the person who experiences them. Overall, it is argued that these approaches do not deeply engage with the integrity of religious and secular worldviews, and cannot make an effective use of learning about and from religion approaches. They either offer a moral form of RE that reduces religious and secular worldviews to moral values or impose a different form of confessionalism by means of ignoring the plurality of religious and secular worldviews (Hella & Wright, 2009). According to the critiques of CRE, this approach is either defined as philosophical-conceptual (Gearon, 2013) or theological (Erricker, 2010).

46  Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE For Gearon (2013) CRE’s search for truth might cause religion to be over-conceptualised and seen in a more philosophical way, due to its neglecting of religious experience. However, in religious traditions— especially in Abrahamic religions—religious experience is inextricably linked to the truth claims of the religion and seen as a reflection of faith in life. In other RE approaches, religious experience is mainly interpreted in light of the socio-cultural dimension of religions (Jackson, 1997), which is understandable since it is comparatively easy to observe the diversity of religions in terms of their cultural dimensions. However, this does not change the fact that faith constitutes the essence of religious experience. In response to the claims that search for truth might evoke a confessional RE, Wright (2004) contends that his approach allows students to engage critically with truth claims on an open horizon, in contrast to confessional religious educators, who usually introduce pre-existing answers to the questions of truth (Wright, 2004). Another criticism of CRE is that it may not be a useful method for younger or less able children, as it demands high academic intelligence and consequently, they may find it difficult to deal with the tensions arising from resolving conflicting worldviews (Jackson, 2004). Franck (2015, p. 235) also insists that it may be difficult for young children to “engage in a practical investigation . . . to strive for ‘rational judgments’ when it comes to decide if this or that worldview would pass or not”. However, Wright (2004) argues that educators underestimate the intellectual abilities of young children. Therefore, we should not avoid engaging them with fundamental ontological questions about the world. Moreover, both in this study as well as Goodman’s (2018), it has been observed that the participating students had no significant difficulty in terms of understanding the content as well as the approach used in the lessons during the study, but rather, they found it quite useful. CRE is further criticised due to its lack of practicability in education (Jackson, 2004). However, there have been some studies on applying CRE to the actual classroom context, as exemplified in Hookway’s (2004) ‘Questions of Truth’. Goodman’s (2018) study is a good example of the application of CRE in multi-faith classrooms in the UK. Moreover, there is a RE textbook book entitled ‘Critical Religious Education in Practice: A  Teacher’s Guide for the Secondary Classroom’ (Easton, Goodman, Wright, & Wright, 2019), which is based on the CRE approach. There have also been a number of publications by Hella and Wright (Hella & Wright, 2009; Hella, 2009), in which they apply phenomenography and VT to CRE. The study by Zembylas, Loukaidis, and Antoniou (2018) where they combined a few elements from CRE and hermeneutical theories and applied the approach in Greek-Cypriot classrooms might be a good example of the use of the theory in a confessional setting. This study also represents an extension to the empirical studies on CRE, for it involves applying it to IRE.

Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE 47 3.1.1 Critical Realism as the Philosophical Foundation of Critical Religious Education The relationship between the ontological reality of the religious and spiritual phenomena and their epistemically different interpretations lies at the core of CRE (Hella  & Wright, 2009). It is argued that by adopting such approach, RE can move away from both confessional attempts in which teachers impose a specific worldview on their students—be it religious or secular—and constructivist ones that are aimed at students creating their own stories about ultimate reality. In contrast to the confessional and constructivist approaches, CRE proposes an RE that is grounded on the three main tenets of CR: ontological realism, epistemic relativity, and judgmental rationality (Wright, 2007). In CRE, the ultimate ontological truth claims of religious and secular worldviews are taken seriously and the attempts that treat truth claims and religious language as emotional, spiritual expressions or useful fictions are heavily criticised (Wright, 2007). Hence, CRE opposes the liberal religious education’s tendency to replace religious truths with religious phenomena aimed at either ignoring contested religious truth claims or building a universal theology (Wright, 2016). Wright (2008) criticises idealistic and constructivist approaches on the grounds that neither of these two philosophies present an integrated and comprehensive perspective in understanding and explaining the complex nature of religions. Essential idealism recognises reality as having static and unchanged essences, while the aim of the academic study of religions is defined as “discerning unity behind diversity, of reaching an understanding of the one essence of religion behind its many manifestations” (Sharpe, 1986, cited in Wright, 2008, p. 45). Constructivism asserts that reality is not constituted of universal, unchanged essences, but rather, it is a compound of certain constructed facts. Similarly, religions are considered as the sum of constructed arbitrary wholes. In contrast, CR is neither concerned with the essential unity of religions nor accepts that religious worldviews are derived from relative religious constructions. Rather, it affirms the collective agreement of the followers of a religious tradition on its distinctive truth claims and appreciates epistemological diversity with regard to these claims, which opens up the possibility of judgmental rationality (Wright, 2008). For example, all diverse interpretations within Islam take belief in the unity of Allah (tawhid) as the first and foremost truth claim of Islam. According to Wright, only a few of our truth claims can be either absolutely true or absolutely wrong, for mostly they are provisional and “located on a continuum between greater and lesser degrees of truthfulness” (Wright, 2016, p. 50). Thus, CRE accepts the possibility of relatively secure knowledge of the world and our place in it through a critical and reflexive discernment process (Hella & Wright, 2009). For example,

48  Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE although our understanding of Islamic reality is limited and contextdependent, it is still possible to acquire a substantial knowledge of it. This opens up the possibility of moving from less differentiated to more differentiated and complex accounts of Islamic reality. To do so, CRE requires learners to be introduced to their own prejudices and presuppositions regarding an object of knowledge and its different understandings, in order for them to eventually gain deeper insight into and a better understanding of its reality. Wright (2007) argues that despite the fact that no individual understanding can fully and truthfully represent reality, it is still possible to acquire a relatively objective account of it by virtue of making critical judgments between diverse truth claims. In fact, practising judgmental rationality is necessary as knowledge can be obtained through a relationship between the knower and the ontological reality of that knowledge (Scott, 2005; Wright, 2016). There is no neutral position in terms of pursuing truth and practising truthfulness. Even one who does not believe in the reality of any religious or secular worldview performs some form of judgmental rationality in order to reach that judgment (Wright, 2016). For example, a Muslim student’s different responses to faith and practising religion in a faith school and in daily life means that he/she makes two different critical judgments. In the former context, he/she cares about what the school expects in terms of Islamic beliefs and practices, whereas in respect of the latter milieu he/she might aim to conform to the expectations of society or simply blend in with the environment. Both of these judgments have a level of truth in them but they are incomplete. The student needs to engage with the contested accounts of the faith and practising relationship in a differentiated and complex manner, thereby gaining a deeper discernment of his/her faith, such that it is also observed outside the school. Judgmental rationality starts from existent knowledge of a phenomenon and seeks for deeper and enriched understanding of it, which is explained as ‘faith seeking understanding’.1 This requires ascertaining students’ prior knowledge, which they bring to the classroom and subsequently introducing them to different worldviews. Wright argues that “learners cannot reasonably be expected to generate retroductive explanations for themselves, but instead must be introduced to retroductive explanations that have already been generated” (Wright, 2016, p. 219). This necessitates some degree of knowledge transmission, for discernment of meaning and understanding of the contested truth claims are ascribed to certain contexts. In the practice of judgmental rationality, Cognitive skills such as critical thinking, emotive intelligence and creative imagination are not primary pedagogic tools for meaning construction, but rather secondary pedagogic tools under-labouring

Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE 49 in support of the epistemic virtues of attentiveness, reasonableness, intelligence and responsibility vis-à-vis objects of knowledge. (Wright, 2016, p. 220) According to Wright (2008), when dealing with a religious phenomenon or worldview it is necessary to address its critical essential features. This is because most of the time learners cannot discern what constitutes the ultimate and variant features of a religious worldview. For example, it is not clear-cut for Muslim pupils to differentiate the fundamental truth claims of Islam from its practical and socio-cultural dimensions. A  Sunni Muslim pupil could easily consider Shi’a or Sufi Muslims as non-­Muslims, because of the differences in the way they pray or perform religious rituals. They might conflate Islam with its observable facts and not really engage with the questions of truth, such as what constitutes the religion, how and why Islam differs from other religious and secular traditions, as well as the place of the diverse interpretations within the unity of Islam (see 5.1.1). Consequently, it is crucial for students to engage with the critical features of a religious phenomenon related to a particular worldview in terms of its relation to the worldview as a whole and to its parts as well as how it is associated with other worldviews (Hella, 2009). Furthermore, this calls for a critical dialogue between “students’ horizons of meaning and the horizons of various religious and secular traditions” (Hella & Wright, 2009, p. 62). 3.1.2 ‘Truth’ and ‘Truthfulness’ CRE argues that different religious or secular traditions have contested worldviews about the ultimate reality of the order of things. Therefore, RE should include “genuine diversity of religious and secular perspectives on religion” and the “ambiguous, controversial, and conflicting nature of theological truth claims” (Wright, 2000, p. 177). Consequently, Wright (2016) argues that RE should aim at pursuing truth and cultivating truthfulness through an intelligent and critical dialogue between the ontological reality of the order of things and epistemically relative accounts of that reality as presented by religious and secular traditions. However, this does not imply imposing truth claims on learners, but rather, enabling them “to pursue truth in an informed and critical manner” (Wright, 2007, p. 7). Furthermore, CRE aims to develop students’ religious literacy, which does not necessarily mean only religious traditions, for it also encompasses worldviews—whether religious, spiritual, or secular (Wright, 2016). In CRE, ‘literacy’ is seen as the capacity to think (reasonably, rationally, emotionally, intelligently, wisely) communicate (linguistically, and through other mediums of expression such as the creative arts) and act (towards

50  Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE ourselves, others, society, culture, nature and the presence/absence being/non-being of Transcendence) in increasingly attentive, intelligent, reasonable, and responsible ways. (Wright, 2016, p. 234) The practice of truthfulness is to live in harmony with the ultimate truth claims. It is about the way in which we live our lives and show some virtues as a sign of our character (Wright, 2007). Whilst truth is regarded “as static and impersonal correspondence with reality” and involves political, religious beliefs and principles, truthfulness is regarded “as an active and personal engagement with the world” (Wright, 2007, p. 14). Behaving in a loyal, honest, upright, and faithful way is deemed as being truthful, which thus raises the question of who defines the ‘true’. According to believers of Abrahamic religions, the truth is revealed by God, whereas people who follow an atheistic or secular path behave according to a set of goals identified by their worldview. In Islam, for example, the ultimate truth claim is the existence and Oneness of Allah and Muslims are required to submit themselves to His will in order to pursue truthfulness. One important difficulty with CRE is the claim about the contested nature of truth claims, for according to Teece (2005), this might lead to conflict between various religious and secular traditions. He gives the example of the death of Christ, which differs according to Christianity and Islam, suggesting that in order to avoid such conflicts and promote greater tolerance among students, religious traditions should be presented as holding equally valid truth claims. Consequently, he further suggests that emphasis should be placed on religious experience over the doctrines and beliefs of religious or secular traditions (Teece, 2005; Barnes & Wright, 2006). It is clear that religious truth claims can conflict with each other and this dissonance between religions can cause tensions in the classroom if it is not dealt with successfully. However, it is hardly possible to have genuine tolerance and freedom by ignoring or trying to neutralise the conflicts of religious truth claims (Wright, 2007). Consequently, it is suggested that RE “must proceed on the basis of mutual acceptance of diversity” in which “a shared agreement” instead of “a common foundation” is appreciated (Barnes & Wright, 2006, p. 73). To achieve this shared agreement, four heuristic rules have been suggested in CRE: freedom of belief, genuine tolerance, wisdom, truth and truthfulness. By embracing this set of values CRE aims “not to offer pupils pre-packaged answers but to empower them to grapple with them for themselves” (Barnes & Wright, 2006, p. 74). In doing so, students will be more likely to gain a more differentiated and complex understanding of their own and other worldviews, and develop a genuine tolerance towards them.

Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE 51 3.1.3 Hermeneutics Hermeneutics is recognised as an important tool in CRE. According to CR, reality is stratified and emergent. Therefore, Wright (2016) argues that in order to explain rationally each stratum of reality, reality as a whole should be subjected to rational scrutiny. This can be pursued through a hermeneutical process of understanding and explaining: “The basic principle of the hermeneutical circle requires parts to be understood in relation to wholes and wholes to be understood in relation to their constituent parts, in an on-going dialectical process” (Wright, 2016, pp. 202–203). The understanding and explanation process in CR refers to the underlying causes and mechanisms of reality, that is, searching beneath the surface of phenomena rather than just eliciting external descriptions of them as is the case in most phenomenological studies (Wright, 2013). Wright adopts Gadamer’s (1979) hermeneutics approach. According to Gadamer, understanding a text is subject to a reader’s presuppositions and prejudices, which runs the risk of getting it wrong or seeing it in a distorted way. To avoid this, there needs to be a continuous dialogue between the horizon of the text and horizon of the reader so as to reach a deeper understanding of the text. In this respect, religious education needs to “empower pupils to recognise and claim ownership of their prior experiences, understandings, prejudices, beliefs and worldviews” (Wright, 2007, p.  201). Furthermore, effective learning should be viewed as dependent on recognition and affirmation of learners’ prior faith commitments, their critical examination, and subsequent transformation (Wright, 2016). In many RE approaches, the focus is either on “disciplinary (e.g. phenomenological, ethnographic) or ideological (e.g. romantic, post-modern)” (Wright, 2007, p. 245) perceptions, with the aim being to develop ways of delivering the subject through the pedagogy of teaching. However, according to Wright (2007), RE should address both fundamental theoretical and practical/pedagogical questions. Therefore, CRE is not merely concerned with the pedagogy of teaching and developing sophisticated teaching methods, rather it offers a theoretical and pedagogical approach to RE in which the theories of teaching and learning are brought into dialogue (Wright, 2007). Students are expected to develop a better understanding of the subject in question, to pursue truth and to cultivate truthful living. Moreover, teachers are more likely to develop professional knowledge by taking into account student learning. In developing its pedagogical aspect, CRE adopts phenomenography and VT. As can be seen in the following section, there are quite a number of similarities between the ontological and epistemological assumptions of CRE, phenomenography, and VT. This relationship and its contribution to RE can further be seen in the studies of Wright and Hella (see Hella & Wright, 2009; Hella, 2009).

52  Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE

3.2 Phenomenography Phenomenography is a qualitative research specialisation developed in the 1970s by Ference Marton and his colleagues in Sweden. It adopts a non-dualistic ontology that brings together the object of learning and the learners as related entities, thus opposing the dualistic ontologies of constructivist theories (Marton & Booth, 1997; Bowden, 2000a). Learners are urged to obtain an object through their senses and represent it in experiences or conceptions created to correspond to the object as truthfully as possible. Thus, phenomenography is interested in “how ‘the problem as such’ is represented in the learners’ mind” (Marton, 2000, p. 104). In essence, this approach rejects the existence of a real, independent, objective world as well as a subjective, constructed one (Marton  & Booth, 1997) and claims that “the experience is as much an aspect of the object as it is of the subject” (Marton, 2000, p. 105). Hence, a way of experiencing something is explained through an “internal relation between the experiencer and the experienced” (Marton & Booth, 1997, p. 113). The non-dualistic approach adopted by phenomenography is quite similar to CR. For, despite CR proposing an objective ultimate reality, its knowledge can only be perceived by the relationship between the ontological and epistemological aspects that correspond to that reality (Scott, 2005). That is to say, the facts or phenomena only become meaningful as we try to understand them and establish a fact-value relationship. Wright also points to relationality by arguing “knowledge is constituted by the relationship between knowing subjects and the objects of knowledge” (Wright, 2016, p.  213). Acknowledging this relationship is considered necessary in order to avoid the assumptions either that learners are passive receptors of knowledge or that knowledge does not have any ontological reality, i.e., being only constructed in the minds of learners (Wright, 2016). Phenomenography is interested in exploring the qualitatively “differing ways in which people experience, perceive, understand, conceptualise various phenomena in and aspects of the world around us” (Marton, 1994, p. 4425). Even though it shares the non-dualistic view and relational ontology with phenomenology, phenomenography differs from it in certain ways. Marton (1981) makes a distinction between the firstorder and second-order perspectives in understanding the phenomenon in question. The first-order perspective is about describing different accounts of the phenomenon. Phenomenography adopts a second-order perspective by which it aims to describe how something is conceived and experienced by people. This is further exemplified as follows: By investigating people’s experience of political power, for instance, the phenomenologist would aim at learning about political power, the psychologist would aim at learning about how people experience

Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE 53 things, taking ‘phenomenography’ as a point of departure we would aim at learning about people’s experience of political power. (Marton, 1981, p. 180). Moreover, whilst phenomenology searches for the common essences of a phenomenon in people’s experiences, phenomenography places greater emphasis on the qualitatively different ways in which this phenomenon is experienced (Marton, 1981). Thus, phenomenography aims to reveal the structure of the collective mind, which appears in qualitatively different, yet interconnected ways (Marton & Booth, 1997). According to Marton and Booth (1997), experiencing the world differs for individuals as they experience different aspects of it at different times and in different contexts. Consequently, experiencing a phenomenon is always partial and context-dependent, resting on the variation experienced in the critical aspects of that phenomenon. Nonetheless, the different ways of understanding a phenomenon are related to each other, in a part-whole relationship, because they eventually give an account of the same reality (Marton & Booth, 1997). Therefore, from the phenomenographic perspective, there are no completely right or wrong conceptions of a phenomenon, but rather, there are incomplete, less sophisticated ways of understanding, which lack some key aspects of the phenomenon that are apparent in its more differentiated and sophisticated forms (Akerlind, 2008). Moreover, this confirms the fact that some people are better than others in terms of learning something. On these grounds, in the phenomenographic research tradition conceptual development is perceived as the expansion of individuals’ already existent awareness of the phenomenon by discerning its aspects that have not been discerned before or have been taken for granted (Akerlind, 2008). There are two facets of phenomenographic studies in terms of the use of variation (Pang, 2003). In the early studies, the focus was on discerning the variation in the ways of experiencing a certain phenomenon. Phenomenographic studies in this phase were rather descriptive and methodologically oriented. Specifically, the focus was on, first, exploring the qualitatively different ways of experiencing/understanding a phenomenon, and second, to search for a relationship between these (Marton, 1981; Marton & Booth, 1997). Different conceptions were introduced in the form of categories that established a logical and inclusive hierarchy (Bowden, 2000b). Moreover, an outcome space was constituted including a minimum but generalisable number of categories (Marton, 1981). Such analysis is also seen valuable for RE since it enables teachers to explore students’ understandings of a religious phenomenon (Hella  & Wright, 2009). In the early 1980s, the focus of phenomenographic studies shifted from being only a theoretical research that describes the qualitatively different ways of phenomena to a more interventional, methodological approach

54  Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE in educational research (Akerlind, 2012). This involved seeking ways to improve teaching and learning, setting general rules, and making the criteria explicit in order to address the object of the research (Marton, 2000). As such, the focus regarding variation shifted away from exploring different ways of experiencing a phenomenon towards understanding a person’s experience of it regarding its critical aspects. The question of “what is a way of experiencing something” (Pang, 2003, p. 148) could be addressed because this was now defined in terms of discerning critical aspects of the phenomenon and experiencing variation in relation to these. In studies focusing on two types of variation, the categories of description refer to the referential aspect of the phenomenon, whereas the critical aspects that differentiate one category/conception from others pertains to the structural aspect, which shows what a person focuses on regarding the phenomenon in question (Pang, 2003). Hence, with the new phenomenographic studies, the aim was to inform teachers and educators about critical aspects, from both the perspective of the learners and curricular aims, which needed to be at the centre of teaching in order to enhance student learning. In sum, the continuity between the two phases of the phenomenographic research tradition generated VT as a learning theory that mainly focuses on ascertaining the necessary conditions for learning to happen.

3.3 Variation Theory Since the 1990s, there have been many publications within the phenomenographic research tradition that developed further the ontological and empirical assumptions of the theory (Marton & Booth, 1997; Bowden & Marton, 1998; Bowden & Walsh, 1994), eventually leading to the development of VT (Marton, Runesson,  & Tsui, 2004). Its focus is to connect student learning and classroom teaching such that students develop “powerful ways of seeing novel situations” (Marton & Pang, 2007, p. 1). This, according to VT, can only be achieved by discerning the critical aspects of the situations or problems under examination, which brings structure of awareness, discernment, and simultaneity to the fore. 3.3.1 Structure of Awareness Driven by the non-dualistic ontology of phenomenography, VT is grounded on the relational nature of the world and the individual. Thus, it purports that meaning is not the object as such, neither is it the mere conception in the person’s head, but rather, derived from the relationship between the object and the knower (Marton & Booth, 1997). In the light of this assumption, “learning proceeds, as a rule, from an undifferentiated and poorly integrated understanding of the whole to an increased differentiation and integration of the whole and its parts” (Marton & Booth, 1997, p. viii). Consequently, learning occurs when there is a change in

Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE 55 the person’s structure of awareness towards experiencing and discerning a specific phenomenon with a new perspective that is more powerful and efficient than before (Marton & Booth, 1997; Marton et al., 2004). Marton and Booth (1997) put it in the following way: That certain structures of awareness are implied by certain ways of understanding; that the learner is simultaneously aware of certain aspects of a situation or a phenomenon; that her awareness of certain aspects logically implies a tacit awareness of other aspects; that certain aspects become figural, in focus or focal, whereas other aspects recede to the ground, and so on. (1997, p. 83) There are two issues regarding structure of awareness. First, it is layered and a person can only focus on a certain number of critical features of a phenomenon at a time. That is, while some of the aspects come to the fore, other aspects retreat to the background. The meaning of the phenomenon then becomes subject to those aspects in the person’s focal awareness (Lo, 2012). Second, people can be aware of something at the same time but not in the same way (Marton & Booth, 1997; Yates, Partridge, & Bruce, 2012). In order to experience something as something, it has to be discerned from its context, yet, in order to experience it from its context it should also be experienced as something particular with a distinctive meaning (Marton & Booth, 1997). Hence, structure and meaning become inextricably intertwined when experiencing something. Thus, experience comprises two aspects: structural and referential. The former refers to the particular experience of something in terms of its context, its parts, as well as the relationship between the parts and the whole. On the other hand, the referential aspect pertains to the meaning received out of the experience and is inextricably related to the structural aspect. This is because meaning is gained after a person sees the context, the parts, and the whole relationship. In essence, the structural aspect gives the phenomenon its overall meaning (Pang, 2003). Similarly, the reason people experience the same phenomenon in different ways is explained in terms of differences in their structure of awareness at a certain time (Marton & Booth, 1997). The structural aspect of experience can be further explained using the terms of internal and external horizons (Marton  & Boot, 1997). The internal horizon includes the parts of the phenomenon, their relationship with each other, and the part-whole relationship. The meaning of the part changes depending on whether it is independent or part of a whole and it can only be meaningful when seen in relation to the whole. For example, in order to identify the internal horizon of ‘being a Muslim’ as the object of learning, it is necessary to introduce students to its critical aspects such as the concept of tawhid (Oneness of God), the

56  Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE faith-practising relationship, and belonging to a Muslim community as well as the relationship between these aspects and Islam as a whole. On the other hand, the external horizon explains how the phenomenon is separated from and related to the context it is embedded in, i.e. it gives the ‘relevance structure’ of the phenomenon. So for example, in order to identify the external horizon of ‘being a Muslim’, the context that it is discerned from needs to be known. To do so, students need to experience Islam in relation to other religious and secular traditions. Experiencing something both in terms of internal and external horizons is linked to the deep approach, whilst an incomplete experience of the whole and its parts is associated with the surface approach.2 In this reading, a more complex, integrated, and complete way of experiencing a phenomenon pertains to the simultaneous experience of its critical aspects as needing to be discerned (Marton & Booth, 1997; Chik & Lo, 2004; Pang, 2003). Hence, simultaneity along with the principles of discernment and variation need to be present to make the experience of a phenomenon possible. 3.3.2 Object of Learning It is argued that “learning is always learning of something” (Marton, Runesson  & Tsui, 2004, p.  4). In VT, the learning object is defined as “the end towards which the learning activity is directed and how it is made sense of by the learner” (Lo & Pong, 2005, p. 14). The object of learning might be a topic, skill or value, which is related to a specific phenomenon and experienced by the learner in a certain way (Bowden & Marton, 1998). It is suggested that the object of learning needs to be decided on merit, that is, whether a topic is worth teaching; students’ prior knowledge of the topic; its relation to the capabilities that are to be achieved by students; and the difficulties students might encounter in terms of learning (Lo, 2012). According to Marton and Booth (1997), the basic structure of learning has two aspects: ‘what’ and ‘how’; and two objects: the direct and indirect objects of learning. The direct object of learning relates to the ‘what’ aspect of learning and refers to a specific learning content such as supply and demand in economics, division in mathematics, or pronunciation in English. The ‘how’ aspect of learning is a long-term goal and comprises two dimensions: the way the act of learning happens and the capabilities to be developed by students during the learning of the object (Marton & Booth, 1997; Lo, 2012), such as developing critical thinking about the concept of poverty (Kwong, 2005). The direct and indirect objects of learning are not separated from each other as the capability is always developed through the content (Kullberg, 2010). With RE, the object of learning is to do with religious literacy, whereby students develop skills, values, and knowledge about a religious phenomenon.

Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE 57 The object of learning has a dynamic structure; it appears on three levels based on teachers’ intentions, students’ encounter with the object of learning, and their learning outcomes (Marton et  al., 2004). The intended object of learning relates to the content and ability that the teacher intends the students to acquire. Basically, it is what teachers desire their students to learn. Usually the object of learning is central to the curriculum and chosen from among the topics that students have difficulties with. However, it is not often achieved in the classroom, for most of the time teachers need to adjust the object of learning in light of the interaction and students’ responses during the lessons (Lo, 2012). Regarding which, in some studies, new critical aspects emerged during the lessons (see Runesson, Kullberg, & Maunula, 2011). However, the object of learning that is encountered in the actual classroom might be different from that intended, as students’ learning depends not only on their experiences in the lesson, but also on their prior knowledge (Chik & Lo, 2004). As a result, what the teacher delivers in the lesson is termed the enacted object of learning, which thus takes into account how the object of learning is introduced in the classroom through use of variation and invariance contributed to by both the teacher and students (Marton et al., 2004). In general, the enacted object of learning demonstrates a dynamic structure that requires teachers to adjust their teaching so as to accommodate the students’ prior knowledge and comprehension difficulties (Lo, 2012). The question of whether students actually learn, or how they experience the object of learning is addressed through the lived object of learning (Marton et  al., 2004), which in some studies is divided into two—before and after the research lessons—in order to evaluate student learning more effectively. Students’ prior knowledge of the object of learning is called ‘the first lived object of learning’ (Pang & Marton, 2005). In this phase, the aim is to identify the critical aspects that lead to the qualitatively different ways of understanding the object of learning. After the lesson(s), usually with the help of a post-test, what students have learnt is explored. As pointed out earlier, what students actually learn might not necessarily be the same as what is intended or what is made possible for them to learn in the lessons. If they have not discerned the identified critical aspects, then they will not have achieved learning. Ascertaining students’ understanding of an object helps the teacher to deepen his/her comprehension of it and thus, to identify the right critical aspects for students to learn regarding that object (Lo, 2012). 3.3.3 Critical Aspects According to VT, every object or phenomenon has numerous aspects, such as size, function, and shape. Critical aspects determine different ways of experiencing an object/phenomenon. Furthermore, they are

58  Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE related to each other, and to the whole; therefore, for better understanding of an object of learning, experiencing and discerning of its critical aspects simultaneously is considered necessary (Lo, 2012). Thus, critical aspects are focused upon and discerned by the person simultaneously and are critical to their understanding of a phenomenon. Many phenomenographic studies show that the reason why people see and experience something in different ways is due to them focusing on different critical aspects (Marton & Booth, 1997; Runesson, Kullberg, & Maunula, 2011). Moreover, VT purports that if we want others to see something in the way that we see it, we must introduce them to the same aspects that we are focusing on (Marton & Pang, 2006; Pang & Lo, 2012). Hence, learning happens when the learner simultaneously discerns the critical aspects of an object that were not previously perceived or were taken for granted (Pang & Marton, 2005). Accordingly, teachers are responsible for identifying these critical aspects by designing the teaching and learning environment in such a way that it makes their discernment possible. Teachers usually have an idea of what the critical aspects of the object of learning are, based on their past experience of teaching that unit/ topic, subject related research, and curricular aims. However, they need to find out the critical aspects in students’ understanding of an object, because it is these aspects that usually lead to learning difficulties, being thus considered a serious impediment to student learning (Lo, 2012). Furthermore, in many studies it has been proven that the critical aspects in students’ understanding are usually different from those that teachers identify in learning (Marton et al, 2004; Guo & Pang, 2011). Hence, if teachers take these critical aspects for granted and do not deal with them in the classroom then there will likely be a gap amongst students in terms of learning (Lo, 2012). Critical aspects in students’ understanding of an object of learning can be identified through pre-lesson tasks and interviews as well as by carefully attending to their learning during lessons (Lo, 2012). Having such tasks and interviews can provide the teacher with the opportunity to explore what issues are salient to the students and why they have difficulties regarding discernment of certain critical aspects. Identifying these will allow for teachers to attend to the subject matter not only in terms of academic content knowledge, but also with regard to the learners’ prior knowledge, a stance supported in this study. In sum, identifying the aspects that are critical to students’ understanding will enable teachers to see the learning gap they exhibit as well as the differences between their own and their students’ understanding of the object of learning. 3.3.4 Patterns of Variation As aforementioned, experiencing a phenomenon is considered as being subject to the structure of awareness. Furthermore, the different

Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE 59 understandings of a phenomenon are explained with respect to the critical aspects that are discerned simultaneously through variation (Pang & Marton, 2005). Hence, discernment is seen as essential for learning to happen, but this will not be the case if it is not preceded by an experienced variation (Lo, 2012). That is, in order to discern a critical aspect of a phenomenon, a dimension of variation regarding this aspect needs to be experienced. In order to facilitate the learner discerning a specific critical aspect of the object of learning, it should be varied with the rest remaining invariant, for in this way the learner can discern the varying aspect (Pang & Marton, 2005). It is argued “the discernment of a critical feature amounts to experiencing a difference between two things or between two parts of the same thing. This is because we cannot discern quality X without simultaneously experiencing a mutually exclusive quality—X” (Marton  & Pang, 2006, p.  199). For example, one cannot discern the aspect of colour without experiencing other colours simultaneously or the aspect of gender could not be discerned if there were only one type of gender, man or woman (Pang, 2003). Despite variation and invariance already being used in many teaching contexts, if teachers are informed about VT, they can use the approach more effectively through applying a systematic framework (Marton  & Pang, 2006). Several studies have pointed out that systematic use of variation contributes to better learning outcomes compared to teaching without any theoretical approach (Runesson, 2005; Marton et al., 2004; Pang & Marton, 2003; Marton & Pang, 2006; Marton & Lo, 2007). It contributes to learning new aspects of an object and thus facilitates the grasping of new meaning (Marton & Morris, 2002). VT introduces the ways of using variation and invariance in a particular learning environment. In order to accomplish this, teachers will need to arrange the learning environment in a way so as to ensure that students will experience variation and be able to discern the critical aspects of the phenomenon simultaneously (Pang, 2009; Guo  & Pang, 2011). The use of variation and invariance is also seen as valuable for RE (Hella, 2008, 2009). According to Hella (2009), through the use of VT teachers can design a teaching and learning environment in which students discern various religious and secular worldviews and the relationship between them in a more differentiated and integrated way. It is important to note that every object of learning requires certain patterns of variation designed to fit a specific learning environment (Marton & Booth, 1997). According to Marton et al. (2004), experiencing a phenomenon in an analytical way with the critical aspects perceived separately but simultaneously, is much more effective than experiencing the phenomenon as an undifferentiated whole. After separating the critical aspects, these need to be brought together such that the learners’ focus is directed at the whole, thus resulting in greater awareness of the object of learning. It is suggested that certain principles be used in order to design

60  Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE the patterns of variation and invariance in learning environments (Marton et al., 2004; Marton & Pang, 2006; Kullberg; 2010; Lo, 2012). It is claimed that they need to be followed particularly for effective perceptual learning (Marton & Pang, 2007). These principles are as follows: 1. Contrast: This refers to discerning a critical aspect by means of experiencing its exclusive forms. Students can gain a new way of understanding if they are provided with opportunities to contrast it with their prior understanding. For example, in order to understand what Islam is they should be able to discern what it is not. Therefore, they need to be introduced to contrasting examples, which could be Christianity, Judaism, and other religious or secular traditions. 2. Separation: Discerning an aspect of a phenomenon requires it being separated from the whole. To do so, this particular aspect needs to be varied while other aspects are to be kept invariant or made to vary at a different level. For example, to discern ‘worshipping Allah’ as a critical aspect of ‘being Muslim’, this aspect should be varied against others. Specifically, students could experience varying examples of practising and non-practising Islam thereby understanding the relationship of ‘worshipping’ with other critical aspects, such as submission to the will of Allah, faith, and morality. 3. Generalisation: In order to generalise the discernment of one specific aspect to different contexts or instances, this aspect is kept invariant, while the contexts or instances are varied. For example, ‘Muslim identity’ could be kept invariant and generalised to different forms of identity such as socio-cultural, ethnic, or denominational backgrounds. Consequently, students will be able to generalise their faith identity by incorporating different identity circumstances. 4. Fusion: Fusion takes place when two or more aspects vary simultaneously, which allows learners to identify the relationship between these two aspects (Marton and Pang, 2013). Moreover, this pattern helps in identifying the part-whole relationship by keeping the whole constant whilst varying the parts. For example, discerning Islam as a whole against the context it is discerned from, two or more critical aspects of Islam could be varied simultaneously, such that students can come to understand Islam holistically in relation to other religious as well as secular worldviews. It is argued that even though the teacher introduces the pattern of variation, it does not necessarily mean that the students will learn, for learning to happen they need to experience the patterns of variation themselves (Marton & Pang, 2006; Lo & Marton, 2011). However, despite occasional failure, the introduction of the pattern of variation and invariance is still a necessary condition for discerning a particular aspect of an object of learning. In general, VT functions as what Nuthall (2004) calls an

Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE 61 ‘explanatory theory’ and a guiding principle for the teacher to learn from their everyday practices as well as to establish a relationship between teaching and student learning. VT is usually put into practice through learning studies, with the aim being to bridge the gap between theory and practice (Marton et al., 2004; Runesson, 2005).

3.4 Learning Study Model The learning study model is used as a sort of action research approach to improve teaching and learning (Marton et al., 2004; Adamson & Walker, 2011). Through learning studies, “teachers are given the opportunity to develop a theory-driven learning environment design with a special focus on the pattern of variation and invariance to be constituted, i.e., which aspects of the direct object of learning are to be varied and which are to be kept invariant” (Pang, 2009, p. 5). The aim is, first, “to build innovative learning environments and to conduct research studies of the theoretically grounded innovations”, and second, “to pool teachers’ valuable experiences in one or a series of research lessons to improve teaching and learning” (Pang & Marton, 2003, p. 179). In essence, while learning study primarily has the goal of enhancing student learning, it also serves the purpose of improving teachers’ pedagogical and professional competences as well as helping them to learn how to deal with the object of learning, in general (Pang, 2009; Runesson et al., 2011). Learning study combines the principles of the ‘design experiment’ (see Cobb, Confrey, Lehrer, & Schauble, 2003) and the ‘lesson study’ model, which is mostly used in Chinese and Japanese education settings (Yoshida, 1999). It is similar to ‘design experiments’, given its aim to develop innovative learning environments supported by a specific theory, but at the same time it differs in two respects. First, while in design experiments two different learning environment designs grounded in different theories are compared in order to evaluate the impact of them on student learning, in learning study, the theory is used to facilitate learning for the learners (Pang  & Marton, 2003, 2005; Kullberg, 2010). Second, with learning study, teachers use the theory as a tool in order to improve teaching and learning by designing the lessons themselves. The researcher’s role is to assist them in implementing the theory; while in design experiments the researchers are responsible for actually designing the lessons (Marton & Pang, 2006; Pang, 2009). During a learning study, the teacher(s) work with the researcher(s) and together they co-plan and design a series of ‘research lessons’. This is standard practice in the model, in which the importance of collaboration between researchers and teachers, between teachers themselves as well as the salience of responding to specific educational contexts and the needs of particular groups of students is stressed (Lo, Pong,  & Chik, 2005; Marton & Pang, 2006). From this perspective, learning study is similar

62  Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE to ‘lesson study’; however, it differs by being grounded in an educational theory, which is mainly VT (Marton et al., 2004; Pang & Marton, 2003). The resources to be used in the learning study process are: subject related research, theories of learning, and the curricular aims of the topic along with the students’ prior knowledge of the object (Holmqvist, Brante, & Tullgren, 2007; Pang, 2009). 3.4.1 Learning Study Process A learning study progresses through five stages (Pang & Marton, 2003; Pang & Marton, 2005; Lo, Pong, & Chik, 2005), which include classroom observations, pre- and post-lesson interviews, written tasks, and meetings with participating teachers as data collection methods. Some of these steps might occur simultaneously and there might be iterative cycles for some (Lo et al., 2005). Through these steps, the researchers and teachers focus on the goal of addressing the ‘intended’, ‘enacted’, and ‘lived’ objects of learning, which will help them “to understand the relationship between teaching and learning so that the knowledge gained can be fed back into teaching and generalized as professional knowledge” (Pang & Lo, 2012, p. 595). The stages of a learning study are explained below: Stage 1. Choosing the Object of Learning In a learning study, first, the object of learning is identified, which could be a specific topic, skill or ability needing to be developed (e.g. see subsection 3.4.2). The distinctive characteristic of a learning study is that it is concerned with “how can the object of learning ‘X’ be taught so that students can see ‘X’ in the way intended?” (Pang & Lo, 2012, p. 593). X refers to the object of learning and is chosen at the end of a number of meetings between teacher(s) and researcher(s). Stage 2. Exploring Students’ Prior Understandings of the Object of Learning Students’ prior understanding of the object of learning is ascertained before the research lessons in order to find out the critical aspects in their responses. Usually, a pre-lesson written test/task is administered to students, which is sometimes supplemented by interviews. The data is used to redefine the object of learning and plan the research lessons. Stage 3. Planning, Delivering and Revising the Lessons In this stage, teacher(s) and researcher(s) plan and design research lessons by using the data derived from students’ prior understanding of the object of learning, the subject related research, the curricular aims as well

Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE 63 as the related teaching and learning theories. Subsequently, teacher(s) implement the lesson plan in different cycles with different students. Next, they usually have post-lesson meetings with the researcher(s) and/ or other teachers in order to evaluate the lessons in terms of how the object of learning and its critical aspects appeared and were identified in the classroom, thereby being able to improve the lesson plan for the next cycle(s). Stage 4. Evaluating the Lessons A post-lesson written task/test is administered to students followed by post-lesson interviews to find out whether and if so, how they learned the object of learning. This stage can be visited after each cycle in order to improve teaching for the next. In the final evaluation, all pre-lesson and post-lesson data are evaluated to see if students have acquired the intended knowledge, capabilities, and values. The lessons are evaluated in terms of the relationship between teaching and student learning outcomes. Stage 5. Reporting and Disseminating the Results This step includes reporting the aims, processes, and results of the learning study in order to generate shared knowledge for other teachers and educators in the subject area. 3.4.2 Learning Study in Educational Research Learning studies are adopted for two main purposes: to improve student learning, and to develop teachers’ pedagogy. The focus of the earlier learning studies was mainly on student learning, such as when Marton and Pang (2006) studied the object of learning ‘change in price in terms of demand and supply’, and applied patterns of variation to a series of lessons. They had one target and one comparison group. It was found that the target group for which the teachers used patterns of variation had performed better in terms of student learning when compared to the other group. This result was supported by many other learning studies (e.g. see Pang, 2009; Marton & Lo, 2007; Guo & Pang, 2011). It has also been found that learning studies can help lower the gap between low and high achieving students (Lo & Marton, 2011). In general, it is argued that learning studies grounded in VT are more likely to improve student learning by providing them with opportunities to gain a more differentiated and complex understanding of the object of learning. In the later studies, a distinctive focus appeared—that of teachers’ learning and teachers’ professional development through learning studies (e.g. see Davies & Dunnill, 2008; Gustavsson, 2008; Holmqvist, 2011;

64  Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE Pang, 2006; Tan, 2018; Royea & Nicol, 2018). For example, Davies and Dunnill (2008) investigated the change in trainee teachers’ understanding of teaching after their involvement in learning studies, whilst Holmqvist (2011) examined teachers’ learning focusing on their approach to content, planning, and influence on student learning. The latter study also included experimental and control groups, with the conclusion being made that the use of VT helps improve teachers’ planning and implementation of lessons, which subsequently improves student learning. Msonde (2011) investigated the impact of learning studies on the improvement of teachers’ capabilities through use of a learner-centred approach in the teaching of mathematics. He found that through the learning study approach the teachers shifted their focus from methodological issues to the object of learning, which in turn improved student learning. In Nilsson (2014), the aim was to develop science teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge through learning studies that would allow them to develop knowledge about their students and to reflect on their teaching processes. These studies were interested in the impact of learning studies on developing teachers’ perceptions of teaching, increasing their responsiveness towards student learning, and different ways of dealing with the object of learning. The uniqueness of this current study is that the learning studies conducted for this involve adopting CRE as a theoretical approach alongside VT. Furthermore, many learning studies have been conducted in the areas of science, mathematics, and language education, whereas studies carried out in humanities subjects such as history have been few, and none in RE. Therefore, this study is unique in that it introduces a systematic perspective that gives an insight into how to identify the critical aspects, applying the patterns of variation and making a judgment about whether students actually acquired the object of learning in RE. Thus, it contributes to the literature regarding the implications and limitations of learning studies for humanities subjects.

Conclusion This chapter has outlined the theories of CRE, phenomenography, VT, and the learning study model. The theories of CRE and VT have been suggested as useful tools in improving the pedagogy of IRE. It has been argued that CRE enables teachers and students to develop knowledge about the ultimate truth claims of Islam and epistemically diverse interpretations within the Islamic tradition. It can help students develop religious literacy through which they can gain a deeper understanding of their faith in an attentive and critical manner. Moreover, they can develop genuine tolerance towards different interpretations within Islam as well as in other religious and secular worldviews. This chapter has also suggested that VT can provide RE teachers with opportunities to create the necessary conditions for effective learning by way of ascertaining what

Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE 65 students already know about a religious worldview or phenomenon and expanding their knowledge through engagement with diverse and oftcontested accounts of this phenomenon represented by diverse religious and secular worldviews. Finally, the learning study model has been suggested as a research approach through which the theories of CRE and VT can be applied to the IRE context in a more efficient way. It allows teachers to observe and reflect on their teaching based on the feedback from students’ learning outcomes and the ‘research lessons’. Consequently, this inquiry process to teaching will most likely contribute to the teacher’s pedagogical beliefs and practices.

Notes 1. St  Anselm, a medieval theologian, coined the phrase ‘faith seeking understanding’ as one of the tasks of theology (Migliore, 2014). 2. Two general approaches to learning were found in the studies of Marton and Säljö (1976) and Entwistle and Ramsden (1983), known as ‘deep’ and ‘surface’ approaches. Surface approach to learning includes acquisition, storing, reproduction, and use of knowledge, whilst deep approach pertains to construction of meaning, development of an understanding and of personal change and is associated with high quality teaching (Trigwell & Prosser, 1991). It is argued that students who hold a deep approach to their learning are more likely to achieve higher learning outcomes compared to those with surface approach (Marton  & Säljö, 1976; Trigwell  & Prosser, 1991; Purdie  & Hattie, 2002; Peterson, Brown & Irving, 2010).

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66  Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE Bowden, J. A., & Walsh, E. (1994). Phenomenographic research: Variations in method. Melbourne: Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT). Chik, P. P. M., & Lo, M. L. (2004). Simultaneity and the enacted object of learning. In F. Marton, A. B. M. Tsui, P. P. M. Chik, P. Y. Ko, M. L. Lo, I. A. C. Mok  .  .  . F. P. Ng (Eds.), Classroom discourse and the space of learning (pp. 89–113). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Cobb, P., Confrey, J., Lehrer, R., & Schauble, L. (2003). Design experiments in educational research. Educational Researcher, 32(1), 9–13. Davies, P.,  & Dunnill, R. (2008). ‘Learning study’ as a model of collaborative practice in initial teacher education. Journal of Education for Teaching, 34(1), 3–16. Easton, C., Goodman, A., Wright, A.,  & Wright, A. (2019). Critical religious education in practice: A teacher’s guide for the secondary classroom. London: Routledge. [Wright, A.=Andrew and Angela]. Entwistle, N., & Ramsden, P. (1983). Understanding student learning [Routledge revivals]. London: Routledge. Erricker, C. (2010). Religious education: A  conceptual and interdisciplinary approach for secondary level. London: Routledge. Erricker, C., & Erricker, J. (2000). Reconstructing religious, spiritual, and moral education. London/New York, NY: Routledge. Franck, O. (2015). Critical religious education: Highlighting religious truth claims in non-confessional educational contexts. British Journal of Religious Education, 37(3), 225–239. Gadamer, H. G. (1979). Truth and method. London: Sheed and Ward. Gearon, L. (2013). MasterClass in religious education: Transforming teaching and learning. New York, NY: Bloomsbury. Goodman, A. (2018). Critical religious education (CRE) in practice: Evaluating the reception of an introductory scheme of work. British Journal of Religious Education, 40(2), 232–241. Guo, J. P., & Pang, M. F. (2011). Learning a mathematical concept from comparing examples: The importance of variation and prior knowledge. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 26(4), 495–525. Gustavsson, L. (2008). Att bli ba¨ttre la¨rare [Becoming a better teacher]. Umea and Kristianstad: Umea University and Kristianstad University College. Hay, D. (1985). Suspicion of the spiritual: Teaching religion in a world of secular experience. British Journal of Religious Education, 7(3), 140–147. Hella, E. (2008). Variation in Finnish students’ understanding of Lutheranism and its implications for religious education: A phenomenographic study. British Journal of Religious Education, 30(3), 247–257. Hella, E. (2009). Developing students’ worldview literacy through variation: Pedagogical prospects of critical religious education and the variation theory of learning for further Education. Journal of Chaplaincy in Further Education, 5(1), 4–11. Hella, E., & Wright, A. (2009). Learning ‘about’ and ‘from’ religion: Phenomenography, the variation theory of learning and religious education in Finland and the UK. British Journal of Religious Education, 31(1), 53–64. Holmqvist, M. (2011). Teachers’ learning in a learning study. Instructional Science, 39(4), 497–511.

Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE 67 Holmqvist, M., Gustavsson, L.,  & Wernberg, A. (2007). Generative learning: Learning beyond the learning situation. Educational Action Research, 15(2), 181–208. Hookway, S. R. (2004). Questions of truth: Developing critical thinking skills in secondary religious education. Norwich: Religious and Moral Education Press. Jackson, R. (1997). Religious education: An interpretive approach. London: Hodder. Jackson, R. (2004). Rethinking religious education and plurality. Oxon: Routledge Falmer. Kullberg, A. (2010). What is taught and what is learned: Professional insights gained and shared by teachers of mathematics. Gothenburg Studies in Educational Sciences, 293. Göteborg: Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis. Kwong, S. P. (2005). The use of variation theory in developing students’ critical thinking skills (Unpublished master thesis). The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10722/41193 Lo, M. L. (2012). Variation theory and the improvement of teaching and learning. Göteborg: Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis. Lo, M. L., & Marton, F. (2011). Towards a science of the art of teaching: Using variation theory as a guiding principle of pedagogical design. International Journal for Lesson and Learning Studies, 1(1), 7–22. Lo, M. L., & Pong, W. Y. (2005). Catering for individual differences: Building on variation. In M. L. Lo, W. Y. Pong, & C. P. M. Pakey (Eds.), For each and everyone: Catering for individual differences through learning studies (pp. 9–26). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Lo, M. L., Pong, W. Y.,  & Chik, P. P. M. (Eds.). (2005). For each and everyone: Catering for individual differences through learning studies (Vol. 1). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Marton, F. (1981). Phenomenography—Describing conceptions of the world around us. Instructional Science, 10(2), 177–200. Marton, F. (1994). Phenomenography. In T. P. Husen  & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), The international encyclopaedia of education (2nd ed., Vol. 8, pp. 4424– 4429). Oxford: Pergamon. Marton, F. (2000). The structure of awareness. In J. A. Bowden  & E. Walsh (Eds.), Phenomenography (pp. 102–117). Melbourne: RMIT University Press. Marton, F., & Booth, S. A. (1997). Learning and awareness. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Elbaum. Marton, F., & Lo, M. L. (2007). Learning from “the learning study”. Tidskrift för lärarutbildning och forskning [Journal of Research in Teacher Education], 14(1), 31–44. Marton, F., & Pang, M. F. (2006). On some necessary conditions of learning. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 15(2), 193–220. Marton, F., & Pang, M. F. (2007). Connecting student learning and classroom teaching through the variation framework. Paper presented at the Biennial Conference for Research on Learning and Instruction, August 28–September 1, 2007, Budapest, Hungary. Marton, F.,  & Pang, M. F. (2013). Meanings are acquired from experiencing differences against a background of sameness, rather than from experiencing sameness against a background of difference: Putting a conjecture to the test by embedding it in a pedagogical tool. Frontline Learning Research, 1(1), 24–41.

68  Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE Marton, F., Runesson, U., & Tsui, A. B. M. (2004). The space of learning. In F. Marton, A. B. M. Tsui, P. P. M. Chik, P. Y. Ko, M. L. Lo, I. A. C. Mok . . . F. P. Ng (Eds.), Classroom discourse and the space of learning (pp. 3–43). Mahwa, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Marton, F.,  & Säljö, R. (1976). On qualitative differences in learning: I— Outcome and process. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46(1), 4–11. Marton, F., Tsui, A. B. M., Chik, P. P. M., Ko, P. Y., Lo, M. L., Mok, I. A. C. . . . Ng, F. P. (Eds.). (2004). Classroom discourse and the space of learning. Mahwa, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Marton, F., & Morris, P. (2002). What matters? Discovering critical conditions of classroom learning. Göteborg: Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis. Migliore, D. L. (2014). Faith seeking understanding: An introduction to Christian theology. Cambridge: William. B. Eerdmans. Msonde, C. E. (2011). Enhancing teachers’ competencies on learner-centred approaches through learning study in Tanzanian schools (Unpublished PhD thesis). The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10722/146125 Nilsson, P. (2014). When teaching makes a difference: Developing science teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge through learning study. International Journal of Science Education, 36(11), 1794–1814. Nuthall, G. (2004). Relating classroom teaching to student learning: A critical analysis of why research has failed to bridge the theory-practice gap. Harvard Educational Review, 74(3), 273–306. Pang, M. F. (2003). Two faces of variation: On continuity in the phenomenographic movement. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 47(2), 145–156. Pang, M. F. (2006). The use of learning study to enhance teacher professional learning in Hong Kong. Teaching Education, 17(1), 27–42. Pang, M. F. (2009). Using the learning study grounded on the variation theory to improve students’ mathematical understanding. Journal of Education, 1(1), 1–13. Pang, M. F., & Lo, M. L. (2012). Learning study: Helping teachers to use theory, develop professionally, and produce new knowledge to be shared. Instructional Science, 40(3), 589–606. Pang, M. F., & Marton, F. (2003). Beyond “lesson study”: Comparing two ways of facilitating the grasp of some economic concepts. Instructional Science, 31(3), 175–194. Pang, M. F., & Marton, F. (2005). Learning theory as teaching resource: Enhancing students’ understanding of economic concepts. Instructional Science, 33(2), 159–191. Peterson, E. R., Brown, G. T., & Irving, S. E. (2010). Secondary school students’ conceptions of learning and their relationship to achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(3), 167–176. Purdie, N. M., & Hattie, J. (2002). Assessing students’ conceptions of learning. Australian Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology, 2, 17–32. Royea, D. A., & Nicol, C. (2018). Pre-service teachers’ experiences of learning study: Learning with and using variation theory. Educational Action Research. doi:10.1080/09650792.2018.1515094

Applying the Framework of CRE and VT to IRE 69 Runesson, U. (2005). Beyond discourse and interaction. Variation: A  critical aspect for teaching and learning mathematics. Cambridge Journal of Education, 35(1), 69–87. Runesson, U., Kullberg, A., & Maunula, T. (2011). Sensitivity to student learning: A possible way to enhance teachers’ and students’ learning? In O. Z. P. Sullivan (Ed.), Constructing knowledge for teaching secondary mathematics (pp. 263–278). New York, NY: Springer. Scott, D. (2005). Critical realism and empirical research methods in education. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 39(4), 633–646. Tan, Y. S. M. (2018). Learning study is “hard”: Case of pre-service biology teachers in British Columbia. International Journal for Lesson and Learning Studies, 7(1), 37–49. Teece, G. (2005). Traversing the gap: Andrew Wright, John Hick and critical religious education. British Journal of Religious Education, 27(1), 29–40. Trigwell, K., & Prosser, M. (1991). Relating approaches to study and quality of learning outcomes at the course level. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 61(3), 265–275. Wright, A. (2000). The spiritual education project: Cultivating spiritual and religious literacy through a critical pedagogy of religious education. In M. Grimmitt (Ed.), Pedagogies of religious education: Case studies in the research and development of good pedagogic practice in RE (pp. 170–187). Great Wakering, Essex: McCrimmons. Wright, A. (2004). Religion, education and post-modernity. London: Routledge. Wright, A. (2007). Critical religious education, multiculturalism and the pursuit of truth. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Wright, A. (2008). Contextual religious education and the actuality of religions. British Journal of Religious Education, 30(1), 3–12. Wright, A. (2013). Christianity and critical realism: Ambiguity, truth and theological literacy. Oxon/New York, NY: Routledge. Wright, A. (2016). Religious education and critical realism: Knowledge, reality and religious literacy. Oxon/New York, NY: Routledge. Yates, C., Partridge, H., & Bruce, C. (2012). Exploring information experiences through phenomenography. Library and Information Research, 36(112), 96–119. Yoshida, M. (1999). Lesson study [Jugyokenkyu] in elementary school mathematics in Japan: A case study. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association [1999 Annual Meeting]. Montreal, Canada. Zembylas, M., Loukaidis, L., & Antoniou, M. (2018). Enacting critical hermeneutics in religious education: Epistemological tensions, contextual realities, and teachers’ challenges. Journal of Beliefs & Values. doi:10.1080/13617672. 2018.1468701

4 Research Methodology

In the light of the problems and discussions in Chapters 1, 2 and 3, this chapter aims at developing a new way of teaching and learning for IRE from the perspective of CR, CRE, and VT through qualitative research, with Muslim students in two secondary schools in London. In order to fulfil this goal, the following questions have been addressed: •

What can we learn from the theoretical and pedagogical framework of CRE and VT regarding the development of the pedagogy of IRE? • What kind of variation in understanding the object of learning did Muslim students have prior to the introduction of framework of CRE and VT in RE classes? How did their understanding of the object of learning change/evolve during the learning study? • What were the pedagogical perceptions and practices of the RE teachers before this study? Did this change during the use of the theoretical and pedagogical framework of CRE and VT and if so, how? In this chapter, the methodological framework for this research is introduced. First, CR is presented as the research paradigm underlying the ontological and epistemological assumptions of this study. Next, phenomenography as the qualitative research approach is introduced and subsequently, the learning study model as a method of investigation is described. This is followed by presentation of the research design, including the process of and justification for the sampling, the data collection methods as well as explanation of the data analysis process. Finally, the ethical concerns and trustworthiness of the study are discussed.

4.1 Research Approach The ontological and epistemological assumptions that underpin this research are informed by the philosophy of CR. From the critical realist perspective, natural and social reality is perceived as ontologically real, stratified, and emergent. However, the knowledge of reality is obtained through a deep ontological association between the object and the

Research Methodology 71 knower, which is subjective and epistemically relative (Bhaskar, 2008). CR has not been identified with any particular research methodology (Wilkinson, 2011). It plays an ‘underlabourer’ role to guide research and practice in natural and social sciences in terms of ontological, epistemological, and methodological matters (Bhaskar, 2008). Therefore, a philosophical framework provided by CR could work well with a qualitative research approach that is congruent with the basic ontological and epistemological assumptions of this paradigm. A qualitative approach is adopted for this research as it is considered more appropriate for addressing the research questions. The qualitative approach provides the researchers with detailed and rich explanation of social phenomena in their contexts, through various data collection methods that are responsive and adaptable to different social contexts (Mason, 2002). This research aims to explore how Muslim students understand religious phenomena and how to make use of this knowledge in IRE. Researching young people from a particular faith background is a complex, value-laden process, which requires an explorative, in-depth qualitative research methodology. This approach is chosen also because it allows for the study of a single case or a few cases, in depth (Silverman, 2011). This is particularly appropriate for this study as the aim is to find out whether—and if so, how—the pedagogy of IRE could be developed through the learning study model. Within the qualitative research approach, phenomenography is adopted on the grounds that its perspective of reality is consistent with the critical realist stance as its proponents also oppose to the idea of individuality in terms constructing the knowledge of reality. According to Marton and Booth (1997), learning always takes an object. Thus, in phenomenographic research, the relationality of the object and the knower is essential in order to gain a more developed understanding regarding the object. Phenomenography is based on the premise that “each phenomenon, concept or principle can be understood in a limited number of qualitatively different ways” (Marton, 1986, p. 30). Therefore, it aims to explore “the qualitatively different ways in which people experience, conceptualise, perceive, and understand various aspects, and phenomena in the world around them” (Marton, 1986, p.  31). This may well be the aim of many qualitative approaches, but they usually have the goal of exemplifying some general problems, rather than exploring how people understand different phenomena. For instance, within the interpretive approach the aim is to understand “the subjective world of human experiences” (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2000, p. 22). However, it is claimed that describing different ways of experiencing various phenomena should be the subject of research in its own right. The main goal with phenomenographic analysis is to extract some holistic meanings with regard to the phenomenon in question rather than searching for themes according to the number count of items being

72  Research Methodology mentioned as in content analysis. Consequently, phenomenography provides a holistic picture of the phenomenon and not individual descriptions (Bowden, 2005). In this case, the meaning is derived from the collective understanding of the phenomenon, which can be used to “facilitate the transition from one way of thinking to a qualitatively ‘better’ perception of reality” (Marton, 1986, p. 33). Another distinctive feature of phenomenography is that the categories of description are not constituted beforehand, but rather, drawn from the research data. That is, they are already embedded in the data and the role of the researcher is to draw them out (Walsh, 2000; Sharma, Stewart, & Prosser, 2004). Given its inductive nature, phenomenography is similar to a grounded theory approach, whereby the meaning and concepts are derived from raw data. However, there are essential differences as in the grounded theory the earlier findings impact on any subsequent data collection and hence, the research design (Green, 2005). By adopting CR, this study considers reality as ontologically real and yet accessible to some extent through a critical, rational, and informed judgment process. Moreover, the phenomenographic research approach is adopted to explore how Muslim pupils understand/perceive an object/ phenomenon related to Islam and what are the critical aspects in their understanding of it. From this it stands to reason that the students will be able to engage with different accounts of reality, in the light of a systematic framework of CRE and VT, thereby arriving at a more differentiated and complex understanding of the object/phenomenon they are supposed to understand.

4.2 Implementation of Learning Studies In order to examine the research questions of this study in depth, two learning studies were carried out in two different schools. The first was conducted in a Muslim girls’ secondary school, whist the second was undertaken in a girls’ community secondary school, both of which lasted for six months. The studies were analysed using phenomenography and VT, with the findings being reported separately. The process of each learning study was as follows: 1. Choosing the Object of Learning The selection of the object of learning was based on the discussions with the RE teachers in the preparatory meetings and decisions were subsequently made based on their previous experiences and the difficulty of the topic for the students. In the first study, the object of learning was chosen as ‘developing students’ understanding of Islam and being a Muslim’ based on the unit of ‘being a Muslim’. The object of learning for the second study was decided as ‘developing students’ understanding of

Research Methodology 73 equality in Islam’ based on the unit ‘equality in Islam’. The lessons were planned according to the time allocated for these units. 2. Exploring Students’ Pre-Understandings of the Object of Learning In the next stage, the students’ pre-understandings of the object of learning were identified. In both studies, they were given a written task that asked them to describe their understanding of the object of learning. Then, semi-structured interviews were conducted with a sample of them in order to contextualise and supplement the written data. The main aim of this pre-test was to identify the critical aspects in the students’ understanding of the object of learning that they were asked to focus on, and to make use of this feedback to design the teaching-learning environment, in accordance with the framework of CRE and VT. After completing the pre-test of the students, the preliminary results were shared with the teachers in a meeting. The students’ prior knowledge of the object of learning and the absences in their knowledge were discussed. The findings can be seen in sections 5.1 and 6.1. 3. Planning, Delivering, and Revising the Lessons In multiple meetings with the researcher, the teachers planned and designed a series of lessons. There were six lessons in the first learning study and five lessons in the second. When planning and designing the lessons, the students’ prior knowledge, the curricular aims, the subject-related research and finally, the teachers’ own perceptions and experiences of the topic were taken into consideration. The teachers designed the lessons and developed the teaching methods in a way that introduced the students to critical variation in their established understandings of the object of the learning. In particular, they focused on the varying and invariant aspects of the object of learning. Following this, they delivered the lessons, which were observed and video-recorded by the researcher. After each lesson, the teachers and the researcher met to share their thoughts and iteratively revised the lesson plans for the second cycle in the light of student feedback, the teacher’s experiences, and reflections. The critical aspects that had not been discerned in the first cycle were further emphasised, with new varying instances being added to the lesson plan. The same process of teaching was applied to the second cycle. Subsequently, the observational data was analysed through phenomenographic methods. 4. Evaluating the Impact of the Lessons After all the research lessons, the students were post-tested using the same cycle of written tasks and follow-up interviews conducted during the

74  Research Methodology pre-test. The aim was to explore what they had actually learnt by the end of the lessons and to elicit whether—and if so, how—their understandings of the object of learning had changed. The researcher conducted a phenomenographic analysis of the post-test data and then compared the pre- and post-lesson student learning outcomes in order to find out if the previously identified critical aspects had been discerned by the students after the teaching. Furthermore, whether any new critical aspects had emerged in the post-lesson data was also examined. 5. Reporting and Disseminating the Results The results of the study were disseminated to the participating teachers in a meeting. The feedback that was received from them was considered important in terms of improving the framework as well as validating the findings of the study. The researcher also reported the outcomes to RE researchers at King’s College London, and to the wider research community through various conference presentations.

4.3 Sampling of Research Participants Qualitative research generally involves a ‘purposive’, non-probability approach to the sampling process in contrast to the random sampling strategies of quantitative research, aimed at acquiring a statistically representative sample within a wider population (Ritchie, Lewis, & Gillian, 2003; Mason, 2002). The purposive sampling process is intended “to sample cases/participants in a strategic way, so that those sampled are relevant to the research questions that are being posed” (Bryman, 2012, p. 418). Purposive sampling is considered more suitable for indepth studies (Ritchie, Lewis, & Gillian, 2003) and commonly used in phenomenography (Yates, Partridge,  & Bruce, 2012). Consequently, for this study a purposive, i.e., a deliberate sampling strategy was chosen. The purposive approach to the sampling process helps the sampling population to be independent and represent diversity (Mason, 2002). Consequently, to maximise variation within the sample, the participants were selected from diverse backgrounds, which would provide rich and in-depth exploration of the research questions. In phenomenographic studies, there are no set criteria regarding the nature of the sample, in particular its size, apart from it requiring contrasting contexts and providing rich descriptions of the phenomenon of interest (Yates, Partridge, & Bruce, 2012). Therefore, in this study, the sample size was identified based on the number of respondents who gave their consent to take part in the research. In the following, the process of selecting the participating schools, the teachers, and the students will be explained.

Research Methodology 75 4.3.1 The Schools A sequential, convenience sampling has been adopted in the selection of the schools as the sampling process was not fixed at the outset and the participants were chosen with regard to their relevance to the research as it evolved (Ritchie et al., 2003; Teddlie & Yu, 2007). At the beginning of the study, the aim was to approach only one faith school. Later on, I decided to recruit a non-faith community school as I thought it would contribute to the value of the research in terms of richness and quality, for this would provide variation owing to the application of the framework of CRE and VT to a non-Muslim school environment. After gaining ethical approval from King’s College London I  began searching for Muslim girls’ secondary schools in London. The main reason for selecting a Muslim faith school was that my research is focused primarily on Muslim students and teachers. Furthermore, it had to be a secondary school as the framework to be used in the study required high levels of religious literacy and complex ways of thinking. Several Muslim-faith secondary schools in London were contacted through ­ repeated phone calls and emails seeking permission to carry out research in their schools. The first school that finally agreed to participate in the research was an independent Muslim girls’ secondary school in London and access was granted to that school via the RE teacher who volunteered to participate in my research. This school had a diverse and multi-cultural student population. The school delivers confessional Islamic RE based on the fundamental principles of the Qur’an and Sunnah. However, it also claims to have a pluralistic nature, respecting British culture and identity in the curriculum. Neither the school policy nor RE embraces any specific cultural identity. The second learning study was conducted in a non-denominational secondary school in a densely Muslim-populated area of London. I was constrained in my choice with regards to access to the schools as well as by the necessity that they had to be teaching about Islam. Through accessing one of the RE teachers in the school, permission was granted for the study to be undertaken during the second semester of the academic year. The RE curriculum in the school is specified as non-denominational, embracing six world religions in accordance with the locally-agreed syllabus in RE. It is focused on philosophy, religion, and ethics, these being considered as suiting all pupils. The curriculum gives greater importance to the content and methodology of the subject. 4.3.2 RE Teachers Two RE teachers took part in the research. Both were from a Muslim background, second-generation, i.e. born and raised in the UK. The first

76  Research Methodology was a qualified religious studies teacher, who had 14 years of teaching experience, and a master’s degree in ‘Islamic Studies and Translation’. She was the head of RS department in the school and in charge of developing the RS curriculum for year groups seven, eight, and nine. I met her at a conference where she agreed to take part in the research. The teacher had an academic interest in the philosophy of CR and its application to Islam. Her pedagogical perspective also seemed to have been influenced by this theoretical approach, which is explored in detail in Chapter 7. Initially, we talked about VT, the learning study process, the elements of CR and CRE, and discussed how to apply these to RS lessons. In addition, she was given some reading materials for her to become familiar with the framework of CRE and VT along with the process of a learning study. The second teacher was originally a humanities teacher who taught geography in the past. She had been teaching KS3, KS4 and GCSE stages of RE for five years. She was approached by the vice principal of the school to participate in the research. Unlike the first teacher, she was not familiar with any of the theories. She was also provided with some readings about the proposed framework. Notably, she attended an individual seminar session held by Professor Andrew Wright at King’s College London. I gained informed consent from the participating teachers. In an introductory meeting, I explained to them the purpose of my research, the process I intended to adopt, and their role. Moreover, we discussed practical issues such as the time scale for the meetings, lessons, and interviews. The teacher data were collected in two phases. First, in accordance with the requirements of a learning study, I had several meetings with them for planning, implementation, discussion, and evaluation of the research lessons. Furthermore, I observed and video-recorded these research lessons. In the second phase, in terms of addressing the third research question of this study, I conducted pre- and post-interviews with the teachers and observed a number of regular lessons before the learning study and the research lessons during it. During these lessons, I focused on the teachers’ pedagogical perceptions and practices and the impact of the framework of CRE and VT on their teaching after its application. 4.3.3 Students Muslim female students from two secondary schools in London volunteered to take part in this research. Thirty students (aged 11) of two 7th grade classes from a Muslim girls’ secondary school participated in the first learning study, whilst twenty-eight students (aged 12) of two 8th grade classes from a community secondary school took part in the second learning study. The participants were mainly third or second generation, who had grown up in the UK, but they had diverse ethnic backgrounds. This diversity was more apparent in the first school, where the students

Research Methodology 77 were of Arab, African, South Asian, and Middle Eastern Muslim origin. In the second school, because of its locality, the students mostly had Bangladeshi, Pakistani, and Indian ethnic backgrounds. Furthermore, with the help of the teachers, the identified potential participants were chosen so as to represent a range of abilities. Specifically, I asked them to select equal numbers of those who they considered to be high, medium, and low achievers.

4.4 Data Collection Tools In this study, four data collection instruments were utilised, which are pre- and post-lesson written tasks, pre- and post-lesson interviews, video recording of lessons, and meetings with the teachers. 4.4.1 Written Tasks The written task was administered to all the students twice: Before and after the research lessons. Regarding the first written task, the aim was to explore their pre-understanding of the object of learning, to identify the critical aspects that were in their focal awareness and to allow them to reflect on their understanding (Akerlind, 2003). The outcomes were used as supplementary to the interview data and taken into consideration when planning and designing research lessons (Bowden & Marton, 1998). They were also useful for the teacher to uncover the variation between her conception and that of the students regarding the object of learning (Marton, 1981). The written task in the first study included one question, (Could you explain what ‘Islam’ is and what ‘being a Muslim’ means to you?), whereas there were two questions in the second study, (Could you explain, giving examples, what you understand about the word equality? Could you explain what you already know about equality in the Islamic religion?). These questions were asked as open-ended ones in order to allow the students to express their opinions as freely and openly as possible. The post-lesson written task was identical to the first as the aim was to ascertain whether the students had developed a better understanding of the phenomenon of interest and whether they had discerned the critical aspects of which they were not aware previously. Their learning outcomes were utilised for revising the lesson plans and restructuring the patterns of variation. 4.4.2 Interviews The aim of conducting interviews was to ascertain the respondents’ prior and post understanding of the object of learning. In qualitative research, interviewing is considered as an effective tool as the researcher can gain

78  Research Methodology insight into the interviewee’s beliefs, perceptions, and experiences regarding the phenomenon of interest as well as the social context in which it is situated (Holstein  & Gubrium, 1995). There are different forms of interviewing; in this study, I  adopted phenomenographic interviewing (Bowden, 2005; Akerlind, 2005a). Marton (2000) argues that interviewing is the most prevalent method in phenomenographic data collection since it allows the researcher to get a clear grasp of the respondents’ conception of the phenomenon and to uncover the structured meaning in their understanding, which cannot be achieved merely through observations (Hatch, 2002). In the phenomenographic studies, usually, a semi-structured interview form is adopted as it explores “greater depths of thinking without leading” (Trigwell, 2000, p.  68). Hence, for this study, a semi-structured interview design was followed aiming to get as much varied description of the phenomenon as possible (Akerlind, 2005b). Consequently, the questions were asked from different standpoints, thereby introducing contrast regarding the phenomenon under examination (Dall’Alba, 2000). The questions were designed and put to the students in such a way that they would express their opinions/thoughts unhindered by any intervention that would divert their flow by the researcher. In doing so, the aim was to access each individual’s relevance structure; that is, the relationship between the phenomenon and the respondent would be revealed (Marton, 1986). Furthermore, one-to-one interviews were carried out for this study. This is because in phenomenographic interviews the focus is on revealing an individual way of understanding the phenomenon as fully as possible (Trigwell, 2000). Another reason was to prevent the students from being influenced by their classmates, and thus be able to express their understanding of the phenomenon unhindered. The interview design in this research included mostly open-ended, ­following-up, probing questions aimed at eliciting in-depth and sensitive information from the respondents. This approach was pursued because the aim was to understand why a particular aspect was more important to them than some other aspect, rather than ascertaining lengthy descriptions of their practice (Akerlind, 2005a). Interviewing is an active process, whereby the interviewer is in interaction with the interviewee, therefore, in working carefully to attend to what is being said and systematically probing the responses, an interview’s progress can be influenced and informed by the emerging issues (Prosser, 2000). However, I ensured that this interaction did not happen in a direct controlling way, in order to avoid influencing the data collection (Bowden, 2005). That is, I tried hard not to bring any new input or make judgmental comments that could have influenced the view of the interviewees and perhaps more importantly, would most likely have led to interviewer bias marring the data collection (Bowden, 2005; Green, 2005). I focused on drawing out the underlying meaning of the comments made by the respondents by

Research Methodology 79 prompting myself with such questions as ‘what does the respondent mean by what she has said?’ and ‘how does it relate to what has been said earlier?’ throughout the interview process. As aforementioned, the student interviews were conducted twice; before and after the research lessons, i.e. after students had completed their written tasks. The duration of the interviews was about 20–40 minutes and they were undertaken on the school premises within the school hours. For the first learning study, half of the students in each class (15 students in total) participated in the pre-interviews whilst the other half (15 students) joined the post-interviews. This was because the aim was to ascertain the collective understanding of the phenomenon as purported by the phenomenographic research (Marton, 1986). Therefore, the individual understandings did not matter in terms of revealing whether there was a change in the students’ collective understandings of the phenomenon after the learning study. In the second learning study, all the students (p. 28) participated in both the pre- and post-interviews. The interview questions were fine-tuned with the help of the teacher in terms of their suitability for the students’ level of understanding (see Appendices A and B for the interview protocol for the students in both studies). The teachers were also interviewed before and after the learning study. The pre-interview questions were aimed at gaining insight into their pedagogical perceptions and practices in teaching Islam, including their views on teaching and learning in relation to the subject, their aims and practices when planning and implementing a class/lesson, as well as their perception of the students’ prior knowledge. The post-interviews, however, focused on the teachers’ use of the CRE and VT framework and the effect of those on their pedagogical beliefs and practices. The questions were specifically aimed at exploring how they had used the proposed framework for planning the research lessons, how they enacted them, the impact the process had had on their understanding of teaching and learning of the object of learning, the difficulties they had encountered, and suggestions for the improvement of the pedagogy of IRE (see Appendix C for the interview protocol for the teachers). The interviews took place in the teachers’ classrooms and each lasted for around one hour. 4.4.3 Classroom Observations and Video Recordings of the Lessons As part of a learning study involves finding out how the teacher enacts the object of learning in the actual classroom context, it was necessary to observe the teaching-learning process. A non-participating, direct observation (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2000) was used in this research. That is, to minimize influence and retain the natural setting of the lessons, no interaction was initiated or conducted with either the teacher or the students. Moreover, video recording was chosen in order to document

80  Research Methodology the lesson observations. It is argued that “the use of video in research enables spontaneous and transitory information to be captured” (PennEdwards, 2004, p. 267). The rationale for choosing this method is that the data gathered through video recording allows the researcher to go back to the original data and analyse it as often as needed as well as making it possible for other researchers or the participating teacher(s) to view and examine the lessons (Kullberg, 2010). The main role of the classroom observation in this study was to guide the proceedings of the learning study. The results drawn from the analysis of the lessons were used to assess how the teacher structured the lessons and handled the object of learning in the classroom, with emphasis on the critical aspects of the object of learning and the use of variation in teaching of these (Pang & Marton, 2003). Furthermore, the results were used in order to revise and improve the lessons for the next cycle. That is to say, through the observation of the lessons, the enacted object of learning was uncovered and examined to see whether or not the intended object of learning was fully discerned during the lessons. Secondly, observation was used to discern the teachers’ pedagogical perceptions and practices before and during the learning study. A number of ‘regular’ RE lessons before the study and ‘research’ lessons were observed and video recorded in order to identify any changes in the teachers’ pedagogical perceptions. Despite interviews were conducted for this purpose, through classroom observation it became possible to analyse the teachers’ classroom interaction with the students, their responses to the students’ questions, how they perceived the object of learning and implemented the suggested framework (Patrick, 2000). In sum, videorecordings of the lessons were used as complementary to the interview data collected from the teachers. In total, 15 lessons in the first study and 16 lessons in the second study were observed and video-recorded, with each lasting for about 50 minutes. Before recording, the teachers informed all students about the aim of this study and requested them to act normally as there would be no interaction with the researcher. During the lessons, the verbal and nonverbal behaviours of the teacher and students, along with the interaction between them, were video-recorded. The recordings were made with a digital video camera positioned on a tripod and an external voice recorder. These two devices were considered sufficient for capturing the general classroom discussions and interaction between the teacher and students. The teacher seated the students who did not consent to be video-recorded at the back of the class where they would not be picked up by the camera. During the recordings, the video camera was operated from a rear seat and field notes were taken about aspects like descriptions of activities related to the lesson. To support the video recording data, copies of worksheets and students’ homework were collected after obtaining permission from both the teacher and the students. All of the

Research Methodology 81 lessons were transcribed verbatim and analysed by using VT as an analytical tool. 4.4.4 Meetings Meeting with teacher(s) is a standard method used in learning studies. The researcher and the teacher meet before and after each research lesson in order to discuss, evaluate, and revise the lesson plan(s). The focus of the discussions is usually on the critical aspects and the use of variation (Lo et al., 2005). The role that the researcher plays in these meetings is to support the teacher in planning the lessons (Kullberg, 2010). In the first meeting, I explained to the teachers the aims of the research and the proposed framework. Together, we chose the object of learning. In the second meeting, I  shared with them the students’ learning outcomes derived from the pre-lesson written task and interviews as well as discussed the critical aspects in their understanding of the object of learning. Subsequently, the teacher planned and designed a series of lessons based on the data from the students and curricula requirements. During this process, I  supported the teacher by directing her attention to the critical aspects and the patterns of variation. After each research lesson, we evaluated the lesson in terms of the research framework. In those meetings, the transcriptions of the video-recorded lesson were used in order to give the teachers a better understanding of the critical features, as they usually are not aware of them (Kullberg, 2010). These transcriptions also made it possible for the teacher to see the interaction with students and thus, be able to discern new critical aspects as they emerged in the classroom. In sum, the meetings in this study were useful for providing data in relation to understanding and evaluating the teaching and learning process, i.e. why the teachers did what they did in their lessons and how they interpreted the students’ reactions and behaviours during the lessons. Moreover, they also played the role of allowing the teachers to learn through self-reflective evaluation of their teaching.

4.5 Data Analysis Phenomenography and VT were used as analytical tools in interpreting the research data as explained in detail in the next subsections and an outline of the analysis can be seen in Table 4.1. 4.5.1 Analysis of Students’ Pre- and Post-Learning Written Tasks and Interviews The students’ pre- and post-lesson written tasks and interviews were analysed through phenomenographic methods in order to respond to the second research question, ‘what kind of variation in understanding the

82  Research Methodology Table 4.1 Outline of the analysis Purpose

Analysis approach

Data

Ascertaining the students’ prior knowledge of the object of knowledge Exploring the change in the students’ understanding after the learning study Ascertaining the RE teachers’ pedagogical perceptions and practices in IRE before the leaning study Exploring the change in the teachers’ pedagogical perceptions and practices during the learning study Exploring what was made possible to learn in the lessons/ how the object of learning was dealt with in different classes according to the framework of VT and CRE Identifying the difference between the intended and enacted objects of learning

Phenomenographic analysis: - Categories of description - Discernment of meaning - Identifying the critical aspects Phenomenography and VT: - Identifying the critical features/themes - Discernment of meaning in terms of the ‘referential’ and ‘structural’ aspects

The students’ pre- and poststudy written tasks The students’ pre and post-study interviews The teachers’ pre and post-study interviews Meetings Observation of the ‘regular’ and ‘research’ lessons

VT: - Identifying lesson episodes/incidents that indicated the use of variation and invariance - Describing the examples/ activities in terms of the use of variation - Explaining whether/ how the intended of object of learning was implemented in the classroom

Observation of the ‘research’ lessons Meetings The student’s worksheets and homework

object of learning did Muslim students have prior to the introduction of the framework of CRE and VT in RE classes? How did their understanding of the object of learning change/evolve during the learning study?’ The analysis process is explained in terms of two aspects: categories of description, and discernment of meaning. The results of the pre- and post-lesson interviews with the written task data were used in order to design research lessons in light of the CRE and VT framework. The Categories of Description Phenomenography was adopted as an analytical tool as it enables the researcher to explore and describe the qualitatively different ways of experiencing and understanding a phenomenon (Marton, 1994). That

Research Methodology 83 is, phenomenographic analysis aims at revealing variation in the ways a phenomenon is experienced. The data was analysed in order to the elicit the students’ different conceptions about the object of learning. Two important stages were followed in constituting the categories: first, the critical aspects/themes in individual ways of understanding the phenomenon were identified. This is because these aspects consist the meaning of the phenomenon as identified by the participants (Pang & Marton, 2003). To this end, the written tasks and interviews were studied, back and forth, regarding the key themes, with the aim of finding a new perspective of what a respondent meant each time (Dall’Alba, 2000). The themes/critical aspects were identified based on the frequency of an utterance/aspect, and the explicit emphasis that was placed on some aspects as opposed to others. Entire interview transcript was studied iteratively for each and notes were taken, which were checked against the original data. Second, the most distinctive characteristics that differentiated one category from another were identified through contrasts and comparisons between different conceptions. The individual transcripts were analysed within the data set, being subsequently grouped according to similarities and differences among them and their relationship to each other, which eventually led to the initial categories being produced (Akerlind, 2005b). The purpose of the categories was to describe the different ways of perceiving/experiencing the object under investigation on a collective level as opposed to that of the individual. Later on, the referential and structural aspects1 of the categories were described and these were checked iteratively in light of the data. This iteration procedure was followed until the final categories were constituted. This is because every time the researcher engages with the data he/she gains new insights when searching for evidence of the draft categories identified in the earlier readings. This also helps in the examination of the consistency of category descriptions and understanding the structural relationship between them (Bowden, 2005). Furthermore, iterative reading is seen as necessary since ascertaining all aspects of the phenomenon simultaneously is impossible (Akerlind, 2005b). After the first drafting of categories, the data were studied again to assign the individual transcripts to those designed. Then, the results were grouped in an ‘outcome space’ that was formulated in a ‘hierarchy of inclusiveness’ that showed increasing levels of understanding of the phenomenon (Booth, 1997; Bowden, 2000). The outcome space is the result of seeing the object as a compound of different but logically related ways in which the learner perceives the same object. So, one way of experiencing the object does not constitute or construct what the object is, but rather, it is part of the whole that comprises it (Marton, 2000). In addition, the inclusive, hierarchical nature of the outcome space means that some conceptions are more complex and complete than the others (Akerlind, 2005a).

84  Research Methodology According to VT, learning proceeds “as a rule, from an undifferentiated and poorly integrated understanding of the whole to an increased differentiation and integration of the whole and its parts” (Marton  & Booth, 1997, p. viii). Hence, placing the student data in a hierarchical set of variations through phenomenographic analysis, from less differentiated/integrated understanding to more differentiated/integrated understanding made it possible to identify the critical aspects that were absent from the students’ pre-understandings, introduce them to these aspects in the teaching/learning cycles and to assess them during the post-test. The students’ post-written tasks and interviews were also analysed through phenomenographic analysis following the same procedure explained above and an ‘outcome space’ was constituted. The focus of the analysis was directed at the question ‘how do the learners make sense of that which is learned?’ The learning outcomes represented the second lived object of learning (Marton & Pang, 2006). Consequently, the question as to whether and if so, to what extent the students had experienced the object of learning was addressed based on the post-study results. That is, any differences that emerged between the pre- and post-study results revealed the change in the students’ understandings regarding the object of learning. The analysis revealed whether they had discerned the critical aspects that they had not recognised before or had taken these for granted and whether they had moved to a higher understanding in the hierarchy of categories (Pang & Marton, 2005). Both the pre- and post-study analysis started after all the interviews had been conducted, so as not to alter the nature of the remaining interviews, either consciously or implicitly. During the analyses, I attempted to bracket my own perceptions and to reveal the relationship between the subjects and the phenomenon as much as possible by means of strictly adhering only to the data (Bowden, 2005). The intense and iterative reading process of the data as well as discussions with my supervisor and two other researchers helped to keep my focus on the meaning and structure of each task/transcript as well as whilst revising and refining the categories of description. This also helped in gaining new insights into the data and increased my perceptiveness regarding the theories. The findings were also compared with the extant literature. Finally, the research outcomes were not presented as right or wrong conceptions, but rather, they were handled as more or less complete understandings of the phenomenon in question. Discernment of Meaning In phenomenographic analysis the aim is “to constitute not just a set of different meanings, but a logically inclusive structure relating the different meanings” (Akerlind, 2012, p. 116). The phenomenographic premise that a way of experiencing something is grounded in the relationship

Research Methodology 85 between the person and the experienced phenomenon justifies the search for a logical, structural relationship between different conceptions of the same phenomenon (Marton & Booth, 1997; Akerlind, 2005a). In order to discern the meaning of the data, first, critical aspects/themes in the individual tasks/transcripts were found (Marton, 1986). The meaning of these aspects was identified at two levels; the meaning of the aspect itself, and the meaning of the aspect in relation to the whole transcript. Then, whether that particular aspect appeared in other transcripts was investigated and this process was repeated for all the critical aspects (Marton & Booth, 1997, p.  133). Hence, the data was not studied for individual understandings of the phenomenon, but rather for collective understanding in relation to the whole data set (Akerlind, 2012). 4.5.2 Analysis of the Research Lessons VT is commonly used as an analytical tool in learning studies in order to investigate how the use of variation creates opportunities for learning (Runesson, 2006). It is argued as being “powerful and appropriate to better understand how teachers’ actions affect what is made possible to learn” (Runesson, Kullberg, & Maunula, 2011, p. 265). The lessons were analysed at two levels in terms of the research questions. The research lessons were aimed at examining what had been made possible to learn in the lesson, how the object of learning was dealt with in the different classes or learning study cycles according to the framework of VT and CRE, in addition to how this influenced student learning (Marton & Pang, 2006). The analysis identified the difference between the intended and enacted objects of learning. As mentioned earlier, the intended object of learning pertains to the final version of the instructional design of that object. When analysing the enacted object of learning, the lessons were assessed “in terms of whether the object of learning was made attainable through the actual patterns of variation and invariance that were coconstituted by the teacher and the students” (Pang, 2009, p. 3). This was probed because under the phenomenographic lens it is contended that “what varies and what is invariant both constrains learning and makes it possible” (Marton & Pang, 2006, p. 195). Moreover, the lessons were examined to see whether or how the principles of ontological realism, epistemic relativity, and judgmental rationality were exercised. Lastly, the enacted object of learning was compared to the students’ post understandings, which revealed whether the necessary conditions were created during the lessons for the students to grasp the object of learning, and thus ascertain whether the research lessons had improved their learning outcomes. Before the analysis, all the lessons were transcribed verbatim and the students’ non-verbal actions were written within the parenthesis. I  selected incidents or lesson episodes from the lesson transcripts that

86  Research Methodology showed evidence of relating to a particular critical aspect and the patterns of variation used in relation to it. The lesson episodes were analysed with regard to successful or ineffective use of variation in different cycles. Whether the students actively engaged in discerning the critical aspects and whether the teacher provided good or appropriate examples were also investigated. In addition, it was examined if the students were able to link different critical aspects and apply them to different themes that were explored in different lessons. In order to supplement this analysis, I also studied their worksheets and homework. Based on this, a lesson activity was considered successful if the students had discerned the critical aspect through active engagement in the activity as well as being able to give different examples of how they understood this aspect. By contrast, the activity was considered unsuccessful if the students were mainly silent during it and the teacher dominated during the lesson delivery. The analysis of the lessons was also discussed with the teachers in different meetings with the aim being to improve the lesson plan and changing the structure, activities, and examples if necessary for the second cycle. These discussions also allowed ascertaining the teacher’s perspective with regard to whether or not and if so, how a lesson achieved its intended aim. Furthermore, we discussed the possibilities, difficulties, and challenges encountered in the lessons. As such, these meetings with the teachers enhanced the reliability of the data analysis. 4.5.3 Analysis of Teachers’ Data (Interviews, Meetings and Classroom Observations) The teachers’ data was analysed in order to address the research question: What were the pedagogical perceptions and practices of the RE teachers before this study? Did these change during the use of the pedagogical framework of CRE and VT and if so, how? The focus of the analysis was on the teachers’ understanding of teaching and learning in IRE, the use of the CRE and VT framework, and the change in their understanding of the pedagogy of IRE during the learning study. The interview data was triangulated with those obtained from the meetings and observations of the regular and research lessons. Phenomenography and VT were adopted for the analysis of the teachers’ data. As explained before, there are two facets of variation in the phenomenographic research tradition. In traditional phenomenography, the emphasis is on variation in terms of the different ways people experience a phenomenon, which results in categories of description. This type of phenomenographic analysis was adopted when dealing with the students’ data. On the other hand, with the development of VT, a second perspective of variation became the focus of the phenomenographic studies, which aimed at understanding a way of experiencing something. Under this lens, experiencing a way of understanding is explored by experiencing variation concerning the critical aspects that

Research Methodology 87 are focused upon by the subject/learner (Lo, 2012; Pong, 2000; Runesson, 2006). In this study, VT was utilised as an analytical tool for interpreting the teachers’ interviews, meetings, and classroom observations with regards to how they experienced teaching and learning before and during the learning study. Critical variation and invariance were drawn out in the teachers’ descriptions of teaching and learning in IRE. At first, the data was studied as a whole in order to elicit the overall meaning. Specifically, this was aimed at explaining ‘what’ the teachers focused on when experiencing the phenomenon in question, and ‘how’ their awareness about it was structured in terms of the context—whole and parts relationship. Critical features/themes were discerned including the teachers’ perspectives of RE, the subject matter knowledge, the level of awareness of the students’ pre-understandings, and their pedagogical practices. In the analysis of their interviews after the learning study, as supplemented by the observation of the research lessons, it was investigated whether there was a change in their understanding of the phenomenon regarding the critical aspects, and/or whether new aspects had emerged during the use of the framework. The analysis revealed a number of issues with regard to the framework in addition to the themes identified earlier (see Chapter 7 for detailed description of the results).

4.6 Ethical Considerations and Trustworthiness of the Study Consent was sought from the teachers and students to participate in this study, which included observation and video-recording of the classes and interviewing on the school premises. Because all the students were under 16  years of age, informed consent was obtained from their parents or legal guardians. Accordingly, a written consent was also gained from the students themselves, through which they were informed about the purpose and process of the research as well as the importance of their participation in this study. Protecting participants’ privacy is an important part of research since revealing their identities might harm them. Confidentiality and anonymity are two important issues that need to be guaranteed in order to protect their privacy. In order to ensure confidentiality and anonymity in the transcriptions of the interviews and in the video and audio recordings, the students were given codes, which started with ‘student’, followed by a letter and then their year along with their class number, for example, student A-7A or student B-8E. In addition, any identifying information or personal characteristic was disguised. Similarly, the teachers were given codes and the schools’ names or any recognisable information such as the location of the school is not mentioned anywhere in the study. Trustworthiness is proposed as one of the criteria evaluating the quality and rigour of qualitative research (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Lincoln

88  Research Methodology and Guba (1985) established four criteria to assess the level of rigour in qualitative studies, which are credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Credibility is concerned with the truth-value of data and their interpretation of it is given as “obtained from the discovery of human experiences as they are lived and perceived by informants” (Krefting, 1990, p. 215). Spending sufficient time in the field and getting involved with the participants helps in obtaining an in-depth understanding of the research phenomenon, thereby increasing the credibility of the research findings (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). In this research, I spent around six months for each learning study. This helped me develop familiarity and a trusting relationship with my participants. Moreover, it increased the credibility of the collaborative work undertaken with the teachers. Collecting detailed and comprehensive data provides adequate information about the context and situation of the study and thus contributes to the dependability and confirmability of the study by revealing the extent to which it could be repeated with a different group in a different context (Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2007). To this end, all the data were transcribed verbatim as well as all classroom observations videorecorded. To increase dependability, it is also suggested that “a coderecode procedure” should be carried out by coding and comparing the data at different times (Krefting, 1990, p.  221). As the data collection process took a long time, I  was able to engage with the data analysis and interpretation at different times, which helped in delivering more consistent and rich categories than if the field work had been of shorter duration. Triangulation involves the use of different sources and methods “to check the integrity of, or extend, inferences drawn from the data” (Ritchie, 2003, p. 46). Gathering data from multiple sources allows the researcher to investigate all aspects of a phenomenon, gain thicker and richer data, and thus to confirm and complete the interpretation of the phenomenon. It also reduces the risk of misrepresentation of data derived from only one source as well as researcher bias (Krefting, 1990). In this study, the data were collected from different sources, including interviews, written tasks, observations, and meetings in order to increase the trustworthiness of the research findings. Furthermore, different analysis methods, namely, phenomenography and VT were used. Finally, the use of multiple data sources also enhanced the dependability, that is, any weaknesses of one particular method was minimised by the use of other methods, which thus delivered consistency.

4.7 Reflexivity The influence of the researcher on the research process is suggested to have some benefits such as age, gender, ethnic and religious background, possibly increasing the chances of accessing knowledge that otherwise

Research Methodology 89 would be difficult to achieve (Hymes, 1996). In this research, being an insider, i.e. a member of the same faith community, has impacted positively on the quality of the data collected. My knowledge of Islamic theology, hadith and Islamic law (fiqh), as well as my interest in classical and modern Islamic education, proved helpful during the discussions with the teachers, such as when designing the lessons and choosing lesson materials. Being a Muslim female researcher was helpful particularly when conducting interviews with the students, for in the main, they demonstrated a sense of familiarity and felt comfortable talking openly about their inner thoughts and feelings. However, this shared language sometimes might have become a drawback since they assumed that I  understood what they had said so they would not be more explicit. I probed them further in such cases and asked for further elaboration.

Conclusion This study adopted the theoretical and pedagogical framework of CRE and VT with the aim of developing teaching and learning in IRE. A qualitative, phenomenographic approach was adopted to inform the research design of this study and included several methods to address the research questions. The learning study model was used in order to apply the proposed framework to IRE settings. The use of pre- and post-study stages enabled the researcher to ascertain the teachers’ and students’ prior understandings of the object of learning and subsequently, to assess whether teaching and learning were achieved based on the proposed framework. The data was collected and triangulated through interviews, written tasks, video-recording of classroom observations and meetings with the teachers. The phenomenography and VT approaches were used in the analysis of the data. The analysis and findings of this study are presented and discussed in the next three chapters.

Note 1. Referential aspect refers to the ‘what’ aspect and gives the overall meaning of the category, while the structural aspect refers to ‘how’ a category is constituted based on the similarities and differences in relation to other categories (see 3.3.2 for more information on the ‘how’ and ‘what’ aspects).

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Research Methodology 91 Marton, F. (2000). The structure of awareness. In J. A. Bowden  & E. Walsh (Eds.), Phenomenography (pp. 102–117). Melbourne: RMIT University Press. Marton, F., & Booth, S. A. (1997). Learning and awareness. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Elbaum. Marton, F., & Pang, M. F. (2006). On some necessary conditions of learning. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 15(2), 193–220. Mason, J. (2002). Qualitative researching. London: Sage. Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Leech, N. L. (2007). Validity and qualitative research: An oxymoron? Quality & Quantity, 41(2), 233–249. Pang, M. F. (2009). Using the learning study grounded on the variation theory to improve students’ mathematical understanding. Journal of Education, 1(1), 1–13. Pang, M. F., & Marton, F. (2003). Beyond “lesson study”: Comparing two ways of facilitating the grasp of some economic concepts. Instructional Science, 31(3), 175–194. Pang, M. F., & Marton, F. (2005). Learning theory as teaching resource: Enhancing students’ understanding of economic concepts. Instructional Science, 33(2), 159–191. Patrick, K. (2000). Exploring conceptions: Phenomenography and the object of study. In J. A. Bowden & E. Walsh (Eds.), Phenomenography (pp. 117–137). Melbourne: RMIT University Press. Penn-Edwards, S. (2004). Visual evidence in qualitative research: The role of video recording. The Qualitative Report, 9(2), 266–277. Pong, W. Y. (2000). Widening the space of variation—Inter-contextual and intracontextual shifts in pupils’ understanding of two economic concepts (Unpublished master thesis). The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong. Prosser, M. (2000). Using phenomenographic research methodology in the context of research in teaching and learning. In J. A. Bowden & E. Walsh (Eds.), Phenomenography (pp. 34–47). Melbourne: RMIT Publishing. Ritchie, J. (2003). The applications of qualitative methods to social research. In J. Ritchie & J. Lewis (Eds.), Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers (pp. 24–47). London, Thousand Oaks, CA/ New Delhi: Sage. Ritchie, J., Lewis, J., & Gillian, E. (2003). Designing and selecting samples. In J. Ritchie & J. Lewis (Eds.), Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers (pp. 77–109). London/Thousand Oaks, CA/ New Delhi: Sage. Runesson, U. (2006). What is it possible to learn? On variation as a necessary condition for learning. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 50(4), 397–410. Runesson, U., Kullberg, A., & Maunula, T. (2011). Sensitivity to student learning: A possible way to enhance teachers’ and students’ learning? In O. Z. P. Sullivan (Ed.), Constructing knowledge for teaching secondary mathematics (pp. 263–278). New York, NY: Springer. Sharma, M. D., Stewart, C., & Prosser, M. (2004). On the use of phenomenography in the analysis of qualitative data. Paper presented at the Physics Education Research Conference, August 6–7, 2003, Madison, WI, USA. Silverman, D. (2011). Interpreting qualitative data: A guide to the principles of qualitative research. London/Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

92  Research Methodology Teddlie, C., & Yu, F. (2007). Mixed methods sampling a typology with examples. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(1), 77–100. Trigwell, K. (2000). A  phenomenographic interview on phenomenography. In J. A. Bowden & E. Walsh (Eds.), Phenomenography (pp. 62–82). Melbourne: RMIT Publishing. Walsh, E. (2000). Phenomenographic analysis of interview transcripts. In J. A. Bowden & E. Walsh (Eds.), Phenomenography (pp. 19–33). Melbourne: RMIT Publishing. Wilkinson, M. L. (2011). History curriculum, citizenship and Muslim Boys: Learning to succeed? (PhD Thesis). King’s College, London. Yates, C., Partridge, H., & Bruce, C. (2012). Exploring information experiences through phenomenography. Library and Information Research, 36(112), 96–119.

5 Implementation of Critical Religious Education and Variation Theory in RE Lessons A Learning Study on ‘Islam and Being a Muslim’ A learning study on ‘Islam and being a Muslim’ is introduced in this chapter, which is aimed at addressing the research question: “What kind of variation in understanding the object of learning did Muslim students have prior to the introduction of the framework of CRE and VT in RE classes? How did their understanding of the object of learning change/ evolve during the learning study?” There are four sections in this chapter, explaining the steps of the learning study. First, section 5.1 presents the students’ pre-understandings of ‘Islam and being a Muslim’, i.e. the first lived object of learning. Next, the intended object of learning is explained in section 5.2, including the critical aspects, lesson designs, and patterns of variation. Following that, the discussion moves to the enacted object of learning in section 5.3. Finally, in section 5.4, the second lived object of learning, i.e. the students’ post-understandings are presented.

5.1 The First Lived Object of Learning As stated earlier, this study was undertaken in a Muslim girls secondary school. At the outset of the study, the participating RE teacher and the researcher met to choose the object of learning, which was decided based upon the teacher’s past experiences. She reported that the students usually had limited and partial understanding of Islam and Muslim identity in the previous years. Accordingly, based on the unit of ‘being a Muslim’ in the curriculum, the direct object of learning was decided upon as developing the students’ understanding of Islam and being a Muslim, while the indirect object of learning was identified as developing a capability of understanding Islam with regards to the parts-whole and context dynamics. Following that meeting, a written task including an open-ended question was designed and administered to the students in order to explore their prior understanding of the object, in both classes. They were asked to explain what they understood about Islam and being a Muslim. Later on, follow-up interviews were undertaken with some of the students—15 altogether, drawn from both classes—to supplement the written task data.

94  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 5.1.1 Categories of Description From the analysis of the students’ written tasks and interviews, four categories of description were identified and an outcome space was constituted. A  hierarchical relationship appeared between the categories and whilst the first category represented a less developed understanding, the last pertained to a higher and more complex comprehension of the object. The meaning and structure of the categories can be seen in Table 5.1. Category 1: Basic Knowledge About Islam Students in this category seemed to have basic knowledge about belief issues and certain practices of Islam. Islam was understood as a religion in terms of its religious beliefs, rituals, observances, images, and symbols, by contrasting it with other religions, either explicitly or implicitly. As can be seen in the following excerpt, one student compares Islam with Judaism in terms of the main religious symbols, rituals, and practices in both religions. R: Could you tell me what being a Muslim means to you? Student I-7B: Muslim is the one who follows Islam. Because you have like Jewish and they believe in the holy book Torah and their religion is Judaism. So we are Muslims; we have the holy Qur’an; we go to mosque and our religion is called Islam [. . .] We pray and worship Allah, believe in Him. Let’s compare it to Judaism because they are very close. They do similar things to us basically. They worship to God. They do not pray but they fast for certain different reasons but yeah. The students in this category were able to tell what the belief issues in Islam are. Both in their written tasks and interviews they defined Islam as Table 5.1 Categories of description of understanding Islam and being a Muslim Category

Referential Aspect

Structural Aspect

1

Basic knowledge about Islam Representation of Islam Implementation of faith to life

Focus on external appearance; religious rituals/practices; symbols of Islam Focus on representing Islam to the wider Islamic and non-Islamic society Focus on the relationship between faith, religious practices and moral values; internalisation of faith to life Focus on personal responsibility in choosing and maintaining faith

2 3 4

Having a dynamic Islamic identity

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 95 believing in Allah (swt), the Prophets, the books, the angels, the Day of Judgment, and divine destiny. The Qur’an was believed to ensure the reliability of religious practices and applied to confirm and validate religious beliefs. God was described as being only One God (tawhid) through an implicit contrast with other belief systems, such as belief in Jesus of Nazareth in Christianity or worshipping many Gods in Hinduism. An example can be seen as follows: R:

In your paper you are saying Islam is the best. In what ways? Student (E-7A): Like in other religions they believe in more than one God, they believe in idols and stuff like that. But if you believe in idols, idols they do not even talk and they do not even move so like how can they be your God? In Peek’s study (2005), it was found that his participants had an ascribed religious identity in the first stage of religious identity development due to being raised in a Muslim family. They were not involved in critical reflection about their faith for they took for granted their Muslimness. By the same token, at this level, it was evident from the data that the students had an ascribed Muslim identity that is assigned to them by their families. They referred to their families when talking about faith and religious practices, saying that they followed their parent’s religion, sometimes as a means of respect to their authority, as seen in the following example. Student E-7A: Islam is a really important religion. You have to follow it. I do not really know how to explain it. R: Why do you think it is important? S: Because my parents are following it and it is the right religion. Like you just become in the religion that your parents are and follow everything and be pleased with everything they do. You cannot just say to your parents ‘no, I am not going to do that’ then that would be like disobeying them. Greater emphasis was placed on beliefs and how these are assessed through an individual’s religious behaviours and practices in terms of the level of religiosity and piety (Hassan, 2007). That is, the more an individual practices their beliefs the more religious and pious they would be considered both in social and theological terms. Hence, practising religion implied superiority in terms of religiosity (Rissanen, 2014). The students were distinguishing between practising and non-practising Muslims, claiming that the non-practising should not be regarded as ‘true’ Muslims since they do not observe obligatory Islamic rituals/practises, and consequently, they would not be committed to Islamic beliefs. This is because

96  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons practising Islam was considered as an essential dimension of Islam, thus it was considered synonymous with the faith itself. According to one student, as shown in the following extract, practicing—particularly in terms of external appearance—is an important sign of being a Muslim. Student M-7B: There are some Muslims who do not practice, like in Dubai for example, when they wear hijab you can see all their hair. So I do not see the point why they are wearing it. I think they think the hijab is fashion, I think they are not proper Muslims. R: Who do you think is proper Muslim? S: The one who follows the five pillars of Islam; who wears hijab properly; who does not wear make up a lot and goes out and starts making fashion out of it; who covers up her awrah; who does not say bad words; and the one that eats halal food and marry in an Islamic way. However, practising Islam appeared on a simplistic level. The students possessed basic knowledge about certain practices of Islam, for example, observing the five pillars of Islam, which are declaration of faith, praying, fasting, almsgiving, performing Hajj and for women covering their head. Their focus was mostly on religious rules, rituals, and observances of Islam. Observing religious practices and rituals were argued to be highly influential with regards to preserving religious identity, keeping close connection with the members of the Muslim community, and as a means of gaining reward from God as well as avoiding punishment on the Day of Judgment. There was a great deal of focus put on the consequences of actions, whereby submission to the religious teachings of Islam was considered “as the certain way of achieving divine merit in this world and spiritual salvation in the other” (Hassan, 2007, p. 438). Similarly, students at this level linked morality to following religious rules and rituals such that being a Muslim was considered as being morally upright. Hence, moral integrity was regarded as contingent on the level of adherence to the religious rules, as is apparent in the following excerpt. Student M-7A: Covering up is important because we would not go to a random person on the street and ask a question about their personality, we actually would look at someone and judge by how they look. So if someone is covered up and everything you would judge that she is a good person but if not then, you know, she might not be on the right path. Islam and other religions were compared in terms of religious rules, rituals, and observances. The students had the general impression that other

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 97 religions either did not include as many religious rules as Islam or their followers simply did not adhere to their religion properly as they appeared to have freedom of action, not being restricted by any rules. Christianity was the religion that the students compared with Islam more than any other, which is probably because they were living in a Christian country. Muslims were considered as being more committed to the religious rulings and therefore more religious in terms of practising their faith. Student M-7A: Many people may not know that there is a big difference in bad and banned. In Christianity, it is bad to wear bikini although in Islam it is banned. If something is banned it is less likely to be done but if it is bad you get the idea that you are allowed to do it. Accordingly, they were considered morally upright and virtuous in contrast to people of other worldviews, which is exemplified as follows. Student I-7B: We [Muslims] are modest, like, other religions for example Christianity and Judaism they just care about themselves. They just let themselves out on the streets and they do whatever they want, not all of them, maybe, but some do that. But in Islam you cover yourself like wear headscarf and yeah. This is modesty and you should also mean it from your heart. According to Peek (2005), communication with the religious community is essential for identity development, especially for minorities who are at the risk of being assimilated into the mainstream society. McGown (1999) also highlights the importance of interaction within the community. Moreover, he points out how some Muslims who live in the West see it as necessary to isolate themselves from mainstream society, if they are to be good Muslims. They believe, by doing so, this will defend themselves against the social pressures affecting their Islamic identities and life styles. The outcomes of the current study also demonstrate that for the students at this level, being a ‘good’ Muslim through continued religious practices and remaining on the right path depend on keeping a social distance from non-Muslims and building strong connections with the members of the Muslim community. It was generally agreed that living in a non-Muslim country would affect Muslims in a negative way by means of imposing a Western lifestyle on them and alienating them from Islamic values. Performing Islamic rituals in a non-Muslim environment, like praying, fasting, keeping an Islamic appearance by wearing a headscarf and avoiding involvement with non-Muslim customs were all seen as essential behaviours. Some students contended that English/Christian values lead to crime as well as unsafe and dangerous lifestyles. Issues like

98  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons dating, alcohol, mixed gender relations, non-Muslim dress codes in the West were regarded as dangerous for Muslims as they go against Islamic principles. One student pointed to discriminative behaviour against Muslim students in non-Muslim schools because of their practising Islam and claimed that she felt confident and open about her religious life in a Muslim school: Student H-7A: I  mean, you know, we were learning in the RE lesson and they would put the azan (call to prayer) on and Christians would start laughing so that would quite affect all the Muslims. But, you know, we were in such community where we could not do anything about it. Here I find everyone is like me, I mean no one is embarrassed about anything in Islam. There [in a non-Muslim school] some people would be like, ‘how many times are you praying?’, and they [Muslim pupils] would say ‘I do not pray at all’ or ‘I have never prayed in my life’ because they were embarrassed that Christians would make fun of them. Verkuyten and Yildiz (2007) argue that religion plays an important role in developing a positive identity and providing a sense of belongingness as well as inclusiveness in society. In terms of understanding the Muslim community, the students emphasised the sense of belongingness and being part of the community, i.e. being the ‘same’ as other Muslims. Studying in a Muslim school, participating in the same symbolic activities, such as performing salah together (jamaa prayer), celebrating religious festivals, spending time in community places, including joining the halakas (religious lessons) in the mosques or Islamic centres and being part of a Muslim family were all considered as sources of social support, guidance as well as means for learning about Islam that would contribute to their Muslim identity and keep them on the right path. Zine (2001) calls this positive peer pressure, by which students who share the same Islamic faith background offer peer support and guidance to each other on religious, social, as well as academic matters. It is seen “as a means of reinforcing Islamic values and codes of behaviour” (Zine, 2001, p. 406), as is apparent in the following example: Student M-7B: Once you come to this school you just feel like you are part of something, part of a Muslim community. You feel like everyone, like, you do not feel different. All of my friends are Muslim and we always sit and talk to each other [. . .] I find my home, my friends all Islamic because we are kind of the same. Like if we have eid [Religious Festival] we all, like, go together as a group.

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 99 I feel like it is much more Islamic if I stay with Muslim people. The role of the Muslim community is limited to practical considerations and experiences rather than the real communal relationship between Muslims as implied in the concept of ummah (unity of Islamic community). On the whole, there was no sign of awareness of diversity within the Muslim community. Any differences that were discerned were related to the practical, experience-based aspects rather than theological or sociocultural ones. The differences, although pointed out by only one student, were considered in such a way as to leave ‘others’ as being outside Islam, which is evident in the following excerpt: Student I -7B: Basically, there are two types of Muslims: Sunni Muslims and other Muslims. There are Sunni Muslims and something else  .  .  . I  think it was Shi’a. There is one real type of Muslim and other type of Muslims pray wrongly. They pray differently, in different times, and I do not know if they follow . . . I think they have the same Qur’an though. They do exactly the same things as us but they do it differently. That is wrong and I do not think they are actually real Muslims. To sum up, for the students at this level, Islam was perceived as a religion with the focus being on its external appearances through their contrasting Islamic and non-Islamic traditions. Their focus was mainly on Islamic symbols, for example, wearing hijab or modest clothing, visiting mosques and rituals such as praying, fasting, and performing Hajj. The students seemed to have only basic knowledge about religious beliefs such as the unity of God and the Day of Judgment. However, there did not seem to be any differentiation in terms of understanding the reality and the nature of faith; faith issues did not have an internal value at this level. The Muslim community was also considered according to contrast between Islamic and non-Islamic traditions in terms of how the faithbeliever relationship appeared in those communities. The students at this level appeared to be unaware of diversity within the Muslim community, only focusing on being the ‘same’ and observing the ‘same practices’. In sum, the sameness here is largely about acting in a similar way, thereby engendering trustful and safe relationships within the community. Category 2: Representation of Islam Similar to the previous category, the students at this level had basic knowledge about faith and practices in Islam. Religious rules, rituals and observances were also focused upon by this category, with

100  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons comparisons being made between Islam other religions. God was discerned as being the One and only God, and the Creator through comparison with other religious traditions, such as the Christian belief of ‘Jesus as God incarnate’ or worshipping idols in Hinduism, as seen in the following excerpt: Student B-7A: Other religions, like Hinduism or Buddhism, they pray to statues. It means you are praying to something that Allah has created instead of praying to Allah Himself. Like in the past, for example, Prophet Suleiman (AS)’s time, some prayed to the sun. Who created the sun? It cannot just have been created it would have been created by some kind of Supreme Being. And the same thing with Hinduism, they pray to God like with animal heads, some statues . . . I am not trying to insult a religion or anything, to me it does not make sense because you are praying to something that is created, it is just like praying to your teacher. This category differs from the first category by virtue of focusing on representation of Islam. Islam was perceived as the ‘true’ religion in contrast to other religions based on two claims: That the signs of the Day of Judgment have already appeared as well as that, whereas other holy books have been changed the Qur’an has remained the same. Some students claimed that whilst Abrahamic religions shared the same divine truth, Christianity and Judaism have gone through a transformation and eventually lost their essence. Student C-7A: I cannot believe religions like Christianity and Judaism. Like for Christianity, their prophet is Jesus, for us it is Isa and he is our prophet as well. Like the Christians, they originally were following Islam that is what I think. Same with Jews, their prophet is Musa (AS), Moses and like, they have their own story about it. Again, I think that was originally Islam that Moses (AS) was trying to preach but they changed it. Islamic dress codes, such as wearing a headscarf, were seen as important markers of Muslim identity. That is, the students believed that adopting an Islamic dress code was essential in order to represent Islam to others, thereby raising awareness about their religion and being Muslims. On the other hand, Western style clothes were associated with a non-Islamic way of life, a threat to religious purity and modesty (Dwyer, 1999) as well as being associated with other faith traditions, such as Christianity, as is apparent in the following example:

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 101 Student B-7A: I did have some little help from my aunt. She said she never used to wear scarf when she was younger. Then, she realised when people said ‘oh hello I  am going to church, do you want to come with me?’ She said ‘I do not go to church’. Then they asked ‘why do not you go to church?’ She said ‘because I am a Muslim’ and then they said ‘but you are not wearing scarf, then how come you are a Muslim?’ My aunt said that people can judge you very quickly on the things that you wear or you do. She said if you wear scarf people would probably have right approach, they would say ‘salamun alaykum’, they would be kind to you. Discrimination against Muslims, especially bad representation in the media, and Islamophobia, are some of the issues that Muslims in the UK have been struggling with since 9/11. The perspective widely promoted is that Islam should be regarded “as monolithic and static, as other and separate, as inferior, and as constituting an aggressive enemy” (Rokeach, 1960, cited in Hopkins, Greenwood, & Birchall, 2007, p. 681). This has led to Muslims becoming isolated from mainstream society, as explained when discussing the first category, which has resulted in fewer interactions with the non-Muslim majority. The students in the first category discussed issues about safety, security, and discrimination against Muslims in non-Muslim schools. However, the students in this category were more concerned with matters such as Islam being represented as terrorism by the media and being perceived likewise by the non-Muslim majority. Ahmad and Evergeti (2010) point out how the stigmatisation of Muslims as terrorists has led to authenticity discussions among Muslims aimed at identifying a genuine character of Muslim identity by means of which they have attempted to defend Islam against extremism and terrorism accusations, whilst isolating themselves from such groups. Similarly, in this category, the students attempted to defend their religion by addressing the stereotypical assumptions about Islam and Muslims. For example, one student focused on the media predilection for representing Muslims as terrorists as well as defending her religion by distinguishing between normative and extremist Muslims. Student G-7B: Islam is misunderstood, I think, some people think about terrorism and whatever but the word Islam means peace. You know like . . . some of my friends from my old school, which was a non-Muslim school, they used to say, like, ‘Islam is about terrorism’. They just get the wrong idea from the media because the media report those terrorist attacks, but I think these people are just extremists. But when they start to study Islam they would see it is a

102  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons beautiful and unique religion because you worship Allah only and you do not worship statues etc. Representing Islam to non-Muslims was the key theme that appeared throughout the interviews. It was believed that there should be interaction with non-Muslims in order to convey the true meaning of Islam to them. The idea was that if Islam was projected properly it would attract people of other religions and then they would change their attitudes towards it. This, it was argued, would increase an awareness of the distinctive characteristics of Islam among non-Muslims, which would result in recognition and respect towards Muslims. Perhaps more importantly, it was regarded as a religious duty to call others to Islam (da’wah). Consequently, most of the students at this level believed that they should set up a good example with their behaviours and attitudes within and outside the Muslim community in order to break down the stereotypes that have been attached to Islam. It was found in Hopkins, Greenwood, and Birchall’s (2007) study that the heterogeneity of Muslims in terms of their attitudes and behaviours is regarded as reducing the opportunity for communicating the distinctive characteristics of Islam, and hence, they fail to gain respect and recognition from mainstream society. In a similar vein, in this study, many students argued that inappropriate behaviours of some Muslims limit the potential of conveying the true message of Islam to others. As argued by the following student, this leads to Muslims being depicted negatively as well as damaging the process of da’wah: Student N-7B: Islam is not the only religion; there are different religions. They do not know our rules; they do not know we do not drink, eat pork, for example. They see other people do that then they think it is fine. I  mean, like, Christians when they see us doing those things they think ‘oh, Muslims are like us, what is the point of converting then?’ Or, for example, they see Muslims swearing or not being respectful to others they would not think good about Islam, or they see these terrorists, you know, they would think that all Muslims are like that so they can judge the rest of the Muslims. We Muslims should make them feel like Islam is something precious. The Muslim community described in this category has a more open structure, which runs counter to that described by those in the first category, where the Muslim community was perceived as a safe environment with the ability to diminish the negative influence of the wider non-­Muslim society. At this level, the students regarded being in a non-Muslim country as an opportunity in terms of developing an understanding and

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 103 communication between Muslims and other religions as well as increasing awareness of Islam itself through focusing on varied accounts of different faith traditions. This is exemplified by the following student comment: Student B-7A: I would prefer being somewhere where there is variety of people so I  can learn about different religions and learn more about Islam. R: Why do you think it is important to learn about other religions? S: To understand about other people because they are not very educated about other religions. So, they do not understand why people do things, like, why Muslims wear hijab and so on. So I just like to know what other religions do to understand more, and if they did certain things then I would not judge them. I would understand why they were doing it. To conclude, in this category, the main argument was that Islam, as the ‘true’ religion, should be presented to others (other religions) in order for Muslims to gain respect and recognition as well as to pursue da’wah. Accordingly, the Muslim community was perceived as contributing to the process of integration and inter-religious dialogue. However, in terms of representing Islam, as well as understanding it in general, the students’ focus was on its external dimensions, specifically, observable facts, symbols, and rituals, such as wearing hijab, not drinking alcohol, and not eating pork. Nevertheless, these external aspects did not seem to have any internal value, similar to the first category. Category 3: Islam as a Way of Life In this category, the students perceived Islam as a whole, consisting of faith, worship, moral and spiritual dimensions. Their focus was not just on the observable features of faith anymore. They differentiated between Islam as a religion that is simply constituted of some external features— such as praying or performing other religious rituals—and Islam as a way of life whereby faith also informs the identity and personal characteristics of the followers. Accordingly, this means having moral values, being responsible for others, as well as transforming the self and society. In the following extract, a student describes Islam as a commitment not only in terms of faith and practising, as for her it also involves moral and spiritual levels: Student K-7B: Islam is like a set of cooking rules because, you know, when you cook a dish if you follow the ingredients you will make a really good dish.

104  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons R: S:

What do you think the ingredients of Islam would be? Allah, the Qur’an, hadith, listening to your parents. Such minor things could get you into big places in the hereafter. You might think ‘oh I will be rude to my parents but I  read the Qur’an and pray so I  am going to heaven’, no, you cannot! Like in a hadith, I  think the Prophet (s.w.s.) said ‘the heaven lays at the bottom of your mothers’ feet’. So, you cannot even give a harsh sound to your parents.

According to Halstead (2007), Islamic morality consists of three dimensions, which are the obligations, the rules and responsibilities that are prescribed in the Qur’an and Sunnah; the values and attitudes; and lastly the personal characteristics of the believers. He goes on to claim that there is no clear distinction between these dimensions. For instance, religious duties might include or be based on a moral principle. At this level, it was seen that for these students, faith and morality were inextricable. That is, religious obligations were not excluded from moral responsibilities. In fact, either performing only religious practices or holding onto some moral values without necessarily fulfilling any religious duties was considered as incomplete from an Islamic point of view. For these students, being religious involved “not only religious worship but also an ethical commitment and conduct which covered all spheres of life” (Hassan, 2007, p. 438). As seen in the following example, a student describes Islam as encompassing faith, practising, behaviours and attitudes that require one to transform their life in line with the Islamic principles. Student L-7B: Islam is about loyalty to your religion, like, not trespassing the rules and it is about honesty, not lying. Once there was a man who was Muslim but did not really abide his religion. One day he went to the Prophet (s.w.s.) and asked him ‘how can I become a good Muslim? The Prophet (s.w.s.) said to him ‘do not lie’. He did not lie but he used to drink, go to clubs, and, you know, but then remembered he was meant to be honest to his religion. So honesty is really important because then you would genuinely follow Islam [. . .] Islam is not about showing off one thing, like, it is not only about wearing hijab and praying five times a day but it is also respecting one another, respecting women as the Prophet said when he was in his death bed. So it is the way you are spiritually inside. In the earlier categories, the students considered the Qur’an and hadith as the sources for ensuring the reliability of religious practices; informing

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 105 the believers what they should do or refrain from doing. In this category, these two sources were also considered a moral guidance for believers in line with the perspective that the Qur’an presents “the guidelines as the straight way for living in accordance with the will of Allah” (Verkuyten & Yildiz, 2007, p. 1449). Even basic moral questions were answered in a religious language either referring to God’s authority or the Prophet’s life. In the main, morality in Islam was understood “as a list of rules, duties and responsibilities whose authority derives directly from the Qur’an and the hadith” (Halstead, 2007, p. 288). The Qur’an and Sunnah were regarded as being able to respond to the all questions Muslims would encounter in their lives. Hence, the Qur’an was perceived not merely a symbol as the Holy Book of Islam, including religious instructions for believers, which was the focus for the earlier categories, for it was also considered as providing moral and spiritual ‘guidance’ for believers. In the extract below, a student highlights the role of the Qur’an as a guide, and points out the necessity of acting according to its injunctions: Student K-7B: God created us to be servants of Him; read the Qur’an . . . like not reading only. Obviously, you will get good deeds by reading the Qur’an, but you need to understand it and actually act by it because if you do not act by it, it will not get you anywhere in life. Like, the first surah starts with the word ‘ikra’ which means ‘read’. So, if we read the Qur’an sincerely, it will help us with the all life decisions, it will have the answer for everything. Similarly, the Prophet was considered an exemplar with regard to Islamic rules and regulations, virtues as well as moral values. His sayings and actions, along with the Qur’anic teachings, were regarded as source of moral guidance for Muslims. In their interviews, many students emphasised the importance of following the Prophet’s character as represented in his manners and attitudes. A  student in the following extract, for example, focuses on the influence of the Prophet’s actions and behaviours on her daily life: Student L-7B: My dad always tells me that Sunnah is kind of doing what the Prophet (SAS) did. So, even the simplest thing means a lot to me, like most Muslims sleep on their right like the Prophet (SAS) did, we always eat with our right hand the way he did. My dad said the Prophet (SAS) would read the Qur’an before his children went to sleep and that is what my dad does to us now. And we say duas before we eat, before we sleep, after we wake up. Because my dad wants to make sure he does his job right

106  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons just like the Prophet (SAS) did. So to make sure that we end up just like him in heaven we follow his Sunnah. In Nucci and Turiel’s (1993) study, it was found that religious people do not always associate moral rules with religious authority but they usually differentiate these rules from religious ones. Similarly, in this category, it was found that although moral values and rules were considered as being related to the religious authority, they were also ascribed a distinct nature based on rationality, yet, not completely independent of the divine source, in contrast to the above mentioned study. In Islam, morality not only derives from the religious injunctions of the Qur’an and the teachings of the Prophet, for it can also be based on rational foundations (Halstead, 2007). Muslims are required to use reason to be able to decide on what is right and what is wrong, albeit reliance on religious teachings is seen as essential in order to affirm their moral judgments. Students at this level were also aware of the role of reason in making value-judgments, arguing that moral values and virtues are also inherent in other religious traditions. For example, in the following passage a student highlights the role of personal character for acting in an upright manner: Student D-7B: We are all brothers and sisters in Islam so no other Muslim is better than anyone. Do you get what I mean? No person is better than anyone else. R: What do you mean? Do you think everyone is same? S: Not same but everyone is equal and no one is the best Muslim because everyone is different but . . . so if somebody prays every single day but somebody does not or they pray but not complete, you know, it does not mean that the person who prays every day is better than the person who does not. Because in other ways they could be better than them like they might be pure. To conclude, in this category, Islam was understood through contrast between a religion expressed mostly by its external features and a way of life that informs believers’ religious, moral, and spiritual perspectives. In addition, the external features of Islam appeared to have an internal value unlike the earlier categories. Accordingly, the Qur’an and the Prophet’s Sunnah were considered as religious, spiritual, and moral guidance for Muslims, being perceived as valuable, provided believers engage deeply with their teachings. The students highlighted the similarities between Islam and other religions, particularly in terms of their moral injunctions. However, they were still aware of the essential differences between these religions as they focused on issues, such as the reliability of the holy books and the role of the prophets in all three religions.

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 107 Category 4: Having a Dynamic Islamic Identity The distinctive characteristic of the final category is the focus on the personal responsibility of developing a dynamic, self-motivated religious identity. These students placed great emphasis on the issue that in order to have an internalised faith one should have freedom to decide about the nature of their faith. However, individuals’ autonomy in choosing their own faith was considered as being subject to God’s will, for it was argued that free will is given by God to human beings, and therefore, they have a duty to worship Him. However, these students were unsure whether free choice could operate in developing a strong and informed faith as well as a dynamic Muslim identity or it could end up replacing one’s faith with another. Regarding the latter perspective, they only focused on people who might want to convert from other belief systems to Islam and not vice versa. In essence, religious autonomy and freedom of belief were seen as related to reconciliation of personal commitment to Islam and declaration of a Muslim identity based on autonomous choice (Rissanen, 2012, 2014). According to Peek, “the development of strong religious identity involves heightened reflection and self-awareness, individual choices, and the acknowledgement of others” (Peek, 2005, p.  236). Based on his research, he argues that the process is a dynamic one and continues throughout a lifetime. Consequently, when individuals reach adulthood they should be able to select or affirm their faith identity through critical reflection and reasoned judgment. A developmental process perspective regarding identity formation was also found in this study. In the following extract, a student emphasises the role of the family in a person’s religious choice, but she still believes that personal choice should be an identifier of faith when the person becomes capable of making a decision: Student J-7B: I do not really believe that Islam is, like, what your parents decide for you but it is your choice. Say if your family is Christian that does not mean that you should be Christian as well. If you are young, you will not understand properly then people will teach you about it, so, like my parents taught me and guided me about Islam. But if you are from other religions, like, Christian or Buddhist or others, you should see other religions, so you can decide yourself. When you grow up you can see different religions and then realise that Islam is the best and it is not just a religion rather a way of life. In many studies it is argued that individual choice has become central in exploring faith identity among diaspora Muslims in Western countries (Schmidt, 2004; Chaudhury & Miller, 2008; Berglund, 2013; Kimanen,

108  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 2014; Rissanen, 2012, 2014) either because of the contemporary Western discourse of “the ability to choose is considered both a human right and an aspect of high social status on local and global scenes” (Schmidt, 2004, p. 35) or due to the influence of modern Islamic theology (Otterbeck, 2010, cited in Kimanen, 2014). Due to living in the diaspora, Muslims in Western countries have a higher awareness of their religious and ethnic identities. Sometimes discrimination and stereotypical accusations against Muslims as well as the conflict between their parental tradition and the values of Western society lead them to search for a firm, and well-informed knowledge about Islamic faith and practices. Having said this, the migration process contributes to the young Muslims’ searching for ‘true’, pure Islam, whereby they are in a constant process of reviewing and discussing the role of faith in their lives. They are exposed to different religious and non-religious belief systems and are challenged to find ways of reconciling the Islamic principles with Western values, as these two sources often contradict each other (Chaudhury & Miller, 2008), as seen in the issues of dating, celebration of religious festivals, halal food and fasting during Ramadan. These concerns and issues were apparent in this study as well, being particularly well articulated by the students in this category. They were trying to identify what is Islamic and non-Islamic by means of scrutinising how their cultural and parental traditions impacted their understanding of Islam. They highlighted the difference between the ultimate truth claims of Islam and how they can be interpreted depending on context and time. In this last category, the students were self-reflective about their faith by referring to the necessity of choosing their religious identity, thus enhancing their understanding of Islamic faith and practices. It was argued that having a strong commitment to Islamic faith necessitates observing religious practices in their daily lives. In the following extract, a student highlights the importance of free choice of faith and acting on it, which would give believers a sense of meaning in terms of their religious and spiritual worldview: Student A-7A: Even though everyone was born Muslim they can choose whether to stay a Muslim or to be independent. Like, you are lucky if you were born into a Muslim family because it is easier to know what you should do or what you should not do. But I think it is everybody’s choice what part to take; you can either choose the right way or the other way. Also everybody has their brain so when you are doing something wrong you know it is wrong and you can either take it or leave it. This is a gift Allah gave us. But because you are born into a Muslim family you cannot just sit back and say ‘oh, I  am

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 109 a Muslim now, I do not have to do anything and I am going to Jannah’ [Heaven], you have to earn the right to go to Jannah. Even though all the sahaba [The Prophet’s companions] automatically had a place in Jannah they did not sit back, they tried hard and hard to please Allah by following His orders. The students placed a great emphasis on deeper internalisation of faith. The understanding of faith was discerned through distinction between internal faith, a personal relationship with God which has a propelling effect on the person, and external faith, expressed mostly by religious observances. The students further distinguished between ‘genuine’ and ‘nominal’ Muslims based on how faith appears in everyday life. Student J-7B (written task): Being a Muslim is not just something from your mouth, something that you say, rather something from your heart.1 Practising Islam was understood at a deeper level compared to the first two categories, where the students’ focus was only on the religious rituals and observances, without a direct reference to faith and individual spirituality. Faith, for those in this category, was perceived as a dynamic aspect of identity that would inform one’s life not only in terms of practising it, but also influencing one’s personality, moral character, and spirituality. The student below highlights the comprehensive role Islam plays in one’s life, as organising and regulating both religious knowledge and experience, thus helping to build a comprehensive religious identity. Student D-7A: So, understanding Islam is like engaging in it, doing it. Like, being a Muslim is an important thing, but you have to actually know what are you doing as a Muslim. Like, you cannot go and bully someone and say ‘oh, I  am such a good person because I  am Muslim’. You have to personally be a good person because Allah made us to be pure not to be evil so you cannot be a bad person. That is what actually makes a Muslim and that is how I believe that a Muslim should act. In the earlier categories, the influence of social pressure and other considerations, such as peer support and recognition by the community were seen to have motivated the students to participate in religious practices and rituals. At this level, however, the intention behind performing religious rituals and observances—which is more private and relates to the act of devotion—was regarded as being more essential than simply the

110  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons performance itself. The importance of internal faith became the focus rather than external Islam, as can be seen in the following example: Student A-7A: On the Day of Judgment Allah will judge you by what is inside you. Sometimes you pray in front of people, they see you are praying they might think ‘wow she is really a good Muslim’ but no one really knows what is inside you, only Allah knows, and that is what you are going to get judged by. Say, you are praying but from inside you do not really want it, actually, you are angry that you have to do it. Then, it is not going to be accepted because you need to pray with the right intention, which is to pray for Allah. The Muslim community was discerned by focusing on both the differences and similarities between Muslims, with the concept of ummah being brought into the focus. The students talked about how faith is interpreted differently depending on various contexts, such as culture, ethnic background and denomination. This level of understanding differs from the earlier categories since the focus shifted from seeing all Muslims as the ‘same’ to acknowledging a certain level of differences. In the following example, a student focuses on the role of the Qur’an as bringing together all diverse Islamic interpretations under the umbrella of Islam: Student D-7A: There are differences between everybody. I think everyone is faithful in a different level, like some people may believe in other ways. We all have our own view of Islam and everyone thinks of it differently but we all have the same book, the Qur’an, which kind of guides us in the same way eventually. Lastly, in this category, Islam was discerned by means of contrast between faith chosen according to free will and imitative faith that is passed down through generations. The dynamic nature of religious identity was considered to provide a transformative and exploratory faith relationship. Similar to the previous category, faith was considered as an important factor in the application of Islam to everyday life. Practising was conceived of at a deeper level, where not only the actions, but also the intentions behind those actions were considered as being important. There was an expanded awareness in terms of understanding the Muslim community. Regarding which, the concept of ummah was brought to the fore; the commonalities and the equity within the community were valued. Moreover, unlike the other three categories, an awareness of the differences between Muslims was acknowledged to some extent. Akin

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 111 to the third category, the students emphasised the commonalities with other world religions, particularly regarding moral issues, along with the differences. 5.1.2 Summary of the Pre-Test Results As aforementioned, the categories given in Table 5.2 indicate four different ways of understanding Islam and being a Muslim. There is a logical hierarchical structure between the categories, with each successive category representing an extension of that/those beneath it. In categories one and two, Islam was understood mostly in relation to its external religious practices and observances, whilst in the third and fourth, the focus had shifted to the internal dimensions of Islam, such as having a faith that informs not only the religious practices, but also individual spirituality and morality. There was a similar number of students in each category from both classes. Five students had only basic knowledge about Islam, focusing on its external appearances and observances, claiming that it is the only true religion to be followed. Four students, along with the external observances of Islam, also focused on the representation of Islam to others and the dynamics of conversion. They did not consider Islam as a closed religion, as opposed to the first category, but were more interested in how it could be represented to others. In general, the students in categories 1 and 2 were not able to consider Islam as a whole and instead, only focused on some parts of it. There were three students at the third level, who focused on the moral and spiritual dimensions of Islam as well as its observable facts, rituals, and symbols. They understood Islam both in terms of an internal relationship with God, faith, and external appearances, such as practices, symbols, and the communal relationship with other Muslims. Only three students attained the highest category, level 4. They were able to discern the critical aspects in the earlier categories either explicitly or implicitly. Their understanding went beyond the earlier categories; showing a more differentiated and deeper structure. They emphasised the importance of personal responsibility in terms of choosing and maintaining one’s faith. Table 5.2 Overall results of pre-test for both classes Categories of description

Number of students (Total: 15)

1.  Basic knowledge about Islam 2.  Representation of Islam 3.  Implementation of faith to life 4.  Having a dynamic Islamic identity

5 4 3 3

112  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons

5.2 The Intended Object of Learning As explained in the literature review (chapter 3), the intended object of learning pertains to what teachers aim for their students to learn during the lesson(s). It includes two steps: identifying the critical aspects and designing the lessons. 5.2.1 Identifying Critical Aspects In many learning studies, in order to identify the critical aspects teachers usually rely on the curriculum, textbooks, and more importantly, their teaching experiences of the chosen object of learning. Then, a diagnostic test is administered to students so as to elicit their understanding of the object of learning, especially with regard to the critical aspects that were identified (Lo et al., 2005). In this study, the critical aspects were identified based on the students’ understandings of Islam and the curricular aims developed by the RE teacher, which are explained in the following subsections. Curricular Aims of the Unit Based on her teaching experience, the teacher identified four critical aspects regarding the object of learning, ‘Islam and being a Muslim’, which were the Oneness of Allah (tawhid), personal responsibility in terms belief, faith, and identity, along with unity of the Muslim community and differences. This can be seen in the following excerpt from the interview with the teacher: R: What are your intentions about this object of learning? T: I want them to have a clear idea of belonging and identity, say in a grand plan with the wider Muslim ummah and family generally; and then to narrow it down talk about their community and how they fit into that; then narrow it down even further to how an assured and clear vision of self-identity hopefully one that is not static but evolving and changes with time obviously with interruption and so on. R: So what do you think the critical aspects are? T: Identity and belonging, differences in expressions. Unity is really important on different levels; first, the unity of Allah (swt), tawhid; unity within the Muslim community but at the same time diversity; and unity within one self—pulling all the different strands, viewing them altogether into one coherent human being. I  want them to have a dynamic self-perception, to experience dynamics of conversion and religious experience, conviction, how conviction might not necessarily inform life and practice and so on. For the next stage, the critical aspects in relation to the students’ prior conceptions of the object of learning were identified.

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 113 Students’ Pre-Understanding of the Object of Learning Out of the analysis of the students’ perceptions of Islam and being a Muslim, four critical aspects were identified, based on the categories explained in the earlier section: practising Islam/external practices and observances of Islam, representation of Islam, implementation of faith to life, and personal responsibility in terms of faith. Practising Islam, with a focus only on religious practices and observances, was the first critical aspect that separated the first category from others. These students put greater emphasis on the external features of Islam, having limited awareness about its internal characteristics, such as how faith informs one’s life, or the relationship between faith and practice. The second critical aspect at the second level was about representing Islam to others, which was important with regard to developing confidence about religious identity. However, these students’ awareness of internal faith issues was not so much ahead of those in the first category. The third critical aspect pertaining to the third category was the implementation of faith in every aspect of life. That is, they were able to focus on the moral, spiritual, and experiential domains of Islam simultaneously. The fourth critical aspect, personal responsibility, refers to having an autonomous choice regarding their faith, thus in their eyes, leading to a greater understanding of it. In general, it was seen that, through all the categories, the students either conceived of the internal and external characteristics of Islam as parts of the same divine reality or merely brought the religions’ external dimension to the fore through certain practices and observances. In terms of the unity and diversity of Islam, which was identified as critical by the teacher, the students mostly focused on the sameness of Muslims, and hence, the diversity within Islam was not appreciated at all or only appreciated to some degree. In fact, varying interpretations of Islam were considered as heretical by some of the students. Final Critical Aspects Based on the curricular aims and the students’ perceptions of Islam and being a Muslim, five critical aspects were identified, which are illustrated in Table 5.3. Table 5.3 Critical aspects 1.  The concept of God: The unity of Allah (tawhid) 2.  Personal responsibility in terms of belief 3.  Faith and identity 4.  Practising Islam 5.  Muslim community

114  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons These critical aspects were utilised in planning and implementing the research lessons with regard to the CRE and VT framework. 5.2.2 Designing the Lessons The teachers and the researcher together designed a lesson plan consisting of five lessons outlining the critical aspects in the two cycles, for classes 7A and 7B. The aim was to get the students to discern the critical aspects so that they would move from having a poorly integrated understanding of the object of learning to a more differentiated one. The intended object of learning was identified as developing a more differentiated understanding of God; the concept of free choice of faith; faith and identity; practising in Islam and its relation to faith; and finally, reflecting on the issue of Muslim community, not only in terms of the unity of Muslims, but also their diversity. As mentioned before, the framework of CRE and VT was adopted for designing and planning the lessons. The principles of ontological realism, epistemic relativity, and judgmental rationality were followed theoretically in their planning and implementation. In accordance with CRE, the ultimate and contingent ‘truth claims’ of Islam were identified. Belief in the Oneness of God and other aspects of faith, the five pillars of Islam, and the unity of the Muslim community were introduced as the ultimate truth claims of Islam. At the same time, denominational, socio-cultural, and ethnic dimensions were emphasised as the variant aspects of Muslim identity. A  systematic use of variation and invariance (patterns of contrast, separation, generalisation, and fusion) was also drawn upon when planning the lessons. For applying variation, the context, whole, and parts relationship was followed. The critical aspects were first varied with regard to the context, i.e. how a critical aspect emerged in other worldviews. Next, variation was used regarding the whole, that is, where a critical aspect stands in the whole understanding of Islam and how it is observed within the religious tradition. Finally, the relationship between the different critical aspects was emphasised. In the first lesson, the teacher starts with a discussion about ‘what Islam is and is not’. The students are asked to discuss why something is related to Islam or not, by introducing evidence from either the Qur’an or hadith. The aim with this activity is that students will discern the distinctive features of Islam separating them from the context in which they are surrounded by diverse religious and secular groups. They are expected to make comparisons between Islam and other religions in terms of faith, observable practices, and religious community. Here, the teacher uses contrast as a pattern of variation by differing the essential characteristics of Islam from the aspects that are not related to it or are against its teachings. In the second part of the lesson, the critical aspect ‘The Oneness of God (the concept of tawhid) is presented and Suratu’l Ikhlas2 is introduced

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 115 through a whole class discussion. The students are expected to discern from the surah the distinctive features of God, the Oneness of Allah. Directed by the teacher’s questions, they are asked to compare the Islamic belief in God with other belief systems, such as ‘Jesus as God incarnate’ or pagan beliefs. Contrast is used here as the Oneness of God is compared with the concept of shirk, which refers to associating other gods with Allah. Through this discussion it is believed that students will consolidate their understanding of the, the unity of God (tawhid). The second lesson begins with the story of Prophet Abraham where he searches for God’s entity and the truth of resurrection in order to affirm his belief in God and the Day of Judgment. With this story, the aim is to help the students discern the critical aspect of ‘personal responsibility in terms of faith’ such that they will see that even though they hold faith in Islam they are required to consolidate it. Following this, the Surah AlKafirun and the verse ‘there is no compulsion in religion’3 are introduced. Based on the surah, the students are expected to identify the concepts of ‘freedom of right to believe’ and ‘freedom of expression’. Variation is used to help them comprehend these concepts and thus, establish a relationship between them and the critical aspect of ‘personal responsibility in faith’. Free choice of faith is separated from belief that is gained mostly by means of an involuntary or imitative process and therefore, does not express itself in a meaningful way. After studying these two faith forms, the students are expected to understand that by being personally responsible for choosing their own faith, believers will have a dynamic Islamic identity. In the third lesson, the critical aspect of ‘faith and identity’ is introduced. The students are asked to consider the components of identity in two ways: the components that individuals are assigned to, and the ones over which individuals have a personal choice in their social contexts. The aspects of ethnicity, gender, social status, and language are introduced as the most salient constant aspects of identity, regarding which they have no personal choice. Faith, however, is described as one of the most important dimensions of identity that is to be chosen freely by individuals. Through this distinction, the purpose is to facilitate the students’ability to discern the informing role of faith in developing a dynamic Muslim identity. Generalisation is used here as a pattern of variation. Thus, the students will come to realise that people with different ethnic and cultural identity backgrounds can share the same faith and also that people with the same ethnic/cultural identity background can belong to different faith traditions. The fourth lesson covers the critical aspect of ‘practising Islam/worshipping God’. In the previous lesson, the students were expected to discern faith as part of one’s identity and the role of personal responsibility in choosing and maintaining faith. In this lesson, they are expected to understand that an informed and internalised faith is only to be perceived

116  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons through worshipping God, which is pursued not only by observable practices and rituals, but also through spiritual and moral development. Comprehending this critical aspect will assist the students in realising that practising Islam does not only mean performing the five pillars of Islam, but also, acting with the purpose of gaining God’s praise and approval. Variation is used here in that practising Islam refers to an internalised way that entails a believer’s moral and spiritual integrity being separated from the common understanding of worship where he/she only engages in the acts of worship in order to pursue a feeling of accomplishment. Lastly, in the fifth lesson, the critical aspect ‘unity and diversity of the Muslim community’ is introduced. For this critical aspect, the students are expected to discern the unity of the Muslim community alongside the diversity of Muslims. They are expected to understand that to be part of the Muslim community it is necessary to follow the essential beliefs and practices of Islam. In addition, they are to learn that having different identities, such as coming from a different ethnic or cultural background or following a different sect or political party, does not matter in terms of being a Muslim. Hence, differences among Muslims would not preclude them from being part of the same community. Hajj will be given as an example where Muslims from all around the world come together to perform the same religious act, to worship Allah. Generalisation is used as a pattern of variation, whereby belief in the six pillars of iman (faith) as well as belief in the authority of the Qur’an and the hadith are introduced as the constants of Islam, while interpretation of these beliefs are varied according to different socio-cultural, ethnic, political, and denominational backgrounds.

5.3 The Enacted Object of Learning This section explores whether what it was intended for the students to learn was implemented in the actual classroom context. While the initial lesson plan included five lessons, the teacher also decided to focus on a new critical aspect of ‘essential and superfluous characteristics of Islam’ through an additional lesson. Thus, six lessons were conducted in both cycles. The enacted object of learning in the second cycle appeared to be covered in the same way as in the first cycle. However, on closer inspection, there appeared to be important differences mostly regarding the teaching and learning interaction between the teacher and the students as well as the teacher’s pedagogical practices. The latter she asserted had led her to carry out the lessons in different ways. This is evident in the following excerpt from her interview: T: Personally I am not really good at recreating an event once I have done it so my teaching style feeds a lot from what students give. It is very discussion based . . . So my style particularly with younger

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 117 classes is really trying to solicit lots of answers from them and build responses based on their own personal expression. You witnessed that in the class. It is very difficult to create something identical or similar because the dynamics of each class is different and thus responses are different. So, even if you have a solid outcome of what you want it will not be as easily achievable. In the following subsection, the enacted object of learning in both cycles is discussed in detail. 5.3.1 Introductory Lesson Description and Analysis of the Lesson At the outset of the first lesson for class 7A, the teacher displayed a clipping of a song ‘Alhamdulillah I am a Muslim’ on the board, which emphasised the importance of human beings having free will. While the initial aim of the teacher was to make an introduction to the lesson, she also partly focused on the critical aspect of personal responsibility due to the content of the song. This is exemplified in the following dialogue:

Episode 5.1— Class 7A T: So what do you think about the song, any ideas? Student G: When we are Muslim as a human we have our own choice to what we do. So unlike the rock we can get misguided or we can get to the right path. Allah can lead us to the right path. T: OK, so the point is other things in the world, universe, do not have choice; they do not have free will. So trees, rocks birds, whatever only do what their instincts, their fitrah tells them to do, how God created them. However, as a human being, having a privileged position you can make your choices and take the consequences of your choices. So, if you do something fantastic, you hopefully will get great consequences and if you do not, then otherwise. Student G: Like, it tells you that Allah created you for a purpose, to do something. You should not wish something else because Allah made you like that. T: OK, there is a divine wisdom, Allah (st) has a plan, created everything for a purpose. We should not resent it, you know, saying I wish I was this and so on. So, what is the purpose of all this? Student J: We should be privileged that we have the choice of freedom to do stuff instead of like rock and tree, they cannot choose what they want to do or, like, what they have.

118  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons T:

It is a privilege but also a responsibility if you think about it. So, if for example someone says to you, like, you are allowed to live by yourself, you do not have to live in your parents’ care, for example, that is a privilege. But it is also very big responsibility because then you have to think of how to budget for yourself.

In the second part of the lesson, the teacher asked the students to complete a homework assignment that involved identifying ‘what Islam is’ and ‘what it is not’ by introducing evidence from the Qur’an and hadith. The first lesson with class 7B was enacted in a different way than the first class. The teacher began the lesson by introducing an experiment. She asked each student to talk for thirty seconds about Islam to an alien creature who knew nothing about it. The idea was to reveal the critical features of Islam the students had to their fore of awareness. Their responses were in line with those in their written tasks. The most salient aspects were the Oneness of God, belief issues in Islam, certain practices, moral values of Islam, the role of the Qur’an and the Prophet Muhammad in Muslims’ lifves. In their responses, the students opened up a dimension of variation by contrasting some aspects of Islam with other religions, as is evident below:

Episode 5.2—Class 7B Student D: The Qur’an tells us about the difficulties that people have had, about people who have gone astray. It is like a guide for us not to do so and actually anyone can read it, they do not have to be a Muslim [. . .] A Muslim is put on earth to do one thing, to worship Allah. We look different from other people, especially in London, because it is a Christian country, so, we wear hijab and show that we are modest and we follow the rules so we cannot do haram things like drinking alcohol, eating pork and stuff. Some students focused on moral and spiritual values of Islam rather than the most salient and well-known aspects of it that were reiterated by their peers.

Episode 5.3—Class 7B Student G: Islam is a religion about honesty. Because everything we do is about being honest. T: In what ways? Could you give an example? Student G: The things that you cannot do . . . I do not remember the whole story but once a man come to Prophet and asked him

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 119 ‘how can I be a good Muslim?’ and he said ‘just be honest’. He used to steal but after that he did not steal because he became honest. Basically, there were lots of bad things that he could have done but he did not want to lie to the Prophet so he did not do them. During the rest of the lesson, the teacher clarified some issues she had picked up from when the students were talking. She addressed some misconceptions that were not particularly relevant to the object of learning, but that she deemed important to challenge. Discussion of the Lesson In class 7A, the teacher needed to introduce the critical aspect of ‘personal responsibility’ during the introduction session of the unit, because of the content of the introductory activity in her lesson schema. The activity itself covered the whole lesson and in fact, the teacher was unable to explore the whole issue of personal responsibility as it was outlined in the lesson plan. However, she decided to stick to the lesson plan for the second class. The discussion about ‘what Islam is’ and ‘what it is not’ was rather more fruitful in the second class. As propounded by CRE, this got the students to contrast the truth claims of Islam with other religious and non-religious traditions, with regards to belief issues and religious practices. It gave insights into their understanding and awareness of the ultimate truth claims of Islam as well as its practical and sociocultural dimensions. Furthermore, the activity helped in revealing the critical aspects in the students’ focal awareness, as well as the absences with regard to their understanding of Islam. For example, only a few students focused on moral and behavioural aspects that appear both at the individual and social levels. Consequently, the teacher decided to highlight these issues when introducing the critical aspect ‘practising Islam’. Moreover, none of them brought up the issue of diversity within Islam. In general, the students had yet to grasp the context-whole-parts relationship of Islam, which would enable them developing literacy in relation to its theology, religious practices, as well as spirituality, thereby having a more comprehensive understanding of the religion (Wright, 2008). 5.3.2 The oneness of God; the Concept of tawhid Description and Analysis of the Lesson At the beginning of the lesson, the teacher decided to go through the homework she gave earlier about ‘what Islam is’ and ‘what Islam is not’. She aimed for the students to discern the parts that constitute Islam and the context in which Islam is situated. The students read their homework

120  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons aloud, which was followed by a whole class discussion. Their homework responses were also in line with those of their written tasks. The teacher then asked them to identify some issues that are not related to Islam or were against its teachings. A discussion session ensued, the nature of which can be seen in the following extract:

Episode 5.4—Class 7B Student F: T:

Miss, can we say Islam is not terrorism? Yes of course, that is a fantastic example! What proof do you have and what do you think Islam teaches about that? Student L: Because you hurt other people. T: Why is it non-Islamic? Student J: Because it is not peace, it is injustice and it is forbidden in the Qur’an. T: Yes, exactly. If it involves injustice or death, all of these things are unaccepted in Islam. Student N: Can we say something like Muslims do not believe? Like, we do not believe that there is more than One God. T: Yes, that is it exactly! So, Islam is not polytheism for example. Student L: Some people think that because we are Muslims we are against other religions but Islam is not against other religions. We still believe in Jesus and Moses (as). T: Fantastic, pick up a technical word such as esoteric, that means looking inwardly to yourself. Student K: Miss, was he the Prophet Muhammad that said gossiping or backbiting is like eating a dead person’s flesh? T: It is in the Qur’an actually. Student E: Islam is not unfair. T: Right, so give me an example, if you have a quote from the Qur’an or hadith that would be great. As can be seen from the example, contrast was used as a pattern of variation between the parts and context of Islam. In the discussion that continued, some students opened up a dimension of variation in relation to the answers given by their peers.

Episode 5.5—Class 7B Student F: Student G: S (some students): T:

Islam is not violence But some people are being violent. Because they do not follow Islam. Exactly. So they do not follow the teachings of Islam, they do not do what they should be doing. But they are still Muslims.

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 121 In the second part of the lesson, the teacher proceeded with the critical aspect of ‘the Oneness of God; the concept of tawhid’. The Suratu’l Ikhlas4from the Qur’an was introduced, which includes information about the entity and nature of God. The teacher explained that in the Qur’an many verses are introduced in a way in which the meaning is constituted through two contrasting phrases or stories, thus the meaning becomes clearer and the reader can then make a better sense of it. In this surah, God describes Himself first through negation of the attributes that are ascribed to Him and then reveals the positive attributes about His entity and His being the only One God.

Episode 5.6—Class 7A T:

Ok, we have in the Qur’an an excellent encapsulation of what Allah (swt) is all about. Remember earlier on in the year I said a word. What does this word mean? [Writing ‘juxtaposition’ on the board] Any ideas? Students: (Silence) T: Juxtaposition means putting two things that are completely opposite next to each other. So, if I  have something that is black and something that is white and I  put them next to each other it makes the black look blacker and the white look whiter. So Allah (swt) does this a lot in the Qur’an. It is because if you put something very good next to something very evil the good seem better and the evil seem worse. So ‘Lam yalid’: He never ever will have offspring. Wa lam yulad’: neither is He begotten, He has never ever had any parents. ‘Wa lam yakun lahu kufuwan ahad’: and nothing or no one will be similar or come close to the attributes of Allah (swt). Together we can encapsulate these all in one single word which is tawhid. In class 7B, the Suratu’l Ikhlas was introduced, explained and discussed in a very similar way to the first class. Contrast was used as a pattern of variation, whereby the presence of the Oneness of God was introduced through negation of belief in and worship of other supreme beings. Shirk was discerned as a contrasting concept to tawhid, which is evident in the following extract.

Episode 5.7—Class 7B T:

So what happens if someone believes in Allah (swt) but unfortunately then believes in something or someone else? Students: Shirk. Student D: Because they associate partners with Allah. T: Very good! E was patiently putting her hands up.

122  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons Student E:

Basically shirk is that you associate Allah with someone else say for example saying that there is more than one God or He has a son or He has a family. T: Fantastic and why is that a problem? Student L: It is problem because it says in the Qur’an that ‘there is only One God’ and you cannot say there is two. Student O: There is a guy in the Islamic channel, before he became Muslim, he used to worship stones and rocks, that means Allah never forgives his sins? T: The idea is that when someone becomes Muslim as long as they seek forgiveness sincerely, and repent for what they have done, then their past sins do not count anymore.   OK, so if I say for example that Allah (st) is the superlative, the most powerful, the Creator, the Just, the Merciful and then I  come along and say, you know what, there is someone who has pretty much the same kind of power, then Allah no longer becomes the superlative. It takes the meaning away from it. This is what Muslims believe about Allah, in one single word, which is tawhid. What does tawhid mean? S: Allah is the One. T: OK, so tawhid means belief in the Oneness of Allah (ST). In this lesson, the teacher realised that some students were questioning whether they were allowed to have debates about the Qur’anic verses. Regarding which, during the lesson, one student objected to her friend saying, “You cannot debate the Qur’an!” Then, the teacher explained that reading the Qur’an not only meant reciting and memorising the facts, but rather, they needed to reflect on its teachings since that would help enhancing their understanding of the Qur’anic message. When the teacher was explaining the surah one of the students came up with the question, ‘When it clearly states that Allah does not have children in the Qur’an why do Christians still believe that Jesus is Son of God?’ This question reflected some of their prior understandings, demonstrating that they were confused about the fact that despite the Qur’anic teachings, Christians and Jews continued to believe in some matters that were not approved by Islam. According to the students, the reason for this was that the Bible and Torah have been constantly changed by the followers of those religions and hence, they have gone astray. Then the teacher decided to use the metaphor of computers by explaining that as a Windows 98 file could not be opened by the Windows 92 programme, similarly Prophet Muhammad, the last Prophet, and therefore his message, would not be acknowledged by other religions, because otherwise that would mean they were not Christians or Jews anymore, but Muslims instead. Therefore, since Christians and Jews did not believe in the Prophet Muhammad and his message it would be pointless to question why they believed differently from Muslims.

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 123 Discussion of the Lesson In the first class, 7A, instead of exploring what the students came up with in their responses to the matter of ‘what Islam is’ and ‘what Islam is not’, the teacher showed them some examples from previous years, which was not part of the lesson plan. This diverted the students’ attention to irrelevant aspects. For example, they discussed the issue of equality in Hajj for quite a long time and hence, spent less time on the concept of God. The introductory discussion was more fruitful in the second class as the students had ample time to discuss their own ideas. Overall, the students in both cycles engaged in discerning the critical aspect ‘the Oneness of God’. The dimension of variation was opened up by exploring their questions. The first and foremost truth claim of Islam, ‘the Oneness of God’, was comprehended through contrast with other beliefs, especially to Christianity. This helped them to realise the importance of that aspect of ‘being a Muslim’, whilst at the same time to understand better why Christianity and Judaism hold different views on the nature of God, as put forward by CRE (Wright, 2007). It was found in the analysis of their pre-test data that the students had difficulties in distinguishing between being critical of religious sources and approaching them in a critical and analytical manner in order to deepen their understandings of them. This became more apparent in this lesson. They were wondering whether they were allowed to question the teachings of the Qur’an, which for some was considered a sin. According to the teacher, this was an important critical aspect with regard to developing a differentiated and informed understanding of the Qur’an, as the following shows: T: .  .  . Also you know their discourse is not a type of discourse that takes doubt and processes it, so it is just ‘oh the Qur’an is etc’. Then B, when she was talking about how some verses about the Day of Judgment makes her scared. It is interesting point to start with. I think they are getting on their way. Consequently, in the second cycle, this aspect was further elaborated upon. Moreover, the teacher reported that she had decided to explore it in her future lessons. 5.3.3 Personal Responsibility in Terms of Belief Description and Analysis of the Lesson In this lesson, the teacher introduced the critical aspect ‘personal responsibility in terms of faith’. At the outset, the story of Prophet Ibrahim was introduced, which is about his search for God’s entity and the truth about resurrection in order to affirm his belief in God and the Day of Judgment.

124  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons Based on this story, the teacher explained the necessity for believers to affirm and reconcile their faith. Here, she focused on personal responsibility in choosing and maintaining one’s faith. Then she proceeded with the Suratu’l Kafirun.5 This surah pertains to a dialogue between the Prophet Muhammad (saw) and the non-believers about free will to choose one’s own faith. The students were expected to understand that people were entitled to the right to choose their own faith. Separation was used as a pattern of variation in differentiating the informed and exploratory faith chosen by free will from the imitative and conventional one. In the following dialogue, responding to a point made by one of the students, the teacher points out the Islamic doctrine of fitrah, an innate disposition and natural state of human character that exists in every human being when they are born.

Episode 5.8—Class 7B T:

Allah (swt) says in the Qur’an “la ikraha fid’din” you cannot force someone to believe something because you cannot actually go into their heart and change their feelings. Student D: You know I was born as a Muslim and I want to stay in my religion maybe others for example Christians also want to stay in their religions? Student K: But their parents make them Christians. T: There is an important hadith saying that every human being is born in the state of fitrah, nature, that is Islam. But it is actually their parents who change them. A Muslim could be born into a Muslim family for example but be brought up by a Christian family or vice versa. Student E: Miss, you know when you are younger your parents tell you to do things but when you get older you actually decide for yourself. Student N: They have a faith, their parents told them but then they do not understand so they try to find a new religion. But when they find it, sometimes their parents completely disagree with them. Does that mean like you are letting down your parents? T: Of course, if someone decides to change their faith it is a very emotional time, not easy. It is a life-changing decision. Student K: When you are born, your nature is Islam; it is part of you. When you stand up logically, you would go out of the door not window so Islam is like walking through the door. In class 7B, the clip “Alhamdulillah I am a Muslim” was displayed followed by a discussion. Then, the students were asked to discuss what free will meant to them. The aim was to make them discern that with free will

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 125 given by God they would able to choose their own faith and that they are required to worship God. Separation was used as the presence of free will for human beings, whereby being personally responsible for their choices was differentiated from the absence of free will, and hence responsibility. Discussion of the Lesson The discussions about the ‘personal responsibility in terms of faith’ turned out to be successful in both classes. Through studying the Suratu’l Kafirun, the stories of the Prophet Ibrahim and the discussion on the clip “Alhamdulillah I am Muslim”, the students came to understand that they were free to choose their faith as well as entitled to search for consolidation of it. Many of the students were able to compare this aspect through different religious traditions, particularly Christianity. This showed that their prior-conception of faith acquisition had been challenged when they were introduced to critical variation regarding it. Accordingly, they gained a more differentiated understanding of that critical aspect. The teacher was also happy about the outcomes in both classes, that she expressed as follows: T: I think self-perception also changed. They saw that it was not static any more. You know you are born into this [Islam] therefore you are, full stop. But they explored the dynamics of conversion, for example, they explored the dynamics of religious experience, conviction, how conviction might not necessarily inform life and practice and so on. One notable issue was the different way the teaching proceeded for the two classes. In the first, the students had to explore this critical aspect in different lessons, while in the second, they carried out all the relevant activities in the same lesson, which helped them to keep their focus on this specific critical aspect. Moreover, in the first class the teaching was in the form of direct instruction, whereas in the second, there were more discussion based activities, which kept the students more engaged during the lesson. 5.3.4 Faith and Identity Description and Analysis of the Lesson In this lesson, the critical aspect ‘faith and identity’ was introduced. During the first part of the lesson, the teacher carried out an activity; she typed the word ‘Muslim’ on the Internet and asked students to discuss and reflect on the themes and images displayed regarding whether or not they were related to Islam and if so, how. This activity was aimed at revealing the students’ preconceptions through real life examples and

126  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons in the process, two key issues came to light. First, it appeared that they confused cultural and ethnic identities as direct representations of faith thinking that certain types belong to particular religions. During a discussion about a crowd of people who were dressed in a Middle Eastern way, some students claimed that because of the specific dress code those people had to be Muslims. In another photo, pointing at a blonde woman, one student claimed that she was probably Christian, because of her having a certain skin colour. Then, the teacher explained that dress codes or other physical features like having a long beard or a different coloured skin do not specify one’s religious worldview, but rather, defines their cultural or ethnic background. She used variation by separating faith (iman) from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds, which is apparent in the following excerpt:

Episode 5.9—Class 7A T: What do you think about this picture?6 Student (unknown): I think this does not show Islam because it shows violence and anger. T: So you think there is violence and anger happening in here, OK. Student (unknown):  It is about Islam, because the way they are dressed is Islamic. T: Actually, there is nothing specifically Islamic about what they are wearing. Just because they have a turban, a beard and they are dressed in traditional Middle Eastern clothes does not mean that they are Muslim. They could be Christian or even be Jewish in fact. OK, so there is nothing specifically Islamic about this picture, definitely from Middle Eastern background, but nothing specifically Islamic. Second, the students perceived the external appearances and certain practices of Islam as essential to faith such that in order to be regarded as Muslim one should be demonstrating certain practices of Islam or take up distinct Islamic symbols, like wearing a headscarf, as is evident in the following excerpt:

Episode 5.10—Class 7A T:

I was really interested to see this.7 I completely did a random search. Take a look at them, what do these women have in common or how are these women different. What would you say? Student M: I actually think that not all of them are Muslims.

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 127 T: Why? Student M: Because the way some of them are dressed and they are not in hijab. T: So in your opinion hijab is a very important identifier in order to express your faith. OK, that is a really good point. So, according to R then, ladies, this one and this one [women wearing hijab in the picture] are identifiably Muslims. OK, what else? Student H: One of them has blonde hair so looks English. T: Very important point. Actually that is a kind of stereotype most people have, when they say English they do not actually mean English ethnically, they mean non-Muslims. But we know people who are English and Muslim, we know people who are Irish and Muslim, for example. Student D: Like, you know Muslim women by their actions. By looking at the picture you cannot tell, you cannot see their actions, so people, like, judge by what they see, they do not actually know the person so they can judge by just looking. T: That is really important, actually, because there are Muslim women who believe that they are Muslims and are completely unlike that, which leads us to the concept of practising, something I want to talk you about later. Student E: Miss, are they Muslims? T: Yes, they are of course. Actually if you like, we can find out who they are, and about their lives later on inshAllah. Then, the teacher proceeded by introducing the critical aspect ‘faith and identity’ with the aim of enabling students to discern faith as part of their identity. She chose to specifically focus on this critical aspect, especially after seeing that they perceived certain ethnic and cultural identities as belonging to specific faith traditions. She asked the students to draw a Venn diagram to identify the aspects that constitute who they were. Variation was used as the constants of identity, such as ethnicity, family, gender, and language were separated from the dynamic aspects of identity that are bound to change. The students were expected to discern the relationship between different identity aspects and to realise that some of these aspects can be shared by non-Muslim people as well. Consequently, they would comprehend that people’s cultural or ethnic backgrounds do not determine what faith tradition they follow as they can move from one to another.

Episode 5.11—Class 7A T: The other thing is that some identifiers stay constant that you cannot change, so, for example, I can never change my ethnicity, it is

128  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons not a choice, it is something that I am born with. Faith is something that a person can change. A person might be born as a Christian, for example and decides later on they want to explore Buddhism and become a Buddhist. Or a person might be born as a Jew and converts to Islam later on, or becomes an atheist and say they do not believe necessarily there is a divine being and so on. Discussion of the Lesson A similar line of discussion took place in both classes about the aspect of identity. CRE and VT principles were utilised in this lesson. Separation was used as a pattern of variation by means of which faith was identified as the ultimate, necessary condition of being Muslim. On the other hand, the aspects of culture, ethnicity, and of practising Islam were highlighted as the variant features of Muslim identity. The students became attentively engaged, starting to question their presuppositions and prejudices. However, they still perceived performing religious practices as an essential dimension of Islam. Hence, the teacher decided to deal with it in a separate lesson under the title of ‘essential and superfluous characteristics of Islam’. In the first class, the focus remained on the critical aspect ‘faith and identity’ throughout the whole lesson, whilst in the second, both the teacher and students got distracted by some irrelevant questions. Nevertheless, as the teacher considered these as important considering that she would either forget or find no available time to answer them later, she decided to spend the rest of the lesson answering them. This led to the focus of the lesson being somewhat lost as the students were more excited about finding the chance to ask their questions that were in their minds, but which were not necessarily relevant to the object of learning. 5.3.5 Essential and Superfluous Characteristics of Islam Description and Analysis of the Lesson In this lesson, first, the teacher introduced the critical aspect ‘essential and superfluous characteristics of Islam’ owing to the students’ misconceptions in the earlier lesson. During the discussions, it appeared that they equated faith with practical, denominational, and socio-cultural interpretations. In addition, some of the students had the idea that certain cultures and ethnicities belong to certain religious traditions. Hence, the teacher decided to undertake another activity to deal with these assumptions. The students were divided into three groups, with each having items of cutlery, glasses or books on their desks. They were asked to reflect on the following points:

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 129 Look carefully at the items on your table . . . • • • • •

Compare their differences and similarities. What categories do they all share? What is the “odd item”? What is/are their essential characteristic(s)? What are the superfluous characteristics?

After all groups had completed their task, the teacher asked them to apply the same way of reasoning to Islam by focusing on its essential and superfluous characteristics, thus enabling them to discern what is required in order to be a Muslim and be part of the Muslim community:

Episode 5.12—Class 7A T: In the past few lessons we were looking at what Islam is and it is not, who are Muslims and how we think about our identity. Now I want you to think about something all Muslims have in common, more importantly, you cannot be a Muslim without. What is it that if you remove from Islam, or from a person it would stop them becoming Muslim? And what is it that Muslims can change and Muslims have in common with other faiths, but it may not necessarily be in common with other Muslims. So these are the three lines I want you think about and give your ideas and answers. The responses given about the essential features of Islam were the six pillars of faith as well as certain religious practices. However, some students regarded practising as synonymous to faith, so much so that only the former’s presence would make one a Muslim or vice versa. The teacher then explained that faith was essential in order to be regarded as Muslim. She used the term of ‘technically Muslim’ for the people who declare their belief in the six pillars of Islamic faith but do not observe religious practices. Here, separation was used as a pattern of variation; while faith was kept invariant, practising it was varied as in the example of practising and non-practising Muslims. This is apparent in the following excerpt:

Episode 5.13—Class 7A T: OK, can you be a Muslim and not give zakah (almsgiving)? Say, for example, I am a Muslim and I do not give zakah or I am a Muslim but in the morning I  wake up and say I  cannot be bothered with praying facr (early morning prayer) this morning, really I cannot. Or, I am at my friends’ party, for example, and I say ‘oh, actually I will pray later at two instead’. Does that make me not a Muslim? [Silence]

130  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons T:

So, I am still a Muslim but I am not following the pillars of Islam. Technically, am I still a Muslim? Some students: You are. Some students: But you are not a proper Muslim. Student C: You are not practising. T: So, my practice is what should be, but can anyone say anything about my belief? I can say I believe in Allah (swt), prophets, angels. What if a Muslim person does something haram like drinking alcohol, can I  say you are not Muslim because of that? Students: Yes (choir) T: Why? Student K: Because he is not actually Muslim if he drinks alcohol. T: Actually he still stays as a Muslim and I cannot say you are not Muslim. But this particular thing is haram [forbidden] and I should advise him not to do it. Do you see the difference? Next, a dimension of variation was opened up by a student whereby she differentiated between the concepts of mu’min, Muslim and muhsin in term of the levels of faith.

Episode 5.14—Class 7A Student H: Because you are helping him if you tell him that is wrong. So, he is still a Muslim because he has not actually gone to a Church and baptized and everything. So he is technically still a Muslim. But he counts as not muhsin, he counts as just Muslim. T: OK, explain that to me that is great. What do you mean by not a muhsin? Student H: Like Muslim is the lowest in religion and mu’min is that you believe in God and when you pray you know that He is watching you, and muhsin is like when you know pray you know that God is standing in front of you. T: That is great. So practice is different from belief, we have established that. So I am going to put things in categories the way I asked you to do with these group of items, ok? So I think that to be a Muslim, all the things that you have given me fall under the category of belief or faith. I have to believe in the six pillars of iman if someone is to call me a Muslim. Things to do with practice, I could be a Muslim, but never give zakah in my life or I might have never fasted in my life. I could be a non-practising Muslim, but no one would come to me and say ‘you are not a Muslim’ or question my belonging to the ummah.

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 131 Following this, the teacher explained the concepts of ‘iman’, ‘Islam’ and ‘ihsan’ through the hadith of the Prophet (sws).8 Afterwards, the teacher carried out the same activity with the superfluous characteristics of Islam. This part of the discussion was similar to the Internet activity she performed in the previous lesson. She asked the students to think about the aspects that would not matter regarding faith, such as ethnicity, gender, age, language, and social status. As she explained, these can change depending on individuals and societies and are shared by both Muslim and non-Muslim communities. Here, generalisation was used as a pattern of variation by applying faith as the essential element of Islam to different ethnic, cultural, and socio-economic contexts. Lastly, the students were assigned homework requiring them to write down all the essential and superfluous characteristics of Islam they could think of, along with examples, and also to think about the differences within Islam, which would be discussed when engaging with the critical aspect of ‘Muslim community’. Discussion of the Lesson This lesson demonstrated a successful application of the CRE and VT principles. The activity that took place in both classes was successful as the students were able to experience variation between the ultimate and contingent features of Islam (Wright, 2008a). The aspects of gender, ethnicity, language, family, socioeconomic status, and political stance were varied while Islamic faith remained constant. They also came to realise that practising religion was not the same as faith, particularly in the context of identifying someone as a Muslim. In relation to the critical aspect ‘faith and identity’, the teacher used generalisation as a pattern of variation, whereby faith was generalised to various contexts, in particular to the students’ own backgrounds. However, there were still unresolved issues regarding representation of religious differentiation within Islam. Despite the teacher having briefly talked about the Sunni-Shi’a division in Islam in the first class, in the analysis of the post-test of the first class, it was seen that the students still had difficulty in seeing different sects as part of Islam. They recognised Sunni Islam as the more authentic sect, whilst seeing others, such as the Shi’a, as deviant interpretations of Islam; some even saw them as non-Islamic. Hence, the teacher decided to explore this more in the second cycle. 5.3.6 Practising Islam/Worshipping God and Muslim Community Description and Analysis of the Lesson In this last lesson, the teacher covered the critical aspect ‘practising Islam/ worshipping God’ as set out in the lesson plan. This critical aspect was

132  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons also seen as essential, for as elicited during the pre-test, some students were mostly focusing largely on the external appearances as well as on certain practices, rituals, and symbols of Islam. This was a feature that was also observed in the earlier activity, where some students identified women as Muslim according to the way they were dressed. Hence, the teacher decided to focus on the relationship between practice and faith as well as having manners, moral values, and virtues germane to everyday life. First, the teacher explained the importance of practising as the reason for creation by referring to the Qur’an.9 She emphasised the importance of acting with good purposes and intentions, arguing that the true value of worship comes from the combination of both performance and intention, for through this a person gains spiritual insight. Here, the spiritually enriched form of practising, which also includes one’s moral attitudes and virtues, was separated from pure physical acting that mostly ends up with a lack of spiritual satisfaction, as is exemplified in the following extract:

Episode 5.15—Class 7A T: So, Allah created human beings to worship Him [. . .] The idea is that anything that you do or you say with the good intention by trying to please Allah (swt) is counted as a deed [. . .] For example, being grateful to Allah because of health, intelligence, and ability He gave you the ability to prepare a simple breakfast or eat it with the intention that you are doing good to yourself. For example, getting away from eating something haram can also be ibada (worship). So, being a Muslim is not just the rituals you perform but also how you do them. So, for example, not praying five times a day, not giving zakah and sadaqah at right time, going for Hajj but then being incredibly rude to everybody or aggressive and arrogant, because that would reflect one’s faith. So, the idea is when we are truly internalised with the teachings of Islam we actually make those teachings show in how we act towards people. She further stated that practising does not make one a Muslim or nonMuslim since it is faith that is considered as being the necessary element in Islamic theology, but those who do not practise Islam will have to face the consequences on the Day of Judgment. Subsequently, the concepts of ‘halal [allowed] and haram [forbidden]’ were further clarified. In the second part of the lesson, the critical aspect ‘unity of the Muslim community’ was introduced. The differences and similarities within this community were discussed. The main beliefs of Islam were given as the constant and necessary elements of Islam followed by all Muslims and were thus considered as the similarities that bring all Muslims together in the ummah. However, it was also clarified that the idea of unity does

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 133 not—or more precisely—should not prevent Muslims from recognising the differences between Muslims. In fact, Islam is understood and interpreted within diverse individual, ethnic, socio-cultural, and denominational boundaries. As seen in the following excerpt, the differences within the Muslim community were highlighted, through which the students would discern the sameness:

Episode 5.16—Class 7A T: Now, within Islam there will be things that people will never argue about like the Qur’an, the six pillars of faith and so on. But you will find many other different expressions and legitimate differences. When I  say legitimate that means things that are within a framework of belief so no one is going to say ‘hey you are not Muslim because you do not believe in this and that’, but people will differ very much and they will have widely different opinions. So, take for example political differences, like what is happening in many countries now in the Middle East. Many people have different opinions on how to dress, what to eat etc. All of those are differences within faith. For example, if we go to Japan we will see that they read the same Qur’an but with different qira’at [Method of recitation of the Qur’an], but the number of ayahs, and the content will be the same. In the second class, in contrast to the first, not only the socio-cultural differences, but also denominational and theological differences were brought to the fore for the students. They were shown some pictures of Muslims, which were selected from a range of culturally and denominationally different Muslim backgrounds. Finally, a picture of Hajj was shown with the aim of making students able to see the differences and similarities simultaneously, thereby discerning the unity of the Muslim community. In the following example, the teacher introduced variation between Sunni and Shi’a Muslims. This helped students to question their own conception of denominational differences in Islam and to understand that these would not change one’s Muslim identity.

Episode 5.17—Class 7B T:

Students: Student E:

We have many differences but the idea is that those differences allow you to judge people’s practice not their beliefs. So you might have the same belief which is expressed in different ways and there are varying levels of practice. Now we are going to keep this image,10 here. What do you think about this photograph? What is this lady doing? Praying [muttering] There is a compass on the mat.

134  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons T:

Student B: T: Student B:

Actually it is called hajar or turba, a piece of earth from Karbala. It is a symbol of death of Hasan and Husayin, the grand children of the Prophet Muhammad (sas). So, this lady is a Shi’a person because when she prays she puts her head down in remembrance and mourning that means feeling sorrowful for the death of the Prophet’s grandchildren. Miss, one of the people said that Shi’a do not do Islam in a correct way. Doing what incorrectly? Islamic beliefs and all stuff. You know how they do for Hasan, Husayin and Ali and all these stuff. It is wrong, is it not? Not wrong, but they are not doing it properly, like not the way Allah (swt) wants it.

Here, the teacher explained the main reason of the split between the Sunni and Shi’a as not being theological, but political. She gave a brief summary of the historical events that formed the current Shi’a thought as well as the main Shi’a theological beliefs about the institute of imamah and belief in Mahdi. Fusion was used as a pattern of variation. Faith remained an invariant aspect of Islam and the Muslim community while all the other critical aspects varied, as can be seen in the summary of the discussion below:

Episode 5.18—Class 7B T: Now, we deliberately picked those pictures for you to show that although there are people who might have variation in how they practice or differences in certain beliefs, as long as they do not affect the core beliefs and practices of Islam and they strive to please Allah (swt), Allah will judge them. So you cannot say because you are Sunni you will go to paradise but since you are Shi’a or Sufi you cannot, that is up to Allah (swt). It was clarified, once again, that the differences, provided that they are in conjunction with the ultimate truth claims, are parts of a whole understanding of Islam. Discussion of the Lesson The critical aspect practising/worshipping did not pan out as planned in the first cycle. For whilst the students were able to differentiate between practising and not practising regarding how it relates to faith, they were still equating morality with observing certain practices of Islam. They were expected to understand that morality includes having values and virtues that are not directly related to practising Islam as well as that any

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 135 religious tradition might include those as part of their teachings. Consequently, in the second cycle the teacher made the use of variation by generalising morality to all faiths, not necessarily Islam. The students were actively involved in the discussion and came to understand the difference between practising as performing certain practices and practising as being morally and spiritually good, which they also realised is the case for any religion. As stated above, in the second class, the teacher introduced variation with regard to denominational differences in Islam. This was because after the first cycle some students were still confused about whether some religious groups were part of Islam or not. That is, they were inclined to think that the Shi’a and Sufi groups were not Muslims. In response, the teacher introduced different religious interpretations alongside sociocultural differences as the contingent aspects of Islam, whereas faith was emphasised as the absolute and necessary dimension of Islam.

5.4 The Second Lived Object of Learning In this phase, what the students actually learned at the end of the research lessons was examined. A  post-written task and follow-up interviews, which were designed in the same way as the pre-test, were conducted with the students. However, this time, the students were also asked to reflect on what they have learnt and how their understanding of ‘Islam and being a Muslim’ changed after the lessons. 5.4.1 Categories of Description After analysing their post-test written tasks and interviews, the results were classified into four categories as in the pre-test: Basic knowledge about Islam, representation of Islam, implementation of faith to life, having a dynamic Islamic identity. The first three categories in the post-test analysis remained similar to those in the pre-test in terms of maintaining the same characteristics. However, the fourth category now represented a more complex and differentiated understanding of Islam and Muslim identity, as the students at this level were aware of all the targeted critical aspects. To avoid repetition, only the fourth category is explained in detail in this section. Category 4: Having a Dynamic Islamic Identity The critical aspect of personal responsibility turned out to be the most important one in this category, as in the pre-test. However, these students also discerned all the other critical aspects that were identified prior to the lessons. For instance, it became apparent that all the students had come to a better understanding of the critical aspect ‘tawhid: unity of

136  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons God’. They regarded it as the most prominent aspect of Islamic faith. They compared the Islamic concept of God to other religious perspectives, as seen in the following example: Student A-7B: If you do not believe in Allah you would not be a Muslim. We discussed that Allah is the One and He is not born and did not give birth. We studied it in Suratu’l Ikhlas. It tells us about the oneness of Allah and how Allah has no partner. In Christianity they believe that Isa (as) is the Son of God but we Muslims know that it is not true, Prophet Isa (as) was just one of the prophets on earth. At this level, there was an increased stress placed on choosing faith consciously and rationally. Critical reflection was seen as necessary in order to explore the meaning of faith, being able to make informed judgments about it and strengthening their Muslim identity in the process. It was believed that faith should be adopted through individual choice, reasoning, and conviction; it should not be forced on people, as evident in the excerpt below: Student E-7B: You should not pressure or force someone to become a Muslim. If Allah wants them to they will. But if Allah does not want them to then they will not become. They have to find Islam for themselves. You can give them advice but you cannot exactly force them. Because, like, if someone is forced to be Muslim then obviously they will pretend to do stuff, they will become like hypocrites. They will not actually believe, pray, they will do all these things because of being forced. It was regarded crucial to acquire a new understanding of Islam through which they would gain an increased sense of their Islamic identity, have reasoned and informed knowledge about Islamic faith and practices as well as apply that knowledge to their everyday lives. In addition to understanding that free will was required to decide on faith, they were aware of the role of parental and ethnic traditions in their choices, which is also found in the earlier studies (Chaudhury & Miller, 2008; Kimanen, 2014). In the following excerpt, a student highlights the social environment that influences people’s choices and behaviours, yet still emphasises the necessity of searching for the truth: Student E-7B: It depends on how you are brought up. I  remember on TV there was a girl who did something wrong and they asked her why and she said ‘that’s how I have been

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 137 brought up’. If we are brought up that way, it is hard to change the way we are. But even if we have been brought up that way we should always try and find the right way by going into deeper of the things. The students at this level put a greater emphasis on personal responsibility for decision-making about faith and religious practices. The sincerity of actions, the intentions behind attitudes and behaviours were considered as important with regard to constructing a self-Islamic identity. In the following extract, a student points out the significance of autonomous decision-making regarding religious duties: Student G-7A: Like, if you just pray or read the Qur’an for the sake of your parents, it is not actually going to mean anything. But if your parents ask you to pray and you go right away and do it or read the Qur’an sincerely then it is going to help you. After you read a surah, you can understand what it tells you and then you can apply it to your life. In the earlier studies, it was found that identity construction, particularly in diasporic identities, presents a contextual, dynamic structure formed in an on-going process (Dwyer, 2000; Peek, 2005). In their post-­ understandings, the students in this category also became more aware of the dynamic nature of their identity, including the role of faith, as well as the constant and variant aspects of it. Their definition went beyond the statements related to national, cultural or parental identities to a more complex structure of belonging to the Muslim community, ummah. Having Islamic faith was prioritised over other aspects of identity. The students became more conscious of their cultural and religious identities by means of redefining and reflecting on what constitutes customs, habits, and religious truth claims. They distinguished between truthful and legitimate Islam, based on the Holy Qur’an and hadith, and traditional and cultural Islam, which is mostly ascribed to intergenerational factors and country of origin (Brown, 2006; Chaudhury & Miller, 2008). They came to believe that in order to have a truthful and progressive understanding of Islam, cultural and traditional misconceptions must be recognised and dismissed, as seen in the following example: Student B-7B: Being a Muslim is like having another identity. You are a Muslim and like you stand out from everyone else . . . We kind of mix culture with Islam. You know I  am Somalian and in Somalia there is lots of wives and everything. In Islam, the Prophet (sas) said no more than four wives and that is what we follow. When it comes to

138  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons culture, we do that stuff but when it is against Islam we do not do it. Another example, in weddings you dance with music and everything but my mum does not join it because it is not Islamic [. . .] But I also think because Allah says everyone is equal. So, that is why I  do not really say myself Somalian-British Muslim. I  am just Muslim. Similarly, religious identity was considered to have transcended denominational differences among Muslims. The students’ post-test analysis revealed that they no longer regarded Sunni Islam as the only true representation of the religion. The existence of different sects was now considered as leading to religious diversity within the Muslim community, while still maintaining unity among Muslims. Student O-7B: In one of the lessons Miss was showing a lady who was praying and there was a little stone on the prayer mat because she was showing respect to the Prophet’s grandchildren. That is what Shi’a people believe; she was Muslim but she was Shi’a. Also, I think Sufis, they pay respect to Allah by, like, special dance, they chant and sing to respect Allah. Even if you are Sunni, Shi’a or Arab, or British, whatever, you are still Muslim. There are individual differences, but you are still Muslim, like, whatever you do or where you come from does not matter. The students became more aware of the necessary and contingent characteristics of Islam. Belief issues, certain religious practices and rituals were considered as the necessary elements of Islam, while cultural, geographical, socio-economic, and denominational differences were regarded as the variant aspects of the religion. Student F-7B: In the beginning, I thought that to be a Muslim you have to wear hijab, you have to believe in Islam and if you did not do these things, you would not be classified as Muslim. Then, Miss showed us some pictures of people who were Muslims. However, they did not dress in the way Muslims should do, so it is a superfluous thing. But you have to make sure that you believe in Allah and that He is the only One God and He does not have any children. You have to believe in all the Holy books and His messengers and angels. You also have to believe in shada, zakah, savm, salah and Hajj [the five pillars of Islam]. So, those are the essentials, without these your faith would be crumpled up and you would not be a

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 139 Muslim [. . .] Shi’a are still Muslims because they still believe in God, that is the essential thing. It is like they are all Muslims but they have superfluous things like putting a stone on prayer mats. Islam was regarded not only as a system of certain beliefs and practices, but also, as a social and political organisation including ethical norms and values as well as responding to the problems of today’s Muslims. Thus, the students had begun to see practising Islam as going beyond following religious rituals such as praying, fasting, reading the Qur’an, to now considering it as pertaining to being morally and ethically upright persons. They identified Islam with human rights, equality, and some other values that are also appreciated by Western societies. Student L-7A: Islam is not all about practices, it is about morality like telling the truth, being honest, respecting your elders, your younger ones and you get respect back. You should have one face towards everyone. You should not backbite people, be rude behind people’s backs. If you are a hypocrite it might cause problems, it might create anger. You should also share with others, give needy ones. This will help you in dunya [world] and protect you from hellfire. They argued that the reality of the divine message does not change and it transcends human understanding. Nevertheless, it was seen as necessary to search and question their understanding of faith so as to gain an informed and reasoned religious belief and knowledge. The students were able to refer back to the Prophet’s time giving examples from him and his companions as well as the example of Prophet Ibrahim, in terms of consolidation of belief in God and applying religious knowledge to their lives. They believed that lack of personal interest in exploring the true meaning of the Qur’an resulted in Muslims being alienated from it since they were not able to understand its true message and apply it to their lives. This led to diverse interpretations of the Qur’anic teachings, which has often resulted in conflict among Muslims. As stated above, the students’ understanding of diversity within the Muslim community increased after the study. Perhaps more importantly, they had a better understanding of why Muslims could have different understandings of the same reality. The context of the revelation was considered important for understanding the message of the religious text as well as for dispelling some of the confusion and misconceptions that might stem from literal readings (Brown, 2006). As seen in the following example, it was believed that literalist or symbolic understandings of the Qur’an would lead to different interpretations of the religious text and

140  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons practices, which consequently, might result in individuals acting according to their own interpretation. Student A-7B: Muslims are still the same, they come from the same root but it just comes in different ways. They all believe in the Qur’an but they see the meanings of the Qur’an in a different way, like, they might have different interpretations of the Qur’an. For example, somewhere in the Qur’an it says Allah is sitting in a throne. Some people might take it literally that Allah is just up but others believe that Allah is melik [king] and He is not literally sitting on a chair, it is just a symbol. Many students highlighted the concept of ummah. Despite recognising the internal diversity among Muslims, not only in terms of understanding the religious text and practices but also more importantly, with regard to ethnic, socio-cultural, historical, and political contexts, they agreed upon the existence of a universal Muslim identity that grounded on the teachings of the Qur’an and Sunnah. The ummah addresses the unity of the Muslim community, a sense of belonging for all Muslims around the world, as well as transcending any so-called aspects and boundaries that divide Muslims. Similar to the findings in Ahmad and Evergeti’s (2010) study, this research provides evidence that Muslimness can emerge as a normative religious identity, but can still be negotiated within diverse historical, regional, cultural, and social contexts. Student E-7B: We are all brothers and sisters we all know why we are here and we all do the same things but we also have differences that separate us. Like, some people pray differently, some people recite the Qur’an differently or some people fast differently. So there are things that differentiate us from other things but we are still united and one. In the following example, a student specifies the unity of Muslim community by means of emphasising the commonalities between Muslims as well as differences between Islam and other religions. Student K-7B: Say when you have two completely different jigsaw puzzles, they would not fit together, would they? If it was only one jigsaw puzzle you would be able to work it out, to get it fit all together. Like, look at Islam and other religions they do not fit, but Islam, when you are with Muslims you all fit together because they believe what you believe, they make duas, listen to the Qur’an and they know about hadith and everything.

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 141 To conclude, the post-test results showed a considerable increase in the number of students who belonged in this last category. They had become more aware of the dynamic aspect of their religious identity as well as the influence of ethnic and socio-cultural factors on their Muslimness. There was considerable emphasis placed on choosing faith by free will through critical and reasoned judgment. The essential and superfluous characteristics of Islam were distinguished and hence, they became aware of what actually constitutes faith identity. In addition to recognising the actual ethnic, cultural, denominational and ideological diversity among Muslims, these students also agreed upon the unity of the Muslim community and the authority of the Qur’an and Sunnah for all Muslims. The Muslim community was described as having a more complex structure in which not only the equity of Muslims was emphasised, but also individual, social and religious differences within the community were appreciated. It was argued that the differences, unless they were about faith-related matters, did not determine whether one was Muslim or not. 5.4.2 Summary of the Post-Test Results The overall results of the post-test for both classes are presented in Table 5.4. The post-test results show a striking increase in the students’ understanding of ‘Islam and being a Muslim’, as more than half of the students—nine in total—moved to the fourth category, which presented a more complex, differentiated, and integrated level of understanding. It cannot be claimed that the students who were interviewed in the pre-­ testing phase moved to higher categories, since in the post-test the other half of the students in both classes were interviewed. However, as pointed out earlier, the aim was not to assess individual understanding, but rather, observe and analyse the change in the collective understanding of the object of learning. Given that all the participating students were chosen for the pre and post-test equally from amongst low, middle, and high achievers, it is reasonable to conclude that there was an increase in the collective understanding of the object of learning after the learning study, which is a significant positive outcome of this research.

Table 5.4 Overall results of pre- and post-test for both classes Categories of description

Pre-test 7A/7B (N:15)

Post-test 7A (N:7)

1. Basic knowledge about Islam 2. Representation of Islam 3. Implementation of faith to life 4. Having a dynamic Islamic identity

5 4 3 3

1 3 3

Post-test 7B (N:8) 1 1 6

142  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons As seen in the results given in Table 5.4, the number of the students who attained the fourth category in the second class was higher than the first class, which is an important finding of this study. It shows that acquiring and examining the first class’s post-test results helped the teacher to identify which critical aspects were discerned by the students in the first class and which needed further examination as well as whether new critical aspects had emerged in their understanding. This prompted her to revise the lesson plans and enact them in the second class through the use of different activities and examples that facilitated the students’ engaging with the object of learning more productively. In general, it shows that having different learning cycles provided the teacher with opportunities to improve both teaching and learning. Overall, all the participating students showed success in discerning the object of learning. There was a development in their understanding of ‘Islam and being a Muslim’ in general, and the identified critical aspects that corresponded to that object of learning in particular. They gained a more differentiated and integrated understanding about the concept of tawhid (Oneness of God) as being distinct from the plural forms of deity in other religions. Regarding the development of a dynamic Muslim identity, the students came to see their identities as intertwined with their faith, which played the role of informing their characters, and roles/ responsibilities. Practising Islam was understood by the majority of them as a relational concept, which brought together faith, morality, spirituality, and the external practices of Islam. In relation to the critical aspect of essential and superfluous characteristics of Islam, they were able to differentiate between the essences of Islam, as in faith issues, the commonalities between Muslims, such as being part of a community and the non-essential aspects of their identity, such as culture, ethnicity, and social status as well as political and denominational backgrounds.

Conclusion The findings of this study suggest that the use of the theories of CRE and VT through learning study brings about successful learning outcomes for IRE. During the study, the students were able to engage with the object of learning in an attentive and critical manner. Through a systematic use of variation, they were able, in many cases, to discern the targeted critical aspects of the object of learning. In sum, experiencing variation in the aspects of tawhid, faith and identity, practising, personal responsibility, and the Muslim community, helped the students gain an informed, differentiated, and integrated understanding of ‘Islam and being a Muslim’. The post-test results revealed that almost three times as many students reached a higher understanding of the object of learning, as those at the pre-test stage. As explained above, more students in the second class were placed in the highest category compared to the first class, after analysis of

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 143 the post-study written tasks and interviews. This can be attributed to the improvement of the teaching in the second cycle. Three key features emerged regarding teaching in general: First, the teacher increasingly became aware of the students’ qualitatively different ways of understanding the learning subject at the outset of the study. This knowledge was applied in planning and designing the research lessons. Second, the theories of CRE and VT were adopted in planning and implementation of these lessons. Finally, through the process, the teacher gained the means to reflect on what had happened in the lessons, explore students’ post-understandings of the learning subject and thus, improve the lesson plans and implementation for the second class. In general, this study enabled the teacher to be more insightful about the students’ current knowledge and abilities, be aware of the relevant and irrelevant aspects of the object of learning and to systematically use variation and invariance regarding the relevant critical aspects. As a result of this, she created the necessary conditions for learning.

Notes 1. This refers to the discussion in Islamic theology about ‘faith through imitation’ and ‘faith by inquiry’. 2. A chapter from the Qur’an about the nature of Allah. 3. The Qur’an, 2:256. 4. “Say, He is Allah, (who is) One, Allah, the Eternal Refuge. He neither begets nor is born, nor is there to Him any equivalent.” (The Qur’an, 112:1–4) 5. “Say, ‘O disbelievers, I do not worship what you worship. Nor are you worshippers of what I worship. Nor will I be a worshipper of what you worship. Nor will you be worshippers of what I worship. For you is your religion, and for me is my religion.” (The Qur’an, 109:1–6) 6. Showing a picture of a crowd who seem to be having a protest and dressed in Middle Eastern style. 7. The picture shows several British Muslim women standing all together. They seem to have different ethnicities and some are seen wearing hijab while the others are not. 8. According to the Prophet (sws) there are three levels in terms of faith: Islam, iman and ihsan. Islam is accepted as the lowest level of faith and one could be a Muslim basically by declaring his faith. Iman is the second level and a person who is in that level is supposed to deeply engage with his faith and implement it to his life. Ihsan is the highest level, where a person worships God as if he can see God and he surely feels that God watches over him so that he is in a moment of high concentration and purity (reported by Muslim). 9. “And I did not create the jinn and mankind except to worship Me” (Qur’an, 51:56) 10. A Shi’a Muslim praying with a small stone on a prayer mat where she puts her head down.

References Ahmad, W. I.,  & Evergeti, V. (2010). The making and representation of Muslim identity in Britain: Conversations with British Muslim ‘elites’. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 33(10), 1697–1717.

144  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons Berglund, J. (2013). Islamic identity and its role in the lives of young Swedish Muslims. Contemporary Islam, 7(2), 207–227. Brown, K. (2006). Realising Muslim women’s rights: The role of Islamic identity among British Muslim women. Women’s Studies International Forum, 29(4), 417–430. Chaudhury, S. R., & Miller, L. (2008). Religious identity formation among Bangladeshi American Muslim adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 23(4), 383–410. Dwyer, C. (1999). Veiled meanings: Young British Muslim women and the negotiation of differences. Gender, Place and Culture, 6(1), 5–26. Dwyer, C. (2000). Negotiating diasporic identities: Young British South Asian Muslim women. Women’s Studies International Forum, 23(4), 475–486. Halstead, J. M. (2007). Islamic values: A distinctive framework for moral education? Journal of Moral Education, 36(3), 283–296. Hassan, R. (2007). On being religious: Patterns of religious commitment in Muslim societies. The Muslim World, 97(3), 437–478. Hopkins, N., Greenwood, R. M., & Birchall, M. (2007). Minority understandings of the dynamics to intergroup contact encounters: British Muslims’ (sometimes ambivalent) experiences of representing their group to others. South African Journal of Psychology, 37(4), 679–701. Kimanen, A. (2014). Measuring confessionality by the outcomes? Islamic religious education in the Finnish school system. British Journal of Religious Education, 38(3), 264–278. Lo, M. L., Pong, W. Y.,  & Chik, P. P. M. (Eds.). (2005). For each and everyone: Catering for individual differences through learning studies (Vol. 1). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. McGown, R. B. (1999). Muslims in the diaspora: The Somali communities of London and Toronto. Toronto/London: University of Toronto Press. Nucci, L.,  & Turiel, E. (1993). God’s word, religious rules, and their relation to Christian and Jewish children’s concepts of morality. Child Development, 64(5), 1475–1491. Otterbeck, J. (2010). Samtidsislam: Unga muslimer i Malmö och Köpenhamn. Stockholm: Carlsson bokförlag. Peek, L. (2005). Becoming Muslim: The development of a religious identity. Sociology of Religion, 66(3), 215–242. Rissanen, I. (2012). How Finnish Muslim students perceive and deal with religious and cultural difference: Negotiating religious tradition with modern liberal and postmodern ideals. Education Research International (Article 978317). doi:10.1155/2012/978317 Rissanen, I. (2014). Developing religious identities of Muslim students in the classroom: A case study from Finland. British Journal of Religious Education, 36(2), 123–138. Rokeach, M. (1960). The open and closed mind. Oxford: Basic Books. Schmidt, G. (2004). Islamic identity formation among young Muslims: The case of Denmark, Sweden and the United States. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 24(1), 31–45. Verkuyten, M.,  & Yildiz, A. A. (2007). National (dis)identification and ethnic and religious identity: A study among Turkish-Dutch Muslims. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(10), 1448–1462.

Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons 145 Wright, A. (2007). Critical religious education, multiculturalism and the pursuit of truth. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Wright, A. (2008). Contextual religious education and the actuality of religions. British Journal of Religious Education, 30(1), 3–12. Zine, J. (2001). Muslim youth in Canadian schools: Education and the politics of religious identity. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 32(4), 399–423.

6 Implementation of Critical Religious Education and Variation Theory in RE Lessons A Learning Study on ‘Equality in Islam’ This chapter  reports a learning study on ‘equality in Islam’ investigating the research question: “What kind of variation in understanding the object of learning Muslim students have prior to the introduction of framework of CRE and VT in RE classes? How did their understanding of the object of learning change/evolve after the research lessons?” The first part of the study, section 6.1, presents the first lived object of learning, which includes the students’ pre-understanding of ‘equality in Islam’. Section 6.2 describes the intended object of learning, including identifying the critical aspects and designing the lessons by using patterns of variation. In section 6.3, the enacted object of learning is explored. Finally, section  6.4 presents the second lived object of learning that explores whether, and if so how, the students’ understanding of ‘equality in Islam’ developed during the research lessons.

6.1 The First Lived Object of Learning This study was conducted in a non-faith secondary school, unlike the first one. In the beginning of the study, a couple of preparation meetings were held with the teacher in order to choose the object of learning, discuss the students’ pre-conceptions of the object of learning, identify the critical aspects, and finally plan the research lessons. The unit of ‘equality in Islam’ was focused on in this learning study. Despite a general plan being prepared following the meetings with the researcher, a detailed lesson plan was drawn up for each critical aspect throughout the study. In the end, the object of learning was identified as ‘developing the students’ understanding of ‘equality in Islam’. In order to explore the students’ pre-understandings of ‘equality in Islam’, a written task was administered to the students, which included two open-ended questions: 1. Could you explain, giving examples, what you understand about the word equality? 2. Could you explain what you already know about equality in the Islamic religion?

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 147 After the task was completed, follow-up interviews were conducted with 28 students from two classes, with the purpose of supplementing the written task data. 6.1.1 Categories of Description After a phenomenographic analysis of the students’ written tasks and interviews, four categories were constituted regarding ‘equality in Islam’. There was a hierarchy between the categories, as category one represented a low level of understanding, and category four was pertinent to a more differentiated and complex understanding of the research phenomenon. The category descriptions and examples from the students’ data are explained in detail in Table 6.1:

Table 6.1 Categories of description of understanding equality in Islam Category

Referential Aspect

Structural Aspect

1

Equality as sameness or equal treatment for all

2

Equality as recognising and valuing differences

3

Equality as pursued through laws or religious principles

4

Personal responsibility as an essential dimension in achieving equality

Discernment of equality as sameness/same treatment from equality as recognising differences ‘Sameness’, ‘sharing’, and ‘helping’ as the main themes Discernment of equality as acknowledging differences against sameness of people ‘Recognition of differences’, ‘respect’ as the main themes Discernment of equality on the basis of rules and regulations in religious and non-religious societies Obeying ‘law’ and/or ‘religious rules and regulations’ as the main themes Discernment of various aspects of equality simultaneously ‘Ethical/moral character’, ‘humanity’, ‘personal responsibility’ as the main themes

Category 1: Equality as Sameness or Equal Treatment for All In this first category, the general concept of equality was understood as providing same or equal rights, goods, and facilities for all. This way of understanding represents the basic form of formal equality (Sheppard, 2004). The focus of the students was mainly on economic gains, such as providing everyone with the same amount of money or other material

148  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons goods. A distinction was made in terms of whether everyone had access to these, as can be seen in the following example: Student N-8S: I think this country is equal. People are treated equally no matter what their colour is. Everyone gets free education, everyone has same sized houses, no one gets a better house than another one. Also they have got same gadgets, computers, and schools. Roads are same in every part of the country. Economic inequality was a recurring theme in this category. The concepts of ‘sharing’ and ‘helping’ appeared repeatedly. Inequality was believed to occur due to the wide gap between rich and poor. The concept of ‘sharing’ was also identified from the Islamic point of view. It was believed that through the institution of zakah (compulsory charity) and sadaqah (voluntary charity) wealth can be redistributed from the rich among the needy in order to decrease economic inequality. Student A-8S: I  do not think there is equality in the world because some countries are poor and some of them rich. This country is a bit more equal because people share with each other. There is not much difference, for example the price of a chocolate is same in all stores [. . .] In Islam you have to give zakah, charity to the poor people. This could be food, money or other things. If we share with people we could be more equal, also we get good deeds. The concept of equal treatment at this level refers to assimilation and full integration. The students were not able to recognise and value differences in society. They believed that if no attention were paid to differences there would be no inequality. On this reading, inequality usually arises because of inherent and acquired differences between the members of society based on gender, racial, socio-economic, and religious statues. To deal with this, it was seen as necessary to concentrate on similarities rather than differences. That is, being the same was considered essential in order for all different groups to coexist in society. This is shown in the following extract: Student B-8E: Equality means to treat everyone fairly and to be the same as everyone else. For example, if you think you are better than everyone else that is not equal, because you are the same as everyone else. In the following example, a student highlights the similarity of people in terms of Islam.

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 149 Student D-8S: All Muslims believe that everyone is equal. In the Qur’an, it says all are equal and same rank. The Prophet did not sit in a high chair, but he used to sit with his companions on the same level . . . In Saudi Arabia, when everyone is around the Ka’ba they are all the same, dressed up similarly, doing everything together . . . if there was not equality people would treat each other differently, they would think themselves better than the others. In Rissanen’s (2012) study, it was found that in order to be recognised by the mainstream society, Muslim young people in Finland felt that they had to supress their differences and focus more on their Finnish identity. Similarly, the students at this level expressed concern about being excluded from the British society. They placed great emphasis on being the same, being tolerant of each other, not bringing forward religious differences as well as not judging each other because of their religious beliefs in order for equality to flourish. Religious difference was a key aspect that appeared in their focal awareness. They argued that religious differences should be assimilated and integrated to the mainstream society in order to avoid problems and resolve tensions between religious groups as well as preserving social harmony. One way of achieving this was believed to lessen the influence of religion in public sphere. Accordingly, practising Muslims were criticised for causing inequality, as exemplified below: Student D-8E: People from different religions judge each other because they believe and worship differently . . . Belief in different things causes problems [.  .  .] Not all Muslims are nice and kind. Especially strict Muslims are less equal and less tolerant of others. They wear headscarf, they are quite religious and they usually do not like other religions. I had a Muslim friend who did not like Hindus; she believed that it is bad to pray to statues. As described in the following extract, the students also argued that equality would occur as long as they did not include their religious worldviews while interacting with others. Student K-8E: I think in the past, Muslims were not that equal, they wanted everyone to follow one religion. They used to hate others if they were from other religions. But now they are more equal because they do not think about what religion you are [. . .] No one is being racist, no one is being mean to each other just because they are from different religions.

150  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons To conclude, in this category, the students’ awareness did not go beyond perceiving equality as mere sameness. They were not able to establish the relationship between the concepts of equality, fairness, justice, as well as human rights. Different needs and necessities of people were not taken into consideration in terms of distributing the rights and opportunities. Moreover, they were not able to evaluate the religious sources in order to respond to the question of equality in greater depth. Category 2: Equality as Recognising and Valuing Differences The students at this level were engaged with the concept of equality with regards to issues of human rights, racial equality, religious equality, mutual respect for different groups, diversity of opinions, and equality against discrimination. The level of understanding equality went beyond ‘sameness’ and ‘equal treatment for all’. Cultural and religious differences were no longer regarded as divisive and alienating, but rather, considered as part of the mainstream society. The idea of integration was appreciated, though it differed from the idea of assimilation that appeared in the first category, by recognising and respecting different identities. Thus, the concepts of respect and recognition were identified as the main themes at this level. An example of this can be seen in the following excerpt: Student A-8E: We are equal here. We respect each other’s personalities even though we come from different nationalities and backgrounds. It is good to have different nationalities because then people would try to know each other and respect each other. Also people might have different opinions about other religions, but they are still equal. The students assumed that a multicultural society would promote empathy, mutual understanding, and agreement between the members of society. Living with different ethnic, cultural, and religious groups, thus engaging in interaction and communication with others, would help to establish a common language and deal with complicated issues regarding different values and beliefs. Student L-8S:

In London there might be less Muslims than Christians and other religions, but we have equal rights. You know, all Pakistani, Bangladeshi, Turkish people here, they are all mixed and equal because everyone has their rights and their say. Here, you get to learn how to be equal with other people, not just saying that you have to be equal.

Religious equality was understood in terms of not discriminating people because of their religious views. There was a shift from ignoring religious

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 151 differences to recognising them. The students argued that religious groups and individuals should have the right to belief and practice their faith as well as that diverse religious and non-religious worldviews should be viewed on equal terms. All religious groups were considered as being entitled to equal representation, equal rights, and opportunities. Accordingly, the students perceived Islam as an inclusive religious tradition open to everyone. Respecting different religious and non-religious worldviews was focused upon as an important aspect of Islam. This is exemplified in the following extract: Student M-8S: Islam teaches how to respect people. Muslims believe that they have to treat each other equally. In Islam, it is believed that everyone has their rights. For example, you cannot force people to read the Qur’an. It is people’s own decisions. Allah will judge them not other people . . . We all have different ways of praying, dressing. However, we should still treat each other the same. Given that the students’ focus was on various aspects of equality, they were not addressing the question of equality in terms of only whether people/societies were religious or not. No specific religious viewpoint was prioritised over others. Moreover, the level of religiosity was not regarded as important in terms of equality as it was in the earlier category. They argued that people should be accepted as equals irrespective of their religious backgrounds, an idea that can be identified in the extract below: Student G-8S: I  think religions do not really make a difference in terms of equality. I  do not think just because we are from Islam we will be more equal. In the Sikh video we watched today, a Muslim girl and a Christian boy went to Gurdwara and they were treated equally there. Also in churches you get treated equally as well . . . I have a non-religious friend who is also equal to everyone so there is not really a difference between religious and non-religious people. As the following quotation shows, the students rejected all forms of discrimination in this category, which they contended could harm the existence of different identities. Racism and religious discrimination were particularly emphasised as forms of inequality. Student E-8E: Racism relates to equality because many people are not equal, whereas they should not look at the colour, but, they should treat white and the black equally and fairly [. . .] I think there is equality in London. Because people

152  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons come from different countries and they get together in the class. We do not really look at what colour they are; we just think they are our friends. We do not judge anyone by anything because we are all human. Overall, the students’ awareness increased from understanding equality as same and equal treatment for all to recognition of and respect for differences on race, culture, socio-economic, and religious matters. Religious equality was considered in a more differentiated way than the first category, for it did not require ignoring different religious worldviews, but rather bringing these together in a more harmonious and respectful environment. Category 3: Equality as Pursued Through Law, or Religious Principles The students had a higher understanding of equality in this category. Their level of understanding was inclusive of the previous categories as they were also aware of different concepts such as equality of human rights, mutual respect for different groups, diversity of opinions and equality against discrimination. The main theme that emerged from the students’ responses was the requirement of rules and regulations so as to fulfil equality in society. They compared countries in terms of the authority of the state and law, arguing that where the state and law are more powerful, the degree of equality would be at its highest. Student G-8E: I think UK is a really good country because they have rules. But in other countries like Pakistan, they do not follow rules, be rude to each other and they judge people by the way they look. This country, if you judge people you get into trouble and there is law and everything. They are really being fair and passing the rules. The students had a similar point of view when dealing with equality from a religious perspective. Equality was considered as one of the basic principles of religions. They focused on religions from a legislative perspective, i.e. religious teachings were perceived as similar to the law. They distinguished between religious and non-religious people based on their commitment to religious rules and regulations. Accordingly, they argued that religious people would more likely adhere to the rules as they act on the motivation to gain good deeds and God’ praise, which would then increase their morality, and eventually require them to treat others equally. This can be gleaned from the following extract: Student J-8S:

Religions give examples of how people were in the olden times. There are morals, rules in each story. Religious

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 153 people know if they do not follow rules they would go to hell afterwards so they would try to be nice to people to get good deeds . . . But non-religious people do not know as much as a religious person. Say, for example, if Muslims follow what it says in the Qur’an, they would be more religious and more equal. Similarly, Islam was perceived as a religion promoting equality, because the Qur’an was believed to include ethical and legal orders and principles. Consequently, Muslims would view it as an obligation to adhere to the rules and regulations, as exemplified in the following example: Student G-8E: I would say Islam is an equal religion because the way it has teachings and sayings. It has meanings, people revise it and try to be good Muslims, you know, the way they cover themselves, the way they wear hijab and everything. So I think Islam is a better religion because it teaches us things we should do and things we should not do, like, bad things. In sum, the main argument of this level was that equality could only be achieved by the enactment of laws as secured by governments and/or the rules and regulations of religions as revealed in the holy books. Category 4: Personal Responsibility as an Essential Dimension in Achieving Equality In this last category, the level of understanding equality has a more complex and differentiated structure. It moves from perceiving equality as sameness or equality as to be ensured by rules and regulations to individuals’ roles and responsibilities regarding its fulfilment. Ethical/moral character, humanity, and personal responsibility were the main themes that appeared at this level. A  great emphasis was placed on personal responsibility for ensuring equality for all. This is exemplified in the extract below: Student B-8S:

You cannot force people into doing something. Religions teach about equality but it does not matter what they teach, the persons themselves are responsible for their actions . . . Somebody who is quite religious could still be mean to others. It is how they are as a person.

The distinction between religious and non-religious people that was made in the previous categories in terms of the level of equality does not exist in this category anymore, at least not in the same way. Ethical rules

154  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons and principles were considered as influencing individuals’ behaviours, beliefs and attitudes in their social interactions. It was argued that both religious teachings and universal moral principles play an important role in achieving equality for all. Student C-8S: I think with a non-religious person, it depends on what kind of person they are, good or bad, which country they live in. There are obviously rules in countries about equality. Even if some people do not have a religion that says how to be equal to each other, they would still rely on their values and morals to be equal. Some students focused on religious rules and their relation to the concept of morality in Islam. As exemplified in the following excerpt, they were able to distinguish the specific Islamic rules from those that might be common to other religious and secular traditions. Student K-8S: God did not say you should worship all the time. But we also have attitudes towards ourselves and others, like, we help people, respect them, pray and read the Qur’an. In the Qur’an it says to treat all religions equally. Wearing hijab, praying is important but keeping each other equal is important too. So the main point of Islam is humanity. God will judge us on that as well. In general, the students in this category were able to evaluate religious sources in addressing the question of equality. They argued that religions included instructions about equality revealed mostly in the holy books or taught by the prophets, however, the people who belong to these religions were responsible for their own actions. According to the students, this realisation could throw light on the confusion about whether it was the religion or the individuals’ actions causing inequalities. Student H-8E: I think all religions say that everyone should be treated equally. So, each religion has their equality circumstances, how they judge people. The religion itself obviously teaches, but people, they do not do it the way it is supposed to be done. In terms of equality, the students were able to distinguish between the Islamic teachings and their various interpretations within the Muslim communities. Thus, any apparent inequality in Islam was argued as emerging out of Muslims’ actions. This is evident in the extract below: Student I-8E:

For example, in Saudi Arabia there are Sunnis and Shi’a. Sunnis would be given more respect or jobs than Shi’a,

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 155 and this is not fair. Because Saudi Arabia is their country does not mean that they can treat the Shi’a differently. So there is still inequality in a Muslim country. But it is we created the division not Allah (swt) [.  .  .] Taliban for example say women should not be given their rights whereas Prophet Muhammad (sws) said everyone is equal whatever you are woman or man. But it is told that Taliban are very strict followers of Islam. If they are followers of Islam, why is Taliban not applying what the Prophet said? Some students pointed out the dynamic relationship between the religious text and the lived experiences of believers, claiming that it is essential to truly understand the revelation in order to apply religious beliefs and values to the various aspects of life. As a consequence, it was argued that the believers could pursue a well-informed religious life, which eventually would help equality to flourish. Student K-8S: Some people do not read the Qur’an, they read it but they do not know the meaning. So they think they can do whatever they want and that they do not have to care for others. Because the Qur’an is like a letter, it says what happened in the past and what is going to happen in the future. To summarise, at this level, the students’ understanding of equality was much higher than it was in the previous categories. Having discerned the aspects of personal responsibility and ethical/moral character, their understanding indicated a more complex structure. They not only emphasised the role of law and religions in securing equality but, perhaps more importantly, individuals’ roles and responsibilities. The question of whether equality appears as a principle in Islam and other religions was addressed in terms of how believers of these religions interpret and apply the religious teachings in their lives. 6.1.2 Summary of the Pre-Test Results After the analysis of the students’ pre-test data, four conceptions of equality in Islam were identified, as seen in Table  6.2. Moreover, four different areas of equality emerged in the students’ responses: wealth equality, gender equality, racial equality, and religious equality. Owing to the hierarchical and inclusive relationship between the categories, the students’ overall understanding presented a more complex and differentiated structure as it moved from the first category to the final one. There was similarity in the number of students in each category in both classes. This suggested that there was not any considerable difference

156  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons Table 6.2 Overall results of pre-test for both classes Categories of description

Number of Students (Total: 28)

1. Equality as sameness or equal treatment 2. Equality as recognising and valuing differences 3. Equality as pursued through laws, or religious principles 4. Personal responsibility as an essential dimension in achieving equality

8 10 5 5

in the levels of understanding between both classes. Only five students attained the highest level. They discerned the role of personal responsibility in achieving equality in addition to the critical features of the earlier categories. However, they were not yet aware of equality as fair outcomes for all, providing fair regulations for people with different needs. The students, overall, had little understanding of equality in Islam, i.e. how it is identified in the Qur’an and hadith. Accordingly, they did not demonstrate a critical awareness of the wider Islamic and Western contexts in which equality is experienced.

6.2 The Intended Object of Learning At this stage, first, the teacher and the researcher identified the critical aspects with regard to the object of learning ‘equality in Islam’. Subsequently, a series of five lessons were planned based on the CRE and VT principles. 6.2.1 Identifying Critical Aspects In this study, the critical aspects were identified according to three different sources: the curricular aims of the unit, the students’ prior knowledge, and the subject matter knowledge. Curricular Aims of the Unit Having chosen the object of learning, the curricular aims regarding the unit ‘equality in Islam’ were examined. According to the curriculum, the learning objectives of this unit were identified as: •

Explaining who Muhammad (pbuh) was and why he is important to Muslims; • Explaining what Muslims believe about money and why people should help the poor;

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 157 • Understanding and being able to explain some of the main Islamic teachings on the difference between men and women, gender equality; • Understanding and being able to explain what Islam teaches about racial equality; • Reflecting on the impact of the teachings of Muhammad (pbuh) for Muslims today, in terms of equality. It was seen that in the curriculum, equality was presented in a Westernliberal way, whereby issues such as human rights, equality of genders and races, and freedom of expression were emphasised, whilst the Islamic perspective was only focused upon in terms of whether, and if so how, these values appeared in Muslims’ lives during the Prophets’ time and today. The different interpretations of equality in the Islamic and Western contexts, such as in the UK, were not given any consideration. Accordingly, the Islamic truth claims on equality as revealed in the Qur’an and Sunnah were left out from the learning objectives and the lesson plans. Instead, these religious sources were only applied in order to support and justify the aforementioned universal values. Hence, it was agreed upon that that the lesson plans and the content needed improvement. Students’ Pre-Understanding of the Object of Learning At the second stage, the critical aspects in the students’ understanding of ‘equality in Islam’ were identified. As stated earlier, the analysis of the student data revealed four conceptions of equality. Based on these categories, the following critical aspects were identified: • • • •

Sameness or equal treatment; Recognition of differences; Law and regulations for ensuring equality; Personal responsibility, the ethical/moral character in achieving equality.

Sameness or equal treatment was identified as the first critical aspect, for the students in the first category understood equality as providing same rights and opportunities for everyone without taking into account the diverse needs and dissimilar characteristics of people. On the same token, they reflected that religions and religious differences would undermine equality due to religious people being less tolerant of others. The second critical aspect was the recognition of differences. The students argued that a diversity of people could promote equality given that their differences are accepted and respected. However, they did not give any considerable thought to religious issues and religious diversity. The third critical aspect was the presence of rules and regulations for achieving equality. On similar terms, religious people were regarded as holding the principle

158  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons of equality since they were considered to be subject to sacred moral orders as well as more responsible and obedient to the laws. Despite their appreciation of the role of religion in achieving equality, the students at this level were not aware of diverse interpretations of equality in the Islamic community. The final critical aspect was personal responsibility and ethical/moral character by means of which the students argued that equality relies on individuals’ moral judgments and actions along with legal or religious rules and regulations. However, they were not able to discern the relationship between equality and justice in general and the concept of justice in Islam. Subject Matter Knowledge About Equality in Islam The concept of equality in Islam is mentioned in the academic literature alongside human rights issues. The basic human rights in Islamic law are identified as dignity of human rights, the unity of humankind, freedom of conscience, equality of human beings, personal responsibility, ensuring public welfare, and justice (Baderin; 2001; Said, 1979; Mohammadi, 2014). The essential feature of human rights in Islam is that they originate from the connection with divine will and are regulated by the Qur’an and Sunnah (Said, 1979; Khadduri, 1946; Kamali, 1993). Moreover, this connection appears in a social order whereby the rights of individuals are protected within the community. The principle of justice is considered necessary to ensure everyone’s access to basic human rights. It is established within the uniformity of Islamic community and has direct links to the authority of God. The Islamic state is seen as responsible for ensuring justice among its citizens by applying law in order to protect private human rights as well as to promote public good (Baderin, 2001). Equality in Islam is based on the absolute lack of difference between human beings, irrespective of their backgrounds. For example, the following verse refers to the unity of people: “O mankind, we have created you from a male and female and we set you up as nations and tribes so that you may be able to recognise each other. Indeed, the noblest among you before God are the most righteous of you. Allah is Knowing and Acquainted” (The Qur’an, 49:13). Diversity of people in this verse does not refer to superiority of any race, ethnic group or gender, but rather, their cooperation with each other. However, superiority only appears in terms of believers’ consciousness of God and the purity of their intentions and actions, which still does not give them any privileged rights over others (Mawdudi, 1976). The Prophet also supports this principle: “No Arab has any superiority over a non-Arab, nor does a non-Arab have any superiority over an Arab. Nor does a white man have any superiority over a black man, or the black man any superiority over the white man. You are all the children of Adam, and Adam was created from clay”.1

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 159 To sum up, based on the subject matter knowledge, students aimed at understanding that the notion of equality in Islamic and non-Islamic contexts held different meanings. First, equality in Islam is understood as God given, not constructed by human beings. Second, in Islam, equality is related to a system of justice, whereby the individual rights of each member of society are protected as well as where everyone is assured a fair and equal share of various benefits and resources. Final Critical Aspects Four critical aspects were identified based on the subject matter knowledge, the students’ prior understandings, and the curricular aims. The final critical aspects are illustrated in Table 6.3. 6.2.2 Designing the Lessons Based on the final critical aspects of ‘equality in Islam’, five research lessons were planned, for classes 8E and 8S, in light of the CRE and VT framework. The intended object of learning was identified as developing the students’ understanding of equality and justice in general as well as in relation to Islam. The aim was to help them evaluate and interpret religious sources in order to address the question of equality from an Islamic perspective, understand the complexity of the diverse ways in which equality is interpreted by Muslims, and finally, to reflect on the issues of justice and personal responsibility. The teacher decided to put the critical aspects in some sort of context, thereby helping the students to achieve a deeper awareness and understanding of them. The themes that frequently appeared in the students’ responses were gender equality, racial equality, wealth equality, and religious equality. The first three themes were already introduced in the curriculum, though the religious equality theme only emerged in the students’ pre-tests. This issue has also been reviewed critically in the

Table 6.3 Critical aspects Critical Aspects 1. Definition of equality and justice: Equality as equal treatment for all, inclusive of all differences 2. Awareness of Islamic teachings on equality 3. Awareness of the difference between Islamic teachings on equality and its varied interpretations among Muslims 4. The necessary conditions for equality in Islam • Justice • Personal responsibility/the moral ethical character

160  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons literature with regard to protecting the public rights of citizens in an Islamic state, including their religious freedom and equality (Mawdudi, 1976; Khadduri, 1946). As a result, the teacher included religious equality theme in the lesson plans. Finally, all the lessons were planned and structured around these themes. The lessons were planned according to the framework of CRE and VT. The principles of ontological realism, epistemic realism, and judgmental rationality were adopted as underlying elements of the lesson planning and implementation. The ontological givenness of equality and its relation to ensuring justice in society were identified as the ultimate Islamic truth claims regarding that issue. Next, the epistemically diverse ways of understanding equality amongst Muslims were explored. Different examples were chosen including the students’ own responses in their pretests in order to present a wide range of variation. A systematic use of variation was made available, whereby whilst one aspect was varied the others were kept invariant. The context-whole and parts relationship was observed in identifying the critical aspects. Each lesson was dealt with in three stages. In the introductory part of the lesson, the students’ current understanding of the specific equality theme would be explored by a simple discussion or a case study. The teacher would make the use of contrast by opening up variation between the theme and the context. This would create a ‘relevance structure’ for the students to experience the theme in their own environment. In the second part, religious evidence from the Qur’an and Sunnah on the relevant theme would be explored. Examples from the Prophet’s life would also be presented as variation, in contrast to today’s Muslims’ understanding. In the last part of the lesson, separation would be used, whereby the students would work on various experiences of the theme and its relationship to the whole concept of equality in Islam. Hence, they would be able to gain a more complete, differentiated, and integrated understanding of equality in general as well as in relation to Islam. The first lesson is designed as an introductory lesson in order to familiarise the students with the concept of equality and its place in Islam. In the first part of the lesson, the teacher introduces an activity presenting the concept of unity in the Muslim community. The idea is to make the students comprehend the fact that despite differences in terms of race, gender, and socio-cultural issues, Muslims are united and equal. Here, the Islamic faith and equality of Muslims are generalised to different contexts. The teacher introduces some general concepts, such as equality, racism, discrimination, inferiority, and prejudice. Next follows a basic introduction to Islam with an emphasis on Islamic history. The students are asked to study the five pillars of Islam and the role and place of equality in each of these pillars. Following that, the teacher shows them a flowchart of different equality themes identified at the outset of the study. With this general introduction, the students are expected to discern the

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 161 wider context in which equality is implemented and to contrast the Islamic view of equality with non-Islamic perspectives. In the second lesson, the concept of gender equality is introduced. The students are asked to discuss what it means in general and in relation to Islam. Contrast is used here as pattern of variation through which the teacher draws the students’ attention to the Islamic and non-Islamic understandings of gender equality. Subsequently, she uses separation by distinguishing the religious teachings on gender equality from the diverse interpretations of it in the Muslim community. In light of these, the students are expected to gain a higher understanding of gender equality in Islam and its relation to the whole concept of Islamic equality. In the third lesson, the teacher presents the concept of racial equality. The lesson begins with the black Muslims’ movement in America during the 1950s in order for the students to have a general idea of racial equality. Then, the teacher set up a group activity in which the students examine and discuss Malcolm X’s conversion to Islam and his experience of racial equality in this religion. Following that, the teacher presents the teachings of the Qur’an and Sunnah on racial equality. Finally, she uses separation as a pattern of variation by means of which the Islamic teachings on racial equality is kept invariant while the lived experiences of Muslims are shown to be varied. For example, inequality against nonArab people in Saudi Arabia would be introduced as an example of this. The fourth lesson covers the religious equality theme. Contrast is used here as the idea of ‘religious sameness’ is contrasted to the concept of ‘religious equality’. This activity is considered particularly important because these two issues also appeared in the students’ pre-test responses. Then the lesson proceeds with the students’ exploring of the Islamic teachings on religious equality, through which they are expected to understand that the Qur’an and Sunnah uphold the principle of religious equality and also that religious differences are appreciated and protected in a fair social system in Islam. Subsequently, the Boko Haram case—their kidnapping over 200 Christian girls as well as forcing them into Islam—is presented and discussed with regard to religious equality. The pattern of separation is used here. Thus, the students are expected to differentiate between the Islamic teachings on religious equality and various interpretations of it among Muslims. In the last lesson, the critical aspect ‘justice and personal responsibility’ is introduced. The teacher decided to deal with this issue in a separate lesson later on in the study. It was because despite the students engaging with the concept of fairness during the previous lessons they were not able to explore the equality themes with regard to justice in depth. Hence, she planned a final lesson in which the students would be able to discern the difference between equality and justice and how these are understood in Islam in relation to the equality themes they explored earlier. Contrast is used as a pattern of variation by which the concepts

162  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons of fair treatment, positive discrimination and justice are contrasted to equality as same treatment for all. Then the lesson continues with the students discussing the role of personal responsibility in terms of justice and equality. The Qur’anic verse “the most honoured of you in the sight of God is the most righteous of you” (The Qur’an, 49:13) is discussed regarding how it relates to justice and equality. Separation is used here, whereby the actions of individuals are separated from the theological principles of justice, law, and equality in Islam. Thus, the students would comprehend that individuals might interpret the religious teachings differently as well as that they would be judged by God based on their actions, not their ethnic or socio-economic backgrounds.

6.3 The Enacted Object of Learning As stated earlier, the enacted object of learning is about how the intended object of learning is actually performed in the classroom and what students encounter regarding it. Initially five lessons were planned. However, since the teacher could not complete gender and racial equality lessons in the first class she had extra two lessons in this class, and one lesson in the second class on justice and personal responsibility. In the following section, a description and analysis of each lesson is presented, followed by a discussion. 6.3.1 Introductory Lesson Description and Analysis of the Lesson In class 8E, the teacher began the lesson by introducing the concept of unity within the Muslim community. She asked the students to describe some pictures that depicted people from different genders, colours, and social backgrounds, but sharing an Islamic faith. Generalisation was used here as a pattern of variation. The aim was that the students would discern both the differences and similarities these people had and understand that their Islamic faith background unified them. Then, the teacher introduced some basic information about Islam in order to familiarise the students with the topic before their engagement with the issues of gender, races, religions, and justice in Islam. The students were asked to discuss whether there was equality in Islam. Their responses mostly focused on gender equality in terms of worship and the role of charity (zakah) in ensuring equality between the rich and poor. In the final part of the lesson, the students examined the five pillars of Islam and discussed how equality emerged in each pillar. This activity became useful for it was designed in a simplistic way and all the students, regardless of their academic levels, were able to engage with it. Then the teacher introduced some key concepts—such as equality, racism, discrimination, prejudice, and

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 163 inferiority—in order to help students acquire general knowledge about the topic. In the concluding part of the lesson, students were introduced to more examples, including equality of races, equality of able-bodied and disabled people, and equality of different socio-economic classes. In the second class, the first lesson was implemented in a similar way to the first class. However, there was an important difference. After the lesson with the first class, the teacher thought that owing to the lack of variation the students could not establish the relationship between equality in Islam as whole and its surrounding context. Consequently, in the second class, first, they were asked about whether there was equality in general. This led them to think about equalities and inequalities they observe in society, which are not necessarily related to Islam. An excerpt from this lesson is shown below:

Episode 6.1—Class 8S Student K:

Basically I think we are sort of equal because, generally, in Britain, it does not matter what gender or race you are, you get to do the same things. T: Interesting, so irrespective of their backgrounds they have the same chances and opportunities. Student M: I think it is not that equal because some people get treated differently because of their skin colour, background, and their beliefs. T: OK, so we have got two points there. Unfortunately, we know that racism does exist, also people might get judged because of their beliefs. This pre-discussion helped the students to contextualise their views on equality. When being asked to discuss it from an Islamic point of view, their responses went beyond Islamic rulings to social and contextual issues, as seen in the following example:

Episode 6.2—Class 8S T: Student F: T:

Now, I want you to think specifically in Islamic faith. Can you give me examples about equality or inequality in Islam? In Islam any race or background is allowed to be Muslim. Islam encourages equality but then some people become terrorists. We see that within the religion there might be some people who do not follow the teachings of that religion. That might be their interpretation, for example, they read the same book but get different meanings. Maybe that is why they end up with extreme viewpoints, very important point there.

164  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons Student K:

I think there is no equality in Islam because men have higher status than women, like, they have more rights. For example, men pray in front of women when they go to Masjid. OK, you raised really important points there. So, T: historically, men always had so much power. We will come to the idea of prayer. It might be about modesty; they would not want bending before men. I  think yes and no because women get rights. In Student H: the Qur’an there are so many chapters saying how important women are but sometimes, I  do not know, the first person in the world was Adam and the second person was Eve. T: What you have just touched upon there, the creation of Adam and Eve, is actually looking at this quote here: “: O mankind! We have created you from a single pair of male and female . . . and we made you into nations and tribes, that you may know each other . . .” (Qur’an, 49:13). In my course book it always uses he, even in the Student O: Qur’an it always says he. Student (unknown): I think they put girls and boys as kind of mankind. Student O: If it is a book for girls why would they always use he? Also it is written by a man. I know that does not really make that much sense. T: What you are studying seems a bit contradictory. But going back to earlier point, saying that people have particular opinions, perhaps his opinion might not be reflective of what is being taught in Islam. In the Qur’an, he is only used as a linguistic tool, referring to mankind including women kind. Then, the teacher presented some examples from the Qur’an and Sunnah. Subsequently, she involved the students in a group activity in which they were required to examine the five pillars of Islam and observation of equality in these pillars. Discussion of the Lesson During the discussion that took place in the first class, variation was not observed as the students only focused on equality in terms of Islam. Hence, the teacher decided to make the use of contrast in the second class, which enabled the students to compare between Islamic and Westernliberal understanding of equality. In line with the CRE, this helped them to identify the Islamic truth claims on equality as well as the absent and

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 165 present forms of equality in Muslim society. This was also in accordance with VT, as learning is assumed to occur within the parts-whole and context relationship. By bringing the context to the fore in the beginning of the lesson, the students were able to create a relevance structure, thereby gaining a deeper awareness of the concept in everyday life. General introduction to equality, which came afterwards, made the students concentrate more on racial equality because of the activities and examples about racism, such as black-white segregation in the 1960s in America. They also looked into class difference, ability-disability, ethnic, and religious inequalities; however, the time and length of the discussion was not enough for them to generalise the concept of equality into various settings. The activity on the five pillars of Islam appeared to be more significant than was expected. In addition to equality, the students discerned the aspect of unity, the sense of togetherness, and communal feeling during worship, for example, feeling same and united while performing Hajj. 6.3.2 Gender Equality in Islam Description and Analysis of the Lesson The lesson plan for this theme was implemented similarly in both classes. In the first part of the lesson, a pre-discussion was made available, whereby the students were asked to discuss whether there was gender equality in general, and then to further think about it in terms of Islam. Contrast was used as pattern of variation. The students explored the concept within Islam as well as in the wider society. The students’ responses were similar to those received in the first class. The points that were focused upon were women’s equal access to education and jobs, creation of men and women and application of the same rules to men and women in matters of worship. They particularly focused on how women are mentioned in the Islamic sources and their position in Muslim society in relation to men, for example men ruling prayers and being able to get married for up to four times, whilst this is not the case for Muslim women. This is apparent in the following excerpt:

Episode 6.3—Class 8S Student B: T:

Before women did not have too many rights, but now, in many situations we do. Like, now, women are allowed to work, before they had to be housewives and stay at home. This is an interesting point because, actually, historically speaking, women had the right to work. I am going to give an example, in today’s lesson, someone who actually completely contradicts the point you are making.

166  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons Student O:

I  have got lots of examples that women and men are not equal. It is always said in my lessons that women are weaker than men. T: Do you mean weaker in terms of physical strength? Student O: Physically and emotionally. But I  think we do not have the right to say that women are weak, because it depends on what kind of person they are. It also says in the Qur’an that men are allowed to beat women. Some students: No, it does not! Student O: It does, it does! It says in the Qur’an if women do not listen to you once it is ok, if they do not listen to you three times, then you can beat them. T: Listen, when companions questioned the Prophet about whether they can beat up their wives he said, no.  In Islam, it is not about domestic violence but actually, admonishment, telling off and there are stages to be followed if wife is the one who caused the problem. First, they stop talking to each other, then they avoid each other, in the final stage, basically, husband takes something, like a toothbrush which is called miswak in Arabic language, and fists his wife. It is so light that it should not leave a mark on them. Unfortunately, some people read this and they beat their wives.

Then the teacher introduced some images of women from different Muslim societies. The purpose was to help students experience various interpretations of gender equality in Islam. One image belonged to a Middle Eastern woman, dressed traditionally, walking behind two men; the second image was the picture of a Muslim solicitor, and the final image was that of Malala Yousufzai. The students were asked to discuss the position of women in these pictures. The aim was to get the students to experience variation regarding the images by viewing them from different standpoints, such as cultural, historical, and religious. It was seen that the majority of the students approached the issue from a Western-liberal perspective. As a consequence of that, for them, an image of a woman walking behind men was unacceptable and disrespectful, whereas the Muslim lady solicitor was seen as modern and equal to men. This is illustrated in the following episode:

Episode 6.4—Class 8E T: Student I:

What do you think the position of woman in this picture2 might be? I  think it shows weakness. It shows woman is behind because she is physically weak.

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 167 T: Student F: T: Student K: T:

Are you talking about her strength? I think the men are showing a kind of leadership. I liked that. So, maybe men are leading the way while the woman is following them. I  think she was keeping a distance between her and men because she was religious and her position is lower. So, men are leading the woman. This image actually was taken from a country where the majority are Muslims. You addressed many points. Maybe there was a need for protection, and therefore, the reason men leading is if there is a danger ahead, men would face it before women.

The lesson proceeded with the students’ examining the religious evidence from the Qur’an and hadith. They were asked to discuss and reflect on the following verses from the Qur’an as well as some hadith: “O mankind! We have created you from a single pair of male and female . . . and we made you into nations and tribes, that you may know each other . . . the most honoured of you in the sight of God is (he who is) the most righteous of you” (Quran. 49:13); “The believers, men and women, are protectors, one of another: they enjoin what is just and forbid what is evil: they observe regular prayers, practice regular charity, and obey God and His Messenger . . .” (Qur’an, 9:71). Separation was used here as a pattern of variation, whereby the religious teachings on equality of genders were kept invariant, whilst how believers understood and applied these teachings were varied. The teacher drew the students’ attention to the cultural and historical circumstances in which these religious instructions were revealed. Hence, she expected them to go beyond their own perspectives by taking into account the context of the revelation of these verses as well as the hadith of the Prophet, as seen below:

Episode 6.5—Class 8E T:

Student E: T:

What does this first hadith tell me about equality of men and women? “Since men were always around the Prophet, women were prevented from listening to him or asking about matters of concern to them. Therefore, they requested him to appoint one day a week when they could have free access to him, a proposal to which he agreed”. Because when I first read that women are prevented from listening, it does not really sound equality, does it? It is like disadvantage because they only have one day. Exactly, this is an interesting quotation, because you can look at from two different perspectives. One the one hand, it shows equality because women were designated a specific

168  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons

Student K: T:

time so that they would go and ask their questions and learn. In another way, it is like disadvantage as you said, because they were given only one day. What do you think the reason for that is? Because this also ties in with the traditions at the time. Because there were lots of men around the prophet, so maybe he wanted them to feel more comfortable. Exactly, so in terms of customs and etiquettes, men and women were in different social circles. In fact, how many of you read books like pride and prejudice? So, historically, when you look at the books or films, at 1800s, even in this country, you would find women and men in different social cycles, doing their own sorts of activities.

In the final part of the lesson, the students were introduced to some more examples from the Prophet Muhammad’s life with regard to the position of women in the early Islamic days. The Prophet’s first wife, Khadija, being a highly regarded businesswoman, as well as the pioneering role that Aisha, one of the Prophet’s other wives, played in education of Muslim men and women, were emphasised. Through these examples, the teacher aimed to address the students’ misconceptions about describing Islam as favouring men and as a result, restricting women’s rights. Discussion of the Lesson The lesson in the first class was implemented according to the intended object of learning. However, since the teacher was not able to complete the lesson activities, she had to teach two lessons. With the first activity, the students were introduced to variation in terms of Muslim attitudes towards women. They focused on how Muslim women were positioned in various cultural, political, and historical contexts. Subsequently, they explored the religious teachings on gender equality and were encouraged to make sense of them in their daily lives. The teacher was not happy about this activity, since it covered the whole lesson. This was because the students had a great interest on gender issues, so they raised many questions. However, the teacher thought they could not learn through a mere discussion. Consequently, in the second class, she made the use of a simultaneous variation by focusing on all different examples at the same time. In addition, she left out some of the examples in this class, as she thought they were irrelevant to the focus of the lesson, such as variation between Muslim and non-Muslim women regarding their rights and opportunities in society. As a result, the students were kept focused on the main theme. The discussion on religious evidence played out well in both classes. The examples from the Prophet’s life, including his wives Khadija and Aisha, addressed the students’ many misconceptions and stereotypical

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 169 ideas about women in Islam. However, after the first cycle, seeing that some students still maintained their misconceptions about cultural and religious interpretations of genders, the teacher decided to introduce variation from their own lives, whereby they realised that inequalities against women can also originate from their cultural and parental traditions. T: Some students were talking about how women are not allowed to work. That was definitely a misconception. When we talked about the example of Khadija, how she was an entrepreneur, a businesswoman and an employer, it definitely changed the students’ perceptions. They were looking at the wives of the Prophet and saw that it was completely against the examples of certain Muslims today. It does not need to be the far streams of Boko Haram or Taliban who are against women’s education. Even in their communities, even now, there are girls whose parents do not allow them to study or work in certain places. You know, that could be something to challenge those ideas and hopefully they come to understand that those are more culture related. The discussion became heated in the second class, as the students asked about controversial issues, such as ‘why men are allowed to marry up to four times?’ and ‘why does it say in the Qur’an that men can beat their wives?’ and ‘why are men regarded as rulers in Islam’? At the end of the lesson, they were still not quite convinced if there was gender equality in Islam. Their questioning continued throughout the whole unit, leading the teacher to decide to explore this issue in details in future lessons. 6.3.3 Racial Equality in Islam Description and Analysis of the Lesson The theme of racial equality also played out quite closely to the intended object of learning. First, the students were introduced to the concepts of racism and racial equality, how racism was experienced in history, the civil rights movement in the 1960s in America, racism against black people and segregation between white and black people at the time. They also discussed whether there was racial equality in today’s society. Contrast was used here as a pattern of variation, whereby the students focused on the general idea of racial equality. An episode from the lesson is provided below:

Episode 6.6—Class 8S T: Hands up if you think all ethnic groups are equal.   [Only some students put their hands up]

170  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons T:

Interesting, so, only a few of you believe that there is equality between different ethnic groups. OK, so who believes that there is inequality? Student A: My uncle in Germany, when he wanted to be a doctor, they were racist, they did not allow him to sit exams. T: So, he did have academic qualifications to sit entry exam but he was not even able to do that. Where he was from? Student A: Pakistan. T: So, he believes that he was not allowed to sit even the exam because he was Pakistani, his ethnic origin. Does anyone know anything positive that shows that all ethnic groups are equal? What about in the law? Student H: Yes, the law actually is not racist, because if it was racist then it would give the country a bad name. T: Exactly, the law in this country gives equal opportunities to all people. So, actually in theory it should be very equal. Then, the discussion continued with the focus on racial equality in Islam. The students’ responses were generally about the rules of worship and religious rituals, as is evident in the extract below:

Episode 6.7—Class 8S T: Student P: Student J: T:

So, are there any examples of racial equality in Islam? Yes, or no? Yes, because when they pray there are black Muslims and white Muslims. They do not differ them, they pray together. Anyone can be a Muslim no matter what race they are. Excellent, so the faith itself is open to all ethnic backgrounds.

Following that, a number of quotations from the Qur’an and hadith were introduced, illustrating the existence of racial equality and the prohibition of all kinds of racist behaviours in Islam.3 The story of Malcolm X was given as an example of racial equality in Islam, including his participation in the Nation of Islam in the 1960s, and later on, his visit to Makkah to perform pilgrimage. The students were asked to reflect on his letter about the transformation he has gone through when he was performing Hajj, that upon observing all different races together, he began to believe in the unity of all Muslims regardless of their ethnic backgrounds. Finally, the students’ focus was directed to the different interpretations of racial equality in Islam. Separation was used here by which the idea of racial equality in Islam was kept invariant while how Muslims interpreted it was varied. The teacher introduced instances of racism faced by migrant workers in Saudi Arabia. This country was chosen because during the pre-test it was mentioned as an example of a society where

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 171 no racism or other types of inequality occurs. Thus, the teacher expected the students to experience variation between religious teachings and their various interpretations observed in Muslim societies, including the holy land of Islam. This is exemplified in the following episode:

Episode 6.8—Class 8E T:

Now, let’s look at these slides, ladies. Where are we looking at? Some students: Saudi Arabia. T: Yes, same country that pilgrimage is taking place. Who are these people? Some students: Migrant workers. T: Here, a group of people saying ‘stop the exploitation of migrant workers!’. Why people are protesting? Exploitation means if someone takes advantage of you, perhaps not treating you fairly. How do they take advantage of them? Student R: Give them more work. Student I: They may not be treated fairly. Student K: Less wages. T: People who come from other countries, they are not getting treated fairly, they are not getting the same pay maybe. Do they come from the same ethnic background as Saudis? Some students: No T: No. In fact, many of the migrant Saudi workers actually come from countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Philippines. Then, what does that tell us about the attitude in Saudi Arabia? Student L: They are not being equal. Student H: They are being racist. T: Yes, we see that on the contrary of the example of Malcolm X, his religious experience, in that very same country, some Muslims are being unequal towards people with different ethnic backgrounds, treating them differently. Discussion of the Lesson With the first activity, majority of the students were able to experience variation between racial equality and inequality. Through the use of contrast, a ‘relevance structure’ was created, by which they were able to apply that concept to their lives. Having explored the religious evidence, they came to understand that racial equality was present in Islam. Moreover, the example of Malcolm X increased their grasp of the concept. However,

172  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons the discussion on racism against migrant workers in Saudi Arabia did not pan out as desired. This example was important as it showed the absence of racial equality amongst some Muslims today. The teacher had to spell it out for the students, since they were not able to discern it by themselves. This might have happened because it was only a few students who pointed out religious inequality in Muslim societies in their pre-test, and also got to participate in the discussion during the lesson. However, the majority of students might have found it difficult to grasp, as they have not experienced it before. Moreover, the teacher thought that the choice of the images was also wrong as the students’ focus was drawn to the definition of immigration, rights of migrant workers and so on. This result supported the earlier findings that students discern the intended critical aspects if they experience them on their own rather than being told by the teacher (Lo & Marton, 2011). Furthermore, this theme was also dealt with in two lessons in the first class because of the long discussions and extra activities that took place. Consequently, in the second class, the teacher followed the lesson plan and gave some of the discussion tasks as homework. 6.3.4 Religious Equality in Islam Description and Analysis of the Lesson The lesson started with a discussion about ‘religious equality’ and ‘religious sameness’. Contrast was used here as a pattern of variation through which religious equality was differentiated from religious sameness. Thus, the teacher aimed to address one of the misconceptions the students had before the study, which was seeing religious commitment as a means of producing religious extremism as well as intolerance to the followers of other faiths. With this activity, the students were expected to understand that equality of religions did not necessarily mean considering all religions as producing equally valid responses to the question of ‘truth’. Religions had common characteristics, yet, they also had their inherent differences. Hence, religious equality was identified as recognising differences between religions, being fair towards people from different religions as well as not discriminating people because of their beliefs. Moreover, an emphasis was placed on equal representation, equal rights and opportunities for different religious groups, and recognising individuals’ rights to belief and to practice their faith. This can be seen in the following excerpt:

Episode 6.9—Class 8E T:

So, now lets’ move on to these two questions here: Are all religions the same? Are all religions equal? Are these questions asking the same thing? Some students: No, T: What is the difference there?

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 173 Student S: T:

They are not same because Muslim people have the Qur’an. OK, so, in terms of the ways in which worship takes place, there is a difference. What else? Are all religions the same, what is it implying? Student I: Both Christianity and Islam believe in God but differently. T: OK, can we work out any differences that are there in terms of beliefs in Christianity and Islam?  (silence) T: They both believe in one God. What is the huge difference in that belief about God? Some students: Jesus is a prophet in Islam. T: But in Christianity? Some students: He is son of God in Christianity. T: Son of God, but also considered God in human form, because in Christianity God is represented in different ways. So, these two religions are not the same, because there is a difference in terms of belief. But when we move to the question ‘are all religions equal’, what is that asking? They are the same (hesitates) Student C: Some students: No, they are treated the same. T: Exactly, that is the key term. So, if I  am asking are all religions equal, I  want to know if all religions are treated the same. We have been discussing earlier that the Bible and the Qur’an are the evidence of similar God but there are also differences between Christianity and Islam. But should Christianity and Islam be treated the same or different? Students: Same (chorus). T: Exactly, so all religions can be considered equal but not the same. A similar discussion emerged in the second class. The students in this class came up with more ideas about the concept of religious equality, including respect for all faiths, opening religious places to the followers of different religious and non-religious traditions, being more inclusive of diverse viewpoints as well as the importance of personal responsibility in achieving equality.

Episode 6.10—Class 8S T: Student H: T:

What does religious equality mean? Any suggestions? That in religion everyone is the same. That is the key bit. If you are thinking that equality is being the same, does that mean everyone believes in the same thing? Some students: No, equality.

174  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons T: Students: Student C: T: Student L: T: Student P: T:

Does saying that there is religious equality in Islam mean that someone Muslim is equal to someone Christian? No. I  think it means like you cannot say oh you are Muslim and you are better than a Christian or Hindu. You have to respect their beliefs. Interesting point. Perhaps it refers to being respectful. Similar to what we talked here, L, you mentioned about places of worship, what were you thinking? Everyone is allowed in different places of worship. OK, so being allowed in places of worship or perhaps the idea of respecting other religions, what else you thinking? Miss I think, it is not to do with religions or God, it is about people, how people treat each other equally. I liked your thinking there, moving away from the idea of differences and similarities about God, actually, it has to do with how individuals as humans are equal towards each other.

A further discussion was also made available in the first class to help the students discern the concepts of religious freedom and religious oppression. A cartoon was shown on the whiteboard featuring a dialogue about freedom of belief and expression and religious oppression. The students were asked if they had ever come across any type of religious oppression. Their responses were mostly about Muslims being perceived as terrorists in the media and how this affects expression and practising of their faith. Next, the teacher introduced a number of quotations from the Qur’an and hadith4 followed by a whole class discussion, as follows:

Episode 6.11—Class 8S T:

The Prophet Muhammad said: “No one has the right to hinder the rights of other men”. What does that quote mean? Student F: It means that no one has the right to judge other people. T: So perhaps, we are not judging people’s opinions, what else it might be? Student M: To not think that we are above other people due to our religions. T: What are you actually not going to be doing, what are you prevented from doing? Student A: You are not doing anything against their belief. T: Exactly, you are not taking their rights to believe what they want to believe. Later on, the students watched a short clip about the constitution in the early Islamic community, which included all religious communities living

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 175 in Madinah at that time. The teacher thought that this was important, for it allowed the students to realise that all religious groups’ rights to belief and worship was protected in the early Islamic period. Having explored this, the teacher encouraged them to reflect on their existing understanding of the Islamic perspective on religious equality. To further highlight this issue, one last discussion was made available, which directed the students’ attention to the religious observances in today’s Muslim societies. The teacher used variation here, whereby Muslim believers’ actions were separated from the teachings of the Qur’an and hadith. The Boko Haram case was presented as an example of religious inequality. With that example, the students were expected to discern that although Islam values religious freedom and equality, religious inequality towards other religious groups might still occur in Muslim societies. This is evident in the following episode:

Episode 6.12—Class 8S T:

Now I want you to think about this situation:5 What is happening in Nigeria, tell us R? Student R: Over 200 girls were abducted. Student O: Boko Haram thinks that girls are objects. They only look at the Qur’an, because in the Qur’an, there are things that people would think in a different way. They should also look at the hadith. They think that girls do not have the right to be educated so they took them from the schools and said they were going to sell them. T: Remember we looked at this hadith saying that women are the rulers of their homes, that is, they are in charge. They might be taking that hadith as evidence, and therefore, saying that women should not be outside but stay at their homes. Anyone knows about their faith background? Some students: They are not Muslims. Some students: They are dressed like Muslims. T: There were some. But the vast majority of them actually were Christian. Student J: They were Christian but they were forced to be Muslim. T: Exactly, so Boko Haram is actually a terrorist group. They thought they would get everyone’s interest by kidnapping girls, particularly students, because they think that women should not get educated but they also forced them to change their religion. Based on what you have already learnt in today’s lesson about religious equality in Islam, can people be forced to become Muslim? Students: No (chorus),

176  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons T: Exactly, we learnt that there is no compulsion in religion. No one can be forced to become a Muslim. What we see here is actually a group who are putting forward their opinions against what the Prophet said. Discussion of the Lesson The same line of instruction was carried out in both classes. The discussions that took place were fruitful. However, in relation to the activity of Madinah constitution, since the students were not familiar with the concept of constitution as well as the historical conditions of the Prophet’s time, the level of participation was poor. Consequently, it turned out to be more a direct instruction. An exploration of the religious evidences helped the students to identify the theological underpinnings of the concept of ‘religious equality’ as well as constituting a basis for dealing with different interpretations of it. As postulated by CRE, engaging with the theme on theological and epistemological grounds helped them gain a more differentiated and integrated understanding of it (Hella & Wright, 2009). Students in both classes showed high engagement in the final activity on the Boko Haram case. The reason, most probably, was that the incident was new at the time and was still being discussed in the media. In addition to religious inequality, the students in the second class also highlighted gender inequality with great interest. This issue was dealt with during the rest of the lesson. In general, the students comprehended religious inequality between Islam and other religions, but were not able to understand religious inequality among Muslims due to lack of variation. Consequently, they did not fully engage with the religious equality theme. Similar to the racial equality lesson, in order to engage with the theme in a critical and attentive manner more varied examples, including the students’ own experiences, need to be introduced. For example, the Sunni-Shi’a division as well as the tensions between other Islamic sects could have been brought to the students’ focus. This could help them generalise the concept of religious equality among the different groups or sects within Islam. 6.3.5 Justice, Law and Personal Responsibility Description and Analysis of the Lesson This lesson had a great deal of significance, because it was, in a way, a summary lesson. A  discussion was made available at the beginning of the lesson, which helped the students discern the relationship between equality and justice. The teacher introduced the idea of positive discrimination with different examples, including free school meals and parking spaces for disabled people. The reason behind this was because in their

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 177 written tasks and interviews, some of the students perceived equality as same treatment for all regardless of individuals’ different needs, competences, and abilities. Hence, they were uncertain about the definition and relationship of equality and justice. Contrast was used as a pattern of variation whereby equality as sameness was contrasted to equality with justice as well as the concept of social equality. The students were aimed at understanding that equal and same treatment does not necessarily result in just and fair outcomes. It is because justice is primarily concerned with a fair distribution of social and material goods depending on what is to be distributed and the context of distribution (Miller, 1997). Hence, the teacher explained that in terms of just distribution of resources and opportunities, people’s different abilities and needs should be taken into consideration. She further added that justice might require people being rewarded according to their own performances, such as how much responsibility the students take for their learning. Lastly, the teacher explained that equality that is associated with justice is defined as social equality, which requires an uneven distribution of resources in an equal society. This is illustrated in the following episode:

Episode 6.13—Class 8S T: Student F: Student S: T: Students: T: Student I: T: Student B: T:

Let’s have a look at these pictures.6 F, you said you had this picture on your Facebook. What did you like about it? It shows that justice is more fair than equality. With equality, everyone has got one box but with justice they got different numbers, so that they could see. They are treated the same in the first image. Exactly, each individual is treated in the same way. But by treating people in the same way, has it actually worked out for everyone? Has it been fair for everyone? No [chorus]. No, because it has actually resulted in an unfair system by giving everyone exactly the same. So, what do you think is the difference with justice? They have all got the same view. They all have the same view; they are equal in terms of their sight. So what was happening here to make sure that they all got an equal view? They may share so that everyone could see. The reality is that actually this person [tall person] never needed a box in the first place. So by treating everyone equally you might end up with a situation which is not necessarily fair for everyone. With justice, we see there is a sense of fairness.

178  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons Following that, the students discussed whether Islam was compatible with the idea of justice. They were expected to discern that actually in Islam there is a great emphasis on the concept of justice and fair outcomes rather than mere equality as same treatment for all.

Episode 6.14—Class 8E T:

What do you think the relationship is between Islam and justice, F? Student F: For example, men and women are not equal, they are treated fairly. T: So far we have explored that men and women should be seen equal; women have the same rights that men have. Are there any situations that might not be the case? Student O: You know it is said that men are supposed to protect women. T: Ah, we see that there is a difference, so if men and women are treated equally, then women have to be protectors of men as well. There would be equal responsibility. Instead, there is this idea of justice and fairness, what is about justice in that example then? Student D: Because women have their differences from men. T: Yes, because of their biological structure men have bigger physique, they are much stronger, and perhaps that is the biological, scientific reason. Then the lesson proceeded with the introduction of religious evidence about justice and personal responsibility. Having explored the difference between justice and equality, the students were now expected to go beyond seeing everyone as the same in the sight of God to reflect on how justice is conceived by God. The students were encouraged to understand that individuals would be judged by God in the afterlife, on the basis of their actions and performances, not on their gender, ethnic, and socioeconomic backgrounds. This is apparent in the following example:

Episode 6.15—Class 8E T:

“O mankind! We have created you from a single pair of male and female  .  .  . and we made you into nations and tribes, that you may know each other  .  .  . the most honoured of you in the sight of God is [he who is] the most righteous of you” (Qur’an, 49:13). Looking at this verse what does someone righteous do? Student O: Doing good deeds. T: Exactly. Being righteous, being good, and doing good actions, good deeds. Now how can this person be righteous?

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 179 Student F: T:

They are being fair. Exactly, so, they are making sure that there is justice and fairness. Remember the image at the beginning of the lesson, showing that treating everyone the same can actually, sometimes, result in injustice. Treating people fairly means that people who need more get enough so that everyone ends up with the fair result.  [. . .] T: “Is one who is devoutly obedient during periods of the night, prostrating and standing [in prayer], fearing the Hereafter and hoping for the mercy of his Lord, [like one who does not]? Say, “Are those who know equal to those who do not know?” Only they will remember [who are] people of understanding. (Qur’an, 39:9). In the context of this verse, what do they need to know? Student I: Praying. Student M: I understand it, like, are the people who follow the rules and be just equal to people who do not follow the rules, like, is there justice? T: Exactly, it is about justice. Does someone who does all good things in their lives is same as someone who does not do good in their lives? Students: No (chorus). In the summary part of the lesson, the teacher used generalisation as a pattern of variation, whereby the idea of equality in Islam was kept invariant, while the other aspects, such as gender, race, social class, and religious affiliations were varied. The students discussed the Hajj experience by means of which they were aimed to discern the equality of Muslims within the unity of Muslim community. Discussion of the Lesson The discussion that took place at the beginning of the lesson was successful in both classes as the students were able to discern variation between justice and equality. Applying the same line of thinking to the Islamic perspective helped them to reflect on what they have learned during the entire study. For example, this time, they discussed gender inequality in Islam in terms of justice, and interpreted different rulings for women in the Qur’an and hadith accordingly. In general, this lesson showed a successful application of the CRE and VT principles. The students explored the Islamic truth claims on justice and equality as well as the diverse Islamic and non-Islamic beliefs and practices on equality in the wider society. This was particularly important as some of the students, in their pre-test, criticised Islam for not embracing the principle of equality. Exploring the concepts of personal

180  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons responsibility and justice helped them to differentiate between the theological principles regarding these concepts and individuals’ moral practices. In the main, they acquired a more differentiated and integrated understanding of equality in Islam and gained respect for different worldviews too. The teacher described the change in their perceptions as follows: T: I think they got thinking that it is not necessarily ‘are all people equal’ but more about the idea of justice. So, about equality of women, they might see different treatments of women, but is there fairness, reasoning behind it? They would say ‘no actually it is not equal that a woman is more important in her home, while her husband has to take care of the family’. Of course, it is not equal, not same, but actually is it just? Yes, it is, because it had reasons at the time . . . Seeing it in terms of race, social class and wealth they became more aware of the variation, I think. One notable issue regarding this lesson was that the justice and personal responsibility issue should have been explored in the first lessons. Then, the students would be able to discern the concepts of equality and justice in relation to each other as well as in relation to Islam and afterwards apply these concepts to different equality themes in a more systematic and explicit way. As a consequence, the teacher decided to focus on the justice issue at the beginning of the unit for future classes.

6.4 The Second Lived Object of Learning The lived object of learning reveals students’ actual learning at the end of the study (Lo & Marton, 2011). A post-written task and follow-up interviews were carried out with the same students who participated in the pre-test. These were designed in the same way as the pre-test, including the same questions. However, at this stage, the students were also asked to reflect on what they have learnt and how their understanding of ‘equality in Islam’ changed after the lessons. 6.4.1 Categories of Description Four categories of description were identified after the analysis of the student data. The first three categories remained similar to those found in the pre-test as the same critical aspects regarding meaning and structure were included. However, the fourth category in the post-test was a new category as it represented a more developed understanding of equality in Islam. As the first three categories are almost identical to those in the pre-test, only the fourth category will be presented here.

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 181 Category 4: Equality as Understood Within a Broader Islamic Perspective in Relation to Justice and Personal Responsibility At this level, the students acquired a more differentiated and integrated understanding of the concept of equality in general and in relation to Islam. They were able to define the meaning of equality and explain the relationship between equality and justice in Islamic and non-Islamic contexts. It is stated that “justice is a complex issue that requires a similar treatment of similar cases, unless a justification for treating them differently is presented. Justice requires a justification process; it is not defined solely by sameness” (Audard, 2012, p. 4). Similar to what Audard argues, in their responses, it was seen that the students at this level associated equality with justice and considered equal treatment as not only providing the same rights and opportunities, but also as ensuring fair outcomes for all, specifically addressing the needs of disadvantaged groups. This is evident in the following extract: Student F-8S:

Equality is when you treat everyone the same, like no matter who they are, where they come from or anything. With equality everyone gets the same. I  used to think that equality is the best way but actually it is not, because sometimes it makes it harder for others. But justice is something fair, even if everyone gets something different. It is not what you give in but what they get out of what you give. For example, if someone has Down syndrome and they do the same test as normal people, it is not fair for them, they were born like that. So, if it was fair, like, justice then they would get an easier test.

Many of the students were able to apply this knowledge to their understanding of equality in Islam. In general, Islam was perceived as a religion valuing equality in terms of its rules and regulations applying to everyone. However, the matter of flexibility of the rules regarding Islamic practices for people with different needs and necessities was considered as related to the principle of justice, evident in the following excerpt: Student B-8S:

R: S:

I  remember there was a hadith about justice in Islam. I think it was saying if a government is fair but not Muslim Allah will still reward them. I think it means being fair to each other. Fairness, you mean. Does it relate to equality? Yes, it does. We learnt that we have to pray five times a day. But some people do not have the ability to stand, or maybe they cannot really bow so they either pray lying

182  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons down or sitting. It does not seem equal because they are not all standing as other people who pray, but it is fair because they are not as able as we are, and they cannot do things we can. In a way, it is both equal and fair. In the following excerpt, one student describes how she originally thought about equality and how her understanding changed as she now considered equality and justice in Islam in relation to each other. Student M-8E: Islam is, like, mix of equality and justice. Because, like, everyone is required to fast, but if you are not eligible you do not have to. Also, like, you would not want a poor person giving for charity when they are not able to look after themselves. This is justice. I was thinking that was equality, I never looked at it that way. It was found that the students had an increased knowledge and awareness of the theological evidence on matters of justice, gender, race, wealth, and religious equality in Islam. They were able to give examples from the Qur’an and hadith about different themes of equality. Moreover, they developed a better understanding of the context in which the question of equality in Islam was addressed. Similar to the pre-test, the concept of personal responsibility appeared to be an important aspect at this level, by which the students became aware of the critical variation between the Islamic teachings on equality and the actions of Muslims in the wider Islamic and non-Islamic societies. “The inherently subjective process of religious interpretation” (Wiktorowicz, 2005, p. 76) played an essential role in comprehending why the teachings of the Qur’an are understood and interpreted in different ways. Majority of the students argued that a selective and literal reading of the Qur’anic text leads to different interpretations depending on the reader and the context in which reading occurs. As a consequence, every person or group believes that their interpretation represents a more truthful and authentic way of understanding Islam. This is evident in the following extract: Student M-8E: People take the words and like reconstruct them in their lives. For example, in the Boko Haram case, it does not say in the Qur’an you should force people to be Muslims; in fact, it says there is no coercion in Islam but people pushes it more than what needs to be pushed, I  think. The way they understand and interpret the things is different, even though you read the same verse from the Qur’an.

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 183 In the following example, one student refers to the different interpretations of the religious issues in everyday life: Student B-8S:

We had the Qur’an for a long time; it is centuries old. People back then probably knew more because they had prophets and companions of prophets to guide them. Whereas now, centuries later, I think the meaning . . . it is still same but people interpret it differently. Because we do not have people to teach us the proper way. We have teachers, but even they have different ways of teaching. For example, in my mosque, they teach about gender equality, whereas my friend said that they were taught in their mosque that women and men are not equal like in marriage and stuff, so, they teach different things.

In general, to understand the various interpretations of the religious text, the students paid a great deal of attention to the socio-cultural and historical contexts of both the early era as well as modern Islamic society. According to the students, most Muslims ignore the social and historical conditions of the early Islamic days and the Sunnah of the Prophet when trying to understand the divine message, and hence fall into the mistake of claiming for the truth of their own perspectives. Particularly, extremist groups such as the Taliban and the Boko Haram were perceived as representing such understandings. Student G-8S: Some Muslims take it a bit far. For example, if we look at the Qur’an and hadith it says that women should get education because it is their rights. But Taliban think that women should not have education. They say that they follow the Qur’an, but, actually, they think their own way and do not go to the depth and find the proper reasons. The Qur’an gives rights to both men and women. These groups should also follow the hadith. For example, we learnt that the Prophet’s wives had rights, they got education, like, his wife Aisha was even teaching others [.  .  .] In the hadith, it says that do not keep women away from masjid, if they want to come then you should let them. So, people should take example from the Prophet, and, like, instead of deciding what is right for them they should go to the depth of the teachings. Some of the students also emphasised the character and personality of the Prophet, for instance, how he approached different religious groups

184  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons as in the example of religious conversion. It was argued that along with Qur’anic instructions, Muslims should seek guidance from the Prophet’s life in order to truly understand their Islamic faith. Student K-8S:

Boko Haram might think that they get reward for making them [kidnapped girls] Muslim but, I think they probably get sin because they are forcing people into Islam. I do not think they are seeing it from the hadith point of view because some people just read the Qur’an but do not follow the hadith as well. I think in the Qur’an it probably says, like, you should try to convert people but it does not say you have to, in fact, it says there is no coercion in religion. When the Prophet tried to convert people he did not force people, he explained Islam to them. Because of his character and personality people believed in him, because he never lied and he was truthful so people became Muslim. If you are going to try to convert someone to be Muslim, first, you should try to be good person, so, they might see Islam in a good way.

Moreover, it was argued that the socio-cultural context of many Muslim countries might lead to misunderstanding of the true meaning of the religious text. The patriarchal characteristics of such societies—including many Arab and South Asian countries—are regarded to be highly influential on interpreting religious texts, especially in terms of gender inequality. According to Syed (2010), after the Prophet, Muslim scholars tended to move away from an egalitarian view of men and women towards justifying a more dominant role of men in the family as well as in society. Accordingly, they read the gender issues in the religious text in a patriarchal way, out of its socio-historical context. Based on certain verses related to the matters of marriage, divorce, and the relationship between wife and husband, it was argued that there is no equality between men and women in Islam (Barlas, 2001, 2009). Many students at this level were also found to be aware of this issue. Coming mostly from South Asian backgrounds, they were able to identify the influence of patriarchal dominance in their communities: This can be seen in the following extract: Student H-8E: But then, I  think, you know, in the olden traditions women are expected to do the most of the work at home. They have certain restrictions and stuff, but that is just what is playing in the society, it does not come from your religion. I am not happy with my society because of the restrictions they put on women. But in the Qur’an, it does not say that women have to do only certain things but not allowed to do other things like have a job.

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 185 The concept of religious equality was discerned by means of contrast between religious equality and religious sameness. Religious differences were recognised, with the emphasis on accomplishing mutual understanding and respect for people with different religious backgrounds. What do you mean by equality of religions? R: Student H-8S: It is respect basically. They should be given respect, but that does not mean they are same. I know there was a hadith saying that if you be rude to any religion, on the Day of Judgment the Prophet will not support you. With regard to religious equality, the students first emphasised the equal and fair distribution of rights and opportunities for all as well as equal representation of religious groups in the public. Religious identity was regarded as an important part of public space, as important as other forms of identity (Modood, 2009). Respecting and meeting Islamic dress codes for Muslim women and recognising the right of religious communities to establish places of worship were some of the examples that appeared in the students’ responses. Student I-8E: There is no respect really towards other religions here, and in Muslim countries. They do not respect women, her dressing. Even politicians once said they were going to ban nikab. I  think that is totally racist because you are wearing it to cover yourself. It was said some thieves wore nikab but that is different. I  think they are just using this religious aspect for their own needs [. . .] In Saudi Arabia, for example, Shi’a are not given the same amount of respect in getting jobs and stuff, even if their beliefs are similar. The second argument regarding religious equality was about ensuring religious freedom and recognising the individuals’ right to belief and to practice their faith. The students at this level differed from those in the first two categories, who understood religious tolerance as recognising others’ beliefs at the expense of one’s own belief. Rather, at this level, religious tolerance was understood as respecting differences, not seeking a mutual agreement regarding them (Pike, 2009). They appreciated becoming part of a faith community. Freedom of expression and communicating faith to others were regarded as important as long as that happened in a respectful manner. Autonomy, free will, and personal choice appeared as the main themes in this category, similar to the pre-test. It was argued that one should be able to make an informed and reasoned judgment in choosing or rejecting their belief instead of

186  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons following others or being forced into a belief. This is evident in the in the excerpt below: Student J-8S: Some people might have a different belief than you. You cannot force them to change their religion. You might prove what you believe, but if it does not change their beliefs just leave it, because it is their belief. In the hadith, it says if you force someone to change their beliefs, in the end of the day in their heart they have not changed their religions. So, it is better to let them change or just leave them, not to force them. To sum up, the students’ understanding of equality showed a higher level of complexity and differentiation in this last category. They gained a greater awareness of the religious teachings on equality in Islam. Furthermore, they were able to identify the relationship between the concepts of equality, justice, and personal responsibility and were able to explain them in relation to Islam. Overall, they were able to interpret racial, gender, wealth, and religious equality according to the principle of justice by illustrating examples from the Qur’an and hadith. The students became more aware of the diverse religious and socio-cultural contexts in addressing the question of equality. Moreover, they were able to discern the difference between the religious teachings and the individual and social environment in which these teachings are interpreted and applied. 6.4.2 Summary of the Post-Test Results An analysis of the post-interviews and written tasks show a dramatic increase in the students’ understanding of equality in Islam. As stated earlier, the fourth category indicated a more complex and differentiated level of understanding. The students at this level discerned all the critical aspects that were identified at the beginning of the study. The overall results of the post-test for both classes are presented in Table 6.4. The results indicated that half of the students attained category four, which was significantly higher than the pre-test results. Given that the category four in the post-test included a more developed understanding compared to the one in the pre-test, the rise in the number of students, from 5 to 14, indicates an important positive outcome of this study. As in the pre-test, similar number of students attained each level in both classes. Hence, it is reasonable to conclude that there was a clear improvement in the students’ conceptions of equality in Islam in both classes during the study. Overall, the majority of the students’ understanding of ‘equality in Islam’ increased. The most striking learning outcome was their discernment of the concept of justice, its relation to equality as well as how

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 187 Table 6.4 Overall results of pre- and post-test for both classes Categories of description 1. Equality as sameness or equal treatment 2. Equality as recognising and valuing differences 3. Equality as pursued through laws, or religious principles 4. Equality as understood within a broader Islamic perspective in relation to justice and personal responsibility

Pre-test 8E/8S (N:28)

Post-test 8E (N:14)

Post-test 8S (N:14)

8

3

1

10

2

4

5

2

2

5

7

7

they play out in an Islamic context. Despite some students still perceiving equality to be synonymous with sameness, most had begun to see equality as related to justice. They were able to explain the issues of gender, race, wealth, and religions in terms of both equality and justice. They became aware of their misconceptions and stereotypes through studying the religious teachings of the Qur’an and Sunnah and the diverse interpretations of these among Muslims—focusing on not only some extreme examples, but also how they are interpreted within their immediate social circles. Furthermore, they became more conscious of the cultural dynamics of the societies in terms of understanding and practising Islam, realising that different beliefs, perceptions, and behaviours of people might be culture related and not necessarily associated with religion itself. For example, regarding gender inequality, they gave the example of women not being allowed to drive in Saudi Arabia or of racial inequality happening in their communities. To summarise, through experiencing critical variation, the students were able to further develop their understanding of equality in general as well as in relation to Islam.

Conclusion This study was conducted to further investigate how the theories of CRE and VT can be used in RE in a non-Islamic school. Similar to the first learning study, it was found that the use of the CRE and VT framework fostered student learning. Through the use of variation, the students experienced different ways in which equality is understood and practiced in Islam as well as in the wider society. This helped them to better understand their position as well as to increase their knowledge of and tolerance towards different perspectives. As purported by CRE, they were able to critically engage with the concept of equality on ontological

188  Implementing CRE and VT in RE Lessons (theological) and epistemological (individual and socio-cultural) levels, and hence acquired a more developed understanding of it. There was a significant increase in the students’ learning outcomes as half of the students moved to the fourth category. This number was almost three times higher than the students at the pre-test stage. There were several key issues in terms of teaching. VT helped the teacher to reflect on her own understanding and knowledge of the learning subject through critically examining the students’ prior knowledge and experiences as well as the related academic literature. Furthermore, by applying a systematic use of variation, she was able to provide different learning situations for the students to identify the targeted critical aspects. Altogether, the use of these theories provided the teacher with the opportunities to enhance her pedagogical content knowledge and improve her teaching practices, which is explained in detail in the next chapter.

Notes . Hanbal A. Musnad. Hadith no. 41 1 2. The picture portrays three people walking on a road somewhere in the Middle East. Two men are leading the way while a hijabi woman follows them. 3. Hadith: The Prophet said: “O People, your Lord is One, you are (from) the same father. It is not allowed for you to make any discrimination between high and low. Neither an Arab has superiority over a non-Arab, nor a non-Arab over an Arab. A white person is not superior to a black person one, nor a black is superior to a white. The most honourable among you in the sight of God is the one who is the most righteous” (Hanbal A. Musnad. Hadith no. 41). 4. “There is no compulsion in religion” (Qur’an, 2:256); Hadith: The Prophet said: “Beware! Whoever is cruel and hard on a non-Muslim minority, or curtails their rights, or burdens them with more than they can bear, or takes anything from them against their free will; I will complain against the person on the Day of Judgment.” (Abu Dawud) 5. The teacher refers to a situation that took place in Nigeria involving the terrorist group Boko Haram kidnapping around 200 Christian girls and forcing them to change their religion. 6. The picture shows a contrast between two images: In the first image equality is featured, where three people with different heights are given one box each to stand on to watch a football match behind a fence. The short person cannot see anything because of the fence preventing his view. In the second image, which is about justice, the same people are given one or multiple boxes, as required by their heights so that they all can get clear view of the field, unhindered by the fence.

References Audard, C. (2012). Liberal pluralism and minority rights: The case for religious equality. Paper presented at the Pluralism Conference, CEVIPOF, September 20, 2012, Paris, France. Baderin, M. A. (2001). Establishing areas of common ground between Islamic law and international human rights. The International Journal of Human Rights, 5(2), 72–113.

Implementation CRE and VT in RE Lessons 189 Barlas, A. (2001). Muslim women and sexual oppression: Reading liberation from the Quran. Macalester International, 10(1), 117–146. Barlas, A. (2009). Believing women in Islam: Unreading patriarchal interpretations of the Qur’an. Austin: University of Texas Press. Hella, E., & Wright, A. (2009). Learning ‘about’ and ‘from’ religion: Phenomenography, the variation theory of learning and religious education in Finland and the UK. British Journal of Religious Education, 31(1), 53–64. Kamali, M. H. (1993). Fundamental rights of the individual: An analysis of Haqq (rights) in Islamic law. American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 10(3), 340–367. Khadduri, M. (1946). Human rights in Islam. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 243(1), 77–81. Lo, M. L., & Marton, F. (2011). Towards a science of the art of teaching: Using variation theory as a guiding principle of pedagogical design. International Journal for Lesson and Learning Studies, 1(1), 7–22. Mawdudi, A. A. (1976). Human rights in Islam. Leicester: The Islamic Foundation. Miller, D. (1997). Equality and justice. Ratio, 10(3), 222–237. Modood, T. (2009). Muslims, religious equality and secularism. In M. D. Cookson & P. M. R. Stirk (Eds.), Multiculturalism and moral conflict (pp. 113–138). London/New York, NY: Routledge. Mohammadi, F. (2014). Human rights in Islam. Journal of Social Issues  & Humanities, 2(1), 73–78. Pike, M. A. (2009). Religious freedom and rendering to Caesar: Reading democratic and faith-based values in curriculum, pedagogy and policy. Oxford Review of Education, 35(2), 133–146. Rissanen, I. (2012). How Finnish Muslim students perceive and deal with religious and cultural difference: Negotiating religious tradition with modern liberal and postmodern ideals. Education Research International (Article 978317). doi:10.1155/2012/978317 Said, A. A. (1979). Precept and practice of human rights in Islam. Universal Human Rights, 1(1), 63–79. Sheppard, C. (2004). Inclusive equality and new forms of social governance. Supreme Court Law Review, 24, 45–76. Syed, J. (2010). An historical perspective on Islamic modesty and its implications for female employment. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 29(2), 150–166. Wiktorowicz, Q. (2005). A genealogy of radical Islam. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 28(2), 75–97.

7 RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices Before and During the Learning Study

7.1 Theoretical Background This chapter explores the RE teachers’ pedagogical perceptions and practices regarding their teaching and student learning before the learning study and examines whether these were informed through the use of the CRE and VT framework during the learning study and how, if yes. As explained earlier, in a learning study the teacher and a researcher work together to choose an object of learning that is worthwhile to teach; to explore what is critical for students to learn regarding the chosen object of learning; to design teaching in a way that makes students discern those critical aspects and comprehend the object of learning; and to evaluate the lessons and to implement the revised lesson plan in another class— called a cyclical process in learning studies. I argue that the framework of CRE and VT, through a learning study, introduces some guidance for RE teachers to enable them to identify the relationship between the pupil and the object of learning through variation and to orient the learners towards a deeper understanding of the object in the process. This study is not directly concerned with teacher development per se; however, it does give an insight into the participating teachers’ developing knowledge regarding the subject matter, teaching, and student learning. It investigates the change in their perceptions of teaching and learning in IRE through participating in a learning study. The focus of the research is on student learning as covered in greater depth in the chapters 5 and 6. This chapter touches upon certain related issues—such as teacher learning, teacher change, and pedagogical content knowledge—in relation to how these evolved during the application of the theories of CRE and VT into IRE lessons. Exploring the teachers’ perspectives and practices was considered necessary as the relationship between teaching and learning is highly emphasised in the theories of CRE and VT. That is, teachers’ way of understanding is considered to influence student learning, and by the same token, students’ learning outcomes are considered to have a direct influence on teachers’ reflection on their teaching practices and on the kind of learning that is taking place.

RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices 191 According to Richardson (1990), research on teacher education should provide teachers with a theoretical framework that sheds light on their beliefs and perceptions, provides a ground for their reflections, and helps them develop their teaching practices. Nuthall (2004) also argues that teachers have to adopt a theory that will help them understand and explain the relationship between their teaching and students’ learning and use this knowledge to improve their lessons. Hence, they will be able to organise a teaching and learning environment that would suit all students’ needs, irrespective of their varying abilities and backgrounds. Accordingly, the teachers in this study used the theories of CRE and VT in their lessons as guiding principles for developing pedagogical design, implementation, and evaluation of the research lessons (Lo & Marton, 2011). This helped them to understand the relationship between the subject matter, teaching strategies, students’ abilities and learning difficulties, as well as to develop knowledge with regard to these aspects. Learning study not only aims to improve student learning, but also to increase teachers’ awareness of their own learning in relation to the above mentioned aspects, and further help them to provide the necessary conditions for learning situations to happen (Holmqvist, Brante, & Tullgren, 2012). In a learning study, teachers can develop their competence in increasing knowledge of a specific content, and student’s learning of it (Runesson, 2005; Lo et al., 2005). Consequently, in addition to being a research method, a learning study can also be perceived as a model for teacher development (Nilsson, 2014). Furthermore, through participating in such a study, teachers can experience a conceptual change by reflecting on their own beliefs and practices and subsequently applying the theories to their teaching (Davies & Dunnill, 2008). It is not argued that the learning study model offers a perfect teaching and learning environment, but it does help teachers to understand how students learn better and thus facilitate their learning (Lo, 2009). In an analysis of the teacher data, five main critical aspects/themes were found: ‘teacher’s perspectives of RE’, ‘subject matter knowledge’, ‘awareness of students’ pre-understandings’, ‘use of CRE and VT principles’, and ‘teachers’ pedagogical practices’. Each theme is presented in the following sections with a detailed explanation, accompanied by examplifying quotes from the teachers’ interviews and meetings. Shulman’s (1987) pedagogical reasoning model and VT were used as interpretive tools to find out how they perceived teaching and learning in IRE through planning, enactment, evaluation, and reflection.

7.2 Themes Shulman (1987) argues that in order to create suitable learning environments for their students, teachers might include the steps of comprehension, transformation, instruction, evaluation, and reflection in their

192  RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices pedagogical reasoning. These steps are built on each other and to gain pedagogical reasoning skills they have to master a good knowledge of each area. To summarise briefly, comprehension refers to a good understanding of the content to be taught, its relation to other topics as well as the aims and objectives of the teaching. Transformation is the process by which the teacher transforms the content into pedagogical constructs in order to respond to different student needs. It includes preparation of teaching materials; representation of key ideas through different ways such as analogies, metaphors, and examples; selecting instructional methods; and adapting the material to diverse student characteristics. Instruction pertains to the teaching performance through different actions, such as managing the classroom, presenting a good description of the learning subject and interacting with students. At the level of evaluation, teachers continuously check for students’ understanding/misunderstanding of the topic and give them feedback on their learning as well as evaluate their own teaching. Reflection is the stage in which teachers reflect on the teaching and learning that has occurred, revise and develop lesson plans and re-enact them. Hence, “through acts of teaching that are ‘reasoned’ and ‘reasonable’ the teacher achieves new comprehension, both of the purposes and of the subjects to be taught, and also of the students and of the processes of pedagogy themselves” (Shulman, 1987, p. 20). As will be seen in the following cases, the teachers in this study put emphasis on some of the steps mentioned above. Through the learning study, they had the opportunity of seeing and evaluating their perceptions and practices of RE, thereby developing their pedagogical reasoning. Below, the themes in relation to the teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and perspectives before and during the use of the CRE and VT framework are explored. 7.2.1 Teachers’ Perspectives of RE In the analysis of their pre-test data, it was seen that the teachers adopted two opposite theoretical perspectives of RE, which were the critical realist and the liberal approaches. To start with, as stated earlier, liberal RE, grounded on constructivism, puts emphasis on religious phenomena, creating a meaningful understanding from an individual point of view and is aimed at achieving personal and social development (Wright, 2016). Liberal RE’s dualistic way of seeing the reality of phenomenon divorced from its diverse understandings results in the development of attainment targets of ‘learning about’ and ‘learning from’ religion (Hella  & Wright, 2009). That is, students are required to explore different ways of understanding a religious phenomenon (learning about) and to achieve a meaningful constructed knowledge regarding it based on their prior experiences (learning from) (Grimmitt, 2000). In contrast, CRE, in congruence with CR, recognises the transcendental reality of religions. The reality of the ultimate order of things

RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices 193 is understood through religious or non-religious worldviews (Wright, 2016). Worldviews are partial and contested, so in order to understand the ultimate reality, learners are required to engage in an attentive, reasonable and intelligent learning process whereby they relate to and understand the reality of objects or phenomena, thus establishing a more complex, differentiated, and truthful relationship with them. Teacher A As explained earlier, before the learning study, the teacher had an academic interest in the theory and philosophy of CR and its application to Islamic studies. This interest influenced her way of understanding teaching and learning in RS. In the interview and meetings, she focused on how CR elements were embedded in her planning and implementation of RS lessons. In particular, she focused on the tenets of ontological realism, epistemic relativity, judgmental rationality, as well as other elements such as stratification and integrity. In the extract below, she explains how she was using CR elements as pedagogical methods in her lessons: T: I would like to think that there are plenty elements of CR. But I think obviously there are other mixed methods. So although I  am convinced with it primarily as vehicle for inquiry, in certain cases, it is also successful vehicle for consolidating knowledge and for embedding it into the students’ awareness. The teacher went on to justify whether and how CR would comply with Islamic theological principles through examples from the Qur’an and the Prophet’s life. The Qur’anic discourse on different faiths, such as Christianity and Judaism, was given as evidence of understanding Islam within a broader framework surrounded by different faith traditions—which she argued should be the perspective of RS too, particularly in a non-Muslim society. Moreover, since there are cultural, political, and denominational differences in Islam, in her opinion, students would learn better if they were introduced to diverse viewpoints within Islam as well as between Islam and other faiths. During the learning study, the teacher’s knowledge of the framework of CRE and VT increased. VT principles helped her to combine theoretical knowledge with practical skills. She had begun to focus more on engaging students with the object of learning in an attentive and reasoned thinking process. With the use of variation, she became more capable of introducing the students to diverse religious truth claims. She also developed knowledge of variation in the students’ understanding of the object of learning, something she was not previously aware of. A detailed account of how the use of this framework impacted on the teacher’s theoretical and pedagogical beliefs as well as her practices is provided in subsequent sections.

194  RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices Teacher B In the analysis of the pre-test data, it was seen that teacher B had adopted the learning ‘about’ and learning ‘from’ religion approaches for her teaching. Learning ‘about’ religion was believed to be mostly about the facts related to religions such as practices, rituals, and religious symbols. Learning ‘from’ religion was highlighted more in terms of bringing about successful learning outcomes. According to the teacher, learning would occur when students understood the meaning behind a religious fact or phenomenon, its influence on the wider community, its relation to other facts/phenomena, how it is seen in other faith traditions and how it would be relevant to their lives. In the following example, she explains how zakah could be explored through a ‘learning from’ approach: T: Like the zakat question. Instead of looking at zakah and saying ‘the annual amount is 2.5%, the literal meaning is purification of money’, we look at ‘learning from’ and think about the implication of paying zakat and how it has an impact on the wider community, and the actual meaning, how else we can see purification in other aspects of their lives and where are the parallels with other faiths. I think that is where they are deepening their understandings because this is where they are able to relate these things much more so. As explained earlier, the ‘learning about’ and ‘learning from’ religion approaches are the assessment targets suggested in the liberal RE framework, which are aimed at learners constructing their own stories in relation to a religious object or phenomenon. According to Wright (2016), this leads to learners imposing their own perspective on the ontological reality of the object. In her pre-interview, it was seen that the teacher placed great emphasis on the students’ reaching at a conclusion about a religious fact or phenomenon of their own accord. They were expected to validate their opinions through critical scrutiny, which included examination of different worldviews on the learning subject and choosing a meaningful account based on their preference. However, this critical examination, although being beneficial, was only about the issues that were commonly agreed upon by most of the students. The teacher particularly avoided opening up a dimension of variation in relation to the contested truth claims of religions. Having adopted the liberal RE perspective, the teacher was more concerned with regard to being objective and unbiased towards students with different faith backgrounds, such as Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, and Christianity. Although her religion was known to students as she was wearing a hijab, she explained that she tried to “remove herself from an Islamic setting” by using a more generalised language to include all students, while keeping individualised statements about faith and religion to a minimum, as shown in the following extract:

RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices 195 T: I would say, for example, what do Muslims believe? Not what do I believe or some of you believe? If I make a reference to “what do some of you?” the issue is that it would not apply to everyone. But also, because obviously, with religious practice, you know the observance varies, individuality. If I say in the class “why is it some of you give zakat or some of you fast” there might not be a single student that fasts. In liberal RE, knowledge of religious culture is prioritised over knowledge of faith. For example, in interpretive RE a case or story from a religious tradition is explored in the classroom in the light of students’ cultural experiences (Jackson, 1997). Hence, there is no room for discussion of the transcendental reality of religious phenomena. As stated above, the teacher in this study particularly avoided engaging students with contrasting truth claims of religions. If she were to introduce a topic such as Jesus, she would do so only from a Christian point of view. Students were encouraged to learn from each other, be open towards different viewpoints, but to refrain from making claims for the truthfulness of their own beliefs/opinions, while falsifying and judging those of others. The teacher herself also tried not to judge students’ different beliefs or to point out the right or wrong answer, unless she thought it was being disrespectful to somebody else, as seen below: T: Because they have a right to believe what they have that they should not necessarily have the right to think that their belief is superior to someone else’s belief. They should not also have the right to take the beliefs of others as false or fictitious. Participating in a learning study had an influence on the teacher’s way of understanding RE. However, it is claimed that providing a direct change in teachers’ beliefs and perspectives with only one study is difficult as “meaningful learning is a slow and uncertain process for teachers, just as it is for students” (Borko, 2004, p. 6). Therefore, it cannot be claimed that the teacher changed her whole perspective. Nevertheless, by applying the theories of CRE and VT in RE lessons, she gained an important insight into seeing the effect of her teaching on both students’ and on her own learning through a constant comparison with her previous understanding of RE. How these theories were used is explained in detail in the following sections. 7.2.2 Subject Matter Knowledge Subject matter knowledge is “the amount and organisation of knowledge  per se in the mind of the teacher” (Shulman, 1986, p.  9), and includes not only knowledge of the main concepts, but also why they matter, their relation to each other, and the concepts in the discipline

196  RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices (Borko, 2004). What teachers know about and what beliefs and perceptions they hold regarding the content has an impact on the ways they organise and deliver their teaching. Furthermore, there is a close relationship between teacher knowledge and student achievement (GessNewsome, 1999). Teachers are required to have a deep knowledge of the subjects (Borko, 2004) as well as understand the nature and organisation of their discipline (Gess-Newsome, 1999), in order to transform content knowledge into meaningful constructs for students and thus develop their conceptual understanding (Nilsson, 2009). It is important to define and develop a comprehensive, integrated understanding of learning subjects in RE, as there is a specific body of academic knowledge in that discipline. Teachers’ different conceptions of the subject matter have an impact on their teaching and student learning in RE as with other subjects. Furthermore, the school ethos also influences the process of defining and developing curricular aims regarding a specific content in RE. For example, in Muslim schools the organisation of content is from an explicit Islamic perspective, while in nondenominational state schools, this might not necessarily be the case as the curriculum is based on a multi-faith approach. In both cases, the subject matter knowledge needs to be integrated with academic content knowledge as well as with students’ prior knowledge in order to establish a firm relationship between them and the content. Teacher A The teacher was responsible for identifying the curricular aims in relation to the learning subject and thus she was the authority in identifying the content. There were some general considerations with regard to structuring the content. First, she included cross-curricular subject knowledge—such as information on science, history, and geography— where she deemed it necessary. In addition, she included a good deal of evidence/examples from the Qur’an and from the life of the Prophet Muhammad in each unit. Furthermore, she used various Islamic studies subjects, including tafsir, hadith, Islamic history, fiqh. During the learning study, the teacher did not apply the academic content knowledge. Instead, the content was identified in light of her previous knowledge and experiences of teaching that topic. This was an important ‘absent’ finding, for gaining a thorough understanding of subject matter is particularly important in religious studies as there is variation in the way academics understand and interpret religious phenomena. Teacher B Before the learning study, the teacher applied the curriculum in terms of identifying the content and she made no attempt to search for other

RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices 197 possible concepts of the learning subject. Consequently, when planning the lessons, content was not brought to the fore and instead, the teacher was more concerned with designing and developing learning schemes that would engage students, thus helping them to learn the topic. However, the content regarding ‘equality in Islam’ in the lesson plans provided prior to the study presented a more Western-liberal perspective, with the curricular emphasis being on human rights and equality of human beings. The Islamic perspective was only considered as subordinate to the pre-acknowledged way of understanding equality. During the learning study, the teacher developed a deeper understanding of the content of the object of learning. Along with the researcher, she searched the academic literature to see how equality in Islam was portrayed in different sources. A significant difference was found between Western-liberal and Islamic perspectives in terms of the concept of equality (for more information see Chapter 6). In particular, the issue of justice appeared as a critical aspect for the teacher since she understood equality as sameness of opportunities and outcomes for everyone as did the students. Hence, acquiring a deeper understanding of the subject matter changed the teacher’s perspective of equality, as evident in the following extract: T: Normally when we were thinking about equality we were looking at ‘how everyone is the same’, holding hands, caring, and loving, but actually when you look at the idea of religious equalities ultimately there is no equality, because people believe that if they follow the doctrines and teachings, they would be superior to others who do not follow the teachings. So whilst, yes, you are all free to practice, and yes, there is a mutual respect for those who follow teachings, but there will be more importance in terms of their actions and beliefs. I found that justice was much more important and did impact my teaching. However, as this notion of equality was new to the teacher, she was challenged in terms of structuring and transferring the content into teaching forms for students. As explained earlier, the issue of justice as a distinctive concept was not brought to the fore in the first lessons. Since the students could not exactly make a connection between equality and justice, an extra lesson was delivered, during which the students explored and discussed the concept of justice, its relation to equality, and the Islamic view on the matter. The teacher’s account on this issue follows: T: The justice phenomenon was something that I  had to in a way re-educate myself in the way that I  wanted to teach the students. I found that, you know, I am new to this idea, this new way of thinking because I was always looking at it from the idea of equality and

198  RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices sameness and, actually, in hindsight I  would perhaps change that and I hope I would do it better. 7.2.3 Awareness of Students’ Pre-Understandings It is argued that learners come to the classroom with already existent conceptions, which are mostly misconceptions, about a specific subject (Shulman, 1986; Lo, 2009). According to Nuthall (2004), knowing what students have in their minds is the main concern in teacher education and professional development. Therefore, teachers need to know students’ prior notions in order to adjust the content and strategies accordingly (Borko, 2004). One of the aims of learning study is to direct teachers’ attention to students’ perceptions and experiences of the object under investigation, structure the content, as well as to regulate the teaching and learning environment so as to help students learn that object in a better way (Pang, 2006). Teachers usually take for granted the content regarding a learning subject and believe that by following a well-defined plan, students will eventually learn it. They do not try to understand the different ways in which that learning subject is understood (Holmqvist, 2011). Similarly, in this research, before participating in the learning study, the teachers failed to properly appreciate the students’ pre-existent knowledge. What the students knew already about the learning subject was not explored beforehand, for they believed that this would come to the fore during the lessons when raised by the students and can be probed at that point. During both learning studies, the teachers built knowledge of the students’ existent understanding of the object of learning and developed learning objectives and lesson plans accordingly. This process was repeated after the first cycle, whereby newly emerged critical aspects in the students’ post-test analysis were also fed back to the lesson plans and explored in the second cycle. In addition, planning the lessons in a more flexible way provided the students with opportunities to express what was in their minds, thus sometimes leading to critical aspects emerging during the lessons (Lo, 2009). Cohen (2004, cited in Borko, 2004) argues that whilst teachers can easily adopt new instructional strategies, it takes more time to use students’ pre-conceptions and reasoning to guide their teaching. In this study, the teachers had begun appreciating the students’ prior knowledge and experiences, subsequently adjusting the instruction in relation to it. Teacher A Before the learning study, the teacher took into account the students’ age/year group, their ability/competence when considering the content and curricular objectives. She tried to make the levels accessible to all

RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices 199 students through different activities and tasks by including simple, engaging activities for the low achievers, whilst designing more challenging ones for the high achievers. However, what the students knew already about a specific learning subject and what were critical for their understanding of that subject were not focused on. In order to talk about a good comprehension of what to teach the teachers need to have an idea of students’ prior understandings of a learning subject, alongside other considerations (Shulman, 1987). During the learning study, the teacher’s ability to discern the critical aspects in the students’ understanding of the object of learning increased. As explained earlier, some issues that emerged in the students’ pre-test results were unexpected for the teacher (see subsection 5.2.1.2). For example, she was surprised to see that many of her students could not understand the relationship between faith and practising, and associating the Muslim identity only with religious practices as a result. She organised the teaching content in light of their prior knowledge and developed teaching and learning activities to ensure that the students would learn these critical aspects. Teacher B Before the learning study, the teacher’s focus was on the act of teaching, in terms of developing engaging instructional activities for the students through which they could express their opinions, and build their own ideas about the learning subject. When planning the lessons, the students’ varying needs and characteristics were considered, including developing resources for those with special needs and challenging the high achievers with extension tasks. That is, the teacher aimed to make the lessons inclusive for all students. Accordingly, she was concerned with limiting the instructional content so that more space would be given to learning activities. As a consequence, the students’ pre-understandings were not brought into focus when planning the lessons. During the learning study, the teacher’s insight into the students’ prior knowledge, experiences, and needs increased. As a result, she identified new critical aspects based on the students’ pre-test results and subject matter knowledge (see subsection 6.2.1.2). For instance, the issue of justice appeared as a critical aspect in the students’ understanding, as they perceived equality as sameness of opportunities and outcomes for everyone, which is explained in the excerpt below: T: They were looking at the idea of equality in terms of sameness, but the issue of fairness, justice were the things that we wanted to be looking at really. So certainly, when we were going through the unit, in its redeveloped stage, that became more apparent. They were looking at still same source of issues but they now were considering

200  RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices not so much ‘are things necessarily equal and the same?’ but if it is fair or just for people to be treated in certain ways. To sum up, the teacher shifted focus from increasing the variety of methods and learning activities to the content, to the students’ pre-­understanding, as well as to making the content accessible through the use of variation. The following subsection explores how the teachers used the principles of CRE and VT in their teaching. 7.2.4 Use of CRE and VT Principles CRE was used as the chosen theoretical approach in both studies. The tenets of ontological realism, epistemic relativity, and judgmental rationality were applied as the underlying principles of the teachers’ practices in both learning studies. The teachers introduced the students to the contrasting truth claims regarding the object of learning. They tried to help the students to engage with the object of learning in a context-whole and parts relationship in order for them to explore the worldview that the object belonged to. Thus, a continuous relationship was established between the object of learning and the learners such that the students’ prior conceptions and prejudices were continuously ascertained in order to help them discern the object where appropriate. VT was used as a pedagogical tool/method that had both an explanatory and a predictive influence on the teachers’ classroom practice (Lo & Marton, 2011). First, the level of the students’ learning outcomes was determined by the use of variation. Second, the teachers predicted the changes that needed to be made in the second cycle in order to support the students’ learning, subsequently altering the content and learning activities accordingly. In particular, the critical aspects were made explicit to the students so that they could discern the varied aspect against an invariant background. According to Marton and Booth (1997), learning happens when something new or something that is taken for granted is discerned through experienced variation. In learning studies, teacher learning also happens through variation such that the intended object of learning remains invariant, whereas the enacted object of learning varies (Lo, 2009). Teachers gain constant feedback on their own and their students’ learning through reflecting on the teaching act and student learning outcomes from posttest results as well as the learning difficulties or outcomes explored during the lessons. A detailed analysis of how the teachers applied these theories in the actual classroom context is provided next. Teacher A As explained earlier, CR played an essential role in the teacher’s understanding of teaching and learning in RS. During the learning study, teacher

RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices 201 A focused on applying the theory both theoretically and pedagogically. She followed the steps of CR in formulating the learning objectives. The tenets of ontological realism, epistemic relativism, and judgmental rationality were adopted as three levels of learning. Furthermore, these levels were perceived as stratified, thus presenting a hierarchy that created a relevance structure for the students, also making it possible for them to move between levels in order to gain a justified, deeper understanding of the learning subject. This can be seen in the following example, where the teacher explains the identification of the critical aspect ‘essential and superfluous characteristics of Islam’: T: We started with a very simple construct and began introducing it and then asked the girls to apply it to their own real life and experiences, to revisit it on another layer of understanding and then after having done that, apply it to their own religious concept of the core essentials ideas of Islam and superfluous ideas. There are three layers already so each layer was revisited every time and built upon the first layer. So that is the whole stratification concept. The tenets of CR were particularly influential in the teacher’s understanding of teaching and student learning. She used these principles both for underlying her theoretical perspective regarding RS and as pedagogical tools. Judgmental rationality was specifically brought forward as an essential tool/method in terms of developing the students’ attentiveness and critical thinking, thereby providing opportunities for learning to happen. A good view on how the teacher used these elements in her teaching can be seen as follows: T: I think you know, like, the holy trinity triangle [ontological realism, epistemic relativity, judgmental rationality] offers a very good framework for the students to confidently say ‘this is what I believe and I believe I am right; however, I think that I can explore other things with an open mind and with the potential of being convinced if I feel that is more right, and if not, then I reserve the righteous thing, you know, comfortably in my own knowledge’. This is good because the only forcing that happens is the forcing to listen, not to forcing to convert or to change or, you know, to restructure one’s ideas, and the listening process is a very positive one. An example of the use of judgmental rationality can be seen when the teacher was dealing with the critical aspect ‘personal responsibility in terms of belief’. The aim was for the students to understand the fact that they are entitled to choose their faith, which would lead to them exploring different viewpoints regarding it. She also saw this as an example of separation, whereby faith was perceived as a commonality shared by all

202  RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices Muslims, yet interpreted in many different forms. In essence, judgmental rationality was perceived as a tool for the students to differentiate between different value propositions and to finally reach an informed and differentiated judgment, which takes the form of adopting a new perspective or strengthening/confirming the existing one. T: We could look at Suratu’l Kafirun, also the ayah ‘la ikaraha fid’din’. This is a really important critical realist point. It affirms the presence of Allah (st) but the idea is that you approach it from a perspective that ‘I am right but with the question mark of possibility of someone else having different and legitimate opinion in my space, but respecting my right to be right’, if you see what I mean. ‘Lakum dinikum waliyadin’ Allah (st) says you teach what you are told but other people have a right to express it. So this is variation because they are all belief structures so the invariant is belief and the variant is the expressions of beliefs. It also shows their right of autonomy and expression. Being introduced to VT, the teacher became aware of which pattern of variation to use when covering different critical aspects as well as the ways in which to offer a specific pattern of variation. She became more conscious of making the critical aspects explicit to the students. Accordingly, she changed and adjusted teaching and learning activities to increase the students’ awareness of the variation in order to discern the varied critical aspect. Moreover, since the teacher was familiar with the philosophy of CR, she focused on the relationship between these two theories concerning their theoretical foundations, as follows: T: Because they are almost parallels, they just have different names. VT is more practically implemented and the other [CR] is slightly more academically window dressed and put up. For example, the idea behind negation-presence duality in CR was seen as being similar to the idea of contrast in VT. The concept of negation makes the presence of a fact/phenomenon explicit and therefore, in order to identify a learning subject, students need to be presented with its contrasting forms. The teacher used either or both the CR and VT languages, while explaining how critical aspects were addressed in the lessons. An example is seen below: T: I want to stress that tawhid is not only believing in Allah. The whole point of shadah is, first, negation of anything, i.e. ‘ashadu an la ilaha illallah’ meaning ‘no divine entity, there is nothing’. Then, after that negation, you replace it by the belief in only Allah. So, negation is

RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices 203 actually kind of contrast from variation point of view. So what I am trying to do is getting two things as a mirror of each other, like we did yesterday ‘what it is’ and ‘what is it not’. So, ‘what it is not’ is shirk, like, including other structures of other divine entities. A good example of the use of generalisation was when the teacher engaged with the students’ misconception of seeing morality as an aspect of Islam only. Some considered moral and ethical values and practices as the essential characteristics of Islam, whilst at the same time seeing non-Islamic behaviour as being immoral and acting against the Islamic principles, such as drinking alcohol, acting in an immodest way or violating Islamic dress codes. In particular, Christianity was associated as non-Islamic and the embodiment of immoral values and judgments. According to the teacher, this was a critical aspect that needed further exploration. Through generalisation, she made the concept of morality invariant, while varying the contexts in which it was appreciated as a way of life, not necessarily as part of religious beliefs, such as morality in Christianity, and Sikhism. T: The good and bad, they do not model the fact and say it does not mean that Muslims have a monopoly on good manners, for example, or behaviours or the impact of positive faith and so on. According to the teacher, the CRE and VT framework helped the students to discern the critical aspects of the object of learning. Furthermore, they developed a specific way of thinking in relation to understanding issues about faith and religion(s). This increased in the second cycle due to improvement in the lesson plans. In the following excerpt, she provides an overview of the lessons. T: I  am pleased because I  can see progress in their skills in viewing things. So before they were thinking that being a Muslim is fasting, praying, you know all the practices you analysed in your study. So, I was delighted that during the lessons, particularly in the second cycle of the lessons, they were questioning a lot more critically and something resonated with them personally. So, we explored things, for example, difference between practising and non-practising Muslims, how does that impact on identity or not, and whether that reaffirms their ideas or forces them to look inwards and actually evaluate in a more mature way. So, that was one thing I  thought was very good. To summarise, the teacher made a systematic use of variation in her teaching as well as developing knowledge with regard to it within Islamic

204  RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices tradition alongside that between different faith traditions. An account of why the use of variation was important for the teacher is seen as follows: T: The most important point I  really want to highlight is the whole variation issue. I think it does really make the concept concrete and I would try to include it in other units as well. Teacher B During the learning study, CRE principles were used in planning the structure of the unit in terms of organising the steps of teaching and learning as well as helping the teacher to use the patterns of variation effectively. Together with the researcher, the Islamic teachings on each equality theme and their relationship to each other were explored first through the study of the Qur’anic verses and hadith. This was in congruence with the principle of ontological realism. At the second level, epistemic relativity regarding the object of learning was explored, including different implementations of the religious teachings on ‘equality in Islam’ by Muslims in the Prophet’s time and today. The aim was to get the students to identify variation in terms of cultural, historical, and theological understandings as well as regarding following the norms and practices of Islam. Finally, through judgmental rationality, they were encouraged to critically engage with such diverse opinions in order to deepen their understanding of equality with regard to the issues of gender, race, wealth, and religions. Before the learning study, variation appeared as an important concept in terms of content and methodology of RE. The teacher highlighted the difference between RE and other subjects with regard to the content, that is, in the former, students deal with beliefs, moral values and virtues; issues that cannot be proven scientifically as being right or wrong. Consequently, she used different teaching methods, such as introducing a range of opinions by means of which students would be able to see different accounts of the learning subject and hence qualify their perspectives. However, they were still required to look for evidence to support and justify their beliefs/opinions; not relying on assumptions and superstitions or anecdotal evidence but rather, be able to give references from religious scriptures, or historical sources. In the following extract, the teacher explains why it is important to introduce students to various beliefs and ideas in RE lessons: T: Because in RE it comes down to different opinions and beliefs. If they do not explore different ideas, then they can start developing narrow-minded ideas. I mean the example of a homeless person that maybe someone who was drunk or alcoholic,1 you know completely distorted, stereotypical narrow attitudes. You have to be able to

RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices 205 back up with evidence for that belief; if you are simply jumping to conclusions then you know in terms of the beliefs, you end up having young people growing up with narrow-minded ideas. However, the teacher’s way of understanding and using variation at that stage was different to what proponents of CRE and VT argue should be the case. First, the focus of variation was on encouraging students to come up with different opinions on a learning subject and discuss these in order to arrive at a conclusion on their own. Whilst the students’ own ideas and opinions were greatly welcomed, how these were related to the ontological reality of the object of learning was ignored. Second, the teacher was selective in terms of using variation. For instance, variation between different faith traditions was introduced only in relation to matters that are common sense to any religious tradition, including religious practices or moral values. It is argued that teachers usually choose to deal with one issue/problem at a time, in order to minimise the complexity of the content (Holmqvist, 2011; Nilsson, 2014). Accordingly, the teacher in this study taught different religious perspectives consecutively so as to reduce bias to a minimum, not encouraging contestation among the students as well as to keep everyone involved in the teaching and learning process. For example, Jesus was taught from a Christian point of view, or Guru Nanak was examined according to Sikhism, rather than how they are understood by other religions. If a comparative study were to be set up—say, for example, the role of Jesus being examined by different religions—she would deal with each religious perspective in a different lesson, not simultaneously. Hence, there would not be any confrontation of opinions. However, it is argued that experiencing variation according to only one perspective narrows students’ understanding of the learning subject (Davies & Dunnill, 2008). Consequently, in VT, it is argued that students learn an object of learning if they are introduced to simultaneous variation in relation to its critical aspects. According to VT, one can discern an aspect if it varies against an invariant background. This process includes the steps of contrast, separation, generalisation, and fusion, not necessarily in a linear sequence, but definitely with a more systematic structure. During the learning study, the teacher dealt with various viewpoints on equality and justice in general, and within Islam, in particular, in the same lesson. The critical aspects identified earlier were varied simultaneously and hence, the students were able to discuss and reflect on different examples at the same time. This systematic use of variation according to the critical aspects was new to the teacher as seen in the following extract: T: I  think because there were elements of variation already, we were looking at, for example, the idea of some Muslim women working,

206  RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices some not. In terms of race and ethnicity, we were looking at variation, for example, with the Nation of Islam. I think there were elements, but certainly after speaking to you, you know, how to do the planning, that became much more apparent. We need to incorporate that within our lessons. The teacher also became more aware of variation within Islam. It was not simply the issue of whether Muslims were equal regarding different issues, such as gender or race, but rather, she became aware of the difference between the Western and Islamic perspective on equality. Moreover, she realised that the students needed to be introduced to variation between the scripture/Islamic teachings and believers’ different historical and socio-cultural experiences. An example of variation between historical and theological understanding of religious equality in Islam can be seen in the apostasy case in Kenya, as follows: T: There is this religious doctrine ‘no compulsion in religion’. Things like apostasy, where they would say it is not equality, because if somebody does not follow their faith they will face punishment for it. Actually there are different opinions in Islam. Because the early Islamic community was also a political community, so, if somebody acted against their country it was considered as treason. Similarly walking away from religion was also seen as treason at that time. So, what we see in Kenya [apostasy case] shows you have actually what the doctrine teaches, but then you have interpretations that do not necessarily go hand in hand with it. The teacher’s awareness of variation within the religious teachings increased too, which made the issue more challenging for both her and the students. Exploring controversies in the religious teachings was seen as important in order to help the students understand why there is a stark difference in terms of understanding and implementing the religious doctrine. For instance, by studying the hadith “Do not prevent the female servants of Allah from the masjids of Allah, but have them go out without wearing fragrance . . . even though their houses are better for them” (Al-Bukhari and Muslim), the students came to know that the apparent controversy within the teachings can lead to different understandings of how to treat women in today’s Muslim community, such as the beliefs and actions that extremist groups have adopted (e.g. Taliban and Boko Haram). Based on the students’ pre-understandings, the teacher came to realise that different cultural understandings were an impediment for their understanding of the object of learning. Consequently, she decided to put it to the students in the form of variation. In particular, it was seen that gender equality in Islam was mostly understood from a cultural point of

RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices 207 view. For instance, according to her, early marriage for girls was more a cultural tradition especially in Asian societies, which still dominates in some families living in Western countries. Similarly, the opposition against women working was more culture/power related than religion based, given that the majority of people working in textile factories in Bangladesh are women. One issue that was raised by the teacher was the inauthentic Islamic education that students receive in the weekend Islamic schools. The diverse religious views of the sheikhs, who were teaching about Islam, presented conflicting views with what the students were learning in school. According to her, these controversial views caused misconceptions and prejudices in the students’ understanding. While dealing with these, she used variation by separating the Qur’an and hadith as the primary sources of authentic Islamic knowledge from the secondary sources, such as the commentaries of such sheikhs and scholars. Another variation discerned by the teacher was the difference between observant and non-observant Muslims. This included Muslims who knew about religious rules and practices and yet opted not to follow them, or those who did not know about them in the first place, as illustrated below: T: They know that when it comes to religious rules you can either take or leave them, and that within Islam there is no compulsion, just like in other faiths, you will find people who are Hindu who will eat meat, beef that is their big sacred, you know. There will be people who call themselves faithful but then they do not do anything about it. That in itself is variation, hopefully they can recognise that within Islam there are teachings and people should be following those as a norm, but whether or not people actually stick to that or interpret it in a more conservative or liberal way is their choice really. In a nutshell, the teacher in this study also found variation to be an important tool and was thinking of using it in the future. In particular, she became more aware of variation within Islam and appreciated the framework of CRE and VT in helping her to explore variation in relation to how religious teachings have been understood and interpreted by Muslims within diverse historical and cultural contexts. T: I mean variation is something that I would make sure to include. We already do it in a faith-based background, but I would try to incorporate it so they look at other examples within the faith as well. She was also able to compare the teaching and learning in this study with other Year 8 classes where the same unit was taught in terms of content, teaching strategies, and the use of variation. This allowed her to see the

208  RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices difference this framework made on her teaching and on student learning, as can be understood from the excerpt below: T: Yes, they have done the unit completely in the old style. They have not looked at justice at all and the difference is very stark. They do not have any awareness of the idea of justice and fairness. About variation, they have not been able to explore the examples we did in these classes. We did not draw as many parallels as we managed to do when we were looking at with this group, you know, whether there are any inequalities between Muslims, Boko Haram, and Taliban and so on. So if I was comparing the two in terms of teaching and learning definitely I would go with the way that we have redeveloped this unit. 7.2.5 Teachers’ Pedagogical Practices In VT, what matters is not the teaching strategies and methods, but how to organise them in order to bring about variation in relation to the object of learning (Marton & Lo, 2007). One other consideration is providing the students with opportunities for them to be able to experience variation by themselves. Thus, VT places focus on accommodating the learning environment in a way that makes discerning critical aspects of an object of learning possible, rather than varying the teaching strategies. In this study, VT helped the teachers to make the concepts concrete, to clarify the relationships between them in terms of similarities and differences, and to vary the critical aspects simultaneously. They reflected on their use of teaching strategies, methods, and activities regarding the discernment of critical aspects. The use of VT enabled them to keep the students’ focus on the object of learning and its critical aspects, thus limiting student engagement with irrelevant and unrelated phenomena. Consequently, they saved time when endeavouring to ensure that all students were able to discern the object of learning (Lo, 2012). In the following section, each teacher’s pedagogical practices before and during the learning study is explored in depth. Teacher A Before the learning study, the teacher did not focus on specific teaching methods, as she was more concerned with delivering the content to the students. Hence, she did not rely on very structured planned teaching methods and strategies but rather, preferred more flexible methods responding to different teaching aims/content as well as diverse student needs and abilities. This process is called adaptation, whereby the teacher tries to fit the teaching material to the characteristics of students, such as ability, gender, culture, motivations, learning difficulties, and skills,

RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices 209 which are reported as deeply influencing students’ learning experiences (Shulman, 1987). The flexibility also allowed the teacher to revise and if necessary, change the teaching activities/tasks and discussions based on student feedback. The teacher aimed to get students to explore different religious viewpoints regarding a particular learning subject, arguing that this was consistent with the philosophy of CR. They were encouraged to engage actively in learning activities, tasks, and discussions by expressing their opinions, through which they were expected to develop critical thinking skills. She claimed that without approaching the learning subject in a critical manner it would be difficult for students to explore and learn that subject. Moreover, they were required to apply new knowledge to their lives, as seen in the following extract: T: What I care about is to produce students who are careful analysts, who think and understand more than they learn by rote and who hopefully have that information in them for life not just for exams. Hopefully something that will benefit them in their life inshAllah . . . I  think the right way of saying it would be being critical of one’s own understanding of faith or religion, God and everything else. It is good to be encouraged because you cannot explore without being critical. The teacher’s take on critical thinking skills reflects cognitive processes that are grounded in constructivist theory. This involves assessing arguments and evidence, problem solving, applying new information, and building rationales for making judgments through logical reasoning (Brunning, 1994). However, critical thinking in CRE refers to an attentive, relational learning process by which learners get closer to the reality of the object of learning rather than critically questioning a variety of worldviews in order to build their own account of that object (Wright, 2016). Participating in a learning study did not contribute much to the teacher’s developing instructional methods, which is not the primary aim of learning studies. Rather, it helped her to reflect upon and improve the relationship between her teaching, her own learning, and that of the students’. There was an increase in the teacher’s awareness of the students’ prior knowledge regarding the learning subject, the critical aspects in their understanding and the use of variation. Discussion became the most predominant method by means of which she tried to “solicit answers from students and build responses based on their own personal expression” (interview). It helped the students to contrast different viewpoints and gain a more developed understanding of their faith/religion. It was also useful for dealing with any spontaneous issues raised in the classroom that needed further inquiry.

210  RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices Teacher B It is argued that teachers’ approach to their discipline impacts on the teaching of a certain topic (Hashweh, 2005). As explained earlier, this teacher adopted a liberal constructivist approach to RE. Consequently, she placed a great emphasis on using a variety of instructional strategies involving different teaching and learning methods, before participating in the learning study. She understood teaching as facilitating learning and endeavoured to make her lessons student-centred, so that students would be more independent in their learning. The teacher was concerned about minimising the use of direct teaching, only doing so when introducing a new lesson/unit/topic, explaining a new/difficult concept, providing a stimulus for students or revising earlier lessons. She expected them to gain critical thinking skills through which they would be able to differentiate between various viewpoints and take the ownership of their own learning. She saw the role of a teacher as one of guiding and facilitating students’ learning processes, responding to their different needs and abilities, structuring activities and providing resources for different level students to discern the learning subjects for themselves. It is important to note that focusing on students’ epistemic skills and abilities is a general aim of constructivist pedagogies. However, VT does not primarily highlight students’ diverse backgrounds, but rather, places emphasis on how they relate to the object of learning, in a more ontological sense (Marton & Booth, 1997) Focusing on teaching methods, by introducing various tasks and activities to engage students in learning, is a common practice among teachers. There is also substantial literature on ways of developing good teaching strategies and using interactive teaching methods to provide a student-centred learning environment. These approaches emphasise the teaching of content in a more efficient way. However, in VT, the focus is on how specific content can be learnt; that is, the direct relationship of the learner with the object of learning. Consequently, the use of diverse teaching methods or providing a range of attractive learning activities is not what is needed, for what matters is that students are given opportunities to experience variation regarding a particular critical aspect so that it can be discerned (Lo, 2012). During the learning study, the teacher developed knowledge in terms of content, students’ prior-­understandings of the learning subject, as well as regarding the use of CRE and VT principles. The focus shifted from varying teaching methods to varying the critical aspects in order to facilitate the students’ discerning the object of learning. It is argued that when figuring out the ways to comprehend the teaching content and transform it into the learning subject, teachers might be reluctant to use various teaching methods owing to the lack of planning time (Shulman, 1987). This emerged as being the case in this learning

RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices 211 study. Because the theory was new to the teacher, as well as due to her heavy workload, she sometimes had difficulties in terms of applying it to her teaching, planning and structuring lessons, and teaching methodologies. That is, due to trying to understand the theory and then applying it in the lessons, there was not much time left to develop different activities and tasks for students to engage in. This was important to her as her goal was getting the students be more active during the learning process. As a result, the lessons included more direct teaching and discussion tasks that were similar in each lesson than the teacher would have wanted. This was also because the students needed more guidance in terms of discerning the variation regarding the critical aspects. The length of the unit also became an issue. Having many equality themes in the study became an impediment for effective time management as well as deeper discernment of the object of learning. According to the teacher, choosing only one or two themes, such as gender and racial equality, would provide more opportunities for the students to discern all the critical aspects regarding that particular theme as well as allowing use of more student-centred methods. For instance, in their assessment students pointed out relationships between men and women, hijab etc.—issues that were not discerned in the class. Thus, if there were only a small number of themes, the teacher would have more time to address their questions. Moreover, students’ diverse learning needs, interests, and skills require teachers to be more flexible and creative in order to answer their needs as well as cater to each pupil’s learning (Nilsson, 2009). This is also possible if the object of learning is dealt with in only a specified small number of lessons rather than prevailing over longer periods. Consequently, for the future lessons, the teacher had decided to shorten the units, focusing on a small number of issues only. It is argued that teachers gain ability and confidence each time they conduct a learning study as their increasing understanding allows for better implementation of the theory, thus bringing further improvement to student learning (Pang, 2006; Pang & Lo, 2012). The teacher in this study was aware of this fact indeed, as she mentioned several times that she would improve the content and instructional methodologies when she conducts another learning study in the future.

Conclusion In this chapter, the aim was to present the RE teachers’ perceptions and practices of teaching and learning with regard to the objects of learning, ‘Islam and being a Muslim’ and ‘equality in Islam’. The data was analysed by probing the teachers’ understandings and practices before the learning study and the changes that occurred to those aspects while the study was on. The outcomes have demonstrated that the teachers found the framework of the CRE and VT to be a useful approach to

212  RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices IRE. This framework allowed them to explore a specific learning subject with regard to the subject matter knowledge, students’ prior understandings as well as in relation to their own perceptions in terms of theory and methodology. Throughout the study, the teachers demonstrated a more complex way of seeing the object of learning and gained a thorough understanding of the students’ different ways of perceiving it. The learner and the object of learning relationship became more visible as there was a higher awareness of the ontological and subjective nature of the content. Participating in a professional development activity facilitates teacher change (Borko, 2004). During the process, the teachers’ priorities, in terms of their pedagogical beliefs and practices, went through a change that involved equal consideration of both the content and the factor of student learning. They seemed to have shifted their focus from increasing the students’ knowledge and skills through various learning activities to exploring their different ways of understanding the phenomenon under investigation, which evidently helped them to learn it in a more complex and differentiated way (Pang, 2006). The teachers acknowledged that the students would learn better if their questions and misconceptions were answered through variation in the ways the object of learning was engaged with. Overall, the theories of CRE and VT helped them to provide the necessary conditions for learning to occur. The learning study also helped the teachers to improve their teaching practice by means of evaluating and reflecting on their lessons as well as systematically developing pedagogical content knowledge. Through the cycling process, they were able to reflect on the teaching and learning process, revise the lesson objectives, as well as their teaching strategies, and subsequently, re-enact them with a new group of students. In sum, this process helped the teachers in terms of their professional development and improved their pedagogical reasoning skills.

Note 1. In one of the lessons before the learning study the students were studying a stimulus on a homeless person and some of the students came up with statements, such as homeless people are drunk, alcoholic, etc. According to the teacher, those beliefs were unqualified and anecdotal.

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RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices 213 Davies, P.,  & Dunnill, R. (2008). ‘Learning study’ as a model of collaborative practice in initial teacher education. Journal of Education for Teaching, 34(1), 3–16. Gess-Newsome, J. (1999). Pedagogical content knowledge: An introduction and orientation. In N. G. Lederman (Ed.), Examining pedagogical content knowledge (pp. 3–17). The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Grimmitt, M. (2000). Constructivist pedagogies of religious education project: Rethinking knowledge, teaching and learning in religious education. In M. Grimmitt (Ed.), Pedagogies of religious education: Case studies in the research and development of good pedagogic practice in RE (pp.  207–227). Great Wakering, Essex: McCrimmons. Hashweh, M. Z. (2005). Teacher pedagogical constructions: A  reconfiguration of pedagogical content knowledge. Teachers and Teaching, 11(3), 273–292. Hella, E., & Wright, A. (2009). Learning ‘about’ and ‘from’ religion: Phenomenography, the variation theory of learning and religious education in Finland and the UK. British Journal of Religious Education, 31(1), 53–64. Holmqvist, M. (2011). Teachers’ learning in a learning study. Instructional Science, 39(4), 497–511. Holmqvist, M., Brante, G., & Tullgren, C. (2012). Learning study in pre-school: Teachers’ awareness of children’s learning and what they actually learn. International Journal for Lesson and Learning Studies, 1(2), 153–167. Jackson, R. (1997). Religious education: An interpretive approach. London: Hodder. Lo, M. L. (2009). Building a teacher learning network for developing the ability to teach for learning. Paper presented at the 13th Biennal Conference of EARLI, August 25–29, 2009, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Lo, M. L. (2012). Variation theory and the improvement of teaching and learning. Göteborg: Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis. Lo, M. L., & Marton, F. (2011). Towards a science of the art of teaching: Using variation theory as a guiding principle of pedagogical design. International Journal for Lesson and Learning Studies, 1(1), 7–22. Lo, M. L., Pong, W. Y.,  & Chik, P. P. M. (Eds.). (2005). For each and everyone: Catering for individual differences through learning studies (Vol. 1). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Marton, F., & Booth, S. A. (1997). Learning and awareness. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Elbaum. Marton, F., & Lo, M. L. (2007). Learning from “the learning study”. Tidskrift för lärarutbildning och forskning [Journal of Research in Teacher Education], 14(1), 31–44. Nilsson, P. (2009). From lesson plan to new comprehension: Exploring student teachers’ pedagogical reasoning in learning about teaching. European Journal of Teacher Education, 32(3), 239–258. Nilsson, P. (2014). When teaching makes a difference: Developing science teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge through learning study. International Journal of Science Education, 36(11), 1794–1814. Nuthall, G. (2004). Relating classroom teaching to student learning: A critical analysis of why research has failed to bridge the theory-practice gap. Harvard Educational Review, 74(3), 273–306. Pang, M. F. (2006). The use of learning study to enhance teacher professional learning in Hong Kong. Teaching Education, 17(1), 27–42.

214  RE Teachers’ Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices Pang, M. F., & Lo, M. L. (2012). Learning study: Helping teachers to use theory, develop professionally, and produce new knowledge to be shared. Instructional Science, 40(3), 589–606. Richardson, V. (1990). Significant and worthwhile change in teaching practice. Educational Researcher, 19(7), 10–18. Runesson, U. (2005). Beyond discourse and interaction. Variation: A  critical aspect for teaching and learning mathematics. Cambridge Journal of Education, 35(1), 69–87. Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–23. Wright, A. (2016). Religious education and critical realism: Knowledge, reality and religious literacy. Oxon/New York, NY: Routledge.

8 Discussion and Conclusion

As discussed in the introduction, there is a need for a comprehensive pedagogy for IRE in Muslim and non-Muslim contexts. Despite the realisation of this need amongst the public and academia, there has been little empirical research on developing alternative pedagogical approaches for this subject. In addressing this gap, this current study contributes to the extant literature in several respects. First, it provides a thorough discussion on how to apply the philosophy of CR and the theory of CRE as underlabouring tools for developing IRE. Second, it brings into play VT in order to improve teaching and learning by placing emphasis on the planning, enactment, and evaluation processes, thus, generating a pedagogical approach for IRE. Finally, with two empirical studies, in Muslim and non-Muslim schools, it has been made possible to see the effect of this framework on teaching and student learning, thereby allowing for further development of this framework. In this final chapter, first, the key findings are summarised and discussed in relation to the research questions of this study. Next, the theoretical and methodological contributions and limitations of the research are discussed. Finally, the theoretical and practical implications for IRE and suggestions for future research are presented.

8.1 Summary and Discussion of the Findings In this section, a brief summary and discussion of the findings is presented regarding the research questions of this study. 8.1.1 The Theoretical and Pedagogical Framework of Critical Religious Education and Variation Theory for Developing Islamic Religious Education The analysis of the study, presented in Chapters 5, 6 and 7, has shown that overall the framework of the CRE and VT can help fostering teaching and learning in IRE classrooms. The study has provided a thorough analysis of the students’ prior knowledge and experiences of the learning

216  Discussion and Conclusion subject, which allowed for the effect of the pedagogical framework on their learning to be elicited. Examining the teachers’ beliefs and practices before and during the study shed light on the contributions and limitations of the study through their lenses. The findings of this research extend the current literature, which mostly focuses on either subject matter knowledge or teaching methods and strategies. That is, they provide rich insights into the students’ learning and on ways of effectively aligning the teaching and learning environment in IRE. As explained earlier, CRE is concerned with the pursuit of truth and the cultivation of a truthful life. It aims to develop students’ religious literacy in order for them to engage with religious matters in an informed and intelligent way. To accomplish their quest for the truth and a truthful life, students need to engage with the contested truth claims of religious and secular worldviews as well as diversity of opinions within a certain religious tradition (Hella and Wright, 2009). Furthermore, it is seen essential to establish a close link between the content and pupils, which it is suggested will contribute to their deeper understanding of the object (Wright, 2016). Through the CRE and VT framework, it is contended that students will be able to gain knowledge (the direct object of learning) and ability (the indirect object of learning) regarding the phenomenon/object in question. Religious literacy takes place in a continuous process and involves progressive change in our understanding and worldviews that will lead to a more complex and differentiated conceptualisation of them (Wright, 2016). It cannot be robustly claimed that the students gained religious literacy at the end of this study; however, they did become involved in a judicious and reflective learning process and acquired a deeper discernment of the learning subject. Moreover, they most likely gained a genuine tolerance towards others, which is also the fundamental aim of liberal RE. One of the key findings of this study was the successful application of the CR principles of ontological realism, epistemic relativity, and judgmental rationality. The students gained a greater awareness of the absolute, transcendental, and subjective context-dependent features of their faith. After identifying the object of learning, the teachers set out to ascertain the critical aspects of the object of learning that are given in the Qur’an and Sunnah. For example, in the first study, the ultimate truth claims of Islam were identified as the six pillars of iman (faith) and five pillars of Islam. These revelations helped the students to better understand the transcendental reality of the truth claims of Islam that constitute the starting point of the examination and learning of Islam. Once the students had become cognisant of religious evidence about the religious phenomenon they were encouraged to consider the different ways in which it was understood and applied. At this level, there were differences between two studies owing to the distinctive nature of the objects of learning.

Discussion and Conclusion 217 It is not always the case where an object of learning is identified merely as ultimate and transcendental, as some content of RE might be related to historical, geographical, ethical and/or socio-cultural matters. To illustrate, there is a not a universal consensus about how to perceive equality in Islam as this is a value-laden, Western concept. However, about such phenomena, students need to be introduced to variation, both internal and external, recognising their context-dependent features as well as the subjective interpretations of the divine text regarding those phenomena. Consequently, in terms of the theoretical framework, in the second study the focus on the ‘context’ was more evident as compared to the first one, in which the students’ focus was mainly directed at the ‘whole’ of ‘Islam’. Hence, they mainly experienced internal variation within the religion. In the second study, the students, first, experienced the concept of equality as common to various worldviews. They became aware of the relationship between Islam and Western-secular culture, in terms of not only how these two co-exist on the basis of freedom of expression and tolerance, but also by engaging with each tradition on their own terms. Thus, instead of defending Islam and Muslims by claiming the commonality of Islamic and Western-secular values, they discerned the authority of knowledge and the distinctive values of each tradition. Following that, they discussed a variety of opinions about gender equality in Muslim society, ranging from the extremist views of such as the Taliban and the Boko Haram to cultural and parental practices and expectations, like how a Bengali Muslim family views women’s status in today’s UK. Furthermore, exploration of the ultimate truth claims of Islam and the diversity of opinions regarding these helped in challenging the students’ pre-held opinions and stereotypes, which is another finding of this study to be explored in detail later in this section. Through judgmental rationality, the students engaged in an exploratory and transformative process, whereby they experienced the object of learning in depth with respect to its theological, individual, and socio-­ cultural aspects. At the end of this analytical and exploratory process, they came to understand the object in a deeper and more differentiated way. As it was a relational, transformative, and mutually responsive process, as the students came closer to the reality of the object of learning they also became agents in reformulating its meaning in a way that made sense to their own spiritual and rational beings (Wright and Wright, n.d.). A good example of this could be their realisation of the meaning of equality in Islam, for it became apparent to the students that, in reality, the concept of equality would change depending on the context it is embedded in. This realisation helped in challenging their deeply held preconceptions about perceiving Islam as being opposed to equality and human rights, leading them to think further about how this concept is perceived in the Islamic sources and understood within the Muslim community. Furthermore, in both studies, the students gained a comprehensive understanding

218  Discussion and Conclusion of the fact that diverse cultural and sectarian interpretations are not actually the universal truth claims as purported, but rather, they are contested and partial. Interpretations of these truth claims are necessary, however, in order to make sense of the reality of religious phenomena. A second important finding was that VT as a pedagogical tool helped to improve teaching and learning in both studies. The two learning studies, to start with, revealed the different ways in which the students perceived the object of learning with the purpose of allowing the teachers to find out what knowledge the students were bringing to the classroom and how this could contribute to improving their learning outcomes (Bowden, 2005). Another intention was that the research outcomes would inform academics and curriculum designers of RE about the ways of developing curriculums and textbooks by placing much greater emphasis on subjectmatter knowledge and students’ prior understandings, simultaneously. Throughout the study, the teachers’ understanding of the object of learning increased because of reflecting on their own understanding and those of the students as well as the related subject matter knowledge. This is significant because in order for teachers to identify the critical features of religious phenomena they have to be aware of their own perceptions regarding them (Hella, 2007). Ascertaining the students’ pre-understanding of the object of learning was rather surprising for the teachers as they had mostly taken for granted what the students knew about a learning subject (Holmqvist, Tullgren,  & Brante, 2011; Lo, 2012). As they got to know the critical aspects in the students’ understanding before the lessons, it became relatively easier to engage with their learning during the study. It also helped them to cater for each student in the classroom rather than categorising them as high or low achievers in terms of their skills and abilities, as they used to do before the learning study (see subsection 7.2.3). The identification of critical aspects might be a challenge in RE in general, owing to the nature of this subject, for it is not based on verification criteria, as in science subjects. The object of learning in RE can be described as a ‘complex object of learning’ (Homqvist-Olander  & Sandberg, 2013, p.  281). According to Holmqvist-Olander and Sandberg (2013), a complex object of learning consists of several aspects and its practice depends on different cultural situations. That is, a complex object of learning can be taught in various ways according to the learning objectives. In phenomenography, critical aspects are identified based on two sources: students’ pre-understandings and the curriculum (Hella and Wright, 2009). CRE argues that it is also important to introduce students to as much variation as possible including internal and external aspects of the religious tradition (Hella and Wright, 2009). Hence, teachers have less power in constructing critical aspects out of their particular interpretation of the object of learning, as they are required to derive them from a variety of sources. However, depending on what the object

Discussion and Conclusion 219 of learning is, teachers might make use of their content knowledge as well as perceptions, particularly when dealing with the curricular aims. This flexibility might occur more often when they are in charge of designing the curriculum. This was the case in the first learning study. Furthermore, as mentioned before, the religious and cultural nature of the school has an impact on the content and structure of the subject. It is argued that the challenge for RE teachers is not owing to their lack of theological knowledge, but rather, lack of competence in developing a curricular and pedagogical framework, which will enable students to gain a deeper theological understanding of their own and those of other religions (Hella, 2008). Teachers of RE, akin to those of other subjects, tend simply to follow the curriculum, being usually only interested in developing teaching methods and strategies. However, this course of action is unlikely to improve student learning substantially, for it invariably involves separating the student learning from the content and learning objectives (Lo, 2012). Hence, the second contribution of VT in this research was the introduction of a pedagogical framework by which not only the principles of CR and CRE were applied more systematically, but the students’ learning processes were also considered seriously. As explained earlier, the teachers became aware of the students’ prior knowledge before the lessons. During the research lessons, they constantly focused on the students’ learning by making sure that they all discerned the targeted critical aspects. Having ascertained the students’ learning outcomes after the first cycle, the problematic issues in their understanding were further explored in the second cycle, which helped improving the students’ learning outcomes. The third contribution that VT offered was the use of variation. According to this theory, a way of seeing something in a new way is only possible by discerning its critical aspects simultaneously (Marton & Booth, 1997). In order to discern a particular critical aspect, one must experience variation regarding it as opposed to an invariant background (Pang  & Marton, 2005). VT helps teachers organise the teaching and learning environment in such a way that facilitates a systematic use of variance and invariance. This was an important finding of this study. The use of variation helped the students to engage actively in the levels of ontological realism, epistemic relativity, and judgmental rationality. Through contrast and separation, the ontological reality of the object of learning was made invariant, while the ways in which this reality was perceived were varied, which facilitated the students’ comprehension of the object of learning. The outcomes of the research have shown that the application of VT not only develops understanding of a specific concept or phenomenon, but also fosters students’ literacy of the subject. That is, it helps in creating a subject-specific generic capability that allows students to deal with difficult and challenging situations in their lives (Pang, 2010). It is hard

220  Discussion and Conclusion to conclude that the students who joined this study developed religious literacy as they only participated in one learning study and also there was no delayed post-test conducted with them. However, both studies were of a greater duration than a normal learning study and hence, the students were able to explore the object of learning in greater depth by applying it to different situations. Therefore, it seems reasonable to claim that they gained a generic capability from their experience. For these students to develop religious literacy and obtain a deeper understanding of religious concepts, more learning studies need to be undertaken. I  contend that the framework of CRE and VT can provide them with the necessary tools to make sense of religious issues, be aware of the critical features of religious concepts and situations as well as make them gain a deeper understanding of those situations. Finally, the use of the CRE and the VT framework made a significant contribution to the development of the teachers’ beliefs and practices in IRE. It is argued that teachers develop professional learning when they actively research and reflect on their beliefs and practices (Pang, 2009; Nilsson, 2008). During the learning studies, both teachers did reflect on their teaching beliefs and practices. They gained a thorough understanding of the characteristics and circumstances of student learning. This knowledge subsequently contributed to the successful planning and designing of the research lessons, as mentioned above. They were provided with the opportunity to evaluate the difference between the intended and enacted objects of learning as well as what the students actually learnt in the end, which helped them to improve their teaching practice and to develop professionally (Pang, 2006; Ljung & Holmqvist, 2013). Furthermore, their focus shifted from placing the emphasis on the content or developing teaching methods and learning activities towards establishing an engaging and responsive relationship between pupils and the object of learning. In a nutshell, the teachers developed theoretical and practical knowledge regarding the subject matter and pedagogical content knowledge. 8.1.2 Student Learning Before and During the Learning Study The analyses presented in Chapters 5 and 6 have shown the students’ perceptions of the object of learning; how the research lessons were planned and enacted in light of the theoretical and pedagogical framework of CRE and VT; and what changed in the students’ understanding of the object during the learning study. It has been seen that the proposed framework can be applied to IRE in different contexts. Despite its applicability possibly depending on certain political and practical variants that are present in the context, the study has generated general theoretical and practical knowledge for teachers, policy makers, and academics of IRE. The learning study approach was proved successful in enhancing student learning in previous studies (Lo, Pong, & Chik, 2005; Marton & Pang,

Discussion and Conclusion 221 2006; Runesson, 2006). In VT, learning is considered to take place when learners develop a more sophisticated, complex, and integrated way of understanding an object through discerning its critical aspects that were once taken for granted and simultaneously keeping them in their focal awareness (Pang & Marton, 2005; Pang, 2006). In this study, the majority of students learned the object of learning in that they were able to discern the critical aspects that they were not previously aware of. As a consequence, they developed a deeper discernment, that is, they moved beyond knowing about facts (empirical) to expanded awareness of these (actual) and to a level of explanatory understanding (real). Nevertheless, there appeared some differences in terms of the students’ learning outcomes between the two studies. As stated above, the two objects of learning had to be dealt with differently to some extent due to their different ontological and epistemological underpinnings. In the first study, the most salient features of the students’ learning were their greater awareness of the absolute and ontological features of Islam, that is, they came to know the necessary conditions for being a Muslim—the primary and secondary aspects of their Muslim identity. While in the second study, the subjective and contingent features of equality and its relation to Islam were brought to the fore through variation with regard to its critical aspects. Moreover, the experiencing of the context-whole-parts relationship in this study was more evident compared to the first one. One general finding was that ‘weak students’ also improved their learning, which is common in many learning studies. This is because the learning study involved an intense process of planning and enactment, through which the students’ prejudices, presuppositions, and learning difficulties regarding the object were revealed. Hence, the necessary conditions were created to overcome these difficulties and facilitate their learning during the lessons (Marton & Lo, 2007). Moreover, the learning was focused on a more particular and individual basis and endeavoured to cater for every student. Generally, in learning studies, a substantial change is evident between different cycles due to the different ways of dealing with the object of learning and different use of variation, which results in different learning outcomes (Lo, Chik, & Pang, 2006). However, this was not particularly the case for this study because of the length of the units. That is, as the teachers had the chance to revisit the critical aspects that were not discerned properly, or not discerned by all students, in the next lesson, there did not appear to be a great difference between the students’ learning outcomes in the two cycles. Nevertheless, it was still possible to see the impact of different types of examples and activities on the students’ discernment of the object of learning in the second cycle in which the students demonstrated higher learning outcomes compared to the previous one. The students’ learning was found to be closely related to how the teacher handled the object of learning in the lessons, which is also

222  Discussion and Conclusion supported by previous studies (Lo et al., 2005; Marton & Pang, 2006; Holmqvist, 2011; Runesson, 2005). It is argued that in order to change students’ conception of a phenomenon towards something more complex and sophisticated, their prior knowledge and prejudices as well as absence of complexity and differentiation in their understanding of that phenomenon should be addressed before the actual teaching starts (Davies  & Dunnill, 2006). When the teachers enhanced their understanding of the theory and its implementation in terms of making a more effective use of variation as well as getting the students involved in discerning the intended critical aspects, their learning outcomes improved accordingly. Overall, there was an improvement in the students’ learning outcomes in both studies. 8.1.3 Pedagogical Perceptions and Practices of the RE Teachers Before and During the Learning Study Teaching is a complex and comprehensive system involving knowledge of different domains, a wide variety of practices, and intellectual interactions between the teacher and students. A  dynamic relationship is expected between different aspects within this system, if teaching is to be successful with an increase in students’ learning outcomes. Shulman (1987) describes this multi-dimensional system as follows: Teaching necessarily begins with a teacher’s understanding of what is to be learned and how it is to be taught. It proceeds through a series of activities during which the students are provided specific instruction and opportunities for learning, though the learning itself ultimately remains the responsibility of the students. Teaching ends with new comprehension by both the teacher and the student. (Shulman, 1987, p. 7) It is argued that teachers who have received a traditional form of pedagogy through their education tend to develop strong beliefs and values concerning teaching practice, which makes them resistant to changing these (Lo, 2000). Gaining only superficial knowledge regarding their teaching—mostly on teaching methods and strategies—will not have a long-term effect on their teaching as they will most likely turn back to their traditional way when they feel challenged by new situations (Msonde, 2011). Therefore, it is suggested that in order to change teachers’ pedagogical practices, they need to change their concepts of teaching and learning as these are closely related to the act of teaching (Trigwell, Prosser, & Waterhouse, 1999; Ho, Watkins, & Kelly, 2001; Ure, 2010). To do so, they need to gain a substantial understanding of teaching and learning theories (Richardson, 1990) as well as develop an innovative research stance towards their teaching (Marton & Lo, 2007; Pang, 2009).

Discussion and Conclusion 223 The learning study approach applied in this study allowed the teachers to investigate how the framework of CRE and VT worked in practice in the actual classroom as well as to observe critically what was transpiring and consequently, improve their own practice in light of this framework. To this end, opportunities were created for the teachers to engage with and have conversations around the theory and pedagogy and that of student learning. In essence, they were involved in the research as practitioners and became empowered by receiving new knowledge and by becoming part of the interpretive and reflective process of the research within their context (Marton & Pang, 2006; Msonde, 2011), which it has been suggested will contribute to an in-depth understanding of the framework and a long-term change in their pedagogical approaches. The results show that in both learning studies, there was a change in the teachers’ perspectives of teaching and learning in IRE. It is argued that teaching is more successful when teachers explore students’ existing knowledge and experiences, become more sensitive to their diverse ways of thinking, adjust the teaching-learning environment according to their needs, as well as continuously examine their learning process during lessons (Jong, Van Driel, & Verloop, 2005; Lo, Chik, & Pang, 2006). The teachers in this study began focusing more on how students learn. They understood learning as a change and development in the students’ understanding of the object of learning (Trigwell et al., 1999). Thus, they moved from a traditional teaching approach of imparting knowledge, to facilitating development of a new and better understanding of the objects of learning among students (Wood; 2000; Davies & Dunnill; 2008). It is argued that constant focus on the object of learning and its critical aspects helps increase teachers’ content knowledge (Kullberg, Martensson,  & Runesson, 2016). In this study, the VT helped the teachers to see the topic as a whole through focusing on the object of learning and its critical aspects. Through the process, the teachers had a thorough understanding of the content and restructured it in terms of clarifying the critical aspects. In the earlier studies it was found that teachers who adopt a systematic use of variation gain better results in terms of student learning than the teachers who do not (Pang & Marton, 2003; Lo & Marton, 2011). Similarly, in this study, the teachers appreciated the use of variation in their teaching. This helped them challenge the students’ presuppositions and prejudices, making them discern the difference between the religious teachings and their various interpretations by the members of Islamic community, thereby helping them to acquire a deeper understanding of their religious beliefs. Furthermore, introducing the students to variation was seen as particularly important in IRE lessons, for in exploring the different ways of understanding a phenomenon, they would become more tolerant of different perspectives as well as widen their own understanding of that phenomenon (Wright, 2007).

224  Discussion and Conclusion Learning study allows teachers to see the direct effect of their teaching on student learning and thus encourages them to find ways of promoting this learning with regard to a specific learning subject (Nilsson, 2014). It is systematically aimed at improving teaching and learning, by bringing together theory and practice (Wood, 2000; Pang, 2006). Furthermore, it helps teachers to understand the relationship between teaching and learning, incorporate that knowledge into their teaching and to generalise their professional knowledge for future lessons (Lo & Marton, 2011). This involved a progressive and gradual transformation for the teachers in this study, for as they went through the different cycles their awareness of the theory increased, which improved their implementation and helped them to understand how to handle the object of learning at different stages more effectively (Marton & Lo, 2007). Generally speaking, the teachers became more critical and competent in terms of using the CRE and VT principles over the course of the learning study. However, there were some issues and challenges in terms of practicality of the study, such as the length of time, the intense planning, and the enactment process. Given the outcomes of this research, it is suggested that more learning studies be carried out as these will not only help the teachers to overcome such problems, but also shed light on how their application of the framework of CRE and VT can be improved.

8.2 The Theoretical and Pedagogical Implications for Islamic Religious Education This section examines the implications of this study in relation to the theory, pedagogy, and methodology for IRE teachers, practitioners, policy makers, and researchers. Theoretical Implications The philosophy of CR establishes the ontological and epistemological grounds to understand and explain traditional Islamic beliefs and practices in multi-faith contexts, thus providing the basis to apply that knowledge in educational settings (Wilkinson, 2013). To be more specific, the outcomes of this study show how CR can be applied to Islam in an educational setting as well as how this knowledge can contribute to the theory and pedagogy of IRE. CR can help to understand the underpinning rationale for the ontological, transcendental reality of religious and spiritual phenomena, such as the existence of God, angels, the books, and the prophets. Hence, students will come to understand that religious phenomena, as with other natural beings and entities, have an independent existence of reality. Furthermore, this study provides evidence that whilst CRE takes liberal RE as its starting point, it also promises to be a novel approach for confessional RE such as in Turkey. As mentioned in the introduction, the

Discussion and Conclusion 225 constructivist approach has been adopted in Turkish RE after the 2000s. There have been concerns about the philosophical underpinnings of the constructivist theory, as it stands for the plausibility of multiple realities in lieu of one objective reality, which seems to contradict the reality of many religions that make ultimate truth claims (Kaymakcan, 2007). However, as the new RE curriculum supports teaching of diverse interpretations within Islamic religion as well as other religious traditions, the constructivist approach is claimed to be more suitable in providing a pluralistic learning environment where students would deeply engage with diverse perspectives (Aşlamacı, 2014). I argue that the theory of CRE will be more appropriate for RE in Turkey than the constructivist theory. The CRE takes the truth claims of religions more seriously, which is considered essential in the confessional RE contexts. When applied to IRE, it can introduce opportunities for ascertaining the absolute truth claims of Islam and allow students to engage critically with these and their epistemically diverse interpretations within Islamic tradition, including their own perceptions. It also promotes the development of a religious literacy that will enable Muslim pupils to engage with the pursuit of truth and the cultivation of a truthful life in congruence with Islamic teachings in an attentive, responsible, and intelligent way, thereby understanding the meaning of their place in the ultimate order of things (Wright, 2007). Through this process, students can gain a more differentiated, integrated and sophisticated understanding of their own beliefs/worldviews—why they believe, what the nature of their belief is and how a truthful life can be achieved in accordance with their beliefs and values. The use of judgmental rationality engages students in a rational, critical, reflexive, and exploratory process in which they decide “between the accuracy and validity of competing accounts of phenomena according to sets of scientific and experiential criteria” (Wilkinson, 2013, p. 434). However, the aim is not necessarily for the learner to end up changing their own beliefs or worldview and embracing another one, despite this possibly being the outcome. Rather, this reflection process is proposed as a means of deepening and reinforcing the already existent beliefs. It is also important to remember that critical decision-making does not refer to rational and critical thinking skills. For these are grounded in cognitive/constructive processes that are aimed at constructing a personal understanding of religious phenomena and this, it has been argued, might curtail the reality revealing itself to the learner (Wright & Wright, 2012). In addition, being critical does not mean to judge or question the truth of what Islam makes known to the believers and it is not about liberalisation of Islamic knowledge. Rather, this approach takes the ontological truth claims of Islam seriously as the foundation of religious knowledge as well as encouraging dealing with epistemic relativity within the Muslim community. IRE, both in Muslim and non-Muslim contexts, does not fully address religious diversity and therefore, is not able to encourage Muslim pupils

226  Discussion and Conclusion to deal with difficult religious issues and questions arisen due to living in a multi-faith world. Furthermore, Muslim young people do not find their perspective of faith truly represented in many IRE curriculums owing to their monolithic interpretation of Islam (Thobani, 2011). Moreover, the choice of one particular religious and cultural understanding of Islam in the curriculum rules out the possibility of young people exploring their faith journey (Ipgrave, 2010). Despite the fact that Islamic beliefs and values are identified theologically, they are bound to the changing circumstances of societies and in this respect they are interpreted in dynamic historical and cultural contexts. Consequently, in contrast to the current nature and practice of IRE in many Muslim and liberal contexts, it is suggested that the IRE curriculum and textbooks should represent the historical and denominational diversity within Islamic tradition as well as be inclusive of cultural and humanistic values within the wider Islamic society (Thobani, 2011). Students should be required to engage with “the actual developments in the Muslim history: the fact of continued interpretation and re-interpretation of foundational text; the contested and historical nature of norms, practices and institutions; and the rich diversity of opinions on any given matter” (Panjwani, 2008, p. 301). This study has also considered inter and intra-religious diversity seriously and provided evidence that dealing with diversity within Islamic community contributes to students’ deeper discernment of the objects of learning. It has further elicited that IRE needs to include the individual, spiritual, and developmental aspects of students’ faith processes. By doing so, students can develop a sense of belonging as a result of their religious understandings being represented in the classroom. The approach offered in this study allows learners to explore their own ways of understanding beliefs and values and increase their attentiveness to the diverse ways of comprehending religious phenomena. It is greatly anticipated that this reflective and on-going process of thinking and reasoning will lead to an enhanced understanding of their own religious and spiritual worldviews. Through this approach, students are not simply told what to believe and how to practise their beliefs, but rather, to engage with religious and spiritual phenomena and values on ontological and epistemological levels so as to gain a deeper comprehension and knowledge of their reality. Furthermore, it can help them get to the bottom of religious differences and show respect and tolerance of them, thereby developing skills to cope with controversial cultural issues and extremist perspectives that they might encounter in everyday life. Pedagogical Implications There are also some important pedagogical implications derived from this study, that are of consequence for researchers, teachers, and curriculum designers of RE. VT, as a pedagogical approach, offers tools for

Discussion and Conclusion 227 improving teaching and learning in IRE. It can reveal the critical aspects in relation to students’ different perceptions of religious phenomena and applies variation and invariance in order for learning to occur. This study suggests the combination of VT with the theoretical basics of CRE in order to identify and tease out the constants and variables of religious phenomena for pursuing such variation. For instance, if the object of learning is identified as the belief in the unity of Allah, then the invariant aspect of it would be the Oneness of Allah, while it would be separated/ varied from other belief systems, whereby God is represented in different forms. At this juncture, VT will enable teachers to identify how to vary the critical aspects of a religious phenomenon in relation to the constant/ invariant and variant/context-dependent aspects. One important implication of this research is that learning studies could improve IRE teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and professional development. Teachers need to have a solid knowledge of subject-matter and combine it with general pedagogical knowledge as well as pedagogical content knowledge in order to create successful learning environments (Borko & Putnam, 1996). As pointed out previously, they usually adopt strategies that are compatible with their teaching conceptions and tend to perceive student learning accordingly, which has an effect on their learning outcomes (Trigwell et al., 1999). As explained in the previous chapter, IRE teachers tend to adopt either confessional/teacher-centred or constructivist/student-centred approaches that deeply influence their teaching strategies and perceptions of student learning. The problem is that adopting either teacher-centred or student-centred teaching strategies is not sufficient to bring about meaningful learning. Therefore, this study suggests that there is a need for change in IRE teachers’ approaches to teaching and learning. This work has provided evidence that through participating in learning studies teachers can become aware of their conceptions of teaching and learning and reflect on their teaching practices in the actual classroom context, which is necessary if they are to undergo conceptual change, which in turn, will most likely affect their practices (Vosniadou, 2007). Furthermore, they can gain insight into students’ understanding of the object before, during, and after the lesson that will provide them with information about how to handle the content more effectively as well as create more possibilities for student learning. In general, it is proposed that the use of the learning study model in IRE can facilitate teachers’ developing an investigative approach to their teaching. Moreover, the knowledge generated should not only be used for personal development, for it should also be disseminated to other teachers and the related research community as examples of good practice, thereby contributing to other stakeholders’ professional development. The VT and the learning study model have been used as a method of investigation in teacher education (Davies  & Dunnill, 2008); however, the application of learning studies in pre-service teachers’ education have

228  Discussion and Conclusion been scarce compared to studies done with in-service teachers (Royea & Nicol, 2018; Tan, 2018). It is argued that one of the problems in preservice teacher education is the gap between theory and practice and filling this gap has been the subject of investigation in teacher education for a long time (Cheng, 2014). The theoretical framework of CRE and VT and the learning study model can help in shaping pre-service RE teachers’ pedagogies and teaching practices through collaborative process of planning, implementation, and evaluation of their lessons (Davies & Dunnill, 2008; Tan, 2018). Employing a theoretical framework through involving pre-service RE teachers in learning studies can develop reflective and critical observation and analysis of their subject area. However, it is argued that pre-service teachers find it more difficult to participate in learning studies due to their lack of sufficient teaching experiences (Tan, 2018; Royea & Nicol, 2018). Moreover, to accommodate time restrictions as well as students’ limited access to school sites, modifications are need to be done to the model to maximise pre-service teachers’ participation in learning studies in teacher education programmes. Nevertheless, in general, it is found that the learning study model plays an important role in developing instructional skills and teaching competency of pre-service teachers (Cheng, 2014) as well as theorising their practices by the use of a theoretical framework, which will also increase their knowledge of teaching and learning relationship (Royea & Nicol, 2018). In a nutshell, the learning study model offers the grounds for generating theoretical and pedagogical knowledge in terms of student learning, teacher education, teachers’ professional development, and researchers’ learning in IRE. However, in order to carry out successful learning studies in IRE some issues need be taken into consideration. Initially, there is the need to establish an academic research community that is willing to engage with the theories of CR, CRE and VT by applying them to different objects of learning in the curriculum. Furthermore, what can be done in terms of school organisation to encourage and support teachers’ involvement in research based teaching activities needs to be addressed. Implications for the Theories of CR, CRE and VT and for the ‘Learning Study’ Model The findings of this study have some implications for the theories employed in this research. First, they contribute to the theory of VT, which has been predominantly used as a pedagogical tool in the area of science education in order to bring about successful learning outcomes. The current research is important as it provides a new perspective from the IRE point of view, particularly in terms of identifying the differences in the critical aspects of religious phenomena, the salience of subject matter in improving the enactment of the lessons. Second, this study plays an important part in advancing the theories of CR and CRE by applying

Discussion and Conclusion 229 them to an actual classroom context. In essence, by applying these theories, this research has generated theoretical and empirical knowledge for the field of RE. This research contributes to the development of the learning study model by shedding light on some issues regarding methodology and analytical framework. First, there have not been many learning studies conducted on humanities subjects and none at all in RE. There are issues emerging because of the very nature and process of the subject. In RE, the verification option is less significant compared to science subjects and instead requires a hermeneutical approach in assessing student learning. As a consequence, this research was more complicated and it took a longer time to analyse the students’ pre- and post-learning outcomes. I propose that more learning studies need to be conducted on humanities subjects and more convenient and timesaving approaches need to be developed for effective assessment of student learning. Second, it has been shown that contrary to most learning studies, which are designed for one or two series of lessons, it is possible to carry out a series of research lessons of longer duration. The positive outcome of this was that the teachers were able to revisit the earlier lessons and hence able to identify and deal with the issues students found problematic, which contributed to better learning outcomes in all the classes.

8.3 Limitations of the Study There emerged some limitations from the study with regard to the research design, its implementation, and the analysis. The first limitation was that as I was the only researcher conducting the study, I might have influenced the qualitative nature of the design and analysis processes. However, I tried to remain faithful to the student data within the reach of my power and endeavoured to maximise their voice regarding what they thought about the focal phenomenon. In addition, by following the steps of the phenomenographic analysis, I believe I was able to reflect the true opinions of the participants. Moreover, during the analysis process I discussed the findings and emerging issues with the participating teachers, my supervisors, and fellow researchers, which helped me to keep an open mind towards the data. With respect to the planning and implementation processes, the teachers and I  worked together, while in my role as the researcher, I facilitated their understanding of the pedagogical framework of the study as well as how it could be applied. Furthermore, a variety of data collection methods were triangulated in order to generate valid and reliable findings. Some limitations emerged in relation to the theories used in this study. To begin with, this was an experimental study for both teachers, for which they applied the proposed framework into their teaching. The theories were new to them and sometimes they had difficulties in terms of

230  Discussion and Conclusion planning, structuring, and implementation. Despite having had in-depth conversations with me and a lecture being provided for one of the teachers, these actions were unlikely to have sufficed in terms of their developing a comprehensive understanding of the theories as well as of the learning study. However, by means of reflecting on and evaluating their lessons as well as by considering the students’ prior knowledge and learning outcomes on a constant basis, the teachers gradually increased their grasp of the framework and the learning study. Hella (2008) argues that in general, RE teachers find it difficult to identify the object of learning and its critical aspects. According to Shulman’s (1987) idea of comprehension, teachers need to have a clear understanding of the subject matter as well as its relation to other issues within their field. The absence of a solid comprehension of the object of learning as well as the tough effort required to apply the theoretical framework into teaching also influenced the teaching situation in this study, such as on the use of methods and materials. According to Pang (2006), teachers need to become more involved in the instructional design of the research lessons in order to gain confidence as well as develop knowledge and abilities regarding the use of theories. Consequently, I would call on IRE teachers to become involved in more learning studies in order to gain general knowledge and skills with regard to how to conduct them. As it is the intention of the researcher to carry out learning studies in RE classes in Turkey, it becomes significant to address the possible limitations of the study in this context. RE teachers’ competence regarding subject matter knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge has been a hot discussion topic among Turkish academics (Isikdogan & Korukcu, 2008; Zengin, 2013). To give an example, it is argued that one of the reasons why the constructivist approach has not fully accomplished its goals in Turkish RE is because RE teachers lack necessary knowledge and experience regarding how to capitalise on this approach in their teaching (Kaymakcan, 2009). Although debated, some also believe that they are in need of developing their understanding of the subject matter (Isikdogan & Korukcu, 2008). Moreover, they lack adequate pedagogic knowledge as well as knowledge of their students. The curriculum itself lacks sufficient representation of students’ diverse needs and individual experiences: Their voice simply is not reflected in the curriculum as well as in the actual classroom (Kaymakcan, 2007). Considering all these issues, it will be challenging for teachers of RE in Turkey to apply new theories into their teaching, including the CRE and VT approaches. The practicality of conducting learning studies in Turkish RE classes also becomes a serious issue needing careful attention. These issues can be handled more effectively and flexible and time-saving methods can be developed through actual classroom-based research where teachers take the role of researchers, thus being able to develop first-hand knowledge and experience of the CRE and VT framework as well as the learning study model.

Discussion and Conclusion 231 Another limitation of the study pertained to time constraints. Teachers generally prefer using the theoretical perspective of VT in their teaching instead of implementing full learning studies due to lack of time (Holmqvist, 2011). Although the teachers involved in this study appreciated the results, they were not sure if they would be willing to participate in such a study in the future owing to time constraints, heavy workload, and tight school schedule. In particular, this is because ascertaining students’ prior understandings and getting them to discern the critical aspects takes more time than planning and enacting a normal lesson. As related earlier, both learning studies took around seven weeks, which is longer than a usual one that often only takes the form of one to two hour lessons. This was because of the length of the units in RE, which are generally longer than most other subjects. As a result, both teachers suggested that in the future, carrying out some sort of assessment in the first lesson to explore students’ pre-existent understandings and then continuing to develop the lessons based on this feedback, rather than conducting an in-depth phenomenographic analysis as happened in this research, would be desirable. The trainee teachers in Davies and Dunnill’s study (2008) also found ascertaining students’ initial conceptions challenging and consequently, instead of undertaking phenomenographic interviews and analysis, they conducted one-to-one conversations along with administering a short questionnaire to the students, which helped save time. This strategy could be pursued by IRE teachers who would like to participate in learning studies but face time issues. One further limitation of the research was the lack of collaboration among RE teachers, for in both studies, the participating teachers had to conduct the study only with the researcher. There were several reasons for this. First, in both schools the RE teachers were responsible for teaching certain grades, i.e. only one teacher was appointed for teaching a particular year group. Thus, it became impossible to include other teachers in the study, despite the common practice in learning studies being collaboration between teachers. This way of teaching is claimed to contribute to creating an innovative professional community among teachers, whereby they can share their knowledge and experience, thus developing their own teaching and students’ learning collaboratively (Chan  & Pang, 2006; Runesson, Kullberg, & Maunula, 2011; Pang & Lo, 2012). However, several scholars contend that teachers can gain pedagogical content knowledge and develop professionally even when they undertake learning studies on their own (Pang  & Marton, 2003; Pang, 2006; Lo et al., 2006; Davies & Dunnill, 2008). They can still experience variation between their past and present experiences and another advantage is that it would fit into their teaching schedule more effectively (Durden, 2018). That is, as this study has shown, they are able to investigate their own teaching practice, reflect on what they have planned and enact this in the classroom as well as enquire what students have actually have learned.

232  Discussion and Conclusion Finally, there were no comparison groups in this study. This was because the aim was not to test the proposed theories in terms of whether they bring about better learning outcomes compared to the use of other theories or teaching strategies. Despite the learning study approach proving successful in fostering student learning, I do not claim to have introduced a superior approach to teaching and learning in IRE. Rather, the aim was to illustrate what theoretical and pedagogical implications can be drawn for IRE from a classroom-based framework of CRE and VT.

8.4 Future Research During this research, some key areas emerged regarding future study. First, further investigation is required in different contexts in order to understand better the dynamics, implications, and limitations of the proposed framework for IRE. As this study was conducted in the UK, in a non-Muslim context, some learning studies need to be carried out also in Muslim contexts. Given my Turkish background, I am well aware of the importance of that country in terms of it being a bridge between tradition and modernity and hence, I believe it would be beneficial to conduct such research there as this would help in revealing the characteristics of Muslim pupils’ learning and establishing general knowledge about young Muslims’ attitudes and concepts about Islam as well as other religious and secular worldviews. In addition, in order to generalise and gain a thorough and in-depth understanding of Muslim young people as a population, and understand the gender differences in their learning of Islam further studies need to involve Muslim boys. Such knowledge will inform IRE teachers, practitioners and researchers of what is required in order to address the essential knowledge in IRE. The second suggestion is undertaking extensive research into IRE teachers’ professional development on issues pertaining to their learning. A  first step could be identifying teachers’ perceptions of teaching and learning in IRE. There has been a fair amount of studies on the notions of teaching among university academics/lecturers; however, only a few investigations have been conducted at the school level. Moreover, the studies have predominantly been in the area of science (Boulton-Lewis, Smith, McCrindle, Burnett,  & Campbell, 2001) and no such studies have been reported in RE. However, it is likely that there are essential differences between the conceptions of teachers of different school subjects owing to their different contexts and characteristics. As pointed out earlier, there is strong evidence of a close relationship between teachers’ conceptions of teaching and their teaching practices (Kember & Kwan, 2000), as well as their approach to student learning (Trigwell, Prosser, & Waterhouse, 1999; Meirink, Meijer, Verloop, & Bergen, 2009). It is also suggested that teachers who change their conceptions of teaching are likely to change their practices, which will eventually improve student

Discussion and Conclusion 233 learning (Ho, Watkins, & Kelly, 2001). Hence, in order to enhance IRE teachers’ professional development and pedagogical content knowledge, first, their approaches to teaching and learning could be ascertained through a phenomenographic study. Subsequently, some learning studies could be conducted for teachers to reflect on their conceptions and change them through research based empirical lessons. This would allow them to check their students’ learning on an on-going basis, which will lead to them regularly adjusting their teaching for making sure that learning occurs. In sum, the learning study model is proposed for helping IRE teachers develop a more powerful understanding of teaching, which involves a higher awareness of students’ prior knowledge, a more critical understanding of subject-matter knowledge, and improvement in teaching practices. Finally, involving IRE teachers in Turkey in learning studies will particularly help them develop pedagogical content knowledge as well as gain confidence in applying new RE theories into their teaching more effectively. Thus this will also respond to RE teachers’ professional development in Turkey.

8.5 Concluding Remarks Overall, this study has introduced a new theoretical and pedagogical framework for IRE based on the theories of CR, CRE and VT, aimed at improving teaching and learning. The study was undertaken because of the challenging issues in IRE in Muslim and non-Muslim contexts, including the problems of teaching Islam in confessional and constructivist contexts, absence of diversity in the IRE curriculum, and the issues related to IRE teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and practices. The learning study model was adopted in order to apply the proposed framework to the classroom context. This model was chosen as it allowed the researcher and the teacher to work together to design a teaching and learning environment that involved applying the framework systematically. The findings of this study suggest that the use of the CRE and VT framework can achieve successful outcomes in terms of teaching and learning in IRE. They show that VT can help to create the necessary conditions for learning to happen, for it guides teachers to critically engage with students’ prior knowledge and experiences through the use of variation, which results in meaningful learning for them. It has been demonstrated that CRE can enable Muslim learners to become involved in an intellectual and critical dialogue with the transcendental and contingent truth claims of Islam and other religious traditions. As a consequence, they will be able to gain a more complex, integrated, and differentiated understanding of their faith identity than before. Moreover, this process can help them to understand the rationales behind the fanatical extremist positions among Muslims as well as stereotypical perceptions of Islam/ Muslims and make a stand against these.

234  Discussion and Conclusion This study’s findings suggest that the use of the CRE and VT approaches through the learning study model can improve IRE teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and professional development by providing insight into their pedagogical beliefs and practices as well as being cognisant of the change they encounter through the implementation of the framework in their teaching. The outcomes can also inform IRE teachers with regard to students’ previous knowledge and experiences of religious phenomena and the subject matter knowledge. Thus, this study contributes to the existing literature on IRE teachers’ professional development by providing empirically based theoretical and pedagogical knowledge. To conclude, I  claim that the framework of CRE and VT provides the means to create a teaching and learning environment that involves a dynamic relationship between the teacher, the students, and the object of learning. Such an environment can help teachers to improve their pedagogical content knowledge and accordingly students’ learning outcomes. More research needs to be done to understand how this framework works in different contexts, such as in Turkey, to see its long-term effects and to develop it further.

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Appendices

Appendix A—Interview Protocol for the Students in the First Learning Study Pre-Interview Questions 1. Could you explain what ‘Islam’ means to you? 2. What do you think Islam is not about? 3. What does be Muslim mean to you? Can you give me a concrete example? 4. Do you think all Muslims are same? In what ways are they different? 5. What does Muslim community or living in a Muslim community mean to you? 6. Did you go to a Muslim school or a state primary school? How was your experience? 7. How does living in a non-Muslim country feel like? Would you prefer living in a Muslim country? Why/Why not? 8. Could you summarise how you understand Islam and what being a Muslim means to you? Post-Interview Questions 1. Could you explain what ‘Islam’ means to you? 2. Do you think your understanding of Islam changed after the lessons? Why/why not? 3. Could you explain to me the essential and superfluous characteristics of Islam and being Muslim? 4. What are the similarities and differences between Islam and other religions? 5. What does having a Muslim identity mean? 6. Are there any differences among Muslims? 7. What does Muslim community mean to you? 8. Could you summarise how you understand Islam and what being a Muslim means to you?

Appendices 239

Appendix B—Interview Protocol for the Students in the Second Learning Study Pre-Interview Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Could you explain how you understand equality? Could you give me a good example of equality? Could you give me an example of inequality? Could you tell me about equality in the Islamic religion? Do you think that there is a difference among Muslims and others in terms of how they treat people? 6. Do you think that religions make a difference in terms of equality? 7. Could you summarise what you think about equality in general and equality in Islam? Post-Interview Questions 1. Could you explain how you understand equality? 2. Do you think your understanding of equality changed after the lessons? Why/why not? 3. Thinking about the lessons you have learnt what do you think is important for achieving equality in society? 4. Could you tell me about equality in the Islamic religion? 5. Do you think that your understanding of equality in Islam has changed after the lessons? Why/why not? 6. Do you think religions make a difference in terms of equality? 7. Could you summarise what you think of equality in general and equality in Islam?

Appendix C—Interview Protocol for the Participating Teachers Pre-Interview Questions 1. Prior to this study, how would you describe/see your responsibility, role and purpose as a teacher? 2. Could you explain how you understand teaching and learning in RE? 3. Could you explain the process of planning and implementation of your lessons? 4. When planning and implementing a class or lesson, what do you focus on? 5. When planning and implementing specific lessons, what do you consider about students? 6. How would you describe what is involved in the process of a student really learning a subject, for example about Islam?

240  Appendices 7. How would you describe the students’ roles and responsibilities in the classroom in terms of their learning? 8. How do you deal with diversity of opinions in a class about a religious phenomenon? Questions About the ‘object of learning’ in Question 1. What knowledge and capabilities you aim your students to have at the end of this study? 2. How do you understand this object of learning? 3. What are the critical aspects of this object of learning according to you? 4. Did students have any difficulties or misconceptions in learning this topic in the previous years? 5. What might be the possible difficulties and misconceptions for the current students? 6. What are you planning to do to develop students’ learning and change their conceptions of this object of learning? Post-Interview Questions  1. Could you talk about the process of planning and implementing teaching and learning before, after, and during the learning study?   2. Could you explain how you used the framework of CRE and VT in your lessons during the learning study?   3. How did it affect you to find out students’ pre-understanding of the object of learning?   4. Could you explain what difference/impact did the process make in your understanding of teaching and learning in RE, specifically about Islam?   5. Did your aims and experiences about teaching Islam change during the practice of learning study?  6. Do you think that this framework can enhance your professional development/teaching performance?   7. During the process, do you think you developed knowledge and skills?   8. Could you explain what difference did the learning study make in students’ overall understanding of Islam?   9. Were there any difficulties you came across during the study? 10. What could be improved from the two cycles that you could use to remind yourself? 11. Do you think you might carry out learning studies in the future? 12. Overall, what is the most important influence to you from this teaching experience?

Index

Note: Page numbers in bold indicate tables. abduction 25, 37 absence 50, 73, 119, 125, 172, 222, 230 – 233 absolute word of God 30; see also Qur’an actual domain 23, 29 Akerlind, G. 53 – 54, 77 – 78, 83 – 85 Al-Attas, S. M. 3, 29 Alawi 8, 15n1 alethic truths 25 – 26 angels 29, 95, 130, 138, 224 anonymity 87 Archer, M. 21 – 27, 39; Transcendence: Critical Realism and Islam Critical Realism and God 27 Arkoun, M. 8, 28, 32 – 33 autonomy 4, 44, 107, 185, 187, 202; individual 45; personal 6; religious 107 Avicenna 30 Ayer, A. J. 24 Barnes, L. P.5, 44 – 45, 50 Batin 34 – 35 Bhaskar, R. 16n3, 21 – 27, 39, 71 Borko, H. 195 – 198, 212, 227 Bowden, J. A. 52 – 53, 54 – 56, 72, 77 – 78, 83 – 84, 218 Britain 163 British 138; culture and identity 75; Muslim 138, 143n7; society 149; western 9 Buddhism 100, 128 Caliph Ali 15n1, 34 – 35 Caliphate 34 categories of description 54, 72, 82 – 86, 94, 111, 135, 141, 147, 156, 180, 187

Christian 98, 102, 107, 122, 124, 126 – 128, 174 – 175; belief of ‘Jesus as God incarnate’100; confessional Christian religious education 44; country 97, 118; English 97; family 124; point of view 195, 205; theologians 26 Christianity 5, 15n1, 50, 60, 95, 97, 100, 123, 125, 136, 150 – 151, 161, 173, 193 – 194, 203 code-recode procedure 88 cognitive reasoning skills 4 Collier, A. 20 – 22, 26; Transcendence: Critical Realism and Islam Critical Realism and God 27 companions of the Prophet 36, 109, 139, 149, 166, 183 comprehension 57, 94, 191 – 192, 199, 219, 221, 226, 230; new 192 conceptual 216; change 227; development 53; philosophical 45; understanding 196 confessional 4; approach 2, 47; background 3; character 4; context 7, 233; Christian religious education 44; Islamic religious education 2 – 6, 75, 224; religious education 2 – 3, 224 – 225; religious educators 46; setting 46; teachercentred 227; traditional 12; way of teaching and learning 4 confessionalism 45 confidentiality 87 confirmability 88 consciousness: moral and spiritual 2; of God 158 constructivism 11, 37, 47, 192 constructivist: approach 4 – 6, 12, 47, 210, 225, 230; context 4 – 7, 233;

242 Index idea 38; Islamic religious education 6; learning theory 4; liberal 4, 12; paradigm 21; pedagogy 210; and postmodernist paradigm 21; religious education 2, 4, 6; studentcentred 227; theory 52, 209, 225; worldview 47 contemporary: age 32; Islamic philosophy 28; multi-faith world 11; Muslim society 31; problems of Muslims 11; societies 1; Western discourse 108; world 4 content analysis 72 context—whole and parts relationship 87, 160, 200 contrast 60, 78, 83, 95, 99, 106, 110, 114 – 115, 120 – 123, 160 – 161, 164 – 165, 169, 171 – 172, 177, 185, 202 – 205, 219 conversion 161; dynamics of 111 – 112, 125; religious 184 credibility 88 critical 225; assessment 39; dialogue 49, 233; engagement 40; examination 51, 194; features of a religious phenomenon 49; judgment 25, 48, 72, 141; manner 49, 63, 123, 176; rationalist perspective 32; realist 21, 24, 26 – 27, 29 – 30, 70 – 71, 192, 202; reflection 31, 95, 107, 136; and reflexive discernment process 47; relationship 24; scrutiny 20, 26 – 27, 194; teaching and learning 37; thinking 37, 56, 48, 201, 209; thinking skills 6, 209 – 210, 225; variation 73, 87, 125, 182, 187 critical aspects 53 – 56, 57 – 63, 72 – 74, 80 – 87, 111 – 135, 156 – 161, 180, 190 – 191, 197 – 201, 203 – 211, 216, 218 – 223, 227 – 233; of Islamic knowledge 12 Critical Realism 20-, 47; classical 21; dialectical 26 Critical Religious Education 44-, 93, 146, 215 Critical Religious Education in Practice: A Teacher’s Guide for the Secondary Classroom (Easton, Goodman, Wright,& Wright) 46 culture 9, 50, 110, 128, 137, 142, 152, 169, 187, 207 – 208; British

75; religious 44, 195; Turkish 7; Western-secular 217 curricular: aims 54, 58, 62, 73, 112 – 113, 156, 159, 196, 219; framework 219 curriculum 5 – 9, 13, 38, 57, 93, 112, 156 – 157, 196, 218 – 219, 228, 230; designers 218, 226; Islamic religious education 2 – 4, 7, 226, 233; official 7; religious education 7, 75, 225; religious studies 76 Davies, P. 63 – 64, 191, 205, 222 – 223, 227 – 228, 231 da’wah 102 – 103 Day of Judgment 30, 95 – 96, 99 – 100, 110, 123, 132, 185, 188n4 decision-making 6, 137; autonomous 137; critical 226 deep approach 56, 65n2 denomination 39, 110 dependability 88 design experiment 61 development 142, 223, 226; conceptual 53; of a dynamic Muslim identity 142; identity 97; individual 2; of the pedagogy of Islamic religious education 13 – 14, 70, 86; personal 4, 37, 45, 227; personal and social 19; religious citizenship 5; religious identity 95; of a religious literacy 225; spiritual and moral 116; teacher 190 – 191; of teachers’ beliefs and practices 220; teachers’ professional 63, 198, 212, 227 – 228, 232 – 234 discernment 37, 54, 58 – 60, 147, 186, 208, 211; deeper 4, 12, 37, 48, 216, 221; of meaning 48, 82, 84; of the object of learning 221, 226; principles of 36; process 47 diversity 5, 8, 27, 32, 47, 50, 76, 112; absence of 2, 7, 233; cultural 5, 8; epistemological 47; historical and denominational 226; inter and intra-religious 8, 226; of opinions 216 – 217; of people 157 – 158; religious 46, 157, 225; of religious and secular perspectives 49; sociocultural 4; within Islam 7, 113, 119; within the Muslim community 99, 116, 138, 139 – 141 divine destiny 29, 95

Index  243 doctrine of imamah 34 Dunnill, R. 63 – 64, 191, 205, 222 – 223, 227 – 228, 231 education 37, 165 – 169, 222; formal 1, 28; moral 45; teacher 191, 198, 227 – 228; Western-positivist 29 empirical 20, 37, 221; domain 22 – 23, 29; evidence 28 – 29; knowledge 24, 229; lessons 233; research 12, 20, 215 engagement 12, 38, 65, 86, 176; critical 45; epistemological 21; personal 50 Enlightenment Age 20 – 28 epistemic: certainty 23; fallacy 21 – 22, 24 – 26, 35; questions 38; relativism 11, 23 – 25, 31 – 35, 38, 160, 193, 200 – 204; relativity 27, 39 – 40, 47, 85, 114, 216 – 219; skills 210 epistemology 23; prophetic 31 equality 77, 123, 139, 148, 151 – 165, 176 – 188; against discrimination 150, 152; formal 147; gender 155 – 159, 161 – 162, 165 – 169, 183, 206, 217; of human rights 152; in Islam 73, 147; personal responsibility as an essential dimension in achieving equality 153, 157 – 158, 147, 153, 156, 173; as pursued through laws or religious principles 147, 152, 156, 187; racial 157 – 159, 161 – 162, 169 – 176; as recognising and valuing differences 147, 150, 156, 187; religious 150, 152, 159 – 176, 185 – 186; as sameness or equal treatment for all 147, 150, 153, 156, 187, 197 – 199; social 177 Erricker, C. 45 essential idealism 47 essential and superfluous characteristics of Islam 128 – 142, 201 ethics 15 explanatory theory 61 external horizon 55 – 56 extra-faith mode 39 fact-value 52 fairness 161, 178, 178 – 181, 199 faith 48, 60, 94, 97, 103 – 104, 109, 113, 115, 123 – 142; acquisition

125; based 207; commitment 51; declaration of 96; external 109; free choice of 108, 114 – 115; imitative 110; informed 107; internal 107, 110, 113; Islamic 2, 5, 98, 108, 136 – 137, 160 – 163, 184; multi 4, 11, 28, 46, 196, 224; school 48, 75; seeking understanding 48, 65n1; tradition 39, 100 – 103, 127 first-order perspective 52 fitrah 118 five pillars of Islam 138, 96, 114 – 116, 160 – 165; almsgiving (zakah) 30, 96, 130, 148, 194; declaration of faith 30, 96; fasting 30, 96, 108, 139; performing Hajj 96, 99, 165, 170; praying 96 – 99, 104, 139 framework 12, 38, 74; of critical religious education and variation theory 13 – 14, 45, 70 – 88, 93, 114, 147, 160, 215, 220 – 228; interpretive 31; methodological 37; pedagogical 13, 39, 44, 70, 216 – 219; philosophical 11, 21, 24, 71; systematic 59, 72; theoretical 191, 217, 228 freedom: of belief 16n1, 50, 107, 174; of expression 7, 115, 157, 187, 217; religious 160, 175, 185 free will 107, 187, 110, 117, 124 – 125, 136, 141 From East to West: Odyssey of a Soul (Bhaskar) 26 fundamental: Islam 2; principles of the Qur’an and Sunnah 75; questions 44 – 46, 51; truth claims 49 fundamentalism: Islamic 15n2 fusion 60, 114, 134, 205 Gadamer, H.G. 33, 51 generalisation 60, 114 – 116, 131, 162, 203 – 205 God 27, 29 – 32, 95, 115, 121, 132, 158, 167, 173 – 174; awareness of 28; concept of 123, 136; as Creator 30; and Critical Realism 26; existence of 24, 27, 29, 224; experience of 30; the ground-state and 27; Islamic notion of 27; knowledge of 2, 27, 30; nature of 29, 35, 121 – 123; Oneness of 55, 115, 118 – 123, 142; question of

244 Index 26 – 27; realisation 27; reality of 32; unity of 29, 115 God’s entity 115, 123 Grimmitt, M. 5, 192 ground-state 26 – 27 grounded theory approach 72 Guru Nanak 205 hadith 31 – 35, 89, 104 – 105, 115, 137, 167, 174 – 186, 196, 206 halal 96, 108, 132 Halstead, J.M. 2, 104 – 106 haram 118, 130, 132 having a dynamic Islamic identity 94, 107, 111, 115, 135, 143 Hay, D. 45 Hella, E. 14, 44 – 54, 176, 192, 216 – 219, 230 hermeneutics 44; approach 229; Gadamer’s 32, 51; Qur’anic 28 hierarchy of inclusiveness 83 hijab 96, 99, 103 – 104, 127, 194, 211 Hinduism 95, 100, 194 Holmqvist, M. 62 – 64, 191, 198, 205, 218, 220, 231 holy trinity triangle 201 human rights 10, 15n1, 197, 217, 150 – 152, 157 – 158, 197, 217 identity 112, 127; British culture and 75; construction 137; cultural 75, 116; development 95, 97; faith 60, 107, 141, 233; faith and 113, 115, 125 – 128, 131; Finnish 149; formation 1, 107; Islamic 2 – 5, 10, 94, 107, 111, 115, 135 – 137, 141; Muslim 7, 29, 60, 93, 96 – 98, 100 – 101, 107, 113, 128, 133, 199, 221; positive 99; religious 8, 95, 107 – 110, 113, 138, 140, 185; Turkish national 10 ijtihad 36 – 37, 41n4 imam Al-Baqir 34 iman 2, 30, 116, 130 – 131, 143n8, 216 implementation of faith to life 94, 111, 113, 135, 141 individuality 4, 71 inequality 148 – 151, 161, 169, 172 – 176; economic 148 insider 89 integration 12, 25, 54, 84, 148, 150; and belonging 2; and inter-religious dialogue 103; of Muslims to the wider society 12

intellectual: abilities 46; dialogue 233; interactions 222; responsibility 38 intelligence 132; academic 46; emotive 48 inter-faith mode 39 internal horizon 55 interpretive approach 71 interview 76 – 89; design 78; pre- and post-lesson 62, 76 – 79, 81 – 82; process 79; protocol 79; semistructured 73 intra-faith mode 39 intransitive (ontological) 39; domain of reality 21, 25, 37; realm 22; worlds of being 22 intuition-abduction 37 invariance 57 – 61, 82, 85 – 87, 114, 219, 227 Ipgrave, J. 6, 8 – 9, 226 Iqbal, M. 28 Islam: Alawi 8; authentic 9; basic knowledge about 94, 111, 141; essential and superfluous characteristics of 116, 128 – 131, 141 – 142; fundamental and extremist forms of 10; legitimate 137; monolithic understanding of 7; political form of 10; practising 96, 109, 113, 116, 128, 131; representation of 94, 99, 103, 111, 113, 141; Shi’a 34; Sunni 131, 138; traditional and cultural 137; truth claims of 47, 49, 108, 114, 216, 225; truthful and legitimate 137; Turkish 7; universal 7; as a way of life 103 Islamic: belief 8, 40, 48, 96, 117; community 99, 158, 206; dress code 100, 185, 203; faith 98, 108, 137, 162; history 34, 160; knowledge 9, 11 – 12, 28, 30 – 31; law 31, 33, 36, 89, 158; morality 104; philosophy 28; principles 104; religiosity 10; sect 34, 176; state 158, 160; theology 11 – 14, 21, 27 – 29, 32 – 33, 108; tradition 10, 28, 32, 35 Islamic education 1 – 6, 9, 89, 206; classical 3; inauthentic 207; modern 89; national 5 Islamic Religious Education 44, 215, 223; confessional 2, 25 Islamophobia 101 iteration 25, 37, 83 Jackson, R. 46, 195 Jesus 122, 173, 195, 205; incarnate 95, 100, 115

Index  245 Jewish/Judaism 15n1, 60, 94, 100, 122 – 123, 126, 193 judgement 11, 23 – 27, 32; critical 48; informed 72, 136, 186; moral 106, 158; rational 46; reasoned 107, 141; value 6, 106 judgemental rationality 11, 22, 25, 35 – 39, 47 – 48, 114, 160, 193, 200 – 204, 217 – 220 justice 158 – 162, 176 – 186, 187, 197, 205 Kadî Abdülcebbar 33 kalam 11, 33 Kaymakcan, R. 4 – 8, 225, 231 Kharijites 34 knowledge 37 – 40, 100, 137 – 139, 190 – 192; academic 196; academic content 58, 196; acquisition 12; construction 45; content 196, 219, 223; cross-curricular subject 197; Islamic 207, 226; pedagogical 227 – 230; pedagogical content 64, 212, 220, 232 – 234; phenomenological 44; prior 37, 48, 56 – 57, 62, 73, 82, 157, 198; Qur’anic 4; religious 109, 139, 226; subject-matter 87, 156 – 159, 192, 195 – 196, 212, 230; teacher 196; transmission 37, 48 Kullberg, A. 56 – 61, 80 – 82, 85, 223 laic/laicity 7, 10 learner-centred approach 5, 64 learning: environment 4, 13, 59 – 61, 191, 198, 210, 223 – 227; objectives 156 – 157, 199, 201 learning ‘about’ and learning ‘from’ religion 45, 192, 194 learning study 14, 61 – 62, 72 – 74; process 62 – 63 lesson study 61 – 62 liberalism 2 Lo, M. 55 – 63, 87, 191, 198, 219 – 224 locally-agreed syllabus 75 Locke, J. 16n3 Madinah constitution 176 madrasa 1 – 3 Malcolm X 161, 170 – 171 Marton, F. 52 – 63, 77 – 85, 191, 200, 219 – 224 Mawdudi, A. A. 158, 160 McGrath, A. E. 25 MEB 3, 8 meta-reality 26 – 27

middle: east 188n2; eastern 10, 77, 126, 133, 166 modernity 10, 28, 232 morality 2, 29, 60, 105 – 111, 134 – 139, 152 – 154, 203 mosques 9, 98 – 99 Mu’tazilites 33 Muhkam 33 muhkamat 33, 41n3 muhsin 130 multi-cultural 4, 75 multi-faith 44; approach 196; classrooms 46; context 224; religious education 4, 11, 44, 46, 196, 224 Muslim: community 6, 12, 29, 36 – 37, 56, 96 – 102, 110 – 116, 131 – 141, 161 – 163, 206, 225; context 3, 7; family 95 – 98, 125; ‘genuine’ and ‘nominal’ 10; girls 1, 72 – 75; history 28, 226; practising/non-practising 95, 129 – 130, 149, 203; pupils/ students 4 – 9, 12, 14, 49, 70 – 72, 98, 146, 225; scholars 28, 32; women 127, 165, 185, 205; world 1, 9, 28; young people 11, 149, 226 Muslimness 95, 140 – 141 mutashabih 33 mutashabihat 33, 41n3 Nation of Islam 170, 206 negation-presence duality 202 Nilsson, P. 64, 191, 196, 205, 211, 224 non-denominational 75 non-dualistic; approach 52; ontology 52, 54 object of learning 56 – 64, 72 – 77, 93, 112, 117, 136, 146, 161, 180; complex 218; direct 56, 61, 93, 215; enacted 57, 80, 85, 116 – 117; indirect 93, 216; intended 57, 80, 112, 156 – 159, 161, 200; lived 57, 84, 93, 135, 147, 180 observation: classroom 62, 79 – 80, 86 – 88; direct 79; lesson 80 ontic fallacy 21 – 24 ontology 22 – 23; dualistic/nondualistic 22, 54; relativist 21 order of things 11, 22 – 24, 40, 49, 192, 225 outcome space 53, 83 – 84, 94 Pakistani 150; backgrounds 77 panentheistic 26, 40n1 Pang, M. 53 – 64, 80 – 86, 219 – 224, 230 – 231

246 Index patterns of variation 58 – 64, 85 – 86, 205 pedagogical: perceptions and practices 65, 70, 76, 79 – 80, 82, 86, 190 – 192; reasoning model 191 – 192 Peek, L. 95 – 97, 107, 137 peer support 98, 109 personal: development 4, 37, 45, 227; relationship with God 35, 109 personal responsibility 182; as an essential dimension in achieving equality 147, 153, 156 – 157; justice and 159, 161 – 162, 178, 180 – 181, 187; in terms of choosing and maintaining one’s faith 111, 115; in terms of faith 112 – 115, 123 – 125 phenomenographic; analysis 71, 74, 82 – 86; interviewing 78; research 44, 53 – 54, 71 – 72, 86; study 53, 58, 78 phenomenography 14, 51 – 54, 70 – 74, 82, 86 – 88, 218 Porpora, D. 21 – 22, 26; Transcendence: Critical Realism and Islam Critical Realism and God 27 positivism 11, 21, 25 post-modern 51 post-structuralism 11 post-test 13, 57, 73 – 74, 84, 135, 141 – 142, 186 – 187, 198, 220 pre-test 73 – 74, 111, 123, 132, 135, 141, 156 – 159, 170 – 172, 186 – 187, 192, 194, 200 professional: development 198, 212, 227, 234; learning 220 Prophet Ibrahim 115, 123, 125, 139 Prophet Muhammad (saw) 30 – 31, 35 – 36, 100, 104 – 106, 118 – 120, 122, 134, 155, 168, 174, 183 – 185, 196 qualitative research 52, 70 – 71, 74 – 76, 87 Questions of Truth (Hookway) 46 Qur’an 30 – 31; centred 3; revelation 33 – 34 Qur’anic: discourse 3, 193; exegesis 33; guidance 3; hermeneutics 28; knowledge 4; message 31; methodology 4; reality 30;

teachings 31, 36, 105, 139; text 33, 182; verse 3, 122, 162 radicalisation 7 Rahman, F. 28 – 30; Revival and Reform in Islam 28 real domain 23, 29; of events and structures 29; of reality 22 realism: empirical 22; ontological 21 – 30, 38 – 39 reality 27 – 40; divine 31, 113; of God 27, 29, 31; Islamic 48; ontological 31, 38, 45, 49, 205; Qur’anic 30; natural and social 70; transcendental 31, 38, 195, 216, 224; ultimate 45, 47, 49, 52; as value-laden reason 27, 33, 36, 106; revelation and 33 reasoning 136, 209; cognitive 4; critical reflection and 3; logical 28, 209; pedagogical 191 – 192, 212; personal 36 recognition of differences 147, 152, 157 referential aspect 54 – 55, 89n1, 94, 147 reflection 5, 36, 46, 190; critical 31, 95, 107, 136 reflexivity 25, 89 relationality 52, 71 relevance structure 56, 78, 160, 165, 171 reliability 86, 95 religion 94 – 120, 130 – 135, 149 – 163; Abrahamic 100; Islamic 77, 225; world 7, 75, 111 religiosity 10, 96, 151 religious: background 88, 151, 155; belief 50, 94 – 95, 99, 139, 149, 155, 203, 223; citizenship development 5; community 2, 97, 114; culture 44, 195; discrimination 45, 151; doctrines 20, 206; experience 27, 32, 46, 50, 112, 125; extremism 10, 172; festivals 98, 108; groups 33 – 34, 135, 149 – 151, 173 – 175, 185; instruction 7 – 8, 105, 167; interpretation 34 – 36, 135, 169, 182; language 47, 105; observances 109, 175; perspectives 6, 15, 136, 205; phenomena 1, 4, 6, 10, 37, 47, 53, 71, 192, 195 – 196, 216 – 218,

Index  247 224 – 229; philosophy 26; practices 8, 29, 39, 94 – 97, 108 – 111, 119, 128, 195, 205; principles 147, 152, 156, 187; reality 38; rituals/ observances 27, 49, 94, 103, 109, 139, 175; rules 96 – 99, 147, 152 – 154, 158, 207; sameness 161, 172, 185; symbols 94, 194; teachings 96, 106, 154 – 155, 167 – 171, 186 – 187, 208; text 40, 139 – 140, 183 – 184; tradition 5, 8, 27, 45 – 50, 100, 125, 151, 205; tolerance 185; worldviews 5, 47, 126, 150 – 152, 193 religious education 6, 226 – 227; compulsory 10; confessional 2, 46, 224 – 225; constructivist 2, 4, 6; liberal 38, 47; phenomenological 45; spiritual 45 religious identity 8, 95, 107 – 110, 113, 138, 140, 185; ascribed 95; comprehensive 109; development 95; normative 140 religious literacy 49, 56, 75, 216, 220, 225 research: action 14, 61; lesson 13 – 15, 61 – 65, 76 – 87, 114, 146, 159, 191, 219 – 220, 230; paradigm 70 resurrection 115, 123 retroduction 25, 37 righteous 2, 31, 38, 158, 162, 167, 178 Rissanen, I. 3, 5, 12, 95, 107 – 108, 149 Runesson, U. 56 – 61, 85 – 87, 191, 221 – 223, 231 sahaba 109 salah 138 sameness or equal treatment 147, 153, 156 – 157, 187 sampling 74 – 75; process 74; purposive 74; random 74; sequential, convenience 75 Saudi Arabia 9, 149, 154 – 155, 161, 170 – 172, 185, 187 school 48, 75 – 79, 228; ethos 196; faith 48, 75; Muslim 12, 98; Muslim girls’ secondary 71, 75 – 76, 93; non-confessional community 1; non-faith community 14, 75, 146; secondary 70; of thought 8, 33; weekend Islamic 207 Scott, D. 21 – 25, 39, 48, 52

second-order perspective 52 secularism 2, 5, 10, 28 self-realisation 27; philosophy of 26 self-transcendence 26 separation 60, 114, 124 – 125, 128 – 129, 160 – 162, 170, 205 Shari’a 30, 36 – 37; law 37 Shi’a 7, 34 – 35, 49, 99, 131, 138, 154, 176; hadith collections 35; Muslims 49, 133; theological beliefs 134; thought 134 shirk 115, 121, 203 Shulman, L. S. 191 – 192, 195, 198 – 199, 209, 220, 230 Sikhism 151, 194, 203, 205 simultaneity 54, 56 six pillars of iman (faith) 116, 129 – 130, 217 social cohesion 4, 7, 37 spiritual: aspects of life 37; awareness 44; beings 29, 31, 218; beliefs and practices 13; development 116; dimensions of Islam 111; experiences 45; guidance 2, 105 – 106; phenomena 29, 31, 37 – 40, 224; questions 26; transformation 3; turn 26; worldviews 108, 226 spirituality 44, 109, 111, 120, 142 structural aspect 54 – 55, 82 – 83, 95, 147 structure of awareness 54 – 55, 58 student:-centred 4, 210 – 211, 227; learning 12 – 14, 54, 58 – 59, 61 – 64, 190, 211 – 212, 219 – 229 subject related research 58, 62, 73 Sufi 7, 34, 134 – 135, 138; school of thought 8; tradition 7 Sufism 35 Sunnah 31 – 36 Sunni 134, 154; Hanafi school 7; Muslim 49, 99; scholars 34 – 35; tradition 8 Surah Al-Kafirun 125 Suratu’l Ikhlas 114, 121, 136 surface approach 56, 65n2 tafsir 33 – 34 tarbiyah 2 tasawwuf 35 tawhid 29, 30, 47, 55, 95, 112, 113, 115, 121 – 122, 135, 142 ta’wil 33 – 35

248 Index teacher 75, 86 – 87; centred 5, 227; change 190, 195, 212; development 190 – 191; education 191, 198, 227 – 228; in-service 228; knowledge 196; learning 190, 200; pedagogical practices 87, 116, 208, 222; pre-service 227 – 228; professional development 63, 198, 228, 232 – 233 teaching: learning environment 73, 223; practice 220, 227 – 228, 231 – 233; strategies 5, 191, 207 – 212, 227 Teece, G. 50 theology 8, 21; Islamic 4, 11, 21, 27 – 29, 33 – 36, 89, 108, 132; universal 47 theory-driven learning environment 61 Thobani, S. 4, 7, 9, 226 transferability 88 transformation 51, 100, 171, 191 – 192, 224; possibility of 37 – 38; psychological and spiritual 3; self- 3 transitive/intransitive 21, 37 – 39; domain of reality 23 – 25; realm 22; worlds of being 222 triangulation 8 trustworthiness 87 – 88 truth 24, 29, 46; alethic 25 – 27; value 88 truth claims 24, 26, 30, 40, 47 – 51, 136; contested 45, 48, 194, 216; Islam 35, 48 – 49, 108, 119, 123, 160, 216 – 217; ontological 20, 47; religious 44 – 45, 50, 137, 193; transcendental 11; ultimate 8, 44, 50, 114, 225 truthfulness 11, 47 – 50. 195 Turkey 1 – 3, 7 – 8, 10, 15n1, 224 – 225, 230

Turkish: culture 7; formal education 1; Islam 7; laicity 10; modernity 10; national identity 10; religious education 5, 225, 230; secularism 10 ulu al-amr 15 ummah 2, 99, 110, 131 – 132, 140 underlabouring 16n3, 37; role 29; tool 11, 14, 39 United Kingdom 1 – 2, 4, 6 – 9, 44 usul al-fiqh 33 value-ladenness 21 variation and invariance 57 – 62, 82, 85 – 87, 114, 227 Variation Theory 54 – 60, 84 – 87 video-recording 79, 87 Wahhabis 34 wajib al wujud 30 Western: British 9; contexts 156; countries 3 – 5, 108, 207; discourse 108; European contexts 9; liberal perspective 166, 197; liberal tradition 5; lifestyle 97; philosophy 28; positivist education 29; secular values 1, 217; society 108, 139; values 108 Wilkinson, M. L. N. 11, 27 – 32, 35 – 36, 38 – 39, 71, 224 – 225; A Fresh Look at Islam in a MultiFaith World 27 worldviews 11, 24, 49, 193; religious and secular 44 – 47, 59, 216, 232 worshipping 30, 60, 100, 131 Wright, A. 36 – 38, 44 – 51, 192 – 194; Critical Religious Education 44 written task 61, 73, 77, 81 – 88 Yasawis 8 zahir 33