Imagined Human Beings: A Psychological Approach to Character and Conflict in Literature 9780814767917

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Imagined Huma n Being s

LITERATURE AN D PSYCHOANALYSI S General Editor : Jeffrey Berma n The Beginning of Terror A Psychological Study ofRainer Maria Rilke's Life and Work DAVID KLEINBAR D

Loathsome Jews and Engulfing Women Metaphors of Projection in the Works of Wyndham Lewis, Charles Williams, and Graham Greene ANDREA FREU D LOEWENSTEI N

Literature and the Relational Self BARBARA AN N SCHAPIR O

Narcissism and the Literary Libido Rhetoric, Text, and Subjectivity MARSHALL W . ALCORN , JR .

Reading Freud's Reading EDITED B Y SANDE R L . GILMAN , JUTT A BIRMELE , JA Y GELLER , and VALERI E D . GREENBER G

Self-Analysis in Literary Study EDITED B Y DANIE L RANCOUR-LAFERRIER E

The Transformation of Rage Mourning, and Creativity in George Eliofs Fiction PEGGY F I T Z H U G H JOHNSTON E

Mastering Slavery Memory, Family, and Identity in Women's Slave Narratives JENNIFER FLEISCHNE R

Imagined Human Beings A Psychological Approach to Character and Conflict in Literature BERNARD J . PARI S

Imagined Human Being s

A Psychological Approach to Character and Conflict in Literature Bernard J. Pari s

NEW YOR K U N I V E R S I T Y PRES S New York and London

NEW YOR K U N I V E R S I T Y PRES New Yor k an d Londo n

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© 199 7 b y New Yor k Universit y All rights reserve d Library o f Congres s Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a Paris, Bernard J . Imagined huma n being s : a psychological approac h t o characte r an d conflict i n literature / Bernard J. Paris. p. cm.—(Literatur e an d psychoanalysi s ; 9) Includes bibliographica l reference s an d index . ISBN 0-8147-6655-2 (clothboun d : alk. paper).—ISB N 0-8147-6656-0 (paperboun d : alk. paper ) 1. Literature—Psychologica l aspects . 2 . Psycholog y i n literature. 3 . Psychoanalysi s an d literature . 4 . Character s an d characteristics i n literature. 5 . Motivatio n (Psychology ) i n literature. I . Title . II . Series . PN56.P93P38 199 7 809'.93353—dc2i 97-487 9 CIP New Yor k University Pres s books ar e printed o n acid-fre e paper , and thei r bindin g materials ar e chosen fo r strengt h an d durability . Manufactured i n the United State s of Americ a 10

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For Shirley still my inspiration

Contents Freface xi I I 2

II 3 4 5

Introduction Applications o r a Horneyan Approac h Horney's Matur e Theor y

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Characters an d Relationship s A Doll's House an d Hedda Gabler The End of the Road

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"The Clerk' s Tale "

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The Merchant of Venice

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Antigone

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Character, Plot , Rhetoric , an d Narrativ e Techniqu e

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Great Expectations

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Jane Eyre

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The Mayor of Casterbridge

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Madame Bovary

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The Awakening

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Wuthering Heights

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Conclusion Notes References Index About the Author

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Preface What fascinate s m e mos t abou t literatur e i s it s portraya l o f human being s an d thei r relationships . Fo r many year s I have bee n devel oping a psychological approac h i n which I try t o understan d th e behav ior o f realistically draw n character s i n the sam e way tha t w e understan d the behavio r o f rea l people . Thes e character s ar e no t fles h an d bloo d creatures, o f course , bu t ar e imagine d huma n being s wh o hav e man y parallels wit h peopl e lik e ourselves . Numerou s critic s hav e maintaine d that i t is inappropriate o r impossibl e t o explai n th e behavio r o f fictional characters i n motivationa l terms , bu t I argu e i n chapte r i tha t th e rejection o f psychological analysi s ha s bee n a major critica l error . One reaso n wh y I find i t possibl e t o analyz e literar y character s psy chologically is that I employ the theories of Karen Horney, which explai n behavior i n term s o f it s functio n withi n th e presen t structur e o f th e psyche rathe r tha n i n term s o f infantil e origins . Whil e literatur e give s little o r n o informatio n abou t infancy , i t reveal s a grea t dea l abou t th e adult. A Horneya n approac h doe s no t forc e u s t o inven t a character' s early histor y bu t permit s u s t o utiliz e exactl y th e kin d o f informatio n that literatur e supplies . For th e benefi t o f thos e wh o ar e unfamilia r wit h Horney, I provide a n accoun t o f he r idea s i n chapter 2 . Among th e virtue s o f Horney' s theor y ar e tha t i t i s fre e o f arcan e terminology an d i s readily intelligible . I have aspire d t o th e sam e virtue s in this book . I have writte n i t not onl y fo r fello w critics , bu t als o fo r al l students, teachers , an d lover s o f literatur e wh o ar e draw n t o novel s an d plays becaus e o f thei r huma n interest . Fo r th e sak e o f readability , I have chosen no t t o becom e a combatant i n th e theor y war s tha t ar e ragin g i n the fields o f psychoanalysi s an d literar y studie s thes e days . I hav e dis cussed Kare n Horney' s plac e i n psychoanalyti c though t i n m y 199 4 biography o f her , an d I have defende d variou s aspect s o f m y psychologi cal approac h t o literatur e i n previous critica l work s (Pari s 1974 , 1978b , 1986a, 1991a , 1991b) .

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xii | Preface I have entitled this book Imagined Human Beings becaus e it is largely about mimeti c characters who can b e understood i n psychological terms . As th e subtitl e suggests , i t i s als o abou t variou s kind s o f conflict . Ther e are conflicts , first o f all , withi n an d betwee n th e characters . I n par t 2 , I analyze th e inne r division s o f th e centra l character s an d th e dynamic s o f their relationship s i n work s b y Sophocles , Chaucer , Shakespeare , Ibsen , and Barth . I want t o show not onl y the ability of the Horneyan approac h to yiel d clarifyin g reading s o f controversia l text s bu t als o it s rang e o f application. Perhaps becaus e the title of her first book wa s The Neurotic Personality of Our Time, som e peopl e hav e th e impressio n tha t Horney' s theor y is limited t o th e tim e an d plac e i n whic h sh e wrote . I t i s not a universa l theory, o f cours e (n o theor y is) , bu t i t deal s wit h huma n need s an d defenses tha t ar e portraye d i n th e literatur e o f man y period s an d cul tures. Whil e no t ignorin g cultura l differences , a Horneya n approac h enables u s t o se e a n underlyin g similarit y i n huma n experience . I t ca n help u s t o understan d th e behavio r o f character s i n literatur e fro m th e past, t o ente r int o thei r feelings , an d t o enric h ou r knowledg e o f our selves an d other s throug h a n understandin g o f thei r inne r conflict s an d relationships. There ar e othe r kind s o f conflic t tha t I explore a s well. I argue in par t 3 tha t i n realisti c literatur e ther e i s usuall y conflic t betwee n plo t an d rhetoric o n th e on e han d an d mimesi s o n th e other . Whe n concretel y drawn character s ar e understoo d i n psychologica l terms , the y ten d t o escape thei r role s i n th e plo t an d t o subver t th e vie w o f the m advance d by th e rhetoric . I loo k a t tw o pattern s o f actio n i n particular , th e education an d vindicatio n plots . Whe n I examin e th e protagonist s o f education plot s fro m a Horneya n perspective , the y d o no t see m t o hav e matured bu t t o have switche d fro m on e defensiv e strateg y t o another . I n vindication plots , nobl e character s ar e unappreciate d a t th e outse t bu t eventually receiv e th e admiratio n the y deserve . Fro m a Horneya n per spective, thes e character s appea r les s admirabl e tha n th e vindicatio n pattern require s them t o be . There i s almos t alway s conflic t betwee n a n author' s interpretation s and judgments , whic h ar e par t o f wha t I mea n b y "rhetoric, " an d th e mimetic portrai t o f a character . Author s ten d t o glorif y character s wh o embody th e defensiv e strategie s the y favo r whil e accuratel y portrayin g their behavio r a s damagin g t o themselve s o r others . A Horneya n ap proach help s u s not onl y to se e disparities betwee n rhetori c an d mimesi s

Preface | xii i but als o to understand th e forces i n the implied author' s personalit y tha t generate them . Ther e ar e sometime s inconsistencie s withi n th e rhetori c itself, a s th e autho r present s conflictin g interpretation s an d judgments . A Horneyan approac h ca n help us to make sens e of such inconsistencie s by seeing them a s a product o f the inner division s o f the implied author . The conflict s betwee n rhetori c an d mimesis tha t ar e a consequence of realistic characterizatio n ca n b e eithe r exacerbate d o r reduce d b y th e choice o f narrativ e technique . I n par t 3 , I compar e si x novel s tha t employ a variety o f narrativ e technique s an d try to sho w tha t th e problems create d b y bot h omniscien t an d first perso n narratio n ar e illumi nated b y a Horneya n approac h an d resolve d b y th e us e o f multipl e narrators, suc h as Emily Bronte employ s in Wutbering Heights. This boo k i s a product o f the continuing evolutio n o f the psychological approac h t o literatur e tha t I hav e bee n unfoldin g sinc e 1964 . I t illustrates som e o f application s o f th e approac h tha t I hav e discusse d before, bu t i t emphasize s som e thing s tha t m y previou s book s d o not , such a s plot an d narrativ e technique , an d i t applie s th e approac h mor e systematically an d t o a wide r rang e o f literar y issue s an d texts . I t pro vides distinctiv e readings , I think , o f a doze n majo r work s o f Wester n literature. If read i n conjunction wit h par t 1 , each chapte r ca n be understood b y itself, bu t the chapters ar e connected t o eac h othe r b y a serie s of comparisons an d are part o f an unfolding stor y that reache s its climax in m y discussio n o f Wuthering Heights. I n th e concludin g chapter , I review wha t I hav e don e her e an d elsewher e an d sugges t additiona l applications o f the approach . I have bee n working ou t the interpretations presente d her e in my classes for severa l decades , an d I hav e foun d th e Horneya n approac h a jo y t o teach, a t bot h th e undergraduate an d graduate levels . Perhaps m y greatest debt is to the students at Michigan Stat e University and the University of Florid a wh o challenged m e with thei r question s an d bor e wit h m e as I grope d fo r answers . I n som e case s i t too k m e decade s t o arriv e a t a reading with whic h I felt satisfied . I hav e chose n t o summariz e precedin g criticis m rathe r tha n t o docu ment i t i n detail , bu t I haste n t o sa y tha t I a m deepl y indebte d t o th e critics wh o hav e gon e befor e me . I believ e tha t m y interpretation s ar e substantially differen t fro m theirs , bu t I hav e benefite d greatl y fro m engaging wit h thei r point s o f view , a s I hop e other s wil l benefi t b y engaging wit h mine . Critica l controversie s hav e ofte n alerte d m e t o

xiv | Preface contradictory element s i n literar y work s tha t I migh t no t hav e see n o n my own . I hav e profite d fro m havin g presente d paper s o n som e o f th e work s discussed i n this book . I formulated th e earlies t version o f my reading of Madame Bovary fo r a conferenc e o n Flauber t tha t wa s organize d b y Herbert Joseph s a t Michiga n Stat e University . I presente d a pape r o n The End of the Road a t a meetin g o f th e Popula r Cultur e Association , in a sessio n chaire d b y Branimi r Rieger , an d a partia l versio n o f m y reading o f Hedda Gabler a t a conferenc e o f th e Internationa l Kare n Horney Society . I late r presente d fulle r version s o f m y readin g o f thi s play t o a semina r a t Trinit y College , Universit y o f Toronto , an d t o th e Group fo r th e Applicatio n o f Psychology , Universit y o f Florida . I pre sented a n earl y versio n o f m y interpretatio n o f A DolVs House a t a scientific meetin g of the Association fo r th e Advancement o f Psychoanal ysis an d a late r versio n t o th e Literatur e an d Psychoanalysi s Grou p of th e Toront o Psychoanalyti c Society . Al l o f thes e presentation s wer e followed b y discussion s fro m whic h I learned a great deal , and I wish t o thank thos e who participate d i n them . I hav e receive d particula r hel p wit h m y chapte r o n "Th e Clerk' s Tale" fro m Mari e Nelson , m y medievalis t colleagu e a t th e Universit y o f Florida, an d astut e comment s o n m y chapte r o n The End of the Road from Andre w Gordon , m y Americanis t colleagu e an d fello w membe r o f the Institut e fo r Psychologica l Stud y o f th e Art s a t UF . Diane Hoevele r and Bet h Lau mad e valuabl e suggestion s fo r improvin g th e much briefe r version o f m y readin g o f Jane Eyre tha t wa s publishe d i n th e ML A volume the y edite d o n approache s t o th e teachin g o f tha t nove l (Pari s 1993a). Other portion s o f th e presen t boo k hav e als o bee n previousl y pub lished. Chapte r 1 draws o n " A Horney an Approach t o Literature" (Pari s 1991c) an d th e Introductio n o f Third Force Psychology and the Study of Literature (Pari s 1986a) . Chapte r 2 draw s o n Karen Horney: A Psychoanalyst's Search for Self-Understanding (Pari s 1994a) . Part o f th e discussion o f A DolVs House i n chapte r 3 was publishe d i n The American Journal of Psychoanalysis (Pari s 1978a) , an d a versio n o f chapte r 6 was publishe d i n th e sam e journa l (Pari s 1989b) . A preliminary versio n of my reading o f Madame Bovary wa s published i n The Literary Review (Paris 1981) , and a modified versio n o f the present chapte r o n that nove l was publishe d i n The American Journal of Psychoanalysis (Pari s 1997) . A portio n o f chapte r 1 3 wa s publishe d i n Women and Literature (Pari s

Preface | x v 1982) an d anothe r portio n i n "Thir d Forc e Psycholog y an d th e Stud y of Literature , Biography , Criticism , an d Culture " (Pari s 1986b) . Th e Conclusion draw s o n Third Force Psychology and the Study of Literature (Pari s 1986a) , " A Horneyan Approac h t o Literature " (Pari s 1991c) , Bargains with Fate (Pari s 1991a) , and Karen Homey: A Psychoanalyst's Search for Self-Understanding (Pari s 1994a) . I wish to thank th e journal s and presse s tha t hav e previousl y publishe d portion s o f thi s boo k fo r allowing m e to includ e this material here . I wis h t o exten d m y deepes t thank s t o Jeffre y Berman , th e Genera l Editor o f th e Ne w Yor k University Press' s Literatur e an d Psychoanalysi s series, and t o m y wife, Shirley . This boo k probabl y woul d no t hav e bee n written withou t Jeffre y Berman' s invitation , an d h e ha s give n m e soun d advice an d encouragemen t a t ever y stage. It was a great hel p having hi m in min d a s m y reade r a s I sa t a t m y wor d processor . A s always , Shirle y has live d throug h th e proces s o f creatio n wit h m e an d ha s give n m e th e benefit o f a n immediat e perceptiv e response . Sh e ha s bee n m y first an d best criti c an d m y mos t preciou s sourc e o f support . I dedicated m y first book t o he r i n 1965 . I t i s tim e fo r m e t o dedicat e anothe r boo k t o m y very dear wife .

1 Applications o f a Horneyan Approac h It i s no t difficul t t o se e wh y psychoanalyti c theor y ha s bee n widely use d i n th e stud y o f literature . Psychoanalysi s deal s wit h huma n beings in conflict wit h themselve s an d eac h other , an d literatur e portray s and i s writte n an d rea d b y suc h people . Wha t i s confusin g i s tha t there ar e s o man y psychoanalyti c theories , eac h wit h it s claim s an d proponents. It clearly makes sense to use psychoanalysis i n literary study , but whic h theor y shoul d w e employ ? I d o no t believ e tha t literatur e shoul d b e place d o n th e Procrustea n bed o f an y on e theory . Huma n psycholog y i s inordinatel y comple x an d can b e approached i n man y ways . A number o f theorie s hav e accuratel y described certai n aspect s o f it , bu t non e ha s th e whol e trut h o r i s universally applicable . Man y theorist s hav e derive d globa l model s o f human natur e fro m th e limite d rang e o f phenomen a the y understan d well, o r hav e trie d t o explai n to o muc h wit h to o limite d a repertor y o f motives. W e nee d a wid e rang e o f theorie s t o d o justic e t o th e richnes s and diversit y o f huma n experienc e an d t o th e literatur e tha t expresse s it . Some theorie s ar e highl y congruen t wit h certai n work s an d som e wit h others, an d ofte n severa l ca n b e employe d i n studyin g th e sam e tex t o r aspect o f literature . Ther e i s a larg e bod y o f Freudia n an d Jungia n criticism; an d th e idea s o f Alfre d Adler , Ott o Rank , Wilhel m Reich , Melanie Klein , D . W . Winnicott, R . D . Laing , Frit z Perls , Heinz Kohut , Jacques Lacan , an d other s hav e als o bee n profitabl y use d i n literar y studies. Another psychoanalys t wit h a n importan t contributio n t o mak e i s Karen Horney . He r theor y fits numerou s work s fro m a wid e rang e o f periods an d culture s an d illuminate s a variet y o f literar y issues . It yield s a distinctiv e se t o f insight s an d i s a valuable critica l tool . When I first read Horne y i n 1959 , a t th e suggestio n o f a colleagu e i n psychology, I was deeply impressed b y her theory. She not onl y describe d

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my behavio r i n a n immediatel y recognizabl e way , bu t sh e seeme d t o have invade d m y privac y an d t o hav e understoo d m y insecurities , inne r conflicts, an d unrealisti c demand s o n myself . Above all , sh e enable d m e to comprehen d a mysterious chang e tha t ha d take n plac e in me since th e completion o f m y dissertation . I wa s originall y a specialis t i n Victoria n fiction wh o wa s traine d a t Johns Hopkin s i n the explicatio n o f texts an d th e history o f ideas . In m y doctoral dissertation , I examine d Georg e Eliot' s though t i n relatio n t o her tim e an d he r novel s i n relation t o he r ideas . While I was working o n my dissertation, I felt tha t Georg e Eliot had discovere d th e answe r t o th e modern ques t fo r values , an d I expounde d he r Religio n o f Humanit y with a proselytizin g zeal . Whe n I complete d th e dissertation , I foun d that althoug h I still felt m y reading o f Georg e Elio t to b e accurate, I was no longe r enthralle d b y he r ideas . I coul d no t understan d m y los s o f enthusiasm, whic h ha d lef t m e feelin g painfull y disoriente d an d uncer tain abou t m y beliefs . Reading Karen Horney helpe d m e to understan d wha t ha d happened . Horney correlate s belie f system s wit h strategie s o f defens e an d observe s that whe n ou r defense s change , so does our philosoph y o f life. I had ha d great difficult y writin g m y dissertation , fo r reason s tha t therap y late r made clear , an d ha d frequentl y fel t hopeles s abou t completin g th e Ph.D . Faced wit h th e frustratio n o f m y academi c ambitions , I foun d Georg e Eliot's Religio n o f Humanit y t o b e exactl y wha t I needed : w e giv e meaning t o ou r live s b y livin g fo r other s rathe r tha n fo r ourselves . Bu t when I finished m y dissertatio n an d wa s tol d tha t i t ough t t o b e pub lished (Pari s 1965) , I could onc e agai n drea m o f a gloriou s career . Sinc e I no longe r neede d t o liv e for other s i n order t o giv e meaning t o m y life , George Eliot' s philosoph y los t it s appeal . I n Horneya n terms , my inabil ity t o writ e m y dissertatio n force d m e t o abando n m y expansiv e ambi tions an d t o becom e self-effacing , bu t o n triumphantl y completin g it , I became expansiv e onc e more, and Georg e Eliot's ideas left m e cold. Thi s was a n unconsciou s proces s o f whic h I first becam e awar e throug h m y reading o f Horne y an d tha t I understoo d mor e full y i n th e cours e o f psychotherapy. While i n therapy i n the earl y 1960s , I read a great dea l o f psychoana lytic theory , ofte n usin g i t a s a n ai d t o self-analysis . I did no t connec t i t to th e stud y o f literatur e unti l on e memorabl e da y i n 196 4 whe n I wa s teaching Thackeray' s Vanity Fair, Again i t wa s Horne y wh o helpe d m e to understan d wha t wa s mystifyin g me . While arguin g tha t th e nove l i s

Applications of a Homey anApproach | 5 full o f contradiction s an d doe s no t mak e sens e thematically , I suddenl y remembered Horney' s statemen t tha t "inconsistencie s ar e a s definit e a n indication o f th e presence o f conflict s a s a rise in bod y temperatur e i s of physical disturbance " (1945 , 35) . I n th e nex t instan t I realize d tha t th e novel's contradiction s becom e intelligibl e i f w e se e the m a s par t o f a system o f inne r conflicts . I hav e bee n unfoldin g th e implication s o f that "aha " experienc e eve r since , wit h profoun d effect s o n m y vie w o f literature. As w e shal l se e whe n examinin g The Awakening, ther e ar e othe r works like Vanity Fair in which thematic contradictions mak e it impossible t o understan d th e tex t i n it s ow n terms . Literar y critic s hav e ofte n defended th e artisti c unit y o f suc h work s b y suppressin g awarenes s o f inconsistencies o r b y rationalizin g contradiction s a s par t o f a controlle d structure o f tension, irony, and paradox . Mor e recentl y they have tende d to deligh t i n contradiction s a s evidenc e o f th e tendenc y o f al l linguisti c structures t o deconstruc t themselves . Wit h th e hel p o f Horney' s theor y we ar e ofte n abl e bot h t o recogniz e inconsistencie s a s genuin e problem s and to understand the m a s parts o f an intelligible structure o f psycholog ical conflict . Lon g befor e th e adven t o f deconstruction , I wa s showin g how literar y work s almos t alway s contai n element s tha t subver t thei r dominant themes , bu t afte r thi s deconstructiv e mov e I wa s abl e t o reconstruct the m b y showin g tha t the y stil l mak e sens e i n psychologica l terms (Pari s 1974 ; see de Beaugrande 1986) .

After accountin g fo r th e themati c contradiction s o f Vanity Fair a s par t of a structur e o f inne r conflicts , I realize d tha t Horne y als o work s wel l with the major character s i n the novel—William Dobbin , Amelia Sedley , and Beck y Sharp . A s I taugh t othe r nineteenth-centur y novel s wit h Horney i n mind , I came t o se e that they , too, contai n highl y individual ized character s whos e motivationa l system s ca n b e understoo d wit h th e help of he r theory. This recognition eventuall y le d to my first boo k usin g Horney—A Psychological Approach to Fiction: Studies in Thackeray, Stendhal, George Eliot, Dostoevsky, and Conrad (1974) . Characteriza tion wa s no t m y onl y concern , bu t I gave a large part o f eac h chapte r t o a detaile d analysi s o f majo r figures i n Vanity Fair, The Red and the Black, The Mill on the Floss, Notes from Underground, an d Lord Jim. In subsequen t books , I hav e take n a Horneya n approac h t o al l o f Jan e Austen's an d al l o f Shakespeare' s majo r character s (Pari s 1978b , 1991a ,

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1991b). Th e fac t tha t Horne y work s wel l wit h literatur e fro m a wid e variety o f period s an d culture s tell s u s somethin g abou t bot h th e powe r of her theory an d th e enduring feature s o f huma n behavior. 1 Like mos t student s o f literature , I had bee n taugh t t o analyz e literar y characters primaril y i n forma l an d themati c terms . Whe n I looke d a t realistically draw n character s fro m a Horneya n perspective , I cam e t o see tha t ther e wa s a n immens e amoun t o f psychologica l detai l tha t literary criticis m ha d simpl y ignored . Thes e character s wer e no t simpl y functions i n a tex t o r encode d message s fro m th e autho r bu t wer e imagined huma n being s whos e thoughts , feelings , an d action s mad e sense i n motivationa l terms . I ha d no t bee n taugh t tha t literatur e i s about huma n beings , huma n relationships , an d huma n experiences ; bu t outside o f the academ y on e of the primary appeal s o f great literature ha s always bee n it s portraya l o f character s wh o see m t o b e o f th e sam e nature a s ourselves . A psychologica l understandin g o f thes e character s makes them al l the mor e fascinating . When I bega n discussin g th e psycholog y o f literar y characters , I quickly encountere d a grea t dea l o f resistanc e t o thi s procedur e amon g my fello w critics . It ha s becom e a dogm a o f moder n theor y tha t literar y characters d o no t belon g to th e real world i n which peopl e hav e interna l motivations bu t t o a fictional worl d i n which everythin g the y ar e an d d o is par t o f a large r structur e whos e logi c i s determine d b y purel y artisti c considerations. Th e mos t recen t school s o f criticis m continu e t o se e characters i n primaril y functiona l terms , wit h man y o f the m attackin g the whole concep t o f a self tha t ca n b e represented . I believ e tha t th e rejectio n o f th e ide a tha t literar y character s ca n b e analyzed i n way s simila r t o thos e i n whic h w e analyz e rea l peopl e ha s been a n enormou s critica l erro r (fo r fulle r account s o f m y argument , se e Paris 197 4 an d 1991b) . The objection s t o thi s procedur e appl y t o som e kinds o f character s bu t no t t o others . I t i s essentia l t o recogniz e tha t there ar e differen t type s o f characterizatio n requirin g differen t strategie s of interpretation . A usefu l taxonom y i s tha t o f Schole s an d Kellog g (1966) , whic h distinguishes betwee n aesthetic , illustrative , an d mimeti c characteriza tion. Aestheti c character s ar e stoc k type s wh o ma y b e understoo d pri marily i n term s o f thei r technica l function s an d thei r forma l an d dra matic effects . Illustrativ e character s ar e "concept s i n anthropoi d shap e or fragment s o f th e huma n psych e paradin g a s whol e huma n beings. " We try t o understan d "th e principl e the y illustrat e throug h thei r action s

Applications of a Homey anApproach \ 7 in a narrativ e framework " (88) . Behin d realisti c literatur e ther e i s a strong "psychologica l impulse " tha t "tend s towar d th e presentatio n o f highly individualize d figures wh o resis t abstractio n an d generalization " (101). Whe n w e encounte r a full y draw n mimeti c character , "w e ar e justified i n askin g question s abou t hi s motivation s base d o n ou r knowl edge o f th e way s i n whic h rea l peopl e ar e motivated " (87). A mimeti c character usuall y ha s aestheti c an d illustrativ e functions , bu t numerou s details hav e bee n calle d fort h b y the author' s desir e to mak e th e charac ter lifelike , complex , an d inwardl y intelligible , an d thes e wil l g o unno ticed i f we interpret th e characte r onl y in functional terms . One o f the most frequen t objection s t o motivationa l analysi s i s that i t takes character s ou t o f th e wor k an d trie s t o understan d the m i n thei r own right . Give n th e natur e o f mimeti c characterization , thi s i s no t a n unreasonable procedure . Mimeti c character s ar e par t o f th e fictional world i n whic h the y exist , bu t the y ar e als o autonomou s being s wit h a n inner logi c o f thei r own . The y are , i n E . M. Forster' s phrase , "creation s inside a creation " (1927 , 64 ) wh o ten d t o g o thei r ow n wa y a s th e author become s absorbe d i n imaginin g huma n beings , motivatin g thei r behavior, an d supplyin g thei r reaction s t o th e situation s i n whic h the y have bee n placed . There ha s bee n a grea t dea l o f resistanc e amon g critic s no t onl y t o regarding literar y character s a s imagine d huma n beings , bu t als o t o using moder n psychoanalyti c theorie s t o analyz e them . On e objectio n has bee n tha t earlie r author s coul d no t possibl y hav e conceive d o f thei r characters i n the terms we are using to talk abou t them . My repl y to thi s is that th e author s ha d t o mak e sens e of huma n behavio r fo r themselves , as w e al l do , an d tha t the y dre w upo n th e conceptua l system s o f thei r day. To see their character s i n term s o f thos e system s i s to recove r wha t may hav e bee n th e authors ' consciou s understandin g o f them , bu t tha t does no t d o justic e t o thei r mimeti c achievemen t o r mak e th e character s intelligible t o us . T o interpre t Hamle t i n term s o f humor s psycholog y does not explai n hi s behavio r t o me . We canno t identif y ou r authors ' conception s o f thei r character s wit h the character s the y hav e actuall y created , eve n i f w e coul d b e certai n o f what thei r conception s were . On e o f th e feature s o f mimeti c character s is tha t the y hav e a lif e independen t o f thei r creator s an d tha t ou r understanding o f them will change, along with ou r changing conception s of huma n behavior . Eve n thoug h th e character s wil l outliv e ever y inter pretation, eac h ag e ha s t o mak e sens e o f the m fo r itself , usin g it s ow n

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modes o f explanation . An y theor y w e us e wil l b e culture-boun d an d reductive; still , w e mus t us e som e theory , consciousl y o r not , t o satisf y our appetit e fo r conceptua l understanding . I believ e tha t psychoanalyti c theor y ha s muc h t o contribut e t o ou r understanding o f literatur e an d tha t i t permit s a conceptua l clarit y tha t cannot b e derived fro m literatur e alone . But literature ha s a contributio n of a t leas t equa l importanc e t o mak e t o th e theorie s tha t hel p u s t o understand it . There i s a reciprocal relation , I propose, betwee n psycho analytic theor y an d th e literar y presentatio n o f th e phenomen a i t de scribes. Theor y provide s categorie s o f understandin g tha t hel p u s t o recover th e intuition s o f th e grea t writer s abou t th e working s o f th e human psyche , and thes e intuitions , onc e recovered , becom e par t o f ou r conceptual understandin g o f life . W e gai n greate r insigh t int o huma n behavior becaus e o f th e richnes s o f artisti c presentation . Eve n th e mos t sophisticated theorie s ar e thi n compare d t o th e comple x portrayal s o f characters an d relationship s tha t w e find i n literar y masterpieces , an d they ar e thinne r yet , o f course , whe n compare d wit h th e densit y o f life . While discussin g a n aspec t o f vindictivenes s i n Neurosis and Human Growth, Kare n Horne y observe d tha t "grea t writer s hav e intuitivel y grasped [thi s phenomenon ] an d hav e presente d i t i n mor e impressiv e forms tha n a psychiatrist ca n hop e t o do " (198) . Taken togethe r psycho analytic theor y an d literatur e giv e us a fulle r gras p o f huma n experienc e than eithe r provide s b y itself. The analyst an d th e artist ofte n dea l with the sam e phenomena, bu t i n significantly differen t ways . Psychoanalytic theor y give s us formulations about huma n behavior , wherea s literatur e gives u s truth to experience . Because o f it s concrete , dramati c quality , literatur e enable s u s no t onl y to observe people other tha n ourselve s but als o to enter into their menta l universe, to discove r wha t i t feels lik e to be these people an d t o confron t their lif e situations . W e ca n gai n i n thi s wa y a phenomenologica l gras p of experienc e tha t canno t b e derive d fro m theor y alone , an d no t fro m case histories either , unles s they ar e als o works o f art . Becaus e literatur e provides thi s kin d o f knowledge , i t ha s a potentiall y sensitizin g effect , one that is of as much importance to the clinician as it is to the humanist . Literature offer s u s a n opportunit y t o amplif y ou r experienc e i n a wa y that ca n enhanc e ou r empathi c powers , an d becaus e o f thi s i t i s a valuable ai d to clinical training an d persona l growth . Another majo r sourc e o f resistanc e t o th e psychoanalyti c stud y o f character ha s bee n it s reliance o n infantil e experienc e t o accoun t fo r th e

Applications of a Homey anApproach | 9 behavior o f th e adult . Sinc e literature usuall y provide s littl e informatio n about earl y childhood , psychoanalyti c critic s ten d t o infe r earl y experi ence fro m adul t behavior , whic h the y the n accoun t fo r i n term s o f infantile origins . Crucia l explanator y materia l i s generate d ou t o f th e premises o f thei r theory , wit h n o corroboratin g literar y evidenc e excep t the suppose d result s o f th e invente d experiences , whic h wer e inferre d from thes e results to begi n with . A Horneyan approac h i s not subjec t t o thi s difficulty . Althoug h Hor ney, like Freud, see s psychological problem s a s originating i n early child hood, sh e does not se e the adul t a s simply repeating earlie r patterns , an d she doe s no t explai n adul t behavio r throug h analogie s wit h childhoo d experience. Onc e a chil d begin s t o adop t defensiv e strategies , hi s o r he r particular syste m develop s unde r th e influenc e o f external factors , whic h encourage som e strategies and discourag e others , and o f internal necessi ties, whereb y eac h defensiv e mov e require s other s i n orde r t o maintai n its viability . Th e characte r structur e o f th e adul t ha s it s origin s i n earl y childhood, bu t i t i s als o th e produc t o f a complicate d evolutionar y history, an d i t can b e understood i n terms o f th e present constellatio n o f defenses. Suc h a synchroni c o r structura l approac h i s highly suitabl e fo r the analysi s o f literar y characters , sinc e w e ar e ofte n supplie d wit h ample informatio n abou t thei r existin g defenses , howeve r sketch y thei r childhoods ma y be. Because it describes the kinds of phenomena tha t ar e actually portraye d i n literature, it permits u s to stic k to th e words o n th e page, to explicat e th e text .

As I hav e continue d t o loo k a t literatur e fro m a Horneya n perspective , one discover y has le d to another , abou t bot h th e nature o f literature an d the possible application s o f th e approach . I began b y using the theory t o make sens e o f themati c contradiction s bu t soo n cam e t o appreciat e it s power to illuminate character. Recognizin g the psychological complexit y of man y o f th e protagonist s o f nineteenth-centur y fiction le d m e t o change m y ideas abou t characterization ; an d a s I read an d taugh t work s from a variet y o f period s an d nationa l literatures , I foun d tha t mimeti c characterization i s mor e widesprea d tha n generall y though t an d tha t Horney's theor y work s wel l wit h writer s fro m man y cultures . My selection o f text s i n par t 2 o f thi s boo k i s designe d t o show , amon g othe r things, that a Horneyan approac h i s applicable t o work s fro m Antigone to The End of the Road.

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Employing a Horneya n approac h t o characte r ha s le d m e to perceiv e that th e grea t mimeti c creation s almos t alway s subver t thei r aestheti c and themati c functions . A s w e hav e seen , E . M . Forste r describe s "round" character s a s "creation s insid e a creation. " The y "arriv e whe n evoked," h e says , "bu t ful l o f th e spiri t o f mutiny . Fo r the y hav e thes e numerous parallel s wit h peopl e lik e ourselves , the y tr y t o liv e their ow n lives an d ar e consequentl y engage d i n treaso n agains t th e mai n schem e of th e book " (1927 , 64) . That seem s exactl y righ t t o me . A s whole s i n themselves, imagine d huma n being s ca n b e understoo d i n term s o f thei r inner motivationa l systems , an d whe n the y ar e s o understood , the y appear t o b e inharmonious towar d th e large r whol e o f whic h the y ar e a part. The y ar e i n conflic t wit h thei r role s i n th e plo t an d wit h th e author's rhetorica l treatmen t o f thei r experience . When I first becam e awar e o f th e incongruitie s betwee n for m an d theme o n th e on e han d an d mimesi s o n th e other , I fel t tha t the y wer e failures o f art, but I have found the m to be almost inescapable i n realistic literature an d hav e com e t o regar d the m a s a concomitan t o f grea t characterization. Roun d character s creat e a dilemm a fo r thei r creators . If the y "ar e give n complet e freedom, " say s Forster , "the y kic k th e boo k to pieces , an d i f the y ar e kep t to o sternl y i n check , the y reveng e them selves b y dying , an d destro y i t b y intestina l decay " (1927 , 64) . Th e artists' character-creatin g impulse s wor k agains t thei r effort s t o shap e and interpre t experience , an d the y mus t choos e betwee n allowin g thei r characters t o com e aliv e an d kic k th e boo k t o piece s o r killin g thei r characters b y subordinatin g the m t o th e mai n schem e o f th e work . Th e great realist s choos e fidelity t o thei r psychologica l intuition s ove r th e demands o f them e an d form , usuall y withou t knowin g tha t the y ar e doing so . There ar e a number o f reasons why realistic characterization i s almost bound t o subver t a work's forma l an d themati c structures . A s Northro p Frye observes , ther e ar e "tw o pole s o f literature, " th e mimetic , wit h it s "tendency t o verisimilitud e an d accurac y o f description, " an d th e mythic, wit h it s "tendenc y t o tel l a stor y . . . about character s wh o ca n do anything " (1957 , 51) . Western literatur e ha s moved steadil y from th e mythic t o th e mimeti c pole , bu t th e movemen t towar d mimesi s ha s affected onl y content ; literar y for m i s derive d fro m mythi c patterns . Thus eve n i n th e mos t realisti c works , "w e se e th e same structura l principles" tha t w e find i n thei r pur e for m i n myt h (136) . Ther e i s a

Applications of a Horneyan Approach | n built-in conflic t betwee n myt h an d mimesis : "th e realisti c write r soo n finds tha t th e requirements o f literar y for m an d plausibl e conten t alway s fight agains t eac h other " (Fry e 1963 , 36). Literary for m an d realisti c characterization involv e incompatibl e can ons o f decoru m an d universe s o f discourse . Realisti c characterizatio n aims a t verisimilitude ; i t follow s th e logi c o f motivation , o f probability , of caus e an d effect . But , a s Frye observes , when judge d b y the canon s o f probability, "ever y inherite d conventio n o f plo t i n literatur e i s mor e o r less mad" (1963 , 36) . Form an d mimesis arouse different set s of expecta tions withi n th e reader . Mimeti c character s creat e a n appetit e fo r a consistently realisti c world . W e wan t thei r behavio r t o mak e sens e an d their fate s t o b e commensurat e wit h th e law s o f probability . Realis m does no t roun d ou t a shape , however , an d mimeti c character s ar e ofte n set int o manipulate d plot s tha t arriv e a t rathe r arbitrar y conclusions . One o f ou r cravings , eithe r fo r realis m o r closure , tends t o b e frustrate d at th e end . In man y realisti c works , th e forma l patter n i s closed , despit e th e improbabilities thi s creates , an d th e character s remai n tru e t o life , sub verting tha t closure . I n Jan e Austen' s novels , fo r example , th e happ y endings demande d b y th e comi c structur e see m muc h les s satisfactor y when w e becom e awar e o f he r protagonists ' unresolve d psychologica l problems an d th e deficiencie s i n thei r relationship s (se e Pari s 1978b) . One o f the most commo n forma l pattern s i n fiction i s the education plot , based o n th e archetyp e o f th e fortunat e fall , i n whic h th e protagonist s err becaus e o f thei r flaws, suffe r becaus e o f thei r errors , an d achiev e wisdom an d maturit y becaus e o f thei r suffering . Whe n w e analyz e th e characters i n Horneya n terms , w e usuall y find tha t thei r growt h i s a n illusion an d tha t i f the y hav e undergon e a grea t chang e i t i s fro m one destructiv e solutio n t o another . Th e educatio n plo t an d mimeti c characterization ar e usuall y a t odd s wit h eac h other . Thi s ofte n give s rise t o critica l controversies , th e source s o f whic h ca n b e understoo d through a Horneyan approach . It i s importan t t o distinguis h betwee n th e psychologica l portrai t o f a character an d th e rhetori c b y whic h th e characte r i s surrounded . B y rhetoric I mea n wha t w e normall y thin k o f a s them e an d a goo d dea l more besides . The rhetori c consist s o f al l the device s a n autho r employ s to influenc e readers ' mora l an d intellectua l response s t o a character , their sympath y an d antipathy , thei r emotiona l closenes s o r distanc e (se e

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Booth 1961) . Whe n w e understan d mimeti c character s i n motivationa l terms, w e usuall y find ourselve s respondin g i n way s tha t ar e differen t from thos e tha t th e rhetori c seek s t o induc e an d takin g issu e wit h th e author's interpretation s an d judgments . The grea t psychologica l realist s hav e th e capacit y t o se e fa r mor e than the y ca n conceptualize . Thei r gras p o f inne r dynamic s an d o f interpersonal relation s i s so subtle an d profoun d tha t concret e represen tation i s th e onl y mod e o f discours e tha t ca n d o i t justice . Whe n the y comment o n wha t the y hav e represente d o r assig n thei r character s illus trative roles, they ar e limited b y the inadequacy o f abstractions generall y and o f the conceptual system s availabl e t o them. Their interpretation s o f their character s ar e ofte n wron g an d almos t alway s oversimple , i n con trast t o thei r intuitiv e gras p o f th e characters ' psychology . Th e mor e w e recover thei r intuition s an d d o justic e t o thei r mimeti c achievement , th e more disparitie s w e perceiv e betwee n thei r representatio n o f huma n behavior an d thei r interpretatio n o f it . Psychological analysi s lead s u s t o judgment s tha t ar e i n conflic t wit h those o f the autho r becaus e i t enables u s to se e the destructivenes s o f th e solutions tha t hav e bee n glorifie d b y th e rhetoric . Writer s ten d t o vali date character s whos e defensiv e strategie s ar e simila r t o thei r ow n an d to satiriz e thos e wh o hav e differen t solutions . Th e rhetori c o f th e wor k and sometime s eve n th e actio n ar e designe d t o gai n sympath y fo r th e life-styles an d value s o f th e favore d characters . Change s fro m a con demned defensiv e strateg y t o a n approve d on e ar e celebrate d a s educa tion an d growth , althoug h th e ne w solutio n i s often a s unhealth y a s th e one tha t ha s bee n discarded . Insofa r a s th e character s ar e numericall y portrayed, w e ar e give n a n opportunit y t o understan d the m i n ou r ow n terms an d t o arriv e a t ou r ow n judgments . Whe n w e arriv e a t differen t interpretations an d judgments , th e author' s spel l i s broken , th e charac ters ar e see n t o rebel , an d w e experienc e a disparit y betwee n rhetori c and mimesis . To b e mor e precise , w e experienc e a disparit y betwee n th e author' s interpretations an d judgment s an d ou r own . Th e mimeti c componen t o f literature ca n neve r b e definitivel y interpreted , b y th e autho r o r anyon e else. B y virtu e o f it s richness , i t escape s al l conceptua l schemes , an d conceptual scheme s ar e constantl y changing . I emplo y a Horneya n ap proach becaus e i t satisfie s m y appetit e fo r clarit y her e an d now . I a m aware o f th e epistemologica l problems , bu t I choos e t o mak e a s muc h sense of things a s I can, accordin g t o m y best lights, rather tha n t o dwel l

Applications of a Homey anApproach | 1 3 on th e uncertaint y o f knowledge . Althoug h I shal l no t b e constantl y calling attentio n t o th e fact , le t i t b e understoo d tha t I kno w tha t I a m presenting m y versio n o f reality , whic h I hop e wil l b e o f us e t o som e others i n the construction o f theirs . Once psychologica l analysi s o f mimeti c character s le d m e t o resis t authorial rhetoric , I began t o interpre t th e rhetori c itsel f fro m a psycho logical perspectiv e an d t o se e it (alon g wit h muc h else ) a s a reflectio n o f the psyche o f the implied author . Whe n th e rhetoric consistently glorifie s characters wh o embrac e a particula r solutio n whil e criticizin g thos e who hav e adopte d others , i t reveal s th e implie d author' s ow n defenses , repressions, an d blin d spots . In works wher e th e rhetori c i s inconsistent , such a s Vanity Fair o r The Awakening, i t reveal s th e implie d author' s inner conflicts . I t i s possibl e t o psychoanalyz e no t onl y th e implie d authors o f individua l text s bu t als o the authoria l personalit y tha t ca n b e inferred fro m man y o r al l o f a writer' s works . I hav e don e thi s wit h Thomas Hard y (Pari s 1976a) , Jane Auste n (Pari s 1978b) , an d Willia m Shakespeare (Pari s 1991a) . The nex t ste p woul d b e psychobiography, i n which text s coul d b e use d a s a sourc e o f insigh t int o th e inne r lif e o f their creator . Kare n Horney' s theor y ha s bee n employe d i n thi s wa y b y Lawrance Thompso n i n hi s monumenta l biograph y o f Rober t Fros t (1966, 1970 , 1976) , an d man y othe r writer s woul d b e illuminate d b y Horneyan analysis . As I have said , a Horneya n approac h ha s le d m e t o se e that ther e ar e almost boun d t o b e disparitie s betwee n rhetori c an d mimesis . I hav e come t o realiz e tha t thes e disparitie s ca n b e eithe r exacerbate d o r re duced b y th e choic e o f narrativ e technique . Omniscien t narratio n tend s to exacerbate the m becaus e although omniscien t narrator s presen t them selves a s authoritativ e source s o f interpretatio n an d judgment , the y ar e not. Firs t person narratio n reduce s the disparitie s becaus e the interpreta tions an d judgment s belon g t o a characte r an d therefor e ar e clearl y subjective. Firs t perso n narratio n create s othe r problems , however , suc h as thos e o f reliability . Ho w d o w e kno w th e degre e t o whic h th e narra tor's perspectiv e i s endorse d b y th e implie d author ? Ho w d o w e kno w whether th e narrator' s interpretation s an d judgment s ar e trustworthy ? And, most perplexing, how d o we know i f the narrator's accounts o f self and other s ar e accurate ? I n omniscien t narration , w e believ e wha t th e narrator shows u s abou t th e characters , eve n i f w e ar e skeptica l abou t what w e ar e told. Bu t i n first perso n narration , ca n w e believ e th e narrator's account s o f sel f an d others , eve n whe n the y ar e presente d

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dramatically? Th e perceptions an d recollections of an anxious, defensive , insecure narrator ma y wel l b e distorted . I hav e foun d tha t bot h omniscien t an d first perso n narrator s requir e psychological analysis . Th e omniscien t narrator' s interpretation s an d judgments ar e a reflectio n o f th e characte r structur e o f th e implie d author, wh o ha s a veste d interes t i n givin g a certai n rhetorica l spi n t o the story . Firs t perso n narrator s ar e usuall y character s wit h profoun d psychological problems who ar e engaged in various forms o f self-punish ment an d self-justification . Understandin g thei r need s an d defense s ca n go a lon g wa y towar d helpin g u s t o detec t thei r distortion s an d asses s their reliability . A s I have suggested , a Horneya n approac h t o narratio n often give s u s a grea t dea l o f insigh t int o th e psych e o f th e implie d author. Some works , suc h a s Wutbering Heights, emplo y multipl e narrators . First perso n narrator s ofte n see m t o b e speakin g fo r th e author , bu t th e use o f multipl e narrator s tend s t o relativiz e th e narration , especiall y when th e narrator s hav e differin g perspectives . Technique s suc h a s thi s that lea d t o th e disappearanc e o f th e autho r ca n diminis h o r eliminat e the disparit y betwee n rhetori c an d mimesis , since the rhetorical stanc e of the implied autho r become s difficul t o r impossible t o define . The implie d author ma y b e recovered throug h psychologica l analysis , however, i f w e see th e multipl e narrator s a s expressin g conflictin g component s o f th e author's psych e an d conside r th e motive s behin d thi s choic e o f narrativ e technique. The studie s of individual works i n the bod y o f this book wil l illustrat e most o f th e application s o f a Horneya n approac h tha t I have discussed , and I shal l sugges t other s i n th e conclusion . I n par t 2 , I shal l examin e characters an d relationship s i n work s b y Ibsen , Barth , Chaucer , Shake speare, an d Sophocles . Th e text s I hav e selecte d displa y mos t o f th e defensive strategie s Horne y describe s an d sho w th e form s the y hav e taken i n variou s period s an d cultures . Thes e work s ar e boun d togethe r by a numbe r o f recurrin g motifs , suc h a s livin g throug h others , morbi d dependency, suicid e o r suicida l tendencies , an d searchin g fo r glory , al l of whic h Horney' s theor y illuminates . I shal l no t conside r th e work s chronologically bu t i n an orde r tha t facilitate s comparison . In par t 3 , I shal l continu e t o examin e characters , relationships , an d recurring motifs , bu t I shall als o conside r th e protagonist s i n relatio n t o rhetoric an d plo t an d shal l explor e th e way s i n which mimesi s function s as a subversiv e force . I shal l focu s o n si x novels : Great Expectations,

Applications of a Homey anApproach | 1 5 Jane Eyre, The Mayor of Caster bridge, Madame Bovary, The Awakening, an d Wuthering Heights. Som e o f thes e novel s displa y th e educatio n pattern tha t I hav e describe d above , whil e other s hav e a vindicatio n pattern, base d o n th e Cinderell a archetype , i n whic h a virtuou s bu t persecuted protagonis t finall y achieve s th e statu s an d approva l h e o r she deserves . Bot h o f thes e pattern s ar e supporte d b y th e rhetori c an d undermined b y the mimesis , which (a s I interpret it ) show s th e educate d characters t o b e compulsive an d immatur e an d th e vindicated character s to b e les s deservin g o f glorificatio n tha n th e autho r woul d hav e u s believe. I shal l compar e th e novel s i n term s o f thes e forma l pattern s an d als o in terms o f their narrativ e techniques . Great Expectations an d Jane Eyre have unreliabl e first perso n narrators , The Mayor of Casterbridge an d The Awakening hav e problemati c omniscien t narration , an d Madame Bovary ha s a n omniscien t narrato r wh o i s no t a s invisibl e a s many , including th e author , hav e claimed . Wuthering Heights avoid s mos t o f the difficultie s foun d i n the othe r novel s b y its use of multipl e narrators . The proble m her e i s t o locat e th e implie d autho r an d t o ge t som e sens e of wher e sh e stand s i n relatio n t o th e character s an d thei r values . I believe that a Horneyan approac h ca n hel p us to solv e this problem .

In my discussions o f literature , I shall us e Horney's theor y a s a source o f insight rathe r tha n a s a gri d upo n whic h t o la y texts . Althoug h influ enced b y Horney, the reading s I offer ar e mine . They ar e not th e inevita ble resul t o f th e applicatio n o f he r theory ; indeed , I sometimes disagre e with he r analysi s o f a literary character . I believ e tha t psychoanalyti c theor y illuminate s literature , tha t litera ture enriche s theory , an d tha t combinin g theor y an d literatur e enhance s both ou r intellectua l an d ou r empathi c understandin g o f huma n behav ior. Thi s proces s involve s no t jus t theor y an d literatur e bu t als o ou r own personalitie s an d ou r insigh t int o ourselves . Ther e i s a triangula r relationship betwee n literature , theory , an d th e individua l interpreter . Our literar y an d theoretica l interest s reflec t ou r ow n character , th e wa y in whic h w e us e theor y depend s o n th e degre e t o whic h i t ha s becom e emotionally a s wel l a s intellectuall y meaningfu l t o us , an d wha t w e ar e able t o perceiv e depend s o n ou r personality , ou r theoretica l perspective , and ou r acces s to ou r inne r life . I have found Horney' s theor y t o b e a powerful instrumen t o f analysis ,

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and I a m eage r t o shar e thi s discover y wit h other s s o tha t thei r under standing o f literatur e an d lif e migh t als o b e enriche d b y it . I know , however, tha t n o one will entirely agre e with m y readings, just as I never entirely agre e wit h anyon e else's , an d tha t th e applicatio n o f Horney' s theory migh t yiel d differen t result s i n othe r hands . For thos e unfamilia r wit h Horne y o r with m y previous exposition s o f her ideas , I provid e a n accoun t o f he r matur e theor y i n th e followin g chapter. Thos e wh o kno w he r theor y wel l ma y wis h t o procee d directl y to chapte r 3 .

2 Horney's Matur e Theor y

Born i n a subur b o f Hambur g i n 1885 , Kare n Horne y (ne e Danielsen) attende d medica l schoo l i n Freibur g an d complete d he r stud ies a t th e universitie s o f Gottinge n an d Berlin . Sh e marrie d Oska r Hor ney i n 1909 , was i n analysi s wit h Kar l Abraha m i n 1910-12 , ha d thre e daughters betwee n 191 1 an d 1916 , receive d he r M.D . i n 1915 , an d became a foundin g membe r o f th e Berli n Psychoanalyti c Institut e i n 1920. She separated fro m Oska r i n 192 6 and accepte d Fran z Alexander' s invitation t o becom e founding Associat e Director o f the Chicag o Psychoanalytic Institut e i n 1932 . I n 1934 , sh e move d t o Ne w York , wher e sh e joined th e facultie s o f th e Ne w Yor k Psychoanalyti c Institut e an d th e New Schoo l fo r Socia l Research . Becaus e o f he r critiqu e o f orthodo x theory, Horne y wa s force d t o resig n fro m th e Ne w Yor k Psychoanalyti c in 1941 , whereupon sh e founde d th e America n Institut e fo r Psychoanal ysis, of which sh e was dea n unti l he r deat h i n 1952. 1 Horney's though t wen t throug h thre e stages . I n essay s sh e wrot e between 192 3 an d 1935 , she tried t o revis revisee Freud's phallocentric vie w of feminine psycholog y whil e remainin g withi n th e framewor k o f classica l theory. Thes e essay s wer e largel y ignore d durin g he r lifetime , bu t sinc e their republicatio n i n Feminine Psychology i n 1967 , Horne y ha s bee n widely recognized a s the first grea t psychoanalyti c feminist . Exposed t o ne w idea s an d t o patient s wit h differen t problem s afte r she moved t o th e Unite d States , Horney bega n t o questio n libid o theory , the universality o f stage s of psycho-sexual development , an d man y othe r basic tenets o f psychoanalysis. I n The Neurotic Personality of Our Time (1937) an d New Ways in Psychoanalysis (1939) , sh e replace d biolog y with cultur e an d disturbe d huma n relationship s whe n explainin g th e origins o f neuroses , an d sh e shifte d t o a predominantl y structura l para digm i n which sh e sought t o accoun t fo r behavio r i n terms o f it s curren t function. In he r las t tw o books , Our Inner Conflicts (1945 ) a n d Neurosis

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and Human Growth (1950) , Horne y describe d i n a systemati c wa y th e interpersonal an d intrapsychi c strategie s o f defens e tha t peopl e develo p in orde r t o cop e with th e frustratio n o f thei r psychologica l needs . Whil e each stag e o f Horney' s though t i s important , I believ e tha t he r matur e theory represent s he r mos t significan t contribution . I t provide s explana tions o f huma n behavio r i n term s o f currentl y existin g constellation s o f defenses an d inne r conflicts tha t w e ca n find nowher e else . I t i s thi s aspect o f her though t tha t I have found t o b e of most valu e for th e stud y of literatur e an d tha t I shall describ e here . According t o Horney , w e ar e no t simpl y tension-reducin g o r condi tioned creature s bu t hav e presen t i n u s a n "evolutionar y constructive " force tha t urge s us "t o realize " ou r "give n potentialities" (1950 , 15) . We each hav e a biologicall y base d inne r nature , a "rea l self, " tha t i t i s ou r object i n lif e t o fulfill . Horne y woul d hav e agree d wit h Abraha m Mas low's accoun t o f th e basi c psychologica l need s tha t mus t b e me t i f w e are t o actualiz e ou r potentialities . Thes e includ e physiologica l surviva l needs, need s fo r a saf e an d stabl e environment , need s fo r lov e an d belonging, need s fo r esteem , an d th e nee d fo r a callin g o r vocatio n i n which w e ca n us e ou r nativ e capacitie s i n a n intrinsicall y satisfyin g wa y (Maslow 1970) . Horney see s health y huma n developmen t a s a proces s o f self-realiza tion an d unhealth y developmen t a s a proces s o f self-alienation . I f ou r basic need s ar e relativel y wel l met , w e shal l develo p "th e clarit y an d depth o f [our ] ow n feelings , thoughts , wishes , interest s . . . .; the specia l capacities o r gift s [we ] may have ; the facult y t o expres s [ourselves] , an d to relat e [ourselves ] t o other s wit h [our ] spontaneou s feelings . Al l thi s will i n tim e enabl e [us ] to find [our ] se t o f value s an d [our ] aim s i n life " (1950, 17) . If ou r psychologica l need s ar e seriousl y frustrated , w e shal l develop i n a quit e differen t way . Self-alienatio n begin s a s a defens e against "basi c anxiety, " whic h i s " a profoun d insecurit y an d vagu e apprehensiveness" (18 ) generate d b y feeling s o f isolation , helplessness , hostility, an d fear . A s a resul t o f thi s anxiety , w e "canno t simpl y lik e o r dislike, trust o r distrust , expres s [our ] wishes o r protes t agains t thos e o f another, bu t [w e have] automaticall y t o devis e ways to cope with peopl e and t o manipulat e the m wit h minimu m damag e t o [ourselves] " (Horne y 1945, 219) . We cope wit h other s b y developin g th e interpersona l strate gies of defens e tha t I shall examin e next , an d w e see k t o compensat e fo r our feeling s o f worthlessnes s an d inadequac y b y a n intrapsychi c proces s of self-glorification . Thes e strategie s constitut e ou r effor t t o fulfil l ou r

Horney's Mature Theory | 1 9 now insatiabl e need s fo r safety , lov e an d belonging , an d esteem . The y are als o designe d t o reduc e ou r anxiet y an d t o provid e a n outle t fo r ou r hostility.

According t o Horney , w e tr y t o overcom e feeling s o f bein g unsafe , unloved, an d unvalue d i n a potentially hostil e world b y moving toward, against, o r away from othe r people. These moves give rise to the neuroti c solutions o f compliance , aggression , an d detachment . Wherea s health y people mov e flexibl y i n al l thre e directions , compulsiv e peopl e ar e "driven t o comply , t o fight, t o b e aloof , regardles s o f whethe r th e mov e is appropriat e i n th e particula r instance " (Horne y 1945 , 202) . Eac h solution involve s it s ow n constellatio n o f behavio r pattern s an d person ality traits, its own conceptio n o f justice, and it s own se t of belief s abou t human nature , huma n values , an d th e huma n condition . Eac h involve s also a dea l o r bargai n wit h fat e i n whic h obedienc e t o th e dictate s o f that solutio n i s supposed t o b e rewarded (se e Paris 1991a) . In eac h defensiv e move , on e o f th e feeling s involve d i n basi c anxiet y is overemphasized: helplessnes s i n the compliant solution , hostility i n the aggressive solution , an d isolatio n i n th e detache d solution . Sinc e al l o f these feeling s ar e boun d t o aris e unde r advers e conditions , w e mak e al l three defensiv e move s compulsively an d ar e torn b y inner conflicts , sinc e the move s ar e incompatibl e wit h eac h other . T o gai n som e sens e o f wholeness, w e emphasiz e on e o f th e move s an d becom e predominantl y compliant, aggressive , o r detached . Whic h mov e w e emphasiz e wil l de pend o n a combination o f temperamenta l an d environmenta l factors . The othe r trend s continu e t o exis t bu t operat e unconsciousl y an d manifest themselve s i n disguised an d deviou s ways. The conflict betwee n the move s ha s no t bee n resolve d bu t ha s gon e underground . I f th e submerged trend s ar e fo r som e reaso n brough t close r t o th e surface , w e experience sever e inne r turmoi l an d ma y becom e paralyzed , unabl e t o move i n an y directio n a t all . When impelle d b y a powerfu l influenc e o r the collaps e o f ou r predominan t solution , w e ma y embrac e on e o f ou r repressed defensiv e strategies . Although ofte n experience d a s conversio n or education , thi s is merely the substitutio n o f on e solutio n fo r another . Horney call s the majo r solution s compliance , aggression , an d detach ment i n Our Inner Conflicts an d self-effacement , expansiveness , an d resignation i n Neurosis and Human Growth, wher e sh e combine s th e interpersonal an d th e intrapsychic . The tw o set s of term s clearl y overla p

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and can often b e used interchangeably . In Neurosis and Human Growth, there ar e three distinc t expansiv e solutions : th e narcissistic , th e perfec tionistic, and the arrogant-vindictive. There are thus a total of five major solutions: compliance or self-effacement, narcissism , perfectionism, arro gant-vindictiveness, an d detachment o r resignation. Th e aggressive solu tion o f Our Inner Conflicts correspond s closel y t o th e arrogant-vindic tive solutio n o f Neurosis and Human Growth, and , a s wit h th e othe r pairs, I shal l us e whicheve r ter m seem s mos t appropriat e i n a give n context. Self-effacing peopl e ofte n gre w u p unde r th e shado w o f someone — perhaps a preferre d sibling , a beautifu l mother , o r a n overbearin g fa ther—and sough t lov e an d protectio n throug h a self-subordinatin g de votion. They may have had a fighting spiri t a t one time, but the need for affection wo n ou t an d the y "becam e compliant , learne d t o lik e every body an d t o lea n wit h a helples s admiration " o n thos e the y "feare d most" (Horne y 1950 , 222) . The strategie s the y adopte d i n childhoo d evolv e int o a constellatio n of characte r traits , behaviors , an d belief s i n th e adults . The y tr y t o overcome thei r anxiet y b y gaining affectio n an d approva l an d b y con trolling other s through thei r dependenc y o n them. They need to feel par t of somethin g large r an d mor e powerfu l tha n themselves , a nee d tha t often manifest s itsel f a s religious devotion , identificatio n wit h a group or cause, o r morbi d dependenc y i n a lov e relationship . Lov e appear s "a s the ticke t t o paradise , wher e al l woe ends: n o mor e feelin g lost , guilty , and unworthy ; n o more responsibilit y fo r self ; n o more struggl e wit h a harsh world " fo r whic h the y fee l "hopelessl y unequipped " (Horne y 1950, 240) .

In orde r t o gai n th e love, approval , an d support the y need , basicall y compliant peopl e develo p certai n qualities , inhibitions , an d way s o f relating. The y see k t o attac h othe r peopl e b y bein g good , loving , self effacing, an d weak . The y becom e " 'unselfish, ' self-sacrificing, " "over considerate," "overappreciative , overgrateful , generous " (Horne y 1945, 51). Appeasing an d conciliatory, the y ten d t o blam e themselve s an d feel guilty whe n the y quarre l wit h another , experienc e disappointment , o r are criticized . The y ar e severely inhibite d i n their self-assertiv e an d self protective activitie s an d hav e powerfu l taboo s agains t "al l tha t i s pre sumptuous, selfish , an d aggressive " (Horne y 1950 , 219). They glorif y suffering an d use it to manipulate other s an d justify themselves . The complian t defens e bring s wit h i t not only certai n way s o f feelin g

Horney's Mature Theory | 2 1 and behaving , bu t als o a special se t of value s an d beliefs . The values "li e in th e directio n o f goodness , sympathy , love , generosity , unselfishness , humility" (Horne y 1945 , 54) . These ca n b e admirabl e values , bu t com pliant peopl e embrac e the m becaus e the y ar e necessar y t o thei r defens e system rathe r tha n a s genuin e ideals . The y mus t believ e i n turnin g th e other cheek , an d the y mus t se e th e worl d a s displayin g a providentia l order i n whic h peopl e lik e themselve s ar e rewarded . Thei r bargai n i s that i f the y ar e generous , lovin g people wh o shu n prid e an d d o no t see k their ow n gai n o r glory , the y wil l b e wel l treate d b y fat e an d othe r people. I f thei r bargai n i s no t honored , the y ma y despai r o f divin e justice, the y ma y conclud e tha t the y ar e a t fault , o r the y ma y hav e recourse t o belie f i n a highe r justic e tha t transcend s huma n understand ing. They nee d t o believ e no t onl y i n th e fairnes s o f th e worl d orde r bu t also i n th e goodnes s o f huma n nature , an d here , too , the y ar e liabl e t o disappointment. In complian t people , say s Horney , ther e ar e " a variet y o f aggressiv e tendencies strongl y repressed " (1945 , 55). The y ar e represse d becaus e experiencing the m o r actin g the m ou t woul d clas h violentl y wit h thei r need t o b e goo d an d woul d radicall y endange r thei r whol e strateg y fo r gaining love, protection, an d approval . It would undermin e thei r bargai n with fate . Complian t people' s strategie s increas e thei r burie d hostilit y since they invit e abus e bu t als o mak e the m afrai d o f expressin g ange r o r fighting back . Because o f thei r nee d fo r surrende r an d a saf e outle t fo r thei r aggres sion, complian t peopl e ar e ofte n attracte d t o thei r opposite , masterfu l expansive peopl e whos e "egotism , ambition , callousness , unscrupu lousness" an d "wieldin g o f power " the y ma y consciousl y condem n bu t secretly admir e (Horne y 1945 , 54) - Mergin g wit h suc h peopl e allow s them "t o participat e vicariousl y i n th e master y o f lif e withou t havin g t o own it " t o themselve s (Horne y 1950 , 244) . Thi s kin d o f relationshi p usually develop s int o a morbi d dependenc y tha t exacerbate s complian t people's difficulties . Whe n th e lov e relationshi p fail s them , the y wil l b e terribly disillusione d an d ma y fee l that the y di d not find the right person , that somethin g i s wrong wit h them , o r tha t nothin g i s worth having . There ar e numerous predominantl y complian t o r self-effacin g charac ters i n literatur e wh o hav e bee n analyze d i n Horneya n terms . Startin g with Shakespeare , these include Helena i n A Midsummer Night's Dream, Viola in Twelfth Night, Hamlet , Desdemona, Duk e Vincentio in Measure for Measure, Timo n o f Athens , Prosper o (Pari s 1991a) , th e poe t i n

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Shakespeare's sonnet s (Lewi s 1985 ; Paris 1991a) , and Anton y i n Antony and Cleopatra (Pari s 1991b) . I n late r writers , ther e i s Fann y Pric e i n Jane Austen' s Mansfield Park (Pari s 1978b) , Thackeray' s Dobbi n an d Amelia (Pari s 1974) , Esthe r Summerso n i n Dickens' s Bleak House (El dredge 1986) , Maggi e Tullive r i n Georg e Eliot' s The Mill on the Floss (Paris 1974) , Tes s i n Hardy' s Tess of the d'Urbervilles (Pari s 1976a) , Conrad's Charle y Marlo w (Pari s 1974 , 1993b) , th e pries t i n Graha m Greene's The Power and the Glory (Strau b 1986) , Sau l Bellow' s Mose s Herzog (Pari s 1976b) , Alic e Melling s i n Dori s Lessing' s The Good Terrorist (Eldredg e 1989) , an d Georg e Baile y i n Fran k Capra' s Ifs a Wonderful Life (Gordo n 1994) . A s i s tru e fo r character s exemplifyin g eac h of th e majo r solutions , mos t hav e inne r conflict s an d manifes t othe r trends. Ther e ar e man y mor e character s displayin g eac h solutio n tha n I shall cit e here , sinc e I a m mentionin g onl y prim e example s wh o hav e already bee n discusse d i n print . People i n who m expansiv e tendencie s predominat e hav e goals , traits, and value s tha t ar e th e opposit e o f thos e o f self-effacin g people . Wha t appeals t o the m mos t i s not love , bu t mastery . The y abho r helplessness , are ashame d o f suffering , an d nee d t o achiev e success , prestige , o r recognition. Ther e ar e thre e expansiv e types : the narcissistic , the perfec tionistic, and th e aggressiv e o r arrogant-vindictive . The arrogant-vindictiv e solutio n i s i n man y way s th e opposit e o f the self-effacin g one . Arrogant-vindictiv e peopl e usuall y hav e ha d a particularly hars h childhoo d i n whic h the y hav e encountere d "shee r brutality, humiliations , derision , neglect , an d flagran t hypocrisy. " Lik e the survivor s o f concentratio n camps , the y g o throug h " a hardenin g process i n order t o survive. " As children, they "ma y mak e som e patheti c and unsuccessfu l attempt s t o wi n sympathy , interest , o r affectio n bu t finally chok e of f al l tende r needs. " Sinc e affectio n i s unattainable , the y scorn i t o r conclud e tha t i t doe s no t exist . Thu s the y hav e n o incentiv e to pleas e an d ca n giv e free rei n t o thei r bitte r resentment . Th e desir e fo r love i s replace d b y ambitio n an d a driv e towar d "vindictiv e triumph. " They live for th e "da y of reckoning" whe n they will prove their superior ity, put thei r enemie s t o shame , an d sho w ho w the y hav e bee n wronged . They drea m o f becomin g th e grea t hero , "th e persecutor , th e leader , th e scientist attainin g immorta l fame " (Horne y 1950 , 202-3) . As adults, arrogant-vindictive peopl e are ferociously competitive : they "cannot tolerat e anybod y wh o know s o r achieve s mor e . . . , wield s more power , o r i n any way question s [their ] superiority " (Horne y 1950 ,

Homey's Mature Theory | 2 3 198). They hav e t o dra g thei r rival s dow n o r defea t them . The y retaliat e when injure d b y hurtin g thei r enemie s mor e tha n the y hav e hur t them . They ar e ruthles s an d cynica l i n thei r relation s wit h others , seekin g t o exploit an d outsmar t everyone . The y trus t n o on e an d ar e ou t t o ge t others befor e other s ge t them . The y avoi d emotiona l involvemen t an d dependency an d us e the relation s o f friendshi p an d marriag e t o enhanc e their position. They want t o b e hard an d toug h an d regar d al l manifesta tions o f feelin g a s sloppy sentimentality . Whereas self-effacin g peopl e ten d t o b e masochistic, arrogant-vindic tive peopl e ar e ofte n sadistic . The y wan t t o enslav e others , t o pla y o n their emotions , to frustrate , disparage , an d humiliat e them . Horney doe s not explai n thi s behavio r i n sexua l term s bu t see s i t partl y a s thei r wa y of retaliatin g fo r injurie s an d partl y a s a respons e t o thei r sens e o f th e emptiness an d futilit y o f thei r lives . The y develo p a pervasiv e env y o f everyone wh o seem s t o posses s somethin g the y lack , whethe r i t b e wealth an d prestige , physica l attractiveness , o r lov e an d devotion . Th e happiness o f other s "irritates " them . I f the y "canno t b e happy, " "wh y should [others ] b e so? " Th e arrogant-vindictiv e perso n mus t "trampl e on th e jo y o f others " becaus e i f the y "ar e a s defeate d an d degrade d a s he, his own misery is tempered i n that h e no longer feel s himsel f th e onl y one afflicted " (Horne y 1945 , 2,01-2) . Aggressive peopl e regar d th e worl d a s "a n aren a where , i n th e Dar winian sense , only the fittest surviv e and th e strong annihilate the weak. " A "callou s pursui t o f self-interes t i s the paramoun t law " (Horne y 1945 , 64). There ar e no values inherent i n the order o f things except that migh t makes right . Considerateness , compassion , loyalty , unselfishnes s ar e al l scorned a s sign s o f weakness , "a s restraint s o n th e pat h t o a siniste r glory" (Horne y 1950 , 203) . Thos e wh o valu e suc h qualitie s ar e fool s just askin g t o b e exploited . Aggressiv e peopl e ar e sometime s draw n toward complian t types , however , becaus e o f thei r submissivenes s an d malleability—and als o becaus e o f thei r ow n represse d self-effacin g ten dencies. Just a s self-effacin g peopl e mus t repres s thei r aggressiv e impulse s i n order t o mak e thei r solutio n work , s o fo r arrogant-vindictiv e peopl e any "attitud e o f complianc e woul d b e incompatible " wit h thei r "whol e structure o f living " an d woul d "shak e it s foundations. " The y nee d t o fight their softe r feelings : "Nietzsch e give s us a good illustratio n o f thes e dynamics whe n h e has hi s superma n se e any for m o f sympath y a s a sor t of fifth column , a n enem y operatin g fro m within " (Horne y 1945 , 6 9 -

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70). The y fea r th e emergenc e o f complian t trend s becaus e thi s woul d make the m vulnerabl e i n a n evi l world , woul d caus e the m t o fee l lik e fools, an d woul d threate n thei r bargain , whic h i s essentially wit h them selves. The y d o no t coun t o n th e worl d t o giv e the m anythin g bu t ar e convinced the y ca n reac h thei r ambitiou s goal s i f the y remai n tru e t o their visio n o f lif e a s a battl e an d d o no t allo w themselve s t o b e seduce d by th e traditiona l moralit y o r thei r ow n complian t tendencies . I f thei r predominant solutio n collapses , powerfu l self-effacin g trend s ma y emerge. Predominantly arrogant-vindictiv e character s wh o hav e bee n dis cussed i n Horneya n term s includ e Iag o (Rosenber g 1961 , Rabki n an d Brown 1973 , Pari s 1991a) , Edmund , Goneril , Regan , Lad y Macbeth , and Macbet h afte r th e murde r (Pari s 1991a) , an d Richar d II I an d Cas sius (Pari s 1991b ) i n Shakespeare ; Julie n Sore l i n Stendhal' s The Red and the Black (Pari s 1974) ; Beck y Shar p i n Vanity Fair (Pari s 1974) ; Count Guid o i n Browning' s The Ring and the Book (Lewi s 1986) ; Raskolnikov i n Dostoevsky' s Crime and Punishment (Pari s 1978c , 199ic, 1994b) ; and Joe Christma s i n Faulkner's Light in August (Hasel swerdt 1986) . Predominantly narcissisti c peopl e als o see k mastery , bu t thei r child hoods ar e quit e differen t fro m thos e o f arrogant-vindictiv e people , a s are thei r strategie s o f defense . Wherea s arrogant-vindictiv e peopl e hav e usually bee n subjec t t o abuse , narcissisti c peopl e wer e ofte n "favore d and admired " childre n wh o wer e "gifte d beyon d average " an d "earl y and easil y won distinctions " (Horne y 1950 , 194) . The goal o f aggressiv e people i s t o prov e thei r superiorit y t o thei r detractor s throug h achieve ment; th e goa l o f narcissisti c peopl e i s t o maintai n th e sens e o f bein g exceptional tha t the y imbibe d i n childhood . "Health y frictio n wit h th e wishes an d wil l o f others " (18) , whic h Horne y regard s a s a n essentia l condition o f soun d development , an d th e nee d t o ear n a sens e o f wort h through achievement , ar e missing in their earl y experience. They develo p an unrealisti c sens e o f thei r power s an d importance , an d thi s create s anxiety o f a different kin d fro m tha t experience d b y those toward who m the worl d ha s bee n begrudging . The y ar e afrai d o f othe r peopl e whos e genuine accomplishment s o r refusa l t o indulg e the m cal l thei r inflate d conception o f themselve s int o question . Not e tha t Horne y doe s no t posit a primar y narcissism , a s d o man y othe r theorists , bu t rathe r see s narcissism, lik e aggression , a s a reaction t o a n unhealth y environment . As adults , narcissist s see k t o maste r lif e "b y self-admiratio n an d th e

Horney's Mature Theory | 2 5 exercise o f charm " (Horne y 1950 , 212) . The y hav e a n "unquestione d belief i n [their ] greatnes s an d uniqueness " tha t give s the m a "buoyanc y and perennia l youthfulness. " Th e narcissis t "ha s (consciously ) n o doubts; h e is th e anointed , th e ma n o f destiny , th e grea t giver , th e benefactor o f mankind. " H e feel s tha t ther e i s "n o on e h e canno t win " and i s adep t a t charmin g peopl e "wit h a scintillatin g displa y o f feeling , with flattery , wit h favor s an d help—i n anticipatio n o f admiratio n o r i n return fo r devotio n received. " Hi s insecurit y i s manifeste d b y th e fac t that h e "ma y spea k incessantl y o f hi s exploit s o r o f hi s wonderfu l qualities an d need s endles s confirmation o f hi s estimate o f himsel f i n th e form o f admiratio n an d devotion " (194) . Like arrogant-vindictiv e people , narcissist s us e peopl e an d d o "no t seem t o min d breakin g promises , bein g unfaithful , incurrin g debts , de frauding" (Horne y 1950 , 195) . Bu t the y ar e no t "schemin g exploiters" ; rather, the y fee l tha t thei r need s ar e "s o importan t tha t the y entitl e [them] t o ever y privilege. " The y expec t unconditiona l lov e fro m others , no matte r ho w muc h the y "trespas s o n thei r rights. " Because thei r imaginatio n i s captivate d b y "th e glor y o f th e dra matic," narcissists resent "th e humble tasks of daily living" a s "humiliat ing." The y hav e fantasie s o f "quic k an d glamorou s achievement, " avoi d consistent effor t an d attentio n t o detail , an d quickl y los e interes t a s a face-saving devic e i f the y encounte r obstacle s (Horne y 1950 , 313-15) . When disillusione d the y ma y giv e u p thei r ambitions , tellin g themselve s that the y woul d hav e accomplishe d somethin g grea t i f the y ha d decide d really to try . On th e surfac e narcissisti c peopl e ar e "rathe r optimistic " an d "tur n outward towar d life, " bu t "ther e ar e undercurrent s o f despondenc y an d pessimism" (Horne y 1950 , 196) . The y se e th e worl d a s a fosterin g parent, expec t continua l goo d luck , an d deman d th e fulfillmen t o f thei r wishes b y fat e an d othe r people . Thei r bargai n i s that i f the y hol d ont o their dream s an d thei r exaggerate d claim s fo r themselves , lif e i s boun d to giv e the m wha t the y want . Sinc e lif e ca n neve r matc h thei r expecta tions, the y feel , i n thei r weake r moments , tha t i t i s ful l o f tragi c contra dictions. Predominantly narcissisti c character s wh o hav e bee n discusse d i n Horneyan term s includ e Kin g Lea r (Pari s 1991a ) an d Richar d I I (Pari s 1991b) i n Shakespeare , Jane Austen' s Emm a Woodhous e (Pari s 1978b) , Mathilde d e l a Mol e i n The Red and the Black (Pari s 1974) , an d Conrad's Lor d Jim (Pari s 1974) .

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In Neurosis and Human Growth, Horne y give s th e leas t amoun t o f attention t o th e perfectionisti c solution , bu t sh e discusse s i t als o i n New Ways in Psychoanalysis, wher e sh e argue s tha t a n adherenc e t o "rigi d and hig h mora l standards " an d a "driv e towar d rectitud e an d perfec tion" (1939 , 207 ) ar e no t product s o f a n instinctuall y base d supereg o but specia l need s o f individual s wh o hav e ha d a certai n kin d o f child hood. The y wer e mad e t o fee l worthles s o r guilt y i f they di d no t liv e u p to thei r parents ' demands , bu t b y conforming t o expectation s the y coul d put themselve s beyon d reproac h an d gai n a feeling o f superiority . Perfec tionists d o no t reve l i n a sens e o f bein g wonderful , lik e narcissists , bu t derive a sadistic satisfactio n fro m thei r rectitud e becaus e i t shows other s "how stupid , worthless , an d contemptibl e the y are. " The y wan t t o "strike other s wit h righteou s indignatio n fro m th e height o f their infalli bility," t o "inflic t th e sam e injury " o n other s tha t thei r parent s inflicte d on the m (218-21) . As adults , perfectionist s fee l superio r becaus e o f thei r "hig h stan dards, mora l an d intellectual , an d o n thi s basi s loo k dow n o n others " (Horney 1950 , 196) . The y easil y fee l guilt y bu t regar d thi s a s a virtu e because i t prove s thei r "hig h sensitivit y towar d mora l requirements. " I f the analyst point s ou t that thei r self-recrimination s ar e exaggerated, the y may fee l tha t th e analys t i s inferio r an d "canno t possibl y understand " them (Horne y 1939 , 220) . Unlik e narcissists , perfectionist s wor k har d and pa y obsessiv e attentio n t o details . Wha t reall y matter s i s no t th e details themselve s "bu t th e flawles s excellenc e o f th e whol e conduc t o f life" (Horne y 1950 , 196) . Only this will reduce their anxiety , make the m feel superio r t o others , an d giv e the m a sens e o f controllin g thei r ow n destiny. Since the y ar e pursuin g th e impossible , perfectionist s mus t fin d way s to defen d themselve s agains t failur e an d it s consequences . On e defens e is t o equat e "standard s an d actualities— knowing abou t mora l value s and being a goo d person " (Horne y 1950 , 196) . Whil e the y deceiv e themselves i n thi s way , the y ma y insis t tha t other s liv e u p t o thei r standards an d "despis e the m fo r failin g t o d o so . [Their ] ow n self condemnation i s thu s externalized. " Th e impositio n o f thei r standard s on other s lead s t o admiratio n fo r a selec t fe w an d a critica l o r conde scending attitud e towar d mos t people . The bargai n o f th e perfectionis t i s base d o n a legalisti c conceptio n o f the worl d order : "Becaus e h e i s fair , just , dutiful , h e i s entitle d t o fai r treatment b y others an d b y life in general. This conviction o f an infallibl e

Horney's Mature Theory | 2 7 justice operatin g i n lif e give s hi m a feelin g o f mastery " (Horne y 1950 , 197). Succes s i s not a matter o f luck , o f bein g the favorit e o f fortune , a s it is for th e narcissist, or of superior shrewdness , talent, and ruthlessness , as i t i s for th e arrogant-vindictiv e person ; rather , i t i s a proo f o f virtue . Ill fortun e ma y mea n tha t h e i s no t reall y virtuou s o r tha t th e worl d i s unjust. Eithe r conclusio n shake s hi m "t o th e foundation s o f hi s psychi c existence," invalidatin g "hi s whol e accountin g system " an d conjurin g up "th e ghastl y prospec t o f helplessness. " I f h e recognize s "a n erro r o r failure o f hi s ow n making, " self-effacin g trend s an d self-hat e ma y com e to th e fore . Predominantly perfectionisti c character s wh o hav e bee n analyze d i n Horney an term s includ e Brutu s an d Coriolanu s (Pari s 1991b) , Othello , Cordelia, an d Macbet h befor e th e murde r (Pari s 1991a ) i n Shakespeare ; Samuel Richardson' s Clariss a Harlow e (Eldredg e 1982) ; and thre e char acters i n Jan e Austen—Elino r Dashwoo d i n Sense and Sensibility, Knightly i n Emma, an d Ann e Ellio t i n Persuasion (Pari s 1978b) . People who ar e predominantly resigne d o r detache d usuall y hav e ha d a childhoo d i n whic h ther e wer e "crampin g influences " agains t whic h they "coul d no t rebe l openly , eithe r becaus e the y wer e to o stron g o r to o intangible." Demand s wer e mad e fo r love , understanding , conformity , or emotiona l suppor t tha t threatene d t o "engulf " them . The y fel t tha t they ha d t o submi t t o thes e demand s i n orde r t o obtai n love , bu t the y also wante d t o rebe l agains t "th e bond s pu t around " them . The y han dled thi s situatio n b y withdrawal . Puttin g "a n emotiona l distanc e be tween [themselves ] an d others, " they n o longe r wanted affectio n no r di d they wan t t o fight. Thi s helpe d the m preserv e thei r individuality , bu t they ha d t o pu t a chec k o n thei r feeling s an d "retrac t al l thos e wishe s and need s whic h woul d requir e other s fo r thei r fulfillment. " Whil e retracting their wishes made them more independent , i t also sapped thei r "vitality an d maim[e d their ] sens e of direction " (Horne y 1950 , 275-76) . Whereas self-effacin g peopl e crav e lov e an d expansiv e peopl e see k mastery, detache d peopl e worshi p freedo m an d independence . The y want t o b e left alone , to hav e nothin g expecte d o f them , to b e subject t o no restrictions . The y hav e a "hypersensitivity to influence, pressure, coercion o r ties o f an y kind " (Horne y 1950 , 266 , emphasis i n original) . They ma y reac t wit h anxiet y t o physica l pressur e fro m clothing , close d spaces, long-term obligations , the inexorability o f time, the laws of caus e and effect , traditiona l value s an d rule s o f behavior , or , indeed , anythin g that interfere s wit h thei r absolut e freedom . The y wan t t o d o wha t

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they pleas e whe n the y please , bu t sinc e the y ar e alienate d fro m thei r spontaneous desires , their freedo m i s rather empty . I t i s a freedom from what the y fee l a s coercio n rathe r tha n a freedom to fulfil l themselves . Their desir e fo r freedo m ma y tak e th e for m o f a cravin g fo r serenity , which mean s fo r the m "simpl y th e absenc e o f al l troubles, irritations, o r upsets" (263) . Detached peopl e disdai n th e pursui t o f worldl y success an d hav e a profound aversio n t o effort . The y hav e a strong nee d fo r superiorit y an d usually loo k o n thei r fellow s wit h condescension , bu t the y realiz e thei r ambition i n imaginatio n rathe r tha n throug h actua l accomplishments . They make themselves invulnerable b y being self-sufficient. Thi s involve s not onl y livin g i n imaginatio n bu t als o restrictin g thei r desires . In orde r to avoi d bein g dependen t o n th e environment , the y tr y t o subdu e thei r inner craving s and t o be content with little. They cultivate a "don' t care " attitude an d protec t themselve s agains t frustratio n b y believin g tha t "nothing matters. " Detached peopl e withdra w fro m bot h othe r peopl e an d themselves . They see k privacy, shrou d themselve s "i n a veil o f secrecy, " and , i n thei r personal relations , dra w aroun d themselve s " a kin d o f magi c circl e which n o on e ma y penetrate " (Horne y 1945 , 75~7^) - The y withdra w from themselve s b y suppressin g o r denyin g thei r feelings . Thei r resigna tion fro m activ e livin g give s the m a n "onlooker " attitud e tha t ofte n enables the m t o b e excellen t observer s bot h o f other s an d o f thei r own inne r processes . Thei r insigh t divorce d fro m feeling , the y loo k a t themselves "wit h a kin d o f objectiv e interest , a s on e woul d loo k a t a work o f art " (74) . Their withdrawa l fro m themselve s i s in par t a n effor t t o resolv e thei r inner conflicts . I n this solution , says Horney, the subordinate d trend s ar e not deepl y repressed ; the y ar e visibl e t o th e traine d observe r an d ar e rather easil y brough t t o awareness . Becaus e detache d peopl e ar e likel y to entertai n th e attitude s o f th e subordinate d solutions , thei r value s ar e highly contradictory . The y hav e a "permanen t hig h evaluation " o f wha t they regar d "a s freedo m an d independence " an d cultivat e individuality , self-reliance, an d a n indifferenc e t o fate . Bu t the y ma y a t on e tim e "express a n extreme appreciatio n fo r huma n goodness , sympathy, gener osity, self-effacin g sacrifice , an d a t anothe r tim e swin g t o a complet e jungle philosophy o f callou s self-interest " (Horne y 1945 , 94)In orde r t o reduc e thei r vulnerability , detache d peopl e believe , "con sciously or unconsciously, that i s it better no t to wish or expect anything .

Horney's Mature Theory | 2 9 Sometimes this goes with a conscious pessimisti c outloo k o n life , a sens e of it s bein g futil e anyho w an d o f nothin g bein g sufficientl y desirabl e t o make a n effor t fo r it " (Horne y 1950 , 263 , emphasi s i n original) . The y do no t usuall y rai l agains t life , however , bu t accep t thei r fat e wit h ironic humo r o r stoica l dignity . The y tr y t o escap e sufferin g b y bein g independent o f externa l forces , b y feelin g tha t nothin g matters , an d b y concerning themselve s onl y wit h thing s withi n thei r power . Thei r bar gain i s tha t i f the y as k nothin g o f others , the y wil l no t b e bothered ; i f they tr y fo r nothing , the y wil l no t fail ; an d i f the y expec t littl e o f life , they will not b e disappointed . Predominantly detache d character s wh o hav e bee n analyze d i n Hor neyan term s includ e Horati o i n Hamlet, Thersite s i n Troilus and Cressida, an d Apemantu s i n Timon of Athens (Pari s 1991a) ; Mr . Benne t i n Jane Austen' s Pride and Prejudice (Pari s 1978b) ; Dostoevsky' s under ground ma n (Pari s 1974) ; and Quenti n Compso n i n Faulkner's Absalom, Absalom! an d The Sound and the Fury (Buter y 1989) . Th e detache d solution i s particularl y prevalen t i n twentieth-centur y literature , an d much wor k remain s t o b e done with character s wh o manifes t it . Horney describe s childhoo d experience s typica l fo r thos e wh o hav e adopted eac h o f th e majo r solutions , bu t mos t childre n hav e a combina tion o f thes e experience s an d develo p a combinatio n o f defenses . Con flicts betwee n th e solution s caus e oscillations , inconsistencies , an d self hate. On e o f th e mos t significan t feature s o f Horney' s theor y i s tha t i t permits u s t o mak e sens e o f contradictor y attitudes , behaviors , an d beliefs b y seein g the m a s par t o f structur e o f inne r conflicts . Horne y an theory ha s a dynami c quality : solution s combine , conflict , becom e stronger o r weaker , nee d t o b e defended , generat e viciou s circles , an d are replace d b y other s whe n the y collapse . Thi s qualit y o f th e theor y i s difficult t o conve y i n exposition , bu t i t wil l becom e eviden t i n ou r discussions o f literature .

While interpersona l difficultie s ar e creatin g th e movement s toward , against, an d awa y fro m people , an d th e conflicts betwee n thes e moves , concomitant intrapsychi c problem s ar e producin g thei r ow n defensiv e strategies. T o compensat e fo r feeling s o f self-hat e an d inadequacy , indi viduals create , wit h th e ai d o f thei r imagination , a n "idealize d image " of themselve s tha t the y endo w wit h "unlimite d powers " an d "exalte d faculties" (Horne y 1950 , 22) . Th e idealize d image , i n turn , generate s

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neurotic claims , tyrannica l "shoulds, " an d neuroti c pride , al l o f whic h ultimately increas e self-hate . The conten t o f th e idealize d imag e i s muc h influence d b y ou r pre dominant solutio n an d th e attribute s i t exalts . Th e idealize d imag e o f self-effacing peopl e "i s a composit e o f 'lovable ' qualities , suc h a s un selfishness, goodness , generosity , humility , saintliness , nobility , sympa thy" (Horne y 1950 , 222). Arrogant-vindictive peopl e se e themselves a s masters o f al l situation s wh o ar e smarter , tougher , mor e realisti c tha n other people . Narcissist s se e themselves a s prophets an d benefactor s o f mankind wh o hav e unlimite d energie s an d ar e capabl e o f magnificen t achievements, effortlessl y attained . Perfectionist s regar d themselve s a s models o f rectitud e wh o achiev e a flawless excellenc e i n th e whol e conduct o f life . Th e idealized imag e o f detache d o r resigne d peopl e "i s a composit e o f self-sufficiency , independence , self-containe d serenity , freedom fro m desires " an d "stoicism " (277) . In each solution , the idealized image may be modeled i n whole o r in part o n a religious or cultura l ideal or an example fro m histor y o r personal experience . The creatio n o f the idealized imag e lead s to additiona l inne r conflict . The conflic t betwee n th e interpersona l strategie s i s importe d int o th e idealized image , whic h reflect s no t onl y th e predominan t solutio n bu t also the subordinated ones . Since each solutio n glorifie s a different se t of traits, the idealized imag e has contradictory aspects , all of which deman d to b e actualized . A conflic t als o arise s betwee n prid e an d self-hate . Individuals ca n fee l worthwhil e onl y i f the y liv e u p t o thei r idealize d image, deemin g everythin g tha t fall s shor t t o b e worthless. A s a result , they develo p a "despise d image " o f themselve s tha t become s th e focu s of self-contempt . A great man y peopl e shuttle , say s Horney, "betwee n a feeling o f arrogan t omnipotenc e an d o f bein g th e scu m o f th e earth " (1950,188). The idealize d imag e evolve s int o a n idealize d sel f an d th e despise d image int o a despise d self , a s peopl e becom e convince d the y reall y ar e the grandios e o r awfu l being s the y hav e imagine d themselve s t o be . Horney posit s fou r selve s competin g wit h eac h other : th e rea l self , th e idealized self , the despised self , and the actual self . The real (o r possible) self i s based o n a set of biological predisposition s tha t requir e favorabl e conditions fo r their actualization . The idealized (o r impossible) sel f i s an imaginary creatio n tha t i s unrealistically grandiose , and the despised sel f is unrealisticall y worthles s an d weak . Th e actua l sel f i s wha t a perso n really is— a mixtur e o f strength s an d weaknesses , healt h an d neurosis .

Homey's Mature Theory | 3 1 The distanc e betwee n th e actual an d real selve s wil l vary , dependin g o n the degre e of self-alienation. I t will b e small in self-actualizing people . With th e formatio n o f th e idealize d image , th e individua l embark s upon a "searc h fo r glory, " a s "th e energies drivin g towar d self-realiza tion ar e shifte d t o th e ai m o f actualizin g th e idealize d self " (Horne y 1950, 24) . Wha t i s considere d t o b e gloriou s depend s o n th e majo r solution. Horne y doe s no t se e th e searc h fo r glory , th e ques t o f th e absolute, the need to be godlike a s essential ingredient s o f human natur e but a s reactions t o the frustration o f basi c needs . I t is when peopl e fee l themselves to be nothing tha t the y mus t clai m to be all. For man y peopl e th e searc h fo r glor y i s the most importan t thin g i n their lives . It give s the m th e sense o f meaning an d feeling o f superiorit y they s o desperately crave . They ma y experience depressio n o r despai r if they fee l tha t thei r searc h fo r glor y wil l neve r succeed . The y fiercely resist al l encroachments o n their illusor y grandeu r an d may prefer deat h to th e shatterin g o f thei r dreams . Th e searc h fo r glor y i s a "privat e religion" th e rules o f which ar e determined b y the individual's neurosis , but glor y system s ar e als o a prominen t featur e o f ever y culture . The y include organize d religions , variou s form s o f grou p identification , war s and militar y service , and competitions, honors, and hierarchical arrange ments of all kinds. The creatio n o f the idealized imag e produce s no t only th e search fo r glory bu t the whole structur e o f phenomena tha t Horne y call s the pride system. We take a n intense prid e i n the attributes o f our idealized selve s and o n the basis o f this prid e mak e "neuroti c claims " o n others . At the same time , we feel tha t w e should perfor m i n a way that i s commensu rate wit h ou r grandios e conceptio n o f ourselves . I f th e worl d fail s t o honor ou r claim s o r w e fai l t o liv e u p t o ou r shoulds , w e becom e ou r despised selve s and experience agonizin g self-hate . A s with ou r idealized image, the specific natur e of our pride, shoulds, claims, and self-hate wil l be influenced b y our predominant solutio n an d by the conflicts betwee n it and subordinate trends . Our nee d to actualize our idealized imag e leads us to impose stringen t demands an d taboo s upo n ourselves , a phenomeno n Horne y call s "th e tyranny o f the should." Th e function o f the shoulds i s "to make onesel f over int o one' s idealize d self : the premise on which they operate is that nothing should be, or is, impossible for oneself" (Horne y 1950 , 68). The shoulds ar e characterized b y their coerciveness , disregar d fo r feasibility , imperviousness to psychic laws, and reliance on willpower fo r fulfillmen t

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and imaginatio n fo r denia l of failure. There i s a good dea l of externaliza tion connecte d wit h th e shoulds . We often fee l ou r should s a s the expec tations o f others , our self-hat e a s their rejection , an d ou r self-criticis m a s their unfai r judgment . W e expec t other s t o liv e u p t o ou r should s an d displace ont o the m ou r rag e at ou r ow n failur e t o d o so. The shoulds ar e a defens e agains t self-loathing , but , lik e othe r defenses , the y aggravat e the conditio n the y ar e employe d t o cure . Not onl y d o the y increas e self alienation, bu t the y als o intensif y self-hate , sinc e th e penalt y fo r failur e is a feelin g o f worthlessnes s an d self-contempt . Thi s i s why th e should s have suc h a tyrannica l power . "I t i s th e threa t o f a punitiv e self-hate " that "trul y make s them a regime o f terror" (85) . The should s ar e impossibl e t o liv e up t o becaus e the y ar e s o unrealis tic: w e shoul d lov e everyone ; w e shoul d neve r mak e a mistake ; w e should alway s triumph; we should never need other people, and s o forth . The shoulds alway s deman d th e repression o f needs, feelings, an d wishe s that canno t b e repressed . Th e should s ar e als o impossibl e t o liv e u p t o because the y reflec t ou r inne r conflicts an d ar e a t wa r wit h eac h other . They ar e generate d b y th e idealize d image , bu t th e idealize d imag e i s a composite o f variou s solutions , eac h o f whic h produce s it s ow n se t o f demands. A s a result , w e ar e ofte n caugh t i n a crossfir e o f conflictin g shoulds. As we try to obe y contradictory inne r dictates , we ar e boun d t o hate ourselve s whateve r w e do , an d eve n if , paralyzed , w e d o nothin g a t all. Th e crossfir e o f conflictin g should s i s a powerfu l concep t tha t ex plains much inerti a an d inconsistency . Another produc t o f th e idealize d imag e i s "neuroti c claims, " whic h are ou r demand s t o b e treated i n accordanc e wit h ou r grandios e concep tion o f ourselves . Claim s als o involv e th e expectatio n tha t w e wil l ge t what w e nee d i n orde r t o mak e ou r solutio n work . Generall y speaking , neurotic claim s ar e unrealistic , egocentric , an d vindictive . They deman d results withou t effort , ar e base d o n a n assumptio n o f specialnes s o r superiority, den y th e worl d o f caus e an d effect , an d ar e "pervade d b y expectations o f magic " (Horne y 1950 , 62) . Neurotic claim s d o no t achiev e thei r objective , whic h i s confirmatio n of ou r idealize d imag e an d ou r predominan t solution . I f th e worl d fail s to hono r ou r claims , as is often th e case , it is saying that w e ar e not wh o we think w e ar e an d tha t ou r strateg y fo r dealin g wit h lif e i s ineffective . We may reac t with rage , despair, an d self-hate , bu t we may als o reaffir m our claims , which ar e extremel y tenacious , sinc e we depen d o n the m fo r self-aggrandizement an d a sense o f contro l ove r ou r lives .

Horney's Mature Theory | 3 3 The claim s ar e wha t w e fee l entitle d t o accordin g t o th e conceptio n of justic e tha t i s par t o f ou r predominan t solution . Althoug h specifi c expectations will vary from solutio n t o solution , the essential conceptio n of justic e remain s th e same . In a just world , ou r claim s wil l b e honored ; if the y ar e not , lif e i s absurd . Sinc e ou r solutio n wil l collaps e i f th e universe i s no t organize d a s i t i s suppose d t o be , w e hav e a powerfu l vested interes t i n preservin g ou r belie f syste m i n fac e o f contrar y evi dence. I f w e becom e convince d tha t th e worl d ha s belie d ou r expecta tions, we may g o to pieces o r switc h t o anothe r solutio n wit h a differen t conception o f the universe . An importan t par t o f th e justic e syste m i n eac h solutio n i s wha t Horney call s a "deal " an d wha t I hav e calle d a bargai n wit h fate , th e specifics o f whic h wil l var y wit h th e solution , a s I hav e shown . Th e bargain i s tha t i f w e obe y ou r shoulds , ou r claim s wil l b e honored , ou r solution wil l work , an d ou r idealize d conceptio n o f ourselve s wil l b e confirmed. I have made a detailed stud y o f this phenomenon i n Bargains with Fate: Psychological Crises and Conflicts in Shakespeare and His Flays (1991) , wher e I argu e tha t th e leadin g character s o f th e majo r tragedies ar e throw n int o a stat e o f psychologica l crisi s b y precipitatin g events tha t challeng e thei r bargain s wit h fate . It i s importan t t o recogniz e tha t th e bargai n wit h fat e involve s no t only a n expectatio n tha t ou r claim s wil l b e honore d i f we liv e up t o ou r shoulds, bu t als o a convictio n tha t w e wil l b e punishe d i f w e violat e them. Th e justic e syste m o f ou r solutio n ca n tur n agains t us , a s i t doe s against Macbeth. In some cases, conflicting solution s generate conflictin g bargains, ethical codes , and conception s o f justice . Neurotic pride , say s Horney , i s "th e clima x an d consolidatio n o f th e process initiate d wit h th e searc h fo r glory " (1950 , 109) . I t substitute s for realisti c self-confidenc e an d self-estee m a prid e i n th e attribute s o f the idealize d self , i n th e successfu l assertio n o f claims , an d i n th e "lofti ness an d severity " o f th e inne r dictates . Sinc e pride turn s th e compulsiv e behaviors o f th e variou s solution s int o virtues , anythin g ca n b e a sourc e of pride . Ther e i s commonl y a grea t prid e i n th e menta l processe s o f imagination, reason , an d will , sinc e "th e infinit e powers " w e ascrib e t o ourselves "are , afte r all , power s o f th e mind. " Th e min d mus t wor k incessantly a t "maintainin g th e private fictitious worl d throug h rational izations, justifications , externalizations , reconcilin g irreconcilables—i n short, throug h finding way s t o mak e thing s appea r differen t fro m wha t they are " (91-94) .

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Pride i s a vitall y importan t defense , bu t sinc e i t i s base d o n illusio n and self-deception , i t increase s ou r vulnerability . Threat s t o prid e pro duce anxiet y an d hostility ; it s collaps e result s i n self-contempt . W e ar e especially subjec t t o feeling s o f sham e (whe n w e violat e ou r ow n pride ) and humiliatio n (whe n ou r prid e i s violate d b y others) . W e reac t t o shame wit h self-hat e an d t o humiliatio n wit h a vindictive hostilit y rang ing "fro m irritability , t o anger , t o a blin d murderou s rage " (Horne y 1950,99). There ar e variou s devices fo r restorin g pride . Thes e includ e retalia tion, whic h reestablishe s th e superiorit y o f th e humiliate d person , an d loss o f interes t i n tha t whic h i s threatenin g o r damaging . The y als o include variou s form s o f distortion , suc h a s forgettin g humiliatin g epi sodes, denyin g responsibility , blamin g others , an d embellishing . Some times "humo r i s use d t o tak e th e stin g ou t o f a n otherwis e unbearabl e shame" (Horne y 1950 , 106) . W e als o protec t ou r prid e b y avoidances , such a s no t trying , restrictin g wishe s an d activities , an d refusin g t o become involve d i n an y seriou s pursuit o r relationship . Self-hate i s usuall y th e en d produc t o f th e intrapsychi c strategie s o f defense, eac h o f whic h tend s t o magnif y th e individual' s feeling s o f inadequacy an d failure . Self-hat e i s essentiall y th e rag e th e idealize d sel f feels towar d th e sel f w e actuall y ar e fo r no t bein g wha t i t "should " be . Self-hate i s i n larg e par t a n unconsciou s process , sinc e i t i s usuall y to o painful t o b e confronte d directly . Th e chie f defens e agains t awarenes s i s externalization, which takes active and passiv e forms. Active externaliza tion "i s a n attemp t t o direc t self-hat e outward , agains t life , fate , institu tions o r people. " I n passiv e externalizatio n "th e hat e remain s directe d against th e sel f bu t i s perceive d o r experience d a s comin g fro m th e outside." Whe n self-hat e i s conscious , ther e i s ofte n a prid e take n i n i t that serve s t o maintai n self-glorification : "Th e ver y condemnatio n o f imperfection confirm s th e godlike standard s wit h whic h the person iden tifies himself " (Horne y 1950 , 114-15) . Horne y see s self-hat e a s "per haps th e greates t traged y o f th e huma n mind . Ma n i n reachin g ou t fo r the Infinit e an d Absolut e als o start s destroyin g himself . When h e make s a pac t wit h th e devil , who promise s hi m glory , h e ha s t o g o t o hell—t o the hell within himself " (154) . As w e tur n t o loo k a t literatur e fro m a Horneya n perspective , i t i s important t o kee p i n min d tha t w e shal l find neithe r character s i n book s nor peopl e i n lif e wh o correspon d exactl y t o Horney' s descriptions . He r

Horney 3s Mature Theory | 3 5 types ar e composites, draw n fro m he r experienc e with peopl e wh o shar e certain dominan t trend s bu t wh o diffe r fro m eac h othe r i n man y im portant ways . The Horneya n typolog y help s u s t o se e how certai n trait s and behavior s ar e relate d t o eac h othe r withi n a psychologica l system , but onc e w e hav e identifie d a person' s predominan t solution , w e mus t not assum e the presence o f al l the characteristics Horne y ascribe s to tha t solution. I t i s als o importan t t o remember , a s Horne y observes , tha t "although peopl e tendin g towar d th e sam e mai n solutio n hav e charac teristic similarities , the y ma y diffe r widel y wit h regar d t o [their ] leve l o f human qualities , gifts , o r achievements " (1950 , 191) . Th e situatio n i s further complicate d b y th e fac t tha t peopl e experienc e inne r conflict s and displa y behaviors , traits , an d belief s tha t belon g t o mor e tha n on e solution. Quotin g Willia m Jame s t o th e effec t tha t " 'mos t case s ar e mixed cases ' " an d tha t " 'w e shoul d no t trea t ou r classification s wit h too muc h respect, ' " Horne y concludes : "I t woul d b e mor e nearl y cor rect to spea k o f direction s o f developmen t tha n o f types" (1950 , 191) . If w e forge t thes e qualifications , w e ar e liabl e t o pu t peopl e int o categories instea d o f graspin g thei r individuality , an d ou r analysi s wil l be little more tha n a reductive labeling . Horne y allow s fo r infinit e varia tions an d combination s o f defense s an d recognize s othe r component s o f the personalit y a s well . I n a brie f description , he r theor y seem s highl y schematic, bu t whe n properl y employe d i t is quite flexible .

3 A DolVs House an d Hedda Gabler The firs t perso n t o loo k a t literatur e fro m a Horneya n per spective wa s Kare n Horne y herself . Sh e taugh t course s a t th e Ne w School fo r Socia l Researc h tha t wer e focuse d o n literar y works , an d sh e frequently use d literatur e fo r illustrativ e purpose s i n he r writings . A n admirer o f Henri k Ibsen , sh e cite d hi s work s mor e ofte n tha n thos e o f any othe r author . Thi s i s not surprising , fo r Ibse n i s the greates t psycho logical dramatis t nex t t o Shakespeare , an d ther e i s a remarkable congru ence betwee n hi s play s an d he r theory . Man y o f Ibsen' s character s see m to hav e stepped fro m th e pages o f Our Inner Conflicts an d Neurosis and Human Growth. I coul d easil y devot e a boo k t o a Horneya n stud y o f Ibsen, bu t I shal l confin e mysel f her e t o tw o o f hi s mos t famou s an d enigmatic characters , Nor a Helme r an d Hedd a Gabler . A t th e cente r o f Ibsen's plays , there i s often a relationship, th e psychodynamic s o f whic h are portraye d wit h remarkabl e subtlety . I shal l analyz e Nora' s relation ship with he r husband , Torvald , an d Hedda' s wit h Ejler t Lovborg . Although Horne y initiall y devote d hersel f t o th e stud y o f feminin e psychology, sh e stoppe d writin g o n thi s topi c i n th e mid-1 9 30s an d developed a theor y tha t sh e regarde d a s gender-neutral . Sh e di d no t se e any defensiv e strategie s a s essentiall y masculin e o r feminin e bu t fel t tha t all wer e employe d b y member s o f bot h sexes . Th e greate r incidenc e o f self-effacement i n wome n an d aggressio n i n me n i s a product , sh e felt , of culture . Horney's positio n i s borne ou t b y the stud y o f literature. Self effacement i s mor e commo n i n femal e character s an d aggressio n i n males, but ther e ar e many aggressiv e women an d self-effacin g men . One o f th e majo r objective s o f women' s liberatio n movement s ha s been to fre e wome n fro m th e cultura l deman d fo r self-effacemen t an d t o establish thei r righ t t o ful l huma n development . A t th e themati c level , this seem s t o b e wha t A Doll's House i s about . I n th e first tw o act s o f the play , Nor a Helme r i s a strikin g exampl e o f feminin e compliance ,

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while i n th e las t ac t sh e rebel s agains t he r doll-lik e rol e an d assert s he r claim to ful l humanity . Indeed, the most difficul t thin g to understand abou t Nor a i s the spee d of he r transformatio n fro m a submissive , self-sacrificin g woma n wh o lives onl y fo r lov e an d famil y int o a self-assertiv e perso n wh o reject s al l responsibility t o he r husban d an d childre n i n th e nam e o f he r dut y t o herself. A t th e en d Nor a seem s s o differen t fro m he r earlie r sel f tha t some hav e fel t tha t Ibse n sacrifice d consisten t characterizatio n t o hi s thematic concerns . Nor a learn s tha t sh e ha s bee n unjustl y treate d b y a male-dominated societ y an d tha t sh e must rebel against th e conventiona l view o f he r natur e i f sh e i s t o realiz e herself . "Yo u an d Fathe r hav e done m e a grea t wrong, " sh e tell s Torvald . "You'v e prevente d m e fro m becoming a rea l person " (ac t 3). 1 She decide s tha t sh e mus t leav e hom e if sh e i s to hav e a chanc e o f discoverin g wha t sh e really think s an d wh o she reall y is . Nora's speeche s ar e stirring , bu t ha s Ibse n pu t word s int o her mout h tha t ar e inconsisten t wit h he r previousl y draw n character ? I s her transformatio n psychologicall y plausible ? How , exactly , doe s he r disillusionment wit h Torval d produc e he r amazin g turnabout ? Ca n a woman wh o intende d t o drow n hersel f nea r th e beginnin g o f th e las t ac t become a s strong a person a s Nora seem s to b e at the end ? I believe that Nor a i s a well-drawn mimeti c character whos e transfor mation i s intelligibl e i f w e understan d he r defensiv e strategie s an d th e nature o f he r relationshi p wit h he r husband . Sh e neve r become s a mer e mouthpiece bu t remain s a n inwardl y motivate d character , ful l o f incon sistencies an d blin d spot s that ar e psychologically realistic . Her transfor mation i s plausibl e whe n w e recogniz e tha t wit h th e collaps e o f he r predominant solution , he r previousl y represse d tendencie s emerge . Nora experience s genuin e growth a t the end o f the play, but sh e is not as clear-heade d a s sh e think s sh e is . Sh e fail s t o see , fo r example , tha t she ha s als o participate d i n th e creatio n o f he r destructiv e relationshi p with he r husban d an d tha t Torval d ha s bee n n o mor e o f a rea l perso n for he r tha n sh e ha s bee n fo r him . Sh e inform s Torval d tha t sh e mus t leave hom e becaus e h e ha s no t treate d he r a s a real person , bu t sh e als o says tha t sh e stoppe d lovin g hi m whe n th e wonderfu l thin g di d no t happen. I f Torval d ha d behave d heroicall y o n th e receip t o f Krogstad' s letter, Nor a woul d hav e bee n delighted , bu t suc h behavio r o n hi s par t would no t hav e show n respec t fo r he r a s a person. Nor a seem s unawar e of this , an d o f muc h els e besides . Sh e says that sh e ha s neve r bee n mor e sure o f herself , bu t sh e i s ful l o f self-doubt , an d he r fligh t fro m Torval d

A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 4 1 and he r childre n i s compulsive . Turnin g agains t he r faile d self-effacin g solution, Nor a i s no w drive n b y defensiv e need s fo r aggressio n an d withdrawal, a s wel l a s b y he r newl y awakene d desir e fo r self-actualiza tion. Nora initiall y develop s int o a predominantl y self-effacin g perso n no t only becaus e o f th e attitude s towar d wome n i n he r societ y bu t als o because o f th e particula r condition s o f he r childhood . Sh e ha s n o mother, an d he r fathe r i s a domineering ma n wh o want s he r t o remain a "doll-child" an d wh o woul d b e "displeased " i f sh e expresse d an y idea s contrary t o hi s ow n (ac t 3) . Nora canno t affor d t o rebel ; sh e i s strongl y attached t o her fathe r an d doe s her utmos t t o pleas e him. Sh e retains th e childlike playfulnes s an d docilit y tha t h e finds s o charmin g an d eithe r adopts hi s opinion s o r remain s silent . I t seem s likel y tha t th e absenc e o f a mothe r increase s he r dependenc e o n he r father ; sh e ha s n o on e els e t o turn t o fo r lov e an d protection . Moreover , sh e ha s n o mode l o f matur e womanhood t o emulate , an d sh e acquire s fe w skill s o n whic h t o bas e her self-esteem . Whe n sh e become s a mother herself , sh e depend s o n he r old nurse , Anne-Marie , t o car e fo r he r children , who m sh e treat s a s playmates. Nora' s fathe r reward s he r complianc e wit h fondnes s an d indulgence, an d sh e grow s u p feelin g tha t th e wa y t o gai n safety , love , and approva l i s to pleas e a powerful male . In Torval d Helmer , Nor a finds a ma n wh o i s muc h lik e he r father , and sh e relate s t o hi m i n a simila r way . Sh e i s conten t t o b e hi s "lark, " his "squirrel, " hi s "doll-baby, " hi s "littl e featherbrain, " hi s "craz y littl e thing" (ac t 1) . Nora doe s no t fee l demeane d b y these epithets, a s we fee l her t o be , althoug h a t a n unconsciou s leve l the y ar e destructive . Sh e lives, a s sh e says , "b y performin g tricks " fo r Torvald , an d sh e i s prou d of her abilit y to keep him charmed. Fo r Torvald ther e is "somethin g ver y endearing abou t a woman' s helplessness " (ac t 3) , an d Nor a i s a t grea t pains t o concea l th e fac t tha t sh e has save d hi s life an d almos t pai d of f a large loa n b y he r ow n efforts : "Torval d coul d neve r bea r t o thin k o f owing anythin g t o me ! It would hur t hi s self-respect—woun d hi s pride . It would rui n everything between us." It is important t o Nora t o preserv e Torvald's feelin g o f mastery , fo r thi s i s th e pric e o f hi s lov e an d protec tion. Sh e i s keeping he r heroi c effor t "i n reserve, " however , fo r th e da y when sh e i s "n o longe r s o prett y an d attractiv e . . . whe n i t n o longe r amuses hi m t o se e [her ] dance an d dress-u p an d ac t for him " (ac t 1) . In th e meantime , i t give s he r "somethin g t o b e prou d an d happ y

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about." Sh e i s prou d partl y becaus e "workin g lik e tha t an d earnin g money" ha s give n he r a feelin g o f strength , ha s mad e he r "fee l almos t like a man " (ac t i) , bu t mostl y becaus e i t fulfill s he r nee d t o b e goo d and loving . Lik e Mrs . Linde , an d mos t wome n i n he r culture , Nor a glorifies sacrificin g sel f fo r others , an d sh e reveal s he r secre t onl y whe n Mrs. Lind e make s he r fee l inferio r b y contrastin g Nora' s eas y lif e wit h her ow n nobl e suffering . Nora als o ha s need s fo r powe r an d mastery , whic h sh e fulfill s i n a typically self-effacin g wa y b y identifyin g wit h Torvald . Sh e exults i n th e fact tha t "al l th e employee s a t th e Ban k [will ] b e dependen t o n Torval d now": "Wha t fu n t o thin k tha t we—tha t Torvald—ha s suc h powe r over s o man y people " (ac t i) . Sh e bristle s whe n Krogsta d speak s disre spectfully o f her husban d becaus e sh e participates i n Torvald's glory , an d any threa t t o hi s statu s i s a threa t t o he r own . He r identificatio n i s s o intense tha t sh e i s read y t o commi t suicid e t o preserv e he r husband' s high position . Nora begin s t o thin k o f suicid e a s soo n a s Krogsta d threaten s t o reveal tha t sh e ha s obtaine d a loa n fro m hi m b y forgin g he r father' s signature. Sh e becomes panic-stricke n when , ignorin g he r pleas , Torval d dismisses Krogstad , sayin g tha t h e will bea r "th e whol e burden " o f an y retaliation. "He' d d o i t too ! He' d d o it—i n spit e o f anything! " sh e exclaims t o Dr . Rank . "Bu t h e mustn't—never , never ! Anythin g bu t that!" (ac t 2) . Nora i s convinced tha t Torval d love s her s o "deeply " an d "intensely" tha t "h e wouldn' t hesitat e fo r a momen t t o giv e u p hi s lif e for [her ] sake. " Sh e thinks tha t on e wa y o f savin g hi m woul d b e t o pa y off he r debt , thereb y securin g th e incriminatin g papers . Sh e consider s asking Dr . Ran k fo r th e money , bu t whe n Ran k declare s hi s love , sh e can accep t nothin g fro m him , eve n thoug h th e alternativ e i s s o terrible . Apparently, he r romanticis m i s so intens e tha t sh e would rathe r commi t suicide tha n tain t he r devotio n t o Torvald . Sh e i s afrai d t o kil l herself , however, unti l Krogsta d boast s tha t withi n a yea r h e wil l b e Torvald' s "right han d man . It'l l b e Nils Krogstad , no t Torval d Helmer , who'l l ru n the Join t Stoc k Bank. " " I hav e th e courag e fo r i t now, " Nor a declare s (act 2) . Nora's relationshi p wit h he r husban d i s base d o n a bargai n sh e ha s made i n he r ow n mind . Sh e will b e a charming , obliging , self-sacrificin g wife, an d Torval d wil l lov e an d protec t her . Nor a delight s i n bein g babied, coddled , an d indulged . Everythin g Torval d doe s fo r he r show s how valuabl e sh e i s t o hi m an d assure s he r tha t sh e wil l b e take n car e

A Doll's House and Hedda Gable r | 4 3 of. Sh e does not mind bein g weak a s long as his strength i s at her service . She controls hi m throug h he r dependency . Whe n h e become s directo r o f the bank , sh e doe s no t regre t th e fac t tha t sh e wil l n o longe r hav e t o earn money secretl y but is overjoyed tha t ther e will be "n o mor e trouble ! No mor e worry ! I'l l b e abl e t o pla y an d rom p abou t wit h th e children " (act 1) . Sh e doe s expec t t o b e rewarde d fo r he r year s o f devotion , however. Som e day , somehow , Torval d i s goin g t o mak e a magnificen t sacrifice fo r her , an d the n sh e wil l se e ho w stron g an d nobl e h e i s an d how muc h h e love s her . Thi s i s the "wonderfu l thing " tha t wil l validat e her bargai n an d mak e he r drea m o f glory com e true . Nora i s certain tha t when Torvald open s Krogstad's threatenin g letter , the wonderfu l thin g wil l happen . Torval d i s to o brave , to o nobl e t o submit t o Krogstad's demands . In order t o protect he r fro m prosecution , he will take responsibilit y fo r th e forger y o n himself . In Nora's romanti c fantasy Torval d i s her knigh t an d sh e is his lady. Just befor e h e reads th e letter, h e tell s her : "D o yo u kno w something , Nora . I ofte n wis h yo u were i n som e grea t danger—s o I could ris k bod y an d soul—m y whol e life—everything, everythin g fo r you r sake " (ac t 3) . Torvald' s equall y romantic versio n o f thei r relationshi p reinforce s Nora's . Sh e believe s hi s professions an d i s convince d tha t h e wil l sacrific e himsel f fo r her . Nor a wants th e wonderfu l thin g t o happen , bu t sh e i s terrifie d o f i t a s well , for Torval d wil l becom e a socia l outcast , lik e Krogstad . H e wil l los e hi s power an d position , an d lif e wil l becom e unbearabl y blea k an d mean . A ruined Torval d coul d satisf y neithe r Nora' s complian t need s for car e an d protection no r he r expansiv e need s fo r powe r an d glory . The severit y o f Nora' s neurosi s i s clearl y reveale d b y he r determina tion t o kil l herself. B y committing suicid e sh e wil l preven t Torval d fro m taking th e blam e o n himself . He r heroi c sacrific e wil l forestal l his . In stead o f havin g t o endur e guil t an d self-hat e fo r havin g ruine d Torvald , she will sav e hi s caree r a s sh e ha d earlie r save d hi s life . Th e rewar d wil l be hi s undyin g gratitud e an d devotion . Sh e wil l b e enshrine d foreve r i n his memory an d wil l no t hav e t o fea r th e los s o f hi s lov e when sh e i s n o longer s o attractive . He r suicid e wil l secur e Nor a fro m th e ravage s o f time an d th e vicissitude s o f fortune . Sh e will di e in ful l possessio n o f th e two thing s sh e values most, Torvald's lov e and hi s glory. In a relationshi p o f morbi d dependency , suc h a s tha t betwee n Nor a and Torvald , ther e i s a turnin g point , say s Horney , fo r th e self-effacin g partner, "a s th e stak e sh e i s gamblin g fo r fail s t o materialize " (1950 , 252). Th e turnin g poin t fo r Nor a come s wit h Torvald' s reaction s t o

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Krogstad's letter . H e neithe r praise s he r fo r havin g earne d s o muc h money an d save d hi s life no r offer s t o tak e th e blam e fo r he r forger y o n himself. Instea d h e call s he r a hypocrite , a liar , an d a crimina l an d tell s her tha t sh e "won' t b e allowe d t o brin g u p th e children " (ac t 3) . "Al l thought o f happiness " betwee n the m i s over. Sh e ha s pu t hi m i n Krogs tad's power , an d h e "mus t find som e wa y t o appeas e him. " I f w e hav e understood wha t ha s bee n goin g o n i n Nora u p t o thi s moment , w e ca n see wh y Torvald' s reaction s hav e suc h a tremendou s impac t upo n her . Her drea m ha s bee n shattered ; he r imag e o f Torvald , he r bargain , he r hopes ar e al l explode d illusions . He r sens e o f injustic e i s overwhelming , since sh e ha s bee n read y t o di e fo r him , an d h e i s thinkin g onl y o f himself. Enraged , sh e feel s no w tha t sh e doe s no t lov e Torval d an d that h e ha s neve r love d her . Nothin g h e say s coul d possibl y repai r th e relationship; she has los t al l faith i n his assurances an d regard s hi m wit h contempt. With th e collaps e o f he r self-effacin g solution , hithert o represse d trends i n Nora' s personalit y begi n t o emerge . Al l th e tim e sh e wa s submitting t o Torval d an d he r father , sh e wa s unconsciousl y resentin g their constraint s an d hatin g the m fo r makin g he r self-abandonmen t th e price o f thei r love . Sh e rebelle d i n smal l ways , suc h a s sneakin g maca roons, an d wa s awar e o f a desir e t o say , in fron t o f Torvald , "Damn ! — damn!—damn i t all! " (ac t 1) . Now tha t ther e i s n o priz e t o b e won b y compliance, sh e canno t bea r th e though t o f continuin g t o b e treate d i n degrading, patronizin g ways . No r ca n sh e repres s he r resentmen t an y longer. Sh e accuse s bot h Torval d an d he r fathe r o f havin g grievousl y wronged he r an d seem s to wan t Torval d t o suffer . Whe n h e say s that h e "can't endur e th e thought " o f partin g wit h her , sh e replies : "Al l th e more reaso n i t should happen " (ac t 3) . Torvald i s not th e onl y objec t o f Nora's rage ; she is angry with hersel f and ful l o f self-hate . He r self-effacin g sid e is horrified a t the thought tha t she ha s bee n "livin g her e fo r eigh t year s wit h a stranger " an d tha t sh e has "born e hi m thre e children" : " I can' t bea r t o thin k abou t it ! I coul d tear mysel f t o pieces! " (ac t 3) . B y leavin g immediatel y sh e remove s herself fro m sexua l temptatio n an d restore s he r prid e i n hersel f a s a woman wh o i s intimate onl y wit h a man sh e loves . She see s her bargai n in a ne w light , an d now , t o avoi d feelin g tha t sh e ha s sol d herself , sh e must rejec t Torvald' s help : " I can' t accep t anythin g fro m strangers. " Torvald's attac k o n he r mora l characte r exacerbate s he r doubt s abou t her fitness a s a mother .

A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 4 5 A good dea l o f self-hat e i s generated als o b y Nora's emergin g aggres sive trends . Sh e perceive s tha t i n man y way s Torval d i s righ t whe n h e calls he r a chil d an d tell s he r tha t sh e ha s "n o understandin g o f th e society w e liv e in " (ac t 3) . Sh e ha d bee n conten t t o b e a pampere d darling wh o wa s unfi t t o cop e wit h th e world , bu t no w sh e hate s he r weakness an d i s determine d t o stan d o n he r ow n feet . Here , too , th e defense o f he r prid e require s tha t sh e leave home . Sh e feels tha t sh e i s of no us e t o he r childre n partl y becaus e sh e i s s o childlik e herself . Nor a defends hersel f agains t he r self-hat e b y puttin g th e whol e blam e o n Torvald an d he r fathe r an d b y resolvin g t o becom e different . Anythin g that stand s i n the way o f he r determinatio n t o change , an y clai m o f lov e or duty , she ruthlessly rejects : "Thi s i s something I must do. " It seem s likel y tha t Nor a become s aggressive , rathe r tha n wallowin g in self-pit y an d despair , becaus e he r earlie r experienc e o f workin g ha s given he r a feelin g tha t sh e can ear n mone y lik e a man . Withou t thi s i n her background , sh e might hav e reacte d quit e differentl y t o th e collaps e of he r romance . A s it is , she gives u p he r belie f i n the miraculou s powe r of lov e an d transfer s he r expansiv e prid e fro m Torval d t o herself . Sh e is going t o prov e tha t sh e i s as good a s a ma n an d doe s no t nee d anybod y to tak e car e o f her ! Sh e ha s ver y littl e sens e o f wha t sh e i s goin g t o do , but sh e mus t escap e th e dependenc y sh e no w s o despises . He r belie f i n Torvald seem s t o hav e bee n replace d b y a fait h i n th e magi c powe r o f her will . Aggressive trend s ar e not th e onl y hitherto suppresse d component s o f Nora's personalit y t o surfac e a t th e end . A person livin g in a suffocatin g environment lik e Nora' s i s boun d t o develo p tendencie s towar d detach ment, t o hav e stron g urge s t o ru n away , t o ge t fre e o f th e constan t pressure o n he r thought s an d feelings . Nor a insist s tha t sh e mus t b e alone if she is to "thin k thing s out" fo r herself . She rejects al l responsibility towar d other s an d refuse s Torvald' s hel p partl y becaus e sh e i s afrai d of anythin g tha t wil l interfer e wit h he r independence : "Yo u mustn' t fee l yourself boun d an y mor e tha n I shall. Ther e mus t b e complete freedo m on both sides " (ac t 3) . Torvald wants to write to her, but Nora anxiousl y pleads wit h hi m no t to . Sh e expresse s n o interes t i n hearin g abou t th e children an d make s n o effor t t o se e them befor e sh e departs . Nora's detachmen t i s not onl y a respons e t o pas t oppressio n bu t als o a defens e agains t presen t conflicts . Sh e ha s t o b e callou s towar d he r husband an d children , sh e ha s t o ru n awa y fro m them , becaus e the y threaten t o rous e u p he r self-effacin g side , o f whic h sh e i s no w afraid .

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There i s somethin g decidedl y cold-bloode d abou t Nor a a t th e end . Sh e is no t allowin g hersel f t o b e awar e o f th e complexitie s o f he r situation , to fee l a sense of loss , or to experienc e tender emotions . Although par t o f Nora' s transformatio n involve s the adoptio n o f ne w defenses, ther e ar e sign s o f genuin e growth . Nor a ha s see n th e severit y of he r self-alienatio n an d ha s understoo d som e o f it s causes . Sh e want s to find herself , t o discove r he r ow n thought s an d feelings , an d t o gro w from thi s authenti c cente r o f he r being . Sh e see s tha t he r humanit y ha s been stunte d an d i s determine d t o becom e a capable , functioning , full y responsible person . He r insistenc e that sh e has a sacred dut y to herself i s healthy self-assertion . How fa r Nora ca n grow is a question o n which we can only speculate . In th e absenc e o f a supportiv e environment , he r prospect s d o no t see m promising. It will be very difficult fo r he r to arrive at a true knowledge of herself an d th e worl d aroun d her . Sh e has mad e contac t wit h previousl y repressed feelings , suc h a s rag e an d th e desir e t o thro w of f he r bonds , but thi s i s not th e sam e thin g a s gettin g i n touc h wit h he r rea l self . He r discovery o f he r self-alienatio n i s an essentia l first step , bu t i t i s difficul t to se e ho w sh e ca n recogniz e an d relinquis h he r defense s withou t help , and non e i s available. A t th e en d o f th e pla y Nor a i s like a person i n a n early stag e o f therap y wh o i s s o afrai d o f losin g contac t wit h he r ne w perceptions an d s o determine d tha t nothin g shal l interfer e wit h he r growth tha t sh e canno t b e worrie d abou t doin g justic e t o other s o r caring abou t thei r feelings . I t i s a t thi s stage , o f course , tha t man y marriages brea k up . If Nora continue d t o grow, there might b e a chance fo r he r marriage , fo r she would com e t o se e both Torval d an d hersel f mor e clearly . Sh e woul d relinquish he r over-simpl e perceptio n o f hi m a s a detestabl e tyran t o r a contemptible weaklin g an d recogniz e tha t hi s defense s ha d comple mented her s in many ways bu t had als o been in conflict wit h them . Nor a and Torval d hav e ha d suc h a n intensel y romanti c relationshi p becaus e they hav e satisfie d eac h other' s neuroti c needs . Nor a neede d t o merg e with a powerful , dominan t male , an d Torval d love d bein g master . Sh e was excited b y his strength an d h e by her weakness an d dependency . Sh e wished t o b e possesse d an d Torval d wa s extremel y possessive . Sh e dreamt o f bein g cherishe d an d protecte d an d h e o f rescuin g he r fro m peril. Eac h wa s th e cente r o f th e other' s existence . Torval d wa s a s emotionally dependen t o n Nor a a s sh e o n him ; a t th e end , i t i s h e wh o

A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 4 7 cannot bea r th e though t o f thei r separation . Eac h wa s "i n love " with a n idealization o f the othe r rathe r tha n wit h th e rea l person . When Torvald' s illusor y versio n o f Nor a i s shattered , h e crie s out , "God! What a n awakening! " (ac t 3) . The play has bee n buildin g towar d this moment . W e se e fro m th e beginnin g tha t Nor a an d Torval d hav e different attitude s towar d borrowin g money , socia l responsibility , an d scrupulousness i n th e managemen t o f thei r affairs . Althoug h sh e know s that Torval d i s oppose d t o bein g i n debt , Nor a propose s tha t the y borrow o n the promis e o f hi s new jo b i n orde r t o splurg e fo r Christmas . When Torval d ask s wha t woul d happe n i f "o n Ne w Year' s Ev e a til e blew of f th e roo f an d knocke d m y brain s out, " Nor a replie s tha t unde r such circumstance s i t woul d no t matte r i f sh e owe d mone y (ac t 1) . "But," Torval d asks , "wha t abou t th e peopl e I' d borrowe d from? " "Who care s abou t them? " replie s Nora . "Afte r al l they'r e jus t strang ers." Torvald dismisse s her response a s a joke, but Nora i s serious. When Krogstad ask s if it had no t occurre d t o her tha t sh e was not bein g hones t with hi m whe n h e len t he r mone y o n th e basi s o f he r father' s signature , Nora answers : " I reall y couldn' t concer n mysel f wit h that . Yo u mean t nothing t o me. " The Helmer s hav e no t ha d a great dea l o f mone y becaus e a s a lawye r Torvald ha s refuse d "t o handl e an y case s tha t ar e i n th e leas t bit — shady" (ac t 1) . Nor a tell s Mrs . Lind e tha t sh e "agree[s ] wit h him , o f course," bu t sh e does not observ e his code o f rectitude hersel f an d seem s to fee l tha t h e i s to o strict . Governe d b y th e value s o f he r self-effacin g solution, Nor a feel s justifie d i n doin g whateve r i s necessar y t o car e fo r the member s o f he r family . Sh e cannot imagin e tha t " a daughte r ha s n o right t o spar e he r dyin g fathe r worr y an d anxiety " o r tha t " a wif e ha s no right to sav e her husband' s life. " Nora' s claim s ar e that sh e cannot b e adversely judge d becaus e sh e acte d ou t o f lov e an d tha t ther e "won' t b e any trouble" becaus e sh e has "thre e littl e children" (ac t 2) . Her belie f syste m i s shaken, however , whe n Torval d attack s Krogsta d at th e en d o f ac t 1 . Afte r committin g a forgery , Krogsta d ha d escape d punishment throug h "trick s an d evasions. " Whe n a ma n behave s lik e that, say s Torvald , "hi s lif e become s a tissu e o f lie s an d deception . He' s forced t o wea r a mask—eve n wit h thos e neares t t o him—hi s ow n wife an d children. " Krogsta d "ha s bee n deliberatel y poisonin g hi s ow n children fo r years , b y surroundin g the m wit h lie s an d hypocrisy. " Nor a recognizes hersel f i n thi s description , sinc e he r lif e i s a tissu e o f lie s an d deception. She , too, has committed forgery , an d sh e has deceived Torval d

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about th e loan . Sh e lies habitually, abou t eatin g macaroons , abou t wha t she does with th e money Torvald give s her, abou t wha t sh e is doing wit h the tim e sh e spend s working , an d s o on . Sh e justifies man y o f thes e lie s as bein g i n a goo d caus e an d require d b y Torvald' s rigidity , bu t afte r Torvald's speec h abou t Krogsta d sh e becomes terrified. Afrai d tha t sh e is harming he r famil y an d corruptin g he r home , sh e begin s t o withdra w from he r childre n an d t o contemplate goin g away. The self-hate an d self doubt thu s activate d remai n wit h he r throug h th e rest o f the play . It is because Mrs. Linde is appalled b y the "decei t an d subterfuge " o n which Nora' s relationshi p wit h Torval d i s base d tha t sh e insist s o n exposing Nora' s secret , eve n though Krogsta d i s willing t o tak e bac k hi s threatening letter . Sh e feel s tha t Nor a an d Torval d mus t com e "t o a thorough understanding, " tha t "Helme r mus t kno w th e truth " (ac t 3) . She tells Nora tha t sh e has "nothin g t o fear fro m Krogstad " bu t tha t sh e "must spea k out. " Nora' s reactio n t o thi s i s remarkable : "No w I kno w what I mus t do"—tha t is , sh e mus t commi t suicide . Why ? I f sh e ha s nothing t o fea r fro m Krogstad , sh e doe s no t hav e t o kil l hersel f t o sav e Torvald's caree r an d preven t th e wonderfu l thin g fro m happening . Doe s she wan t t o di e s o a s t o avoi d a confrontatio n wit h Torvald ? Doe s sh e sense what hi s reaction wil l be ? Does sh e fear tha t h e will despis e her, a s he does Krogstad . Torvald's denunciatio n o f Krogstad ha d bee n extraordinaril y passion ate: "I t would hav e bee n impossibl e fo r m e to work wit h him . It literall y gives m e a feelin g o f physica l discomfor t t o com e i n contac t wit h suc h people" (ac t 1) . The perfectionisti c Torval d i s pursuing a flawles s excel lence i n th e whol e conduc t o f life , an d h e discharge s ont o Krogsta d th e contempt h e woul d fee l fo r himsel f shoul d h e behav e a s Krogsta d ha s done. Krogsta d is , in effect , hi s despise d image , wha t h e canno t bea r t o be, an d h e finds hi s very presenc e disturbing , especiall y whe n Krogstad , an ol d schoo l friend , treat s hi m wit h familiarity . Hi s repudiation , con demnation, an d defianc e o f Krogsta d confir m hi s hig h standard s an d solidify hi s sense of identity . Nora dread s Krogsta d partl y becaus e he r fathe r ha d bee n attacke d i n the newspapers , an d sh e fear s tha t Krogsta d wil l attac k Torvald . Confi dent o f hi s rectitude , Torval d dismisse s he r fears : "M y dea r Nora , ther e is a distinct difference betwee n your fathe r an d me. Your father's conduc t was no t entirel y unimpeachable . Bu t min e is ; an d I trus t i t wil l remai n so" (ac t 2) . Torvald feel s tha t hi s strengt h i s the strengt h o f te n becaus e his heart i s pure. His bargai n i s that h e will ultimately triump h an d hav e

A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 4 9 nothing to fear a s long as his conduct is unimpeachable. At the beginnin g of th e play , hi s bargai n seem s t o b e working . H e suffere d financially because h e woul d no t tak e shad y cases , bu t h e ha s receive d a splendi d new appointmen t a s the reward o f hi s virtue . Torvald's reactio n t o Krogstad' s lette r i s s o intens e becaus e hi s well earned succes s has bee n poisoned, an d h e has bee n put i n the power o f a man h e detests . Since he will b e in a false positio n whateve r h e does, th e flawless excellenc e o f hi s lif e ha s bee n los t forever . Perhap s th e greates t blow fo r hi m i s tha t hi s idealize d imag e o f Nor a an d thei r relationshi p has bee n shattered . H e ha s awakene d afte r eigh t year s t o discove r tha t the woman wh o ha d bee n hi s "prid e an d joy " i s "lawless " an d "unprin cipled" (ac t 3) . He ha s had intimation s o f the conflic t betwee n hi s value s and Nora' s before , bu t h e ha s dismisse d the m becaus e o f hi s nee d t o hold ont o hi s exalte d imag e o f he r an d thei r relationship . Whe n h e catches he r i n a lie about Krogstad' s no t havin g bee n t o se e her, h e doe s not tak e th e matte r seriously : " (Threatens with his finger) M y littl e bir d must neve r d o that again ! A song-bird mus t sin g clear an d true ! No fals e notes! (Puts arm around her) Isn' t tha t th e wa y i t shoul d be ? O f cours e it is! (Let's her go) An d no w we'l l sa y no mor e abou t it " (ac t 1) . Torvald now believe s tha t Nor a ha s inherite d he r father' s lac k o f principle ; sh e has "n o religion , no mora l code , no sens e of duty " (ac t 3) . She embodie s everything Torvald abhor s i n othe r peopl e an d i s afraid o f i n himself . Torvald ca n b e easil y see n a s a cowar d an d hypocrite , bu t th e situa tion i s mor e complicate d tha n that . H e ha d mad e a sho w o f courag e as lon g a s hi s conduc t wa s unimpeachable , bu t Nora' s behavio r ha s compromised hi s hono r an d undermine d hi s belie f i n hi s powe r t o control hi s destiny . Horne y observe s tha t fo r th e perfectionisti c perso n the appearanc e o f rectitud e ma y b e more importan t tha n rectitud e itself , and appearance s ar e ver y importan t t o Torvald . Th e "matte r mus t b e hushed u p a t an y cost " i n orde r t o avoi d a scandal , an d h e an d Nor a must preten d t o hav e a marriage i n orde r t o "sav e appearances " (ac t 3) . Nora's drea m wa s tha t Torval d woul d tak e th e responsibilit y fo r th e forgery o n himself , thu s showin g ho w muc h h e love d her , bu t give n hi s own defenses , thi s i s somethin g tha t Torval d coul d neve r do . Sh e i s asking hi m t o presen t hi s despise d imag e t o th e worl d a s his true reality . When Torval d say s tha t "on e doesn' t sacrific e one' s hono r fo r love' s sake," Nor a replie s tha t "million s o f wome n hav e don e so. " Sh e i s expressing value s tha t belon g t o he r defens e syste m an d h e value s tha t belong to his .

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Krogstad's lette r plunge s Torval d int o a stat e o f psychologica l crisis . His solutio n ha s faile d an d hi s "whol e worl d seem[s ] t o b e tumblin g about [his ] ears " (ac t 3) . H e i s goin g t o piece s no t onl y becaus e Nor a has expose d hi m t o disgrace , bu t als o becaus e hi s misfortune force s hi m to realiz e tha t h e ha s violate d hi s ow n principles . Hi s cod e i s tha t on e should not sacrific e hono r fo r love , but tha t i s what h e di d whe n h e wa s sent t o investigat e Nora' s fathe r an d engage d i n a cover-up fo r he r sake : "If yo u hadn' t . . . bee n s o kin d an d helpful—h e migh t hav e bee n dismissed" (ac t 2) . Torval d no w feel s tha t h e i s bein g punishe d "fo r shielding" Nora' s fathe r (ac t 3) . B y failin g t o liv e u p t o hi s shoulds , h e has expose d himsel f t o catastrophe . Thi s generate s a sens e o f help lessness an d pani c an d als o a grea t dea l o f self-hate , whic h h e external izes b y feelin g victimize d an d blamin g hi s wife . Lik e Nora , h e feel s unjustly treate d b y hi s mate : "An d t o thin k I hav e yo u t o than k fo r al l this—you who m I'v e don e nothin g bu t pampe r an d spoi l sinc e th e da y of ou r marriage " (ac t 3) . As we hav e seen , Nora i s also feelin g self-hate , which sh e externalizes b y blaming he r fathe r an d Torvald . Torvald's pani c subside s whe n Krogsta d withdraw s hi s threat, an d h e immediately resume s hi s patronizin g behavior . Afte r forgivin g Nora , h e assures he r tha t sh e i s safe an d tha t h e will cheris h he r a s i f sh e were " a little dove" he had "rescue d fro m th e claws of som e dreadful hawk " (ac t 3). Despite hi s craven behavior , Torval d want s t o reviv e the ol d scenari o in whic h h e i s Nora' s protector , bu t sh e n o longe r believe s him . H e becomes eve n mor e paternalisti c tha n h e wa s before . Nor a wil l becom e his chil d a s wel l a s hi s wife , an d h e wil l b e "bot h wil l an d conscience " to her . Torvald's behavio r i s incredibl y inappropriate , an d i t ma y see m t o some tha t Ibse n i s presentin g a caricatur e o f a chauvinisti c male . I t i s understandable, however , i n terms o f Torvald's psychology . He i s a mal e chauvinist, o f cours e (" I a m no t a ma n fo r nothing") , bu t ther e i s more t o hi s behavio r tha n that . Hi s descriptio n o f Nor a a s hi s "deares t treasure" i s not a n exaggeratio n (ac t 3) . He i s an emotionally need y ma n who, spellboun d b y Nora , want s t o posses s he r entirel y an d liv e i n a world o f thei r own . Whe n the y ar e wit h othe r people , h e romanticall y pretends tha t the y lov e eac h othe r i n secret , an d h e think s tha t Rank' s death ma y b e fo r th e best , sinc e no w the y wil l b e "mor e tha n eve r dependent o n eac h other. " H e i s prou d o f Nora' s beaut y an d charm , which bolste r hi s ow n sens e o f worth , muc h a s Torvald' s succes s feed s Nora's pride . He ha s blinde d himsel f t o anythin g fault y i n Nora becaus e

A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 5 1 he does not want t o relinquish hi s idealization o f her o r t o have any flaw in their relationship . There is an inner conflic t i n Torvald betwee n his dependency o n Nor a and hi s perfectionism. H e tries to resolve that conflic t b y treating her lik e a helpless , uncomprehendin g femal e wh o wa s no t "abl e t o judg e ho w wrong" he r behavio r wa s (ac t 3) . If h e continue d t o condem n Nora , h e would los e her. By regarding he r a s too immatur e t o b e held responsible , he is able to forgive her and continue their relationship. He will keep Nora straight, an d thu s protec t himself , b y bein g he r wil l an d conscience . H e envisions merging with Nora mor e completely than ever before . Torvald's fantas y i s profoundl y oppressiv e t o Nora , wh o n o longe r respects hi s judgment . Whe n h e start s regardin g he r a s hi s littl e dol l again, "who m yo u woul d hav e t o guar d mor e carefull y tha n ever , be cause she was s o weak an d frail " (ac t 3) , she realizes the degree to whic h she ha s bee n infantilize d an d demand s t o b e treate d lik e a rea l person . This doe s no t produc e a sudde n lea p int o maturit y fo r Nora , no r coul d it. She herself i s conscious o f her inadequac y an d uncertainty . Sh e know s that sh e i s no t fi t t o teac h he r children , tha t sh e doe s no t understan d society o r religion , an d tha t sh e i s bewildere d abou t ethica l questions . What sh e is clear abou t i s that sh e is not clear . Sh e knows tha t sh e is ou t of touc h wit h hersel f an d th e worl d an d tha t sh e mus t ge t awa y fro m Torvald i f sh e i s to "lear n t o fac e reality. " Sh e is aware tha t sh e is at th e beginning o f a lon g proces s an d tha t sh e doe s no t "kno w wha t sor t o f person" sh e will become . I hav e suggeste d tha t i f Nor a continue d t o grow , ther e migh t b e a chance fo r he r marriage . That woul d depen d o n Torval d a s well, bu t he , too, ha s begu n t o chang e an d ma y hav e a s goo d a chanc e a s sh e o f arriving a t th e necessar y insights . H e doe s no t accep t Nora' s positio n that h e shoul d hav e sacrifice d hono r fo r love , nor, give n hi s personality , is he eve r likel y t o d o so . Nora need s t o se e the source s o f tha t expecta tion i n he r ow n psychology . Torval d doe s respond , however , t o Nora' s indignation a t no t havin g bee n treate d a s a person. H e understand s tha t there i s " a grea t void " betwee n the m an d ask s Nora t o believ e that h e is capable o f change . Sh e thinks tha t h e migh t b e when h e "n o longe r [ha s his] dol l t o pla y with " (ac t 3) . Agai n sh e i s right . Th e separatio n i s a s essential fo r Torval d a s i t i s fo r her . Nor a appear s t o b e somewha t vindictive whe n sh e say s tha t hi s inabilit y t o endur e th e though t o f parting wit h he r i s al l th e mor e reaso n wh y sh e shoul d go , bu t perhap s she recognizes that sh e must b e cruel i n order t o b e kind .

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The questio n w e ar e lef t wit h a t th e en d o f th e pla y i s whether Nor a and Torval d ca n chang e enoug h s o tha t thei r "lif e togethe r migh t trul y be a marriage" (ac t 3) . Unless this happens , say s Nora, the y wil l alway s be strangers. If it were to happe n i t would b e "th e mos t wonderful thin g of all, " bu t Nor a say s tha t sh e "n o longe r believe[s] i n miracles. " Tor vald, however , cling s t o thi s hope . Th e las t lin e o f th e pla y i s his: "Th e most wonderfu l thin g o f all—? " Give n th e severit y o f Nor a an d Tor vald's problem s an d th e absenc e o f therapeuti c help , i t woul d b e a miracle indeed .

Hedda Gabler i s above al l a stud y o f character ; t o comprehen d th e play , we mus t understan d Hedda . I t i s difficul t t o establis h Ibsen' s themati c intentions, bu t h e shows wit h brillian t psychologica l insigh t ho w Hed da's plight a s a woman i n an extremel y restrictiv e societ y produces inne r conflicts tha t mak e he r lif e steril e an d lea d t o he r destructiv e behavior . Hedda i s no t portraye d sympathetically , lik e Nora , bu t psychologica l analysis reveal s that beneat h he r cold , haughty demeano r sh e is a suffer ing human being . As i n A DolVs House, th e heroine' s relationshi p wit h a ma n i s th e focus o f th e play . Hedda' s mos t importan t relationshi p i s no t wit h he r husband bu t wit h Ejler t Lovborg , who m sh e ha d know n befor e he r marriage. Afte r th e scen e i s se t i n ac t 1 , the dramati c actio n i s initiate d by The a Elvsted' s visit , whic h lead s t o Lovborg' s reentr y int o Hedda' s life. Ac t 2 is focused o n Hedda' s rivalr y wit h Thea , a s sh e induce s Ejler t to tak e a drin k an d g o t o Judg e Brack' s party . Ac t 3 show s u s he r disappointment whe n Ejler t fail s t o enac t th e scenari o sh e had envisage d for him , an d i t end s wit h Hedd a urgin g hi m t o kil l himsel f beautifull y and burnin g hi s manuscript . I n ac t 4 , Hedd a i s drive n t o suicid e whe n all he r solution s collaps e afte r Ejlert' s death . I f w e ar e t o appreciat e th e subtlety o f Ibsen' s psychologica l portrai t an d mak e sens e o f wha t hap pens in the play, we must understan d Ejlert' s rol e i n Hedda's life . The mos t widel y hel d vie w o f Hedda' s behavio r i n ac t 2 is that sh e i s trying t o und o Thea' s constructiv e influenc e o n Ejlert , wh o ha d bee n leading a wil d bohemia n lif e i n th e day s whe n h e an d Hedd a wer e friends. Inspire d b y Thea , h e ha s stoppe d drinking , ha s publishe d a highly acclaime d book , an d ha s writte n anothe r tha t i s mor e brillian t still. Enviou s o f Thea , Hedd a wishe s t o exercis e a mor e powerfu l influ ence of he r ow n b y turning Lovbor g bac k int o th e man h e was when sh e

A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 5 3 knew him . Sh e seek s t o disrup t Ejlert' s relationshi p wit h The a an d t o replace he r a s th e dominan t forc e i n hi s life . The a i s afrai d tha t Ejler t will b e destroye d i f h e revert s t o hi s ol d ways , an d mos t peopl e see m t o feel tha t Hedd a i s trying t o undermin e hi m i n orde r t o fee l tha t fo r onc e in her lif e she , too, has "th e powe r t o shap e a human destiny " (ac t 2) . There i s much i n this view with whic h I agree, but I do no t thin k tha t Hedda induce s Lovbor g t o tak e a drin k an d g o to Brack' s part y i n orde r to undermin e him . In response to Thea's concer n abou t "wha t wil l com e of al l this, " Hedd a confidentl y predict s tha t "A t te n o'cloc k h e wil l b e here, wit h vin e leave s i n hi s hair . Flushe d an d fearless! " (ac t 2) . Sh e envisions hi m a s a triumphan t figure. Hedd a i s disappointe d rathe r than please d whe n sh e hear s fro m he r husban d tha t th e drunke n Ejler t carelessly droppe d hi s manuscrip t an d learn s fro m Judg e Brac k tha t h e finally turne d u p a t Mademoiselle Diana's , where h e insisted tha t h e ha d been robbed , raise d a row, an d wa s take n awa y b y the police : "S o that' s what happened ! Then , afte r all , h e ha d n o vin e leave s i n hi s hair! " (ac t 4). H e i s behavin g lik e th e Ejler t o f old , bu t tha t i s not, evidently , wha t Hedda ha d wanted . I n orde r t o understan d wha t Hedd a wa s hopin g fo r we mus t examin e he r inne r conflict s an d Ejlert' s rol e i n he r effor t t o manage them . Some o f Hedda' s conflict s ar e presente d quit e vividl y i n he r reminis cence with Ejler t abou t th e ol d days , when ther e was a "secre t intimacy " between the m tha t "n o livin g sou l suspected " (ac t 2) . Wit h Genera l Gabler readin g hi s pape r i n th e sam e room , Ejler t woul d describ e hi s "days an d night s o f passio n an d frenzy , o f drinkin g an d madness " t o Hedda. Sh e evoked hi s confessions b y boldly asking "deviou s questions " that h e perfectl y understood . Rejectin g Lovborg' s ide a tha t sh e wa s trying t o was h awa y hi s sins , Hedda explain s he r motive : "Isn' t i t quit e easy to understan d tha t a young girl , especially i f it can b e done i n secre t . . . shoul d b e tempte d t o investigat e a forbidde n world ? A worl d she' s supposed t o kno w nothin g about? " Hedda i s a sociall y prominen t woma n wit h a ver y stron g sens e o f propriety wh o need s to maintai n he r dignit y a t al l costs an d wh o canno t bear th e thought o f doin g anythin g tha t woul d diminis h he r respectabil ity. A t th e sam e time , sh e ha s powerfu l sexua l an d aggressiv e impulse s that sh e want s t o expres s a s me n d o an d tha t sh e i s bitte r a t havin g t o deny. Sh e live s i n a societ y tha t impose s enormou s constraint s upo n a woman o f he r socia l class, constraints t o which sh e outwardly conform s but agains t whic h sh e inwardly rebels . Her "secre t intimacy " wit h Ejler t

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Lovborg enable d he r t o escap e thes e constraint s vicariously , sinc e h e acted ou t he r forbidde n impulse s an d the n told he r abou t it . When Ejler t wonders ho w sh e coul d hav e brough t hersel f "t o as k suc h questions, " Hedda insist s that sh e did so "i n a devious way," that is , without directl y violating decoru m (ac t 2) . W e se e Hedd a lookin g fo r a simila r kin d o f safe, voyeuristi c gratificatio n whe n sh e make s obliqu e reference s t o Judge Brack' s affairs an d relishe s the thought o f his stag party, which sh e wishes sh e could atten d unseen . Hedda's problem , then , i s how t o satisfy he r "cravin g fo r life " (ac t 2) , as Ejler t describe s it , withou t sacrificin g he r positio n a s a lady . Hedda' s need to conform t o the rules of propriety i s so great that i t both alienate s her fro m he r rea l feeling s an d make s i t impossibl e fo r he r t o expres s the resultin g rebelliou s impulses . I t i s no t a health y cravin g fo r self actualization bu t he r suppresse d neuroti c need s tha t Ejler t Lovbor g i s acting out . T o Hedda , however , h e i s a ma n wh o ha s "th e courag e t o live his life" a s he see s fit (act 3) , in a way tha t sh e cannot liv e hers. It i s not onl y hi s escapade s tha t sh e vicariousl y enjoy s bu t als o wha t the y symbolize, his freedom fro m th e constraints b y which sh e feels hersel f t o be suffocated . Ejlert provide s a solutio n t o Hedda' s proble m unti l h e drag s thei r intimacy dow n t o realit y b y makin g sexua l advances . Hedd a i s s o alarmed b y thi s tha t sh e threaten s t o shoo t him , bu t sh e i s afrai d t o d o so becaus e sh e ha s "suc h a fea r o f scandal " (ac t 2) . Whe n Lovbor g accuses he r o f bein g " a cowar d a t heart, " sh e wholeheartedl y concurs : "A terribl e coward. " Sh e confesse s tha t he r "greates t cowardic e tha t evening" wa s i n not respondin g t o hi s advances . Hedda i s caught i n a conflict betwee n a desire to act out her rebelliou s aggression b y leadin g a wild , free , bohemia n life , lik e Lovborg , an d a n even stronge r nee d t o compl y wit h th e norm s o f he r society , t o b e a refined, respectabl e lady , th e prope r daughte r o f a n eminen t general . T o escape th e agon y o f thi s conflict , sh e become s cold , aloof , detached , ou t of touc h wit h he r ow n emotion s an d indifferen t t o othe r people . Sh e does no t believ e i n love , marrie s fo r convenience , an d the n i s terribl y oppressed b y th e boredo m o f he r empt y existence . Whe n sh e return s from a length y weddin g tri p wit h a husband sh e cannot bear , sh e want s a butler , a saddl e horse , a new piano , an d a n activ e socia l lif e partl y fo r reasons o f statu s an d partl y becaus e sh e i s spoiled , bu t mostl y becaus e she feel s desperat e an d i s searchin g fo r distractions . Sh e become s eve n

A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 5 5 more frustrate d whe n sh e learn s tha t the y wil l hav e t o curtai l thei r expenses. Hedda's pligh t i s vividl y depicte d i n he r conversatio n wit h Judg e Brack a t th e beginnin g o f ac t 2 . After greetin g hi m wit h pisto l shot s an d explaining tha t sh e i s "jus t killin g time " becaus e sh e doesn' t kno w "what i n heaven's name " sh e is to d o with hersel f "al l da y long," Hedd a complains abou t th e boredo m o f he r weddin g trip . Sh e make s i t clea r that she does not "love " Jorgen ("Ugh ! Don' t us e that revolting word!") , and tha t sh e marrie d hi m becaus e h e ha d a promisin g caree r an d sh e "wasn't gettin g an y younger. " Hedd a i s twenty-nine an d ha s a drea d o f aging. Brac k an d Hedd a the n engag e i n a deviou s exchang e i n whic h Brack proposes a n affai r an d Hedd a make s i t clear tha t sh e would rathe r continue he r tete-a-tete wit h Jorgen tha n ente r int o a triangle tha t woul d compromise he r respectability . Sh e ha s n o objectio n t o Brack' s comin g over t o amus e her , however . In respons e t o Hedda' s complain t abou t ho w "incredibl y I shall bor e myself here, " Brac k suggest s tha t sh e find "som e sor t o f vocatio n i n life," bu t Hedd a canno t imagin e a vocatio n tha t woul d attrac t her . Perhaps sh e coul d ge t Jorgen t o g o int o politics , despit e th e fac t tha t h e is completel y unsuite d fo r suc h a career . Lik e mos t o f th e wome n i n Ibsen's plays—an d i n hi s culture , n o doubt—Hedd a ca n find a n outle t for he r expansive tendencies onl y through identificatio n wit h o r manipu lation o f a man. Ther e ar e variations o n this theme i n A DolVs House (a s we have seen) , The Master Builder, an d Rosmersholm. Hedda feel s that lif e is "s o hideous" becaus e o f her "gentee l poverty" ; but, sensin g he r detachment , Judg e Brac k astutel y observe s tha t "th e fault lie s elsewhere, " i n th e fac t sh e ha s neve r "reall y bee n stirre d b y anything." H e suggest s tha t thi s ma y chang e whe n sh e finds hersel f "faced wit h what's known i n solemn languag e a s a grave responsibility. " Hedda angril y replies , "B e quiet ! Nothin g o f tha t sor t wil l eve r happe n to me. " Sh e i s alread y pregnant , however , an d i s tryin g t o den y he r condition, bot h t o hersel f an d t o others . No t onl y i s sh e confine d t o a woman's narro w spher e i n life , bu t sh e ca n find n o satisfactio n i n wha t her cultur e regards a s feminine joys . She puts of f marriag e a s long as sh e can, partl y becaus e it s restriction s d o no t appea l t o he r an d partl y because th e me n wh o attrac t he r ar e no t eligibl e an d th e me n wh o ar e eligible d o no t attrac t her . Sh e i s appalle d b y th e prospec t o f mother hood, agai n becaus e o f he r detachment : "Tha t sor t o f thin g doesn' t

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appeal t o me , Judge . I' m no t fitted fo r it . N o responsibilitie s fo r me! " Terribly frustrate d herself , sh e ha s nothin g t o giv e a child , wh o wil l further limi t he r freedom . I n rebellio n agains t th e feminin e rol e bu t unable t o find an y other , sh e tell s Judge Brac k tha t th e onl y thin g sh e is "really fitted for " i s "borin g mysel f t o death! " Hedda i s in despair abou t he r life . From the beginnin g o f the play, she is ful l o f frustration , irritability , an d anger , whic h sh e displace s a t first onto th e self-effacin g Aun t Juliane , wh o let s i n to o muc h sunlight , thu s revealing Hedda' s agin g fac e an d filled ou t figure, an d whos e ha t Jorge n has indecorousl y lef t o n a drawin g roo m table . Whe n Judg e Brac k scolds he r fo r tormentin g "tha t nic e ol d lady, " Hedd a explain s tha t sh e suddenly get s "impulse s lik e that " an d canno t "contro l them " (ac t 2) . She i s no t callousl y amusin g herself , bu t i s compulsivel y dischargin g some o f he r pent-u p rage , just a s sh e doe s when sh e fires off he r father' s pistols, those symbol s o f mal e power . Constantly lookin g fo r somethin g tha t migh t interes t her , Hedd a regards th e possibl e competitio n fo r th e professorshi p betwee n Ejler t and Jorge n a s a n even t i n whic h sh e ca n tak e " a sportin g interest " (ac t 1), despite the fact tha t he r husband's professional an d financial fortune s are a t stake . The arriva l o f Thea take s her i n a new direction , sinc e The a announces th e presenc e o f Ejler t Lovborg , wh o ha d onc e provide d Hedda wit h a wa y o f dealin g wit h he r frustration s an d inne r conflicts . When sh e learn s tha t Ejler t i s in tow n sh e ha s a vague hop e tha t h e ca n somehow b e o f hel p t o her , an d sh e immediatel y ask s Jorge n t o invit e him. Upon Lovborg' s arrival , Hedd a become s involve d i n a competitio n with The a fo r influenc e ove r him . Hedd a i s threatened b y The a an d ha s a powerfu l nee d t o triump h ove r her . Whe n the y kne w eac h othe r a t school, Hedd a use d t o pul l Thea' s hai r an d onc e sai d sh e was "goin g t o burn i t al l off" (ac t 1) . Ibse n describe s Thea' s hai r a s "extremel y thic k and wavy, " whil e Hedda' s i s "no t especiall y abundant. " Thea' s thic k hair symbolize s fertilit y an d make s Hedd a al l th e mor e consciou s o f th e sterility o f he r ow n existence , despit e he r pregnancy . Th e contras t be tween the two women i s developed throughou t th e play. Whereas Hedd a reveled i n Lovborg' s debauchery , The a inspire d hi m t o writ e books , which h e describe s a s thei r children . Hedda' s fea r o f scanda l mad e he r afraid o f responding t o Ejlert's advances , but Thea leave s her husband i n order t o follo w hi m t o town : "But , Thea , m y darling!"—exclaim s Hedda—"How di d yo u dare d o suc h a thing? " (ac t 1 ; m y emphasis) .

A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 5 7 When The a declare s tha t sh e will neve r g o bac k t o he r husband , Hedd a is shocked : "Bu t wha t wil l peopl e sa y abou t you , Thea? " "The y ca n say," replie s Thea , "whateve r the y like. " I n pursui t o f wha t i s reall y important t o her , The a ignore s publi c opinio n i n a wa y tha t Hedd a cannot. Hedda' s env y i s exacerbated whe n Lovbor g praise s Thea' s "tre mendous courage " wher e he r "comrad e i s concerned" : Hedda: God , yes, courage! If on e onl y had that ! Lovborg: Wha t then ? Hedda: The n lif e migh t perhap s b e endurable, afte r all . . . (act 2 ) Thea is Hedda's nemesis , the woman who demonstrates that i t is possible to hav e a fruitful lif e i f one has the courag e t o def y convention . There ca n b e n o doub t tha t Hedd a manipulate s Lovbor g int o takin g a drin k an d goin g to Judge Brack' s party i n order t o disrup t hi s relation ship wit h The a an d t o sho w tha t sh e ha s mor e powe r ove r him . Bu t sh e is no t ye t ou t t o destro y Lovborg , a s sh e i s late r whe n sh e conceal s th e fact tha t Jorge n ha s foun d hi s manuscript . A t thi s poin t i n th e pla y sh e wants Ejler t t o enac t a scenari o sh e ha s conceive d fo r hi m i n whic h h e will b e a triumphant autho r wh o i s free o f self-doub t an d anxiet y abou t himself. Sh e want s "th e powe r t o shap e a huma n destiny " i n wha t sh e regards a s a positive way . Lovborg's refusa l t o tak e a drin k an d g o t o Brack' s part y disturb s Hedda becaus e i t seem s t o b e motivate d b y th e sam e kin d o f fea r tha t has mad e he r lif e unendurabl e an d filled he r wit h self-contempt . Hedd a despises hersel f fo r he r conformity , he r drea d o f scandal , he r cowardice . She taunt s Ejler t wit h no t darin g t o tak e a drin k o r g o t o th e party : "Didn't dare ! You say I didn't dare! " (ac t 2) . She cannot bea r t o se e hi m afraid an d egg s him o n becaus e sh e wants hi m t o lea d th e free , uninhib ited lif e tha t sh e canno t lea d herself . Sh e i s caugh t i n a crossfir e o f conflicting shoulds , sinc e sh e hate s hersel f fo r he r cowardic e bu t know s that sh e woul d hat e hersel f eve n mor e fo r an y breac h o f propriety . Sh e wants Lovbor g t o rescu e he r fro m he r impass e b y bein g bot h rebelliou s and triumphant , b y returnin g "flushe d an d fearless, " "wit h vin e leave s in hi s hair. " The n h e "wil l hav e regaine d confidenc e i n himself. He'l l b e a fre e ma n foreve r an d ever. " Thea ma y hav e reclaime d Ejlert , bu t sh e ha s als o tame d him , mad e him fearfu l o f spontaneity , jus t a s Hedda is . She acts boldly o n hi s behal f but i s terribly anxiou s fo r him . Hedd a feel s a simila r anxiet y fo r hersel f

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at the though t o f darin g behavior , bu t sh e wants t o believ e that Lovbor g can ac t upo n hi s impulse s wit h impunity . Sh e want s t o triump h ove r Thea, t o shap e a huma n destiny , an d t o gai n a vicariou s fulfillmen t o f her need s to b e independent an d courageou s b y having Lovbor g ow e hi s freedom an d fearlessnes s t o her . Havin g n o hop e o f becomin g wha t sh e wants t o b e herself , sh e seek s t o escap e he r impotenc e an d self-hat e b y making Ejler t int o a ma n throug h who m sh e ca n liv e an d wit h who m she can proudly identify . Hedda's i s an impossible dream . Sinc e Lovborg is an alcoholic, freein g him o f hi s fear s an d inhibition s i s boun d t o destro y him . Whe n h e refuses t o joi n th e othe r me n a t th e punc h bowl , Judg e Brac k says , "Why, surely , col d punc h i s no t poison. " "Perhap s no t fo r everyone, " Ejlert replies , with th e implicatio n tha t i t surel y i s for hi m (ac t 2) . The a is s o anxiou s becaus e sh e understand s Ejlert' s vulnerability . Desperate , Hedda blind s hersel f t o hi s condition an d construct s a scenari o tha t wil l satisfy he r contradictor y need s bu t tha t h e cannot possibl y fulfill . When Ejler t ha s no t returne d b y th e nex t mornin g The a i s i n panic , but, holdin g ont o he r dream , Hedd a envision s hi m a t Judg e Brack' s "sitting wit h vin e leave s i n hi s hair , readin g hi s manuscript " (ac t 3) . Tesman come s bac k wit h a glowin g accoun t o f th e ne w work , bu t finds it "appalling " tha t Lovborg , "wit h al l his great gifts, shoul d b e so utterl y incorrigible." "Becaus e h e ha s mor e daring, " Hedd a asks , "tha n an y o f the rest of you?" This is Hedda's idealize d imag e of Lovborg. It is Ejlert' s excessive drinking , however, t o which Jorgen i s referring, sinc e it has le d him carelessl y t o dro p hi s preciou s manuscript . Jorge n ha s foun d i t an d leaves i t wit h Hedd a whe n h e i s summone d t o th e bedsid e o f th e dyin g Aunt Rina . Judge Brack' s accoun t o f the evenin g shatters Hedda' s drea m o f livin g through a liberate d Lovborg . Havin g conceive d o f Lovbor g a s a kind o f romantic hero , a n untame d superio r being , sh e i s sickened b y his sordi d fight wit h Mademoisell e Dian a an d hi s arrest . I f Hedd a ha d simpl y wanted t o sho w he r powe r ove r Lovbor g an d brea k u p hi s relationshi p with The a b y inducing hi m to rever t t o bohemia n ways , she would hav e been pleased b y his night o f drinkin g an d madness . It is at thi s point tha t Hedd a turn s destructive . Sinc e she has no t bee n able t o mak e Ejler t int o th e her o o f he r dreams , sh e exert s he r powe r i n a differen t wa y b y first concealin g an d the n burnin g hi s manuscript . Ashamed t o confes s tha t h e ha s los t thei r "child, " Lovbor g tell s The a that h e ha s tor n th e manuscrip t int o a thousan d piece s an d tha t h e wil l

A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 5 9 "do n o mor e work , fro m no w on " (ac t 3) . The a "despairingly " ask s what sh e wil l "hav e t o liv e for, " accuse s hi m o f "child-murder, " an d sees "nothin g bu t darkness " befor e her . Lovbor g i s als o i n despair , fo r he know s "i t won' t en d wit h las t night, " an d debaucher y n o longe r appeals to him: "she' s somehow broke n m y courage—my defian t spirit. " "To think, " say s Hedda , tha t tha t prett y littl e foo l shoul d hav e influ enced a man' s destiny."Hedd a migh t hav e bee n abl e t o sav e Lovbor g had sh e reveale d tha t sh e wa s i n possessio n o f th e manuscript , bu t sh e allows hi m t o believ e i t i s lost . Whe n h e announce s tha t h e want s "t o make a n en d o f it, " Hedd a doe s no t tr y t o dissuad e hi m o r produc e th e manuscript bu t instea d give s hi m a pistol , urge s hi m t o us e it , an d enjoins hi m t o "le t i t b e beautiful. " Afte r Ejler t leaves , sh e burn s th e manuscript, callin g it his and Thea' s child . Hedda's behavio r ca n b e explaine d a s a continuatio n o f he r rivalr y with The a an d o f he r desir e t o shap e a man' s destiny—fo r il l i f no t fo r good; bu t thes e ar e no t he r onl y motivations . Wit h th e collaps e o f he r dream o f triump h fo r Lovborg , an d vicariousl y fo r herself , Hedd a i s confronted onc e mor e b y he r contradictor y needs , whic h sh e no w ha s no hop e o f fulfilling . She , too, i s in despair , an d wishe s t o mak e a n en d of it . Sh e i s afraid t o commi t suicide , however , partl y because , a s Brac k says a t th e end , "peopl e don' t do suc h things! " Afte r Lovbor g disap points her , sh e develop s a ne w scenari o i n which h e will commit suicid e in jus t th e wa y tha t sh e would lik e t o do , an d sh e will glor y i n thi s ne w form o f freedo m an d darin g an d i n he r ow n contributio n t o it . Whe n Brack announce s tha t Lovbor g ha s sho t himsel f throug h th e heart , Hedda i s exultant: "I t gives me a sense of freedom t o know that a n act of deliberate courag e i s still possibl e i n thi s world—a n ac t o f spontaneou s beauty" (ac t 4) . Hedd a feel s hersel f t o b e incapabl e o f suc h a n act , bu t Lovborg ha s done i t for her , sh e thinks. Judge Brac k destroy s her "beau tiful illusion " b y revealing that Ejler t wa s accidentall y sho t i n the bowel s while demandin g hi s "los t child " i n Mademoisell e Diana' s boudoir . "How horrible! " exclaim s Hedda . "Everythin g I touc h become s ludi crous an d despicable!—It' s lik e a curse!" Hedda i s drive n t o kil l hersel f b y th e collaps e o f al l he r solutions . Sh e can n o longe r hop e t o gai n a sense o f freedo m an d t o satisf y he r suicida l impulses vicariousl y throug h Lovborg , an d sh e i s put int o a n impossibl e position b y Judge Brack' s effor t t o blackmai l her . As soon a s sh e returns fro m he r weddin g journey , Brac k begin s press-

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ing fo r " a triangula r friendship " i n whic h h e wil l b e he r love r (ac t z) . Hedda welcome s Brack' s attentions , bu t give n he r fea r o f scandal , a n affair i s unthinkable. Thi s i s the sam e Hedd a wh o ha d draw n a gu n o n Ejlert Lovbor g whe n h e wante d t o brin g thei r relationshi p dow n t o earth. Afte r confessin g t o Ejler t tha t sh e doe s no t lov e he r husband , sh e hastens t o add , "Al l th e same , n o unfaithfulness , remember " (ac t z). Brack welcome s Lovborg' s disgrac e afte r h e i s arrested a t Mademoisell e Diana's becaus e h e sense s Ejler t a s a riva l an d hope s tha t Hedda' s hom e will b e close d t o him , lik e othe r "respectabl e house[s] " (ac t 3) . His ai m is to b e "cock-of-the-walk, " an d "fo r that, " h e tells Hedda, " I will figh t with ever y weapo n I ca n command. " Hedd a realize s tha t h e i s " a dangerous person " an d i s "exceedingl y glad " tha t h e ha s "n o sor t o f hold" ove r her . Brack gain s a hol d ove r Hedda , however , whe n h e recognize s th e pistol wit h whic h Lovbor g wa s shot . Hedd a i s no w face d wit h thre e possibilities, al l o f whic h ar e unbearable . Brac k suggest s tha t sh e ca n declare th e pisto l t o hav e bee n stolen , bu t sh e say s tha t "i t woul d b e better t o die " tha n t o d o tha t (ac t 4) . Brack dismisse s he r speech : "On e says suc h things—bu t on e doesn' t do them. " Wh y th e threa t o f suicid e here? Becaus e lyin g abou t havin g give n Lovbor g th e pisto l i s a n ac t o f cowardice tha t woul d exacerbat e he r self-hate ? I have no bette r explana tion. I f th e polic e trac e th e weapo n t o Hedda , say s Brack , sh e will hav e to appea r i n cour t wit h Mademoisell e Dian a an d explai n wh y sh e gav e it to Lovborg : "thin k o f th e scanda l . . . . o f whic h yo u ar e s o terrified. " If Brack keeps quiet, however, the weapon wil l not b e traced, an d Hedd a will neithe r hav e to li e nor b e exposed t o scandal . This means , however , that sh e will be in Judge Brack' s power: "Subjec t t o you r command s an d wishes. N o longe r free—no t free ! . . . No , I won' t endur e th e thought . Never!" Given he r psychologica l needs , Hedd a ca n neithe r def y Brac k no r submit t o him . Hedd a strike s u s a s a masterfu l perso n wh o know s ho w to ge t wha t sh e wants , bu t th e fac t i s tha t sh e i s extremel y complian t where propriet y i s concerned . Sh e coul d no t endur e th e los s o f respect ability tha t woul d resul t fro m he r defianc e o f Brack . Confine d t o th e narrow rang e o f activitie s suitabl e t o a woma n o f he r station , Hedd a compensates fo r he r lack o f control ove r her destin y b y manipulating th e people aroun d her , an d especiall y b y seekin g t o influenc e th e fat e o f a n important man . Bein g subjec t t o Brack' s wishe s an d command s woul d

A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 6 1 render he r utterly powerles s an d would b e as unendurable a s the consequences o f defiance . Hedda's nee d fo r freedo m i s a s compensator y a s he r cravin g fo r power. Th e product o f a highly restrictive environmen t tha t ha s allowe d her fe w choices , sh e has a suppresse d desir e t o rebe l an d a longin g fo r liberty. As is typical o f detached people , she is hypersensitive t o anythin g that seem s t o imping e upo n her , such a s the expectations o f others , th e march o f time, or bein g touched . Sh e recoils fro m th e gentle embrac e of Aunt Juliane : "Please ! Oh , pleas e le t m e go! " (ac t i) . Sh e cannot bea r being pregnan t o r th e responsibilitie s tha t parenthoo d wil l entail . Sh e pursues a freedo m from constrain t rathe r tha n a freedo m to fulfil l her self. She is much too alienated fro m hersel f an d dominated b y her culture to kno w wha t sh e really want s t o d o wit h he r life . Drive n a s sh e is by both socia l an d psychological coercions , Hedda' s sens e o f freedo m i s an illusion, o f course , bu t i t i s essentia l t o he r t o preserv e it . Give n he r phobic reactio n t o ordinar y intrusions , expectations , o r constraints , w e can imagin e he r desperatio n a t th e prospec t o f bein g a t Brack' s "bec k and cal l from no w on" (ac t 4). When Hedd a say s tha t sh e "won' t endure " th e thought o f no t bein g free, Brac k "hal f mockingly " replies , "Peopl e manag e t o get used t o the inevitable" (ac t 4). But since Brac k threaten s Hedda' s compulsiv e need s for respectability , fo r power , an d fo r freedom , sh e canno t possibl y ge t used to this situation . To mak e matter s worse , Jorgen an d The a begi n reconstructin g Lov borg's manuscript , deprivin g Hedd a o f her triumph ove r The a an d put ting her even more int o Brack's hands. Like Hedda, The a ha s been tryin g to liv e throug h Lovborg . H e acknowledge s he r a s th e co-creato r o f hi s new book , an d she follows hi m to town partl y ou t of anxiety an d partl y because sh e wants t o b e wit h hi m whe n i t i s published: " I wan t t o se e you showere d wit h prais e an d honors—and , th e joy ! I wan t t o shar e that with you too!" (act 3). When Ejler t announce s that he has destroyed his manuscript an d will d o no more work , The a feel s sh e has nothing t o live for. Her reaction t o the news o f Ejlert's deat h i s remarkable. Instea d of bein g stupefied b y shock an d grief, sh e digs his notes out of the pocket of he r dres s an d immediatel y begin s rewritin g th e boo k wit h Jorgen . Ejlert ma y b e dead , bu t Thea' s searc h fo r glor y i s alive. Sh e has gotte n from hi m wha t Hedd a neve r coul d an d i n th e proces s ha s thwarte d Hedda's effor t t o gain a sense of power b y burning the manuscript .

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Thea's triump h i s al l th e mor e complet e becaus e sh e ha s no w begu n to influenc e Jorgen , wh o say s h e wil l devot e hi s lif e t o rewritin g Ejlert' s book. The a wil l mov e i n wit h Aun t Juliane , an d Jorge n wil l spen d hi s evenings ther e workin g wit h he r o n th e project . Whe n Jorge n ask s Brack t o kee p Hedd a compan y whil e h e i s away , Brac k readil y agrees , anticipating " a ver y joll y time " (ac t 4) . "That' s wha t yo u hope, " say s Hedda fro m th e next room, "No w tha t you ar e cock-of-the-walk." The n she shoots herself . Hedda's suicid e i s a desperate ac t o f escape—from th e collapse o f he r efforts t o fulfil l he r neuroti c need s fo r respectability , power , an d free dom, an d fro m th e unresolvabl e conflic t betwee n thes e need s tha t ha d led he r t o tr y t o liv e vicariousl y throug h Ejler t Lovborg . Sh e i s fleeing her self-hate , he r boredom , he r marriage , he r unwante d pregnancy , an d the prospective burde n o f motherhood . From Hedda' s perspective , he r suicid e i s als o a triumph , o f th e sor t she thought ha d bee n accomplished b y Lovborg. Her respons e to Brack' s initial repor t tha t Ejler t ha d sho t himsel f throug h th e hear t give s u s he r view o f he r ow n act . "A t last, " sh e exclaims , " a dee d wort h doing! " " I know tha t Ejler t Lovbor g ha d th e courag e t o liv e hi s lif e a s h e sa w it — and t o en d i t i n beauty. " H e ha s "mad e u p hi s ow n accoun t wit h life " and don e "th e on e righ t thing " (ac t 4) . Whe n Hedd a learn s th e trut h about Lovborg' s death , sh e realizes that i f an ac t of "deliberat e courage " and "spontaneou s beauty " i s t o b e performed , sh e mus t d o i t herself . She has no t ha d th e courag e t o liv e her lif e a s she sa w it, but sh e escape s her self-contemp t b y defying publi c opinion an d behavin g with darin g a t last. Sh e woul d b e please d b y Brack' s commen t tha t "peopl e don' t do such things." Sh e ends her lif e beautifully , b y her standard s a t least , wit h a sho t i n th e temple . Sh e thwarts Judg e Brack , wh o ha d counte d o n he r cowardice, and puncture s he r husband' s complacency . I n the las t fleeting moment o f he r life , sh e actualize s a n idealize d imag e o f hersel f an d becomes a person sh e can respect . Ibsen ha s painte d a brillian t portrai t o f a neuroti c woman , a produc t of he r restrictiv e society , wh o ca n escap e he r problem s an d attai n th e glory for whic h sh e is searching onl y b y killing herself .

As w e ca n se e fro m th e precedin g discussions , althoug h character s ca n be identifie d a s displayin g on e o r anothe r o f Horney' s defensiv e strate gies, the y ar e mixe d cases , no t t o b e though t o f simpl y i n term s o f on e

A Doll's House and Hedda Gabler | 6 3 personality type . Nor a Helme r i s strikingl y self-effacin g throug h muc h of th e play , bu t whe n he r predominan t solutio n fails , he r aggressiv e an d detached trend s emerge , revealing inner conflict s tha t hav e bee n there al l along. Th e domineering , perfectionisti c Torval d ha s dependenc y need s that mak e hi m clin g t o Nor a a t th e end . Conflictin g trend s ar e s o evenly balance d i n Hedd a Gable r tha t i t i s difficul t t o sa y whic h i s he r predominant solution . Sh e i s extremel y detached , bu t sh e i s als o ver y compliant i n relation t o socia l conventions, an d ther e i s so much aggres sion i n Hedd a tha t sh e i s mos t commonl y though t o f a s manipulativ e and domineering . Al l categorie s ar e reductive , o f course . Horney' s ar e least s o when the y ar e use d no t t o classif y character s bu t t o revea l thei r individuality an d inne r conflicts . We ca n als o se e fro m ou r analyse s o f A Doll's House an d Hedda Gabler tha t a Horneya n approac h enable s u s t o understan d motivatio n and explai n behavio r eve n whe n w e hav e littl e o r n o knowledg e o f a character's childhood . W e kno w mos t abou t Nora' s histor y becaus e o f her reference s t o he r lif e wit h he r father . W e can utiliz e th e informatio n she supplies , bu t w e ar e no t overl y dependen t upo n it , an d w e d o no t have t o inflat e it s importance . W e kno w nothin g abou t Torvald' s earl y life an d no t muc h abou t Hedda's . Hedda's problem s deriv e i n par t fro m the restriction s tha t he r cultur e place s o n a woma n o f he r socia l class , but w e hav e almos t n o informatio n abou t he r earl y experience , an d w e really cannot sa y why sh e responds to he r situatio n i n the particular wa y that sh e does. Not al l women i n her positio n wer e drive n t o suc h sterile , destructive lives . Although w e kno w littl e abou t th e childhood s o f thes e characters, thei r personalit y structure s ar e portraye d i n considerabl e detail, an d wit h th e hel p o f Horney' s synchroni c theor y w e ca n analyz e them psychologicall y withou t havin g to postulat e a history tha t i s not i n the text . A Horneya n approac h help s u s t o understan d no t onl y th e leadin g characters o f thes e play s bu t als o th e relationship s o n whic h the y ar e focused. Th e interactio n betwee n Nor a an d Torval d become s intelligibl e only whe n w e se e ho w thei r defense s bot h harmoniz e an d clash . Th e relationship betwee n Hedd a an d Ejler t i s a t th e cente r o f th e play , an d we ca n appreciat e wh y Ejler t i s s o importan t t o Hedd a onl y whe n w e recognize ho w sh e trie s t o us e hi m t o escap e he r inne r conflict s throug h the vicarious fulfillmen t o f he r needs .

4 The End of the Road

While Ibsen's plays clearly lend themselves to Horneyan anal ysis, i t ma y see m tha t Joh n Barth' s The End of the Road i s a les s appropriate choice . Nora , Torvald , an d Hedd a ar e mimeticall y draw n characters i n realistic works, but Jake, Joe, and Renni e have been treate d by mos t critic s a s illustrativ e figure s i n a philosophi c tale . Althoug h Barth ma y no t hav e bee n aimin g a t psychologica l realism , hi s charac ters ar e brillian t mimeti c portrait s nonetheless . Thi s nove l i s a littl e masterpiece tha t I hav e taugh t ever y yea r fo r th e pas t severa l decade s and hav e foun d t o b e endlessl y elusiv e an d fascinating . Jaco b Horne r i s an excellen t exampl e o f th e detache d protagonis t commo n i n moder n literature, an d th e bizarr e marriag e o f Jo e an d Renni e Morga n wil l remind u s o f Nora' s morbi d dependenc y o n Torvald . I t will als o hel p u s to understan d th e equall y bizarr e relationshi p betwee n patien t Griseld a and Walter . Like Ibsen's , Barth' s character s ar e presente d wit h almos t n o prio r history an d woul d b e difficult t o analyz e wit h a theory tha t explain s th e present i n term s o f th e past . Bu t the y displa y th e kind s o f defense s an d inner conflict s tha t Horne y describe s an d ar e intelligibl e i n term s o f he r structural approach . Th e plo t o f th e nove l evolve s fro m th e interactio n of th e characters ' defensiv e strategies , whic h bot h dra w the m togethe r and caus e the m t o clash . Althoug h ther e ar e triangle s i n Ibsen , hi s grea t psychological drama s ten d t o b e focuse d o n a dyadi c relationship — between Nor a an d Torvald , Hedd a an d Ejlert , Solnes s an d Hilde , Rosmer an d Rebekk a West . Th e situatio n i s mor e complicate d i n The End of the Road, sinc e the Jake-Rennie-Joe triangl e i s at the hear t o f th e book. Ther e ar e thre e relationship s t o b e considered—Jak e an d Joe , Jake an d Rennie , an d Renni e an d Joe—eac h o f whic h i s comple x i n itself an d mus t b e understood i n relation t o the othe r two . Since this is the tex t with whic h reader s ar e leas t likel y to b e familiar , I shall tell more o f the story than when I discuss other works. The novel' s

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The End of the Road | 6 5 narrator an d centra l character , Jak e Horner , i s a Master s candidat e i n English a t John s Hopkin s wh o become s psychologicall y paralyze d i n a Baltimore railroa d statio n o n hi s twenty-eight h birthda y an d i s rescue d by a blac k man , know n a s the Doctor , wh o prescribe s variou s therapie s to treat his condition. Two years later, o n the Doctor's advice , Jake take s a jo b teachin g prescriptiv e gramma r a t Wicomic o Stat e College , wher e he become s friendl y wit h Jo e Morgan , wh o i s workin g o n a Ph.D . i n History a t Hopkins , an d wit h Rennie , hi s wife . I t i s Jake's relationshi p with Joe that precipitate s th e action .

Jake Horne r i s a descendan t o f Dostoevsky' s undergroun d ma n an d other paralyze d intellectual s i n literature , suc h a s Hamlet , Diogene s Teufelsdrockh i n Carlyle' s Sartor Resartus, Conrad' s Marti n Decou d (Nostromo) an d Axe l Heys t (Victory), Harr y Halle r i n Hesse' s Steppenwolf, an d Sartre' s Antoin e Roquenti n i n Nausea. Sau l Bellow' s Moses Herzo g follow s hi m withi n th e nex t decade . On e o f th e mos t striking similaritie s betwee n Jake an d th e undergroun d ma n i s that bot h see their paralysi s a s the resul t o f superio r intelligenc e an d a heightene d awareness o f th e huma n condition . Th e undergroun d ma n attribute s hi s inertia t o th e fundamenta l law s o f over-acut e consciousnes s an d con trasts himsel f wit h th e dull , strong-nerved , norma l me n wh o ar e abl e t o act becaus e the y fai l t o perceiv e tha t ther e i s no foundatio n o n whic h t o base thei r choices . Jak e Horne r attribute s hi s paralysi s t o "th e malad y cosmoposis"\ whe n w e fi x ou r gaz e o n "ultimacy, " w e se e tha t ther e i s "no reason t o do anything" (ch . 6). He contrasts himself wit h the "short sighted animals " aroun d hi m i n th e railwa y statio n wh o hurr y "acros s the concours e towar d immediat e destinations " whil e h e sit s "immobil e on th e bench. " Both Jak e an d th e undergroun d ma n ar e paralyzed , i t seem s t o me , not b y th e intellectua l insigh t an d philosophi c problem s t o whic h the y attribute thei r difficulties , bu t b y psychologica l conflict s an d self-alien ation (se e Paris 1974) . In Kare n Horney' s terms , they ar e predominantl y detached individual s wh o hav e powerfu l aggressiv e an d self-effacin g tendencies the y canno t suppres s an d tha t pul l the m i n opposit e direc tions. In orde r t o defen d themselve s agains t inne r turmoil , the y distanc e themselves fro m thei r feeling s an d withdra w fro m th e externa l world . They inadvertently becom e involved with others—th e undergroun d ma n with Liz a an d Jak e wit h Jo e an d Rennie—wh o engag e thei r emotion s

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and activat e thei r conflicts . Traumatize d b y their involvement , the y become eve n more detached . Jake writes The End of the Road a t the Doctor's Remobilizatio n Far m about tw o years afte r th e events h e describes. Th e book i s an elaborat e rationale fo r hi s sterile , defensiv e wa y o f life . Unlik e th e short-sighte d animals aroun d him , Jake see s human being s fro m a cosmic perspective : they are insignificant creature s livin g in an indifferent universe , and their values ar e entirely arbitrary . No t onl y ar e the heavens empty , bu t ther e is no essential huma n nature . The Doctor an d Jake rejec t the old humanistic view o f man as having a stable sel f tha t ca n generate value s an d be the measur e o f al l things. Ther e i s nothing insid e o f us that give s direc tion t o ou r lives ; ou r eg o consist s onl y o f masks . W e must creat e ou r identity throug h ou r actions, but since we have no essence to begin with , we mus t choos e withou t a basis for choice. With neithe r a n external nor an internal authorit y to guide us, it is no wonder tha t we are inconsistent or paralyzed . The greates t threa t t o Jake's rational e i s Joe Morgan, wh o also start s from th e premise tha t nothin g ha s ultimate valu e bu t who believes tha t each perso n ha s a set of "psychologica l givens, " an essential nature , tha t generates value s which ar e "subjective absolutes " (ch . 4). Joe's project is to live coherently, in a way that i s consistent wit h his values, but he does not expec t other s t o approv e hi s decision s sinc e the y wil l b e operatin g from thei r ow n psychological givens . From Jake's point o f view, the flaw in Joe's positio n i s that i t "implie s a self, and where on e feels a pluralit y of selves, " a s doe s Jake , "on e i s subjec t t o th e sam e conflic t o n a n intensely intramura l level " tha t Joe posits "betwee n individua l point s of view": "eac h o f one's severa l selve s [claims ] the same irrefutabl e validit y for it s specia l poin t o f vie w that , i n Joe' s system , individual s . . . may claim" (ch . 10) . Jake acknowledge s tha t h e ha s alway s lacke d a stron g sens e o f per sonal unity , bu t h e conclude s fro m thi s no t tha t h e ha s psychologica l difficulties bu t that "th e individual i s not individua l afte r all " (ch . 10). His entir e philosophi c positio n i s an effort t o disown hi s personal prob lems b y generalizing them . Fro m a Horneya n perspective , Jake i s alien ated fro m hi s real self, the source o f authentic values, and he experiences his tendencie s t o move toward , against , an d away fro m peopl e a s sepa rate selve s tha t dominat e hi m b y turn s an d betwee n whic h h e ha s n o basis fo r choosing . Th e Doctor' s vie w o f th e eg o a s a n assemblag e o f masks reinforce s Jake' s rationalization s an d make s hi m more comfort -

The End of the Road | 6 7 able wit h hi s neurosis ; bu t th e Doctor' s therapie s canno t hel p Jak e t o resolve hi s problems , sinc e the y d o no t addres s hi s self-alienatio n bu t merely provid e hi m wit h technique s fo r makin g decision s whil e re maining detached . Jake i s triumphan t i n th e novels' s contes t o f ideas . Hi s versio n o f human natur e prove s t o b e mor e accurat e tha n Joe's . Jo e i s a s ful l o f contradictions a s Jake claim s everybod y is . He i s deluded abou t Rennie , about himself, and abou t thei r relationship, and his intellectual approac h to lif e i s inadequate . Bu t Jak e i s no t show n t o hav e a bette r approach . From a Horneya n poin t o f view , Jo e an d Jak e offe r onl y a choic e o f neurotic solutions , eac h o f whic h generate s a n inadequat e vie w o f hu man nature . Alienate d fro m himsel f an d ful l o f inne r conflicts , Jak e i s bound t o den y th e existenc e o f a stable , authenti c identity . Becaus e he , too, i s inwardly divided , Joe i s a poor exempla r o f hi s position tha t eac h person ha s a se t o f psychologica l given s i n term s o f whic h i t i s possibl e to liv e coherently . In contras t t o th e tw o position s spelle d ou t i n th e novel , Horneya n and Thir d Forc e psycholog y posi t a n essentia l huma n natur e tha t gener ates a communit y o f values . Al l huma n being s hav e th e sam e basi c psychological need s bu t diffe r i n the way s the y pursue the m an d i n thei r self-actualizing activities . Everyon e als o ha s a rea l self , which i s a stabl e source o f directio n an d value , althoug h mos t peopl e ar e i n som e degre e alienated fro m it . Wha t w e se e i n The End of the Road i s a clas h o f neurotic positions , eac h o f whic h offer s itsel f a s th e trut h abou t huma n nature an d th e human condition .

From a psychologica l poin t o f view , th e mai n actio n o f th e nove l i s th e breakdown o f Jake' s detachmen t a s h e move s agains t Jo e an d towar d Rennie an d it s reestablishmen t i n a mor e extrem e for m a t th e end . Jak e admires Jo e an d i s draw n t o hi m becaus e h e i s fre e o f Jake' s "leas t fortunate traits, " suc h a s insecurity, "indecision, " an d "almos t complet e inconsistency" (ch . 3) . Jake envie s Joe an d wishe s h e coul d b e lik e him , but h e need s t o defea t hi m i n orde r t o war d of f self-hate . H e i s s o threatened becaus e i f Joe ha s a unifie d sel f i n term s o f whic h h e ca n liv e coherently, the n somethin g i s terribly wron g wit h Jake . I f Joe als o lack s personal unit y bu t doe s no t realiz e it , then hi s project i s hopeless an d h e is a fool . Jake' s nee d t o undermin e Jo e i s incompatibl e wit h hi s detach ment, however , an d activate s hi s inner conflicts .

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Jake i s alarmed b y Joe a t their first encounter , durin g his interview fo r a position at Wicomico State. Joe is "so bright, busy, and obviously on his way up" that Jake realizes "at once that the invidious comparisons to oneself that h e could not fo r th e life of him help inviting would preven t one' s ever being really tranquil abou t the fact o f his existence" (ch . 2). Jake hits Joe "wher e he live[s]" by poking fun a t his being a scoutmaster: inspirin g a student, he says, is like "making fire with flint and steel." Unlike the timorous Jak e wh o ha d circle d th e driv e severa l time s becaus e peopl e wer e lounging o n th e fron t steps , Joe stride s "cleanl y acros s th e lawn " whe n they part : "Apparentl y Jo e Morga n wa s th e sor t wh o head s directl y fo r his destination, implyin g b y his example tha t path s shoul d b e laid wher e people walk, instea d o f walking wher e th e paths happe n t o b e laid." W e can se e how Jake feel s abou t thi s b y his reactio n t o a studen t wh o chal lenges prescriptive grammar b y arguing that grammar book s just describ e how people talk: "A Joe Morgan type, this lad: paths should be laid where people walk. I hated hi s guts" (ch . 10) . Jake set s out "t o rescu e prescrip tive grammar from the clutches of my impudent Mr. Blakesley, and, if possible, to crucify hi m in the process." After the y becom e friends , Jak e attack s Jo e indirectly , throug h Ren nie. Jo e an d Renni e hav e a n unusua l relationship , th e rule s fo r whic h have bee n lai d dow n b y Joe . The y ar e t o d o everythin g "o n th e sam e level, understandin g i t i n th e sam e way , fo r th e sam e purpose , nobod y making allowance s fo r anybod y else " (ch . 5) . What on e take s seriously , "both ough t t o b e able to take seriously, " wit h thei r relationshi p first o n the list . The y ar e t o mak e "heav y demands " o n themselve s an d eac h other, an d "the y alway s [have ] t o b e th e sam e demands. " Sinc e Joe ca n defend hi s idea s wherea s Renni e cannot , Renni e throw s ou t al l he r opinions an d completel y erase s herself , "righ t dow n t o nothing , s o [she ] can star t over. " Renni e i s Galate a t o Joe' s Pygmalion ; sh e trie s desper ately t o b e wha t h e want s an d woul d "rathe r b e a lous y Jo e Morga n than a first-rate Renni e MacMahon. " Fo r reason s t o b e examine d later , Joe wishes t o expos e Renni e t o th e influenc e o f Jake, an d h e encourage s them t o g o ridin g togethe r whil e h e work s o n hi s dissertation . I t i s during on e o f thei r ride s tha t Jak e begin s t o ridicul e Jo e an d t o subver t the Morgans' relationship . Jake begin s b y callin g Joe "funn y a s hell " fo r hatin g pit y an d "silly " for gettin g upse t a t politenes s (ch . 5) . Whe n Renni e become s trouble d and defensive , Jak e presse s th e attack : "Fo r tha t matter , wha t coul d b e

The End of the Road | 6 9 sillier than thi s whole ai m o f livin g coherently?" Thi s is really hitting Joe and Renni e where the y live , and Renni e i s "aghast. " "An d bo y o h boy, " Jake continues , "wha t coul d possibly b e sillie r tha n hi s notio n tha t tw o people i n th e sam e hous e ca n liv e tha t way! " Jak e compare s Rennie' s expression a t thi s to "tha t o f th e Athenian s o n th e mornin g the y discov ered tha t Alcibiade s ha d gelde d ever y marbl e go d i n town. " Jo e i s Rennie's go d an d Jak e ha s trie d t o emasculat e him . Jake claim s tha t hi s purpose "wa s no t t o mak e a point , bu t t o observ e Rennie " an d insist s that h e sai d "thes e thing s withou t genuin e malice , onl y a s a sor t o f tease"; but i t is clear that eve n two years later he is hiding the truth fro m himself. Jake i s a n unreliabl e narrato r wh o reveal s himsel f s o full y tha t we can se e through hi s self-deceptions . Rennie tell s Jake th e histor y o f he r relationshi p wit h Jo e a s a wa y o f defending i t and o f justifying he r lack o f a separate identity. The relation ship begins , a s man y morbi d dependencie s do , with a blo w t o th e prid e of th e self-effacin g partne r (Horne y 1950 , 245) . Jo e an d Renni e mee t when h e i s pursuin g a n M.A . a t Columbi a an d sh e i s workin g i n Ne w York. Afte r som e casua l dating , Jo e tell s he r tha t h e wil l no t b e takin g her ou t anymore : "H e sai d h e though t I coul d probabl y b e wonderful , but tha t I wa s shallo w a s hel l a s I was , an d h e didn' t expec t m e t o change jus t fo r hi s sake. . . . He wasn' t intereste d i n me a s I was, so tha t was that " (ch . 5) . Terribly hurt , Renni e return s t o he r apartment , wher e she an d he r roommat e ar e havin g a party , bu t sh e no w see s everythin g through Joe' s eyes . She feels tha t he r friend s ar e "jus t ordinar y people, " that "everythin g the y sai d wa s silly, " an d tha t sh e herself i s a "complet e blank." Assumin g tha t Jo e i s "gon e fo r good, " sh e feel s "s o awfu l an d useless" that sh e doesn't "giv e a damn wha t happen[s ] t o her. " Once Jo e ha s crushe d Rennie' s pride , onl y hi s approva l ca n alleviat e her self-hate . Drun k an d i n despair , sh e goes to hi s apartment , wher e h e expresses interes t i n a permanen t relationshi p alon g th e line s describe d above. Renni e assent s t o hi s condition s an d strive s t o fulfil l hi s expecta tions. Joe ha s tol d he r no t onl y tha t sh e i s shallo w a s hel l bu t als o tha t she could probabl y b e wonderful, an d Renni e look s t o hi m t o transfor m her fro m he r despise d int o he r idealize d imag e o f herself . Sh e glorifie s Joe an d become s hi s devote d worshipper . Accordin g t o her , h e "think s as straigh t a s a n arro w abou t everything, " an d "eve n whe n h e make s a mistake, hi s reason s fo r doin g wha t h e di d ar e cleare r an d sharpe r tha n anybody else's " (ch . 5) .

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Given wha t h e want s i n a marriage , Jo e seem s t o hav e mad e a bi g mistake i n choosin g Rennie . H e say s that the y wil l sta y togethe r a s lon g as eac h ca n "respec t everythin g abou t th e other , absolutel y everything, " but Renni e i s no t capabl e o f becomin g a perso n Jo e ca n respect . Jak e observes that h e treats he r wit h condescension , an d Renni e i s afraid tha t she will neve r "reall y ge t t o b e what Jo e wants " (ch . 5) . How coul d th e straight-thinking Joe have made suc h a poor choice ? He say s that h e was attracted t o Rennie becaus e "sh e was th e most self-sufficient gir l I'd eve r met.. . . She was popular enough , bu t sh e didn't see m to need popularit y or eve n friendshi p a t all " (ch . 8 ; emphasis i n original) . Rennie' s accoun t of hersel f i s quit e different . Sh e say s tha t sh e "live d i n a complet e fog " until th e da y Joe tol d he r sh e was shallow : " I wa s popula r an d al l that , but I swear i t was jus t lik e I was aslee p al l through schoo l an d college . I wasn't reall y intereste d i n anything , I neve r though t abou t anything , I never eve n particularl y wante d t o do anything " (ch . 5) . I n discussin g self-alienation, Horne y observe s that ther e ar e many neurotic s "wh o liv e as i f the y wer e i n a fog . Nothin g i s clea r t o them . No t onl y thei r ow n thoughts an d feeling s bu t als o othe r people " (1950 , 156) . Ha s Jo e interpreted Rennie' s indifference, he r remoteness fro m sel f an d others , as self-sufficiency? "I f I thought abou t mysel f a t all," she tells Jake, " I guess I lived o n m y potentialities, becaus e I never fel t dissatisfie d wit h mysel f " (ch. 5) . Onc e Joe' s blo w t o he r prid e bring s he r insecuritie s t o th e surface, Renni e become s a morbidl y dependen t woma n wh o canno t satisfy Joe' s need fo r a self-sufficient partner . In order to comprehend Joe's mistake, we must understand hi s character structure and recognize exactly what he wants from Rennie . A perfectionist, Joe has high standards of which he is extremely proud an d that h e imposes o n others . H e ha s n o friend s becaus e h e refuse s t o mak e allow ances fo r othe r people . H e want s the m "t o b e shar p an d clea r al l th e time," t o liv e coherently, an d t o b e worthy o f respect . Thes e ar e th e de mands h e makes o n himsel f an d o n Rennie . Following Joe's lead, Renni e scraps al l he r friend s becaus e "yo u ha d t o mak e al l kind s o f allowance s for them ; you couldn' t tak e the m a s seriously a s all that" (ch . 5) . Joe en joys hi s positio n o f loft y superiority , bu t i t leave s hi m feelin g alon e an d unappreciated. He craves recognition from anothe r person, but if that recognition i s to hav e an y meaning , i t mus t com e fro m someon e who m h e respects himself . Becaus e o f th e intensit y o f thi s need , h e misperceive s Rennie as someone who can become the partner he desires. Joe make s hi s marriag e th e cente r o f hi s life , wit h th e remoldin g o f

The End of the Road | 7 1 Rennie hi s primar y project , mor e importan t t o hi m tha n "caree r o r ambition o r anythin g else " (ch . 5) . Hi s explanatio n o f hi s subjectiv e ethic i s prompte d b y Jake' s observatio n tha t Jo e regard s Renni e an d himself takin g eac h othe r seriousl y "a s a n absolute. " Jo e acknowledge s that hi s ethi c depend s upo n ther e bein g a n "ultimate end " (emphasi s i n original) tha t give s everythin g els e "it s relativ e value " an d tha t "thi s ultimate en d i s rationall y unjustifiabl e i f ther e aren' t an y absolut e val ues." H e explain s tha t ultimat e end s ca n "neve r b e logically defensible ; they'd b e i n th e natur e o f psychologica l givens, differen t fo r mos t peo ple" (emphasi s i n original) . Thes e psychologica l given s sprin g fro m th e individual's essentia l natur e an d ar e "th e subjectiv e equivalen t o f a n absolute." A s a n example , Joe observe s tha t i f marita l fidelity wer e on e of hi s givens , hi s "relationshi p woul d hav e los t it s raison d'etre" i f Rennie committe d adultery , an d he' d probabl y "wal k ou t flat , i f I didn' t actually shoo t he r o r shoo t myself " (ch . 4). Joe denie s that h e is describing hi s ow n "psychologica l make-up, " bu t h e i s a ma n wit h remarkabl y little self-knowledge , an d h e ha s inadvertentl y reveale d t o Jak e th e im portance o f Rennie' s fidelity an d ho w h e can b e undermined . Joe posits a relativistic universe in which there are subjective absolute s and i n whic h "th e mos t a ma n ca n eve r d o i s b e righ t fro m hi s poin t o f view." Hi s philosoph y rationalize s hi s sens e o f bein g absolutel y righ t while differin g fro m everyon e else , jus t a s Jake's rationalize s hi s confu sion an d inne r conflict . Joe's highest consciou s valu e is acting coherently , in "way s tha t h e ca n explain , i f h e want s to. " B y thi s standar d h e i s superior t o everyon e else , but peopl e wit h othe r psychologica l make-up s will hav e othe r values . Joe seem s t o b e a t peac e wit h thi s situatio n an d takes pride in his ability to sustai n " a cheerfu l nihilism" : "Whe n yo u sa y good-by t o objectiv e values , yo u reall y hav e t o fle x you r muscle s an d keep your eye s open, becaus e you're o n you r own " (ch . 4). The essentia l natur e Jo e posit s i s uniqu e t o th e individual , leavin g each perso n alon e i n th e universe . Th e proble m i s that Jo e canno t stan d being o n hi s own . H e need s someon e els e t o shar e hi s perspective . Thi s leads hi m t o behav e i n way s tha t ar e incompatibl e wit h hi s ow n beliefs . He declare s tha t eac h perso n ha s differen t psychologica l given s an d tha t we canno t expec t anyon e els e t o agre e wit h u s bu t ca n onl y b e righ t from ou r ow n poin t o f view . What h e is looking fo r i n Rennie , however , is someon e wh o wil l understan d thing s jus t a s h e does , wil l respec t everything abou t him , an d wil l make th e sam e demands , bot h o n hersel f and o n him , that h e makes o n himself .

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It seems at first that Joe is looking fo r a clone an d tha t h e has found a person wh o i s willing t o becom e one . H e tell s Renni e tha t unti l sh e get s "into th e habi t o f articulatin g ver y clearl y al l th e tim e . . . mos t o f th e reasonable soundin g ideas " wil l b e his , an d the y wil l "jus t tr y t o forge t about" her s (ch . 5) . Rennie ha s no difficult y wit h this , once sh e become s aware o f he r ow n lac k o f selfhoo d an d i s floode d wit h self-contempt . She ca n easil y giv e u p he r identity , sinc e sh e doe s no t fee l tha t sh e ha s one, an d sh e hopes t o escap e he r feelin g o f nothingnes s b y merging wit h Joe an d participatin g i n his substantiality . Joe doe s no t wan t a clone, however, o r a mindless devotee . He want s someone who, onc e she is trained, will independently and spontaneously think exactl y a s h e does . H e i s draw n t o Renni e becaus e h e sense s he r malleability, whic h h e want s t o thin k i s combined wit h a n unusua l self sufficiency. Thi s combinatio n woul d mak e he r a n idea l candidate fo r th e kind o f relationship he envisions, but after a number o f years of marriag e (their son s ar e age d thre e an d four) , thing s hav e no t worke d ou t a s h e had hoped . Renni e ha s trie d desperatel y t o becom e lik e Joe , bu t sh e i s only a wea k imitation : "I'l l alway s b e uncertain, " sh e wails , "an d he'l l always b e abl e t o explai n hi s position s bette r tha n I can " (ch . 5) . Sh e does not eve n consider havin g positions o f he r own . Sh e appreciates Joe, to b e sure , bu t sh e i s s o slavis h tha t he r recognitio n i s hardl y wort h having. Sh e wa s suppose d t o com e t o lif e afte r h e ha d molde d he r an d to b e a n autonomou s perso n wh o happene d t o b e just lik e himself . He r respect woul d the n b e o f value , an d the y coul d wor k a t leadin g a coherent life . We ca n no w understan d wh y Jo e throw s Renni e an d Jak e together . He knows he has brainwashed Renni e and fear s tha t sh e will not becom e autonomous a s long a s she is under hi s influence. H e see s Jake a s havin g "a first-rate min d tha t i s totall y differen t fro m his " (ch . 5 ) an d hope s that exposin g Renni e t o hi m wil l mak e he r thin k fo r herself . Perhap s then sh e wil l enabl e hi m t o escap e hi s isolatio n an d reconcil e hi s con flicting psychologica l need s for consensua l validatio n an d uniqu e superi ority. Joe's objective s hav e bee n unrealisti c al l along ; Renni e wa s boun d to disappoin t hi m becaus e n o huma n bein g coul d posses s th e contradic tory qualitie s fo r whic h h e was looking. He correctl y assesse d he r malle ability an d foun d par t o f wha t h e sought , bu t he r self-sufficienc y an d strength wer e figments o f hi s imagination . Unabl e t o giv e u p hi s dream , he stil l misperceive s her , exposin g he r t o a situatio n sh e canno t handle .

The End of the Road | 7 3 "What scare s me, " sh e tell s Jake , "i s tha t anybod y coul d gran t al l o f Joe's premises—ou r premise s . . . an d then laug h a t us " (emphasi s i n original). Jak e astutel y replies , "Mayb e that' s wha t Jo e wa s after. " "I t could be, " say s Rennie , "bu t i f i t wa s h e overestimate d me ! I can't tak e it." Rennie's experienc e wit h Jak e i s a repetitio n o f he r experienc e wit h Joe; h e injure s he r prid e an d make s he r fee l lik e " a complet e zero. " Sh e has defende d hersel f agains t he r sens e o f inne r emptines s b y investin g her prid e i n Jo e an d thei r relationship , bu t Jak e threaten s thi s b y sug gesting tha t Joe an d thei r marriag e ar e silly , and Renni e become s fright ened whe n sh e begin s t o wonde r i f Jake i s stronge r tha n Joe . Sh e reas sures hersel f b y concludin g tha t Jak e i s unrea l becaus e o f hi s inconsistency: " I thin k yo u don' t exis t a t all . There' s to o man y o f you . . . . Yo u cance l yoursel f out . You'r e mor e lik e somebod y i n a dream . You're no t stron g an d you'r e no t weak . You'r e nothing " (ch . 5) . Joe i s "the sam e ma n toda y h e wa s yesterday , al l th e wa y through . He' s genuine! That' s th e difference. " "Joe' s rea l enoug h t o handl e you, " proclaims Rennie . "He' s rea l enoug h fo r bot h o f us. " "Nothin g plu s on e is one, " say s Jake, "agreeably. " "That' s right, " replie s Rennie . Sh e ca n live with he r ow n sens e o f nothingnes s a s long a s she believe s i n Joe an d participates i n his strength . Concluding tha t Jak e i s unrea l alleviate s Rennie' s anxiety , bu t i t i s extremely threatening t o Jake. When sh e says that Jake i s "nothing " an d that he doesn't "exist, " sh e is articulating his deepest fears abou t himself , the ver y fear s Jo e ha d arouse d an d tha t ha d mad e Jake moc k hi m i n th e first place . Jake respond s b y invitin g Renni e t o sp y o n Jo e on e evenin g when the y retur n home . Renni e insist s tha t Jo e i s "jus t reading " an d that Jak e doesn' t "kno w Jo e a t all" : "Real peopl e aren' t an y differen t when they'r e alone . N o masks . Wha t yo u se e o f the m i s authentic. " "Horseshit," replie s Jake . "Nobody' s authentic . Let' s look " (ch . 5) . Authenticity i s the crucia l issu e fo r Jake . I f Joe i s authentic, the n Jake i s defective, bu t i f nobod y i s authentic , Jake nee d no t despis e himself . Hi s lack o f identit y i s just a manifestatio n o f huma n natur e an d th e huma n condition, abou t whic h Joe ha s delude d himself . When Jak e an d Renni e look i n a t th e window , the y se e Jo e cavortin g abou t th e roo m i n a n absurd manne r an d the n "masturbatin g an d pickin g his nose a t the sam e time." Rennie' s imag e o f Joe i s shattered . Jake continue s hi s aggressio n b y cuckoldin g Jo e whil e h e i s ou t o f

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town (Jake' s namesak e i s Jack Horne r i n Wycherly's The Country Wife). He claim s tha t "th e whol e busines s wa s withou t significance " (ch . 7) , but h e i s clearl y deceivin g himself . Th e nex t da y h e become s engrosse d in readin g severa l volume s o f play s an d give s th e matte r n o furthe r thought: "I t wa s insignificant , unimportant , and , a s fa r a s I wa s con cerned, inconsequential. " Jak e i s protestin g to o much . H e i s frightene d at havin g acte d ou t hi s vindictiv e feeling s an d i s tryin g t o den y th e significance o f hi s behavio r an d t o reestablis h hi s detachment . H e als o needs to repress th e desir e for a n emotiona l connectio n wit h Renni e tha t had partl y motivated him . He admit s to having been curious to learn no t only wha t Renni e wa s lik e i n bed , "bu t als o wha t th e intimat e relation ship ( I do not mea n sexua l relationship ) woul d b e like which I presume d would b e established b y our intercourse. " Jake's detachmen t quickl y break s dow n whe n Renni e call s to sa y tha t she must se e him. Assuming that wha t i s "i n the offin g [is ] a polishing of the crow n o f horn s we' d alread y place d o n Joe' s brow, " h e experience s "a sudden , marvelou s sensatio n o f guilt " whil e drivin g t o th e Morgan s (ch. 7) . The sensatio n i s marvelou s becaus e Jak e feel s bore d an d empt y most o f th e time , an d th e guil t make s hi m fee l alive . Hi s reactio n i s s o intense tha t h e stop s bein g a n observe r an d i s caugh t u p i n th e experi ence: "What , fo r God' s sake , ha d I done? . . . I was anguished , a s neve r before i n m y life . Wha t i s more , m y anguis h wa s prett y muc h unself conscious: I was no t awar e o f watching Jacob Horne r suffe r anguish. "

Jake i s now i n th e gri p o f hi s inne r conflicts . Whe n hi s self-effacin g sid e is uppermost, h e is appalled b y the "enormit y o f th e injury" h e has don e Joe an d hate s himsel f fo r havin g betraye d "th e onl y man h e can thin k o f as a friend" (ch . 7) . His detache d sid e make s hi m hat e himsel f fo r bein g afraid o f Joe's "disappointment, " "disapproval, " an d "disgust, " "whic h ordinarily woul d no t bothe r me. " Renni e ask s t o se e hi m becaus e she , too, is overwhelmed wit h guilt (" I couldn' t hav e hurt hi m like that") an d wants t o confes s t o Joe . Jak e i s afrai d o f wha t wil l happe n i f sh e doe s and despise s himsel f fo r hi s cowardice . Jake ha s violate d th e should s o f al l hi s solution s an d i s torture d b y guilt an d self-contempt . H e ha s alway s escape d painfu l emotion s through detachment , bu t hi s usual method s d o not work: "I t was useles s to tr y t o rea d o r sleep : there wa s n o slippin g int o someon e else' s worl d

The End of the Road | 7 5 or otherwis e escapin g m y own , whic h ha d m e b y the throat " (ch . 7) . H e feels suc h "loathing " fo r himsel f tha t h e begin s t o thin k o f suicide : " I envied al l dea d things—th e fa t earthworm s tha t la y squashe d upo n th e wet sidewalks , th e animal s whos e frie d bodie s I chewe d a t mealtimes , people decomposin g i n mudd y cemeteries. " Jake' s "self-revulsion " abates whe n Jo e ask s him , "wh y i n th e nam e o f Chris t di d yo u fuc k Rennie?" Having to dea l with Joe shift s hi s attention awa y from hi s guilt to defendin g himsel f an d "salvagin g [his ] self-respect" (ch . 8). Once lif e grab s Jake b y the throat , hi s self-effacin g tendencie s emerg e rather powerfully . I n additio n t o punishin g himsel f fo r hi s betraya l o f Joe, h e begin s t o hav e "tender , lovelik e feelings " towar d Renni e (ch . 9). When sh e say s tha t sh e migh t lov e him , alon g wit h hatin g hi s "God damned guts, " h e i s "flattere d beyon d measure" : " I responde d easil y and inordinatel y t o an y evidenc e o f affectio n fro m peopl e who m I admired o r respecte d i n an y way. " Hi s us e o f th e wor d "inordinately " suggests a t onc e a n intens e cravin g fo r affectio n an d a drea d o f bein g overpowered b y it . Jak e i s enthralle d no t jus t b y th e possibilit y o f Rennie's lov e bu t als o b y her expression s o f hatred. I n the scen e referre d to above , Renni e begin s b y tellin g Jak e tha t sh e stil l despise s him . "Thrilled . . . from hea d t o foot," h e becomes "acutel y intereste d i n her " and propose s tha t "w e didn' t jus t copulate ; w e mad e love. " Whe n Rennie react s t o thi s wit h "abhorrence, " Jak e grow s "ver y excited. " Rennie's revulsio n an d Joe' s masterfulnes s brin g ou t Jake' s submissive ness an d intensif y hi s attachments . Th e sam e dynamic s occu r i n hi s relationship wit h th e Doctor . Jak e describe s himsel f a s "thrilled " agai n when Joe tells him tha t h e has put hi s Col t .4 5 o n th e shel f o f the living room close t i n case he o r Renni e want t o us e it o n themselve s o r anyon e else: "Perhap s i t was Joe Morgan , afte r all , that I loved" (ch . 10) . Ther e is a n emotionall y hungr y sid e o f Jak e tha t long s t o b e love d an d a masochistic sid e that long s to b e mastered . Jake's self-effacin g tendencie s ar e i n conflic t wit h hi s detachment . I n an effor t t o understan d wha t ha s happened , Jo e insist s tha t Renni e continue t o se e Jake , an d whe n Jak e say s tha t h e migh t b e i n lov e with her , Joe raise s th e possibilit y o f " a permanen t sexua l relationship " between them , " a triangl e withou t conflict s o r secrecy " (ch . 10) . Jak e finds tha t a t the very mention o f a permanent relationship , h e begins "t o grow tire d o f th e ide a o f Rennie. " A t this possible threa t t o hi s freedom , his detachmen t reassert s itself . Jake' s conflictin g tendencie s ar e some -

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times so evenly balanced tha t he holds contradictory attitude s simultane ously, a s whe n h e feel s "bot h guilt y an d nonchalan t abou t th e Morga n affair" (ch . 9). Jake ca n n o longe r fee l nonchalan t whe n Renni e become s pregnan t and, no t knowin g wh o th e fathe r is , say s tha t sh e wil l shoo t hersel f i f she canno t obtai n a n abortion . Hi s affectio n an d sens e o f responsibilit y drive hi m t o a n uncharacteristi c frenz y o f activity , a s h e trie s t o preven t her suicide . Finally, the Doctor agree s to perform a n abortio n i f Jake wil l give him al l his money an d com e t o liv e at hi s new Remobilizatio n Far m in Pennsylvania . After h e arrange s th e abortion , Jake experience s " a reaction " agains t his "whol e commitment. " H e want s th e adventur e t o teac h hi m tha t he is not s o consistentl y th e sam e perso n (no t s o sufficientl y "real, " t o us e Rennie's term) tha t I could involv e myself seriousl y i n the live s of other s without doin g damag e al l around , no t leas t t o m y own tranquillity ; tha t my irrational flashes of conscienc e an d cruelty , o f compassio n an d cyni cism—in short , m y inabilit y t o pla y th e sam e rol e lon g enough—coul d give me as well as others pain. (Ch. 12) The conflictin g side s o f Jak e ar e al l represente d i n thi s passage . Hi s detached sid e is cynical an d long s for tranquillity , hi s self-effacing sid e is conscientious an d compassionate , an d hi s aggressiv e sid e i s cruel . Jak e has ha d a ba d scare . Hi s oscillation s hav e le d hi m t o experienc e guilt , anguish, an d a longin g fo r deat h an d hav e le d Renni e t o th e brin k o f suicide. H e feel s that , give n hi s inconsistency , i t i s extremel y dangerou s for hi m t o becom e involve d wit h others . H e tell s himsel f tha t h e doe s not "consistentl y nee d o r wan t friends " an d tha t i f h e i s t o hav e the m "at al l [he ] mus t remai n uninvolved—[he ] mus t leav e the m alone, " which i s a strang e wa y o f havin g friends . H e want s t o fee l s o severel y chastened tha t h e wil l neve r relinquis h hi s detachmen t an d becom e involved wit h othe r peopl e again . Jake i s anxiou s becaus e eve n no w h e doe s no t fee l single-minded : "My feeling s wer e mixed : relief , ridiculousness , embarrassment , anger , injured pride , maudlin affectio n fo r th e Morgans, disgus t with the m an d myself, an d a hos t o f othe r things , includin g indifferenc e t o th e whol e business" (ch . 12) . Indifference i s what Jake want s t o feel , bu t i t i s clea r that h e i s stil l i n th e gri p o f hi s conflicts , an d i n orde r t o escap e hi s anxiety, h e contemplate s leavin g Wicomico : "I n a ne w town , wit h ne w

The End of the Road | JJ friends, eve n unde r a ne w name—perhap s on e coul d pretend enoug h unity t o b e a person an d liv e in the world. "

Jake's affai r wit h Renni e ha s destroye d Jo e Morgan' s solutio n a s well a s his own . Becaus e o f hi s misreadin g o f Rennie , Joe' s effor t t o mak e hi s marriage work a s he had envisione d seem s to have resulted i n its destruction. H e claim s t o b e gla d th e affai r happene d "becaus e i t uncovere d real problem s [he ] didn' t kno w existed, " an d no w h e will b e abl e t o ge t to th e botto m o f the m (ch . 8) . Joe take s prid e i n dealin g wit h reality , despite the fact tha t h e is out o f touc h wit h it , bu t th e reality revealed b y Rennie's affai r i s on e h e canno t accept . Accordin g t o Joe' s versio n o f Rennie an d Rennie' s versio n o f herself , th e affai r coul d no t hav e hap pened. Sinc e i t di d happen , the y mus t correc t thei r versio n o f Rennie , "and righ t no w w e can' t se e ho w an y versio n tha t allow s fo r wha t happened woul d als o allo w fo r th e kin d o f relationshi p w e though t w e had." Wit h th e los s o f hi s illusion s abou t hi s marriage , Jo e i s lef t with n o wa y o f satisfyin g hi s contradictor y need s fo r Renni e t o b e a n independent perso n wh o think s exactl y a s he does . To cop e wit h hi s crisis , Jo e ha s recours e t o hi s habitua l mode s o f behavior: h e will tr y t o thin k straight , t o fac e "th e fact s squarely, " t o b e sharp an d clea r al l the time. He stil l aims a t livin g coherently. H e has , as Jake says , "th e delusio n tha t intelligenc e wil l solv e all problems" (ch . 9). To identif y th e proble m tha t ha s t o b e solved , h e feel s tha t h e mus t "know just what happened " an d wh y (ch . 8) . He become s obsesse d wit h the pursui t o f thi s knowledge , regardin g i t a s " a life-and-deat h busi ness." Renni e says that Joe i s "thinkin g mor e clearl y and intensely " tha n ever, an d sh e onc e agai n regard s hi m a s a god , bu t Jak e feel s tha t "he' s just insane , a monomaniac. " Sinc e on e o f Joe' s axiom s i s tha t ou r behavior alway s reflect s ou r mos t strongl y hel d values , h e argue s tha t Rennie believe s i t i s al l righ t t o mak e lov e t o othe r men , o r a t leas t t o Jake, whether sh e wants t o admi t i t to herself o r not . I f they ar e to kno w where the y stand , sh e mus t ac t o n he r "rea l beliefs " (Jo e make s n o provision fo r ambivalence ) an d continu e t o hav e sexua l relation s wit h Jake. Jake correctl y points ou t (t o the reader, thoug h no t t o Rennie ) tha t Joe's positio n i s "entirel y illogical, " sinc e Rennie' s singl e adulter y a t most "implie d tha t she' d bee n willin g t o d o i t jus t once " (ch . 9) . Joe i s not thinkin g straigh t an d i s still not facin g th e facts . But h e i s "behavin g prett y consistentl y wit h hi s position, " and , a s

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Jake observes , "tha t knowledg e ca n b e comfortin g eve n i n case s wher e the positio n lead s t o defea t o r disaster " (ch . 10) . Rennie , however , n o longer ha s " a positio n t o ac t consistentl y with, " and , unlik e Jake's, he r personality seem s "t o requir e a positio n i n orde r t o preserv e itself. " Rennie doe s not want t o have sex with Jake, but sh e feels that sh e would be lettin g Jo e dow n i f sh e di d not . I f sh e refuse d t o comply , moreover , he migh t wal k ou t fla t o r kil l "himsel f o r al l o f us " (ch . 9) . Joe' s ha s been a reig n o f terro r fro m th e beginning , sinc e h e ha s use d physica l violence, o r th e threa t o f it , an d psychologica l intimidation . Renni e ha d been full o f rage that sh e had turne d agains t herself , feeling a failure an d taking th e blam e fo r everything , unti l he r disillusionmen t wit h Jo e le d her t o ac t ou t he r aggressio n b y committin g adulter y wit h Jake . He r guilt make s he r al l th e mor e desperat e fo r Joe' s approva l an d dispose d to b e compliant , bu t pleasin g hi m seem s mor e impossibl e tha n ever . Under terribl e psychologica l stress , Rennie tell s Jake tha t sh e is "desper ate" an d i s "goin g crazy " (ch . 10) . What save s th e Morgans , oddl y enough , i s Rennie' s becomin g preg nant. Whe n Renni e say s tha t she'l l d o whateve r Jo e wants , h e shouts , "Think fo r yourself , o r I don't wan t anythin g t o d o with you! " (ch . 10) . Rennie declare s tha t sh e doesn' t wan t th e bab y an d won' t pu t i t u p fo r adoption: "Al l right, " say s Joe , "there' s th e pistol . Shoo t yourself. " " I will if you want m e to, Joe." When Jake suggest s abortio n a s an alterna tive, Renni e make s u p he r mind : "I' m goin g t o ge t a n abortio n o r shoo t myself, Joe . I'v e decided. " Jo e point s ou t th e difficult y o f finding a n abortionist, Renni e make s a das h fo r th e gun , an d Jak e prevent s he r from reachin g it . "Yo u peopl e ar e insane! " h e exclaims . "D o yo u wan t her t o blo w he r damne d hea d off? " " I wan t he r t o thin k fo r herself, " replies Joe . H e tell s Jak e tha t h e woul d kil l hi m fo r "takin g somethin g as importan t a s thi s ou t o f th e real m o f choice. " Jak e begin s franticall y searching fo r a n abortionis t i n a n effor t t o sav e Rennie' s life , bu t th e Morgans ar e cal m afte r this . They ar e waitin g fo r Jak e t o fail , an d the n Rennie will commit suicide . The Morgan s ar e calm , I believe , becaus e a t las t thei r impossibl e dream i s coming true . Joe ha s bee n insistin g tha t Renni e continu e t o se e Jake becaus e "she' s go t t o decid e onc e an d fo r al l wha t sh e reall y feel s about yo u an d m e an d herself " (ch . 10) . Whe n Renni e "decides " tha t she will either ge t an abortio n o r shoo t herself , sh e finally become s wha t Joe ha s wanted he r t o be , an autonomou s perso n whos e choice s validat e him. Th e fac t tha t sh e doe s no t wan t th e bab y becaus e i t might possibl y

The End of the Road | yy be Jake' s signifie s he r choic e o f Joe . Sh e woul d rathe r di e tha n hav e a child tha t migh t no t b e his. Ignoring th e psychological pressur e t o whic h he ha s subjecte d her , Joe ca n believ e tha t sh e i s thinking fo r herself . H e had earlie r explaine d t o Jak e tha t wha t h e an d Renni e "wan t o f eac h other isn' t possibl e unles s w e assum e tha t we'r e fre e agents— pretend we ar e eve n when w e suspec t w e aren't " (ch . 8) . He use s th e plura l pro noun, bu t i t i s hi s needs , no t Rennie's , tha t h e i s describing . Lik e God i n Paradise Lost, Jo e demand s obedience , submission , an d wor ship an d i s punitiv e i f the y ar e no t forthcoming , bu t the y d o no t con tribute t o hi s glor y unles s h e believe s the m t o b e give n freely . The God-Satan-Everyma n analog y i s explici t i n The End of the Road, with Jake i n the role of Sata n makin g i t possible fo r Renni e t o b e a "free agent." At th e beginnin g o f th e novel , Renni e despaire d o f eve r becomin g what Jo e wanted , bu t sh e ha s finall y succeeded . Lik e Nor a an d Hedda , Rennie feel s tha t sh e ca n escap e he r problem s an d attai n th e glor y sh e seeks throug h a n heroi c ac t o f self-destruction . T o g o o n livin g i s t o experience mor e failur e an d self-hate , bu t t o di e i s t o actualiz e he r idealized imag e s o tha t i t canno t b e take n awa y fro m her . Jo e clearl y seems t o desir e Rennie' s death . H e threaten s t o kil l Jake i f h e interfere s with Rennie' s fre e choice , make s n o effor t t o provid e a n alternativ e t o suicide, an d keep s suggestin g tha t he r onl y optio n i s t o shoo t herself . He, too, must b e aware tha t i f this crisi s passes, Rennie will revert t o he r slavish ways . Thus th e Morgan s ar e no t overjoye d whe n Jak e announce s tha t h e has arrange d a n abortion : "Will you be ready at nine?" I asked her. "I'll be ready." "You'll want to come too, won't you?" I asked Joe. "I don't know," he said dully. "I'll decide later." It was as though I'd spoiled something. (Ch. 12) Indeed, Jak e ha s spoile d everything . Whe n h e call s fo r Rennie , sh e an d Joe are just finishing dinner , an d sh e dies from aspiratin g he r vomi t afte r the Docto r administer s ether . "Sh e mus t hav e eate n a bi g mea l befor e she came ou t here," observe s the Doctor. "Sh e should've know n better. " Is Rennie a suicide afte r all ? Joe i s not crushe d b y Rennie' s death . Tear s pou r dow n hi s face , "bu t he neithe r sobbe d no r mad e an y kin d o f noise " (ch . 12) . When h e call s

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Jake late r t o as k wha t h e think s abou t things , hi s voic e i s "bright " and "clear. " Rennie' s apparen t fre e choic e o f hi m ha s give n Jo e th e confirmation h e ha s sought , an d he r death , undergon e fo r hi s sake , preserves hi s sens e that hi s solutio n ha s worked . H e i s once agai n livin g in a world o f hi s own , on e tha t i s no longe r vulnerabl e t o th e intrusion s of reality .

Although Jak e i s triumphant i n th e contes t o f ideas , it i s Joe rathe r tha n Jake wh o i s intact a t th e end . When Jo e ask s hi m wha t h e think s abou t things, Jake replies , "God , Joe—I don' t kno w wher e t o star t o r wha t t o do!" "Tear s ra n i n a col d flood dow n m y fac e an d neck , ont o m y chest , and I shook al l over with violent chills " (ch . 12) . Contrast thi s with Joe's reaction t o Rennie' s death . Jak e ha d no t mean t t o kee p hi s promis e t o the Doctor , bu t h e i s drive n b y hi s distres s t o becom e a residen t o f the Remobilizatio n Farm , permanentl y perhaps , lik e th e Doctor' s othe r patients, the ol d me n i n the dormitory . Once h e ha d arrange d th e abortion , Jake reacte d agains t hi s commit ment, wante d t o b e chastened , an d considere d adoptin g a ne w identit y and tryin g t o ""pretend enoug h unit y t o b e a perso n an d liv e i n th e world." Afte r Rennie' s death , thi s i s n o longe r a possibility : " 'We'v e come to o far, ' " I sai d t o Laocoon . 'Wh o ca n liv e an y longe r i n th e world?' " (ch . 12) . A t th e en d o f th e novel , Jak e i s onc e agai n weath erless, devoi d o f emotion . Havin g retreate d fro m hi s feelings, h e secure s his tranquillit y b y retreatin g fro m th e worl d an d submittin g himsel f t o the Doctor' s authority . A t the Remobilizatio n Far m h e will n o longe r b e at ris k o f becomin g involve d wit h others , thu s activatin g hi s conflict s and incurrin g self-hate . H e s o distrusts himsel f tha t h e has chosen a kin d of livin g death . Th e las t lin e o f th e nove l suggest s tha t hi s cas e i s "Terminal. "So, o f course , does the title—The End of the Road} Like Dostoevsky's undergroun d man , however, Jake protects his pride by turnin g hi s neuroti c conditio n int o a sourc e o f superiorit y (se e Pari s 1974). The undergroun d ma n admit s t o bein g a n antiher o bu t comfort s himself wit h th e though t tha t "w e ar e al l cripples, every on e o f us , mor e or less. " H e i s bette r tha n th e other s becaus e h e ha s "carrie d t o a n extreme wha t yo u hav e no t dare d t o carr y halfway , an d what' s more , you hav e take n you r cowardic e fo r goo d sense , and hav e foun d comfor t in deceivin g yourselves " (pt . 2 , ch . 10) . Jake als o feel s mor e perceptiv e than hi s fellows. He is paralyzed a t the end because his limbs are "boun d

The End of the Road | 8 1 like Laocoon's—b y th e serpent s Knowledg e an d Imagination , which , grown grea t i n the fullnes s o f time , no longe r temp t bu t annihilate " (ch . 10). Jake canno t liv e i n th e worl d becaus e h e ha s "com e to o far" ; h e i s more highl y evolve d tha n th e others , mor e gifted—an d cursed—wit h knowledge an d imagination . Thos e wh o ca n liv e in th e worl d ar e short sighted creature s wit h simple-minde d belief s wh o d o no t perceiv e th e bewildering complexit y o f life . A s i s frequen t i n th e detache d solution , both Jak e an d th e undergroun d ma n consol e themselve s fo r th e empti ness o f thei r existenc e b y takin g prid e i n thei r abilit y t o se e throug h everyone else' s illusions, but the y ar e blin d t o their ow n self-deceptions . When w e loo k a t the m closely , Barth' s characters , too , ar e amenabl e to motivationa l analysis , especiall y fro m a Horneya n perspective . Ou r sense o f wha t i s mimeti c depend s i n par t upo n th e breadt h o f ou r understanding; ofte n character s see m unrealisti c simpl y becaus e w e d o not comprehen d thei r motivation s an d personalities . Bot h psychoana lytic theory an d literatur e enlarg e ou r sens e o f what i s human. Jake, Joe, and Renni e behav e i n extrem e ways , bu t s o d o man y character s i n grea t works o f fiction .

5 "The Clerk' s Tale"

Among th e mos t extrem e character s i n literatur e ar e Walte r and Griseld a i n Chaucer' s "Th e Clerk' s Tale. " Griseld a i s the archetypa l submissive, long-suffering wife , an d Walter goe s to absur d length s to tes t her. No t al l mimetic character s ar e realize d i n the sam e degre e o f detail . We are provided wit h varying amount s o f information abou t suc h thing s as earl y history , famil y relationships , consciou s an d unconsciou s mo tives. O f th e character s I shal l discuss , Pi p an d Jan e Eyr e ar e th e mos t fully rendered . Th e leas t full y draw n ar e Walte r an d Griselda , whos e behavior i s s o bizarr e tha t i t i s usuall y though t t o hav e onl y illustrativ e significance, abou t whic h ther e i s muc h disagreement . However , som e critics hav e see n tha t Chauce r provide s enoug h mimeti c detai l t o invit e motivational analysis , an d I find thes e character s t o b e amenabl e t o a Horneyan approach . Whe n w e se e Walter an d Griseld a i n the contex t o f our discussion s o f Torval d an d Nora , Jo e an d Rennie , the y becom e recognizably huma n an d no t jus t embodiment s o f medieva l idea s abou t womanhood, marriage , an d th e relatio n betwee n Go d an d hi s subjects . Indeed, i t i s becaus e thes e character s ar e mimeti c a s wel l a s illustrativ e that thei r emblemati c function s ar e s o difficult t o define . Although "Th e Clerk' s Tale " i s commonl y though t o f a s th e stor y o f patient Griselda , Walter i s also important , an d w e mus t understan d hi m if w e ar e t o gras p th e dynamic s o f thei r strang e relationship . Wh y doe s Walter, marqui s o f Saluzzo , th e highes t bor n ma n i n Lombardy , choos e to marr y Griselda , daughte r o f th e poores t o f hi s lieg e men ? An d why , after th e marriage , doe s h e tak e Griselda' s childre n awa y fro m her , leading her to believ e that h e has ordered the m to b e murdered, an d the n pretend t o cas t he r of f i n orde r t o we d a high-bor n woman ? H e say s h e did thes e thing s "Fo r n o malice , no r fo r n o cruelty , / Bu t fo r t'assa y i n thee th y womanhood " (1075-76), 1 bu t thi s seem s feeble , an d th e alle gorical interpretation s o f hi s behavio r ar e problematic . Walter' s testin g of Griseld a i s compared t o God' s testin g o f "wha t H e wrought " ( n 5 2 ) ,

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"The Clerk's Tale" | 8 3 but Walte r i s hardl y comparabl e t o God , sinc e h e i s describe d b y th e Clerk a s obsessive an d cruel . Griseld a ma y b e the idea l obedien t subject , displaying a Job-lik e submission , bu t i t i s difficul t t o defin e Walter' s emblematic significance . The initia l description s o f Walte r indicat e tha t h e i s a ver y detache d person. H e doe s no t conside r th e future , let s seriou s care s slide , follow s his presen t inclinations , an d spend s hi s day s hawkin g an d hunting . H e cannot b e prevailed o n t o marry . A popular bu t heedles s ruler , h e want s nothing t o infring e o n hi s freedom o r t o burde n hi m wit h responsibility . His aversio n t o wedloc k i s disturbin g t o hi s people , sinc e i f h e die s without issu e the y wil l b e rule d b y a strang e successor , an d the y sen d a deputation urgin g hi m t o marry . Knowin g hi s temperament , th e leade r assures hi m tha t wedloc k i s a "blissful l yok e / O f sovereignty , no t o f service" (113-14) . Walte r replie s tha t h e ha s rejoice d i n hi s "liberty , / That seldo m tim e i s found i n marriage ; / Where I was free , I must b e i n servage" (145-47) . Fo r someon e a s sensitiv e t o constrain t a s Walter , marriage i s extremely threatening . He agree s t o marry , however , i f the peopl e wil l accep t hi s conditions . They offe r t o find hi m a wife "Bor n o f th e gentles t an d o f th e mos t / O f all thi s land " (131-32) , bu t Walte r insist s tha t h e wil l mak e hi s ow n choice. If h e i s to forg o hi s libert y fo r thei r sake , h e mus t we d wher e h e wishes. The y mus t no t grumbl e o r striv e agains t hi s decisio n an d mus t give al l hono r t o hi s wife , n o matte r wh o sh e is . Walte r i s no t onl y insisting o n hi s freedo m t o choos e bu t i s als o layin g th e groundwor k for hi s choic e o f Griselda . H e argue s tha t goodnes s come s fro m Go d rather tha n fro m nobl e birt h an d put s his "trus t i n God' s bounty " (159) , giving a n aur a o f piet y t o hi s decision . Walte r seem s t o kno w immedi ately tha t th e onl y wa y h e ca n tolerat e marriag e i s to we d a woma n fa r beneath him . I f h e marrie d th e kin d o f woma n hi s peopl e hav e i n mind , he woul d hav e t o conside r he r wishe s an d b e carefu l o f offendin g he r family. Walter feel s oblige d t o perfor m hi s dutie s whe n presse d bu t doe s no t wish to give up his freedom. H e hopes that choosin g Griseld a wil l enabl e him t o satisf y hi s conflictin g needs . Sh e i s a t th e botto m o f th e clas s hierarchy, while he is at the top. Janicula, his poorest vassal, is reverently obeyed b y hi s daughter , who , a s a female , i s eve n lowe r o n th e socia l ladder. I f Griseld a exalt s he r fathe r b y he r dutifu l submission , wha t might no t Walte r expec t fro m her ? Sh e is a model o f feminin e virtue , a n embodiment o f he r society' s teaching s abou t th e subordinatio n o f

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women. Walte r propose s a bargai n t o Griselda : h e wil l marr y he r an d raise her t o the height s i f she is . . . ready with good heart To all my lust [wishes]; and that I freely may As me best thinketh, do you laugh or smart, And never you to grudge it, night nor day. (351-54)

I believe that Walter i s more concerne d wit h freedo m tha n wit h domina tion, whic h i s but a means t o hi s end . Griselda' s submissio n insure s tha t he can stil l follow hi s whims.

Griselda readil y accept s Walter's conditions, promising "neve r willingly " to disobe y "i n work no r thought " (362-63) . Sh e is as eager t o submerg e herself i n Walte r a s h e i s fo r he r t o d o so . Marriag e t o Walte r i s th e culmination o f her search for glory . The lowest of the low, she transcend s her humbl e positio n b y lovin g virtu e an d cultivatin g mora l perfection . For a woman i n he r societ y thi s means , abov e all , reverent obedienc e t o male authority . A s Janicula's "pearl " o f a daughte r sh e gain s a reputa tion fo r goodness , seriousness, and sagacity , and this , combined wit h he r beauty, catche s Walter' s attention . Hi s proposa l o f marriag e i s th e re ward o f he r virtue . T o her , hi s condition s ar e ligh t becaus e sh e i s prac ticed i n womanly self-effacement . Indeed , the y ar e welcom e becaus e sh e wishes to merg e with hi m a s a way o f participating i n his glory. She feel s vastly inferio r t o Walter , tellin g hi m tha t sh e i s unworth y o f s o muc h honor, bu t sh e eliminate s th e distanc e betwee n the m b y erasin g hersel f completely an d acceptin g hi s will as her own . Like Nora an d Rennie , she seeks t o escap e he r sens e o f inferiorit y an d gratif y he r represse d expan sive desire s b y becomin g on e wit h a powerfu l male . B y abandonin g herself t o Walte r sh e ca n satisf y he r conflictin g need s t o b e bot h humbl e and great . According t o th e term s o f thei r bargain , Griselda' s submissio n bind s Walter t o her : "whe n I sa y 'Yea, ' n e sa y no t 'Nay, ' / Neithe r b y wor d nor frownin g countenance ? / Swea r this , an d her e I swear ou r alliance " (355-57). His testing enables her to solidif y he r clai m to him by showin g that n o matte r wha t h e ask s sh e wil l b e agreeable . Whe n h e announce s that h e mus t tak e awa y he r daughter , sh e i s "no t a-moved " (498 ) an d "not agrieved " (500) : "M y chil d an d I , with heart y obeisance , / Be yours

"The Clerk's Tale" | 8 5 all, and yo u ma y sav e or spil l / Your ow n thing; worketh afte r you r will " (502-4). We can interpre t thi s allegoricall y a s meaning tha t Go d ha s th e right t o d o wha t h e like s wit h hi s creature s o r historicall y a s Griselda' s acceptance o f he r culture' s patriarcha l vie w o f marriage , bu t thes e senti ments ar e als o i n keepin g wit h Griselda' s character . I f Walte r treat s he r as chattel , t o spar e o r kil l a s h e pleases , h e i s acknowledgin g he r a s hi s wife. Sh e possesses hi m b y being possessed . A scen e i n Hardy' s Tess of the d'Urbervilles ma y hel p u s t o under stand thi s triump h throug h submission . Havin g rejecte d Tes s o n thei r wedding night afte r sh e confesses he r affai r wit h Alec d'Urberville, Ange l Clare carrie s he r towar d a rive r whil e sleep-walking , an d Tes s think s that h e ma y b e abou t t o drow n her : "S o easefull y ha d sh e delivere d he r whole bein g u p t o hi m tha t i t please d he r t o thin k h e wa s regardin g he r as hi s absolut e possession , t o dispos e o f a s h e shoul d choose . I t wa s consoling . . . t o fee l tha t h e reall y recognize d he r no w a s hi s wif e Tess , and di d no t cas t he r off , eve n i f i n tha t recognitio n h e wen t s o fa r a s t o arrogate t o himsel f th e righ t o f harmin g her " (ch . 37 ; se e Pari s 1976a) . Angel's regardin g he r a s hi s absolut e possession , who m h e ha s th e righ t to harm , mean s that h e recognizes he r a s his wife, an d Walter' s behavio r has a simila r meanin g fo r Griselda . Bot h wome n fee l vastl y inferio r t o the me n the y ador e an d ar e read y t o sacrific e everything , eve n lif e itself , to th e glory o f bein g united wit h them . Ther e i s something simila r i n th e readiness o f Nor a an d Renni e t o di e for Torval d an d Joe. While Griselda' s behavio r ca n b e interprete d allegorically , i t als o clashes wit h a n allegorica l readin g i f w e loo k a t i t closely . Griseld a proclaims tha t ther e i s nothin g sh e desire s t o hav e "N e drea d t o lose , save only" Walte r (507) , who i s "he r ver y worldly suffisance " (759) . She values Walte r abov e Go d o r he r ow n sou l an d i s read y t o sacrific e he r child i n order t o keep him. Sh e tells her infan t daughter , "thi s night shal l thou die n fo r m y sake " (560) . Thes e sentiment s ar e no t commensurat e with the Clerk' s idealization o f Griselda , o r with most thematic readings , but the y mak e sens e psychologically . Griseld a i s livin g fo r th e worldl y glory tha t Walte r represents , he r nee d o f whic h i s so intense , becaus e o f her bas e positio n perhaps , tha t sh e wil l sacrific e anythin g t o hol d ont o it. Lik e Renni e an d Tess , sh e canno t criticiz e he r husband' s cruelt y because that woul d diminis h th e man o n whom he r glor y depends . Sinc e she believe s tha t Walte r canno t abando n he r a s long a s sh e honor s thei r bargain, he r submissio n give s he r a sens e o f contro l ove r hi m an d he r destiny.

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One o f Walter's conditions i s that whether h e offers "laug h o r smart, " she mus t b e "read y wit h goo d heart " an d neve r sho w " a frownin g countenance" (351 , 353, 356). Griselda swear s neve r t o disobe y i n dee d "or thought " (363) , thus promisin g t o mak e he r innermos t lif e confor m to hi s desires. She so succeeds that the y see m to hav e between the m "bu t one will " (716) . On e o f th e thing s tha t ha s trouble d reader s abou t Griselda an d mad e he r see m unrealisti c i s tha t sh e doe s no t hav e th e emotions tha t woul d b e natura l i n respons e t o th e los s o f he r childre n and Walter' s castin g he r off . A psychological explanatio n woul d b e tha t the emotion s ar e ther e bu t deepl y repressed , sinc e expressin g o r eve n feeling the m would invalidat e Griselda' s bargai n an d cos t her that whic h is deare r tha n life . I n Horneya n terms , sh e ha s a n idealize d imag e o f herself, imbibe d fro m he r cultur e an d refine d b y Walter's demands , tha t generates tyrannica l shoulds . Sh e must b e unmoved an d unaggrieve d n o matter wha t i s inflicted upo n her , o r sh e wil l forfei t he r claims , los e he r glory, and experienc e unbearabl e self-hate . Sh e says she would rathe r di e than disobe y i n deed o r though t thoug h sh e is "loat h t o die " (364) . In late r episode s Griseld a seem s remarkabl y fre e o f anguis h whe n sh e is tested , bu t no t a t first. Sh e doe s no t wee p o r lamen t whe n Walter' s villainous lookin g agen t come s t o tak e awa y he r daughter , bu t sh e beg s to kis s the child befor e i t dies, takes i t into he r lap , lulls it, commends it s soul t o Christ , an d bid s i t a farewel l tha t woul d hav e ren t th e hear t o f a mother o r nurse . Sh e quickl y control s he r emotions , however , an d Wal ter finds he r "A s glad , a s humble, a s bus y i n service , / An d ek e [also ] i n love a s sh e wa s won t t o be " (603-4) . Th e emotio n Griseld a display s when sh e lose s he r daughte r suggest s th e feeling s sh e represse s mor e fully whe n he r so n i s take n awa y an d whe n Walte r divorce s her . Sh e seems unreal , t o b e sure , bu t i t ma y b e th e unrealit y o f a perso n wh o behaves i n a rigidly neuroti c way an d i s not i n touch wit h herself . Although w e se e indication s o f anguis h whe n Griseld a i s first tested , there i s n o displa y o f ange r wit h Walter , sinc e t o blam e hi m woul d no t only violat e he r should s bu t woul d damag e he r imag e o f him , which sh e must preserv e a t al l costs. In King Lear we d o not se e Cordelia's ange r a t her father' s injustic e becaus e t o displa y resentmen t woul d violat e he r idealized image , bu t he r vindictiv e feeling s ar e presen t i n th e pla y an d are acte d ou t b y Goneri l an d Regan . Sh e ca n forgiv e Lea r s o easil y because he r sister s hav e punishe d hi m terribl y fo r hi s mistak e (se e Pari s 1991a). Walte r i s no t punishe d fo r hi s crue l behavior , bu t h e i s repeat edly condemned . Th e resentmen t tha t Griseld a canno t allo w hersel f t o

" The Clerk's Tale" | 8 7 feel i s expresse d b y others . Befor e th e first test , th e Cler k describe s Walter a s obsesse d b y hi s nee d t o tes t Griselda' s constanc y an d declare s that i t i s "evil " "T o assa y a wif e tha t i t i s no need , / An d putte n he r i n anguish an d i n dread " (460-62) . Befor e th e secon d test , h e agai n assert s that Griseld a wa s tempted needlessl y an d observe s that "wedde d me n n e knowen n o measure, / When tha t the y find a patient creature " (622-23) . Walter's subject s ar e appalle d b y th e seemin g murder s o f hi s children , and thei r lov e turn s t o hate . Th e thir d tes t i s deplore d no t onl y b y th e Clerk bu t als o b y Walter's subject s an d b y Janicula, wh o feel s confirme d in hi s expectatio n tha t onc e th e marqui s ha d satisfie d hi s desire s h e would fee l disgrace d b y his low allianc e an d abrogat e it . Griselda's resentmen t doe s i n fac t surfac e whe n Walte r cast s he r off , but i n a n indirec t wa y tha t enable s he r t o preserv e he r idealize d image . She seize s o n hi s statemen t tha t sh e ca n tak e agai n th e dowr y sh e brought wit h her , pointing ou t that i t was onl y her wretched clothe s tha t were wort h nothin g an d woul d b e difficul t t o find. " O goo d God! " sh e exclaims, "ho w gentl e an d ho w kin d / Yo u seemed b y you r speec h an d your visag e / Th e da y tha t make d wa s ou r marriage! " (852-54 ; m y emphasis). Sh e continue s i n a simila r vein , testifyin g t o th e trut h o f th e statement tha t "Lov e i s no t ol d a s whe n tha t i t i s new " (857) . Sh e ma y be excusing Walter b y saying that men ar e like that, bu t there is reproach in he r words . Afrai d tha t sh e ha s violate d he r should s b y complainin g about he r husband , sh e quickl y reaffirm s he r self-sacrificia l devotion , saying tha t sh e would neve r repen t havin g give n Walte r he r hear t what ever the adversity, even if it were death. She resumes her attack, however , by askin g i f he reall y mean s t o d o "s o dishones t [shameless ] a thing " a s to sen d he r hom e naked , lettin g "th e wom b i n which you r childre n lay " be "see n al l bare" (876-79) . It is unlikely that thi s i s what Walte r ha d i n mind, bu t he has provided Griseld a wit h a pretext fo r characterizin g hi m as infamou s an d remindin g hi m o f th e children . Thi s scen e reveal s som e of Griselda' s burie d emotion .

Before w e loo k furthe r a t Griselda' s respons e t o he r ordeals , le t u s consider Walter' s motivations . We have examine d hi s reasons fo r choos ing Griselda , bu t wh y hi s "mervellou s desir e hi s wif e t'assay " (454) ? I t seems tha t afte r hi s marriag e h e need s t o b e reassure d tha t h e ha s no t been tethered , tha t h e ca n stil l d o a s h e pleases . Griseld a ha s give n hi m no caus e fo r complaint , bu t h e canno t b e sur e o f he r submissio n unles s

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he offer s he r woe . Lik e man y detache d people , Walte r compulsivel y needs t o prov e tha t h e i s free. Th e Cler k i s aware tha t h e i s being drive n by emotions ove r which h e has no control : But there been folk of such condition That when they have a certain purpose take, They can not stint of their intention, But, right as they were bounden to a stake, They will not of that first purpose slake. (701-5; my emphasis) Walter ha s stron g reason s fo r takin g awa y th e children , quit e apar t from hi s desir e t o assur e himsel f o f hi s liberty . H e ha d trie d t o resolv e the conflict betwee n hi s need to comply wit h th e wishes o f hi s people fo r a successo r an d hi s nee d t o retai n hi s freedo m b y marryin g a woma n who woul d giv e way t o hi m i n everything . H e i s profoundly uncomfort able, however , a t havin g allie d himsel f wit h someon e s o poo r an d low . His discomfor t i s eviden t i n th e lie s h e tell s Griseld a whe n h e remove s the children . Griseld a ha s performe d splendidl y i n he r loft y position , charming th e people , gainin g fam e fo r he r virtue , an d advancin g th e public good. Hi s subject s hol d Walte r t o b e " a pruden t man " becaus e h e has see n "tha t unde r lo w degre e / Wa s ofte n virtu e hid " (425-27) . Bu t Walter tell s Griseld a tha t hi s nobles regar d i t a s "grea t sham e an d wo e / For t o b e subject s an d b e i n servag e / T o thee , tha n bor n ar t o f a smal l village" (481-83) . H e say s tha t h e i s bein g force d b y th e wil l o f th e people t o tak e awa y he r daughter , presumabl y becaus e th e chil d o f suc h a lowl y mothe r shoul d no t occup y suc h a hig h socia l position . Walte r may hav e invented thi s lie so as not t o appea r crue l ("An d yet , Go d wot , this i s full loat h t o me"—491) , bu t i t also expresses hi s sentiments . With th e birt h o f hi s daughter , Walte r become s acutel y consciou s o f the disparit y betwee n himsel f an d Griseld a an d th e ambiguou s statu s o f their child . H e i s stil l resentfu l o f th e pressur e pu t o n hi m t o marry , which i s one reason wh y h e presents himsel f a s a victim o f coercion , bu t he i s als o ashame d a t havin g degrade d hi s famil y an d faile d i n hi s dut y to his subjects b y siring a child o f suc h bas e descent o n the mother's side . He show s hi s independence o f th e people b y apparently killin g the child , thus frustratin g thei r desir e fo r hi m t o hav e offspring , bu t a t th e sam e time h e satisfie s hi s socia l conscienc e b y sendin g th e chil d t o hi s sister , who will bring her u p a s a lady. Griselda i s socially accomplishe d despit e having bee n "bor n an d fe d i n rudeness" (397) , but Walter ma y b e afrai d

"The Clerk's Tale" | 8 9 that sh e wil l instil l he r lowl y spiri t i n hi s child . H e want s hi s wif e t o b e a doorma t bu t no t hi s daughter . Walter tell s a simila r se t o f lie s whe n h e remove s thei r son : "M y people sickl y bea r ou r marriage ; / And namel y [especially ] sinc e m y so n y-born is " (625-26) . I n realit y th e peopl e hav e rejoice d a t th e birt h o f the child , thankin g an d praisin g God . Accordin g t o Walter , however , there ar e murmuring s tha t whe n hi s reign i s done "The n shal l th e bloo d of Janicl e succee d / An d b e ou r lord " (632-33) . H e present s himsel f a s being harried b y opinions tha t ar e bein g secretly advance d i n his domin ions: "Fo r t o min e ear s come s th e voic e s o smar t / Tha t i t wel l nig h destroyed ha s m y heart " (629-30) . I thin k tha t Walte r is profoundl y disturbed b y these opinions , which ar e no t hi s subjects' bu t hi s own. H e secretly send s hi s so n t o hi s sister' s nobl e household , wher e h e wil l receive a princely education . Hi s preoccupatio n wit h issue s o f clas s ma y be an eve n more powerful motiv e fo r hi s behavio r tha n hi s need t o assa y Griselda. In hi s final test , th e castin g of f o f Griselda , Walte r agai n explain s hi s behavior a s force d upo n hi m b y hi s people . H e di d no t marr y he r fo r "lineage" o r "riches " (795 ) bu t fo r he r goodness , truth , an d obedience . His subjects , however , "m e constrainet h fo r t o tak e / Anothe r wife " (800-801). Walter complain s tha t "i n grea t lordshi p . . . / There i s grea t servitude i n sundr y wise " (797-98 ) an d tha t h e "ma y no t d o a s ever y plowman may " (799)."Thi s i s true , o f course . Hi s positio n ha s accus tomed hi m t o indulg e ever y whim, bu t i t also imposes responsibilitie s b y which h e feels oppressed . H e experience s hi s inner compulsio n t o d o hi s duty a s servitud e an d coercion , leadin g hi s lie s t o tak e th e particula r form tha t the y do . Walter's pretenc e o f divorcin g Griseld a an d betrothin g a highbor n lady i s designe d les s a s a final tes t o f Griselda' s patienc e tha n a s a vindication o f hi s childre n an d himself . Hi s daughte r i s deemed fit t o b e his wife, the people agreeing that "faire r frui t betwee n them shoul d fall , / And mor e pleasan t fo r he r hig h lineage " (990-91) . Thi s tribut e t o hi s daughter i s also, ironically, a tribut e t o hi s wife. Walter' s so n i s likewis e approved b y the populace . Th e tain t o f bein g Janicula's descendant s ha s been remove d fro m th e children , an d the y ca n rightfull y occup y thei r exalted position s henceforth . The y ar e n o longe r half-breeds , s o t o speak, bu t full-fledge d member s o f th e nobility . Th e daughte r marrie s a wealthy lor d an d th e so n succeed s t o th e inheritance . Th e dange r o f th e daughter's bein g too muc h lik e her mother ha s been averted . As Griseld a

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herself warns , th e gir l ha s bee n "fostere d i n he r nourishin g / Mor e tenderly" (1040-41 ) an d mus t no t b e goade d an d trie d a s sh e ha s been . The vindicatio n o f th e childre n vindicate s Walter' s choic e o f Griselda , and, n o longe r tormente d b y guil t an d fea r o f condemnation , h e ca n own he r proudl y a t last . Hi s peopl e ha d give n he r th e hono r h e ha d demanded, despit e he r lo w birth , bu t h e ha d bee n unabl e t o d o s o himself. Onl y no w doe s Walter reliev e Janicula o f hi s poverty an d invit e him t o liv e at the court .

Griselda respond s t o th e los s o f he r so n a s sh e ha d t o th e los s o f he r daughter, excep t tha t sh e suppresse s he r anguis h completel y an d i s eve n more self-abasing . No t onl y doe s sh e assur e Walte r tha t i t doe s no t grieve he r "a t al l / Thoug h tha t m y daughte r an d m y so n b e slai n / A t your commandment " (647-49) , bu t sh e say s tha t i f sh e ha d know n hi s will before h e told i t her, she would hav e done it "withoute n negligence " (661)—presumably meanin g tha t sh e woul d hav e kille d the m herself . "For," sh e continues , "wis t I that m y deat h woul d d o yo u ease , / Righ t gladly woul d I dien , yo u t o please " (664-65) . Viol a make s a simila r statement i n Twelfth Night whe n Duk e Orsin o threaten s t o kil l he r (disguised a s Cesario ) i n orde r t o spit e Olivia : "An d I , most jocund , apt , and willingly , / T o d o yo u res t a thousan d death s woul d die " (5.1.127 28). Lik e Tess , Griseld a an d Viol a conceiv e o f deat h a t th e hand s o f the belove d a s a n ecstati c experienc e o f unio n throug h submission , o f possession b y bein g possessed . "Death, " say s Griselda , "ma y no t mak e no compariso n / Unto you r love " (666-6y). A s lon g a s sh e ha s Walter' s love sh e escape s he r sens e o f unworthiness , participate s i n hi s grandeur , and feel s tha t he r idealize d imag e o f hersel f i s bein g confirmed . Thi s i s more importan t t o he r tha n mer e existence . When Walte r tell s Griseld a that , wit h th e consen t o f th e Pope , h e i s taking anothe r wife , he violates their bargain , bu t Griselda' s self-effacin g defense ca n accommodat e eve n this . Her humilit y ha s bee n he r clai m t o moral grandeur , an d sh e takes refuge i n it when Walter discard s her. He r "poverty" make s n o compariso n wit h hi s "magnificence " (815-16) ; sh e was no t worth y t o b e hi s chambermaid , muc h les s hi s wife . Sh e neve r thought o f hersel f a s "mistress " o f hi s hous e bu t rathe r a s a n "humbl e servant" t o hi s "worthiness " (823-24) . H e ha s no t treate d he r badl y because sh e has n o rights . Walter's behavio r confirm s th e sens e o f inferi ority tha t Griseld a ha s neve r shake n off , an d thi s make s i t easie r fo r he r

"The Clerk's Tale" | 9 1 to reconcil e hersel f t o he r fate . Hi s treatmen t o f he r a s unworth y ha s a value to Griselda , for, a s Horney observes , a morbidly dependen t perso n "craves t o surrende r . . . body an d soul, " bu t ca n d o s o onl y i f her prid e is broken, i f sh e "feels , o r is , degraded" (1950 , 246) . Griselda doe s no t giv e u p he r searc h fo r glory . Sh e continue s t o liv e up t o he r idealize d imag e o f herself , whic h sh e ca n d o independentl y o f Walter, an d sh e continue s t o glorif y him , sayin g tha t sh e wil l alway s think o f hi m "Above n ever y worldl y creature " (826) . W e ma y wonde r why sh e idealize s th e ma n wh o ha s treate d he r s o cruelly , especiall y when sh e ha s los t him , bu t he r behavio r make s psychologica l sense . By reminding he r o f he r lowliness , Walte r reinforce s hi s elevatio n abov e her, inducin g he r t o venerat e hi m al l th e more . Sh e continue s t o exal t him becaus e sh e ca n stil l b e proud , i n he r self-effacin g way , o f having been Walter' s wife . He r glor y i s i n th e past , bu t i t i s glor y nevertheless . She thank s he r Go d an d Walte r "Tha t yo u s o lon g o f you r benignity , / Have holde n m e i n hono r an d noble y [regard] , / Wher e a s I wa s no t worthy fo r t o be " (827-29) . Sh e attribute s th e hono r sh e enjoye d t o Walter's benignit y rathe r tha n t o he r ow n deserts , thu s preservin g he r humility, bu t he r prid e show s throug h nonetheless . Sh e wil l remai n faithful t o hi m a s a wa y o f affirmin g bot h he r virtu e an d hi s exalte d status: "Go d shiel d suc h a lord's wif e t o tak e / Another ma n t o husban d or t o mak e [mate] " (839-40) . B y remaining loyal , sh e will maintai n he r sense of stil l bein g Walter's possession . Thus sh e come s "wit h humbl e hear t an d gla d visage " (949 ) whe n Walter ask s her t o hel p entertain hi s bride , for thi s gives her a n opportu nity t o defin e he r ne w role . Sh e will endeavo r "t o serv e an d please " hi m in he r ow n "degree " (969), fo r n o matte r what , sh e wil l neve r sto p loving hi m best . I a m reminde d o f Desdemona' s statemen t tha t eve n i f Othello shake s he r of f "t o beggarl y divorcement, " sh e will alway s "lov e him dearly" : "Unkindnes s ma y d o much ; / An d hi s unkindnes s ma y defeat m y life , / Bu t neve r tain t m y love " (Othello 4 , 2) . Lik e Desde mona, Griseld a i s determine d t o hol d ont o he r idealize d imag e o f he r husband an d o f hersel f a s the perfect wife . Sh e achieves independenc e o f Walter an d fortun e becaus e sh e wil l alway s worshi p an d lov e him , eve n when h e cause s he r grief . Sh e ha s foun d a n impregnabl e defense , on e similar t o tha t offere d b y a religion tha t preache s unconditiona l submis sion t o th e wil l o f God . I f w e lov e Go d n o matte r what , lif e wil l alway s have meaning an d w e will shar e i n his high magnificence . Although Desdemona' s self-effacin g defens e lead s t o he r deat h (se e

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Paris 1991a) , Griselda's i s successful becaus e Walter ha s always intende d to honor thei r bargai n (h e does not really mean to divorce her an d marr y his daughter) , an d h e i s compelle d b y he r submission . He r childre n ar e restored, untainte d b y her lo w birth , an d sh e and Walter liv e on i n "hig h prosperity" an d "concord " (1128-29) . Griseld a finall y receive s th e con firmation o f he r wort h t o th e pursui t o f whic h sh e ha s devote d he r life . Were sh e to di e this momen t i t would b e nothing , sh e tells he r husband , "Since I stan d i n you r lov e an d i n you r grace " (1091) . He r searc h fo r glory ha s no w trul y succeeded . Th e Cler k ha d sai d tha t Walter' s trial s could onl y produc e evil , bu t the y hav e a ver y positiv e result . Walter' s neurotic need s ar e fulfille d i n th e way s w e hav e seen , an d s o ar e Griselda's. Sh e attain s th e glor y no t onl y o f winnin g Walter' s lov e an d favor bu t als o o f outshinin g al l othe r wives , sinc e sh e wa s teste d most . The Cler k praise s he r humility , comparin g he r t o Jo b an d citin g he r a s an exampl e o f ho w w e shoul d "Receive n al l i n gre e [patience ] tha t Go d us sent" (1151) . One o f th e difficultie s i n analyzin g "Th e Clerk' s Tale " i s that ther e i s ample evidenc e t o suppor t contradictor y readings . Th e tal e ha s bee n interpreted bot h a s a n allegor y abou t th e virtu e o f obedienc e t o Go d o r his huma n representative s an d a s a n ironi c commentar y o n suc h allego ries. Ther e i s a grea t dea l o f rhetori c glorifyin g Griselda , an d i t i s supported b y th e action . He r submissiv e behavio r i s highl y rewarded , whereas sh e woul d hav e los t everythin g ha d sh e complained . Ye t th e Clerk say s tha t i t woul d b e "inportable " [insupportable , unendurable ] for wive s t o "Follo w Grisel d a s i n humility " (1143-44) , an d th e Envo y has s o confuse d reader s tha t som e conten d tha t i t ironicall y praise s Griselda whil e other s argu e tha t i t mock s her . Critic s canno t agre e whether th e tal e i s sayin g tha t wome n shoul d o r shoul d no t b e lik e Griselda. T o m y mind , wha t emerge s fro m "Th e Clerk' s Tale " a s a whole i s ambivalenc e towar d Griselda' s extrem e self-effacement . Sh e exemplifies he r culture' s teachin g abou t idea l womanhoo d an d patien t submission t o authority , bu t sh e an d Walte r ar e tw o sic k peopl e i n a pathological relationship , an d Chauce r seem s to b e aware o f this .

6 The Merchant of Venice

Western literatur e i s ful l o f self-effacin g women , althoug h few s o extrem e a s Griselda ; but , a s Horne y observed , "self-effacemen t has nothin g t o d o wit h femininit y no r aggressiv e arroganc e wit h mascu linity. Both ar e exquisitel y neuroti c phenomena " (1950 , 247) . Horney i s talking abou t essentia l femininit y an d masculinity , o f course, which hav e yet t o b e defined , a s oppose d t o culturall y constructe d gende r identities . Our cultur e favor s submissivenes s i n women an d aggressivenes s i n men , but eve n s o ther e ar e stil l plent y o f dominan t wome n an d self-effacin g males, both i n life an d i n literature. In Shakespeare, for example , Marga ret an d Eleano r i n th e Henry VI plays , Tamor a i n Titus Andronicus, Elinor an d Constanc e i n King John, Goneri l an d Rega n i n King Lear, Lady Macbet h i n Macbeth, an d Volumni a i n Coriolanus ar e ruthless , power-hungry women ; an d ther e ar e other s wh o ar e domineerin g i n their persona l relationships . Beginnin g wit h th e well-meanin g bu t feebl e Henry VI , ther e i s als o a ric h arra y o f self-effacin g men , th e mos t full y developed o f who m ar e th e poe t o f th e sonnets , Antoni o i n The Merchant of Venice, Hamlet , Duk e Vincenti o i n Measure for Measure, An tony i n Antony and Cleopatra, Timo n i n Timon of Athens, an d Prosper o in The Tempest (se e Pari s 1991a , 1991b) . I shal l elaborat e her e o n m y brief treatmen t o f Antoni o i n Bargains with Tate an d als o o n hi s rela tionship wit h Sh y lock. Criticism o f The Merchant of Venice ha s give n remarkabl y littl e attention t o Antonio , despit e th e fac t tha t h e i s th e titl e characte r an d his relationship s wit h Bassani o an d Shyloc k ar e a t th e cente r o f th e play. I n additio n t o bein g th e chie f protagonis t i n th e action , Antoni o exemplifies th e value s celebrate d b y th e play . H e i s presente d a s loyal , generous, unselfish , merciful , th e nobles t ma n "tha t draw s breat h i n Italy" (3.2.294). 1 A psychologica l analysi s o f hi s relationshi p wit h Bassanio show s tha t muc h o f hi s "noble " behavio r i s compulsivel y self sacrificial an d tha t a contradictor y sid e o f hi s personality emerge s i n hi s

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treatment o f Shylock . His defenses an d inne r conflict s ar e reflected i n th e drama a s a whol e an d ar e simila r i n man y way s t o thos e o f th e Shake speare I infer fro m th e play . Like mos t comedies , The Merchant of Venice deal s wit h th e desir e o f lovers fo r union , th e force s tha t bloc k tha t desire , an d th e remova l o f those forces. Critic s usually see Antonio a s a blocking force i n the Portia Bassanio story , bu t I shal l argu e tha t th e centra l lov e relationshi p i s between Antoni o an d Bassanio , tha t th e chie f obstacl e i s Bassanio' s marriage t o Portia , an d tha t th e pla y conclude s happil y fo r Antoni o when h e become s par t o f th e Portia-Bassani o relationship . Actually , th e play ha s a n intricat e plo t tha t resolve s th e conflic t betwee n lov e an d friendship i n a wa y tha t include s everyone . Firs t Porti a obstruct s th e Antonio-Bassanio relationship , the n Antoni o obstruct s th e Bassanio Portia relationship , the n al l blockin g force s ar e remove d an d a perma nent triangl e i s established . The opening lines of the play introduce a psychological mystery . Antoni o knows "no t why " h e i s "s o sad " an d reject s th e explanation s o f hi s friends tha t h e i s worrie d abou t hi s merchandise , tha t h e i s i n love , o r that h e ha s to o muc h regar d fo r worldl y prosperity . Th e mos t commo n explanation offere d b y critic s i s tha t h e i s a continent , perhap s uncon scious, homosexua l wh o i s melanchol y becaus e Bassani o want s t o wo o Portia. I find Kare n Horney' s descriptio n o f morbi d dependenc y t o b e useful i n understanding thi s character. As has often bee n noted, Bassani o is simila r t o th e frien d o f th e sonnet s i n hi s highe r socia l status , hi s narcissism, an d hi s shallowness; and Antoni o i s similar t o th e poet i n his self-sacrificial devotion . Whethe r Antoni o ha s a sexua l attachmen t t o Bassanio o r not , h e is clearly the self-effacin g partne r i n the relationship . Like the protagonists o f the tragedies, Antonio is in a state of psychological crisi s a t th e beginnin g o f th e play . H e "onl y love s th e world " fo r Bassanio (2.9.50 ) an d i s threatened wit h th e los s of hi s friend . Antonio canno t admit , o r perhap s eve n feel , th e tru e caus e o f hi s sadness becaus e thi s woul d violat e hi s taboo s agains t selfishnes s an d make hi m fee l unworth y o f love . Instead o f resentin g Bassanio' s interes t in Portia, h e goes to th e opposit e extrem e an d doe s everythin g h e ca n t o facilitate tha t whic h i s making hi m miserable . When Bassani o ask s fo r a loan t o finance hi s courtship , Antoni o assure s hi m tha t hi s "purse, " hi s "person," hi s "extremes t means " (1.1.38 ) ar e a t his disposal, despite th e fact tha t Bassani o i s heavil y indebte d t o hi m alread y an d admit s t o

The Merchant of Venice | 9 5 improvidence. Bassani o doe s hi m "mor e wrong, " h e protests , i n ques tioning hi s "uttermos t / Tha n i f [he ] ha d mad e wast e o f al l [h e has] " (1.1.155-57). Antonio' s fortune s ar e a t sea , bu t h e authorize s Bassani o to rac k hi s credi t "t o th e uttermost " i n orde r t o furnis h himsel f "t o fai r Portia" (1.1.181-82) . Although h e despises Shylock an d doe s not believ e in eithe r lendin g o r borrowin g a t interest , h e wil l ignor e bot h hi s preju dices an d hi s principles fo r th e sak e o f hi s friend. Th e mor e h e sacrifice s in orde r t o hel p Bassani o leav e him , th e noble r hi s love . He eve n risk s a pound o f his flesh i n orde r t o secur e the loan . Antonio i s sad , then , becaus e h e i s losin g th e perso n wh o ha s give n meaning t o hi s life , bu t h e ha s powerfu l taboo s agains t acknowledgin g this directly , eithe r t o Bassani o o r t o himself . Somewha t lik e Hamlet , h e makes hi s complain t indirectly , throug h hi s suffering . Jus t a s Hamle t arouses th e concer n o f Claudiu s an d Gertrud e b y hi s mournfu l de meanor, s o Antonio arouse s th e concer n o f Solani o an d Salerio , who tr y to figure ou t wh y h e i s sad , an d o f Gratiano , wh o finds hi m "marvel lously chang'd " (1.1.76) . Bassani o seem s imperviou s t o Antonio' s state , however, an d begin s immediatel y t o as k hi m fo r money , whic h Antoni o is eage r t o give . Antoni o want s recognitio n o f hi s generosity , bu t Bas sanio seem s to take hi s sacrifices fo r granted , a s Antonio say s he should , and Antoni o canno t asser t hi s claims. The dynamic s o f thi s frustratin g situatio n ar e mad e eviden t i n Saler io's descriptio n o f the parting o f Antonio an d Bassanio : Bassanio told him he would make some speed Of his return; he answered, "Do not do so. Slubber not business for my sake, Bassanio, But stay the very riping of the time; And for the Jew's bond which he hath of me, Let it not enter in your mind of love. Be merry, and employ your chiefest thought s To courtship, and such fair ostent s of love As shall conveniently become you there." And even there, his eye being big with tears, Turning his face, he put his hand behind him, And with affection wondrou s sensible He wrung Bassanio's hand; and so they parted. (2.8.37-49)

Although Solari o tells this story to show that " A kinder gentleman tread s not th e earth " (2.8.35) , there i s a good dea l mor e tha n kindnes s a t wor k

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here. Bassanio's promise of a speedy return seems like a response to Antonio's distress; but Antonio cannot allow his friend t o hurry on his account, for tha t would diminis h his nobility and give him less basis for hi s claims. In tellin g Bassani o no t t o worr y abou t th e Jew' s bond , Antoni o i s re minding him o f it and presentin g himsel f a s happy t o run thi s risk fo r hi s friend. H e displays his grief a t his friend's departur e bu t makes a show of hiding it. Antonio wants Bassanio to see how unhappy he is so that he will appreciate hi s sacrifice, bu t h e also wants hi m to believ e that h e does no t want him to see it so that he will appear to be nobly unselfish . At firs t th e othe r member s o f Antonio' s entourag e respon d t o hi s "nobility" fa r mor e tha n doe s Bassanio , wh o seem s completel y self involved. Althoug h Antonio' s los s o f fortun e afte r pledgin g a poun d o f flesh t o Shyloc k seem s lik e a disaster , i t enable s hi m t o ge t wha t h e wants. H e ha s sough t al l alon g t o bin d Bassani o t o hi m throug h indebt edness, an d h e welcome s thi s opportunit y t o suffe r fo r hi s frien d an d demonstrate hi s love . H e want s t o posses s Bassani o i n th e onl y wa y h e can, b y winnin g hi s eterna l gratitud e fo r thi s las t an d mos t gloriou s sacrifice. Whe n Antoni o i s i n dange r o f losin g hi s life , Bassani o finally pays the tribute fo r whic h h e longs: The dearest friend t o me, the kindest man, The best-condition'd an d unwearied spirit In doing courtesies, and one in whom The ancient Roman honour more appears Than any that draws breath in Italy. (3.2.290-94)

The fac t tha t th e rhetori c o f th e pla y a s a whol e confirm s thi s extrava gant prais e indicate s Shakespeare' s admiratio n o f Antonio' s self-effacin g behavior, whic h resemble s tha t o f th e poe t o f th e sonnet s towar d th e friend (Lewi s 1985 ; Paris 1991a) . At thi s point , Antoni o become s a blockin g forc e i n th e Bassanio Portia story , since Bassanio leaves his bride in an effort t o sav e his friend . He doe s s o wit h Portia' s blessing , befor e th e marriag e i s consummated : "For neve r shal l yo u li e b y Portia' s sid e / Wit h a n unquie t soul " (3.2.303-4). Porti a accord s Antoni o grea t importanc e a s he r husband' s "dear friend " (3.2.289 ) an d says , i n effect , tha t Antoni o mus t b e save d if their lov e is to thrive . In the courtroo m scene , therefore, sh e is seeking to sav e not onl y Antoni o bu t als o her marriage . For hi s part , Antoni o ha s littl e wis h t o b e saved . H e seem s t o hav e

The Merchant of Venice | 97 no interes t i n fulfillin g hi s need s fo r intimac y throug h a heterosexua l relationship, bu t hi s devotio n t o Bassani o connect s hi m t o th e world . When thi s is taken away , he describes himself a s " a tainte d wethe r o f th e flock, / Meetes t fo r death . Th e weakes t kin d o f frui t / Drop s earlies t t o the ground , an d s o let me" (4.1.114-16) . "Wether " i s usually glosse d a s "castrated ram. " Becaus e o f hi s sens e o f defectiveness , Antoni o feel s there t o b e n o plac e fo r hi m i n th e huma n community . H e present s hi s breast t o Shylock' s knif e an d "beseech[es ] th e cour t / To give judgment " (4.1.241-42).

Antonio doe s no t simpl y wan t t o die , however ; h e want s t o d o s o i n the presence o f hi s friend : "Pra y Go d Bassani o com e / To se e me pay hi s debt, an d the n I car e not! " (3.3.35-36) . H e write s t o Bassani o sayin g that "al l debt s ar e clear'd " betwee n the m "i f I might bu t se e you a t m y death. Notwithstanding , us e your pleasure . I f your lov e d o no t persuad e you t o come , le t no t m y letter " (3.2.316-19) . Thi s strang e messag e contains bot h a bribe—th e forgivenes s o f debts—an d a n appea l fo r love. Antoni o ha s bee n tryin g t o bu y Bassanio' s lov e al l along , bu t h e has neede d t o fee l tha t Bassani o love s hi m fo r himself . No w h e bot h offers Bassani o a financial inducemen t t o witnes s hi s deat h an d struc tures hi s messag e i n suc h a wa y tha t h e ca n interpre t hi s presenc e a s a free expressio n o f love . Hi s bargai n ha s bee n tha t i f h e make s grea t sacrifices fo r hi s friend , Bassani o wil l lov e hi m i n return . Nora , Rennie , and Griseld a hav e simila r bargain s and , lik e Antonio , ar e read y t o di e for thei r love . So far, Antoni o ha s live d u p t o hi s end o f th e bargain , bu t Bassanio ha s not reciprocated . Bassanio respond s t o hi s lette r exactl y a s Antoni o desires . H e leave s Portia, rushe s t o Venice , an d professe s readines s t o d o anythin g fo r hi s friend: "Th e Je w shal l hav e m y flesh , blood , bones , an d all , / Er e tho u shalt los e fo r m e on e dro p o f blood " (4.1.112-13) . Antoni o say s h e i s ready t o di e an d urge s Bassani o "t o liv e still , an d writ e min e epitaph " (4.1.18). By saddling his friend wit h a debt o f gratitude that eve n Portia' s money canno t repay , Antoni o wil l assur e himsel f o f a hallowe d plac e i n his memory . In his farewell speec h to his friend, Antoni o remind s him of his debt — "Grieve no t tha t I a m fall' n t o thi s fo r you " (4.1.264)—an d als o tell s him ho w i t can b e paid : Commend me to your honourable wife; Tell her the process of Antonio's end;

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Say how I lov'd you, speak me fair in death; And when the tale is told, bid her be judge Whether Bassanio had not once a love. (4.i.271-75)

After Antoni o give s hi s lif e fo r hi s friend , eve n Porti a wil l hav e t o acknowledge th e superiority o f his love. Because o f the lengths t o whic h he is willing to go for Bassanio , Antonio feel s tha t h e deserves to be first in hi s friend' s affections , an d hi s bargai n finally work s whe n Bassani o honors thi s claim : Antonio, I am married to a wife Which is as dear to me as life itself; But life itself, my wife, and all the world Are not with me esteem'd above thy life. I would lose all, ay, sacrifice them all Here to this devil, to deliver you. (4.1.280-85)

Antonio canno t wis h fo r mor e tha n this , sinc e hi s friend i s expressing a readiness t o d o hi s uttermos t simila r t o wha t h e himsel f ha s bee n ex pressing al l along . Hi s extrem e gestur e ha s bee n reciprocated . Bassani o is prepare d t o sacrific e no t onl y hi s lif e bu t Porti a a s well . Nothin g i s more importan t t o him than Antonio . After h e i s free d a s a resul t o f Portia' s lega l maneuver , Antoni o seeks a reaffirmatio n o f hi s primacy . Whe n Bassani o insist s tha t Porti a (disguised a s th e lawye r Balthasar ) accep t "som e remembrance " (4.1.420), sh e asks fo r th e ring tha t sh e gave Bassani o a s a token o f her love (3.2.171-85) , motivated, perhaps , by her own need fo r reassurance . Bassanio refuses , explainin g tha t th e rin g wa s give n hi m b y hi s wife , who mad e hi m vo w tha t h e "shoul d neithe r sel l no r giv e no r los e it " (4.1.441); bu t afte r Balthasa r leaves , Antoni o persuade s Bassani o t o change hi s mind : "Le t hi s deservings , an d m y lov e withal , / B e value d 'gainst you r wife' s commandement " (4.1.448-49) . In ac t 4 , Antoni o defeat s Porti a twic e i n th e competitio n fo r first place i n Bassanio' s affections , bu t sh e remain s a s a n obstacl e t o thei r relationship. Indeed, many critics see Portia a s triumphant i n act 5, while Antonio i s lef t a sa d an d lonel y figure. Althoug h i t i s true tha t Portia' s claims ar e reestablished , i t i s als o tru e tha t Antoni o secure s a plac e i n Bassanio's worl d tha t restore s hi s enjoyment o f life . Whe n Porti a casti gates Bassani o fo r givin g awa y he r ring , Antoni o become s uncomfort -

The Merchant of Venice | 9 9 able a t havin g provoke d th e tensio n betwee n husban d an d wife . Neithe r he no r Porti a ca n bea r fo r Bassani o t o b e unhappy , an d bot h ar e to o self-effacing t o cu t of f a riva l o r refus e t o shar e Bassanio' s affection . When th e new s arrive s tha t Antoni o ha s forfeite d hi s bond, Porti a offer s enough gold to "pa y the petty debt twenty times over" an d tells Bassani o to "brin g [his ] tru e friend " bac k wit h hi m (3.3.305-6) . Whe n Antoni o blames himsel f fo r th e quarre l ove r th e ring , Portia trie s to reassur e him : "Sir, grieve not you. You are welcome notwithstanding" (5.1.239) . Some feel thi s t o b e merely a forma l gesture , bu t I think tha t Porti a genuinel y wants t o includ e he r husband' s tru e friend . The reconciliatio n i s brough t abou t b y th e join t actio n o f Porti a an d Antonio. Havin g broke n hi s oat h once , Bassani o ha s difficult y convinc ing hi s wif e tha t h e wil l no t d o s o again , an d Antoni o come s t o hi s rescue: Antonio: I once did lend my body for his wealth, Which, but for him that had your husband's ring, Had quite miscarried. I dare be bound again, My soul upon the forfeit, tha t your lord Will never more break faith advisedly . Portia: The n you shall be his surety. Give him this, And bid him keep it better than the other. Antonio: Here , Lord Bassanio. Swear to keep this ring. (5.1.249-56)

Just a s h e ha d mad e Bassanio' s courtshi p possibl e b y riskin g hi s body , Antonio no w cement s th e marriag e b y risking hi s soul . He i s once agai n doing hi s "uttermost, " employin g hi s "extremes t means, " t o furthe r th e happiness o f his friend. Sinc e his soul is far mor e valuabl e than hi s body , his gestur e i s al l th e nobler . Portia' s acceptanc e o f tha t gestur e end s he r quarrel wit h Bassani o an d give s Antonio a positio n o f grea t importanc e in the marriage, sinc e it is not onl y the rin g but als o Antonio's bon d tha t joins husban d an d wife . Porti a ha s neve r wishe d t o defea t Antonio , fo r she doe s no t believ e tha t he r marriag e ca n thriv e unles s he r husban d i s faithful t o hi s friend . At th e beginnin g o f th e pla y Antoni o tell s Gratian o tha t th e worl d i s "A stage , wher e ever y ma n mus t pla y a part , / An d min e a sa d one " (1.1.7 8-79). Hi s par t i s sa d becaus e h e ca n neithe r marr y no r for m a permanent relationshi p wit h Bassanio , bu t h e is remarkably fortunat e i n his friend's wif e an d become s par t o f th e famil y a t th e end . Hi s proble m has bee n resolve d a s wel l a s i t possibl y coul d be . Ther e i s a fallin g of f

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from th e triumphs o f ac t 4, but n o on e i s ever treated a s well a s when h e is facin g death . Antoni o ha s ha d hi s proo f o f Bassanio' s love . Whe n Antonio learn s o f th e safet y o f hi s ships , h e respond s enthusiastically : "Sweet lady , yo u hav e give n m e lif e an d living " (5.1.286) . Thi s i s i n marked contras t t o hi s demeano r i n ac t 1 , whe n hi s wealt h gav e hi m no pleasure . H e ca n enjo y th e restoratio n o f hi s fortun e becaus e hi s psychological crisi s has bee n resolved .

Antonio is , lik e Shylock , a characte r whos e psychologica l complexit y tends to subver t hi s functions i n the play. Shylock i s rendered to o vividl y as a wronge d an d suffering huma n bein g t o b e simpl y a symbo l o f vindictiveness an d gree d o r th e stoc k villai n whos e discomfitur e i s a source o f delight , whil e Antoni o i s too manipulativ e an d self-destructiv e to b e th e idea l frien d an d gentlema n tha t th e rhetori c presents . Th e play's glorificatio n o f hi m i s undermined als o b y his conduct t o Shylock , which som e find to be inconsistent with the rest of his character. Antoni o is drive n b y tw o intens e emotions—lov e o f Bassani o an d hatre d o f Shylock—both o f whic h evok e a kindre d response . Muc h attentio n ha s been give n t o Shylock' s sid e o f th e relationshi p bu t littl e t o Antonio's . An understanding o f the interaction betwee n these two characters illumi nates the m both . Antonio's behavio r towar d Shyloc k i s depicte d mostl y throug h Shy lock's complaints whe n Antonio' s reques t fo r a loan free s hi m to expres s his resentment . "Man y a tim e an d oft " Antoni o ha s berate d hi m abou t his "money s an d [his ] usances " (1.3.101-3) . H e ha s calle d hi m "misbe liever, cutthroa t dog, " ha s "spe t upo n [his ] Jewis h gaberdine, " ha s "foot[ed him ] a s yo u spur n a strange r cu r / Ove r you r threshold, " an d has "void[e d his ] rheu m upo n [his ] beard " (1.3.106-14) . When Shyloc k asks i f "fo r thes e courtesies " (1.3.123 ) h e i s expecte d t o len d money , Antonio replies : " I a m a s lik e t o cal l the e s o again , / T o spe t o n the e again, t o spur n the e too " (1.3.125-26) . H e urge s Shyloc k t o len d th e money no t a s t o a frien d bu t a s t o a n "enemy , / Wh o i f h e break , tho u mayst wit h bette r fac e / Exac t th e penalty " (1.3.130-32) . I n vie w o f hi s need t o sacrific e fo r Bassanio , w e ca n understan d wh y Antoni o invite s Shylock's harshness , bu t a s Shyloc k says , he calle d hi m "do g befor e [h e had] a cause " (3.3.6) , an d w e mus t as k wh y "goo d Antonio " (2.8.25 ) treats Shyloc k wit h suc h unprovoke d cruelt y i n the first place . The answer, I think, i s that Antoni o an d Shyloc k ar e opposite psycho -

The Merchant of Venice | 10 1 logical types , each o f who m represent s wha t th e othe r despise s an d fear s in himself . Antoni o an d Shyloc k hav e mor e i n commo n tha n Antoni o likes t o admit , sinc e bot h ar e engage d i n th e pursui t o f wealt h throug h their investments . Antonio , however , see s himself no t a s acquisitive , bu t as a generou s ma n wh o place s hi s fortun e a t th e disposa l o f hi s friends . He lend s mone y recklessly , withou t interest , an d seem s read y t o forgiv e debts, a s wit h Bassanio . Shyloc k embodie s value s tha t Antoni o con sciously abhor s an d fro m whic h h e distance s himsel f throug h hi s over generous behavio r an d hi s abus e o f Shylock . H e scorn s Shyloc k becaus e seeing anothe r ac t ou t hi s ow n forbidde n impulse s threaten s t o sti r u p those impulse s i n himself an d t o activat e th e self-hat e h e would fee l i f h e allowed himsel f t o behav e a s th e othe r i s doing . Hi s mora l indignatio n reinforces hi s idealize d imag e o f himsel f a s a n uncompetitive , generou s man wh o woul d neve r behav e lik e Shylock . We ca n infe r a hidde n aggressiv e sid e o f Antoni o fro m hi s overreac tion t o Shylock , an d w e ca n se e i t directl y i n hi s abusiv e behavior . Thi s noblest o f me n spurns , kicks, and spit s upo n Shyloc k an d "rails " a t hi m in th e Rialt o (1.3.43) : "H e hat h disgrac' d me , an d hind're d m e hal f a million; laugh' d a t m y losses , mock' d a t m y gains , scorne d m y nation , thwarted m y bargains , coole d m y friends , heate d min e enemies " (3.1.47-50). "Hi s reason, " say s Shylock , i s tha t " I a m a Jew" (3.1.50 51). Antonio doe s no t scor n Shyloc k simpl y becaus e h e i s a Jew, bu t hi s being a Jew free s Antoni o t o ac t ou t hi s aggression . Shylock' s appea l t o a commo n humanit y ("I f yo u pric k us , d o no t w e bleed? " — 3.1.56) i s very muc h t o th e point , eve n thoug h i t i s par t o f hi s justificatio n fo r revenge. Becaus e Shyloc k i s a Jew , Antoni o doe s no t regar d hi m a s a fellow human . H e behave s towar d hi m muc h a s th e equall y "noble " Prospero behave s towar d th e supposedl y subhuma n Caliba n (Pari s 1991a). Antonio abhor s Shylock , then , becaus e Shylock' s arrogant-vindictiv e value syste m (Greenber g 1985 ) clashe s wit h Antonio' s self-effacin g on e and arouse s hi s nee d t o reinforc e hi s repressions . H e feel s fre e t o trea t Shylock wit h scor n becaus e h e doe s no t se e hi m a s par t o f hi s mora l community. Sinc e n o on e blame s hi m fo r baitin g a Jew , hi s idealize d image i s no t a t ris k an d h e i s no t constraine d b y hi s Christia n values . Shylock become s a scapegoat , moreover , o n who m Antoni o ca n inno cently discharg e th e rag e tha t h e feel s towar d hi s Christia n brethren . Antonio i s s o frustrate d b y Bassanio' s behavio r tha t h e i s i n despai r about hi s life , bu t h e canno t expres s resentmen t towar d hi s friend .

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Instead, h e bend s ove r backwar d t o b e "th e ultimat e o f helpfulness , generosity, considerateness , understanding , sympathy , love , an d sacri fice" (Horne y 1950 , 220). He manage s hi s ange r partl y b y turnin g i t against himsel f an d feelin g depressed , eve n suicidal , an d partl y b y dis placing it onto Shylock , whom h e eventually destroys . Given th e insultin g wa y h e ha s bee n treated , i t i s n o wonde r tha t Shylock hate s Antonio . Ther e ar e practical reason s a s well, sinc e Anto nio's generosit y deprive s hi m o f customers , deliver s debtor s "fro m hi s forfeitures" (3.3.22) , an d bring s "th e rat e o f usance " dow n i n Venic e (1.3.40). A les s eviden t bu t equall y powerfu l motiv e fo r Shylock' s ani mosity i s that h e is psychologically threatene d b y Antonio, eve n more , perhaps, tha n Antoni o i s threatene d b y him . Antoni o represent s a n opposite set of values by which Shyloc k stand s condemned. His constant railing agains t Shylock' s busines s practice s threaten s t o rous e Shylock' s self-effacing tendencie s an d expose hi m to self-condemnation . Shylock' s elaborate justificatio n o f chargin g interest—throug h th e story o f Jaco b and Laba n (1.3.66-85)—indicate s inne r conflicts , an d he defend s him self, lik e Antonio , b y scorning th e character an d behavio r o f his adver sary. Antoni o i s a fool wh o does no t understand th e ways o f the world ; in his "low simplicity" he "lends out money gratis " (1.3.38-39) . Shyloc k gets Antoni o t o agre e t o hi s "merr y bond " (1.3.168 ) b y imitatin g hi s self-effacing behavior : " I woul d b e friend s wit h yo u an d hav e you r love, / . . . Supply you r presen t wants , an d take n o doi t / O f usanc e fo r my moneys " (1.3.133-36) . Sinc e Antoni o himsel f use s mone y t o bu y love, h e i s take n i n b y Shylock : "Th e Hebre w wil l tur n Christian : h e grows kind " (1.3.173) . No t havin g Antonio' s blin d spot , Bassani o i s more skeptical . Shylock show s n o merc y t o Antoni o i n par t becaus e h e need s t o demonstrate tha t hi s way is right. H e needs to show ho w Antonio's self effacing behavio r ha s le d t o hi s downfall , muc h a s Iag o mus t destro y Othello, Cassio , an d Desdemon a i n orde r t o justif y himsel f (Pari s 1991a). Shyloc k canno t sho w mercy , moreover , withou t hatin g himsel f for behavin g lik e thos e who m h e scorns : "I'l l not b e mad e a sof t an d dull-ey'd fool , / T o shak e th e head , relent , an d sigh , an d yiel d / T o Christian intercessors " (3.3.14-16) . I f Shyloc k allowe d hi s self-effacin g side to emerge, he would b e caught i n a cross-fire o f conflicting shoulds . His arrogant-vindictiv e sid e woul d despis e hi s foolish softness , an d his self-effacing sid e would condem n hi s entire way of life. It is not only his hatred o f Antoni o bu t hi s drea d o f self-contemp t tha t make s hi m s o

The Merchant of Venice | 10 3 intransigent. I n seekin g t o cu t ou t Antonio' s heart , Shyloc k i s tryin g t o cut ou t th e las t o f hi s ow n self-effacin g tendencies .

Shylock lose s our sympath y whe n h e insists o n hi s bond, despit e Bassan io's offer s o f mone y an d Portia' s ple a fo r mercy . He justifie s hi s behavio r by a perfectionistic , Ol d Testamen t appea l t o th e law . Whe n Porti a ask s how h e can expect merc y if he renders none, Shylock replie s that h e doe s not nee d merc y becaus e h e ha s don e n o wrong . Th e conflic t i s not onl y between merc y an d revenge , bu t als o betwee n merc y an d justice ; an d here, a s i n Measure for Measure an d elsewhere , Shakespear e favor s self-effacing value s ove r perfectionisti c one s (Pari s 1991a) . Merc y mus t season justic e becaus e "i n th e cours e o f justice , non e o f u s / Shoul d se e salvation" (4.1.197-98) . Shyloc k i s found t o b e deficien t i n bot h merc y and justic e an d ca n b e savagely punishe d a s a result . The Merchant of Venice dramatizes th e threa t o f th e arrogant-vindic tive perso n b y whic h Shakespear e seem s t o hav e bee n haunte d an d glorifies th e self-effacin g Antonio , wh o ha s muc h i n commo n wit h th e Shakespeare w e infe r fro m hi s writing s (se e Pari s 1991a) . Th e pla y i s about greedy , vindictiv e character s an d unselfish , forgivin g ones , an d about whic h se t o f character s i s goin g t o prevail . Bassani o win s Porti a because h e choose s th e lea d casket , whic h stand s fo r sacrifice , whil e hi s competitors choos e silve r an d gold . I t look s a s thoug h Antoni o wil l b e destroyed a s a resul t o f hi s generosity , bu t Shyloc k i s undon e b y hi s vindictiveness instead . I n a last-minut e reversal , Antoni o i s rescued an d experiences enormou s triumphs—economic , moral , and emotional . Thi s is a wish-fulfillment fantas y i n which th e self-effacin g strateg y works . The various defensiv e strategie s are related t o each other a s they were, I suspect , i n Shakespeare' s personality . Th e arrogant-vindictiv e solutio n is disowned an d punished , an d th e self-effacin g an d perfectionisti c solu tions ar e favored , wit h th e forme r bein g superio r t o th e latter . Ther e i s much aggression , however, i n the characters an d i n the author. Shylock' s vindictiveness i s condemned , bu t i t i s als o mad e understandabl e a s a reaction t o havin g bee n wronged . Antonio' s aggressio n come s ou t i n hi s behavior towar d Shylock , wher e i t ca n b e expresse d withou t violatin g his self-effacin g shoulds . A s I have trie d t o sho w i n Bargains with Fate, the Shakespear e w e ca n infe r fro m th e play s i s a predominantl y self effacing perso n who i s constantly lookin g for way s to express his sadisti c and vindictiv e impulse s withou t violatin g hi s stronge r nee d t o b e nobl e

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and lovin g (Pari s 1991a) . His solutio n i s to creat e situation s tha t permi t disguised o r justifie d aggressio n an d innocen t revenge , a s h e doe s fo r Antonio. The pla y a s a whol e support s Antonio' s behavior . Becaus e Shyloc k has refuse d t o b e merciful , Antoni o an d other s ca n trea t hi m wit h grea t cruelty a t th e end . Thei r vindictivenes s i s conceale d b y th e fac t tha t Shylock seem s t o hav e deserve d hi s fate , tha t i t i s les s sever e tha n th e law allows , an d tha t i t i s bein g mete d ou t i n th e nam e o f mercy . Porti a encourages Shylock' s insistence o n his bond b y giving him the impressio n that th e la w i s o n hi s side , an d afte r sh e spring s th e trap , sh e refuse s t o allow him to relinquish hi s claim. According to the law, Shylock's wealt h is forfeit an d hi s life i s at th e merc y o f th e Duke , bu t hi s life an d hal f hi s wealth ar e spare d whe n h e accede s to Antonio' s deman d tha t h e conver t to Christianity . He say s he is "content" (4.1.392) , but h e leaves the stag e a broke n man : " I pra y yo u giv e m e leav e t o g o fro m hence . / I a m no t well" (4.1.393-94) . "I f a Je w wron g a Christian, " Shyloc k ha d asked , "what i s hi s humility ? Revenge " (3.1.59-60) . Despit e Portia' s glorifica tion o f merc y an d th e appearanc e o f generou s treatment , th e pla y bear s out Shylock' s observation . Shakespeare' s rhetori c conceal s thi s fro m u s because, lik e hi s characters , h e i s at onc e celebratin g self-effacin g value s and enjoyin g disguise d an d justifie d aggression .

7 Antigone

The conflic t betwee n Creo n an d Antigon e i s usuall y consid ered i n themati c terms , a s a contes t betwee n th e claim s o f th e stat e an d those o f family , religion , an d conscience . Creo n prohibit s th e buria l o f Polyneices because , i n hi s view , enemie s o f th e stat e ar e wicke d an d should no t receiv e honor s tha t belon g t o it s friends . Antigon e believe s that sh e has a dut y t o bur y he r brothe r whic h take s precedenc e ove r th e dictates o f a ruler . Th e pla y vindicate s Antigon e an d teache s Creo n th e error o f his ways, but to o lat e to preven t a tragic outcome . The pla y i s no t jus t abou t themati c issues , however . I n additio n t o being illustrative, Creon an d Antigone ar e also mimetic characters whos e behavior ca n b e understoo d i n motivationa l terms . Creon' s forbiddin g the buria l o f Polyneice s ha s psychologica l sources , a s doe s Antigone' s ready embrace o f her martyrdom. Creo n an d Antigone have complemen tary needs . H e provoke s he r defianc e i n orde r t o establis h hi s authority , while sh e welcomes hi s edic t becaus e i t allow s he r t o escap e he r despai r and achiev e a glorious end . Creon deserve s a s muc h attentio n a s Antigone , fo r h e precipitate s th e action an d i s undone b y his mistakes, like the typica l tragic hero . He ha s all an d lose s everything . Fro m a themati c poin t o f vie w h e illustrate s certain failing s a rule r shoul d avoid , an d fro m a psychologica l perspec tive hi s neuroti c behavio r bring s abou t th e destructio n o f al l th e majo r characters. We mus t distinguis h betwee n Creon' s philosoph y o f government , which receive s som e suppor t fro m th e chorus , an d hi s edic t concernin g Polyneices, whic h i s criticize d throughou t th e play . Creo n argue s tha t since th e welfar e o f th e individua l require s orde r i n th e state , th e rule r should hav e absolut e power : "Th e ma n th e stat e ha s pu t i n plac e mus t have / obedient hearin g t o hi s least command / when i t is right, an d eve n when it' s not" 1 (665-67) . Onl y thos e wh o accep t thi s ca n b e trusted .

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The greates t wron g i s disobedience , whic h "ruin s cities, " "tear s dow n our homes, " an d "break s th e battle-fron t i n panic-rout" (673-74) . Creon's edic t forbiddin g th e buria l o f Polyneice s doe s no t necessaril y follow fro m th e valu e h e place s o n orde r an d obedience , bu t i s justifie d on th e ground s tha t th e wicke d an d th e goo d shoul d no t "dra w equa l shares" (520) . Onl y thos e wh o ar e "well-minde d t o th e state " shoul d have "honor " i n "deat h an d life " (209-10) . Eteocles , wh o die d de fending Thebes , deserve s "al l hol y rite s w e giv e th e nobl e dead " (198) , but Polyneice s shoul d b e left "disgraced , / a dinne r fo r th e bird s an d fo r the dogs " (206-7) . Antigone contend s tha t Creon' s conceptio n o f justic e does no t correspon d t o tha t o f th e gods , wh o prescrib e "equa l la w fo r all th e dead " (519) . Th e rhetori c o f th e pla y clearl y support s Antigone . Since Creon's edic t i s out o f keepin g with th e prevailing religiou s beliefs , we must as k why h e issues suc h a divisive command . Thematically, Creo n i s presente d a s bein g guilt y o f hubris , sinc e he , "a morta l man, " trie s t o "over-ru n / th e gods ' unwritte n an d unfailin g laws" (454-55) . Thes e ar e Antigone' s words , bu t the y ar e echoe d b y Haemon ("Yo u tre d dow n th e gods ' due"—745 ) an d b y Tiresia s ("Yo u rob th e nethe r god s o f wha t i s theirs " —1074). Th e final choru s drive s the poin t home : "Th e god s mus t hav e thei r due . / Grea t word s b y me n of prid e / brin g greate r blow s upo n them " (1349-51) . Fille d wit h th e pride o f bein g king , Creo n exceed s hi s authority, tryin g t o rul e where h e should obey . This vie w o f hi s behavio r i s supported b y mimeti c detail . When h e i s named rule r o f Thebe s o n th e deat h o f th e son s o f Oedipus , Creo n becomes obsesse d wit h powe r an d command . H e himsel f say s tha t w e "cannot lear n o f an y ma n th e soul , / th e mind , an d th e inten t unti l h e shows / hi s practic e o f th e governmen t an d law " (175-77) . Hi s practic e of governmen t reveal s a grandiosit y tha t ma y neve r hav e emerge d ha d he no t becom e king . H e make s th e stat e suprem e i n th e live s o f it s citizens and himself suprem e in the state. He wants to be unquestioningl y obeyed an d wil l no t tak e advice , eve n fro m Tiresias . Whe n th e latte r calls him tyrant , h e haughtily replies , "D o yo u realiz e you ar e talkin g t o a king? " (1058) . Haemo n warn s hi m tha t "N o cit y i s the propert y o f a single man, " bu t Creo n insist s tha t "custo m give s possessio n t o th e ruler" (737-38) . Intoxicate d b y th e loftines s o f hi s position , Creo n fail s to recogniz e hi s human fallibilit y an d th e limit s o f hi s authority . Hungr y for glory , he makes irrationa l claims .

Antigone | 10 7 A closer look a t Creo n reveals , however, tha t accompanyin g hi s gran diosity i s an insecurit y abou t hi s abilit y t o govern . W e d o no t kno w ex actly why Creo n i s insecure. He ha s just ascende d th e throne (i n this ver sion o f th e story ) an d ma y fea r tha t h e wil l no t b e deeme d a worth y successor t o Laiu s an d Oedipus—Antigon e remind s th e citizens that sh e is the "last of your royal line" (941). He may have doubts about his capacity to fulfill th e responsibilities of his office an d to exercise regal authority . Or h e ma y b e insecur e becaus e h e i s pursuin g a n impossibl e drea m o f glory an d fear s tha t hi s illusor y grandeu r wil l b e puncture d b y reality . Creon seems caught in a vicious circle in which his grandiosity and insecurity heighte n eac h other , i t bein g impossibl e t o sa y whic h come s first. Whatever th e reaso n fo r Creon' s insecurity , hi s irrationa l behavio r throughout th e pla y indicate s tha t h e expect s opposition , fear s hi s ow n weakness, and need s to assert himself forcefull y a s a way of gaining reassurance. Althoug h h e insist s o n absolut e power , h e i s afrai d tha t other s will not accede to his demands, and he feels extremely vulnerable . Creon's edic t concernin g Polyneice s seem s devise d a s a tes t o f hi s subjects' loyalty and obedience . His council (th e chorus) ha s been chose n from peopl e wh o ha d bee n "constant " (165 ) t o Laiu s an d Oedipus , an d Creon want s the m t o sho w thei r constanc y t o hi m b y assentin g t o hi s controversial decision . Intimidated , the y giv e hi m wha t h e want s b y saying that h e "ca n mak e suc h ruling s a s [he ] will / abou t th e livin g an d about th e dead " (213-14) . However, whe n the y hear tha t th e corpse ha s been buried , the y wonde r i f thi s actio n i s no t "possibl y a god's " (279) . Creon react s wit h rage , callin g the m "insane " (281) , becaus e thi s re sponse question s hi s edict an d show s tha t the y reall y fee l i t to hav e bee n wrong. H e i s convince d tha t th e dee d ha s bee n don e b y thos e wh o "growled against " hi s command bu t "hi d th e fac t tha t the y were rearin g back, / not rightl y i n the yoke , no wa y m y friends " (291-93) . In Creon' s mind, peopl e ar e eithe r friend s o r enemies , goo d o r wicked , obedien t o r rebellious, an d hi s edic t ma y b e intende d i n par t t o sor t the m out . I n order t o determin e who i s "rightl y i n the yoke," i t is necessary to impos e it. H e confirm s hi s ow n anxietie s b y provokin g disobedienc e an d the n tries to quie t them b y exercising his power . Creon's behavio r throughou t th e play i s that o f a n emotionall y unsta ble ma n wh o fear s externa l oppositio n an d interna l weakness . I n hi s desperate nee d t o assur e himsel f an d other s o f hi s potency , h e react s defensively i n ever y situatio n an d make s a serie s o f terribl e mistakes .

I 0 8 ANTIGONE

After h e recognizes his errors, Creon say s that "i t was a god" wh o drov e him "t o wil d / strang e ways " (1271-73) , an d th e choru s observe s tha t the " 'ba d become s th e goo d / t o hi m a go d woul d doom ' " (621-22) . From a moder n perspective , i t i s no t th e god s bu t Creon' s fear s an d compulsions tha t doo m him . When th e guar d arrive s wit h wor d tha t Polyneice s ha s bee n buried , Creon immediatel y jump s t o the conclusion tha t hi s enemies have bribe d the sentinel s t o disobe y hi s order , thu s assimilatin g th e even t int o hi s paranoid scenario . H e accuse s th e guar d o f havin g sol d hi s "min d fo r money" (322 ) an d show s hi s powe r b y threatenin g hi m wit h a terribl e fate. Thi s i s no t a n isolate d incident . Jus t befor e th e guar d arrived , h e had warne d th e choru s "no t t o tak e side s wit h an y wh o disobey " hi s edict (219) , risking their live s for "hop e of profit" (222) . He later accuse s Tiresias o f pleadin g " a shamefu l cas e . . . i n hop e o f profit " (1047) . Creon i s prone t o believ e that peopl e ar e conspirin g agains t him , an d h e defends himsel f agains t feeling s o f persona l inadequac y b y attributin g their behavio r t o greed . Hi s complain t agains t Tiresia s i s absurd, bu t h e can ignor e th e seer' s criticism s b y callin g hi m "money-mad " (1055) . When Antigon e i s brough t bac k a captive , Creo n dismisse s he r charg e that h e ha s pridefull y ignore d th e la w o f th e god s an d accuse s he r an d Ismene o f bein g "secre t plotters " (494 ) agains t th e throne . Creon i s compulsivel y drive n t o condem n Antigon e t o death , a n ac t that wil l destro y hi s famil y an d hi s reign . H e mus t prov e tha t h e place s the stat e abov e bond s o f kinship , a s h e ha s require d other s t o do , an d fears tha t h e wil l los e fac e i f h e doe s no t carr y ou t hi s threa t t o execut e anyone wh o disobey s hi s edict . Hi s nee d t o punis h Antigone' s "inso lence" (480 ) i s al l th e greate r becaus e sh e i s a woman : " I a m n o ma n and sh e th e ma n instea d / i f sh e ca n hav e thi s conques t withou t pain " (485-86). Creon ha s a profound fea r o f bein g perceived a s weak. He ha s an idealized imag e o f himself a s a masterful leade r who ca n easil y "brin g raging horse s bac k t o terms " (478 ) an d a despise d imag e o f himsel f a s an impoten t ma n wh o i s no t respecte d an d canno t impos e hi s rule . T o allow Antigon e to ge t the bette r o f him would expos e hi m to unbearabl e self-hate: "N o woma n rule s m e whil e I live " (526) . T o b e rule d b y Antigone i s to b e weaker eve n than a female . The lon g speec h t o Haemo n (639-80 ) i n whic h Creo n present s th e most impressiv e argument s fo r hi s philosoph y o f governmen t end s o n a similar not e o f persona l anxiet y an d defensiveness :

Antigone | 10 9 I must guard the men who yield to order, not let myself be beaten by a woman. Better, if it must happen, that a man should overset me. I won't be called weaker than womankind. (675-80) Haemon respond s b y defendin g Antigone' s behavio r ("Isn' t he r rea l desert a golden prize ? — 699) an d warnin g hi s father no t t o b e rigid, bu t Creon's prid e wil l no t allo w hi m t o b e counsele d b y a youth , an d give n his fea r o f bein g weake r tha n a woman, nothin g Haemo n ca n sa y coul d change hi s father' s mind . Whe n Haemo n tell s hi m tha t h e i s treadin g "down th e gods ' due, " Creo n call s hi m "weake r tha n a woman " (745 46), an d whe n h e describe s hi s fathe r a s mad, Creo n call s hi m a "wom an's slave " (756) . He order s Antigon e t o b e brought ou t s o that sh e ma y die i n Haemon' s "sight , clos e a t he r bridegroom' s side " (760) , bu t Haemon storm s off , tellin g Creo n tha t h e wil l neve r se e hi s fac e again . Creon i s s o obsesse d wit h hi s nee d t o maintai n hi s idealize d imag e tha t he is ready t o sacrific e hi s son . Creon encounter s a series of challenge s t o hi s wrong-headedness, firs t from Antigone , the n fro m Haemon , an d finall y fro m Tiresias . Eac h challenge offer s hi m a n opportunit y t o recan t an d sav e himself , bu t instead h e become s mor e determine d t o carr y ou t hi s will . Thematicall y he is presented a s a rigid rule r wh o wil l not liste n t o counsel : "Yo u wis h to speak, " say s Haemon , "bu t neve r wis h t o hear " (757) . Mimeticall y Sophocles show s tha t Creon' s fear s an d compulsion s preven t hi m fro m heeding what anyon e els e has to say . Creon dismisse s Antigone' s word s becaus e sh e i s hi s enem y an d Haemon's becaus e h e i s his son , bu t Tiresia s i s a see r whos e counse l h e should respect . H e tell s Creo n tha t h e ha s mad e mistakes , confirme d b y many ba d omens , but tha t "he' s no foo l / nor ye t unfortunate, wh o give s up hi s stiffnes s / an d cure s th e troubl e h e ha s falle n in " (1025-27) . I f Creon wil l "yiel d t o th e dead " (1029) , ther e i s stil l tim e t o sav e th e situation, bu t instea d h e accuse s Tiresia s o f gree d an d wickedness . H e vows neve r t o "cove r u p tha t corpse . / No t i f th e ver y eagle s tea r thei r food / fro m him , an d leav e i t a t th e thron e o f Zeus " (1040-41) . Creo n submits afte r Tiresia s predict s th e "horrors " tha t "li e i n wait " fo r hi m (1075), but even then onl y with great difficulty, fo r "T o yield is dreadful " (1095).

IIO I

ANTIGONE

Yielding i s so dreadful t o Creo n becaus e it means giving up his claim s and becomin g hi s despise d self . I n hi s effor t t o defen d himsel f agains t the fear s o f inadequac y tha t hav e haunte d him , h e ha s externalize d hi s self-hate (hatin g others instead an d feelin g hate d b y them), has arrogate d to himsel f power s tha t wer e no t rightfull y his , an d ha s insiste d o n hi s absolute rightnes s i n the fac e o f al l opposition . I n this tragedy, a s in life , defenses ironicall y brin g abou t th e ver y thing s tha t ar e feared . Whe n Creon finally yields , it i s too late . Antigone ha s hange d herself , Haemo n kills himself afte r tryin g t o murde r hi s father, an d Creo n i s flooded wit h self-condemnation: " O crime s o f m y wicke d heart , / harshnes s bringin g death. / Yo u se e th e killer , yo u se e th e ki n h e killed " (1261-63) . Afte r his wif e commit s suicide , cursin g hi m "a s th e kille r o f he r children " (1307), Creo n ask s t o b e take n "ou t o f th e sigh t o f men . / I wh o a m nothing mor e tha n nothin g now " (1321) . His aspiratio n t o b e all has le d him t o b e nothing ; hi s effort s t o war d of f self-doub t hav e plunge d hi m into self-hate . H e feel s tha t hi s "lif e i s warpe d pas t cure " (1342 ) an d wishes that someon e woul d kil l him .

Creon's stor y ha s a n educatio n patter n i n which h e learn s tha t "it' s bes t to hol d th e law s / of ol d traditio n t o th e en d o f life " (1113-14 ) an d tha t "to rejec t goo d counse l i s a crime " (1244) . The patter n i s tragic i n tha t he achieve s wisdo m to o lat e t o sav e hi m fro m th e consequence s o f hi s errors. Antigone' s stor y ha s a tragi c vindication patter n i n whic h eve n Creon come s t o recogniz e tha t sh e was right , bu t to o lat e t o preven t he r destruction. A t th e beginnin g o f th e play , Antigon e i s alon e i n he r determination t o bur y Polyneices . Th e choru s woul d approv e he r act , she says , "di d fea r no t mut e them " (505) . A s th e pla y progresse s Anti gone's virtu e i s increasingl y recognize d an d celebrated . Ismen e regret s not havin g joine d her , Haemo n call s he r actio n "glorious " (695) , th e townspeople fee l tha t sh e really deserves " a golde n prize" (699), Tiresia s supports he r position , an d th e choru s celebrate s he r a s godlike. Wherea s Creon begin s a s everythin g an d end s a s nothing , Antigon e i s apotheo sized. We ha d t o as k wh y Creo n issue d a n edic t tha t wa s s o ou t o f keepin g with prevailin g religiou s beliefs . Sinc e Antigone' s behavio r accord s wit h those beliefs , i t ma y see m unnecessar y t o loo k fo r othe r motives , bu t there i s somethin g "wild " an d "strange " abou t Antigon e a s wel l a s about Creon . Whe n Ismen e say s tha t althoug h sh e i s afrai d t o assis t i n

Antigone | 11 1 the ac t o f buria l sh e will kee p i t hidden , Antigon e become s enrage d an d urges he r siste r t o "denounce " her : " I shal l hat e yo u mor e / if silent, no t proclaiming thi s t o all " (86-87) . Sh e doe s no t simpl y wan t t o bur y Polyneices; sh e want s t o b e pu t t o deat h i n th e process . Lif e seem s a burden fro m whic h sh e is eager t o escape : If I die before my time, I say it is a gain. Who lives in sorrows many as are mine how shall he not be glad to gain his death? And so for me to meet this fate, no grief. (461-65)

The questio n w e have t o as k abou t Antigon e i s not wh y sh e "dare[s ] th e crime o f piety " (75 ) bu t wh y sh e feel s tha t "Fo r me , th e doer , deat h i s best" (72) . At th e en d o f th e play , Creo n feel s tha t hi s "lif e i s warped pas t cure " (1342); this seem s to b e Antigone's conditio n fro m th e beginning . I n he r very firs t speech , sh e dwell s o n th e sufferin g sprun g fro m he r father : "There's nothin g grievous , nothin g fre e fro m doom , / no t shameful , no t dishonored, I'v e no t seen " (4-5) . Sh e feel s tha t sh e canno t escap e "th e doom tha t haunt s . . . the roya l hous e o f Thebes " (860-61) , a sentimen t echoed b y th e chorus : "N o generatio n ca n fre e th e next . / On e o f th e gods wil l strike . Ther e i s no escape " (594-95) . He r sorrow s includ e th e past suffering s o f he r family , whic h hav e weighe d heavil y o n he r a s Oedipus's caretaker , an d als o th e suffering s t o come , unknow n bu t inescapable. He r lif e i s bound t o tur n ou t unhappily . Antigone feel s no t onl y doome d bu t dishonored , tainte d b y th e guil t of he r parent s an d he r statu s a s th e offsprin g o f thei r incestuou s mar riage: My mother's marriage-bed. Destruction where she lay with her husband-son, my father. These were my parents and I their child. (862-64)

At th e en d o f Oedipus the King, Oedipu s grieve s fo r th e pligh t o f hi s daughters: I weep when I think of the bitterness there will be in your lives, how you must live before the world. At what assemblages

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of citizens will you make one? to what gay company will you go and not come home in tears instead of sharing in the holiday? And when you're ripe for marriage, who will he be, the man who'll risk to take such infamy as shall cling to my children, to bring hurt on them and those that marry with them? What curse is not there? "You r father kille d his father and sowed seed where he had sprung himself and begot you out of the womb that held him." These insults you will hear. Then who will marry you? No one, my children; clearly you are doomed to waste away in barrenness unmarried. 2 (1486-1502)

This i s a late r play , to b e sure , bu t i n Antigone Sophocle s seem s t o hav e conceived o f hi s heroin e a s havin g th e feeling s abou t hersel f tha t woul d have bee n induced b y the lif e experience s Oedipu s describes . Despite he r betrothal t o Haemon , abou t whic h Creo n i s unenthusiastic , Antigon e appears t o fee l unmarriageable , doome d "t o di e unwed" (869) . She ma y feel tha t infam y cling s to her , a s Oedipus's speec h suggests , an d tha t sh e would b e a source o f contamination t o he r husban d an d children . Antigone resemble s Shakespeare' s Antonio , wh o call s himsel f " a tainted wethe r o f th e flock , / Meetes t fo r death " (Merchant of Venice, 4.1.114-15). He r tainte d origi n an d th e curs e upo n he r hous e separat e her fro m others , whose lif e sh e canno t share . Antoni o escape s hi s isola tion whe n h e i s taken int o th e Bassanio-Porti a relationship , bu t nothin g can restor e Antigon e t o th e huma n community . Whe n Creo n condemn s her t o b e shu t u p i n a tom b wit h jus t enoug h foo d t o sustai n her , Antigone laments , "Aliv e to th e plac e o f corpses , a n alie n still , / never a t home wit h th e livin g nor wit h th e dead " (850-51) . Becaus e o f he r sens e of immitigabl e alienatio n Antigon e feel s tha t he r "lif e die d lon g ago " and tha t thi s has made he r "fi t t o hel p the dead " (559-60) . Antigone anticipate s bein g mor e a t hom e wit h th e dea d tha n sh e ha s been wit h th e living . Sh e feels entirel y alon e o n earth , bu t whe n sh e die s she wil l g o t o he r "ow n people " (893) , t o who m sh e wil l "com e a s a dear friend, " sinc e sh e ha s "dresse d the m fo r th e grave " (900-901) . There i s no on e aliv e wit h who m sh e feel s a sens e o f community , bu t i n death sh e will b e with he r kin d onc e more , with thos e wh o hav e share d her doom . Sh e ha s devote d hersel f t o th e servic e o f he r family , an d lif e

Antigone | 11 3 seems t o hav e n o meanin g fo r he r outsid e o f thi s activity . Th e buria l o f Polyneices i s her final service , after whic h sh e no longe r desire s to live . It i s strikin g tha t Antigon e regard s hersel f a s alon e despit e th e exis tence o f Ismene . Whe n sh e contemplate s goin g t o he r ow n people , sh e describes hersel f a s "las t o f the m all " (895) , an d sh e ask s th e leader s o f Thebes t o pit y th e suffering o f th e "las t o f you r roya l line " (941) . Sh e seems t o hav e forgotte n he r siste r completely . A t th e beginnin g o f th e play, she speaks to Ismen e o f the suffering o f "u s survivors " (3 ) and ask s her t o assis t in the buria l o f Polyneices. When th e fearful Ismen e tells he r that sh e i s "wron g fro m th e start , t o chas e wha t canno t be " (92) , Antigone turn s upo n he r wit h savag e contempt : "I f that' s you r saying , I shall hat e yo u first, / an d nex t th e dea d wil l hat e yo u i n al l justice" (93 94). After Antigon e i s caught, Ismen e wants to shar e her sister' s fate, bu t Antigone wil l not allo w it : "Yo u di d no t / wish fo r a part, no r di d I give you one " (538-39) . Ismen e beg s he r no t t o "fenc e m e ou t fro m honor " (544), bu t Antigon e i s unrelenting , leavin g he r siste r t o fee l a s isolate d and empt y a s she: "Wha t lif e i s there fo r m e to liv e without her? " (566) . In orde r t o understan d Antigone' s behavio r towar d Ismene , w e mus t delve mor e deepl y int o he r psychology . Antigon e seek s t o compensat e for he r sens e o f contaminatio n b y pursuin g a cours e o f absolut e recti tude. Creon' s edic t forbiddin g th e buria l o f Polyneice s give s he r a n opportunity t o prov e herself , t o liv e u p t o he r standar d o f mora l perfec tion, n o matte r th e cost . Afte r tellin g Ismen e tha t anyon e wh o defie s th e edict "wil l di e b y publi c stonin g i n th e town, " sh e say s "yo u soo n wil l show / if you ar e noble , o r falle n fro m you r descent " (36-38) . Afraid o f crossing roya l power , Ismen e say s tha t the y mus t submi t t o "thes e orders, o r an y tha t ma y b e worse " (64) , askin g forgivenes s fro m thos e beneath th e earth . Suc h a cours e i s unthinkabl e t o Antigone , wh o feel s toward Ismen e th e contemp t sh e woul d fee l towar d hersel f shoul d sh e thus fal l fro m he r nobl e descen t an d b e a "traitor " t o he r brothe r (46) . Whereas Ismen e see s hersel f a s a weak , helples s woma n wh o ha s n o choice bu t t o capitulate , Antigon e seek s t o maste r he r fat e b y main taining he r virtue . Sh e ca n d o nothin g abou t th e tain t sh e ha s inherite d from he r family , bu t sh e ca n gai n recognitio n fro m he r fello w Thebans , the dead , an d th e god s fo r he r righteousness . Creo n insist s o n obedienc e to hi s command s eve n i f the y ar e wrong , bu t Antigon e woul d b e over whelmed wit h self-hat e i f sh e accede d t o thi s demand . Th e pric e o f defiance i s death, bu t sh e has n o wis h t o live , and fo r he r ther e coul d b e no greate r suffering tha n "dyin g wit h a lac k o f grace " (97). B y buryin g

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Polyneices sh e avoids self-hat e an d actualize s her idealize d image : "wha t greater glor y coul d I find / tha n givin g m y ow n brothe r funeral " (502 3). Sh e i s s o unrelentin g towar d Ismen e i n par t becaus e sh e doe s no t want t o shar e he r glory : "Deat h an d th e dead , the y kno w whos e ac t i t was" (542) . Ismen e i s afrai d o f tempora l power , bu t Antigon e please s "those who m I mos t shoul d please " (89) , thos e whos e recognitio n wil l be eternal . Antigone is enactin g a scenari o simila r t o tha t whic h Sophocle s late r gave t o he r fathe r i n Oedipus at Colonus. Sh e i s transforme d fro m a creature wh o i s tainte d an d doome d int o a transcendentall y gloriou s being. Sh e achieve s he r transformatio n partl y throug h he r virtu e an d partly, lik e Oedipus , throug h th e magnitud e o f he r suffering . Creon' s edict make s i t possibl e fo r he r t o achiev e a gran d fat e despite , indee d because of , th e curs e o n he r house . Th e fac t tha t sh e i s bein g punishe d for he r virtue , "becaus e I respecte d th e right " (943) , heighten s th e injustice o f her fat e an d make s it all the more poignant. Sh e refuses t o b e reconciled wit h he r siste r i n part becaus e sh e wishes to clin g to he r sens e of abandonment , whic h increase s he r suffering . Sh e portray s hersel f a s not onl y the las t o f them al l but "ill-fate d pas t th e rest" (895) . The mor e she suffers, th e greater he r distinction . Creon mock s Antigon e fo r singin g th e "dirge " fo r he r ow n deat h "ahead o f time " (881-82) , bu t hi s remar k i s not entirel y inappropriate , since Antigon e i s histrionicall y self-pitying . Althoug h sh e welcome s death, sh e bewail s th e fac t tha t sh e i s descendin g "befor e m y cours e i s run" (896) . Som e critic s fee l tha t th e "death-devote d maiden " o f th e first par t o f th e pla y show s hersel f t o b e attache d t o lif e afte r all . Sh e laments agai n an d agai n tha t ther e wil l b e "n o marriag e bed " o r "mar riage-song" fo r he r an d "sinc e n o wedding , s o n o chil d t o rear " (917 18). Ar e w e t o se e thi s a s genuin e grie f tha t sh e wil l b e deprive d o f marriage an d motherhood , o r a s a n effor t t o embellis h he r imag e a s a martyr? I lean towar d th e latte r interpretation . M y readin g o f Antigon e is tha t sh e fel t hersel f t o b e cu t of f fro m marriag e an d motherhoo d b y the taint tha t attache s t o he r a s the chil d o f Oedipu s an d Jocasta. A s she says, he r lif e die d lon g ago . Sh e ca n achiev e meanin g throug h death , however, an d th e greate r he r suffering , th e mor e grandeu r i s attached t o her end . Thu s sh e repeatedl y lament s tha t sh e ha s "N o frien d t o bewai l my fate " (881) . What abou t Haemon , Ismene , and th e chorus ? Haemo n says tha t "th e whol e tow n i s grievin g fo r thi s girl , / unjustl y doomed " (693-94). Antigon e glorie s i n he r fat e an d seek s t o portra y i t a s mor e

Antigone | 11 5 terrible tha n tha t o f anyon e els e i n he r spectacularl y ill-fate d family : "Look wha t I suffer" (942) . The choru s empathize s wit h Antigone' s sufferin g an d eve n more wit h her self-glorification . Sh e wil l g o "i n fam e t o th e vaul t o f th e dead " (816). When Antigon e compare s hersel f t o Niobe , sayin g tha t "M y ow n putting t o slee p a go d ha s planne d lik e hers " (831) , th e choru s assents : "Yet eve n i n deat h yo u wil l have you r fame , / to hav e gon e lik e a god t o your fate " (834-36) . Th e pla y strike s dow n th e arrogan t Creon , whos e pride mus t b e crushed , bu t Antigone' s bargai n wit h fat e succeeds : sh e lives u p t o he r should s an d th e worl d honor s he r claims . Sh e doe s no t receive justic e o n earth , bu t th e pla y affirm s th e highe r justic e i n whic h she believes . From a Horneya n perspective , Creo n an d Antigon e ar e bot h destruc tively engage d i n a searc h fo r glory . Creon' s fat e i s typical o f th e her o i n Greek traged y wh o arouse s th e enmit y o f th e god s b y seekin g mor e mastery tha n i s granted t o huma n beings . A s th e choru s observes , "an y greatness i n huma n lif e bring s doom " (613) . Antigon e als o seek s t o master he r fate , bu t throug h rectitud e rathe r tha n power . A rebe l i n relation t o Creon , sh e i s submissiv e t o th e god s an d scrupulousl y per forms he r religiou s an d familia l duties . Sh e i s no t caugh t betwee n th e demands o f tempora l an d eterna l authority , lik e Ismen e an d th e chorus , because sh e i s read y t o die . Althoug h submissiv e t o th e gods , Antigon e is no t self-effacing . Sh e take s prid e i n he r righteousness , despise s th e timidity o f others , and overtl y engage s i n self-exaltation. Althoug h thos e who pursu e glor y ar e usuall y destroye d i n Gree k tragedy , Antigon e succeeds becaus e sh e play s b y th e rule s o f th e gods . Whil e condemnin g the over-steppin g Creon , th e pla y endorse s Antigone' s perfectionisti c solution. Creon an d Antigon e ar e no t a s full y draw n a s mos t o f th e othe r characters discusse d here, but they have a mimetic dimension tha t contri butes t o th e richnes s an d dramati c intensit y o f th e play , which woul d b e a muc h lesse r wor k i f the y wer e merel y illustrativ e figures. Althoug h their attitude s an d behavior s ar e product s o f a cultur e ver y differen t from ou r own , ther e ar e som e endurin g feature s o f huma n psycholog y beneath al l the differences . W e have see n Creon' s combinatio n o f insecu rity, grandiosity , an d th e assertio n o f arbitrar y authorit y i n dictatoria l leaders through th e age s and i n such literar y figures a s Captain Quee g of The Caine Mutiny. Antigone' s sens e tha t he r lif e die d lon g ag o ha s specific source s i n he r culture , bu t he r hopelessness , alienation , an d

I l 6 ANTIGONE

despair ar e familia r emotions , a s i s he r longin g fo r vindication . He r combination o f suicida l impulse s wit h a searc h fo r glor y i s on e w e hav e already see n a numbe r o f time s i n thi s study , an d he r strateg y o f copin g with a feeling o f worthlessness throug h absolut e rectitude i s one we shal l see again .

8 Great Expectations

Perhaps th e majo r divisio n amon g critic s o f Great Expectations i s betwee n thos e wh o se e i t a s a nove l o f growt h an d educatio n and thos e wh o fee l tha t Pi p a t th e en d i s fa r fro m havin g attaine d wisdom o r maturity . Wherea s mos t critic s regar d Pi p th e narrato r a s a wise an d trustworth y guide , som e argu e tha t h e remain s a severel y damaged perso n whos e interpretation s an d judgment s ar e unreliable . These conflictin g reading s ar e i n par t th e produc t o f differen t perspec tives, bu t the y ar e als o sponsore d b y tension s betwee n rhetori c an d mimesis within th e nove l itself . Great Expectations ha s a comi c educatio n patter n i n whic h th e pro tagonist err s a s a resul t o f hi s faults , suffer s a s a resul t o f hi s errors , grows a s a result o f hi s suffering , an d prosper s a s a resul t o f hi s growth . Pip interpret s hi s earlie r behavio r fro m th e perspectiv e h e ha s arrive d a t by th e end , whic h seem s t o b e tha t o f th e nove l a s a whole . I n themati c terms, this i s a stor y o f fal l an d redemptio n i n which Pi p i s good a t first , catches th e diseas e o f snobber y fro m Estell a an d Mis s Havisham , sin s against hi s friend s whil e h e i s infected , i s cure d b y th e collaps e o f hi s hopes, an d become s goo d agai n a t th e end . Th e guilt y Pi p i s a socia l climber wh o place s undue value o n wealth an d position . The stor y o f hi s expectations i s pervaded b y unnatura l relationship s i n which peopl e us e or abus e other s ou t o f ambition , greed , an d vindictiveness . Th e stor y o f Pip's educatio n emphasize s suc h value s a s love , unselfishness , gratitude , humility, and th e acceptance o f one' s natural plac e in the order o f things . Earning one' s livin g throug h hones t labo r i s contraste d wit h livin g of f others, an d th e warmt h o f heart h an d hom e i s contraste d wit h th e coldness o f ambition . Jo e an d Bidd y embod y th e value s tha t Pi p betray s and t o whic h h e return s a t th e end , whil e th e remot e an d heartles s Estella symbolize s th e perversity o f Pip' s impossible dream . Although sanctione d b y plo t an d rhetoric , thi s readin g i s no t sup ported b y th e mimeti c portraya l o f Pip . Th e entir e nove l come s t o u s i n

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the word s o f Pi p th e narrator , bu t w e mus t distinguis h betwee n hi s detailed portraya l o f hi s experience , which i s relatively trustworthy , an d his ofte n questionabl e explanation s an d judgment s o f hi s ow n an d oth ers' behavior . Pi p see s hi s transformatio n fro m a lovin g chil d int o a n ambitious sno b t o b e th e produc t o f inferiorit y feeling s induce d b y Estella's contempt . Whe n w e loo k a t th e mimesis , Pip's problems d o no t seem t o resul t fro m contaminatio n b y Estell a an d Mis s Havisha m bu t from maltreatmen t b y hi s siste r an d th e resultin g emotiona l harm . Pi p sees himself a s having arrived a t maturity an d wisdom, but , a s I interpre t it, th ^ mimesi s show s tha t whe n hi s expectation s collapse , h e regresse s to A childish dependency . Th e "educated " Pi p is a troubled huma n bein g whose vie w of things is distorted b y his compulsions an d blin d spots . H e thinks h e ha s renounce d hi s projec t o f becomin g "uncommon, " bu t a s he narrates hi s stor y h e is still engaged i n defending a n idealize d concep tion o f himself .

As the title suggests, Great Expectations i s about a search fo r glory . Pip's dream o f greatnes s i s initiate d b y hi s first visi t t o Sati s Hous e an d shattered b y th e retur n o f Magwitch . Accordin g t o Pip , hi s nee d t o b e "uncommon" come s int o bein g whe n Estell a treat s hi m wit h scorn . Sh e is indignan t a t bein g aske d t o pla y card s wit h " a commo n labouring boy" an d despise s the card s "fo r havin g bee n won" o f hi m (ch . 8) . "He r contempt fo r m e wa s s o stron g tha t i t becam e infectious , an d I caugh t it." H e become s obsesse d wit h hi s "coars e hands " an d "commo n boots," whic h no w see m "vulga r appendages, " an d wishe s tha t "Jo e had bee n rathe r mor e genteell y brough t up " s o tha t h e "shoul d hav e been s o too. " H e become s increasingl y "dissatisfied " wit h "home " an d "trade" (ch . 15) , longs t o b e a gentleman , an d dream s tha t Mis s Havis ham wil l mak e hi s fortun e on e day . Whe n h e confide s hi s disconten t t o Biddy, he asks, "wha t woul d i t signify t o me, being coarse an d common , if nobody ha d tol d m e so!" (ch . 17) . Great Expectations begin s a s a psychologica l nove l abou t a n abuse d child, but it turns into a novel of social criticism as the behavior resultin g from Pip' s emotiona l problem s i s attribute d t o hi s experienc e a t Sati s House. Pi p believe s tha t hi s sens e o f socia l inferiorit y i s th e sourc e o f his self-contempt , bu t hi s feeling s o f inferiorit y d o no t begi n whe n h e encounters Estella , no r ar e the y intensifie d b y he r scorn . Instead , he r contempt give s hi m a wa y o f copin g wit h th e profoun d sens e o f worth -

Great Expectations | 12 1 lessness h e ha s carrie d throug h childhoo d an d o f explainin g i t i n a manner tha t i s comfortin g t o himself . Pip' s interpretatio n o f th e "grea t changes" tha t occu r o n tha t "memorabl e day " (ch . 9) obscure s th e significance o f hi s earlier formativ e experiences . The condition s o f Pip' s childhoo d ar e suc h a s t o generat e intens e feelings o f worthlessness , anxiety , an d guilt . Hi s "firs t mos t vivi d an d broad impressio n o f the identity o f things" is that h e is a helpless orpha n who live s i n a threatening worl d (ch . 1) . His sens e o f th e precariousnes s of existenc e i s epitomize d b y th e grave s o f hi s five littl e brother s an d i s intensified b y Magwitch , wh o threaten s t o cu t hi s throa t i f h e doe s no t stop cryin g an d t o ea t hi s hear t an d live r i f h e doe s no t brin g hi m supplies. Pip' s encounte r wit h Magwitc h i s s o significan t becaus e i t epitomizes, in a n extrem e way , his everyday experience . Magwitch's questio n o f whethe r Pi p i s "t o b e le t t o live " i s on e tha t reverberates throug h hi s childhood , whic h i s filled wit h a "sens e o f helplessness an d danger " aki n t o tha t whic h th e convic t inspire s (ch . 1) . Pip is dependent fo r hi s existence on a n "mi l powerful" siste r who resent s having t o car e fo r hi m an d wishe s hi m dead . Sh e tells him tha t i f it wer e not fo r he r h e would "hav e bee n to th e churchyard lon g ago , and staye d there," tha t sh e doe s no t kno w wh y sh e brough t hi m up , an d tha t sh e would "neve r d o i t again " (ch . 2) . "Possesse d b y [the ] ide a tha t a mortifying an d penitential characte r ough t to be imparted t o [Pip's ] diet " (ch. 8) , sh e seem s literall y t o hav e deprive d hi m o f nutriment . H e i s undersized fo r hi s age . Magwitch threaten s t o cu t Pip' s throa t an d roas t his hear t an d liver , an d thos e a t th e Christma s dinne r see m t o hav e similar fantasies . Pi p i s admonishe d t o b e gratefu l fo r no t havin g bee n born a "Squeaker, " sinc e i f h e had , h e woul d no t b e a t th e feas t excep t to b e eaten , an d Pumblechoo k follow s wit h a vivi d accoun t o f ho w Dunstable th e butche r "woul d hav e she d [Pip's ] blood " wit h hi s pen knife i f h e ha d bee n a pi g (ch . 4) . Thi s reawaken s hi s sister' s desir e fo r his death , an d sh e enter s "o n a fearfu l catalogue " o f al l th e "illnesses, " "sleeplessness," an d "injuries " o f whic h h e "ha d bee n guilty " an d "al l the time s sh e ha d wishe d [him ] i n [his ] grave , an d [he ] ha d contuma ciously refused t o g o there. " Pip i s mad e t o fee l guilt y no t onl y fo r bein g s o muc h "trouble " bu t also fo r hi s lac k o f gratitude . H e i s no t gratefu l fo r hi s ill-treatment , o f course, bu t i s ful l o f suppresse d rage . Durin g hi s sister' s recita l o f hi s "misdemeanors," Wopsle' s Roma n nos e s o aggravate s Pi p tha t h e "should hav e like d t o pul l i t unti l h e howled " (ch . 4) . Anothe r reaso n

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Pip i s regarde d a s ungratefu l i s tha t h e i s no t perceive d a s havin g an y rights, an y fai r clai m t o car e an d attention , s o tha t th e pitifull y littl e h e does receiv e seem s mor e tha n h e deserves . Hi s siste r feel s victimize d b y having t o tak e car e o f hi m an d describe s hersel f a s hi s "slave " (ch . 7) . She vents he r rag e a t feelin g trappe d b y treatin g hi m wit h a "capriciou s and violen t coercion " (ch . 8) , al l th e whil e reproachin g hi m fo r hi s ingratitude. It i s impossibl e t o determin e th e reliabilit y o f Pip' s accoun t o f hi s sister, whic h ma y b e exaggerated , bu t i t i s clear tha t h e feel s blame d fo r being alive : " I thin k m y siste r mus t hav e ha d som e genera l ide a tha t I was a young offende r who m a n Accoucheur Policema n ha d taken u p (o n my birthday ) an d delivere d ove r to her, to b e dealt with accordin g t o th e outraged majest y o f th e law " (ch . 4) . Not onl y i s he bor n sinful , bu t h e is sinfu l fo r havin g bee n born . Hi s ver y existenc e i s a violatio n o f "th e dictates o f reason , religion , an d morality, " an d hi s siste r seem s t o regar d it a s her jo b t o punis h him . Sinc e his offens e i s being alive , the onl y wa y he can remov e hi s guilt i s by going to hi s grave. Pip grow s u p feelin g tha t ever y manifestatio n o f hi s existenc e com- * pounds hi s ontologica l guil t an d tha t other s regar d hi m a s destine d t o end u p i n priso n o r o n th e gallows . Whe n Jo e say s tha t th e firin g o f the grea t gun s mean s tha t there' s anothe r convic t off , Pi p ask s fo r an explanation : "Whil e Mrs . Jo e sa t wit h he r hea d bendin g ove r he r needlework, I put m y mout h int o th e form s o f sayin g t o Joe , 'What' s a convict?' Jo e pu t bis mout h int o th e form s o f returnin g suc h a highl y elaborate answer , tha t I coul d mak e ou t nothin g o f i t bu t th e singl e word, 'Pip ' " (ch . 2) . The equatio n o f "Pip " wit h "convict " i s not wha t Joe intends, but it is confirmed b y his sister's reaction when Pip continue s his queries : " I didn' t brin g yo u u p b y han d t o badge r people' s live s out . . . . People ar e pu t i n th e Hulk s becaus e the y murder , an d becaus e the y rob, an d forge , an d d o al l sorts o f bad ; an d the y alway s begi n b y askin g questions." It i s impossibl e t o sa y whethe r other s entertai n a simila r scenari o fo r Pip, a s h e feel s the y do . H e ma y b e externalizin g th e self-imag e h e ha s derived fro m hi s siste r an d interpretin g thei r behavio r accordingly . O r her friend s ma y tak e thei r attitud e towar d Pi p fro m Mrs . Joe . O r bot h things ma y b e occurrin g simultaneously . Pi p feel s tha t Mrs . Hubbl e contemplates hi m "wit h a mournful presentimen t tha t [he ] should com e to n o good " (ch . 4) an d tha t Pumblechoo k pushe s hi m ove r t o th e Tow n Hall t o sig n hi s indenture s "exactl y a s if [he ] had tha t momen t picke d a

Great Expectations | 12 3 pocket o r fired a rick " (ch . 13) . He report s tha t whil e hi s indenture s ar e being attested , Pumblechoo k hold s hi m "a s i f w e ha d looke d i n o n ou r way t o th e scaffold , t o hav e thos e littl e preliminarie s dispose d of" ; an d that a t th e celebrator y dinner , Pumblechoo k take s fiendish deligh t i n hi s being "liabl e t o imprisonment " i f h e engage s i n "vagarie s whic h th e form o f [his ] indentures appeare d t o contemplat e a s next t o inevitable. " When actin g th e par t o f Georg e Barnwell , Pi p feel s tha t other s identif y him with th e murderer (ch . 15) . In ligh t o f al l this , Pip' s ambivalen t respons e t o Magwitc h i s quit e understandable. Despit e th e fac t tha t h e i s terrifie d o f Magwitch , wh o threatens hi m with evisceration , h e thinks o f him a s "m y fugitiv e friend " and hope s h e wil l no t b e caugh t (ch . 5) . Magwitc h i s jus t suc h a n abused, despised , guilty creature a s Pip, with a n equall y tenuous hol d o n existence. I n th e churchyard , th e shivering , hungry , battere d Pi p empa thizes wit h th e shivering , hungry , battere d convict . Sinc e Magwitc h i s treated b y societ y a s Pip feel s himsel f t o b e treated b y everyon e bu t Joe , Pip readil y imagine s himsel f i n Magwitch' s situation . H e see s i n Mag witch a n actualizatio n o f the image o f himself a s a criminal tha t ha s lon g been par t o f hi s identity , an d h e pitie s th e ma n wh o alread y i s what h e feels destine d t o become . Magwitch i s a symbol o f Pip' s fate: h e act s ou t the aggressio n tha t everyon e sense s i n Pi p an d suffer s th e inevitabl e punishment. I t i s n o wonde r tha t Pi p think s o f hi s contac t wit h Mag witch a s his "companionshi p wit h th e fugitive" (ch . 19 ) and feel s that h e would b e "treacherous " i f h e betraye d hi m (ch . 5) . Magwitc h sense s Pip's empathy an d i s grateful t o hi m a s the onl y compassionat e presenc e in an otherwis e hostil e world, muc h a s Pip is grateful t o Joe. Magwitch's deman d tha t h e stea l a file and "wittles " throw s Pi p int o a conflic t betwee n hi s "morta l terror " o f Magwitc h an d hi s drea d o f hi s terrible sister . H e pitie s Magwitch , bu t i n orde r t o reliev e hi s suffering he mus t commi t a n ac t tha t wil l confir m hi s identit y a s a "youn g offender" destine d t o en d u p i n jail . He dream s tha t h e i s drifting dow n the rive r towar d th e Hulk s an d a "ghostl y pirate " call s ou t fro m "th e gibbet-station, tha t [he ] had bette r com e ashor e an d b e hanged a t once " (ch. 2) . As h e make s hi s wa y t o th e marshe s afte r th e theft , th e woode n finger pos t seem s "lik e a phantom devotin g [him ] t o th e Hulks " (ch . 3) , and h e feels tha t everythin g i s accusing him . Some critic s attribut e Pip' s sens e o f criminalit y t o hi s theft , bu t th e theft onl y exacerbate s th e feeling s o f worthlessness , anxiety , an d guil t that le d t o hi s identificatio n wit h Magwitc h i n th e first place . Befor e h e

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visits Mis s Havisham , Pi p ha s n o wa y o f copin g wit h thes e feelings . H e tries complianc e an d detachment , bu t thes e strategie s d o no t work , an d he is afraid t o ac t ou t hi s aggression . Pip i s a submissiv e chil d wh o trie s t o b e good , bu t h e canno t wi n hi s sister's lov e an d approval . H e i s mor e successfu l i n movin g towar d Joe , but Jo e canno t protec t him . Althoug h Jo e sympathize s wit h Pi p a t th e Christmas dinner , hi s "statio n an d influenc e wer e somethin g feeble r (i f possible) whe n ther e wa s company " (ch . 4), an d h e jus t keep s spoonin g gravy int o Pip' s plate. A fellow victi m o f abuse , Joe ha s neve r learne d t o cope wit h hi s ow n situatio n constructively , an d al l h e ca n offe r Pi p i s a rationale fo r acceptin g ill-treatment . H e doe s no t "rise " agains t hi s wif e because hi s fathe r abuse d hi s mother , an d h e i s s o afrai d o f becomin g like hi m tha t h e minimize s hi s ow n suffering , represse s hi s resentment , and allow s himsel f t o b e bullied . H e feel s guilt y abou t Pi p an d wishe s that h e coul d "tak e i t all " o n himself , bu t eve n th e dail y spectacl e o f Pip's suffering canno t induc e self-assertio n (ch . 7) . Th e fac t tha t Pi p accepts Joe's explanatio n o f hi s impotence an d begin s t o loo k u p t o hi m "in [his ] heart" indicate s Pip' s ow n dee p rooted compliance . Detachment work s n o bette r tha n complianc e a s a defensiv e strateg y for Pip , sinc e his tormentor s wil l no t allo w hi m t o remov e himsel f fro m their power . H e say s he would no t hav e minde d bein g crowded i n a t th e Christmas dinne r table and give n the least desirable food i f people woul d only hav e lef t hi m alone , bu t instea d h e i s "smartingl y touche d up " b y their "mora l goads " (ch . 4) . Pi p feel s s o incessantl y impinge d o n hi s sister and he r cohorts that h e develops phobic reactions to bein g touche d or confine d b y his clothing . H e complain s bitterl y abou t havin g hi s hai r rumpled an d poke d i n hi s eye s an d describe s himsel f a s havin g bee n "severely mauled " b y Wopsl e whe n h e goe s t o hi m fo r instructio n (ch . 15). Pi p is severely maule d b y hi s sister , wh o wear s Tickle r "smoot h b y collision wit h [his ] tickle d frame " (ch . 2) , an d h e i s hypersensitive , a s a result, t o anyon e else' s layin g hand s o n him . Hi s sister' s capriciou s an d violent coercio n make s hi m pron e t o fee l oppresse d b y anythin g confin ing, such a s his indenture s o r hi s dres s clothing . H e say s that th e "tailo r had order s t o mak e [hi s suits ] lik e a kin d o f Reformatory , an d o n n o account t o le t [him ] hav e th e fre e us e o f [his ] limbs " (ch . 4) . H e feel s painfully "trusse d up " whe n h e i s dressed t o visi t Mis s Havisham . Pip' s recurring thought s o f imprisonmen t ar e a produc t no t onl y o f hi s sens e of criminalit y bu t als o o f hi s claustrophobi c feelin g tha t h e i s alread y unbearably confined .

Great Expectations | 12 5 Detachment fail s fo r Pi p no t onl y becaus e peopl e wil l no t leav e hi m alone bu t als o becaus e he cannot entirel y stifl e hi s needs an d desires . Hi s sister doe s no t wan t t o b e bothere d wit h hi m an d become s outrage d when h e require s attention . Shor t o f dying , th e onl y wa y Pi p ca n avoi d guilt an d punishmen t i s t o b e completel y undemanding , bu t that , o f course, i s impossible . H e need s food , get s sick , ask s questions , ha s accidents, an d i s ful l o f norma l huma n cravings , al l o f whic h ar e re garded a s criminal . The feelings Pi p is under th e greatest pressure to repress are, of course, his aggressive ones. He has an immense rage toward hi s sister that he cannot ac t out , express , or eve n allo w himsel f t o experience . He i s so afrai d of his sister that he displaces his fury ont o far less threatening objects, such as Wopsle's nose, although even then his assault is only imaginary. "Exas perated" b y the kitchen councils in which Pumblechook an d his sister engage after hi s visit to Mis s Havisham, Pi p indulges i n fantasies o f retalia tion. H e want s t o "fl y a t Pumblechook , an d pumme l hi m al l over " (ch . 12). If his "hand s coul d hav e taken a linchpin ou t o f his chaise-cart, the y would hav e don e it. " Pip' s rag e i s murderous . Th e bullie d an d battere d child has no way o f releasing his fury excep t through thes e fantasies, an d he is profoundly inhibite d even in them, since they never include his sister. It is not surprising that he is "disposed to believe" that he "must have had some hand i n the attack" (ch . 16) when sh e is struck down , since his most deeply buried wish has been enacted .

Pip's experienc e a t Mis s Havisham' s seem s a t first glanc e t o b e simpl y another instanc e o f th e devaluatio n t o whic h h e ha s bee n subjecte d throughout hi s childhood , bu t i t allow s hi m t o develop , fo r th e first time, a se t o f usabl e defenses . Th e fac t tha t Estell a despise s hi m fo r hi s "coarse hands, " "thic k boots, " an d genera l lack o f refinement i s actuall y helpful t o Pip , fo r thes e deficiencie s ca n b e remedie d (ch . 10) . Th e "felicitous idea " occur s t o hi m tha t h e ca n wor k towar d becomin g "uncommon" b y improvin g hi s education . Hi s coarsenes s i s neithe r a n essential par t o f hi s identit y no r somethin g fo r whic h h e i s responsible . Those wh o hav e hithert o abuse d hi m ar e themselve s commo n peopl e who ar e t o blam e fo r hi s lac k o f gentility . B y virtu e o f hi s relationshi p with Mis s Havisham , h e ha s alread y rise n abov e them . Instea d o f bein g a superfluou s creatur e a t th e botto m o f th e peckin g order , Pi p ha s become the family' s hop e fo r socia l advancement .

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When h e return s fro m Mis s Havisham's , Pi p drive s hi s siste r int o a frenzy b y his lac k o f respons e t o he r questions . The mor e sh e shove s hi s face "agains t th e kitche n wall, " th e mor e obstinat e h e becomes , and th e arrival o f Pumblechoo k make s hi m "viciou s i n [his ] reticence " (ch . 9) . When th e "bullyin g old " ma n persist s i n "applyin g th e screw, " Pi p tell s a serie s o f outlandis h lies . At first h e explain s hi s reticenc e a s " a drea d of no t bein g understood," bu t h e comes close r t o the trut h whe n h e say s that h e feare d "Mis s Havisha m to o woul d no t b e understood " an d tha t there woul d b e somethin g "coars e an d treacherous " i n "draggin g he r a s she reall y wa s (t o sa y nothin g o f Mis s Estella ) befor e th e contemplatio n of Mrs . Joe." I f h e is to escap e the self-contemp t h e now associate s wit h his commonness , Pi p mus t protec t th e glamou r o f Estell a an d Mis s Havisham an d th e valu e o f thei r patronage . H e i s afrai d tha t Mis s Havisham wil l see m pathetic o r ludicrou s i f he describes he r a s she is, so he at first withhold s informatio n an d the n paints a n exoti c picture o f lif e at Sati s House . This "memorable " da y make s suc h "grea t changes " i n Pi p becaus e i t enables hi m t o imagin e a n escap e fro m wha t ha d seeme d a hopeles s situation (ch . 9) . Pip i s now caugh t betwee n thre e differen t conception s of himsel f an d hi s destiny . H e ha s bee n accustome d t o thin k o f himsel f as a young offende r wh o i s destined fo r th e Hulks o r th e gibbet. His visit to Miss Havisham open s up two ne w possibilities: one that h e is a coars e and commo n laborin g bo y wh o wil l becom e a "mer e blacksmith " an d the othe r tha t h e ca n becom e uncommo n b y acquirin g gentility . Th e great questio n fo r Pi p is which o f thes e will prove t o b e his true identity . Each i s associate d wit h a particula r person—th e youn g offende r wit h Magwitch, th e coars e an d commo n laborin g bo y wit h Joe , an d th e gentleman wit h Estella . Under th e influence o f Estella, Pip forms a n idealized imag e of himsel f and embark s o n a searc h fo r glory . Whe n sh e insult s him , h e become s morbidly dependen t o n he r approval ; h e i s everythin g i f h e ca n gai n it , nothing i f h e cannot . Pi p hope s t o restor e hi s prid e b y adoptin g th e values an d meetin g th e standard s o f th e perso n wh o ha s crushe d it . Hi s pride has bee n crushed befor e b y his sister and he r friends, bu t he canno t become wha t the y want . Estella' s positio n i s superio r t o theirs , an d th e superficiality o f he r objection s allow s Pi p t o redefin e hi s worthlessnes s in suc h a wa y tha t h e ca n imagin e overcomin g it . Perhap s h e ca n gai n Estella's approva l an d ris e abov e hi s siste r an d Pumblechoo k b y acquir ing a venee r o f gentility . Hi s hunge r fo r education , hi s fantasie s o f

Great Expectations | 12 7 becoming a gentleman , an d hi s compulsiv e attachmen t t o Estell a ar e al l driven b y hi s nee d t o escap e self-contemp t b y actualizin g hi s idealize d image. Pip canno t escap e hi s self-contemp t throug h Estella , however , fo r h e has contradictor y need s o f her . Estella' s powe r ove r hi m lie s in hi s sens e of he r superiority , whic h i s fe d b y he r superciliousness , condescension , and abuse . Pi p identifie s wit h he r loft y positio n an d see s bot h himsel f and other s throug h he r eyes . Thi s a t onc e humiliate s hi m an d enable s him t o scor n thos e wh o hav e alway s looke d dow n o n him . Pi p deal s with hi s humiliatio n b y regardin g i t a s provisional ; on e da y Estell a wil l confirm hi s grandeu r b y givin g hi m he r love . H e i s alway s unhapp y i n her society , bu t hi s presen t unhappines s i s a guarante e o f futur e glory , for i t i s a produc t o f th e superiorit y tha t make s he r acceptanc e s o valuable. Pi p need s Estell a t o lov e hi m i f hi s prid e i s to b e restored , bu t he als o need s he r t o b e scornful . Winnin g he r lov e coul d no t restor e hi s pride, fo r the n sh e woul d n o longe r b e abov e him . H e i s spellboun d b y her inaccessibilit y an d ca n fee l tha t hi s searc h fo r glor y ha s a chanc e o f success only when sh e is making hi m miserable . When h e i s apprentice d t o Joe , Pi p feel s "a s i f a thic k curtai n ha d fallen o n al l [life's ] interes t an d romance " (ch . 14) . He trie s t o hol d ont o his drea m b y bein g loya l t o Estella' s value s an d refusin g t o b e identifie d with peopl e sh e woul d scorn . Thi s create s a proble m i n relatio n t o Joe , who ha s bee n his only sourc e o f support . Sinc e Joe symbolize s hi s coars e and commo n self , Pi p mus t dissociat e himsel f fro m him , bu t h e feel s terribly guilt y abou t doin g so . His effor t t o mak e Joe "les s ignoran t an d common" (ch . 15 ) s o tha t h e wil l no t hav e t o b e ashame d o f hi m i s frustrated b y Joe's apparen t ineducability . Pip als o ha s inne r conflict s i n relation t o hi s vocation. H e know s tha t his aspirations mak e him "dissatisfied " (ch . 17) , and he contrasts himsel f unfavorably wit h "plai n contente d Joe " (ch . 14) . Bu t althoug h h e feel s guilty abou t hi s discontent, i t is a defens e agains t despair . T o b e conten t with hi s plai n workin g lif e i s t o acquiesc e i n bein g th e coars e an d common bo y Estell a despises ; to b e discontent i s to refus e t o b e that Pi p and t o hol d ont o hi s apparentl y impossibl e dream . Thu s th e vehemenc e of hi s respons e whe n Bidd y ask s i f h e i s no t happie r a s h e i s tha n h e would b e as a gentleman: " I a m no t a t al l happy a s I am. I am disguste d with my calling and wit h m y life. . . . understand onc e for al l that I never shall o r ca n b e . . . anythin g bu t miserabl e . . . unles s I ca n lea d a ver y different sor t o f life " (ch . 17) . Pip ca n tr y t o defin e himsel f a t thi s poin t

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only b y refusin g th e identit y tha t lif e i s forcing upo n him . Hi s unhappi ness i s a mean s o f maintainin g hi s clai m tha t h e i s mean t fo r highe r things. Pip's aspiration s mak e hi m fee l angr y wit h himsel f fo r hi s folly . H e wants t o b e a gentleman bot h t o spit e Estell a an d t o impres s her , bu t h e agrees wit h Bidd y tha t sh e i s "no t wort h gainin g over " an d tha t i t "might b e better " t o car e nothin g fo r he r word s (ch . 17) . H e feel s hi s attachment t o Estell a "t o b e s o ver y ma d an d misplaced " tha t i t woul d serve hi s "fac e right " i f h e "knocke d i t agains t th e pebble s a s a punish ment fo r belongin g t o suc h a n idiot. " Pi p wishe s tha t Bidd y "coul d pu t [him] right," bu t the y bot h kno w tha t h e will never fal l i n love with her , for sh e is "common, " an d t o lov e her woul d b e to accep t th e identit y h e is tryin g t o escape . Th e fac t tha t h e i s "goo d enough " fo r Bidd y make s her lov e o f littl e value , sinc e onl y a perso n wh o make s hi m fee l inferio r can assuag e hi s sens e o f unworthiness . Pi p call s himsel f " a fool " fo r preferring th e woma n i n whose presenc e h e i s miserable an d ha s "state s and seasons " whe n h e i s sur e tha t hi s disaffectio n t o th e forg e ha s disappeared an d h e i s "growin g u p i n a fair wa y t o b e partners wit h Jo e and t o kee p compan y wit h Biddy. " Bu t thi s prospec t i s s o unacceptabl e that hi s wit s ar e invariabl y scattere d b y som e "remembranc e o f th e Havisham days, " an d h e cling s t o th e hop e that , despit e he r man y warnings, Mis s Havisha m wil l mak e hi s fortun e whe n h e complete s hi s apprenticeship.

After th e transformatio n tha t occur s a s a resul t o f hi s visi t t o Mis s Havisham, Pip' s characte r remain s muc h th e sam e unti l th e retur n o f Magwitch. Whe n Jagger s announce s hi s expectations , Pi p feel s tha t hi s dream o f glor y i s comin g true , bu t h e finds tha t hi s inne r lif e is no t much change d b y hi s new prospects . Hi s expectation s neithe r brin g hi m happiness no r reduc e hi s self-hate . H e i s stil l i n a n all-or-nothin g situa tion i n whic h h e mus t actualiz e hi s idealize d imag e i f h e i s t o fee l worthwhile. Estella' s inaccessibilit y symbolize s th e hopelessnes s o f thi s project, whil e Pip' s persistenc e i n th e fac e o f i t indicate s th e desperate ness o f hi s need . I n orde r t o preserv e th e possibilit y o f success , h e pursues Estell a an d stay s awa y fro m Joe , althoug h h e continue s t o fee l foolish i n relatio n t o th e on e an d guilt y towar d th e other . I n hi s presen t discomfort h e thinks h e would hav e bee n "happie r an d better " i f he ha d

Great Expectations | 12 9 never see n Mis s Havisha m (ch . 34) , bu t h e stil l woul d hav e suffere d from th e problem s tha t precede d hi s searc h fo r glory . Hi s sens e o f himself a s a n offende r i s no t expunge d b y hi s expectations , an y mor e than i s hi s sens e o f himsel f a s a coars e an d commo n boy . A s h e trie s t o rise t o th e heights , Pi p feel s lik e a n imposto r wh o i s boun d t o b e exposed. Thi s may b e why h e experiences Jaggers a s acting a s though h e knows thing s t o hi s "disparagement " (ch . 18) . Perhap s Jagger s behave s in this way , given hi s clientele, bu t I suspect tha t Pi p is hypersensitive t o his manner becaus e h e already feel s lik e a criminal an d i s afraid o f bein g found out . It i s hi s sens e o f identificatio n wit h Magwitc h tha t pose s th e greates t threat t o Pip' s self-idealization . Th e "shame " wit h whic h h e ha d ofte n thought o f hi s "companionshi p wit h th e fugitive " (ch . 19 ) i s intensifie d after h e learn s o f hi s expectations . H e take s comfor t i n the though t tha t it happene d lon g ago , tha t Magwitc h ha s probabl y bee n transported , and tha t h e i s "dea d t o me , an d migh t b e veritabl y dea d int o th e bargain." Thi s i s highly ironi c i n vie w o f th e sourc e o f hi s expectations ; but eve n if Miss Havisham ha d bee n hi s benefactor , Magwitc h i n partic ular an d convict s i n genera l woul d continu e t o symboliz e a versio n o f his identity tha t fills Pip with dread . This i s evident fro m Pip' s respons e t o th e convict s travelin g wit h hi m on th e coac h whe n h e return s t o se e Estella. Whe n h e recognize s on e o f them a s the man throug h who m Magwitc h ha d sen t him two on e poun d notes, h e i s afrai d tha t thi s ma n wil l recogniz e hi m an d expos e hi s secret identity . H e no t onl y shrink s fro m th e convicts , a s d o th e othe r passengers, but he also identifies wit h the m a s victims. The way i n whic h everyone "looke d a t the m an d kep t fro m them " mad e the m " a mos t disagreeable an d degrade d spectacle " (ch . 28) , just a s he had bee n whe n he fel t tha t other s looke d a t hi m wit h indignation , abhorrence , an d contempt. Whe n th e convicts laugh , crack nuts , and spi t the shell s abou t in response to rejection, Pi p feels tha t h e would hav e behave d s o himself, "if [he ] ha d bee n i n thei r plac e an d bee n s o despised. " H e empathize s with the m a s h e ha d don e wit h Magwitch . Bu t whe n th e convic t h e ha s recognized sit s behind hi m an d breathe s o n hi s hair, hi s fear o f exposur e returns. "Th e sensation, " whic h h e feel s "al l alon g hi s spine, " "wa s lik e being touche d i n th e marro w wit h som e pungen t an d searchin g acid. " Since his acquaintance wit h Mis s Havisham, th e central issu e for Pi p ha s been hi s tru e identity . H e i s afrai d her e tha t i n hi s essence , hi s marrow ,

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he is the Pi p who ha s offende d th e outrage d majest y o f the law . He fear s that contac t wit h thes e convict s wil l dissolv e hi s venee r o f gentilit y an d reveal him to b e "degrade d an d vile " like them . Pip's encounte r wit h th e convict s precipitate s a n attac k o f anxiety . After h e alight s o n th e outskirt s o f tow n i n orde r t o preven t a coinci dence tha t migh t revea l hi s name , h e i s overcom e wit h a "grea t fear " that i s "undefine d an d vague " (ch . 28) . I t i s " a drea d muc h exceedin g the mer e apprehensio n o f a painfu l recognition, " an d Pi p i s convince d that i t i s "th e reviva l fo r a fe w minute s o f th e terro r o f childhood. " I n childhood h e feare d fo r hi s life ; wha t h e fear s no w i s the destructio n o f the glorifie d versio n o f himsel f tha t give s lif e it s meaning . Hi s fea r i s heightened b y his impending visit to Estella, which h e hopes will confir m his gentility. Seein g his "companionship " wit h convict s through he r eye s is a terrifying experience . A simila r confrontatio n o f hi s idealize d wit h hi s despise d image s o f himself occur s when Pi p visits Newgate while waiting for Estella' s coach . He canno t hel p thinkin g "ho w strange " i t i s that h e shoul d b e "encom passed b y al l thi s tain t o f priso n an d crime, " tha t h e shoul d hav e encountered i t i n hi s childhoo d o n th e marshes , tha t "i t shoul d hav e reappeared o n two occasions , starting ou t lik e a stain that wa s faded bu t not gone, " an d tha t "i t shoul d i n this new way pervade [his ] fortune an d advancement" (ch . 32) . Pip doe s no t kno w th e hal f o f it , o f course . H e is s o sensitiv e t o thi s encompassmen t wit h priso n an d crim e becaus e i t keeps remindin g hi m o f th e identit y h e i s tryin g t o escape . H e think s "with absolut e abhorrenc e o f th e contrast " betwee n Newgat e an d th e "proud an d refined " Estella , bu t th e contras t h e truly abhor s i s betwee n Estella an d Pi p the offender, wh o is symbolized b y the jail. Pip endeavor s to disow n hi s sens e o f bein g intrinsicall y a t faul t b y seein g th e tain t a s something outsid e o f himself , bu t thi s defens e doe s no t entirel y succeed . He tries to shak e the "priso n dust " ou t o f his dress an d t o exhale "it s ai r from [his ] lungs, " bu t h e stil l feel s "contaminated " b y "th e soilin g consciousness" o f th e prison whe n Estell a arrives . The mos t dramati c confrontatio n o f Pip' s idealize d an d despise d selves occurs whe n Magwitc h returns . In view o f what Magwitc h mean s to Pip , i t i s no t surprisin g tha t hi s revelation s produc e anothe r anxiet y attack. Pip' s heart beat s "lik e a heavy hammer o f disordered action, " th e room begin s "t o surg e an d turn, " an d h e feel s tha t h e i s "suffocating " (ch. 39) . H e regard s Magwitc h wit h "abhorrence, " "repugnance, " an d "dread," an d "recoil[s ] fro m hi s touc h a s i f h e ha d bee n a snake. " I t i s

Great Expectations | 13 1 striking tha t althoug h h e shrink s fro m Magwitc h whe n h e firs t reap pears, h e recognize s "somethin g goo d i n th e feeling " o f gratitud e tha t has brough t hi m an d trie s t o tur n hi m awa y gentl y b y citin g th e differ ence o f thei r ways . I t i s onl y whe n Magwitc h reveal s tha t h e i s Pip' s benefactor an d claim s him a s his son that h e seems like a "terribl e beast " whose "han d migh t b e staine d wit h blood. " H e i s afrai d t o b e shu t u p with hi m i n th e "wil d an d solitar y night. " Pi p i s i n n o physica l danger , but, profoundl y threatene d b y Magwitch' s revelations , h e ha s violen t impulses o f hi s own tha t h e experiences a s belonging to th e convict . Pip's "abhorrence " o f Magwitc h increase s "ever y hour " (ch . 40) . H e tries t o disguis e Magwitc h b y changin g hi s clothes , bu t th e bette r h e dresses him , th e mor e eviden t i t become s tha t ther e i s "convic t i n th e very grai n o f th e man. " Thi s mus t see m lik e a repetitio n o f Pip' s ow n failure t o hid e hi s identit y a s a n offende r b y assumin g th e guis e o f a gentleman. A "ghost could no t have been more terrible" than Magwitch , who symbolize s th e versio n o f himsel f tha t Pi p want s t o thin k i s dea d but b y whic h h e i s haunted . H e ha s a n impuls e t o snea k ou t i n th e middle o f th e nigh t i n orde r t o enlis t fo r Indi a bu t i s hel d back , i n par t at least , b y hi s fea r fo r Magwitch' s safety . Sinc e Magwitc h ha s returne d to se e hi m a t th e ris k o f hi s life , Pi p woul d regar d himsel f "a s hi s murderer" i f h e wer e "taken " (ch . 41) . H e i s al l th e mor e protectiv e o f Magwitch becaus e h e wishe s hi m dea d an d mus t avoi d th e guil t h e would fee l i f his murderou s impulse s wer e acte d ou t b y another , a s the y had bee n toward hi s sister . Pip feel s trappe d b y hi s situation . H e canno t continu e t o accep t Magwitch's mone y withou t givin g u p hi s pretension s t o gentility , bu t h e cannot maintain himsel f a s a gentleman without Magwitch's beneficence . His sens e o f connectio n wit h Magwitc h exacerbate s hi s self-revulsion , but h e canno t abando n hi s "dreadfu l burden " (ch . 40 ) withou t feelin g like a murderer . H e i s love d b y a ma n h e abhor s an d whos e lif e i s dependent upo n him . "Wa s ther e ever, " h e exclaims , "suc h a fate! " (ch . 41). He will try to ge t Magwitch ou t o f th e countr y s o that h e can brea k with hi m safely , bu t tha t leave s him with n o imaginabl e future .

Although Pi p feel s hi s "aversion " t o b e "insurmountable " (ch . 40) , hi s attitude towar d Magwitc h change s dramaticall y withi n a relatively shor t period o f time . Whe n h e visit s Magwitc h a t Clara's , h e i s no t "a t al l clear o r comfortable " abou t breakin g wit h hi m onc e the y ar e abroad ,

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and h e i s surprise d a t ho w "heav y an d anxious " hi s "heart " i s "a t parting fro m him " (ch . 46) . Pi p attribute s hi s chang e t o Magwitch' s being "softened—indefinably , fo r I coul d no t hav e sai d how" ; an d Herbert share s hi s ne w impressio n o f Magwitch : "D o yo u know , Han del, h e improves? " (ch . 50) . I find Pip' s explanatio n o f hi s chang e t o b e both inadequat e an d misleading , an d I a m suspiciou s o f hi s us e o f Herbert t o confirm it . It is not Magwitc h wh o ha s softene d bu t Pip , wh o tends t o projec t an d externaliz e an d t o se e othe r peopl e i n th e ligh t o f his needs an d fears . This i s no t th e first tim e Herber t i s use d t o validat e perception s tha t are distinctivel y Pip's . Whe n Jagger s appear s a t th e Thre e Joll y Bargemen, Pi p describe s hi s manne r a s "expressiv e o f knowin g some thing secre t abou t ever y on e o f u s tha t woul d effectuall y d o fo r eac h individual i f he chose to disclos e it" (ch . 18) . This is so clearly expressiv e of Pip' s concer n abou t hi s ow n secre t tha t ther e ca n b e littl e doub t tha t his perceptio n o f Jaggers i s colored b y hi s anxiety . Pi p describe s Jagger s again an d agai n i n ways that reflec t hi s own preoccupations . Jaggers ha s an "ai r o f bullyin g suspicion " an d throw s hi s finger a t Pi p "a s muc h a s to expres s tha t h e kne w al l kind s o f thing s t o m y disparagement , i f h e only chos e t o mentio n them. " Thi s reflect s Pip' s fea r tha t other s suspec t his secre t an d tha t th e thing s be know s t o hi s disparagemen t wil l b e revealed. Jaggers's masterfulnes s oppresse s hi m because , b y making hi m feel "a t a disadvantage, " i t remind s hi m "o f tha t ol d tim e whe n I ha d been pu t upo n a tombstone " (ch . 36) . Pi p i s particularly aggravate d b y Jaggers o n hi s twenty-firs t birthday , an d h e tell s u s tha t Herbert' s reac tions ar e exactl y th e sam e a s hi s own : "M r Jagger s mad e no t m e alon e intensely melancholy , because , afte r h e wa s gone , Herber t sai d . . . tha t he thought h e must hav e committed a felony an d forgotte n th e detail s of it, he fel t s o dejecte d an d guilty. " Thi s i s a reflectio n o f Pip' s preoccupa tions, not Herbert's ; there is no reason fo r Herber t t o have this response . When Pi p tell s Herber t "th e whol e o f th e secret " i n orde r t o explai n Magwitch's presence , h e see s hi s "ow n feeling s reflecte d i n Herbert' s face": "and , no t leas t amon g them, my jepugnance towar d th e man wh o had don e s o muc h fo r me " (ch . 41) . Afte r Magwitc h goe s t o hi s ow n lodgings, Herbert "unconsciously " take s th e chai r i n which h e had bee n sitting, bu t whe n h e realize s wha t h e ha s done , h e " start[s] ou t o f it , pushe[s] it away, and [takes ] another." "H e ha d n o occasion t o say , afte r that," explain s Pip , "tha t h e ha d conceive d a n aversio n fo r m y patron. "

Great Expectations | 13 3 Again, wh y shoul d Herbert' s feeling s b e s o simila r t o Pip' s whe n Mag witch doe s not hav e the sam e significanc e fo r him ? It is difficult t o say what is going on in these episodes. Is Pip imaginin g Herbert's behavior , whic h include s word s a s well a s look s an d gestures , is he distorting o r amplifyin g i t in orde r t o suppor t hi s version o f reality , or i s Dickens manipulatin g Herber t s o as to confirm th e appropriatenes s of Pip' s response s an d hi s reliabilit y a s a reporter ? Give n th e fac t tha t Pip is a profoundly insecure , fearful , self-castigatin g person , h e is boun d to overreac t t o peopl e o r event s tha t trigge r hi s anxietie s an d t o giv e u s a highl y subjectiv e accoun t o f them . I s he reall y looke d a t s o frequentl y with scorn , disdain , aversion , indignation , an d contempt , o r i s he imag ining o r exaggeratin g th e behavio r o f other s becaus e o f hypersensitivit y or externalize d self-hate ? Pip i s so melanchol y o n hi s twenty-firs t birthda y becaus e "comin g o f age a t al l seeme d hardl y wort h whil e i n suc h a guarde d an d suspiciou s world a s [Jaggers ] mad e o f it " (ch . 36) ; but, whateve r ma y b e th e trut h about Jaggers, Pip himself i s "guarde d an d suspicious, " an d understand ably so , given hi s experiences . H e alway s anticipate s rejectio n an d pun ishment an d ofte n fear s fo r hi s life . Afte r hi s fight wit h Herbert , h e i s afraid tha t th e "myrmidon s o f Justice " ma y b e "lyin g i n ambush " for hi m a t Sati s House , o r tha t Mis s Havisha m migh t "tak e persona l vengeance" b y drawin g a pisto l an d shootin g him , o r tha t " a ban d o f mercenaries" migh t "fal l upo n m e in the brewery , an d cuf f m e until I am no more " (ch . 12) . When Orlic k use s the expression , "I' m jiggered, " Pi p has a "belie f tha t i f h e ha d jiggere d m e personally , h e woul d hav e don e it wit h a shar p an d twiste d hook " (ch . 17) . Orlic k i s a n ominou s presence, to be sure, but Pip is prone to experience the world a s threaten ing. While waitin g fo r Herber t a t Barnard' s o n hi s first da y i n London , he open s th e staircas e windo w an d nearl y "behead[ s himself] , fo r th e lines had rotte d away , and i t came dow n lik e the guillotine " (ch . 21) . Pip see s th e worl d wit h a n hallucinator y intensity . H e invoke s Her bert, an d sometime s others , t o confir m hi s versio n o f realit y becaus e h e may b e diml y awar e o f hi s tendencie s towar d distortio n an d need s t o assure himsel f o f hi s menta l balance . H e defend s himsel f agains t self doubt an d self-accusatio n b y convincin g himsel f tha t h e i s reactin g appropriately t o the way things are . He feels guilt y about hi s repugnanc e toward th e ma n wh o ha s don e s o muc h fo r him , bu t i f Herber t feel s a similar aversion , i t is not h e bu t Magwitc h wh o i s to blame . By exagger-

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ating th e externa l world , Pi p justifies hi s extreme response . It is impossible t o sa y whethe r Herber t actuall y mirror s Pip' s feelings , bu t Pip' s reactions ar e s o intens e an d idiosyncrati c tha t i t seem s highl y unlikel y that Herber t share s them t o the exten t tha t Pi p reports . It i s quit e possibl e tha t i n additio n t o bein g a n expressio n o f Pip' s needs, Herbert' s mirrorin g o f Pip' s emotion s i s a rhetorica l devic e b y which Dicken s validate s Pip' s reliabilit y a s a narrator . Dicken s seem s i n many way s t o collaborat e i n th e confirmatio n o f Pip' s sens e o f reality . He present s Pi p a s livin g i n a n unjust , threatenin g worl d t o whic h hi s reactions ar e appropriate . Pi p must reac t a s he does , given his character , but livin g i n suc h a worl d generate s anxietie s an d defense s tha t mak e i t impossible fo r hi m t o b e th e goo d analyst , observer , an d judg e tha t Dickens woul d hav e u s believ e hi m t o be . When , fro m th e implie d author's poin t o f view , Pi p th e acto r goe s astray , Pi p th e narrato r call s attention t o hi s errors , bu t ther e i s n o rectificatio n o f th e error s o f th e narrator, o r o f the error s o f th e acto r tha t autho r an d narrato r share . Perhaps th e mos t vivi d exampl e o f Dickens ' confirmatio n o f Pip' s sense of the world i s his invention o f the lime-kil n episode . Pip grows u p feeling tha t h e lives in a n environmen t i n which peopl e ar e eage r t o hav e his life , an d Orlic k i s one o f th e man y wh o see m ou t t o ge t him . Orlic k threatens hi m a t on e poin t wit h a "red-ho t bar " an d tell s hi m tha t i t i s "necessary t o mak e u p th e fire, onc e i n seve n years , with a liv e boy , an d that I migh t conside r mysel f fuel " (ch . 15) . Dicken s prove s tha t Pip' s sense o f bein g endangere d i s no t a paranoi d delusio n b y havin g Orlic k reveal tha t h e ha d ofte n though t o f killin g Pi p whe n h e wa s smal l (ch . 53) an d the n actuall y attemp t t o d o awa y wit h him . Man y critic s hav e seen tha t Orlic k act s ou t Pip' s murderou s wishe s towar d hi s sister , although i t i s misleadin g t o us e thi s a s a primar y explanatio n o f Pip' s guilt. What ha s no t bee n seen , I think, i s that Orlic k i s als o a n agen t o f Mrs. Joe's wish fo r Pip' s death. He threatens t o brin g abou t precisel y th e kind o f nonexistenc e tha t hi s siste r desire d fo r Pip . B y confirmin g th e deepest fear s o f Pip' s childhood , Dicken s obscure s hi s psychologica l problems an d make s hi s anxieties see m reasonable. 1

Pip's secon d transformatio n begin s wit h hi s shiftin g attitud e towar d Magwitch, a complicated phenomeno n tha t h e himsel f bu t diml y under stands. After learnin g that Magwitc h i s his benefactor, Pi p perceives hi m (in Herbert' s words! ) a s a "fierce " an d "desperate " ma n an d i s filled

Great Expectations | 13 5 with drea d an d repugnanc e (ch . 51) . He describe s Magwitc h t o Herber t as "th e miserabl e wretc h wh o terrified " hi m i n hi s "childhood, " bu t th e young Pi p had als o identifie d wit h Magwitc h a s a fello w sufferer . Whe n Magwitch describe s hi s younge r sel f a s " a ragge d littl e creatur " an d recounts a histor y i n whic h h e ha s "bee n don e everythin g to , prett y well—except hanged, " Pi p begins to empathiz e wit h hi m again . He feel s "great pity " unti l a "loo k o f affection " revive s hi s abhorrenc e (ch . 42) . The narrato r ask s ho w muc h o f hi s "shrinking " fro m Magwitc h "migh t be trace d t o Estella " an d compare s th e stat e o f min d i n whic h h e ha d tried t o ri d himsel f "o f th e stai n o f priso n befor e meetin g he r . . . wit h the stat e o f min d i n whic h [he ] no w reflecte d o n th e abys s betwee n Estella i n he r prid e an d beauty , an d th e returne d transpor t who m [he ] harboured" (ch . 43) . Onc e agai n Pi p experience s th e contras t betwee n his idealize d an d despise d selve s a s a contras t betwee n Estell a an d a symbol o f hi s identit y a s a n "offender. " H e recoil s fro m a n affiliatio n that woul d mak e i t impossible fo r hi m to transcen d tha t identity . Magwitch doe s see m softene d t o Pi p when h e see s him a t Clara's , bu t that i s the result o f a chang e i n Pip' s attitud e rathe r tha n it s cause . Pip' s softer feeling s towar d Magwitc h ar e liberate d b y hi s los s o f Estella . When h e learn s tha t Magwitc h i s his benefactor , h e realize s tha t Estell a was no t destine d fo r him . H e canno t accep t losin g he r an d shrink s fro m Magwitch a s a way o f holdin g ont o hi s hopes. He visit s Miss Havisha m not onl y t o see k mone y fo r Herbert , bu t als o t o declar e hi s lov e fo r Estella. "Perfectl y unmoved, " Estell a announce s he r engagement t o Bent ley Drumml e (ch . 44) , an d Pi p return s t o Londo n feelin g tha t the y have parte d forever . H e finds Magwitc h softene d becaus e a chang e ha s occurred i n himself . No w tha t Estell a ca n neve r b e his , h e ha s fa r les s reason t o shrin k fro m hi s benefactor . When Pi p discover s Estella' s parentage , hi s positiv e feeling s towar d Magwitch ar e strongly reinforced . Afte r Herber t inform s hi m that Moll y and Magwitc h ha d a child , Pi p i s "seize d wit h a feveris h conviction " that h e ough t t o "hun t th e matte r down, " althoug h h e doe s no t kno w whether h e i s doin g thi s "fo r Estella' s sake " o r becaus e h e i s "gla d t o transfer to " Magwitc h "som e ray s o f th e romanti c interes t tha t ha d s o long surrounde d her " (ch . 51) . H e i s certainl y no t doin g i t fo r Estella' s sake, since , a s Jaggers point s out , th e revelatio n o f he r parentag e woul d disgrace her. If Estella i s Magwitch's daughter , however , sh e is no longe r far abov e Pip , an d thi s assuage s hi s sens e o f inferiority . Pi p i s unawar e of thi s motive , bu t h e is conscious o f hi s desir e t o inves t Magwitc h wit h

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romantic interest . With the collapse of his dream o f marrying Estella an d restoring Sati s House , Pi p begin s t o develo p a ne w fantas y i n whic h h e will still do "th e shinin g deed s of the young Knigh t o f the romance" (ch . 29) by saving the father o f the princess whom h e has lost but still adores. Pip's shiftin g attitud e towar d Magwitc h i s also par t o f a large r trans formation precipitate d b y th e collaps e o f hi s dream . Whe n h e begin s "fully t o kno w ho w wrecked " h e is , the "sharpes t an d deepes t pai n o f all" i s th e though t tha t h e ha d deserte d Jo e fo r Magwitc h (ch . 39) . H e had fel t compelle d t o deser t Jo e i n orde r t o hav e a hop e o f Estella , an d he had manage d hi s guilt b y adopting he r perspective . When i t turns ou t that h e ha s abandone d Jo e fo r a "convict , guilt y o f I kne w no t wha t crimes," Pi p ha s n o defens e agains t hi s self-hate . H e long s fo r th e "comfort" h e woul d deriv e fro m Joe' s "simplicit y an d fidelity," bu t h e cannot g o bac k no w becaus e o f hi s sens e o f hi s "worthles s conduct. " This i s th e beginnin g o f a proces s i n whic h Pi p abandon s th e idealize d image h e had modele d o n Estell a an d replace s i t wit h on e modele d o n a glorified versio n o f Joe. In the earl y stage s o f the process Pi p experience s a grea t dea l o f self-hate , bu t a s he begins to behav e in ways that mee t hi s new standards , hi s prid e i s graduall y restored . H e embark s o n anothe r search fo r glor y i n whic h h e become s th e nobl y forgiving , faithfu l Pi p who think s th e bes t o f other s an d littl e o f himself . When h e visits Miss Havisham agai n t o conclud e th e arrangement fo r Herbert, Pip' s secon d transformatio n i s well unde r way . A t th e sigh t o f his misery whe n Estell a rejecte d him , Mis s Havisha m ha d looke d a t Pi p with " a ghastl y star e o f pity an d remorse " (ch . 44); she now ask s i f he is "very unhappy " an d hope s h e can forgiv e he r someda y (ch . 49). Instea d of punishin g he r wit h hi s suffering a s h e ha d don e before , Pi p replie s that h e ca n forgiv e he r immediately : "m y lif e ha s bee n a blin d an d thankless one ; and I want forgivenes s an d directio n fa r to o much , t o b e bitter wit h you. " Pi p minimizes th e wrong s tha t hav e bee n don e t o him , turns hi s criticis m inward , an d forgive s i n hope s o f bein g forgive n him self. Whe n Mis s Havisha m grieve s fo r wha t sh e ha s done , Pi p assure s her tha t sh e ha s don e "ver y little " t o injur e him , tell s he r t o "dismiss " him fro m he r "conscience, " an d dwell s o n th e har m don e t o Estell a an d herself. Muc h lik e Jo e i n relatio n t o hi s fathe r an d hi s wife , Pi p denie s the importanc e o f hi s ow n injurie s an d think s onl y o f th e suffering o f others. With th e collaps e o f hi s ques t fo r gentility , Pi p begin s t o se e himsel f from th e perspective s o f Jo e an d Biddy , Herber t an d Clara , an d eve n

Great Expectations | 13 7 Magwitch, an d t o despis e himsel f fo r hi s snobbery , greed , an d ingrati tude. H e feel s "deservedl y humbled " (ch . 52 ) whe n h e think s o f hi s "miserable errors " (ch . 53 ) an d i s full o f profoun d "remorse " (ch . 52) . Despite hi s initia l feelin g tha t h e ca n "never , never , neve r und o wha t [he] had done " (ch . 39) , he tries t o comba t hi s despai r b y correctin g hi s mistakes an d provin g himsel f worth y o f th e people h e now idealizes . Among Pip' s miserabl e error s ar e th e "wretche d hankering s afte r money an d gentility that had disturbe d [his ] boyhood" (ch . 39). Winning Estella wa s t o b e the mean s o f confirmin g hi s worth, gentilit y wa s t o b e the mean s o f winnin g Estella , an d spendin g unearne d mone y wa s th e mark o f gentility . When h e goe s t o London , h e compulsivel y engage s i n lavish expenditur e becaus e he needs to assure himself o f hi s status. Now , in orde r t o cleans e himself , h e ha s a n equall y compulsiv e nee d t o le t money sli p through hi s fingers, despit e th e fac t tha t h e i s deeply i n debt . He reject s Magwitch' s benefit s a t first becaus e o f hi s shrinkin g fro m th e convict, bu t h e doe s s o later , t o th e disgus t o f Wemmic k an d Jaggers , because he needs to prove that h e is no longe r a greedy parasite. He ask s Miss Havisha m t o hel p hi m complet e hi s arrangement s fo r Herber t bu t refuses he r offe r t o d o somethin g fo r him . Assistin g hi s frien d i s s o important becaus e h e mus t tr y t o compensat e fo r havin g le d Herber t into expensiv e habits . The mistak e fo r whic h Pi p hates himself mos t i s his "thanklessnes s t o Joe" (ch . 52) , who m h e no w see s a s a tru e an d nobl e ma n wh o ha s always stoo d b y hi m an d who m h e ha s repai d b y abandonment . H e i s too ashame d o f himself t o see k forgiveness, bu t h e tries to repair hi s selfimage b y behaving towar d Magwitc h a s he should hav e behave d towar d Joe an d a s Joe an d Magwitc h hav e behave d towar d him . Pip has bee n t o Magwitch a s Jo e ha s bee n t o Pi p i n tha t h e i s th e onl y perso n wh o empathized wit h Magwitc h an d showe d hi m compassion , an d Mag witch's adoptio n o f Pi p i s partly motivate d b y gratitude . I t i s als o moti vated b y hi s desir e t o us e Pi p a s a mean s t o ris e abov e thos e wh o hav e despised hi m a s a n "ignoran t commo n fellow" : "I f I ain' t a gentleman , nor ye t ain't go t n o learning , I' m th e owne r o f such " (ch . 39) . Magwitc h has create d Pi p t o b e hi s instrumen t o f vindictiv e triumph , muc h a s Miss Havisha m ha s don e wit h Estella . Th e objectionabl e aspect s o f Magwitch's motivatio n ar e clea r enoug h t o Pi p a t th e outset , bu t onc e his defense s begi n t o shift , the y ar e obscure d b y hi s nee d t o idealiz e others an d blam e himself . He come s t o se e Magwitch a s " a muc h bette r man tha n [he ] ha d bee n t o Joe, " a ma n "wh o ha d fel t affectionately ,

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gratefully, an d generousl y toward s [him ] with grea t constanc y throug h a series o f years " (ch . 54) . Pip incorporate s Magwitc h int o hi s ne w ideal ized image , i n whic h affection , gratitude , an d constanc y ar e primar y values. Pip feel s tha t h e ca n neve r redee m himsel f i n relatio n t o Joe , bu t th e fact tha t Magwitc h i s in danger provide s hi m with a wonderful opportu nity t o aton e fo r hi s errors . Magwitc h ha s riske d hi s lif e i n orde r t o se e Pip, an d Pi p ca n d o n o les s t o ensur e hi s safety . H e fall s int o Orlick' s trap becaus e h e coul d neve r forgiv e himsel f i f an y har m shoul d befal l Magwitch throug h hi s no t respondin g t o th e anonymou s letter . Th e failure o f th e escap e give s Pi p fres h opportunitie s t o und o hi s mistake s and confir m hi s transformation . H e i s to o humbl e t o boas t o f hi s self sacrifice, bu t he calls attention t o the contrast betwee n hi s former worth less conduct an d hi s present fidelity: "Pleas e God , I will be as true to yo u as yo u hav e bee n t o me! " (ch . 54) . He undoe s hi s earlie r snobber y i n a spectacular wa y b y holdin g Magwitch' s han d durin g th e trial , an d h e reports tha t th e audienc e pointe d dow n "mos t o f al l a t hi m an d me. " Instead o f feelin g ashame d o f th e connection , Pi p glorie s i n thi s publi c display o f hi s loyalty . H e i s absolve d o f hi s guil t fo r onc e havin g mean t to abando n Magwitc h b y th e word s o f th e dyin g man : "Thank'ee , dea r boy, Thank'ee. Go d bles s you! You've neve r deserte d me , dear boy " (ch . 56). The retur n o f Magwitc h an d th e los s o f Estell a brin g t o a n en d th e search fo r glor y tha t ha s bee n th e focu s o f Pip' s lif e sinc e th e da y o f hi s momentous visi t t o Mis s Havisham , bu t h e soo n embark s o n a ne w search fo r glor y i n which hi s shinin g deed s hav e a self-sacrificia l charac ter. H e suffer s painfu l burn s rescuin g Mis s Havisham , risk s hi s lif e helping Estella' s father , give s u p chance s o f mone y fro m Magwitc h an d Miss Havisham, sacrifice s al l claim to gentility b y standing b y Magwitc h after hi s capture , an d make s himsel f il l throug h hi s exertion s o n Mag witch's behalf . Hi s idealize d imag e i s no longe r modele d o n Estella , bu t on dutiful , loving , forgivin g peopl e lik e Joe, Biddy , Herbert , an d Clara , and grateful , constant , generou s one s like Magwitch . When hi s opportunitie s fo r heroi c sacrific e com e t o a n en d wit h th e death o f Magwitch , Pi p i s lef t wit h tw o unresolve d problems : ho w t o effect a reconciliatio n wit h Jo e an d wha t t o d o wit h th e res t o f hi s life . His solutio n i s to regres s t o a childlik e dependency . Whe n Jo e come s t o

Great Expectations | 13 9 care fo r hi m durin g hi s illness , he fancie s h e i s "littl e Pi p again, " enjoy s being carrie d abou t a s thoug h h e wer e stil l a "smal l helples s creature, " and pretend s t o b e weake r tha n h e i s s o tha t Jo e wil l continu e t o trea t him lik e a chil d (ch . 57) . A s h e become s stronger , h e remain s morall y dependent o n Joe . H e doe s no t kno w i f Joe i s awar e o f hi s "chang e o f fortune" an d hesitate s t o brin g u p th e subject : " I wa s s o doubtfu l o f myself now , and pu t s o much trus t i n him, that I could no t satisf y mysel f whether I ought t o refe r t o i t whe n h e di d not. " Havin g mad e dreadfu l mistakes whe n governe d b y hi s ambition , Pi p want s t o avoi d furthe r self-hate b y submitting himsel f t o Joe. This is not a transitional stat e bu t the final stag e of Pip' s development . One evidence o f this is the narrator's treatmen t o f Joe. The reborn Pi p has a powerfu l nee d t o inves t Jo e wit h absolut e mora l authority , an d this lead s hi m t o idealiz e Joe , bot h i n th e presen t an d retrospectively : "Exactly wha t h e ha d bee n i n m y eye s then, h e was i n my eye s still : just as simpl y faithful , jus t a s simpl y right " (ch . 57) . Pip's first evaluatio n o f Joe i s mor e balance d an d accurate : "H e wa s a mild , good-natured , sweet-tempered, easy-going , foolish , dea r fellow— a sor t o f Hercule s i n strength, an d als o i n weakness " (ch . 2) . Thi s i s cas t i n th e educate d language o f th e narrator , bu t i t seem s t o represen t th e unidealizin g perspective o f th e child . Littl e Pi p i s no t sur e o f th e meanin g o f bein g "brought u p b y hand, " bu t knowin g tha t hi s siste r lay s he r "har d an d heavy hand " o n he r husban d a s well a s himself, h e suppose s tha t h e an d Joe "wer e bot h brough t u p b y hand." Jo e i s his "fellow-sufferer " who m he treats "a s a larger specie s o f child. " When Pi p put s hi s brea d an d butte r dow n th e le g o f hi s trouser s i n order t o sav e i t fo r Magwitch , Joe think s h e has bolte d i t an d carrie s o n so tha t Mrs . Jo e become s furiou s wit h bot h o f them . Sinc e h e won' t answer he r question s bu t keep s addressin g himsel f t o Pip , sh e take s him b y th e whisker s an d knock s hi s hea d agains t th e wall : "Now , perhaps you'l l mentio n what' s th e matte r . . . yo u starin g grea t stuc k pig" (ch . 2) . Joe looks a t her "i n a helpless way," take s " a helples s bite, " and look s a t Pi p again . Whe n Jo e eventuall y reveal s tha t Pi p ha s bolte d his food (a s he thinks), his wife dose s hi m with tar-wate r also , "becaus e he ha d a turn. " "Judgin g fro m myself, " observe s Pip , " I shoul d sa y h e certainly ha d a turn afterwards , i f h e ha d non e before. " Tar-wate r i s a n emetic. In th e earl y chapter s o f th e novel , Jo e i s a comi c figure a t whos e discomfiture w e laugh , partl y becaus e o f th e incongruit y o f a muscula r

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blacksmith bein g knocke d about , scolded , an d dose d lik e a child . H e means wel l bu t canno t protec t Pi p becaus e o f hi s inabilit y t o asser t himself. H e offer s a grea t dea l o f psychologica l comfort , however , thu s earning Pip' s gratitude . Pi p begin s t o admir e hi m whe n h e explain s wh y he does not "rise " against his wife an d wishes he could take al l the abus e on himsel f (ch . 7) . Thi s i s th e long-suffering , loving , self-sacrificia l Jo e on who m Pi p model s himsel f whe n hi s expectation s collaps e an d who m as narrator h e celebrates whenever h e can . Once Pi p begin s t o drea m o f becomin g a gentleman , h e measure s himself agains t Estella , whil e a s narrato r h e measure s himsel f agains t Joe. Jo e i s th e mora l nor m throug h mos t o f th e book , despit e th e weakness an d foll y tha t ha d seeme d eviden t t o th e seven-year-ol d Pi p and presumabl y t o Dicken s whe n h e bega n t o writ e th e novel . Joe' s mixture o f strengt h an d weaknes s become s "hi s combination o f strengt h with gentleness " (ch . 18) . "Plai n contente d Joe " i s th e sourc e o f "an y good" tha t intermixe s itsel f wit h th e apprenticeshi p o f "restles s aspirin g discontented" Pip . I t i s becaus e Jo e i s "faithful " tha t Pi p doe s no t ru n away an d becaus e Joe ha s " a stron g sens e o f th e virtue o f industry " tha t Pip work s "wit h tolerabl e zea l agains t th e grain. " Thi s testimon y t o the "influence " o f "amiabl e honest-hearte d duty-going " Jo e (ch . 14 ) i s composed fro m th e perspectiv e o f Pi p th e narrato r wh o need s t o prov e his matur e wisdo m b y celebratin g Joe' s virtue s an d denyin g an y t o hi s earlier self . When Joe refuses al l thought o f compensatio n fo r th e los s of his apprentice , Jaggers look s a t hi m "a s i f h e considere d hi m a foo l fo r his disinterestedness, " muc h a s h e late r look s a t Pi p whe n h e imitate s Joe b y not takin g mone y fro m Magwitc h an d Mis s Havisham . Th e ma n whom th e ambitiou s Pi p "wa s s o read y t o leav e an d s o unthankfu l to " becomes littl e les s tha n a deit y t o th e "educated " Pip : " O dea r goo d faithful tende r Joe, I feel th e lovin g tremble o f you r han d upo n m y arm , as solemnl y thi s da y a s i f i t had bee n th e rustl e o f a n angel' s wing! " (ch . 18).

Pip's nee d t o reestablis h hi s relationshi p wit h Jo e i s only temporaril y satisfied b y hi s illness . Sinc e Jo e ha s n o wa y o f knowin g o f hi s secon d transformation, h e withdraw s a s Pi p become s stronger , an d Pi p blame s himself, havin g give n Joe "reaso n t o doub t [his ] constancy, an d t o thin k that i n prosperity " h e woul d "cas t hi m off " (ch . 57) . Pi p respond s t o Joe's departur e b y decidin g t o propos e t o Biddy , who m h e wil l sho w "how humble d an d repentant " h e is . I n hi s imaginar y declaration , h e addresses Bidd y not a s a prospective partne r wit h who m h e will have a n

Great Expectations | 14 1 adult relationship , bu t a s a mothe r wh o wil l comfor t hi m an d tel l hi m what t o d o with hi s life: "i f yo u ca n receive me like a forgiven chil d (an d indeed I a m a s sorry , Biddy , an d hav e a s muc h nee d o f a hushin g voic e and a soothin g hand) , I hope I a m a littl e worthie r o f yo u tha n I was— not much, bu t a little." Notice ho w careful Pi p is to preserve his humilit y while offering himsel f a s improved. It will rest with Biddy to say whether he wil l "wor k a t th e forge wit h Joe, " o r tr y fo r a "differen t occupatio n down i n thi s country, " o r accep t Herbert' s invitatio n t o joi n hi m i n a foreign land . To o distrustfu l o f himsel f t o decid e hi s ow n course , Pi p wants t o b e directe d entirel y b y peopl e wh o hav e alway s bee n right , "whose simpl e faith an d clea r home-wisdom " h e has "proved " (ch . 58) . The discover y tha t Jo e an d Bidd y hav e marrie d leave s Pi p wit h n o alternative bu t t o mov e i n wit h Herber t an d Clara . Hi s accoun t o f th e next eleve n year s i s brief , bu t ever y detai l i s important . H e live s "fru gally," pay s hi s debts , an d maintain s " a constan t correspondenc e wit h Biddy an d Joe " (ch . 58) . He begin s a s a cler k bu t eventuall y become s a partner i n th e firm: "W e wer e no t i n a gran d wa y o f business , bu t w e had a goo d name , an d worke d fo r ou r profits , an d di d ver y well. " Herbert i s s o industriou s an d ap t tha t Pi p wonder s ho w h e ha d "con ceived tha t ol d ide a o f hi s inaptitude " unti l h e i s "enlightene d b y th e reflection" tha t th e inaptitud e "ha d neve r been " i n Herber t "a t all " bu t had bee n in himself . Pip i s stil l tryin g t o und o pas t mistakes , an d hi s versio n o f realit y i s still ful l o f distortion s an d blin d spots . Hi s frugalit y i s th e opposit e o f his previou s lavis h expenditure , h e pay s hi s ow n debt s instea d o f de pending o n others , an d h e doe s no t tr y t o becom e uncommo n bu t i s content wit h a modes t succes s achieve d throug h hones t har d work . Hi s models ar e Joe, who eve r doe s "hi s dut y i n his way o f life " (ch . 35) , an d Herbert, wh o announce d a t th e outse t tha t h e ha d hi s "ow n brea d t o earn" an d woul d no t tak e anythin g fro m hi s fathe r i f h e ha d i t t o giv e (ch. 21) . Pi p i s ou t t o prov e tha t h e i s n o longe r a restless , ambitiou s parasite bu t a matur e perso n wh o take s responsibilit y fo r himsel f an d earns hi s own wa y i n the world . What Pi p leave s ou t i s th e fac t tha t h e an d Herber t hav e obtaine d their position s wit h mone y supplie d b y Magwitc h an d Mis s Havisham . He blame s himsel f fo r hi s ol d ide a o f Herbert' s inaptitud e i n orde r t o idealize hi s frien d an d obscur e th e fac t tha t neithe r h e no r Herber t ha s truly mad e i t o n hi s own . Hi s origina l perceptio n o f Herber t ha d bee n supported b y a wealth o f detail :

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Every morning, with a n ai r ever new, Herbert wen t into the Cit y to look about him . I ofte n pai d hi m a visi t i n th e dar k back-roo m i n whic h h e consorted wit h a n ink-jar , a hat-peg, a coal-box, a string-box , a n alma nack, a desk and stool, and a ruler; and I do not remember that I ever saw him do anything else but look about him. If we all did what we undertake to do , a s faithfull y a s Herber t did , w e migh t liv e i n a Republi c o f th e Virtues. (Ch. 34) Like Joe, Herbert begin s as a comic figure. He has "greate r expectations " than Pip' s (ch . 22 ) bu t n o ide a o f ho w t o mak e a living . H e succeed s only becaus e Pi p become s hi s secre t benefactor . Whe n Herber t proudl y proclaims that he is "working u p towards a partnership," Pip comments, "Poor fellow ! H e littl e suspecte d wit h whos e money " (ch . 41). In Pip's mind, however , an d i n the rhetoric o f th e novel, awarenes s o f the rol e o f Magwitch' s mone y i s suppressed , an d emphasi s i s place d o n Pip's benevolenc e an d Herbert' s "industr y an d readiness " (ch . 58) . Th e fact tha t Pi p is able to find a place for himsel f becaus e o f his earlier goo d deed support s a themati c structur e tha t i s simultaneousl y subverte d b y the fac t tha t neithe r Herber t no r Pi p coul d hav e achieve d economi c independence withou t th e kin d o f patronag e tha t Pi p no w feel s virtuou s for rejecting . Despite th e fac t tha t neithe r Herber t no r Pi p illustrate s th e them e o f earning one' s wa y quit e a s Dicken s seem s t o intend , the y displa y th e virtue o f industry onc e they get their chance ; and i t might b e argued tha t Pip doe s achiev e th e maturit y th e nove l claim s fo r him . " I wor k prett y hard fo r a sufficien t living, " h e tell s Estella , "an d therefor e . . . I d o well!" (ch . 49). But Pip is not doin g well psychologically. H e successfull y imitates Jo e b y bein g plain , contented , hard-working , duty-goin g Pip , and thi s enable s hi m t o fee l bette r abou t himself , bu t h e ha s t o pa y a high pric e fo r thi s rathe r limite d achievement . Ther e i s no evidenc e tha t he come s t o trus t himsel f an y mor e tha n h e di d whe n h e was recoverin g from hi s illness , and h e seem s t o hav e withdrawn fro m activ e livin g an d subordinated himsel f permanentl y t o Herber t an d Clara , Joe an d Bidd y in orde r t o ensur e hi s rectitude. H e live s with th e on e couple , maintain s a constan t correspondenc e wit h th e other , an d show s n o interes t i n having a lif e o f hi s own . Herber t an d Clar a sa y tha t h e "mus t marry, " but Pi p doe s no t thin k h e will : " I hav e s o settle d dow n i n thei r home , that it' s no t a t al l likely . I a m alread y quit e a n ol d bachelor " (ch . 59) . Pip i s s o afrai d o f himsel f tha t h e lead s a sterile , embedde d existenc e i n

Great Expectations | 14 3 order t o kee p himsel f straight . Hi s tru e psychologica l stat e i s obscure d by the novel's celebration o f hi s defenses . The origina l endin g o f Great Expectations i s quit e compatibl e wit h my readin g o f Pip' s character . Drumml e ha s died , Estell a ha s remarried , and Pip' s intervie w wit h he r assure s hi m tha t suffering "ha d give n he r a heart t o understan d wha t [his ] hear t use d t o be. " Give n Pip' s massiv e resignation—he i s once agai n trying to defen d himsel f agains t bein g ba d by no t wantin g ver y much—an d hi s anxiou s dependenc e o n hi s mora l exemplars, Pi p i s likel y t o hav e renounce d al l though t o f Estella , a s h e has th e value s sh e represents , an d t o b e frightene d b y th e ide a o f a relationship with her . I believe him when h e tells Biddy, in both versions , that "tha t poo r drea m . . . ha s al l gon e by " (ch . 59) . I n th e origina l ending Estell a i s safel y unavailable , an d Pi p i s gla d t o hav e seen he r because sh e confirms hi s belie f i n moral growt h throug h suffering . H e i s not frustrate d b y he r remarriag e becaus e sh e i s n o longe r a n objec t o f desire. He r suffering ha s enable d he r t o understan d wha t h e ha d fel t i n the past . This is much mor e compatibl e wit h th e mimetic portrayal o f Pi p tha n his statement i n the revised ending that sh e has "alway s held [her ] place" in hi s heart . Th e fac t tha t she , too, ha s bee n "ben t an d broke n . . . int o a bette r shape " woul d mak e he r les s threatening , bu t s o muc h tim e ha s passed an d the y ar e bot h s o change d tha t I d o no t understan d wh y h e wants t o marr y her . Hi s behavio r seem s ou t o f keepin g wit h hi s charac ter. Som e critics, indeed, have tried t o harmonize th e revised endin g wit h the res t o f th e nove l b y arguin g tha t Pi p see s "n o shado w o f anothe r parting" fro m Estell a becaus e they will now part forever . I cannot accep t that reading , bu t I ca n understan d th e temptatio n t o impos e i t o n th e text. The revised endin g provides closure at the expense of verisimilitude , while th e origina l endin g provide s verisimilitud e a t th e expens e o f clo sure.

9 Jane Eyre

As we have seen , psychological analysi s o f realistically draw n characters reveal s the m t o b e "creation s insid e a creation " wh o ar e "often engage d i n treason agains t the main schem e o f the book " (Forste r 1927, 64) . In nineteenth-centur y fiction , suc h character s ten d t o subver t two scheme s i n particular : th e educatio n patter n tha t w e find i n suc h novels a s Emma (Pari s 1978b) , Great Expectations, an d The Mill on the Floss (Pari s 1974) , an d th e vindicatio n patter n tha t w e find i n suc h novels a s Mansfield Park (Pari s 1978b) , Henry Esmond, an d Jane Eyre. In the educatio n pattern , whic h reflect s th e archetyp e o f th e fortunat e fall, th e protagonists ' flaws lea d the m t o mak e mistake s tha t brin g suffering t o themselves an d others , and ou t o f this suffering come s mora l and emotiona l growth . I n th e vindicatio n pattern , whic h reflect s th e Cinderella archetype , deservin g protagonist s ar e discriminate d agains t or devalue d b y parenta l figures an d th e surroundin g community , bu t they prov e thei r wort h an d eventuall y receiv e widesprea d approva l an d an appropriat e socia l position . Thes e pattern s hav e tragi c an d comi c forms, an d som e novels contain bot h educatio n an d vindication patterns . In Middlemarch, fo r instance , Lydgat e i s educate d whil e Dorothe a i s vindicated; i n The Mayor of Casterbridge, Elizabeth-Jan e i s vindicate d while Henchar d i s educated . Althoug h Jane Eyre i s predominantl y a novel o f vindication , i t als o present s Jan e a s undergoin g a proces s o f moral growth . A Horneya n approac h show s th e supposedl y educate d character s t o be les s matur e an d th e vindicate d character s t o b e les s admirabl e tha n plot an d rhetori c suggest . I n novel s o f vindication , th e protagonist s ar e often mimeticall y portraye d a s havin g extremel y hars h childhood s tha t force the m t o develo p compulsiv e strategie s o f defense ; bu t instea d o f being recognize d a s destructive , thes e strategie s ar e celebrate d b y th e rhetoric and , in comic versions o f the pattern, validated b y the plot. Jane Eyre's emotional problem s ar e presented i n vivid detail , but th e world o f

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Jane Eyre | 14 5 the nove l i s manipulate d s o a s t o obscur e th e compulsivenes s o f he r behavior, t o satisf y he r conflictin g psychologica l needs , an d t o sanctio n her self-glorifyin g rhetoric . Like Pip's, her distortion s an d blin d spot s ar e in keeping with he r character bu t sometime s make her accoun t o f hersel f unreliable. A Horneya n approac h wil l hel p u s t o se e Jane mor e clearly , to appreciat e he r motive s fo r tellin g he r story , an d t o d o justic e t o th e brilliance o f Bronte' s mimeti c characterization . As i s typica l i n novel s o f vindication , Jan e ha s a miserabl e childhood . Her mothe r i s disinherite d whe n sh e marrie s a poo r clergyman , bot h parents peris h o f typhu s soo n afte r Jane' s birth , an d Jan e i s taken i n b y her uncl e Reed , wh o die s whil e sh e i s a n infant , leavin g he r t o th e car e of a n aun t wh o resent s he r a s a n alie n intruder . Th e destitut e chil d i s constantly reminde d o f her dependen t position . Her cousi n John tell s her that sh e "ough t t o beg , an d no t t o liv e her e wit h gentlemen' s childre n like us" (ch . 1) ; and Abbot , th e lady's-maid , inform s he r tha t sh e is "les s than a servant, " fo r sh e doe s nothin g fo r he r kee p (ch . 2) . Bessie , th e nurse, admonishe s he r t o b e good, fo r sh e would hav e t o g o t o th e poo r house should he r aunt tur n he r out . "M y first recollections o f existence, " says Jane, "include d hint s o f th e sam e kind . Thi s reproac h o f m y depen dence ha d becom e a vagu e sing-son g i n m y ear ; ver y painfu l an d crush ing." Lik e Pip , Jan e i s perceive d a s havin g n o right s an d a s bein g insufficiently gratefu l fo r th e inadequat e car e tha t i s s o grudgingl y be stowed o n her . As a resul t o f thes e conditions , Jan e develop s intens e feeling s o f insecurity, vulnerability , an d hopelessness . Entirel y dependent , sh e live s with a constant drea d o f bein g abandoned b y a hostile aun t wh o perpet ually criticize s her , exclude s he r fro m famil y life , an d give s he r childre n license to tormen t her . John Ree d bullie s an d punishe s Jane "no t tw o o r three time s i n th e week , no r onc e o r twic e i n th e day , bu t continually : every nerv e I ha d feare d him , an d ever y morse l o f flesh o n m y bone s shrank whe n h e cam e near " (ch . 1) . Jane i s "bewildere d b y th e terror " he inspires becaus e sh e has "n o appea l whatever " agains t hi s "menaces " and "inflictions " (ch . 1) . He r aun t turn s a blin d eye , an d th e servant s will no t intervene . Althoug h sh e strive s "t o fulfil l ever y duty, " sh e i s "always suffering , alway s browbeaten , alway s accused , fo r eve r con demned" (ch . 2) . It seems "useles s to tr y to win an y one' s favour. " Of al l th e terribl e childhood s i n Victoria n fiction, Jane' s i s on e o f th e worst. A s despise d an d rejecte d a s Heathcliff , sh e i s even mor e isolated ,

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since Heathclif f ha s Cathy , wherea s Jan e ha s n o all y a t all . Lik e Pip' s sister, Jane's aun t feel s burdene d b y havin g t o car e fo r a n orphan , take s out he r resentment o n the child, and the n excuse s herself b y blaming he r victim, who m sh e see s a s irredeemabl y bad . Tormente d b y th e Ree d children a s well as their mother , Jane lead s " a lif e o f ceaseless repriman d and thankles s fagging " (ch . 3) . Lik e Pip , sh e i s mad e t o fee l unsafe , unloved, an d unworth y b y a foster-parent wh o wishe s he r dead ; bu t he r case i s wors e tha n Pip's , fo r sh e mus t liv e "withou t on e bi t o f lov e o r kindness" (ch . 4 ) fo r th e first te n year s o f he r life , wherea s Pi p ha s Jo e for emotiona l support . Jane trie s t o defen d hersel f b y strivin g t o pleas e Mrs . Ree d an d b y escaping int o imaginar y worlds , bu t th e openin g episod e show s tha t neither o f thes e strategie s works . Mrs . Ree d banishe s he r becaus e sh e does no t hav e a "franker , mor e natural " manner , an d John Ree d flushe s her ou t o f th e windo w seat , wher e sh e ha s take n refug e wit h a book , i n order t o haras s he r (ch . 1) . No matte r wha t sh e does , Jane ca n neithe r win acceptanc e no r escap e abuse . It i s par t o f th e vindicatio n patter n fo r th e protagonis t t o b e sur rounded b y detractor s wh o ar e show n t o b e mistake n abou t her , bu t when w e stud y th e mimeti c portrai t o f Jan e w e ca n se e tha t Mrs . Reed's complaint s ar e no t withou t foundation . Jan e i s no t "sociabl e and childlike " (ch . 1) , fran k an d natural , no r coul d sh e b e whe n he r mistreatment a t th e hand s o f th e Reed s ha s mad e he r angry , insecure , and distrustful . He r aunt' s descriptio n o f her "a s a compound o f virulen t passions, mean spirit , and dangerou s duplicity " (ch . 2 ) is supposed t o b e seen a s profoundl y unfair , bu t i t is , i n fact , accurate . Althoug h Mrs . Reed fail s t o understan d he r ow n contribution , Jan e is " a compoun d o f virulent passions, " a s th e openin g chapter s show , fo r sh e i s ful l o f rag e and resentment . Sh e ha s a "mea n spirit " i n th e sens e tha t sh e i s to o fearful t o expres s he r outrag e directl y an d accept s to o muc h abuse . "What a miserable littl e poltroon ha d fear , engendere d o f unjus t punish ment, mad e o f m e i n thos e days! " exclaim s th e narrato r (ch . 4) . Th e charge o f duplicit y i s als o understandable . Jan e trie s t o b e "usefu l an d pleasant" (ch . 2 ) in orde r t o avoi d bein g sent away , bu t sh e is too ful l o f hostility t o pla y thi s rol e successfully , an d he r pretens e i s transparent . After Jan e explodes , Bessi e say s tha t "sh e neve r di d s o before, " bu t Abbot observe s tha t "i t wa s alway s i n her" : "She' s a n underhan d littl e thing: I neve r sa w a gir l o f he r ag e wit h s o muc h cover. " Befor e he r

Jane Eyre | 14 7 explosion, Jane i s a sullen , brooding , silentl y accusin g chil d (Joh n Ree d calls her "Mada m Mope" ) whos e demeano r make s the Reed s defensive . Mrs. Ree d canno t comprehen d "ho w fo r nin e year s [Jane ] coul d b e patient an d quiescen t unde r an y treatment , an d i n th e tent h brea k ou t all fir e an d violence " (ch . 21) . Although complianc e di d no t work , Jan e had clun g t o i t ou t o f a fea r o f tota l rejection . Whe n sh e i s subjecte d t o more abus e tha n sh e ca n bear , he r pent-u p fur y erupts , an d sh e finall y rebels. Th e precipitatin g even t i s John Reed' s attack . Havin g bee n tol d to sta y awa y fro m th e family , Jan e retreat s t o th e windo w sea t i n th e breakfast roo m wit h Bewick's History of British Birds, draw s th e cur tain, and sit s "shrine d i n double retirement, " enterin g imaginativel y int o the scenes of desolatio n picture d i n the book (ch . 1) . She is not permitte d to defen d hersel f b y movin g away , however , an y mor e tha n i s Pip , fo r John Ree d finds he r an d hit s he r wit h th e book , causin g he r t o fal l an d cut he r head . A t thi s point , Jan e lose s contro l o f hersel f an d bitterl y accuses Joh n o f bein g wicke d an d cruel . Enraged , h e assault s he r and , for th e first tim e i n he r life , sh e fights back : " I receive d hi m i n franti c sort. I don't ver y well kno w wha t I did wit h m y hands , bu t h e calle d m e 'Rat! rat ' an d bellowe d ou t aloud. " M y gues s i s that Jane struc k hi m i n the genitals . Having allowe d he r aggressio n t o emerge , Jan e expect s th e worst , and, feelin g tha t sh e has nothin g mor e t o lose , resolves, in her "despera tion, t o g o al l lengths" (ch . 2) . She resists, " a ne w thing " fo r her , a s sh e is dragge d of f fo r punishment . I n "th e moo d o f th e revolte d slave, " sh e broods o n th e injustic e o f he r lot : th e Ree d childre n ar e selfish , spoiled , sadistic, bu t the y ar e approved , whil e she , wh o "dare[s ] commi t n o fault," i s "terme d naught y an d tiresome , sulle n an d sneaking , fro m morning t o noon , an d fro m noo n t o night. " Sh e resolve s t o escap e thi s "insupportable oppression " b y runnin g awa y o r starvin g hersel f t o death. Imaginin g tha t Mr . Reed' s spirit , "harasse d b y th e wrong s o f hi s sister's child," migh t "revisi t the earth t o punish th e perjured an d aveng e the oppressed " (ch . 2) , she thinks sh e sees a ghost an d become s terrified . Her scream s brin g he r aunt , wh o ignore s he r plea s fo r anothe r for m o f punishment, an d Jan e ha s a fit whe n sh e i s shu t u p i n th e Re d Roo m once more . Despite th e traum a o f thi s experience , Jan e finds tha t th e conse quences o f he r rebellio n ar e predominantl y positive . He r hysterica l be havior bring s abou t th e interventio n o f th e apothecary , Mr . Lloyd , an d

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arouses Bessie' s sympath y fo r th e first time . Sh e is to b e sen t awa y fro m Gateshead, t o b e sure , bu t t o schoo l rathe r tha n t o th e threatene d poorhouse. Whe n Joh n Ree d attacks , sh e fights back , an d h e think s i t better t o desis t than t o confron t he r "dee p ir e an d desperat e revolt, " th e effects o f which h e has alread y fel t (ch . 4). The worm ha s turned; Jane i s mean-spirited n o more . Instead o f bein g a passive victim, Jane put s he r aun t o n th e defensive , asking "Wha t woul d uncl e Ree d sa y t o you , i f h e wer e alive? " (ch . 4) . When Mrs . Ree d react s wit h a loo k o f fear , Jan e presse s th e attack , saying that he r dea d relative s i n heaven se e how sh e treats her . "Shakin g from hea d t o foot , thrille d wit h ungovernabl e excitement, " Jan e attack s again afte r Mrs . Ree d tell s Brocklehurs t tha t sh e i s a liar . Sh e call s he r aunt "bad, " "hard-hearted, " an d "deceitful " an d say s tha t whe n sh e i s grown sh e will tel l peopl e tha t "th e ver y thought o f yo u make s m e sick , and tha t yo u treate d m e with miserabl e cruelty. " Th e "frightened " Mrs . Reed seek s t o placat e Jane , whos e sou l begin s "t o exult " wit h a "sens e of freedom , o f triumph. " Wherea s complianc e ha s failed , aggressivenes s works, a lesso n tha t i s reinforce d whe n Bessi e praise s Jane' s new-foun d boldness an d warn s tha t th e people sh e meets a t schoo l will dislike her if she fears them . Jane's experience s a t Gateshea d establis h th e agend a fo r he r vindica tion. Sh e need s t o prov e sh e i s not mea n spirite d an d duplicitous ; henc e her boldness , bluntness , an d repeate d declaration s tha t sh e is not afraid . She need s t o prov e sh e i s no t bad , worthless , inferio r t o peopl e lik e th e Reeds; henc e he r nee d t o b e goo d a t al l costs , he r boastin g abou t th e recognition sh e receives , an d he r grea t satisfactio n i n socia l an d eco nomic advancement . Jan e i s extremel y sensitiv e abou t he r plainnes s (Abbot say s that "on e reall y canno t car e fo r suc h a littl e toad"—ch . 3) ; hence her critical o r condescendin g attitud e towar d beautie s like Blanch e Ingram an d Rosamon d Olive r an d he r sens e o f triump h a t bein g pre ferred t o the m b y Rochester an d St . John. The world o f the novel is so arranged tha t afte r Jan e leave s Gateshea d her feeling s o f personal , social , an d economi c inferiority , o f friendless ness, isolation , an d undesirability , an d o f weakness , vulnerability , an d cowardliness ar e al l reversed . He r valu e i s atteste d b y he r intellectua l and artisti c accomplishments ; th e friendshi p o f admirabl e peopl e lik e Helen Burns , Mis s Temple , an d th e River s sisters ; th e fondnes s o f he r pupils; th e veneratin g lov e o f Rochester ; an d St . John's appreciatio n o f her sterlin g qualities . Sh e prove s hersel f fearless , truthful , an d goo d i n

Jane Eyre | 14 9 every situation ; an d he r poverty , lo w status , lac k o f family , an d frustra tion i n love are al l removed b y manipulations o f th e plot .

Jane's vindicatio n begin s a t Lowood , wher e sh e revert s t o he r self effacing ways . Sh e wants t o b e "good " s o a s t o mak e "man y friends , t o earn respect , an d wi n affection " (ch . 8) , an d sh e i s well-receive d unti l Brocklehurst stigmatize s he r a s a lia r an d instruct s th e girl s t o shu n her . Feeling "crushe d an d trodde n on " onc e more , Jan e "ardently " wishe s "to die. " Whe n Hele n Burn s urge s he r t o tak e comfor t i n th e approva l of he r ow n conscience , Jan e say s tha t thinkin g wel l o f hersel f i s no t enough i f others do not lov e her: " I would rathe r di e than live— I canno t bear t o b e solitar y an d hated. " Hele n complain s tha t Jan e think s "to o much o f th e lov e o f huma n beings, " bu t Jane ha s fel t solitar y an d hate d all her lif e an d i s desperate fo r warmt h an d approval . Sh e tells Helen, " I would willingl y submi t t o hav e th e bon e o f m y ar m broken , o r t o le t a bull tos s me , o r t o stan d behin d a kickin g horse , an d le t i t das h it s hoo f at m y chest " i n orde r t o "gai n som e rea l affectio n fro m you , o r Mis s Temple, o r an y othe r who m I trul y love. " Fortunately , Mis s Templ e treats Jane fairly , an d whe n sh e realizes that sh e will b e evaluated o n he r merit, he r energie s ar e liberated , an d sh e prove s tha t Mrs . Ree d ha d misjudged her . The aggressio n tha t ha d emerge d a t Gateshea d ha s no t disappeare d but take s th e for m o f indignatio n o n behal f o f Hele n Burns , with who m Jane identifie s a s anothe r abandoned , abused , bu t trul y superio r child . When Mis s Scatcher d strike s Helen , Jan e proclaim s tha t i f th e teache r struck her , sh e woul d tak e th e ro d fro m he r han d an d "brea k i t unde r her nose " (ch . 6) . Bu t Hele n disapprove s o f Jane' s violen t impulses . I n addition t o being self-effacing, lik e Jane, Helen i s also very detached. Sh e gets int o troubl e becaus e sh e "canno t bear to b e subjecte d t o systemati c arrangements" an d i s of f i n a drea m worl d muc h o f th e time . Sinc e Helen i s s o resigned , sh e doe s no t fee l th e degradation , th e sens e o f injustice, an d th e desire s for reveng e tha t Jane experience s o n her behalf . Disappointed b y he r father , Hele n ha s give n u p lookin g fo r lov e an d justice fro m huma n being s an d ha s mad e he r bargai n wit h God , th e "mighty universa l Parent, " wh o see s "ou r tortures, " recognize s "ou r innocence," an d "wait s onl y th e separatio n o f spiri t fro m flesh t o crow n us with a full reward " (ch . 8) . Her vindicatio n wil l come i n the afterlife . She urges Jane t o disregar d ill-usage , to tr y to forge t Mrs . Reed's "sever -

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ity, togethe r wit h th e passionat e emotion s i t excited " (ch . 6) . Wh y "should w e eve r sin k overwhelme d wit h distress , whe n lif e i s s o soo n over, an d deat h i s s o certai n a n entranc e t o happiness—t o glory? " (ch . 8). Jane i s not read y t o adop t thi s perspective ; sh e want s happines s an d glory o n earth . Nor i s Jan e read y fo r Helen' s rejectio n o f th e majo r lesso n sh e ha d learned a t Gateshead , tha t w e shoul d b e good t o thos e wh o ar e goo d t o us bu t "strik e bac k agai n ver y hard " a t thos e wh o ar e crue l an d unjus t so a s t o teac h the m "neve r t o d o i t again " (ch . 6) . Hele n say s tha t "heathens an d savag e tribe s hol d tha t doctrine ; bu t Christian s an d civi lized nation s disow n it. " Sh e advocates, instead , th e imitatio n o f Christ : "Love you r enemies ; bles s the m tha t curs e you ; d o goo d t o the m tha t hate you an d despitefull y us e you." Jane protests tha t i t is impossible fo r her t o lov e Mrs. Ree d an d t o bles s John an d bitterl y pour s ou t "th e tal e of [her ] suffering s an d resentments. " Although sh e cannot accep t Helen' s philosophy , Jane i s uneasy abou t her rag e an d vindictiveness . Th e explosion s o f ange r wit h whic h th e novel begin s giv e her a n exhilaratin g sens e o f freedo m an d triumph , bu t they als o fil l he r wit h self-hat e an d anxiety . Sh e i s sustaine d fo r a whil e in th e Re d Roo m b y the energ y o f rebellion , bu t the n he r courag e sinks , and i n he r "habitua l moo d o f humiliation , self-doubt , [and ] forlor n depression" sh e begin s t o wonde r i f sh e i s wicked, a s everyon e say s sh e is (ch . 4) . Sh e ha s jus t bee n thinkin g o f starvin g hersel f t o death , an d surely thi s i s a crime . Afte r sh e tell s Mrs . Ree d tha t he r mother , father , and uncl e kno w "ho w yo u wis h m e dead, " Bessi e say s tha t sh e i s "th e most wicke d an d abandone d chil d eve r reare d unde r a roof, " an d Jan e half-believes her , fo r sh e has "onl y ba d feeling s surgin g i n [her ] breast. " When sh e attack s he r aun t afte r Brocklehurst' s visit , th e tast e o f ven geance i s lik e "aromati c wine, " bu t th e "after-flavour " give s he r th e "sensation" o f havin g bee n "poisoned. " Feelin g her "indignation " t o b e "fiendish" (ch . 4) , sh e leave s Gateshea d wit h " a sens e o f outlawr y an d almost o f reprobation " (ch . 21) . In th e vindicatio n patter n o f th e novel , Jan e eventuall y prove s tha t she i s superio r t o th e peopl e wh o devalue d he r an d receive s he r jus t deserts. I n th e educatio n pattern , sh e i s rewarde d becaus e sh e triumph s over he r ow n passionat e nature , resist s powerfu l temptations , an d suc ceeds i n livin g u p t o a loft y mora l ideal . Wherea s th e agend a fo r he r vindication i s se t a t Gateshead , tha t fo r he r educatio n i s establishe d b y Helen Burns . Jane canno t immediatel y follo w Helen' s injunctio n t o lov e

Jane Eyre | 15 1 her enemies , bu t whe n sh e full y an d freel y forgive s Mrs . Reed , wh o i s unrelenting eve n o n he r deathbed , sh e prove s t o hersel f tha t sh e ha s spiritually mature d (ch . 21) . A s narrato r sh e display s a Christ-lik e atti tude toward he r tormentors : "Yes , Mrs. Reed, to you I owe som e fearfu l pangs o f menta l suffering . Bu t I ought t o forgiv e you , fo r yo u kne w no t what yo u did " (ch . 3) . Helen show s Jane ho w sh e ought t o dea l with he r resentment, an d Jan e incorporate s Helen' s dictate s int o he r idealize d conception o f herself . The autho r collaborate s wit h Jan e no t onl y i n bringin g abou t he r vindication bu t als o i n makin g i t possibl e fo r he r t o liv e u p t o he r idealized imag e o f herself . If Jane continue d t o experienc e he r anger , sh e would fai l t o exemplif y th e teaching s o f Chris t an d woul d fee l hersel f t o be a n uncivilize d heathen . Bu t wha t i s sh e t o d o wit h he r aggression ? Part o f i t i s channeled int o th e feistines s tha t Bessi e encourages an d tha t charms Rochester , bu t mos t o f i t i s acted ou t fo r he r b y others , enablin g her t o satisf y he r vindictiv e an d rebelliou s impulse s withou t losin g he r nobility. Jane's enemie s ar e al l brough t dow n b y th e author , Mrs . Ree d and John quit e horribly , makin g i t easier fo r he r t o forgiv e them ; an d a n alter eg o i s provide d i n Rochester , whos e fierceness, mysteriou s suffer ings, an d volcani c passion s reflec t th e sid e o f Jan e sh e canno t expres s and tha t th e rhetoric conceals . Jane mus t find a wa y t o manag e no t onl y he r ange r bu t als o he r craving fo r life . A s long a s Mis s Templ e i s there t o satisf y he r desir e fo r warmth an d approval , Jan e live s contentedl y a t Lowoo d "i n allegianc e to dut y an d order" ; bu t a s soo n a s Mis s Templ e leaves , Jane develop s a powerful longin g for "Liberty , Excitement, Enjoyment " (ch . 10) . Having spent al l he r vacation s a t Lowood , sh e ha s know n onl y "school-rules , school-duties, school-habit s an d notions , an d voices , an d faces. " Tirin g of he r narro w existenc e i n th e spac e o f a fe w hours , Jan e remember s that "th e rea l worl d [is ] wide, and tha t a varied field o f hope s an d fears , of sensation s an d excitements , [await ] thos e wh o [have ] courag e t o g o forth int o it s expanse, to see k real knowledg e o f lif e amids t it s perils." Jane neve r ha s thi s courage . Sinc e he r craving s ar e ou t o f harmon y with bot h he r lo t a s a woma n an d he r nee d t o b e good , sh e quickl y relinquishes them . He r praye r fo r libert y seem s scattere d o n th e wind , and sh e frame s " a humble r supplication : fo r change , stimulus " (ch . 10) . When tha t petition , too , seem s swep t of f int o space , sh e ask s t o b e granted "a t leas t a ne w servitude! " Thi s i s wha t sh e pursue s whe n sh e advertises fo r a situatio n a s a governess . Althoug h sh e long s fo r "lif e

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and movement, " sh e i s please d b y th e old-fashione d characte r o f Mrs . Fairfax's response . Sh e ha d bee n haunte d b y a fea r tha t sh e woul d ge t into a "scrape " b y actin g fo r hersel f an d wishe s "abov e al l things " fo r the result o f he r "endeavour s t o b e respectable, proper, en regie." Once sh e i s settle d a t Thornfield , Jane' s restlessnes s returns . Adel e and Mrs . Fairfax ar e "good, " bu t sh e believe s "i n th e existenc e o f othe r and mor e vivi d kind s o f goodness " tha t sh e wishe s t o behol d (ch . 12) . She insist s tha t sh e i s longin g fo r mor e vivi d kind s o f goodnes s becaus e she must moraliz e he r desir e for experience , which sh e fears i s improper . To justify he r disconten t sh e invokes the million s o f women who , suffer ing "to o rigi d a constraint , to o absolut e a stagnation " ar e "i n silen t revolt agains t thei r lot " (ch . 12) . This passag e i s justly celebrate d fo r it s feminist sentiments , but we must remember tha t Jane could neve r engag e in a rea l revol t agains t th e constraint s o f he r lo t becaus e o f he r nee d t o protect he r respectability . Sh e dare s no t d o anythin g tha t migh t prov e Mrs. Reed to have been right in calling her wicked. At this point Roches ter arrive s a t Thornfield an d Jane's restlessnes s disappears .

Jane an d Rocheste r hav e suc h a n intens e romanti c relationshi p becaus e they fulfil l man y o f eac h other' s emotiona l cravings . Th e relationshi p i s glorified b y th e rhetori c an d i s a majo r par t o f th e vindicatio n pattern , but fro m a Horneya n perspectiv e th e mimesi s show s tha t eac h part y brings int o i t emotiona l problem s an d contradictor y needs . Th e contra dictions ar e magicall y resolve d b y manipulation s o f th e plot , but , eve n so, the relationship Jane celebrates a t the end is not a s ideal as she claims it to be . Jane's attractio n t o Rocheste r ha s man y components . Insecur e abou t her ow n char m an d appearance , sh e i s se t a t eas e fro m th e first b y hi s rough manne r an d lac k o f goo d looks . She would hav e shunne d anyon e displaying "beauty , elegance , gallantry" fro m a feeling tha t h e could no t "have sympath y wit h anything " i n he r (ch . 12) . Give n Jane' s tastes , Rochester i s not unappealing . Sh e like s hi s "decisiv e nose, " hi s choleri c nostrils, hi s "gri m mouth , chin , an d jaw " (ch . 13) . Whe n Maso n late r appears o n th e scene , h e repel s Jan e "exceedingly " (ch . 18) . H e i s handsome an d amiable-looking , bu t there is "no firmness i n that aquilin e nose, and small , cherry mouth, " "n o though t o n th e low , even forehead ; no comman d i n tha t blank , brow n eye. " H e i s a "slee k gander " t o Rochester's "fierc e falcon. " Rocheste r i s a domineerin g ma n whos e

Jane Eyre | 15 3 "dark, irate , and piercing " eye s frighten other s bu t no t he r (ch . 13) . The fact tha t sh e is not intimidate d prove s that sh e is no longe r th e miserabl e little poltroo n fo r who m sh e ha s suc h contempt . Bein g abl e t o stan d u p to suc h a powerful ma n give s her a feeling o f strength . Whereas Jane ha s bee n bore d b y the decen t bu t unremarkabl e peopl e at Thornfield , Rocheste r i s a lofty , mysteriou s bein g wh o fascinate s her . She "reverence[s] " hi s "vigorous, " "original, " "expande d mind " (ch . 23), an d h e i n tur n expresse s grea t admiratio n fo r her . H e tell s he r tha t she is "cas t i n a different moul d t o th e majority" (ch . 14) , regards he r a s a fit person i n whom t o confide , an d assure s he r tha t he r "unique " min d is no t "liabl e t o tak e infection " fro m him . T o him , sh e i s a princes s i n the guis e o f a governess . Hi s tribute s fee d he r prid e an d counterbalanc e the devaluatio n sh e had experience d a t Gateshead . The y ar e all the mor e gratifying becaus e h e i s a "proud , sardonic " ma n wh o i s "hars h t o inferiority o f ever y description " an d treat s other s wit h "severity " (ch . 15). Rocheste r an d Jan e for m a communit y o f tw o superio r being s wh o appreciate eac h othe r an d loo k dow n o n everyon e else . Instead o f bein g excluded fro m th e privilege d circle , a s sh e ha d bee n a t Gateshead , Jan e is at the center o f things . Rochester describe s Jane a s bein g lik e a caged bird , a "vivid , restless , resolute captive " tha t "woul d soa r cloud-high " i f i t wer e fre e (ch . 15) . But Jan e neve r soars . Instead , sh e satisfie s he r desir e fo r knowledg e o f real lif e amids t it s peril s b y livin g vicariousl y throug h Rochester , muc h as Hedd a Gable r live s throug h Ejler t Lovborg . Rocheste r ha s ha d th e kind o f excitin g lif e fo r whic h Jane long s bu t o f whic h sh e i s afraid, an d he regales he r wit h "glimpses " o f th e "scene s an d ways " o f th e world — not "it s corrupt scene s and wicke d ways, " sh e hastens to assur e us, "bu t such a s derive d thei r interes t fro m th e grea t scal e o n whic h the y wer e acted, the strange novelty b y which the y were characterised." Concerne d for he r respectability , Jan e i s eage r t o le t u s kno w tha t sh e wa s "neve r startled o r trouble d b y on e noxiou s allusion. " Sh e i s s o "gratified " b y following Rocheste r "i n though t throug h th e ne w region s h e disclosed " that he r restlessnes s subsides , th e "blank s o f existence " ar e filled, an d she gains "fles h an d strength. " Jane's assuranc e tha t Rocheste r doe s no t describ e corrup t scene s an d wicked way s i s al l th e mor e strikin g becaus e h e ha s alread y confesse d that h e ha s le d a degenerat e lif e an d ha s tol d he r th e stor y o f hi s affai r with Cecil e Varens , a Frenc h oper a dance r an d th e mothe r o f Adele . Rochester's luri d histor y i s par t o f hi s appea l becaus e i t allow s Jan e

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glimpses o f corrup t scene s an d wicke d way s i n whic h sh e reall y i s interested, bu t i t als o make s he r anxious . More puritanica l tha n Hedda , Jane can enjoy Rochester' s transgressions onl y if she can convince hersel f that h e i s no w reformed : " I believe d tha t hi s moodiness , hi s harshness , and hi s forme r fault s o f moralit y ( I sa y former fo r h e no w seeme d corrected o f them ) ha d thei r sourc e in some crue l cros s o f fate" (ch . 15) . Jane ha s reaso n t o know , however , tha t Rocheste r ha s no t ye t con formed t o th e establishe d morality . H e ha s presente d himsel f t o he r a s a victim o f fate—hi s sinfulnes s bein g du e "rathe r t o circumstances " tha n to hi s "natura l bent" ; bu t h e ha s acknowledge d tha t h e "turne d desper ate" whe n fat e wronge d hi m an d tha t h e is desperate still : "sinc e happi ness i s irrevocabl y denie d me , I hav e a righ t t o ge t pleasur e ou t o f life : and I will ge t it , cos t wha t i t may " (ch . 14) . Jane doe s no t kno w wha t Rochester ha s i n mind , bu t hi s pla n i s to marr y he r despit e th e fac t tha t he alread y ha s a wife . H e convince s himsel f tha t hi s pursui t o f pleasur e need no t lea d t o furthe r degeneratio n i f th e pleasur e i s "a s swee t an d fresh a s th e wil d hone y th e be e gather s o n th e moor. " Jane' s innocenc e will someho w purif y thei r union . Whe n h e decree s tha t hi s aim s an d motives ar e right , Jan e protest s tha t the y canno t b e "i f the y requir e a new statut e t o legalis e them." The y d o deman d a new statute , he replies, because "unheard-o f combination s o f circumstances deman d unheard-o f rules." Jan e oppose s Rochester' s situationa l ethi c wit h a n absolut e one : "The huma n an d fallibl e shoul d no t arrogat e a powe r wit h whic h th e divine an d perfec t alon e ca n b e safel y entrusted. " Thi s conversatio n occurs shortl y befor e Jane declare s that Rocheste r seem s to b e free o f hi s former faults . Rochester's rebelliousnes s i s par t o f hi s appea l t o Jane . She , too, ha s felt unjustl y treate d b y famil y an d fate , an d she , too , ha s broke n ou t in angr y insurrectio n agains t irrationa l authority . Befor e Rochester' s appearance, sh e wa s feelin g silentl y rebelliou s agains t he r woman' s lo t and wa s longin g t o escap e he r confinement . A s a ric h upper-clas s male , Rochester i s able to ac t ou t hi s resentments, and Jane ca n experience he r own forbidde n impulse s throug h him . Jane i s excited no t onl y b y Rochester's rebellio n agains t th e norm s o f respectability t o whic h sh e hersel f i s enslave d bu t als o b y hi s aggressiv e behavior. Hi s fierce, volcani c passion s mirro r feeling s o f he r ow n tha t had emerge d a t Gateshea d bu t tha t sh e has repressed. Sh e delights i n th e fact tha t h e i s " a bold , vindictive , haught y gentleman " (ch . 16). He r vindictiveness an d haughtines s mus t b e conceale d (althoug h the y ar e

Jane Eyre | 15 5 evident i n he r narration) , bu t sh e ca n relis h suc h qualitie s i n Rochester . She i s critica l o f hi m a t first , bu t hi s "sarcasm " an d "harshness " com e to see m lik e "kee n condiment s i n a choic e dish. " Sh e i s attracte d t o hi s strange an d "sinister " depth s an d wishe s t o "loo k int o th e abyss " an d "explore it s secrets" (ch . 18) . This i s much safe r tha n explorin g he r ow n inner depths , whic h ar e als o strang e an d sinister , a s som e o f he r paint ings reveal . I t i s n o wonde r Jan e feel s tha t sh e an d Rocheste r ar e sou l mates. Althoug h the y ar e divide d b y ran k an d wealth , sh e ha s "some thing in [her ] brai n an d heart , i n [her ] bloo d an d nerves , that assimilate s mentally t o him " (ch . 17) . Sensing Jane' s affinit y t o th e turbulen t sid e o f hi s nature , Rocheste r also feel s tha t the y ar e sou l mates, an d thi s i s part o f wha t draw s hi m t o her. He i s most powerfull y attracted , however , b y Jane's rigorous moral ity, whic h give s hi m th e hop e tha t sh e ca n redee m him . Sh e represent s the perso n h e migh t hav e bee n ha d h e no t gon e astray . H e tell s he r tha t he has bee n o n th e wrong cours e sinc e the ag e o f twenty-on e bu t tha t h e "might hav e bee n a s goo d a s you—wiser—almos t a s stainless . I env y you you r peac e o f mind , you r clea r conscience , you r unpollute d mem ory" (ch . 14) . Jane see s Rochester a s he wishe s t o se e himself, a s "natu rally a man o f bette r tendencies , higher principles , an d pure r taste s tha n such a s circumstance s ha d developed , educatio n instilled , o r destin y encouraged." Sh e think s ther e ar e "excellen t material s i n him, " thoug h "somewhat spoile d an d tangle d a t present " (ch . 15) , an d h e see s i n he r purity an d rectitud e th e promis e o f regeneration . Sh e want s t o refor m him, an d h e longs to b e reformed . After livin g wit h Berth a fo r fou r years , Rocheste r i s filled wit h de spair, bu t h e determine s t o see k renewa l b y returnin g t o Europe . H e spends te n year s searchin g fo r " a goo d an d intelligen t woman " who m he ca n love , bu t h e find s n o on e i n al l o f hi s travel s h e woul d wis h t o marry i f he were fre e (ch . 27) . Made reckles s b y disappointment, h e tries "dissipation—never debauchery : that I hated, and hate. " The distinctio n may see m elusive , bu t i n Rochester' s min d "debauchery " i s associate d with Bertha , who m h e loathes : "An y enjoymen t tha t bordere d o n rio t seemed t o approac h m e t o he r an d he r vices , an d I eschewe d it. " I f h e felt tha t h e ha d becom e promiscuou s lik e Bertha , h e woul d b e over whelmed wit h self-hate , s o h e content s himsel f wit h on e mistres s a t a time. Beginnin g "t o regar d th e notio n o f a n intellectual , faithful , lovin g woman a s a mer e dream, " h e return s t o Thornfiel d an d finds wha t h e has bee n lookin g fo r i n Jane. He think s he r "good , gifted , lovely" ; sh e is

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his "bette r self, " hi s "goo d angel " (ch . 23) . In Horneyan terms , Roches ter perceive s Berth a an d Jan e a s embodiment s o f hi s despise d an d ideal ized selves . He dread s becomin g lik e Bertha an d aspire s to emulat e Jane. Rochester's searc h fo r renewa l throug h th e lov e o f a goo d woma n i s doomed b y its contradictions. Frustrate d b y his plight, h e has convince d himself tha t hi s bon d t o Berth a i s " a mer e conventiona l impediment, " that i t i s "absolutel y rational " tha t h e shoul d b e "free t o lov e an d b e loved," an d tha t h e ca n an d shoul d marr y agai n (ch . 20) . His "origina l intention" i s no t "t o deceive " bu t t o explai n hi s situatio n t o a woma n who i s "willin g an d abl e t o understan d th e case " (ch . 27) . Any woma n who accepte d hi s bigamou s proposa l woul d los e he r valu e fo r him , however, sinc e sh e woul d n o longe r b e o n a highe r mora l plane . H e conceals th e trut h fro m Jan e no t onl y becaus e h e fear s he r refusa l bu t also because , havin g foun d i n he r th e qualitie s h e ha s bee n seeking , "without soi l an d withou t taint " (ch . 20) , h e need s t o preserv e he r innocence. Eve n i f h e ha d succeede d i n hi s deception , h e woul d no t have bee n regenerated , sinc e h e woul d hav e increase d hi s sinfulnes s b y wronging Jane . Despit e hi s dismissa l o f "custom " an d "mer e huma n law" (ch . 27) , Rocheste r ha s no t free d himsel f o f th e value s o f hi s culture. I t i s becaus e h e i s burdene d b y guil t tha t Jane' s purit y an d rectitude ar e s o importan t t o him . H e canno t possibl y cleans e hi s con science b y compromising her . Rochester ha s conflicting need s of Jane. He wants her to be a liberated woman wh o i s capabl e o f understandin g hi s case , o f overleapin g th e obstacles o f custom , convention , an d mer e huma n la w i n th e nam e o f a rational morality . H e sense s th e cage d spiri t tha t wishe s t o escap e it s constraints, an d h e celebrate s he r a s a "savage , beautifu l creature, " a "wild, fre e thing, " "resolute " an d "indomitable " (ch . 27) . At th e sam e time, h e need s he r t o b e hi s goo d ange l withou t soi l o r taint . Onc e hi s marriage t o Berth a i s revealed, h e trie s t o persuad e Jan e t o remai n wit h him, but , a s sh e wel l understands , i f sh e succeed s hi s forme r mistresses , he will one day regard he r "wit h th e same feeling whic h now in his min d desecrate[s] thei r memory. " Rochester ha s misrea d Jane, o f course , as have the critic s who se e he r as a feminis t heroine . Sh e long s fo r greate r freedo m an d a wide r rang e of activity , bu t sh e i s afraid t o pursu e he r desires . Jane's wil l an d energy , resoluteness an d indomitabilit y ar e al l on th e sid e o f propriety. Fa r fro m being a fre e spiri t wh o rebel s agains t th e constriction s o f he r feminin e

Jane Eyre | 15 7 lot, sh e i s a compulsivel y conventiona l woma n wh o mus t liv e he r lif e according t o rule . At first Jane an d Rocheste r see m t o complemen t eac h othe r perfectly , since th e represse d sid e o f eac h i s dominan t i n th e other . Rocheste r i s a rebel agains t societ y an d religio n wh o i s trouble d b y conscience , whil e Jane i s a super-conscientiou s woma n wit h represse d rebelliou s impulses . He look s t o he r fo r reformation , whil e sh e satisfie s throug h hi m th e bold, vindictive , haught y sid e o f he r nature . Bu t th e matc h i s not reall y perfect sinc e the y hav e contradictor y need s o f eac h othe r tha t reflec t their ow n inne r conflicts . Rocheste r want s a wild , fre e thin g wh o i s absolutely virtuous , whil e Jan e desire s a worldl y adventure r wh o wil l not threate n he r innocence . H e i s lookin g fo r a pur e mistress , an d sh e wants hi m t o b e a reforme d sinne r s o tha t sh e ca n gratif y he r forbidde n impulses throug h hi s pas t escapades . Whe n Jan e learn s tha t Rocheste r still mean s t o def y th e establishe d morality , a conflic t arise s betwee n them tha t canno t b e resolved . Jane feel s lik e a crimina l fo r drivin g th e ma n sh e adore s t o despair , but sh e canno t possibl y remai n wit h Rochester , fo r thi s woul d prov e that sh e is bad an d und o he r effort s a t self-vindication . Hele n Burn s ha d chastised he r fo r thinkin g to o muc h o f th e lov e o f huma n being s an d urged he r to liv e for th e approval o f her conscience. Jane now prove s he r moral growt h b y givin g u p th e ma n wh o ha s fulfille d he r romanti c dreams i n orde r t o d o he r duty , eve n thoug h sh e ha s n o on e wh o care s about he r o r who m sh e woul d offen d b y livin g wit h him . " I car e fo r myself," sh e proclaims (ch . 27) . "Th e mor e solitary , th e mor e friendless , the more unsustained I am, the more I will respect myself. I will keep th e law given by God; sanctioned b y man." Sh e had tol d Helen that thinkin g well o f hersel f wa s no t enoug h i f other s di d no t lov e her , bu t no w sh e embraces Helen' s scenario . Jan e i s t o Rocheste r a s Hele n ha d bee n t o her. Sh e urge s th e impulsive , vehemen t ma n t o "trus t i n God " an d "believe i n heaven." Whe n h e complains that sh e is condemning hi m "t o live wretched, an d t o di e accursed," sh e advises him "t o liv e sinless" an d "die tranquil. " By leaving Rochester , Jan e prove s tha t sh e i s no t th e ba d perso n th e Reeds sai d sh e wa s an d actualize s th e idealize d imag e sh e ha s modele d on Hele n Burns . Lik e Helen , sh e feel s invulnerabl e i n he r self-regar d a s long a s sh e remain s tru e t o he r principles . No w sh e i s ready t o ris k he r life no t t o wi n lov e bu t t o preserv e he r virtue . Whe n sh e finds hersel f

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solitary, rebuffed , an d i n dange r o f starving , sh e doe s no t regre t he r decision o r murmu r agains t he r fate . Hele n ha d sai d tha t "i f w e wer e dying i n pai n an d shame , angel s se e ou r tortures , recognis e ou r inno cence" (ch . 8) . Jane feel s surrounde d b y th e divin e presence . Sinc e sh e has live d sinless , sh e hope s fo r a tranqui l deat h an d i s confiden t "tha t neither eart h shoul d perish , no r on e o f th e soul s i t treasured " (ch . 28) . She utter s a praye r o f thanksgivin g an d put s hersel f i n th e hand s o f Providence.

For th e first three-quarters o f the novel , Jane live s in a relatively realisti c world, bu t afte r sh e leave s Thornfiel d th e nove l take s o n a fair y tal e quality a s th e actio n seem s increasingl y contrived . Jan e i s mimeticall y drawn t o th e end , bu t th e worl d i n whic h sh e live s seem s manipulate d for th e purpos e o f rewardin g he r virtue , glorifyin g he r character , an d satisfying he r conflictin g psychologica l needs . With Jane' s departur e fro m Thornfield , th e educatio n patter n i s com plete. He r forgivenes s o f Mrs . Reed , resistanc e t o th e temptation s o f love, an d readines s t o di e fo r th e sak e o f conscienc e al l sho w tha t sh e has learne d th e lesson s o f Hele n Burns . Fro m a psychologica l poin t o f view, Jane is obeying tyrannical should s so as to feed he r pride and avoi d incurring self-hate . He r bargain , lik e Helen's , i s n o longe r wit h huma n beings bu t wit h God , o n who m sh e relies to hono r he r claims . Sinc e on e of he r should s i s tha t he r claim s mus t no t b e fo r earthl y rewards , sh e cannot b e disappointed b y anything tha t happen s t o her . This i s not a permanent solutio n fo r Jane , however , a s i t is for Hele n Burns, sinc e Jan e i s no t o f a n otherworldl y dispositio n an d i s ful l o f appetites. Onc e th e crisi s create d b y th e revelatio n o f Rochester' s mar riage passes , he r desire s fo r earthl y fulfillmen t return . Sh e doe s no t experience thes e desire s a s consciou s claims , however , fo r tha t woul d violate he r taboos. Sh e is rewarded fo r he r virtue b y the author , th e Go d of thi s fictional universe , wh o make s he r ever y wis h com e true . Jan e finds th e famil y sh e ha s alway s longe d fo r i n th e River s an d become s financially independen t whe n sh e inherits a fortune fro m he r uncl e Eyre. The obstacle s to th e kind o f unio n sh e desires with Rocheste r ar e cleare d away b y the deat h o f Berth a an d hi s maiming an d reformation . The las t quarte r o f th e nove l continue s Jane' s vindication . Sh e win s the lov e an d respec t o f th e River s sisters , who ar e amon g th e handfu l o f people i n he r worl d whos e estee m i s wort h having , an d sh e become s a

Jane Eyre | 15 9 favorite wit h he r pupil s an d thei r parent s whe n sh e teaches a t the villag e school. She receives an impressive tribute fro m St . John Rivers , who ask s her t o b e hi s wif e an d accompan y hi m t o Indi a a s a missionary . Whe n Jane protest s he r unfitnes s fo r th e task , St . John recount s al l th e virtue s she ha s displaye d i n th e te n month s h e ha s bee n studyin g he r character . In th e villag e school , sh e demonstrate d tha t sh e "coul d perfor m well , punctually, uprightly , labou r uncongenia l t o [her ] habit s an d inclina tions" (ch . 34) . Th e "resolut e readiness " wit h whic h sh e divide d he r inheritance int o fou r shares , showe d he r freedo m fro m avaric e an d respect fo r abstrac t justice , a s wel l a s a sou l tha t revel s "i n th e flam e and excitemen t o f sacrifice. " I n studyin g Hindustan i a t hi s request , sh e displayed "tractability, " "untirin g assiduity, " an d a n "unshake n tem per." Sh e is "docile , diligent, disinterested , faithful , constant , an d coura geous; ver y gentle , an d ver y heroic " (ch . 34) . Th e despise d chil d o f Gateshead coul d wis h fo r n o highe r praise . St . John i s i n lov e wit h th e wealthy, beautiful , sociall y accomplishe d Rosamon d Oliver , bu t i t i s Jane wh o ha s th e mora l an d intellectua l qualitie s h e desires . Sh e ha s triumphed onc e agai n ove r th e kin d o f woma n t o who m sh e ha s fel t inferior. What Jan e misse s i n St . John i s "th e swee t homag e give n t o beauty , youth, an d grace " tha t sh e ha d receive d fro m Rochester . "H e wa s fon d and proud o f me—it i s what n o man beside s will ever be" (ch . 31) . Onl y Rochester ca n satisf y he r nee d t o b e loved a s a woman, bu t sh e seem s t o have lost him forever. O n th e verge of accedin g to St . John's wishes, Jane is save d b y a mysteriou s summons , a s sh e hear s Rocheste r calling . When sh e revisits the environ s o f Thornfield , th e innkeepe r tell s her tha t Rochester "se t stor e o n he r pas t everything " an d sough t her , afte r sh e ran away , "a s i f sh e ha d bee n th e mos t preciou s thin g h e ha d i n th e world" (ch . 37). The fac t tha t lif e seem s empty t o Rocheste r withou t he r is anothe r tribut e t o Jane . Whe n the y ar e reunite d a t Ferndean , hi s reception doe s not disappoint , an d afte r thei r marriage , Jane overhear s a conversation betwee n th e servant s i n which the y recogniz e he r fitnes s t o be Rochester' s wif e despit e th e fac t tha t sh e i s neithe r beautifu l no r a fine lady , tw o thing s abou t whic h sh e ha s alway s bee n insecure . Thi s i s the final not e i n th e swellin g choru s o f prais e tha t accompanie s he r vindication. The las t quarte r o f th e nove l tailor s th e worl d t o Jane' s needs . Al though sh e stil l ha s th e insecurities , compulsions , an d conflict s induce d by he r childhood , sh e doe s no t hav e t o outgro w the m t o avoi d thei r

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destructive effects . B y solvin g he r problem s fo r her , th e autho r encour ages u s t o se e Jan e a s a strong , matur e perso n wh o achieve s a n idea l happiness. Jane's psychological problem s mus t b e obscured, o f course, if we ar e t o accep t th e self-congratulator y rhetori c tha t contribute s t o ou r sense of he r vindication an d growth . While St . John' s proposa l i s a tribute , i t i s als o extremel y threatening ; for althoug h Jan e know s tha t marriag e t o hi m woul d destro y her , sh e has difficult y resistin g hi s dominatin g personality . St . Joh n i s a "cold , hard, ambitiou s man " (ch . 32 ) wh o become s restles s afte r enterin g th e clergy becaus e "th e hear t o f a politician , o f a soldier , o f a votar y o f glory, a love r o f renown " beat s unde r hi s curate' s surplic e (ch . 31) . Hi s solution i s t o see k glor y i n th e servic e o f Go d a s a missionary . H e wil l not b e "subjec t t o th e defectiv e law s an d errin g control " o f hi s "feebl e fellow-worms" bu t wil l b e th e servan t o f a n "All-perfect, " "infallibl e master" (ch . 34) , wh o wil l rewar d hi m wit h a n "incorruptibl e crown " (ch. 38) . He represse s hi s nee d fo r lov e an d channel s hi s energy int o hi s calling, i n whic h h e wishe s Jane t o participate . H e want s Jan e t o b e hi s wife s o tha t sh e ca n hel p hi m i n hi s missionar y work , bu t sh e doe s no t share hi s callin g an d know s tha t h e doe s no t lov e her . Sh e feel s tha t h e would no t protec t he r o r car e if she died. Jane refuse s t o marry St . John, but sh e offer s t o accompan y hi m a s hi s assistant , despit e he r convictio n that th e climat e o f Indi a wil l kil l he r an d tha t goin g ther e i s "almos t equivalent t o committin g suicide " (ch . 35) . Sh e ca n fight fo r a certai n kind o f emotiona l integrit y (i f the y di d no t marry , he r thought s an d feelings woul d stil l b e her own) , but no t fo r th e freedo m t o d o wha t sh e wants or , indeed , fo r he r ver y life. Why i s this so ? Although Jan e i s ashame d o f he r childhoo d pusillanimit y an d fre quently boast s o f he r fearlessnes s an d abilit y t o stan d u p fo r herself , sh e remains a predominantly complian t perso n wh o i s looking fo r approva l and conform s t o traditiona l values . Her resolutenes s an d indomitabilit y tend t o b e exercised i n the nam e o f religio n an d propriety . Sh e can resis t what sh e regard s a s immora l bu t i s submissiv e towar d peopl e sh e ad mires a s he r superiors . A s w e hav e seen , sh e model s hersel f o n Hele n Burns an d follow s he r teachings . Sh e tells u s that Rocheste r exerte d "a n influence tha t quit e mastere d me—tha t too k m y feeling s fro m m y ow n power an d fettere d the m i n his " (ch . 17) . Sh e reverence s hi s min d an d likes to serv e and obe y him "i n al l that [is ] right" (ch . 20). She can asser t her independenc e onl y whe n h e ask s he r t o d o wrong . Jan e feel s tha t

Jane Eyre | 16 1 Diana River s "fa r excel[s] " he r i n beaut y an d "anima l spirits " (ch . 30 ) and explain s tha t "i t wa s m y natur e t o fee l pleasur e i n yieldin g t o authority supporte d lik e hers ; an d t o bend , wher e m y conscienc e an d self-respect permitted , t o a n activ e will" (ch . 29) . St. John als o trigger s Jane' s compliance . Althoug h sh e criticize s hi m for bein g stern , exacting , an d ambitious , sh e see s hi m a s a grea t an d glorious figure: "hi s is the ambition o f the high master-spirit, whic h aim s to fill a plac e i n th e first ran k o f thos e . . . who ar e called , an d chosen , and faithful " (ch . 38) . St. John gain s a n influenc e tha t take s awa y Jane' s "liberty o f mind. " Thi s i s partl y becaus e hi s perfectionisti c standard s exacerbate he r feeling s o f inadequacy. Whereas everythin g sh e did suite d Rochester, sh e i s afrai d o f no t pleasin g St . John an d i s drive n t o satisf y him. A s Diana observes , whatever St . John exacts , Jane force s hersel f t o perform. Sh e finds, however , tha t "hi s prais e an d notice " ar e mor e oppressive "tha n hi s indifference," sinc e "onl y seriou s mood s an d occu pations" ar e acceptabl e t o him , an d sh e i s force d t o repres s he r "vivac ity": " I fel l unde r a freezin g spell . Whe n h e sai d 'go, ' I went ! 'come, ' I came; 'd o this, ' I did it . Bu t I did no t lov e m y servitude : I wished, man y a time , h e ha d continue d t o neglec t me " (ch . 34) . Sh e want s mor e an d more t o pleas e hi m bu t feel s tha t t o d o s o " I mus t disow n hal f m y nature, stifl e hal f m y faculties , wres t m y taste s fro m thei r origina l bent , force mysel f t o th e adoptio n o f pursuit s fo r whic h I ha d n o natura l vocation." Tryin g t o explai n he r ow n behavior , Jan e point s ou t tha t never i n he r lif e ha s sh e "know n an y mediu m i n m y dealing s wit h positive, har d characters , antagonisti c t o m y own , betwee n absolut e submission an d determine d revolt " (ch . 34) . Sh e observe s th e on e u p t o the "ver y moment o f bursting , sometime s wit h volcani c vehemence, int o the other. " W e hav e see n Jan e drive n t o rebe l agains t th e Reed s an d Rochester, bu t sinc e "presen t circumstances " d o no t warran t a "mu tiny," sh e submits t o St . John Rivers . Much a s sh e dislike s he r servitude , Jan e canno t stan d u p fo r hersel f because sh e ha s n o sel f t o stan d u p for . Sh e grew u p i n a n environmen t that gav e he r n o opportunit y t o remai n i n touc h wit h he r spontaneou s feelings. Instead , sh e develope d neuroti c need s an d defense s tha t con tinue t o gover n her . He r lif e i s focuse d o n managin g he r rage , gainin g security, an d assuagin g he r feeling s o f bein g wicked , unworthy , an d unlovable. Sh e i s pursuin g no t self-realizatio n bu t reassurance ; he r be havior i s governe d b y externa l source s o f validation , whethe r the y b e other people , God , o r a se t o f absolut e values . Sh e ca n rebe l agains t

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Rochester whe n he threatens her need for rectitude , but sh e has difficult y resisting a righteou s ma n lik e St . John, especiall y whe n th e occupatio n he offers promise s "sublim e results " (ch . 34) . St. John appeal s t o Jane's cravin g fo r glor y an d a significan t life . Lik e Helen Burns , h e admonishe s he r no t t o "clin g s o tenaciousl y t o tie s o f the flesh," an d h e warn s tha t i f sh e refuse s t o marr y him , sh e wil l limi t herself "fo r eve r t o a trac k o f selfis h eas e an d barre n obscurity " (ch . 34). Wha t Jan e mos t craves , however , i s huma n warmth , th e domesti c pleasures o f life , t o b e value d an d love d a s a person—th e thing s sh e missed a s a child. St . John prize s her abilitie s "a s a soldier woul d a goo d weapon," bu t h e ha s n o affectio n fo r her . Sh e can summo n th e forc e t o resist hi s deman d fo r marriag e becaus e i t arouse s som e o f he r deepes t insecurities. Unlike Rochester , St . John i s a handsom e ma n wh o exacer bates he r feelin g o f unattractiveness , an d h e i s in lov e with th e beautifu l Rosamond. I f the y married , sh e woul d hav e t o "endur e al l the form s o f love . . . an d kno w tha t th e spiri t wa s quit e absent. " Marriag e t o St . John woul d b e a "monstrous " "martyrdom " i n which sh e would contin ually b e mad e t o fee l unappealin g an d unloved , a poo r substitut e fo r Rosamond Oliver . Moreover , sh e fear s tha t a s hi s wif e sh e woul d hav e to disow n muc h o f he r nature . Wherea s mergin g wit h Rocheste r woul d allow he r t o fulfil l he r represse d desires , mergin g wit h St . Joh n woul d force he r t o stifl e he r feelings . Because sh e object s t o hi s conception o f marriag e an d scorn s hi s ide a of love , Jane ha s moral ground s o n whic h t o declin e St . John's proposal , but sh e ha s n o suc h ground s o n whic h t o refus e t o accompan y hi m a s his assistant . He r aversio n t o th e lif e sh e woul d lea d an d fea r o f a premature deat h ar e no t enoug h t o overcom e he r submissivenes s an d need fo r hi s approval . Whe n St . Joh n withdraw s afte r he r refusa l t o marry him , Jan e canno t bea r th e estrangemen t an d complain s tha t hi s coldness i s killin g her . Tryin g t o regai n hi s friendship , sh e renew s he r offer t o accompan y him , althoug h sh e continues to b e afraid tha t h e will destroy her . Sh e tell s Dian a tha t h e i s a "goo d an d grea t man " wh o pitilessly forget s "th e feeling s an d claim s o f littl e people " (ch . 35) . Th e "insignificant" ha d bes t "kee p ou t o f hi s way ; lest , i n hi s progress , h e should trampl e the m down . "Nonetheless, Jan e i s al l bu t swep t awa y when St . Joh n make s a final effor t t o persuad e he r t o marr y him . Overcome b y veneration , sh e i s tempte d "t o rus h dow n th e torren t o f his will into th e gul f o f hi s existence, an d ther e los e my own" : "Religio n called—Angels beckoned—Go d commanded—lif e rolle d togethe r lik e

Jane Eyre | 16 3 a scroll—death' s gate s opening , showe d eternit y beyond : i t seemed , tha t for safet y an d blis s there , al l her e migh t b e sacrifice d i n a second " (ch . 35). Jan e i s propelle d alon g thi s pat h no t onl y b y th e influenc e o f St . John bu t als o b y that o f Hele n Burns . When Dorothe a Brook e i s abou t t o sa y "ye s t o he r ow n doom " because o f he r compulsiv e compliance , Georg e Elio t rescue s he r b y killing off Edwar d Casaubon . Charlott e Bront e saves Jane from a simila r fate b y a n eve n mor e intrusiv e device , th e mysteriou s summon s fro m Rochester. Th e author' s psychologica l realis m havin g le d he r heroin e t o the verg e o f a self-destructiv e act , sh e extricate s Jan e an d preserve s th e comic structur e o f th e nove l b y th e introductio n o f a supernatura l ele ment. Th e voic e Jane hear s i s not a psychologicall y explicabl e delusion ; Rochester actuall y call s he r fro m Ferndea n an d sh e miraculousl y hear s him. Hi s summon s give s Jane th e strengt h t o brea k wit h St . John, wh o goes of f t o a gloriou s bu t earl y death , thu s confirmin g Jane' s fear s fo r herself shoul d sh e accompany him . While Jan e remain s a mimeti c characte r t o th e end , th e author' s manipulations o f th e actio n obscur e he r psychologica l problems . Sh e does not hav e t o outgro w he r compulsiv e complianc e i n orde r t o escap e the dange r pose d b y St. John bu t i s rescued b y the mysteriou s summon s from Rochester . Sh e goes bac k t o Thornfield , bu t a s sh e approache s th e house sh e realize s tha t i f Rocheste r i s ther e wit h hi s lunati c wife , sh e "can hav e nothin g t o d o wit h him " (ch . 36) . Sh e wil l stil l b e caugh t between he r need s fo r lov e an d rectitud e an d wil l hav e t o leav e onc e again. Happily , Berth a i s dead an d Rocheste r i s free. Eve n better , Roch ester i s helpless, "blin d an d a cripple." " I love you bette r now, " sh e tells him, "whe n I ca n reall y b e usefu l t o you , tha n I di d i n you r stat e of prou d independence " (ch . 37) . Rochester' s dependenc e give s Jan e something significan t t o d o wit h he r life . Sh e wil l no t b e limite d t o th e selfish eas e an d barre n obscurit y tha t St . John ha d sai d woul d b e her lo t if she refused t o marry hi m bu t wil l b e busy lookin g afte r Rochester . Although Jan e enjoy s th e powe r Rochester' s helplessnes s give s her , she need s t o preserv e he r sens e o f hi m a s a formidabl e perso n i n who m she ca n los e hersel f an d throug h who m sh e ca n vicariousl y fulfil l he r expansive desires . H e i s a "sightles s Samson " wh o i s "dangerou s t o approach" i n hi s "blin d ferocity, " a "roya l eagle , chaine d t o a perch, " who mus t "entrea t a sparro w t o becom e it s purveyor " (ch . 37) . Jane i s content wit h th e rol e o f sparrow—sh e ha d describe d hersel f a s on e o f the insignificant littl e people who shoul d kee p ou t o f St . John's way—a s

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long a s sh e can continu e t o se e Rochester a s a majesti c bein g whom sh e possesses throug h he r submission . Sh e nee d no t b e afrai d tha t he wil l trample he r down . Jan e need s a t onc e t o b e grea t an d small , an d he r merger wit h Rocheste r satisfie s bot h requirements . Jane say s that Rocheste r suit s he r "t o th e finest fibre o f [her ] nature " (ch. 37) , and, indeed , h e suit s he r bette r no w tha n before . W e have see n that whe n Mis s Templ e leave s Lowood , Jan e long s t o g o fort h int o th e world t o see k rea l knowledg e o f lif e amids t it s peril s bu t i s afrai d o f doing anythin g tha t migh t expos e he r t o reproach . Whe n sh e meet s Rochester, sh e finds tha t sh e ca n experienc e a n excitin g lif e vicariousl y through hi m whil e keepin g th e rea l thin g a t a saf e distance . Sh e want s him to have had a n adventurous existence , to be a nearly extinct volcan o whose occasiona l modes t eruption s frighte n other s bu t no t herself . Sh e does no t kno w tha t h e pose s a threa t t o he r virtue . Afte r Rocheste r proposes, Jan e i s apprehensiv e abou t bein g hi s wife . Sh e feel s inferio r because o f he r lac k o f "fortune , beauty , [and ] connections " (ch . 25) . She like s t o hea r abou t hi s travels , bu t sh e doe s no t loo k forwar d t o accompanying hi m a s a fine lady , an d sh e strenuousl y resist s hi s effort s to ador n her . He r conques t o f Rocheste r a t onc e compensate s fo r an d exacerbates he r sens e of inadequacy . Sh e could no t hav e bee n happy ha d they married a t this point, eve n if Rochester ha d bee n free . When Jan e marrie s Rocheste r a t th e end , sh e i s n o longe r poor , sh e has connections , and , sinc e h e is maimed an d blind , he r look s n o longe r matter. A s h e says , "fin e clothe s an d jewels " ar e "no t wort h a fillip" now (ch . 37) . Jane will not hav e to encounte r th e perils o f traveling wit h him a s a fine lady. Rochester i s as dependent o n he r a s she is on hi m an d just a s content t o lea d a reclusive existence . H e n o longe r pose s a threa t to he r piety an d rectitude , since he has been humbled b y his misfortunes , which h e has accepte d a s the chastisement s o f divin e justice : " I bega n t o experience remorse , repentance ; th e wis h fo r reconcilemen t t o my Maker" (ch . 37) . His rebellio n i s now al l in the past. H e ha s learne d th e lessons Jane wa s tryin g t o teac h him , jus t a s sh e ha s learne d th e lesson s of Hele n Burns . He i s rewarded fo r hi s ne w piet y whe n hi s call fo r Jan e mysteriously reache s he r an d whe n h e recovers som e o f hi s vision .

jane Eyre ha s a fairy-tale endin g i n which Cinderell a get s the prince an d lives happil y eve r after . Afte r te n year s o f marriage , Jan e hold s hersel f "supremely blest " (ch . 38), and he r happiness i s understandable. Sh e has

Jane Eyre | 16 5 received th e love, the validation o f her worth, an d th e socia l position sh e deserves i n a wa y tha t doe s no t activat e he r conflict s o r arous e he r insecurities. That conflict s an d insecuritie s ar e stil l there w e ma y infe r fro m Jane' s narration. Lik e Pip , sh e tell s he r stor y i n par t t o celebrat e herself , t o show ho w wel l sh e turne d ou t an d ho w he r virtu e ha s bee n rewarded . She would no t b e motivated t o d o this unles s sh e still felt a need fo r self vindication. I f Jan e wer e a t peac e wit h herself , woul d sh e b e s o self congratulatory, s o persistentl y boastful , self-justifying , an d condescend ing towar d others ? Sh e i s a t pain s t o repea t al l th e tribute s sh e ha s received an d t o cal l attentio n t o he r talents , virtues , an d triumphs . Sh e has a continuin g nee d t o repudiat e th e thing s sai d abou t he r a t Gates head an d t o prov e he r superiority . Th e Jan e wh o narrate s th e nove l i s not a s inwardly seren e a s she supposes hersel f t o be . Jane present s he r lif e wit h Rocheste r a s ideal , an d i t i s certainl y th e most satisfyin g sh e can achieve , given her needs and conflicts . Bu t it doe s not see m t o fulfil l he r earlie r longin g fo r a fulle r existence . Whe n Mis s Temple leave s Lowoo d t o marry , Jan e crave s th e "varie d field o f hope s and fears , o f sensation s an d excitements " tha t await s thos e wh o hav e "the courag e t o go forth" int o th e world. Sh e desires liberty, excitement , and enjoymen t bu t settle s fo r a ne w servitud e i n whic h everythin g i s "respectable, proper, en regie" (ch . 10) . Restless at Thornfield befor e th e arrival o f Rochester , sh e says that huma n being s cannot b e satisfied wit h "tranquillity," tha t the y "mus t hav e action, " an d sh e evoke s th e imag e of million s o f wome n "i n silen t revol t agains t thei r lot " (ch . 12) . The y "need exercis e fo r thei r faculties " an d suffe r a s me n woul d fro m "to o rigid a constraint , to o absolut e a stagnation. " I t i s narrow-minde d o f men "t o sa y tha t the y ough t t o confin e themselve s t o makin g pudding s and knittin g stockings , to playing o n th e piano an d embroiderin g bags. " Jane exercise s he r facultie s t o som e exten t a s a teache r a t Morto n school, bu t sh e i s eage r t o leav e tha t unprestigiou s positio n whe n sh e receives a n inheritance . St . Joh n ask s i f th e "consciousnes s o f havin g done som e rea l good " ha s no t give n he r pleasur e an d propose s tha t sh e devote he r lif e t o th e tas k o f regeneratin g he r race , bu t Jane replie s tha t she want s t o "enjo y [her ] ow n facultie s a s wel l a s t o cultivat e thos e o f other people " (ch . 34) . Jan e seem s t o b e sayin g tha t sh e want s t o actualize herself , bu t when St . John ask s what employmen t sh e propose s as a substitut e fo r th e on e sh e is relinquishing, sh e replies that sh e want s "to clean down Moo r Hous e fro m chambe r t o cellar, " "t o ru b i t up . . .

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till i t glitters again, " an d "t o arrang e ever y chair, table, bed , carpet wit h mathematical precision. " Sh e want s t o hav e thing s "i n a n absolutel y perfect stat e o f readiness " fo r Dian a an d Mar y whe n the y return . St . John trust s that "whe n th e first flush of vivacity is over," Jane "wil l loo k a littl e highe r tha n domesti c endearment s an d househol d joys. " "Th e best thing s th e worl d has! " Jane exclaims . I s there a differenc e betwee n cleaning dow n an d rubbin g u p Moo r Hous e an d th e puddin g makin g and stockin g knittin g t o whic h wome n shoul d no t b e confined ? Wha t has happened t o Jane's revol t agains t th e feminin e lot ? There is a disparity, as we have seen, between the rebellious, adventur ous, expansiv e sid e o f Jane an d he r timi d conventionality . Whil e leadin g a "tranquil , settled, " dutifu l lif e a s teacher a t Morto n school , sh e rushe s "into strang e dream s a t night : dream s many-coloured , agitated , ful l o f the ideal , th e stirring , th e stormy—dream s where , amids t unusua l scenes, charged with adventure , with agitatin g risk an d romantic chance , I still again an d agai n met Mr. Rochester , alway s a t som e exciting crisis" (ch. 32) . Wha t a contras t betwee n suc h dreams , ful l o f sensatio n an d excitement, an d th e lif e sh e celebrate s a s s o idylli c a t th e end . Sh e i s living a t Ferndean , a damp , "desolat e spot " (ch . 36) , s o "insalubrious " that i t cannot b e rented (ch . 37) . As an ac t o f conscience , Rochester kep t Bertha a t Thornfiel d rathe r tha n housin g he r there . Sh e an d Rocheste r "are eve r together," wit h Jane readin g t o him , conductin g hi m where h e wants t o go , and "doin g fo r hi m what h e wished t o b e done" (ch . 38) . Except fo r th e presenc e o f Rochester , Jan e i s leadin g th e tranquil , confined lif e ful l o f domesti c dutie s agains t whic h sh e envision s million s of wome n bein g i n silen t revolt . Bu t Rocheste r make s al l th e difference , of course . Jane crave s freedo m fro m tim e to time , bu t i t is freedom fro m constraint rathe r tha n freedo m t o fulfil l herself . Whe n sh e achieve s a measure o f independenc e throug h he r inheritance , sh e doe s no t kno w what t o d o wit h it , othe r tha n t o clea n dow n Moo r house . Sh e ha s n o answer t o St . John's questio n abou t "wha t aim , wha t purpose " sh e ha s in life (ch . 34). Like the averag e woman o f her culture, Jane live s for an d through a man. Without Rochester , sh e would becom e like the old maid s of whom Bront e writes with suc h compassio n i n Shirley. What separate s Jan e fro m th e averag e i s the intensit y o f he r relation ship wit h Rochester , th e completenes s wit h whic h sh e merge s wit h he r mate. Sh e hold s hersel f "supremel y blest " becaus e " I a m m y husband' s life a s fully a s he i s mine. No woma n wa s eve r nearer t o he r mat e tha n I am: eve r mor e absolutel y bon e o f hi s bone , an d flesh o f hi s flesh" (ch .

Jane Eyre | 1 67 38). Whereas lov e i s for mos t me n a thing apart , i t i s Rochester's whol e existence. Becaus e o f hi s disability , Jan e i s th e exclusiv e objec t o f hi s attention. Fo r te n years , h e an d Jan e hav e bee n talkin g "al l da y long, " never wearyin g o f eac h other' s company . Jan e glorie s i n thi s existence , but i t seems stagnant an d confine d t o me . The relationshi p tha t Jan e s o romanticize s is , i n Horneya n terms , a morbid dependenc y i n which sh e has no life o f her ow n bu t lives throug h Rochester. Th e relationshi p i s so intens e becaus e h e need s Jane a s muc h as sh e need s him ; th e morbi d dependenc y i s mutual. Together , the y lea d an extremel y embedde d existenc e i n th e damp , womblik e worl d o f Ferndean. Jan e n o longe r desire s stimulatio n o r th e exercis e o f he r faculties—or perhap s sh e does , sinc e sh e become s a writer . Bu t sh e i s writing fro m a safe retreat , lik e Jacob Horne r an d Pip .

10 The Mayor of Casterbridge

Critical discussio n o f The Mayor of Casterbridge ha s focuse d on Michae l Henchard , a characte r muc h admire d bu t littl e understood . For som e h e i s a n epi c o r tragi c her o wh o evoke s comparison s wit h Achilles, Prometheus, Oedipus , Orestes , Lear, Macbeth, Faust , an d suc h biblical figures a s Cain , Samson , an d Saul . Those wh o se e him primaril y in term s o f plot , theme , o r archetyp e eithe r pa y littl e attentio n t o hi s psychology o r discus s hi m i n term s o f traditiona l dichotomie s betwee n reason an d passion , conscienc e an d impulse , virtue an d vice . He i s ofte n regarded a s a towerin g figure i n th e gri p o f elementa l force s wh o i s lacking i n emotiona l complexity . Josep h Warre n Beac h call s hi m "th e original caveman, " " a bul l i n a china shop, " whos e "gentles t movemen t is accompanie d b y th e cras h o f breakin g crockery " (Robinso n 1977 , 313). A few critic s hav e see n hi m a s a masterful portrai t o f a n imagine d human bein g wh o undergoe s significan t change s i n th e cours e o f th e novel, bu t eve n the y hav e ha d difficult y accountin g fo r hi s ambivalence s and inconsistencies . Thes e ca n b e understoo d i n term s o f hi s inne r conflicts, whic h ar e of th e kin d tha t Kare n Horne y described . Henchard i s such a n arrestin g figure that littl e attention ha s bee n pai d to othe r characters . Althoug h Farfra e i s ofte n regarde d a s secon d i n importance, Elizabeth-Jan e i s th e mos t full y draw n characte r nex t t o Henchard. Henchar d i s th e protagonis t o f a tragi c educatio n plo t who , unlike Pip , learns hi s lesson to o late . Elizabeth-Jane i s the protagonis t o f a comi c vindicatio n plo t who , lik e Jane Eyre , i s undervalued a t first bu t wins recognitio n an d lov e b y th e end . Hard y celebrate s he r fro m th e start an d offer s he r a s a foil t o Henchard . Like Great Expectations an d jane Eyre, The Mayor of Casterbridge is heavily rhetorical, bu t thi s time the rhetoric flows no t fro m a protago nist telling the story from hi s or her point o f view but from a n omniscien t narrator wh o i s suppose d t o b e objectiv e an d reliable . Hardy' s omni scient narrato r als o present s interpretation s an d judgment s tha t ar e ou t

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The Mayor of Casterbridge | 16 9 of harmon y wit h th e mimesis , however . A s we sa w i n th e cas e o f Great Expectations, novel s o f educatio n ten d t o celebrat e a s growth wha t the y show t o b e th e collaps e o f on e defensiv e strateg y an d th e adoptio n of another . Hardy' s judgment s see m appropriat e t o th e mimesi s whe n Henchard i s predominantl y aggressiv e bu t inappropriat e afte r Hench ard's ambition s ar e crushe d an d hi s compliant tendencie s emerge . As we saw i n th e cas e o f Jane Eyre, novel s o f vindicatio n ten d t o glorif y protagonists wh o hav e bee n psychologicall y damage d i n childhood . Hardy neve r make s clea r wha t wa s s o terribl e abou t Elizabeth-Jane' s childhood, bu t h e frequentl y refer s t o he r earl y suffering an d glorifie s her defensiv e strategies . Whe n analyze d fro m a Horneya n perspective , the mimeti c portrai t o f Elizabet h subvert s Hardy' s rhetoric , sinc e i t shows what a fearful, rigid , self-imprisone d perso n sh e actually is.

The tragi c educatio n patter n o f Henchard' s stor y i s mad e explici t whe n he return s t o Weydon-Priors , wher e h e ha d sol d hi s wif e ove r twenty one years before : He experience d no t onl y th e bitternes s o f a ma n wh o finds, in lookin g back upo n a n ambitiou s cours e tha t wha t h e ha s sacrifice d i n sentimen t was wort h a s muc h a s wha t h e ha s gaine d i n substance ; bu t th e super added bitterness of seeing his very recantation nullified. He had been sorry for all this long ago; but his attempts to replace ambition by love had been as fully foiled a s his ambition itself. (Ch. 44) Henchard's origina l "crime " i s committed i n th e nam e o f ambition , bu t he finds hi s subsequen t succes s empt y withou t huma n companionship . When hi s ambitio n ultimatel y fails , h e trie s t o replac e i t wit h love , bu t his effor t t o d o s o i s foile d whe n h e lose s Elizabeth-Jane . Th e narrato r tells u s tha t Henchard' s "ne w lights " hav e allowe d hi m t o achiev e "higher thing s tha n hi s sou l i n it s half-forme d stat e ha d bee n abl e t o accomplish" bu t tha t h e canno t mak e us e o f hi s "wisdom " becaus e h e has los t hi s zes t fo r living . H e ha s learne d th e hollownes s o f ambitio n and th e valu e o f love , bu t hi s educatio n i s rendere d futil e b y "th e ingenious machinery contrive d b y the God s for reducin g human possibil ities of amelioratio n t o a minimum. " From a Horneya n perspective , Henchar d i s a predominantl y aggres sive man wh o ha s conflicting complian t tendencie s tha t haun t hi m i n th e midst o f succes s and becom e dominan t whe n hi s fortunes collapse . Wit h

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the failure o f his effort t o liv e for love , he feels everythin g t o b e folly an d becomes predominantl y detached . H e change s i n muc h th e wa y th e rhetoric suggests—fro m ambitio n t o lov e t o indifference—bu t hi s at tachment t o Elizabeth-Jane i s compulsive an d hi s loss of desir e is not th e fault o f th e machiner y o f th e Gods . Hardy' s rhetorica l treatmen t o f Henchard tend s t o b e crud e an d ma y b e partl y responsibl e fo r critic s seeing hi m a s havin g a simpl e natur e drive n b y elementa l forces . Th e mimetic portrai t show s a complicate d ma n wh o i s tormente d b y inne r conflicts a t ever y stage o f hi s life . Henchard i s torn fro m th e beginnin g b y a conflic t betwee n ambitio n and a nee d fo r affection . Becaus e o f hi s cravin g fo r love , h e marrie s at th e ag e o f eightee n bu t the n finds hi s aspiration s thwarte d b y th e responsibilities h e ha s assumed . H e soo n come s t o despis e hi s emotion ally need y wife , a s h e despise s th e love-hungr y sid e o f himself . Terribl y oppressed, h e tries to defen d himsel f b y withdrawing int o a "dogge d an d cynical indifference " (ch . i) . I n th e openin g scen e o f th e nove l bot h partners displa y a disillusione d resignatio n a s the y trudg e towar d Wey don-Priors. In the furmit y tent , Henchard' s frustration , rage , an d self-hat e ris e t o the surfac e unde r th e influenc e o f rum . Whe n th e conversatio n turn s t o the thwartin g "o f man y a promisin g youth' s hig h aim s an d hope s an d the extinctio n o f hi s energie s b y a n earl y impruden t marriage, " h e attacks himsel f a s a "fool " fo r havin g married an d boast s tha t i f he were free h e coul d bea t an y ma n i n Englan d i n th e fodde r trad e an d woul d "be wort h a thousand pounds " befor e h e wa s don e (ch . i) . H e i s angr y with himself , hi s wife , an d fat e fo r thwartin g hi s searc h fo r glor y an d tries to gai n contro l o f his destiny b y selling his wife an d child . Here, a s o n late r occasions , Henchar d impulsivel y act s i n a wa y fo r which he suffers whe n the moment ha s passed an d his conflicting feeling s emerge. His sale of his wife i s felt b y the company t o b e "a n indefensibl e proceeding" (ch . i) , an d h e to o regard s i t a s immora l whe n hi s sobriet y returns. Som e critic s depic t Henchar d a s a rebe l agains t socia l la w an d the ironie s o f fortune , bu t h e i s a ver y conventiona l ma n wh o trans gresses becaus e he is desperate an d the n i s haunted fo r th e rest o f his lif e by what h e feels t o b e his crime. He punishes himsel f b y swearing no t t o drink fo r th e nex t twenty-on e year s an d spend s severa l month s an d al l his mone y tryin g t o find hi s wif e an d child . H e fail s becaus e h e i s s o ashamed o f wha t h e ha s don e tha t h e doe s no t publiciz e th e searc h effectively.

The Mayor of Casterbridge | 17 1 Henchard i s stil l ful l o f conflic t whe n w e se e hi m again , afte r th e passage o f ninetee n years . A "masterful , coercive " ma n (ch . 13 ) wit h "no pit y fo r weakness " (ch . 5) , h e ha s "worke d hi s wa y u p fro m nothing" t o b e a wealth y cor n facto r an d Mayo r o f Casterbridge . Al though h e ha s mor e tha n fulfille d hi s boas t t o b e wort h a thousan d pounds, he confesses t o Farfra e tha t h e is not "s o thriving i n his mind a s it seem s h e migh t b e fro m th e stat e o f hi s pocket " (ch . 12) . Becaus e o f the lonelines s o f hi s domesti c life , h e i s subjec t t o "gloom y fits" whe n "the worl d seem s t o hav e th e blacknes s o f hell , an d lik e Job , I coul d curse th e da y tha t gav e m e birth. " Havin g sacrifice d hi s famil y i n orde r to pursue hi s ambition, Henchar d no w suffer s fro m emotiona l isolation . Although h e longs for companionship , he maintains a "haught y indiffer ence" (ch . 13 ) t o th e societ y o f wome n becaus e h e fear s tha t h e i s unlovable an d tha t the y will b e a hindrance. O n becomin g involve d wit h Lucetta whe n sh e nurse s hi m throug h a n illness , h e feel s unworth y o f her affectio n an d regard s he r a s "foolish " fo r likin g him . With the reappearance o f Susan , Henchard i s thrown int o a quandary . He i s eager t o mak e amend s fo r hi s earlie r treatmen t o f her , bu t h e ha d intended t o marr y Lucett a s o as to salvag e he r reputation . Tor n betwee n what h e owes t o eac h woman , h e concludes tha t hi s first obligatio n i s t o Susan, bu t h e blame s himsel f fo r havin g injure d Lucetta . H e regard s hi s remarriage primaril y a s a mean s o f restitutio n an d penance . H e curse s the "prid e an d mortificatio n a t bein g poor " tha t le d t o hi s earlie r un kindness an d seek s "t o castigat e himsel f wit h th e thorns " tha t hi s "resti tutory acts " wil l brin g i n thei r trai n b y unitin g hi m wit h "s o compara tively humbl e a woman " (ch . 13) . Henchar d ofte n trie s t o alleviat e hi s guilt an d self-hat e b y punishing himself . Henchard's relationship s with Farfra e an d Elizabeth-Jan e ar e profoundl y influenced b y his inner conflicts . H e i s so attracte d t o Farfra e becaus e h e promises t o gratif y th e need s fo r powe r an d huma n warmt h tha t hav e hitherto seeme d incompatible. Farfrae wil l be a great help in his business, but i t i s Henchard' s nee d fo r "som e huma n object " o n who m t o pou r "out hi s heart " (ch . 19 ) tha t make s hi m read y t o offe r Donal d almos t anything t o remai n i n Casterbridge . Farfra e remind s hi m o f hi s dea d brother, an d whe n h e agrees to becom e hi s manager, Henchar d exult s i n the feelin g tha t h e ha s a t las t foun d a friend . Th e relationshi p develop s rapidly, o n Henchard' s side , a t least . Explainin g tha t h e i s " a lonel y man" (ch . 12) , h e impulsivel y confide s i n Farfra e an d seek s hi s advic e

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about ho w h e should behav e toward Susa n and Lucetta . After sh e moves into Henchard' s house , Elizabeth-Jan e observe s tha t h e alway s want s Donald nea r hi m an d ha s a habi t o f layin g "hi s ar m familiarl y o n hi s manager's shoulder , a s if Farfrae wer e a younger brother " (ch . 14) . This is a n idylli c tim e fo r Henchard . H e ha s ease d hi s guil t i n relatio n t o Susan, he is growing fond o f Elizabeth-Jane, an d h e has Farfrae a s helper and friend . The Abel Whittle affai r put s a n end to this happy interlud e b y activat ing Henchard' s conflicts . Whe n Farfra e revoke s hi s orde r tha t th e tard y Whittle g o to wor k withou t hi s breeches , Henchard i s "bitterl y hurt " a t having bee n rebuke d i n fron t o f hi s me n an d feel s tha t Farfra e i s takin g advantage o f hi m becaus e h e ha s tol d hi m hi s secret s (ch . 15) . Angr y with himsel f a s well a s with Farfrae , h e calls himself a "fool " fo r havin g opened hi s heart . Althoug h the y quickl y mak e up , Henchar d continue s to berat e himself fo r wha t h e now perceive s to b e a weakness an d feel s a "dim dread " a t havin g pu t himsel f i n Farfrae' s power . H e become s insensibly mor e reserve d an d give s u p hi s preciou s intimac y wit h hi s friend. Instead o f contributin g t o Henchard' s sens e o f success , Farfra e no w threatens it , sinc e anothe r consequenc e o f th e Whittl e affai r i s tha t Henchard learn s tha t hi s worker s regar d Farfra e a s th e bette r ma n an d would prefe r hi m a s thei r master . Feelin g tha t h e ha s los t hi s plac e a s "the mos t admire d ma n i n hi s circle " (ch . 15) , Henchar d hope s t o outshine Farfra e b y offerin g a lavis h entertainmen t a t hi s ow n expens e after Donal d plan s on e fo r whic h admissio n wil l b e charged . Whe n ba d weather spoil s his plans while favoring Donald' s an d h e overhears a ma n asking where hi s business would b e if it were not fo r hi s young manager , Henchard i s driven t o restor e hi s pride b y dismissing Farfrae . Hardy tend s t o attribut e thi s kin d o f behavio r t o broa d trait s o f character suc h a s temper , lac k o f moderation , an d strong-headedness , but Henchar d display s suc h traits onl y when h e feels severel y threatene d or frustrated . Hi s dismissa l o f Farfra e i s impulsive , t o b e sure , bu t i t i s an ac t t o whic h h e i s drive n b y dee p psychologica l needs . Succes s fo r Henchard i s les s a matte r o f mone y tha n a sens e o f superiorit y an d triumph. I f peopl e thin k hi s busines s depend s o n Farfrae , "he'l l b e honeycombed clea n ou t o f al l th e characte r an d standin g tha t he' s buil t up i n thes e eightee n year! " (ch . 16) . H e ha s sacrifice d everythin g t o achieve hi s positio n an d canno t bea r t o b e deprive d o f it . H e imagine s

The Mayor of Casterbridge | 17 3 that onc e his rival i s removed, h e will prove h e can manag e withou t hi m and wil l regain hi s preeminence . Henchard's longin g fo r Farfrae' s friendshi p quickl y reassert s itself , however, an d hi s "hear t [sinks ] withi n him " whe n h e realize s wha t h e has don e (ch . 17) . H e i s "hurt " whe n Farfra e take s hi s dismissa l seri ously, showing , a s Susa n ha d don e earlier , tha t h e doe s "no t mea n t o put u p with hi s temper an y longer." Whe n Susa n an d Donal d thwar t hi s expansive needs , Henchar d compulsivel y rid s himsel f o f the m bu t the n is shocke d an d sorr y an d externalize s hi s self-hat e b y blamin g the m fo r not knowin g tha t h e did no t reall y mean wha t h e had done . The dismissa l o f Farfra e i s fata l t o Henchard' s fortunes , bu t i t nee d not hav e bee n so , since the young man i s grateful fo r pas t friendshi p an d tries to avoi d clashin g wit h him . Hard y make s muc h o f th e differenc e i n their styles—"Norther n insigh t matche d agains t Souther n doggedness " (ch. 17)—an d critic s have dwel t o n the conflict betwee n generation s an d old an d ne w methods , bu t a s Hardy' s famou s citatio n o f Novali s sug gests, i t i s Henchard's characte r tha t determine s hi s fate . Whe n Donal d sets u p a s a cor n an d ha y merchan t o n hi s ow n account , Henchar d feel s that h e won't b e "wo't h a varden" i f he "can' t overbi d suc h a stripling. " Because of his own psychology, he feels himself t o be in an all-or-nothin g situation. H e i s an insecur e ma n wh o i s afraid tha t h e will feel worthles s if h e canno t defea t hi s riva l an d wi n bac k hi s glory . Hi s irrationa l resentment o f Farfra e an d nee d fo r vindictiv e triump h ar e primaril y responsible fo r hi s downfall . Henchard's rivalr y wit h Farfra e i s intensified b y the frustratio n o f hi s need fo r love . Indeed, withou t thi s additiona l factor , h e ma y neve r hav e behaved s o rashl y a s t o rui n himself . Soo n afte r hi s brea k wit h Farfrae , Susan dies , an d h e discover s tha t Elizabeth-Jan e i s no t hi s child . Thi s leaves "a n emotiona l void " tha t h e hope s Lucett a wil l fil l (ch . 26) . Farfrae's becomin g a riva l fo r he r affectio n add s "a n inflamin g soul " t o Henchard's nee d fo r competitiv e triumph , an d h e hire s Jopp, givin g hi m instructions t o "grind " Farfra e "int o th e ground " b y a "desperat e bi d against hi m fo r th e farmer' s custom. " Henchard' s fortune s no w rapidl y decline a s h e gamble s o n th e weathe r i n hi s desperat e effor t t o crus h Farfrae, whil e Farfra e steadil y acquire s al l tha t Henchar d ha s lost — Lucetta, hi s house an d business , his civic positions. Henchard's reaction s t o hi s failur e reflec t hi s conflictin g defenses . Although h e ofte n rebel s agains t hi s fat e an d seek s t o contro l it , h e

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also ha s stron g tendencie s towar d detachment . Afte r hi s bankruptcy , h e literally move s awa y fro m hi s fellows , lodgin g i n Jopp's cottage , wher e he give s order s tha t h e will se e no one , not eve n Elizabeth-Jane . Hench ard's impuls e towar d withdrawa l lead s hi m t o contemplat e emigration , but h e relinquishe s th e ide a i n respons e t o th e kindnes s o f Farfrae , wh o offers hi m room s i n his ol d house , an d o f Elizabeth-Jane , wh o insist s o n nursing hi m whe n h e become s ill . Bore d wit h nothin g t o do , h e "sto ically" ask s t o b e take n o n a s a hay-trusse r i n th e busines s h e ha d formerly owned , sayin g that hones t wor k i s "no t a thin g t o b e ashame d of" (ch . 32) . Under th e influenc e o f kin d treatmen t an d hi s ow n resignation , Henchard's injure d prid e seem s fo r a tim e t o b e quiescent . Hard y i s careful t o poin t out , however , tha t h e i s " a fa r differen t journeyma n from th e on e h e ha d bee n i n hi s earlie r days " (ch . 32) . The n h e ha d dressed i n a clean an d colorfu l outfi t appropriat e t o hi s station , wherea s now h e wears "th e remain s o f a n ol d blu e clot h sui t o f hi s gentlemanl y times, a rusty sil k hat , an d a once blac k sati n stock , soile d an d shabby. " His appare l expresse s hi s misery , self-pity , an d sens e o f degradatio n an d shows that he cannot le t go of his gentlemanly statu s or of his resentmen t at having lost it. It is a way of refusing t o accep t hi s fate an d dramatizin g what ha s bee n don e t o him . Henchard's suppresse d ange r erupt s whe n h e hear s tha t Farfra e wil l soon b e proposed fo r Mayor , an d fro m thi s poin t unti l thei r fight i n th e loft hi s aggressiv e tendencie s ar e predominant . Agai n perceivin g Farfra e as a "triumphan t rival " wh o ha s ridde n "rough-sho d ove r him " (ch . 32), h e become s obsesse d b y th e reversa l o f thei r positions , whic h act s "like a n irritan t poison " upo n hi m (ch . 33) . Henchard seek s t o restor e hi s prid e b y triumphin g ove r Farfrae , bu t he i s inhibite d b y hi s inne r conflicts . Intendin g t o revea l tha t th e letter s in hi s saf e wer e writte n b y Lucetta , h e finds tha t "suc h a wreckin g o f hearts appallfs ] eve n him " (ch . 34) . Hi s compunctiou s sid e manifest s itself agai n whe n Lucett a meet s hi m a t th e Rin g an d beg s hi m no t t o destroy her . Rememberin g hi s earlie r encounte r ther e wit h Susan , "an other ill-use d woman, " h e i s "unmanned " an d "hi s hear t [smites ] hi m for havin g attempte d reprisal s o n on e o f a se x s o weak " (ch . 35) . Th e aggressive Henchard ca n take no satisfaction i n hunting such "ver y smal l deer," whil e th e complian t Henchar d i s move d b y Lucetta' s sufferin g and woul d fee l guilt y i f he injured suc h a fragile creature . H e ha d begu n to wan t Lucett a strongl y himsel f onl y whe n sh e becam e feist y an d wa s

The Mayor of Casterbridge | 17 5 enveloped b y th e glamou r o f havin g inherite d mone y an d bein g courte d by anothe r man . No w tha t h e see s he r a s weak , "hi s ol d feelin g o f supercilious pit y fo r womankin d i n general " returns . With hi s contemp t for self-effacin g females , h e feel s tha t Farfra e ha s "marrie d money , bu t nothing more, " an d hi s envy disappears . Henchard nex t trie s t o restor e hi s prid e b y greetin g th e roya l visitor , even thoug h th e Tow n Counci l ha s refuse d hi s request . Whil e everyon e else a t th e festivit y "shon e i n ne w vestur e accordin g t o means, " Hench ard "doggedl y retaine d th e frette d an d weather-beate n garment s o f by gone years " (ch . 37) . T o dres s i n a n appropriat e manne r woul d b e accepting hi s positio n a s a commo n journeyman , wherea s throug h hi s shabby gentil e appare l h e seem s t o b e assertin g a clai m t o specia l statu s on th e basi s o f pas t grandeu r an d th e patho s o f hi s presen t lot . A t th e same time , he i s ensuring tha t hi s claim wil l no t b e honored an d tha t h e will hav e a n additiona l basi s fo r resentment . H e seem s t o wan t t o fee d his sens e o f outrage . Whe n Farfra e roughl y prevent s hi m fro m greetin g the Illustrious Personage , Henchard feel s this to b e "th e crowning degra dation" fo r whic h th e young Mayo r mus t pa y (ch . 38) . Henchard mean s to kill Farfrae whe n h e fights him in the granary, bu t when Farfra e challenge s hi m t o carr y ou t hi s intent, Henchard' s lov e fo r him rise s t o th e surfac e an d h e canno t d o so . Overwhelme d wit h "shame," "remorse, " an d "self-reproach, " h e invite s Farfra e t o hav e him arreste d an d fling s himsel f dow n i n a stat e o f "abandonment " (ch . 38). Whe n Hard y write s tha t th e "womanliness " o f hi s "crouchin g attitude" sa t "tragicall y o n the figure o f s o stern a piece of virility," h e is pointing i n hi s wa y t o th e dissonanc e betwee n th e conflictin g side s o f Henchard's personality . Henchard ha d se t ou t t o restor e hi s prid e b y takin g reveng e o n Farfra e and provin g himsel f th e bette r man , bu t thi s lead s hi m t o th e verg e o f murder, and , torture d b y hi s "self-accusin g soul " (ch . 39) , h e become s abjectly self-effacing . H e seek s pardo n fo r hi s "ma d attack " an d ago nizes ove r th e though t tha t Farfra e wil l hat e an d despis e hi m forever . When hi s effor t t o redee m himsel f b y doin g Farfra e a servic e fails , h e i s saved from despai r b y the presence o f Elizabeth-Jane , who seem s " a pin point o f light " i n "th e mids t o f hi s gloom" (ch . 40). With al l else lost, h e begins to "drea m o f a future li t by her filial presence, as though tha t wa y alone coul d happines s lie " (ch . 41). Elizabeth-Jane i s bot h a sourc e o f affectio n an d a mean s o f restorin g

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his pride . Afte r h e discovere d tha t sh e wa s no t reall y hi s daughter , h e became irritate d wit h he r humble , unrefine d way s an d wante d he r ou t of hi s house , bu t jus t befor e sh e lef t h e caugh t a glimps e o f he r accom plishments an d wishe d sh e woul d stay . Hi s estee m continue d t o grow , enabling hi m to transfer hi s pride t o he r afte r hi s downfall. H e glorie s i n Elizabeth-Jane's self-effacin g qualities , he r purit y an d goodness , an d satisfies hi s need fo r preeminenc e vicariousl y throug h her . Since ther e woul d b e "nobod y fo r hi m t o b e prou d of , nobod y t o fortify him " (ch . 41) without Elizabeth-Jane , Henchar d become s desper ate a t th e prospec t o f losin g her . Hi s tellin g Newso n sh e i s dea d i s "th e last defiant wor d o f a despair which [takes ] no thought o f consequences " (ch. 42). In drea d o f Newson' s return , h e finds i t "unendurable " tha t h e might liv e fo r anothe r thirt y o r fort y year s t o b e "scoffe d at " o r "pit ied" (ch. 41 ) an d i s o n th e verg e o f suicid e whe n h e i s "resuscitated " b y Elizabeth-Jane's proposa l tha t the y liv e together . Henchard's fea r o f losin g Elizabeth-Jan e make s hi m suppres s hi s ag gressive tendencies . H e woul d hav e decline d th e offe r o f a smal l see d and roo t busines s o n hi s ow n account , bu t h e "fetter[s ] hi s prid e suffi ciently" t o accep t i t fo r he r sak e (ch . 42) . Sinc e he r "sympathy " i s "necessary t o hi s ver y existence, " h e become s a "nette d lion " wh o i s "anxious no t t o piqu e her. " He r "wor d [is ] law" an d sh e ha s "he r ow n way i n everything. " H e i s i n anguis h a t th e though t o f a renewe d acquaintance betwee n Elizabeth-Jan e an d Farfrae , bu t h e observe s he r secretly and makes no complaint. Suc h stealth is not part o f his "origina l make," say s Hardy, bu t "th e solicitus timor o f his love—the dependenc e on Elizabeth' s regar d int o which h e had decline d (or , in another sens e t o which h e had advanced)—denaturalize d him. " As the preceding sentenc e shows, it is sometimes difficul t t o determin e Hardy's attitud e towar d Henchar d i n thi s par t o f th e novel . I n general , he i s critical o f th e expansiv e Henchard , who m h e compare s t o Faust — "a vehemen t gloom y bein g wh o ha d quitte d th e way s o f vulga r me n without ligh t t o guid e hi m o n a bette r way " (ch . 17) ; an d h e i s sympa thetic towar d th e self-effacin g Henchard , wh o b y hi s ne w light s ha s achieved highe r things . Thus he characterizes Henchard' s dependenc e o n Elizabeth-Jane's regar d a s a n advance . Bu t h e als o characterize s i t a s a decline. I t ma y b e th e expansiv e Henchar d wh o i s regardin g hi s depen dence a s a decline , bu t th e sentenc e doe s no t specificall y attribut e thi s sentiment to him. Is Hardy tryin g to sugges t that what Henchar d regard s as a declin e i s reall y a n advance ? O r i s ther e a conflic t i n th e narrato r

The Mayor of Caster bridge | 17 7 similar t o tha t i n Henchard , s o tha t hi s expansiv e sid e regard s th e dependence a s a declin e whil e hi s complian t sid e regard s i t a s a n ad vance? I s Hard y tryin g t o invok e th e parado x o f th e fortunat e fal l i n which Henchar d mus t declin e in order t o advance ? Th e text provide s n o clear answe r t o thes e questions , an d w e mus t wonde r i f ther e i s a n ambivalence i n Hard y tha t i s responsible fo r it s imprecis e languag e an d slipperiness. In a late r passag e Hard y write s tha t Henchar d woul d hav e bee n content i f Elizabeth-Jane ha d los t her hear t t o an y man "tha n th e on e h e had rivalled , cursed , wrestle d wit h fo r lif e i n day s befor e hi s spiri t wa s broken" (ch . 42) . Fro m whos e perspectiv e ha s Henchard' s spiri t bee n broken? Th e languag e doe s no t clearl y indicat e tha t th e perspectiv e i s Henchard's, althoug h w e ca n se e fro m th e mimeti c portrai t tha t h e regards hi s submissivenes s wit h contempt . I f thi s i s th e narrator' s per spective, the n th e assertio n tha t Henchard' s spiri t ha s bee n broke n i s i n conflict wit h th e vie w that h e has advance d throug h hi s dependenc e an d attained highe r things . A psychological analysi s doe s no t sho w Henchar d a s havin g attaine d higher things bu t a s having changed defensiv e strategie s a s a result o f th e failure o f hi s predominan t solution . H e stil l ha s expansiv e attitude s tha t lead hi m t o despis e hi s abjectness , bu t hi s nee d o f Elizabeth-Jan e i s s o great tha t h e wil l g o t o almos t an y length s t o remai n par t o f he r life . When h e see s tha t sh e an d Farfra e ar e headin g towar d marriage , h e becomes convince d tha t the y regar d hi m a s "a n irksom e obstacl e who m they would b e heartily glad to get out o f the way," and h e has an impuls e to "escap e thos e wh o di d no t wan t him , an d hid e hi s hea d forever " (ch . 43). But he clings to the hope tha t a separation wil l not b e necessary an d envisions a n alternat e scenari o i n which h e will liv e "lik e a fangles s lio n about th e back rooms o f a house in which hi s stepdaughter wa s mistress ; an inoffensiv e ol d man , tenderl y smile d o n b y Elizabeth , an d good naturedly tolerate d b y her husband." Althoug h i t is "terribl e t o his prid e to thin k o f descendin g s o low, " "fo r th e girl' s sak e h e migh t pu t u p with anything ; even from Farfrae ; eve n snubbing s an d masterfu l tongue scourgings." Th e dependenc y o f thi s onc e prou d ma n o n Elizabeth-Jan e is pathetic. The reappearanc e o f Newso n put s a n en d t o Henchard' s oscillatio n between thought s o f submissio n an d o f runnin g away , bu t h e woul d have ha d n o viabl e solutio n eve n i f Newso n ha d no t returned . H e feel s that th e "privileg e o f bein g i n th e house " wit h Elizabeth-Jan e "woul d

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almost outweig h th e persona l humiliation " (ch . 43) . Th e crucia l wor d here i s almost. I t i s impossibl e fo r Henchar d t o liv e withou t Elizabeth Jane's affection , bu t i t would b e agonizin g fo r hi m t o remai n wit h he r if she married Farfrae . After Newson' s return , Henchar d trie s t o cop e wit h hi s pain throug h self-effacement an d resignation . Convince d tha t Elizabeth-Jan e wil l "hate an d despis e him " a s "a n arch-deceiver, " h e seek s t o protec t him self fro m furthe r blow s b y gettin g "ou t o f sight " (ch . 43). Accepting hi s station a t last , h e don s th e appare l o f hi s yout h an d goe s fort h a s a journeyman haytrusser : "If I ha d onl y go t he r wit h me—i f I onl y had! " h e said . "Har d wor k would be nothing to me then! But that was not to be. I—Cain—go alon e as I deserve—a n outcas t an d a vagabond . Bu t m y punishmen t i s not greater than I can bear!" He sternly subdued his anguish. . . . (Ch. 43) Henchard deal s wit h hi s los s o f Elizabeth-Jan e i n a self-effacin g wa y b y telling himsel f h e deserve s it . I n comparin g himsel f t o Cain , h e exagger ates hi s guilt, giving his sins a kind o f grandeur . Althoug h h e is ashame d of his behavior , h e takes pride in his self-condemnation, whic h i s a mar k of hi s high mora l standards . H e i s also prou d o f hi s abilit y to repres s hi s anguish an d bea r hi s punishmen t stoically . Indeed , Henchar d i s no w predominantly detached . W e hav e see n thi s sid e o f hi m befor e i n hi s "cynical indifference " i n th e openin g scen e an d hi s resigne d respons e t o the discover y o f Elizabeth-Jane' s parentage : " I a m t o suffer , I perceive " (ch. 19) . With th e collaps e first o f hi s ambitio n an d the n o f hi s attemp t t o replace ambitio n b y love , Henchar d lose s interes t i n life , whic h h e perceives t o b e absurd : "I t wa s a n od d sequenc e tha t ou t o f al l thi s tampering wit h socia l la w came that flower o f Nature, Elizabeth . Part o f his wis h t o was h hi s hand s o f lif e aros e fro m hi s perceptio n o f it s contrarious inconsistencies—o f Nature' s jaunt y readines s t o suppor t unorthodox socia l principles " (ch . 44) . The guilt-ridde n Henchar d ma y well find i t puzzlin g tha t th e wonderfu l Elizabeth-Jan e i s the produc t o f the illegitimat e unio n betwee n Susa n an d Newso n tha t wa s brough t about b y hi s crime , bu t hi s desir e t o was h hi s hand s o f lif e arise s fro m his persona l malais e rathe r tha n fro m th e "contrariou s inconsistencies " of Nature . H e i s indulging i n th e sam e kin d o f externalizatio n tha t i s s o

The Mayor of Casterbridge | 17 9 typical o f Thomas Hardy : th e problem i s not in me but in the nature of the univers e (se e Paris 1976a) . Hardy attribute s th e departur e o f Henchard' s "zes t fo r doing " t o "the ingeniou s machiner y contrive d b y th e God s fo r reducin g huma n possibilities o f amelioratio n t o a minimum " (ch . 44). Henchard i s onl y forty and , accordin g t o Hardy , ther e i s "nothin g t o hinde r hi s makin g another star t o n the upward slope " an d achieving highe r thing s tha n h e was capabl e o f before ; bu t he has "n o wish t o mak e a n aren a a secon d time o f a worl d tha t ha d becom e a mer e painte d scen e t o him. " His disillusionment ha s nothing t o d o wit h th e ingeniou s machiner y o f the Gods (o r even wit h th e plot contrivance s tha t confir m Hardy' s visio n of an ironi c universe). It is a result o f the collapse o f his expansive an d selfeffacing solutions , whic h ar e unworkable becaus e the y ar e compulsive , out o f touc h wit h reality , an d i n conflic t wit h eac h other . Lif e seem s absurd whe n ou r defensive strategie s fail . Henchard's sens e of the world a s "a mere painted scene " is not simply a product o f disillusionment bu t is also a new defense: it reduces his selfhate b y attributin g hi s pligh t t o th e natur e o f thing s an d alleviate s hi s pain b y suggesting tha t ther e ar e no genuine satisfaction s fro m whic h he is excluded sinc e al l is illusion an d vanity. His state of mind a t this poin t is simila r t o that o f Macbeth i n his "Tomorro w an d tomorrow" speec h (see Paris 1991a) . But Henchar d canno t achiev e th e detachmen t t o whic h h e aspires . His "centrifuga l tendency " t o distanc e himsel f fro m Casterbridg e i s "counteracted b y the centripetal influenc e o f his love for his step-daughter" (ch . 44). Compliance an d detachmen t ar e so evenl y balance d tha t Henchard's movement s towar d an d away fro m other s cance l eac h othe r out. Th e circl e forme d b y hi s wandering s aroun d Casterbridg e i s a n objective correlativ e o f his inner conflict . Althoug h h e feels that , havin g seen throug h it s deceptive appearances , h e has washed hi s hands o f life , he continue s t o b e obsessed wit h Elizabeth-Jane , conjecturin g wha t sh e is doing "ever y hour—nay , ever y few minutes." Henchard call s himsel f a "fool " an d "sneer[s ] a t himsel f fo r hi s weakness," bu t when he hears of the upcoming marriage he cannot resis t making on e more attemp t t o b e reconciled wit h Elizabeth-Jane : "i t was worth th e risk o f repulse , ay , of lif e itself " (ch . 44). The issue is one of life an d deat h t o Henchard , sinc e h e feel s tha t h e canno t g o o n alone . Despite hi s pride i n his ability t o endur e suffering , h e is not the stuff o f

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which stoic s are made. He determine s "t o plead hi s cause" an d "endeav our strenuously " t o hol d a place i n Elizabeth-Jane' s heart , bu t whe n sh e taxes hi m wit h decei t an d say s tha t sh e canno t lov e hi m a s sh e did , h e does no t plea d hi s cause . His lip s hal f par t t o begi n a n explanation , bu t he "shut[s ] the m u p lik e a vice, " whil e th e narrato r rehearse s th e argu ments h e might hav e advance d t o extenuat e hi s behavior . To understand Henchard' s strang e behavio r i n this scene , we must se e it i n th e contex t o f th e oscillation s betwee n hop e an d despai r t o whic h he becomes subject onc e he centers his life on Elizabeth-Jane. After bein g on th e verg e o f suicide , h e i s resuscitated whe n sh e move s i n wit h him , but onc e sh e begin s seein g Farfrae , h e become s convince d tha t h e wil l end hi s lif e i n "friendles s solitude " (ch . 42) . H e ha s a n impuls e t o ru n away bu t the n reflect s tha t "th e throbbin g pair " ma y no t regar d hi m a s an "irksom e obstacle " afte r al l an d begin s t o envisio n th e possibilit y o f living wit h the m (ch . 43) . Whe n Newso n returns , Henchar d leave s be fore Elizabeth-Jan e ha s a chanc e t o denounc e hi m bu t the n begin s t o wonder i f "hi s ow n absolut e separatio n fro m her " i s reall y necessar y (ch. 44) . Hopin g tha t "hi s unanticipate d presence " wil l fill a "littl e unsatisfied corner " o f he r heart , h e decide s t o atten d th e wedding , bu t as th e reunio n approache s hi s spirit s sink . Fearin g "circumstance s h e would formerl y hav e scorned, " h e "sadl y satirize[s ] himself " a s a "Sam son shorn " an d begin s t o wis h h e ha d no t come . He ask s a housekeepe r to announc e hi m a s " a humbl e ol d friend. " Whe n Elizabeth-Jan e greet s him coldl y a s "Mr . Henchard " an d attack s hi m fo r havin g deceive d he r and he r rea l father , hi s hope s collapse , leavin g hi m unabl e t o plea d hi s cause. Having los t al l hop e o f a reconciliation , Henchar d trie s t o defen d himself i n a variet y o f ways . No t wishin g t o b e perceive d a s a patheti c figure, h e addresse s Elizabeth-Jan e "wit h prou d superiority, " tellin g he r not t o distres s hersel f o n hi s accoun t (ch . 44) . Revertin g t o hi s detach ment, h e present s himsel f a s no t needin g he r concern . H e ask s forgive ness fo r havin g disturbe d he r o n he r weddin g day , thu s presentin g him self a s concerned abou t he r eve n thoug h sh e i s unforgivin g towar d him . This may be a response to her accusation s o f cruelty an d wickedness . H e tries to restore hi s moral positio n b y regarding "onl y her discomposure " and behavin g wit h a certai n gallantry . Beneat h hi s words i s a grea t dea l of rag e an d pai n tha t h e conveys indirectl y b y telling Elizabeth-Jane tha t he will never trouble he r again , not t o his dying day, and biddin g her no t only goo d nigh t bu t good-bye . H e seem s t o wan t t o leav e he r i n th e

The Mayor of Casterbridge | 18 1 position o f havin g wounded hi m mortally, hoping, perhaps, that sh e will regret what sh e has done . Henchard quickl y departs , befor e Elizabeth-Jan e ca n "collec t he r thoughts," apparentl y wantin g t o nurs e hi s grievanc e an d t o leav e he r feeling uncomfortabl e (ch . 44) . H e act s a s thoug h h e ha s bee n harshl y rejected, bu t thi s i s not th e case . When h e pleads wit h Elizabeth-Jan e t o "save a littl e room " fo r him , sh e flushe s u p an d "gentl y [draws ] he r hand away. " Sh e does no t tel l him tha t sh e n o longe r love s him bu t tha t she canno t lov e a s sh e "onc e di d a ma n wh o ha s serve d u s lik e this. " Henchard coul d hav e explained tha t h e had bee n deceived b y her mothe r and tha t hi s li e to Newso n cam e fro m hi s desperat e nee d o f her , bu t h e refuses t o defen d himself . Hi s reticenc e i s partl y th e resul t o f hi s no t sufficiently valuin g himsel f "t o lesse n hi s suffering b y a strenuou s ap peal," bu t ther e i s als o bitternes s i n i t an d a determinatio n t o fee d hi s despair. A self-dramatizin g ma n t o th e end , Henchar d want s t o fee l himself th e mos t alienated , abandoned , an d misunderstoo d o f mortals . It would hav e give n him satisfactio n t o kno w tha t Elizabeth-Jan e relent s and seek s "t o mak e he r peac e wit h him " (ch . 45) , an d h e woul d hav e been pleased tha t sh e arrives to o late . Michael Henchard's will reflects th e same kinds of conflicting feelings , needs, and defense s tha t ar e operative i n his last meeting with Elizabeth Jane. I t reassert s hi s prid e b y expressin g hi s lac k o f nee d o f other s an d indifference t o thei r lov e an d respect . I t i s als o ful l o f self-hat e an d self condemnation: h e doe s no t deserv e t o b e burie d i n consecrate d groun d or t o b e mourne d an d remembered . H e seem s t o b e continuin g hi s self punishment fro m beyon d th e grav e b y obliteratin g himself , a n extrem e form o f self-effacement . Th e wil l i s also a n ac t o f control , a n attemp t t o master hi s fat e i n a negativ e wa y sinc e h e canno t d o s o triumphantly . Henchard appear s t o b e protectiv e o f Elizabeth-Jan e b y directin g tha t she not b e told o f his death "o r mad e to grieve on accoun t o f [him] " (ch . 45), but ther e i s a good dea l o f posturing here , as there was i n their fina l encounter. I s no t Henchar d tryin g t o heighte n th e patho s o f hi s fate , even whil e forbiddin g other s t o fee l fo r him ? Fo r who m i s th e wil l written, i f no t fo r Elizabeth-Jane ? Sh e understand s th e bitternes s an d reproach i t expresses: " O I would no t hav e minded s o much i f it had no t been fo r m y unkindnes s a t tha t las t parting! " He r regret s fo r havin g "misunderstood hi m o n hi s last visit " an d "fo r no t havin g searche d hi m out sooner " ar e "dee p an d shar p fo r a goo d while, " whic h i s exactl y what Henchar d woul d hav e wanted. H e i s hardly a caveman o r a bull i n

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a chin a shop , bu t a ver y complicated , vulnerabl e ma n wh o i s destroye d by his inner conflicts .

While Henchar d i s the her o o f a tragi c educatio n plot , Elizabeth-Jan e i s the protagonis t i n a comi c vindicatio n action . Whe n w e first mee t her , she i s a youn g woma n wit h excellen t qualitie s whos e socia l an d eco nomic deprivation s have prevented he r from developin g her physical an d mental potentialities . He r situatio n quickl y change s whe n he r mother' s remarriage t o Henchar d give s he r wealt h an d socia l position . Wit h nourishing foo d an d ne w clothes , the plai n gir l turn s int o a beauty , an d she no w ha s th e opportunit y t o educat e herself . He r goo d qualitie s ar e recognized b y Donal d Farfrae , wh o woul d lik e t o marr y her . Thi s earl y transformation o f he r conditio n i s suddenl y reverse d whe n Henchar d turns agains t he r o n discoverin g tha t sh e is not hi s daughter an d Farfra e falls i n love with Lucetta . Elizabeth-Jan e suffer s greatl y fro m thes e rejec tions, despit e he r effort s a t stoicism , an d ther e seem s t o b e littl e likeli hood tha t sh e wil l eve r b e treate d i n accordanc e wit h he r deserts . He r fortunes ris e toward th e end, however, a s those of Henchard an d Lucett a decline. Th e "educated " Henchar d worship s her , and , afte r hi s experi ence with Lucetta, Farfrae appreciate s her all the more. At the conclusio n of th e novel , th e previousl y slighte d Elizabeth-Jan e marrie s th e town' s most eligibl e man . Whe n sh e i s reunite d wit h Newson , hi s "prid e i n what sh e had grow n u p t o b e was mor e tha n h e could express " (ch . 43), and he r importanc e t o Henchard i s such that h e cannot liv e without her . As i s typica l i n a vindicatio n pattern , Elizabeth-Jan e i s increasingl y surrounded b y praise a s the nove l progresses . Sh e receives tribute s fro m Lucetta, Henchard , an d Farfrae , a s wel l a s fro m Newson . A s i s als o typical i n thi s pattern , ther e ar e rhetorica l device s tha t conve y th e im plied author' s assessmen t o f th e protagonist' s wort h eve n whe n sh e i s being devalue d b y othe r characters . Whil e Henchar d harshl y criticize s Elizabeth-Jane fo r bein g considerate o f the servants , using dialect words , and havin g serve d a t th e Thre e Mariners , th e narrato r describe s he r thoughtfulness an d th e effort s a t self-educatio n o f whic h Henchar d i s unaware: "Thu s sh e lived on , a dumb , deep-feeling , great-eye d creature , construed b y no t a singl e contiguou s being " (ch . 20) . Sh e i s construe d by the narrator, however , wh o enter s into her feelings an d celebrate s he r virtues. Hardy tend s to praise Elizabeth-Jan e fo r characteristic s tha t ar e muc h

The Mayor of Casterbridge | 18 3 like hi s own , suc h a s he r dee p feeling , thirs t fo r knowledge , an d seri ousness o f mind . I n on e passag e h e ha s he r engagin g i n metaphysica l reflections: All this while the subtle-souled girl [was] asking herself why she was born, why sitting in a room, and blinking at the candle; why things around he r had taken the shape they wore in preference to every other possible shape. Why they stare d a t he r s o helplessly, a s if waiting fo r th e touch o f som e wand that should release them from terrestrial constraint; what that chaos called consciousness, which spun in her at this moment like a top, tended to, and began in. (Ch. 19) Although thes e thought s ar e no t incommensurat e wit h he r psychology , as w e shal l see , the y ar e muc h mor e typica l o f Hard y tha n the y ar e o f Elizabeth-Jane, who doe s not engag e i n suc h reflection s again . If w e examin e th e novel' s rhetori c fro m a Horneya n perspective , w e find tha t fo r th e mos t par t i t celebrates Elizabeth-Jane' s self-effacin g an d resigned tendencies , which i t contrast s favorabl y wit h th e expansivenes s of Henchar d an d Lucetta . Th e mimesi s subvert s th e rhetoric , a s i t doe s with th e "educated " Henchard , b y showin g tha t th e behavio r bein g glorified i s rigid an d defensive . A timid , unassumin g perso n wit h lo w self-esteem , Elizabeth-Jan e i s compulsively self-minimizing . Feelin g safes t i n a humbl e position , sh e becomes anxiou s when sh e finds herself raise d abov e other s an d seek s t o diminish hersel f i n som e way . Sh e i s uncomfortabl e whe n sh e become s the "tow n beauty " an d tell s hersel f tha t perhap s sh e i s bein g admire d "by those whose admiration i s not worth having " (ch . 15) . People woul d despise he r i f the y onl y kne w "wha t a n unfinishe d girl " sh e is , that sh e cannot "tal k Italian , o r us e globes, o r sho w an y o f th e accomplishment s they lear n a t boardin g schools. " Althoug h Hard y assure s u s tha t sh e i s more beautifu l an d intelligen t tha n Lucetta , Elizabeth-Jan e regard s Lu cetta a s vastly superior , subordinate s hersel f t o her , an d think s i t natura l that Farfra e shoul d find he r mor e attractive . Th e narrato r attribute s th e behavior towar d servant s tha t s o irritate s Henchar d t o Elizabeth-Jane' s "considerate disposition " (ch . 20) , bu t i t i s anothe r instanc e o f he r compulsive nee d t o avoi d a positio n o f superiority . Sh e goe s t o th e kitchen instea d o f ringing , get s dow n o n he r knee s t o gathe r spille d coals, and "persistentl y thank[s ] th e parlour-maid fo r everything. " Elizabeth-Jane ha s numerou s othe r self-effacin g traits . Sh e feel s i t degrading t o serv e a t the Thre e Mariners , but , lik e the mothe r o n who m

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she models herself, she always has " a willingness to sacrifice he r persona l comfort an d dignit y t o th e commo n weal " (ch . 4) . Susa n return s t o Henchard mainl y "t o advanc e Elizabeth. " Whe n Henchar d scold s he r for usin g dialec t words, Elizabeth-Jane humbl y apologizes , an d whe n h e treats he r s o cruell y tha t sh e wishe s sh e wer e dead , sh e blame s hersel f instead o f him : "Al l i s owin g t o m y defects , I daresay " (ch . 20) . Afte r Henchard i s disgraced, sh e "believe[s ] i n him still, " although n o on e els e does, an d want s "t o b e allowe d t o forgiv e hi m fo r hi s roughness t o her , and t o hel p him i n his trouble" (ch . 31) . Although Henchar d ha s treate d her unfairly , sh e canno t allo w hersel f t o fee l resentmen t an d i s ready t o turn th e othe r cheek . Sh e ha s n o basi s fo r he r belie f i n hi m excep t th e needs o f he r ow n defens e system . Sh e wants t o hel p him i n his trouble i n part becaus e sh e ha s n o lif e o f he r ow n an d gain s a sens e o f meanin g and purpos e b y livin g fo r others . Whe n Henchar d want s he r ou t o f th e house i n hi s day s o f prosperity , sh e become s deepl y "depresse d b y a sense o f he r ow n superfluity " (ch . 20) . Elizabeth-Jane i s b y n o mean s entirel y self-effacing . Lik e Henchard , she ha s inne r conflicts . Sh e respond s t o he r sens e o f lowlines s an d inadequacy no t onl y b y bein g modest , submissive , an d self-sacrificial , but als o b y developing a compensatory desir e for elevatio n an d triumph . She simultaneousl y need s t o b e humbl e an d t o fee d he r pride . Althoug h she i s uncomfortabl e whe n sh e assume s he r positio n a s mayor' s daugh ter, sh e feels a n initia l "elation " a t "discoverin g hersel f aki n t o a coach " (ch. 5) . Sh e i s immediatel y draw n t o Farfra e becaus e h e i s "respectabl e and educated—fa r abov e th e res t o f 'e m i n th e inn " (ch . 8) , just a s sh e wishes t o b e herself . Despit e he r humility , sh e i s hur t whe n h e leave s without sayin g good-bye , indicatin g tha t sh e has loft y claims . Elizabeth Jane's ambitio n i s mos t eviden t i n he r intens e desir e fo r "wide r knowl edge" an d "highe r repute " (ch . 4) . Sh e feel s inferio r becaus e sh e lack s the accomplishment s tha t girl s lear n a t boardin g schools , an d he r min d runs "o n acquirement s t o a n almos t morbi d degree " (ch . 22) . Sh e i s driven t o engag e i n th e laboriou s stud y tha t th e self-taugh t Hard y s o admires b y her profound sens e of inadequac y an d he r desir e to rise . Another o f Elizabeth-Jane' s morbi d preoccupation s i s he r concer n with respectability . This , too , i s apparentl y compensatory , bu t Hardy' s account i s s o confusin g tha t i t i s har d t o tel l wha t sh e i s compensatin g for. Whe n sh e take s th e uncompromisin g positio n tha t i n vie w o f thei r past relationshi p Lucett a mus t marr y Henchar d o r n o on e a t all , th e narrator explain s tha t

The Mayor of Caster bridge | 18 5 any suspicion of impropriety was to Elizabeth-Jane like a red rag to a bull. Her cravin g fo r correctnes s o f procedur e was , indeed , almos t vicious . Owing t o he r earl y trouble s wit h regar d t o he r mothe r a semblanc e o f irregularity had terrors for he r which those whose names are safeguarde d from suspicio n know nothing of. (Ch . 30) Earlier, Elizabeth-Jan e ha d tol d Lucett a tha t Henchar d wa s col d towar d her "becaus e h e doe s no t thin k I a m respectable . I hav e trie d t o b e s o more tha n yo u ca n imagine , bu t i n vain ! M y mother' s separatio n fro m my fathe r wa s unfortunat e fo r me . Yo u don' t kno w wha t i t i s t o hav e shadows lik e that upo n you r life " (ch . 24) . This i s confusin g becaus e nea r th e beginnin g o f th e nove l w e ar e informed tha t Susa n ha d no t tol d Elizabeth-Jan e abou t Henchar d an d had n o misgiving s abou t he r unio n wit h Newson . I t wa s no t unti l he r daughter was close to eighteen years of age that a friend ridicule d Susan' s acceptance o f he r positio n an d destroye d he r peac e o f mind . Perceivin g this, Newso n ha d new s sen t tha t h e ha d bee n los t a t sea , an d Susa n fel t free t o see k ou t Henchard, who m sh e described t o Elizabeth-Jane simpl y as a relative. If, a s the narrator tell s us, Elizabeth-Jane "ha d grow n u p i n the belie f tha t th e relation s betwee n th e genia l sailo r an d he r mothe r were th e ordinar y one s tha t the y ha d alway s appeare d t o be " (ch . 4) , what were the early troubles an d th e shado w upo n he r life that produce d her intens e cravin g for respectability ? Whatever th e source , Elizabeth-Jan e ha s a n anxiet y abou t bein g re spectable tha t make s he r punctilious i n he r ow n behavio r an d moralisti c in he r dealing s wit h others . Thi s i s i n keepin g wit h he r overal l sens e o f deficiency, fo r whic h sh e need s t o compensat e b y gainin g highe r repute . Driven b y tyrannica l shoulds , sh e compulsivel y complie s wit h estab lished manner s an d moral s an d ha s a grea t fea r o f th e increase d self contempt sh e woul d fee l i f sh e faile d t o d o so . Sh e i s s o read y t o blam e herself an d t o accep t criticis m fro m other s becaus e sh e is ashamed o f he r origins an d o f what sh e feels to b e her persona l inadequacies . Elizabeth-Jane i s driven i n opposit e directions : toward meekness , humil ity, an d unobtrusivenes s o n th e on e han d an d towar d socia l elevation , personal accomplishment , an d mora l superiorit y o n th e other . He r pre dominant defense , however , i s detachment . Sh e i s deepl y resigned . Sh e feels tha t lif e i s " a tragica l rathe r tha n a comica l thing ; that thoug h on e could b e ga y o n occasion , moment s o f gaiet y wer e interludes , an d n o part o f th e actua l drama " (ch . 8) . Durin g th e "triumphant " tim e whe n

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she i s bein g indulge d b y Henchard , sh e guard s hersel f agains t he r "lighter moods " (ch . 14) . Becaus e sh e ha d "know n roug h times , light heartedness seemed to her too irrational and inconsequent to be indulged in excep t a s a reckles s dra m no w an d then ; fo r sh e ha d bee n to o earl y habituated t o anxiou s reasonin g t o dro p th e habi t suddenly. " Thu s sh e tempers her triumph "b y circumspection": "sh e had stil l that field-mouse fear o f th e coulte r o f destin y despit e fai r promise , whic h i s commo n among the thoughtful wh o hav e suffere d earl y from povert y an d oppres sion" (ch . 14) . Here an d elsewher e Hard y attribute s Elizabeth-Jane' s guardednes s t o her hars h childhood , jus t as he had attribute d he r craving for correctnes s to earl y troubles . Again , however , th e fe w detail s h e provide s abou t he r childhood giv e a differen t pictur e fro m hi s broa d characterization s o f it . Susan Henchar d goe s wit h Newso n t o Canada , wher e he r daughte r b y Henchard die s an d sh e ha s anothe r chil d who m sh e als o name s Eliza beth-Jane. Although the y live there "withou t an y great worldly success, " Susan work s har d "t o kee p thei r cottag e cheerfu l an d well-provided " (ch. 4). When Elizabeth-Jan e i s twelve years old , they return t o England , where Newso n make s a living a s boatman an d genera l hand y shoreman . They canno t provid e th e chil d wit h opportunitie s fo r development , bu t they ar e no t impoverished , an d i t is difficult t o se e why Elizabeth-Jan e i s habituated t o anxiou s reasonin g an d ha s com e t o regar d lif e a s tragic . Her mothe r i s devoted t o her , an d sh e tells Henchard tha t Newso n "wa s very kind— O s o kind! " (ch . 19) . Fro m wha t "oppression " ha s sh e suffered? There i s on e passage , I think , tha t ca n hel p u s t o understan d th e sources of Elizabeth-Jane's resignation . Afte r receivin g news of Newson' s death, Susa n sit s one da y "survey[ing ] he r daughte r thoughtfully" : Her face, though somewhat wan and incomplete, possessed the raw materials of beaut y i n a promising degree . There was an under-handsomenes s in it, struggling to reveal itself throug h the provisional curves of immatu rity, an d th e casua l disfigurement s tha t resulte d fro m th e straitene d cir cumstances o f thei r lives . She was handsom e i n th e bone , hardl y a s yet handsome in the flesh. She possibly might never be fully handsome, unless the carkin g accident s o f he r dail y existenc e coul d b e evade d befor e th e mobile parts of her countenance had settled to their final mould. The sight of the girl made her mother sad . . . . They both were still in that strait-waistcoat of poverty from which she had tried so many times to be delivere d fo r th e girl' s sake . Th e woma n ha d lon g perceive d ho w

The Mayor of Caster bridge | 18 7 zealously and constantly the young mind of her companion was struggling for enlargement ; and yet now, in her eighteenth year, it still remained bu t little unfolded . Th e desire—sobe r an d repressed—o f Elizabeth-Jane' s heart wa s indee d t o see , t o hear , an d t o understand . Ho w coul d sh e become a woma n o f wide r knowledge , highe r repute—'better, ' a s sh e termed it—this was her constant inquiry of her mother. She sought furthe r into thing s tha n othe r girl s i n he r positio n eve r did , an d he r mothe r groaned as she felt she could not aid in the search. (Ch. 4) Before I commen t o n th e psychologica l implication s o f thi s passage , le t me observ e tha t i n additio n t o th e narrato r Elizabeth-Jane' s mothe r appreciates he r fro m th e beginning . Sh e seek s ou t Henchar d i n a "des perate effor t t o advance " he r daughter , an d a s a resul t Elizabeth-Jan e ultimately become s al l tha t he r mothe r ha d envisioned . Fro m on e poin t of view , Elizabeth-Jane' s i s th e stor y o f th e fulfillmen t o f he r mother' s dream o f glor y fo r her . Newson' s prid e i n wha t Elizabeth-Jan e ha s grown u p t o b e i s wha t Susa n woul d fee l a s wel l i f sh e wer e aliv e an d suggests tha t h e an d Susa n ha d simila r hope s fo r thei r daughter , al though Newso n ha s a fa r mor e cheerfu l an d easy-goin g temperamen t that ma y hav e mad e hi m mor e conten t tha n hi s "wife " an d daughte r with thei r lot . My interpretatio n o f Elizabeth-Jan e i s tha t she , lik e th e younge r Henchard, ha s suffere d fro m thwarte d ambition . Sh e is a bright, curiou s girl wh o ha s intellectua l aspiration s tha t canno t b e fulfille d becaus e o f the family' s socia l an d economi c position . He r mothe r recognize s he r potentialities, bot h o f min d an d o f body , an d engage s i n th e kin d o f anxious reasonin g Hard y attribute s t o Elizabeth-Jane . Perhap s Eliza beth-Jane caugh t i t from her . He r mother' s anxiet y i s not abou t surviva l but abou t ho w t o foste r th e developmen t o f thi s specia l child , ho w t o give her th e opportunitie s sh e long s fo r an d deserves . Aware o f he r ow n abilities an d he r parents ' hig h regar d fo r them , Elizabeth-Jan e develop s a sens e o f hersel f a s superio r t o he r conditio n i n life . I n th e atmospher e of frustrated hope s in which sh e lives, she sees no possibility o f achievin g the "wide r knowledge " an d "highe r repute " t o whic h sh e aspires , how ever, an d respond s b y becomin g resigned . Henchard develope d a "cynica l indifference " whe n hi s ambition s were frustrate d b y hi s earl y marriag e (ch . 1) , bu t hi s searc h fo r glor y was irrepressible an d drov e him to sell his wife. He reverts to detachmen t later, whe n havin g los t bot h hi s positio n an d Elizabeth-Jane , h e see s th e world a s a mer e painte d scene . Hi s i s a bitte r resignatio n i n whic h h e

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wants t o was h hi s hand s o f a lif e tha t h e see s a s capricious . Eve n then , as I hav e said , h e i s no t th e stuf f o f whic h stoic s ar e made , an d h e remains obsesse d wit h Elizabeth-Jane . Elizabeth-Jane is th e stuf f o f whic h stoic s ar e made . He r resignatio n does not hav e the bitternes s o f Henchard's bu t i s rather a defense agains t such bitterness . A majo r differenc e i s tha t sh e develop s a dar k vie w o f life earl y o n an d doe s no t expec t he r desire s t o b e fulfilled . Thu s sh e i s not subjec t t o th e rag e an d frustratio n tha t come s wit h intens e desire s and high aspirations lik e Henchard's. She begins by wanting a great deal , but onc e sh e i s convinced sh e canno t hav e it , he r desire s becom e "sobe r and repressed. " Sh e detache s hersel f fro m he r feelings , become s a n onlooker a t life , an d protect s hersel f agains t disappointmen t b y alway s anticipating th e capriciousnes s o f fate . Sh e no doub t derive s her resigna tion t o som e exten t fro m he r mother , a s sh e doe s he r ambitio n an d self effacement. Whe n w e se e Susa n trudgin g towar d Weydon-Prior s wit h Henchard a t the beginning o f the novel, she has "th e hard, half-apatheti c expression o f on e wh o deem s anythin g possibl e a t th e hand s o f Tim e and Chanc e except , perhaps , fai r play " (ch . i) . Man y year s later , whe n Elizabeth-Jane i s eighteen , Susa n stil l see s th e worl d a s on e i n whic h "everything" ha s bee n "inopportune " (ch . 4). Elizabeth-Jane's resignatio n i s so important t o he r an d s o deeply fixed in he r psych e tha t sh e cling s t o i t whe n he r mothe r marrie s Henchar d and he r prospect s greatl y improve . Sh e remains sobe r an d represse d no t only becaus e sh e distrust s fat e bu t als o becaus e sh e thinks to o poorl y o f herself t o fee l tha t sh e deserve s he r goo d fortune . Hard y present s Eliza beth-Jane a s a wonderful perso n who m th e characters i n the nove l com e to appreciate , bu t sh e measure s hersel f agains t a n idealize d imag e o f herself a s sh e woul d hav e bee n ha d sh e receive d th e upbringin g an d education sh e desired , an d a s a resul t sh e alway s feel s hersel f t o b e wanting. Whe n Farfra e remain s i n Casterbridg e partl y a t he r urgin g but doe s no t resum e hi s courtship , Elizabeth-Jan e conclude s tha t "he r appearance o n the evening of the dance [was ] such as to inspire a fleetin g love a t first sight " an d tha t b y thi s tim e h e ha s "discovere d ho w plai n and homel y wa s th e informin g spiri t o f tha t prett y outside " (ch . 17) . When sh e feel s "he r hear t goin g ou t t o him, " sh e say s t o herself , "No , no, Elizabeth-Jane—suc h dream s ar e no t fo r you! " Hard y hint s tha t Farfrae migh t hav e bee n mor e aggressiv e wit h encouragemen t (Lucett a has no t ye t appeared) , bu t Elizabeth-Jan e trie s t o preven t hersel f fro m seeing and thinkin g o f him .

The Mayor of Casterbridge | 18 9 Although Hard y i s capabl e o f seein g th e morbidit y o f Elizabeth Jane's craving s fo r acquirement s an d correctness , h e i s blin d t o th e compulsiveness o f her resignatio n an d it s negative effects . Perhap s thi s is because i t correspond s t o hi s ow n predominan t defens e an d i s founde d on a basi c distrus t o f lif e tha t h e share s (se e Paris 1976a) . I am speakin g here o f Hard y th e implie d author , bu t I suspec t tha t o n thi s matte r there i s n o grea t distanc e betwee n th e implie d autho r o f The Mayor of Casterbridge an d Hard y th e person . Th e rhetori c o f th e nove l consis tently celebrate s Elizabeth-Jane' s resignation , whic h i t describe s a s th e product o f "wisdom " (ch . 14 ) an d a "straightforwar d mind " (ch . 25) . Because sh e doe s no t allo w hersel f t o b e "to o gay, " Elizabeth-Jan e experiences "non e o f those ups an d down s o f spiri t which bese t so man y people withou t cause " (ch . 14)—Henchar d an d Lucetta , fo r example . "The reasonablenes s o f almos t everything " sh e doe s i s wel l illustrate d by he r refusa l t o "mak e a foo l o f herself " b y dressin g u p whe n sh e ha s the money to do so. The resigned defens e i s designed abov e all to preven t us fro m makin g fool s o f ourselves . Th e "unsophisticate d girl " keep s "in th e rea r o f opportunit y i n matter s o f indulgence " b y "a n innat e perceptiveness tha t [is ] almost genius. " Elizabeth-Jane i s proved t o hav e bee n wis e i n no t allowin g hersel f t o be deceive d b y goo d fortun e whe n Henchar d turn s agains t he r an d sh e loses Farfra e t o Lucetta . He r defense s fai l momentaril y whe n sh e feel s that Henchar d scorn s her : "quit e broke n i n spirit, " sh e exclaims , "O , I wish I wa s dead , wit h dea r mother! " (ch . 20) . Sh e i s rescue d fro m he r "unbearable position " whe n Lucett a invite s he r t o b e he r companio n and i s soon abl e t o resum e he r usua l subdue d bu t no t depresse d stat e o f mind. Sh e doe s muc h bette r wit h regar d t o Farfrae , quenchin g he r interest i n hi m "wit h patien t fortitude. " Sh e "stoically " contemplate s "her fate " whe n h e begin s courtin g Lucett a (ch . 25 ) an d "corkfs ] u p th e turmoil o f he r feeling s wit h gran d control " whe n sh e learn s o f thei r marriage (ch . 30) . Elizabeth-Jane defend s hersel f agains t troublin g emotion s b y distanc ing herself fro m difficul t situation s an d findin g the m curiou s o r amusing . She is initially "terrified " whe n Henchar d trie s to gree t the roya l person age, but "he r interes t i n the spectacle a s a strange phenomenon [gets ] the better o f he r fear " (ch . 37) . The pai n sh e experience s "fro m th e almos t absolute obliviousness t o her existence" show n b y Henchard an d Farfra e while bot h ar e courtin g Lucett a i s "a t time s hal f dissipate d b y he r sens e of it s humourousness. When Lucett a ha d pricke d he r finger the y were a s

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deeply concerne d a s i f sh e wer e dying ; whe n sh e hersel f ha d bee n seri ously sic k o r i n dange r the y uttere d a conventional wor d o f sympath y a t the news, and forgo t al l about i t immediately" (ch . 25). Whereas Hench ard i s maddened b y the fickleness o f fate , Elizabeth-Jan e regard s lif e a s a curious spectacle . Sh e anticipate s "th e wrec k o f eac h day' s wishes " bu t has observe d tha t lif e i s less " a serie s o f pur e disappointments " tha n " a series of substitutions" : "Continuall y i t had happene d tha t wha t sh e ha d desired ha d no t bee n grante d her , an d tha t wha t ha d bee n grante d he r she had no t desired. " When sh e loses Farfrae, sh e wonders with a certai n amusement "wha t unwished-fo r thin g Heave n migh t sen d he r i n plac e of him. " Thank s t o he r detache d perspective , sh e i s abl e t o thin k o f the day s whe n h e wa s he r undeclare d love r wit h "a n approac h t o equanimity." Her detachmen t ma y accoun t fo r Elizabeth-Jane' s speculation s abou t why sh e wa s born , wh y thing s hav e th e shap e the y do , an d wher e consciousness cam e from , sinc e thes e question s aris e whe n w e ar e no t involved i n lif e bu t ar e contemplating i t from a distance . To a significan t extent, Elizabeth-Jan e i s alienate d fro m he r ow n feeling s an d fro m th e world aroun d her . He r defensivenes s make s i t impossibl e fo r he r t o experience anythin g i n a spontaneous, wholehearte d way . When thing s tur n ou t wel l fo r he r a t th e end , Elizabeth-Jan e cling s grimly t o he r defenses , a s sh e ha d don e durin g he r earlie r perio d o f prosperity. Sh e ha s regret s abou t he r behavio r towar d Henchard , bu t they fade , a s d o "th e livel y an d sparklin g emotion s o f he r earl y marrie d life," an d sh e finds "hersel f i n a latitud e o f cal m weather " i n whic h sh e is blessed wit h "a n equabl e serenity " (ch . 45) . Her missio n become s no t to fulfil l hersel f o r t o rela x an d enjo y lif e bu t t o teac h he r defense s t o others: the finer movement s o f he r natur e foun d scop e i n discoverin g t o th e narrow-lived one s aroun d he r th e secre t (a s sh e ha d onc e learn t it ) o f making limite d opportunitie s endurable ; whic h sh e deemed t o consis t i n the cunning enlargement, b y a species of microscopic treatment , o f thos e minute form s o f satisfactio n tha t offe r themselve s t o everybod y no t i n positive pain ; which , thu s handled , hav e muc h o f th e sam e inspiritin g effect upo n life as wider interests cursorily embraced. (Ch. 45) There i s wisdo m i n thi s philosophy , o f course , especiall y whe n ou r opportunities hav e bee n narrowe d b y force s ove r whic h w e hav e n o

The Mayor of Casterbridge | 19 1 control an d i t behoove s u s t o relis h th e smal l pleasure s availabl e t o us . But there are wider interest s within Elizabeth-Jane' s reac h tha t sh e seem s afraid t o embrace lest the gods become jealous. While magnifying minut e satisfactions, sh e tends t o devalu e large r ones , which nee d no t b e curso rily embraced . I n th e mids t o f plent y sh e continue s t o defen d hersel f against povert y an d give s meanin g t o he r lif e b y teachin g th e secre t o f endurance t o the les s fortunate . Although Elizabeth-Jan e ha s desire d socia l elevation, sh e has ambiva lent feeling s abou t i t becaus e o f he r inne r conflicts . Sh e need s bot h t o have he r wort h vindicate d an d t o b e humble an d unassuming . No w tha t she is the wife o f the most prominent ma n i n town, sh e finds there is "n o great persona l differenc e betwee n bein g respecte d i n th e nethe r part s o f Casterbridge an d glorifie d a t th e uppermos t en d o f th e socia l world " (ch. 45). Sh e at onc e defend s hersel f agains t takin g prid e i n he r positio n by depreciating it s worth an d protect s hersel f agains t a possibl e reversa l of fortun e b y feelin g tha t it s los s woul d no t matte r ver y much . I f sh e enjoys he r triump h a t all , it is in a guarded, indirec t way . Elizabeth-Jane remain s sobe r an d repressed . He r positio n seem s t o afford "muc h t o b e thankful for, " bu t sh e is presented a s being too wis e to b e "demonstrativel y thankful" : Her experienc e had bee n o f a kind t o teac h her , rightly o r wrongly , tha t the doubtful honou r o f a brief transit through a sorry world hardly called for effusiveness, eve n when the path was suddenly irradiated at some halfway point b y day beams rich as hers. But her strong sense that neither she nor an y huma n bein g deserve d les s than wa s given , di d no t blin d he r t o the fac t tha t ther e wer e other s receivin g les s wh o ha d deserve d muc h more. And in being forced to class herself among the fortunate sh e did not cease t o wonde r a t th e persistenc e o f th e unforeseen , whe n th e on e t o whom suc h unbroke n tranquillit y ha d bee n accorde d i n th e adul t stag e was sh e whos e yout h ha d seeme d t o teac h tha t happines s wa s bu t th e occasional episode in a general drama of pain. (Ch. 45) This remarkable passag e show s th e lengths t o which Elizabeth-Jan e goe s in he r effor t t o maintai n he r resignatio n a t a tim e whe n mos t peopl e would rejoice . Elizabeth-Jane feel s threatene d b y he r prosperit y an d mus t kee p re minding hersel f o f it s meaningles s an d impermanence . Thu s sh e contin ues t o se e th e worl d a s a n absur d plac e i n whic h ther e i s n o relatio n between people' s fate s an d thei r desert s an d i n whic h frustratio n i s fa r

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more frequen t tha n happiness . Wherea s a predominantl y self-effacin g person woul d se e happines s a s a rewar d fo r virtu e an d fee l a stron g obligation t o b e "demonstrativel y thankful, " fo r Elizabeth-Jan e bein g thankful woul d impl y tha t sh e wa s th e beneficiar y o f a jus t orde r an d that goodnes s wa s a mean s o f controllin g fate . I f thi s wer e th e case , sh e might reasonabl y expec t t o continu e bein g happy , bu t suc h a n expecta tion frighten s he r an d sh e mus t remin d hersel f tha t ther e ar e "other s receiving les s who ha d deserve d muc h more. " Sh e turn s he r "unbroke n tranquillity," whic h i s on e o f th e highes t value s o f th e resigne d person , into anothe r reaso n fo r distrustin g life . I t i s furthe r evidenc e o f th e unpredictability o f fate , sinc e her yout h ha d hel d ou t n o suc h hope , an d of it s unfairness , sinc e reward s ar e no t distribute d accordin g t o deserts . By affirmin g tha t n o on e deserve s les s tha n i s given , Elizabeth-Jan e asserts th e claim s o n whic h he r sens e o f injustic e i s based , whil e b y feeling tha t man y deserv e more tha n she , she maintains he r humility . Uncomfortable a t being "force d t o class herself amon g the fortunate, " Elizabeth-Jane soothe s hersel f b y rememberin g tha t happines s i s "bu t the occasiona l episod e i n a genera l dram a o f pain. " Thi s enable s he r to remai n steele d agains t misfortune , instea d o f bein g delude d b y he r happiness, an d i t i s als o a metho d o f wardin g of f misfortune . I n he r belief syste m fat e i s no t onl y capricious , i t i s als o sometime s malicious , and seein g oneself a s fortunate invite s bein g struc k down . B y refusing t o feel ver y happy , sh e show s a prope r fea r o f th e coulte r o f destin y an d preserves a stat e o f obscurit y tha t wil l no t arous e th e enmit y o f th e powers tha t be . This i s on e o f th e stranges t happ y ending s i n literature . Elizabeth Jane's i s th e stor y o f a woma n wh o ultimatel y get s wha t sh e want s bu t who cannot allo w herself t o want it very much o r to enjoy th e fulfillmen t of her desires. Presented a s a victim of fate a t the beginning, she is clearly a victim o f her defense s a t the end. Hardy doe s not se e this because thes e are hi s defense s a s well . H e i s a s uncomfortabl e wit h happ y ending s a s his heroine an d ha s create d a resolution tha t i s compatible wit h hi s dar k view of life . We are to understan d tha t fat e ha s more disappointment s i n store fo r Elizabeth-Jan e an d tha t he r presen t happines s i s bu t a passin g episode. W e ar e als o t o understan d tha t Elizabeth-Jan e wil l no t b e crushed b y misfortune , lik e Henchard , becaus e sh e wil l neve r allo w herself t o b e tricked int o expectin g muc h fro m life .

11 Madame Bovary

At firs t glanc e Madame Bovary an d The Mayor of Casterbridge ma y no t see m t o hav e muc h i n common , bu t fro m a Horneya n perspective the y ar e interestin g t o compare . Emm a an d Henchar d ar e both restless , aspirin g peopl e wh o deman d a grea t dea l fro m lif e an d whose searc h fo r glor y lead s the m t o behav e i n self-destructiv e ways . Their suffering s ar e treated wit h sympathy , bu t the y ar e criticized fo r th e character flaw s tha t brin g miser y t o themselve s an d others . Th e domi nant solutio n i n eac h nove l i s detachment, wit h Hardy' s bein g expresse d primarily throug h hi s celebratio n o f Elizabeth-Jan e an d Flaubert' s through th e narrator's voic e and a variety o f ironic devices. Both author s seem t o b e disillusione d romantic s wh o nee d t o defen d themselve s against th e dissonanc e betwee n desir e an d reality . Sinc e th e pursui t o f happiness expose s u s t o suc h pain , i t i s bette r t o se e throug h th e vanit y of human wishe s an d expec t littl e from life . Like Hardy , Flauber t ha s no t receive d du e credi t fo r hi s geniu s i n mimetic characterization . Durin g th e compositio n o f Madame Bovary he wrot e t o Louis e Colet , "Th e reade r wil l no t notice , I hope , al l th e psychological wor k hidde n unde r th e form , bu t h e wil l sens e it s effect " (De Ma n 1965 , 317) . Thi s wis h ha s bee n granted . Althoug h Emm a Bovary i s on e o f th e mos t celebrate d character s i n literature , Flaubert' s "psychological work " ha s gon e largel y unnoticed . A Horneya n ap proach wil l hel p u s to recove r Flaubert' s psychologica l intuition s an d t o appreciate th e brillianc e o f hi s portrait o f Emma . Because w e hav e detaile d account s o f thei r childhoods , w e ca n readil y understand th e compensator y need s tha t lea d character s lik e Pi p an d Jane Eyr e to idealiz e themselves an d embar k upo n searche s for glory . We know almos t nothin g abou t Emm a Bovary' s childhood , however , an d her nee d fo r glory , lik e Henchard's , i s a n aspec t o f he r characte r tha t i s simply ther e whe n w e mee t her . I n th e fulles t psychologica l stud y o f th e

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novel t o date , Gile s Mitchell trie s t o explai n Emma' s romanticis m a s th e product o f "pathologica l narcissism, " " a personalit y disorde r character ized by intense, excessive, and sometime s fatal devotio n to the ego-ideal " (1987, 107) . Her narcissis m i s " a flight fro m humanness , from mortalit y and bodil y vulnerability , fro m being-in-the-world " (115) . Althoug h Flaubert seem s t o sugges t "tha t Emma' s falsel y romanti c ideal s deriv e from he r reading, " Mitchel l contend s tha t the y "wer e forme d i n re sponse t o somethin g fa r mor e existential " (116) . Th e proble m wit h Mitchell's vie w o f Emm a a s " a universa l figure" (125 ) i s that w e ar e al l confronted wit h ou r huma n limitations , bu t w e d o no t al l respon d lik e Madame Bovary . Nonetheless, I think Mitchel l is correct in saying that Emma' s destruc tive "ideals " ar e no t jus t cause d b y he r reading . Flaubert' s detaile d description o f th e influence s t o whic h sh e i s expose d durin g he r sta y i n the conven t leave s u s wit h th e impressio n tha t he r romanticis m i s th e product o f thes e influence s an d tha t he r frustratio n result s fro m th e contrast betwee n th e bourgeoi s existenc e t o whic h sh e i s destine d an d the unrealisti c expectation s tha t hav e bee n fostere d b y th e "tantalizin g phantasmagoria o f sentimenta l realities " (I , vi ) t o whic h sh e ha s bee n exposed. 1 Bu t influenc e i s always a matter o f interaction betwee n exter nal stimul i an d individua l psychology , an d ther e mus t b e somethin g i n Emma's characte r tha t make s he r s o responsiv e t o romanti c element s i n her culture . I believ e tha t Emm a ha s a narcissisti c personality , bu t i n Kare n Hor ney's sens e o f tha t ter m rathe r tha n i n Freud' s o r i n tha t o f th e sel f an d existential psychologist s cite d b y Mitchell . Fo r Horney , narcissis m i s a reactive rathe r tha n a primary phenomenon , an d a n inabilit y t o com e t o terms wit h th e huma n conditio n i s a product o f grandiosit y rathe r tha n a caus e o f it . Self-idealizatio n occur s i n al l th e solution s Horne y de scribes, but wherea s mos t peopl e develo p a n idealize d imag e to compen sate fo r feeling s o f weakness, inadequacy, an d lo w self-esteem , a s do Pi p and Jan e Eyre , narcissist s deriv e a n exalte d conceptio n o f themselve s from th e admiratio n an d indulgenc e o f others . Horney observe s tha t th e narcissist "ofte n i s gifte d beyon d average , earl y an d easil y wo n distinc tions, an d sometime s wa s th e favore d an d admire d child " (1950 , 194) . Emma Bovar y wa s a n onl y child , an d wha t littl e informatio n w e hav e suggests tha t sh e wa s indulge d b y he r father , wh o though t he r "to o clever fo r farming " (I , iii) . Sh e develop s a sens e o f superiorit y t o he r surroundings, to which sh e makes littl e effor t t o accommodat e herself .

Madame Bovary | 19 5 By the time Emma goe s to schoo l a t th e convent , sh e has a vague ide a of hersel f a s a n exceptiona l bein g wh o i s destine d fo r gloriou s things . "The comparison s o f betrothed , husband , celestia l lover , an d eterna l marriage" tha t sh e hear s repeate d i n sermon s sti r "withi n he r sou l depths o f unexpected sweetness " (I , vi) because, like the images sh e finds in novels , ballads , an d keepsakes , an d o n th e painte d plate s depictin g the stor y o f on e o f Loui s XIV' s mistresses , the y giv e shap e t o he r aspirations fo r a n exalte d existence . These aspiration s tak e a variet y o f forms . Emm a i s draw n t o religio n by "th e mysti c languo r exhale d i n th e perfume s o f th e altar " an d "th e sonorous lamentation s o f romanti c melanchol y re-echoin g throug h th e world an d eternity! " (I , vi). Christ, who m sh e would we d i f sh e becam e a nun , i s th e first o f he r phanto m lovers . Novels , romanti c ballads , history, an d painting s stoc k he r min d wit h image s o f persecute d ladies , brave gentlemen , famou s wome n o f th e past , impossibl y exoti c places , and exquisit e scene s o f love . These "picture s o f th e world, " a s Flauber t ironically describe s them , provid e materia l fro m whic h sh e form s ideal ized image s o f hersel f an d als o o f he r life , o f th e kin d o f lover , home , furnishings, clothes , travel, friends, an d experience s sh e ought t o have . As i s characteristi c o f th e narcissisti c person , Emm a ha s loft y claim s but relatively weak shoulds . Because Horneyan narcissist s are their ideal ized selves , the y ar e no t drive n b y punitiv e inne r dictate s int o tryin g t o become wha t the y fee l the y ough t t o be . Their objec t i s not t o actualiz e their idealize d imag e bu t rathe r t o hol d ont o it , t o confir m th e sens e o f specialness the y alread y have . On e o f thei r primar y mean s o f doin g thi s is t o insis t o n thei r claims , whic h the y fee l th e worl d mus t eventuall y honor. Eve n i f their claim s ar e bein g frustrate d a t th e moment , the y fee l assured o f future glor y if they continue to asser t them. Because they hav e "an unquestione d belief " i n thei r "greatnes s an d uniqueness " an d i n the powe r o f thei r claims , narcissist s hav e a "buoyanc y an d perennia l youthfulness," a "resiliency " i n the fac e o f disappointment , tha t i s lack ing i n th e othe r group s (Horne y 1950 , 194) . Althoug h he r dream s ar e repeatedly crushed , Emm a retain s he r "eve r youn g illusions " (II , xii). But beneat h thei r surfac e optimism , narcissist s experienc e "undercur rents of despondenc y an d pessimism " (Horne y 1950 , 196) . While Emm a keeps reboundin g fro m he r disappointments , i n th e interval s sh e ha s intense feeling s o f rag e an d despair . On e reaso n fo r th e narcissist' s pessimism i s tha t "measurin g b y th e yardstic k o f infinitude , o f th e attainment o f fantasti c happiness , h e canno t hel p sensin g a painfu l

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disparity i n hi s life. " Sinc e h e i s no t give n t o consciou s self-doubts , h e feels tha t "th e discrepanc y i s not i n him bu t i n life a s such. Thus h e ma y see a tragic qualit y t o life , not th e on e tha t doe s exis t bu t th e on e whic h he bring s t o it. " Thi s seem s t o m e a mor e accurat e descriptio n o f Emma tha n Mitchell' s versio n o f he r a s a universa l figur e sufferin g fro m existential problems . From a Horneyan perspective , then, Madame Bovary i s the stor y o f a woman whos e romanti c dream s ar e th e produc t o f a n interactio n be tween th e phantasmagori a o f sentimenta l realitie s sh e encounter s i n he r culture an d a narcissistic personality tha t make s her highl y responsive t o such influences . Althoug h sh e i s repeatedl y disillusioned , sh e i s extraor dinarily resilien t an d soo n find s a new dream . He r searc h fo r glor y take s a variet y o f forms , a s sh e swing s fro m on e solutio n t o another . Sh e becomes mor e an d mor e self-destructiv e a s he r desperatio n grow s an d increasingly divorce d fro m realit y i n he r pursui t o f escape s an d consola tions.

Madame Bovary ma y see m t o b e ver y differen t fro m The Mayor of Casterbridge i n tha t Hardy' s attitude s towar d hi s character s ar e eviden t whereas Flauber t i s famous fo r hi s rhetorical restraint . "Nowher e i n m y book," h e wrote t o Louis e Colet , "mus t th e autho r expres s hi s emotion s or hi s opinions " (D e Ma n 1965 , 311) . Earlie r h e ha d written , "N o lyricism, n o comments , th e author' s personalit y absent " (310) . I thin k that Flauber t i s deluding himsel f abou t hi s personality bein g absent , bu t a surprising number o f critics have agreed with him. According to SainteBeuve, "Th e novelis t refrain s fro m takin g sides ; h e i s presen t onl y i n order t o watch , t o revea l an d t o sa y everything , bu t no t eve n hi s profil e appears i n a singl e corne r o f th e novel " (D e Ma n 1965 , 327) . Eric h Auerbach contrast s Flauber t wit h Stendha l an d Balzac , i n whos e work s "we frequentl y . . . hea r wha t th e write r think s o f hi s character s an d events" (1957 , 428). In Madame Bovary, th e write r "expresse s n o opin ion an d make s n o comment " (429) . I believ e tha t th e implie d author' s attitudes an d judgment s ar e ver y muc h presen t i n thi s novel , whic h i s highly rhetorical. Flauber t no t onl y portrays bu t satirize s Emma' s searc h for glory . An author i s present i n a novel not onl y in comments (whic h Flaubert , in fact , make s wit h som e frequency ) bu t als o i n hi s arrangemen t o f th e materials. On e o f Flaubert' s favorit e rhetorica l devices i s t o moc k Em -

Madame Bovary | 19 7 ma's dreams b y showing the contrast betwee n her illusions and the truth . He ofte n let s us know i n advance tha t Emm a i s out o f touc h wit h realit y and i s boun d t o b e disappointed . Althoug h Emm a i s th e subjec t o f th e novel, th e first tw o chapter s ar e largel y devote d t o Charles , an d on e o f their function s i s to mak e u s awar e o f Emma' s mistak e i n idealizin g hi m before sh e i s awar e o f i t herself . Charle s i s introduce d a s a n awkwar d boy wearin g a n absur d ca p wh o i s mad e t o conjugat e ridiculus sum twenty time s o n hi s first da y a t school . A mediocr e student , h e mus t work ver y har d t o sta y i n th e middl e o f th e class . Dominate d b y hi s mother an d the n b y his first wife, h e is a pathetic figure wh o coul d neve r satisfy Emma' s cravin g fo r a gallan t lover , o r a t leas t a distinguishe d husband. Another functio n o f th e introductor y chapter s i s t o establis h th e basic patter n o f th e novel , whic h i s tha t o f foolis h hope s followe d b y disappointment. Thi s i s a nove l neithe r o f educatio n no r o f vindication ; it is , lik e Vanity Fair, a nove l o f disenchantmen t (se e Pari s 1974) . Charles's father , a retire d assistant-surgeon-major , take s advantag e o f his fine figure t o "ge t hol d o f a dowr y o f sixt y thousan d franc s i n th e person o f a hosier' s daughte r wh o ha d falle n i n lov e wit h hi s goo d looks" (I , i) . H e spend s mone y recklessly , become s indignan t whe n hi s father-in-law die s leavin g little , an d fail s i n th e textil e busines s an d farming. H e the n withdraw s fro m th e world , "soured , eate n u p wit h regrets, cursin g hi s luck , jealou s o f everyone. " H e care s nothin g fo r hi s wife an d i s annoye d b y he r servil e adoration . A s a result , th e onc e "lively," "expansive, " an d "affectionate " woma n become s "ill-tem pered, grumbling, irritable. " Sh e transfers al l her "broke n littl e vanities" to he r so n an d dream s "o f hig h station " fo r him . Althoug h w e ar e onl y a fe w page s int o th e novel , w e hav e alread y see n enoug h o f Charle s t o know tha t hi s mother wil l b e disappointed . Charles's story , too, is part o f th e pattern o f disenchantment . Afte r h e finally passe s hi s examinatio n an d i s ready t o ente r practice , hi s mothe r arranges a marriage with a forty-five-year-old wido w who has an incom e of twelv e hundre d francs . Despit e th e fac t tha t Madam e Dubu c i s "ugly , as dry a s a bone , her fac e wit h a s many pimple s a s the sprin g has buds, " Charles welcomes the marriage a s "th e adven t o f a n easie r life " i n whic h "he woul d b e mor e fre e t o d o a s h e like d wit h himsel f an d hi s money " (I, i). His wif e i s master, however , an d th e marriag e i s miserable. Whe n he returns home i n the evening, she "stretche[s ] fort h tw o lon g thin arm s from beneat h th e sheets , put[s ] the m roun d hi s neck, " an d complain s

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that h e i s neglectin g her . Sh e turn s ou t no t t o b e rich , an d Charles' s father accuse s hi s wife "o f havin g cause d th e misfortune o f thei r so n by harnessing hi m to suc h a harridan " (I , iii). It is no wonde r tha t Charle s is attracted t o Emma durin g hi s visits to the Bertaux. He is caught u p in a romanti c drea m tha t i s the most tenacious , perhaps, in the novel, sinc e he remain s blin d t o Emma' s betrayal s an d pant s "lik e a n adolescen t under th e vague desire s o f love " eve n afte r hi s wife ha s died an d he has learned th e truth abou t he r (III, xi). Flaubert keep s u s aware throughou t of th e foll y o f Charles' s love , o f disparit y betwee n hi s adoratio n o f Emma an d her scorn o f him. Emma's stor y begin s with a series of disenchantments. In the convent, she is swept up by the romance o f religion an d seems destined t o becom e a nun, but she rebels agains t th e mysteries o f the faith, an d its discipline, "as somethin g alien " t o he r sensuous , self-indulgen t natur e (I , vi). She thinks sh e has achieved glor y whe n he r mother die s an d sh e engages i n romantic excesse s o f grief . He r fathe r i s afrai d sh e i s ill , bu t Emm a i s "secretly please d tha t sh e had reached a t a first attemp t th e rare idea l of delicate lives , neve r attaine d b y mediocr e hearts. " Emm a soo n grow s tired o f he r grief , however , an d i s "surprise d t o fee l hersel f consoled. " When sh e return s home , sh e relishe s th e pleasur e o f rulin g ove r th e servants, bu t this, too, soon passes . Growin g "disguste d wit h th e coun try," sh e become s nostalgi c fo r th e convent . Sh e think s hersel f "quit e disillusioned, wit h nothin g mor e t o learn , an d nothin g mor e t o feel, " when she is roused fro m he r apathy by Charles, whose presence "suffice d to make her believe that sh e at last felt tha t wondrou s passio n which, till then, lik e a grea t bir d wit h rose-coloure d wings , hun g i n the splendou r of poeti c skies. " Marriag e lead s t o he r greates t disappointmen t s o far . She ha d though t hersel f i n love , bu t "sinc e th e happines s tha t shoul d have followe d faile d t o come, " sh e conclude s tha t sh e mus t hav e bee n mistaken an d trie s t o find ou t wha t on e mean s exactl y "b y th e word s bliss, passion, ecstasy, tha t ha d seeme d t o he r s o beautifu l i n books " (I, v). It i s impossible t o separat e th e psychological portrai t o f Emm a fro m Flaubert's attitud e towar d her , sinc e i n thi s nove l rhetori c an d mimesi s are ofte n indistinguishable . A surprising numbe r o f critics fee l tha t Flau bert present s Emm a a s a superior bein g who is the victim o f a bourgeoi s society tha t i s discordan t wit h th e fineness o f he r nature . Flauber t sati rizes th e mediocrity, materialism , an d drearines s o f bourgeoi s life , t o be sure, bu t h e als o ridicule s Emma' s romanticism , whic h h e present s a s

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equally conventiona l an d ful l o f cliches . T o "tast e th e ful l sweetness " o f her honeymoon , it would n o doub t hav e bee n necessary t o fl y to thos e land s wit h sonorou s names where th e days afte r marriag e ar e full o f the most suav e laziness! In post-chaises behin d blu e silke n curtains , on e ride s slowl y u p stee p roads , listening t o th e son g o f th e postilio n re-echoe d b y th e mountains , alon g with th e bell s o f goat s an d th e muffle d soun d o f a waterfall. A t sunse t o n the shore s o f gulf s on e breathe s i n th e perfum e o f lemon-trees ; then i n th e evening o n th e villa-terrace s above , on e look s han d i n han d a t th e stars , making plan s fo r th e future . I t seeme d t o he r tha t certai n place s o n eart h must brin g happiness , a s a plan t peculia r t o th e soil , an d tha t canno t thrive elsewhere . Wh y coul d no t sh e lea n ove r balconie s i n Swis s chalets , or enshrin e he r melanchol y i n a Scotch cottage , with a husband dresse d i n a blac k velve t coat with lon g tails, and thi n shoes , a pointed ha t an d frills ? (I,vii) There ar e man y suc h passage s tha t portra y an d moc k E m m a simultane ously. It i s abov e al l he r husban d tha t E m m a finds wanting , sinc e h e doe s not correspon d t o he r romanti c conceptio n o f a man . A m a n shoul d " k n o w everything , exce l i n manifol d activities , initiat e yo u int o th e energies o f passion , th e refinement s o f life" ; bu t Charle s ca n "neithe r swim, no r fence , no r shoot , an d on e da y h e coul d no t explai n som e ter m of horsemanshi p t o he r tha t sh e ha d com e acros s i n a novel " (I , vii) . Sh e wants t o "experienc e lov e wit h h i m " i n "accor d wit h th e theorie s sh e believed right, " and , i n a comi c scene , sh e recite s t o hi m b y moonligh t in th e garde n "al l th e passionat e r h y m e s " sh e k n o w s b y hear t an d sing s " m a n y melanchol y adagios. " Bu t sh e finds hersel f "a s cal m afte r thi s a s before, an d Charle s seem[s ] neithe r mor e a m o r o u s , no r mor e moved. " She decide s tha t hi s "passio n [is ] n o longe r ver y ardent. " Flaubert explains , however , tha t E m m a i s incapabl e "o f understand ing w h a t sh e di d no t experienc e o r o f believin g anythin g tha t di d no t take o n a conventiona l form " (I , vii) ; an d h e show s tha t despit e hi s limitations, Charle s love s E m m a wit h a passio n tha t migh t hav e gratifie d her ha d sh e bee n abl e t o recogniz e it : In bed , in the morning, b y her side , on th e pillow , he watched th e sunligh t sinking int o th e dow n o n he r fai r cheek , hal f hidde n b y the ribbon s o f he r nightcap. See n thu s closely, he r eye s looke d t o hi m enlarged , especiall y when, o n wakin g up , she opened an d shu t he r eyelid s rapidly man y times .

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Black i n th e shade , dar k blu e i n broa d daylight , the y had , a s i t were , depths o f successiv e color s that , mor e opaqu e i n th e center , gre w mor e transparent toward s th e surfac e o f the eye . His own eye s lost themselves in these depth s an d h e could se e himself mirrore d i n miniature, down t o his shoulders, with his scarf roun d his head and the top of his shirt open. d,v) This i s the romanti c lov e of a n unromanti c lover , on e who wear s a scar f round hi s head . A s Charle s ride s of f afte r breakfast , h e reproache s himself fo r no t lovin g Emma enough , turns back , an d run s "u p th e stair s with a beatin g heart. " H e canno t "kee p fro m constantl y touchin g he r comb, he r rings , he r scarf. " Sometime s h e give s he r "grea t soundin g kisses" o n he r cheeks , "o r els e littl e kisse s i n a ro w al l alon g he r bar e arm fro m th e ti p o f he r fingers u p t o he r shoulder. " Becaus e Charles' s love doe s no t tak e th e for m he r readin g ha s le d he r t o expect , i t fail s t o register o n Emma , wh o suffer s fro m ennu i an d begin s t o fantasiz e wha t life woul d hav e bee n lik e with th e ma n o f her dreams . Emma's visi t t o Vaubyessar d give s he r fo r th e first tim e a tast e o f th e life sh e feel s sh e deserves . Sh e i s spellboun d b y th e socia l eleganc e an d material refinement s o f thi s world , bu t Flauber t subvert s he r vie w o f i t by callin g attentio n t o it s sordi d features . Emm a i s fascinate d b y th e Marquis' father-in-la w becaus e "h e ha d live d a t cour t an d slep t i n th e beds o f queens " (I , viii) . Flauber t depict s hi m a s a revoltin g ol d ma n who ha s "live d a lif e o f lou d dissipation " an d no w sit s eatin g lik e a child, "lettin g drop s o f grav y drop " fro m hi s "hangin g lips. " T o Emma , the peopl e a t th e bal l ar e lik e figures ou t o f he r dreams ; sh e want s "to kno w thei r lives, " "t o blen d wit h them. " Flauber t describe s th e "indifferent eyes " o f th e me n a s havin g "th e appease d expressio n o f daily-satiated passions " an d observe s tha t throug h "al l thei r gentlenes s of manne r pierce d tha t peculia r brutalit y tha t stem s fro m a stead y command ove r half-tam e things , fo r th e exercis e o f one' s strengt h an d the amusemen t o f one' s vanity—th e handlin g o f thoroughbre d horse s and th e societ y o f loos e women. " When Emm a return s t o Tostes , she dwell s o n th e memor y o f th e ball , and althoug h th e detail s fade , a "wistfu l feelin g remain[s] " (I , viii). Sh e imagines tha t th e gree n sil k cigar-cas e Charle s ha d foun d belonge d t o the Viscount wit h who m sh e ha d dance d an d weave s a romanc e aroun d it tha t set s he r dreamin g o f Paris . He r fantasie s ar e agai n quit e conven tional, an d Flaubert' s depictio n o f the m i s satirical. I n th e worl d o f hig h society, a s Emma imagine s it , the duchesse s ar e al l pale, an d the y al l ge t

Madame Bovary | 20 1 up a t fou r i n th e afternoon . Th e me n al l hav e "talent s hidde n unde r a frivolous appearance " an d rid e "horse s t o deat h a t pleasur e parties " (I , ix). I n th e bohemia n quarter , writer s an d actresse s ar e "prodiga l a s kings, ful l o f ambitiou s ideal s an d fantasti c frenzies . The y [live ] fa r above al l others , among th e storm s tha t rag e betwee n heave n an d earth , partaking o f the sublime. " In a n effor t t o maintai n a sens e o f connectio n wit h Vaubyessar d an d the Pari s o f he r dreams , Emm a begin s th e pursui t o f eleganc e an d material refinements tha t ultimatel y become s a major caus e of her down fall. Sh e turn s he r servan t int o a lady's-mai d an d buy s fashionabl e clothes, trinkets , an d furnishings . Sh e devise s ne w way s o f "arrangin g paper sconce s fo r th e candles " an d extraordinar y name s fo r simpl e dishes (I , ix). Flauber t comment s tha t "i n he r wistfulness , sh e confuse d the sensuou s pleasure s o f luxur y wit h th e delight s o f th e heart , eleganc e of manners wit h delicac y o f sentiment. " Emma feel s that , despit e hi s coarseness , marriag e t o Charle s woul d be tolerabl e i f h e wer e a t leas t "on e o f thos e silentl y determine d me n who wor k a t thei r book s al l night , an d a t las t . . . wea r a strin g o f medals o n thei r ill-fittin g blac k coat " (I , ix). Thwarted i n he r dream s o f romantic lov e an d a glamorou s socia l life , Emm a crave s "thi s nam e o f Bovary, whic h wa s hers , t o b e illustrious , t o se e i t displaye d a t th e booksellers', repeate d i n th e newspapers , know n t o al l France." Emma' s search fo r glor y coul d tak e th e for m o f identifyin g wit h Charle s i f h e were th e kin d o f ma n wh o coul d fee d he r pride , bu t h e i s unambitiou s and eve n tell s he r ho w h e ha s bee n humiliate d i n a consultatio n wit h another doctor . Ful l o f rag e an d shame , sh e feels " a wil d desir e to strik e him." I t injure s he r prid e t o bea r hi s name , an d sh e displace s ont o hi m her ange r wit h hersel f fo r havin g marrie d him . Hi s mediocrit y i s s o threatening t o Emm a becaus e i t represents he r despise d image , what sh e could no t bea r t o become . Hi s presenc e i s a constan t reminde r o f th e disparity betwee n wha t i s and wha t ough t t o be . We can se e some of Flaubert's fine psychological work i n his portraya l of Emma's reaction s whe n sh e feels sh e has nowhere t o turn i n her effor t to escap e he r unbearabl e existence . A t first sh e wait s fo r a n "ac t o f fortune" (I , ix ) tha t wil l transfor m he r life , bu t nothin g happens , an d when her hopes for anothe r bal l at Vaubyessard ar e dashed, sh e despairs: "The futur e wa s a dar k corridor , wit h it s doo r a t th e en d shu t tight. " Life seem s meaningles s t o Emm a unles s sh e ha s th e prospec t o f som e form o f glor y tha t wil l confir m he r idealize d imag e o f herself . Sh e give s

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up music : "Sinc e sh e coul d never , i n a velve t gow n wit h shor t sleeves , striking wit h he r ligh t fingers th e ivor y key s o f a n Erar d concer t piano , feel th e murmu r o f ecstas y envelo p he r lik e a breeze , i t wa s no t wort h while borin g hersel f wit h practicing." Sh e gives up drawing , embroidery , and readin g a s well an d finds hersel f lonel y an d bored . Feelin g hopeless , she lets everything go: "Sh e who wa s formerly s o careful, s o dainty, no w spent whole day s without dressing , wore grey cotton stockings , and use d tallow candle s to ligh t the house." Sh e grows "difficult , capricious, " an d "no longe r conceal[s ] he r contempt " fo r th e peopl e aroun d her . Sh e experiences moo d swing s an d suffer s fro m psychosomati c symptom s that Charle s canno t cure . Emma's behavio r i s not entirel y th e resul t o f despair . He r suffering i s an expressio n o f rag e a t havin g he r claim s denied . Sh e feel s tha t sh e i s "the equa l o f al l th e wome n wh o wer e livin g happily . Sh e ha d see n duchesses at Vaubyessard wit h clumsie r waists an d commoner ways , an d she hate d th e divin e injustic e o f God " (I , ix). Emma' s bargai n wit h fat e is eviden t here . Becaus e o f he r beaut y an d refinement , sh e deserve s a luxurious life , an d he r miser y i s a protes t agains t th e unfairnes s o f he r lot. Sh e is showing th e worl d wha t i t ha s don e t o her . Acceptin g he r lo t would mea n givin g u p he r claims , whereas suffering i s a way o f holdin g onto them , o f compelling fat e b y demonstrating tha t lif e i s intolerable a s it is . Emma' s suffering is , finally, a manipulativ e technique , on e tha t succeeds i n bringin g abou t a change . Sh e i s sufferin g a t God , a t th e world, an d especiall y a t Charles , who i s driven t o giv e up hi s flourishin g practice i n a n effor t t o alleviat e he r misery . A s soo n a s h e mention s th e idea o f leavin g Tostes, Emma drink s "vinega r t o los e weight, contracts ] a littl e cough, an d [loses ] all appetite." He r palpitation s ar e real, but thi s passage suggest s that som e o f he r othe r behavio r ma y als o b e contrived .

One o f Emma' s mos t persisten t illusion s i s that he r miser y i s entirely th e result o f externa l condition s an d tha t happines s come s fro m without , i s granted b y fortune o r found. Whil e she has no recognition o f the interna l sources o f he r frustration , fo r Flaubert , a s fo r Hard y i n The Mayor of Casterbridge, characte r i s fate. H e emphasize s Emma' s inne r emptiness , her superficiality , an d he r unrealisti c expectations . Th e lif e sh e dream s of doe s no t exis t i n th e worl d an d woul d no t b e wort h havin g i f i t did . Emma think s tha t thing s ar e boun d t o b e bette r i n a ne w place , bu t through hi s descriptio n o f Yonville-l'Abbay e befor e he r arrival , Flauber t

Madame Bovary | 20 3 once agai n let s u s kno w tha t sh e i s deludin g herself . Th e lan d i s poor , the chees e i s bad , th e decayin g churc h ha s neithe r orga n no r staine d glass, and ther e i s only on e street , whic h i s " a gunsho t lon g an d flanked by a few shops " (II , i). The town i s as dreary a s Tostes. Things do chang e for Emma , however , i n tha t sh e meet s ne w people , first Leo n an d the n Rodolphe, o n whom t o focu s he r dreams . In th e mids t o f he r miser y a t Tostes , Emma long s fo r a lif e o f adven ture, "fo r maske d balls , fo r shameles s pleasure s tha t wer e bound , sh e thought, t o initiat e he r t o ecstasie s sh e ha d no t ye t experienced " (I , ix). But, althoug h sh e long s fo r shameles s pleasures , sh e i s no t ye t read y t o engage i n them . Indeed , sh e hope s tha t he r chil d wil l b e a mal e s o tha t she ca n fulfil l he r desire s throug h him : " a man , a t least , i s free ; h e ca n explore al l passion s an d al l countries , overcom e obstacles , tast e o f th e most distan t pleasures " (II , hi) . A woma n i s "alway s draw n b y som e desire, restrained b y som e rul e o f conduct. " Emm a dream s o f revengin g "all her impotence " b y having a son, bu t this hope i s shattered whe n sh e gives birth t o a girl. Although Emm a feel s tha t sh e woul d b e abl e t o follo w he r dream s i f only sh e wer e a man , Flaubert' s linkin g he r wit h Leo n suggest s tha t h e sees he r temperamen t rathe r tha n he r gende r a s th e primaril y sourc e o f her plight . Man y critic s regar d Emm a a s vastl y superio r t o Leon , bu t Flaubert present s the m a s kindre d spirits , wit h Leo n showing , perhaps , what Emm a migh t hav e bee n lik e ha d sh e bee n a male . The tw o experi ence a n immediat e rappor t whe n the y discove r tha t the y bot h lov e sublime landscapes , dream y music , an d "storie s tha t rus h breathlessl y along" (II , ii) . Emm a expresse s scor n fo r "commonplac e heroe s an d moderate feelings , a s one finds them in nature," an d Leo n assents: "sinc e these work s fai l t o touc h th e heart , the y miss , i t seem s t o me , th e tru e end o f art . I t is so sweet , ami d al l the disenchantment s o f life , t o b e abl e to dwel l i n though t upo n nobl e characters , pur e affections , an d picture s of happiness. " Bot h ar e bored , disillusione d romantic s wh o fee l waste d in th e province s an d consol e themselve s b y escapin g int o imaginar y worlds. The y shar e th e sam e stoc k o f superficia l taste s an d sentimenta l cliches. Leo n i s enchante d b y Emma' s elegance , an d sh e notice s "hi s nails, whic h wer e longe r tha n on e wor e the m i n Yonville . I t wa s on e o f the clerk' s chie f concern s t o tri m them , an d fo r thi s purpos e h e kep t a special knif e i n his writing-desk." (II , iii). Each see s in the othe r a mean s of escapin g a mundan e existence , an d bot h ar e caugh t betwee n desir e and fear .

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Her lov e fo r Leon , an d hi s fo r her , throw s Emm a int o conflict . Deliriously happy , sh e want s t o consummat e thei r relationship , but , restrained b y rules o f conduct , sh e represses her desir e an d finds anothe r path t o glor y b y resistin g temptatio n an d becomin g a mode l wif e an d mother. Sh e goe s t o churc h regularly , bring s Berth e hom e fro m th e nurse, an d warm s Charles' s slipper s b y the fire. The objec t o f everyone' s admiration, sh e seem s "t o b e passin g throug h lif e scarcel y touchin g it , bearing o n he r bro w th e sligh t mar k o f a sublim e destiny " (II , v) . Sh e fears tha t sh e ha s los t Leo n b y repulsin g hi m to o much , bu t th e "pride , the jo y o f bein g abl e t o sa y t o herself , ' I a m virtuous, ' an d t o loo k a t herself i n the mirror strikin g resigned poses" consoles her i n some degre e "for th e sacrific e sh e [thinks ] sh e [is ] making. " Emma's virtu e i s unreal , anothe r romanti c pose , bu t so , Flauber t makes clear , i s he r love . Sh e thinks sh e i s makin g a sacrifice . Sh e seek s solitude i n orde r t o deligh t i n Leon' s image , bu t "hi s physica l presenc e trouble[s] th e voluptuousnes s o f thi s meditation " (II , v) . Sh e thrill s "a t the sound o f his step," but, to her astonishment an d sorrow , the emotio n subsides when h e appears . Emma i s sacrificing a n unrea l lov e in order t o glory i n a pretende d virtue . Sh e feel s victimize d b y fat e becaus e sh e di d not mee t Leo n befor e sh e marrie d Charles , bu t Flauber t suggest s tha t i f she had, he would no t have satisfied he r either. No rea l man can compet e with he r imaginar y lovers . Beneath he r pos e o f seren e virtue , Emm a i s "eate n u p wit h desires , with rage , wit h hate " (II , v). Sh e bewail s "th e clothe s sh e di d no t have , the happines s sh e ha d missed , he r overexalte d dreams , he r to o crampe d home." I t i s Flaubert , presumably , wh o see s he r dream s a s "overex alted." A s a t Tostes , she cultivate s he r suffering , bu t thi s tim e Charle s i s oblivious o f he r torment , an d sh e hates hi m fo r hi s conviction tha t h e is making he r happy . Sh e console s hersel f wit h "wil d extravagance " an d has "shockin g thoughts " o f adulter y an d revenge , bu t sh e i s stil l re strained b y rule s o f conduct , an d a "dark , shapeles s chasm " open s within he r a t the thought o f fleeing wit h Leon . Her realizatio n tha t ther e is n o relie f fro m he r miser y leave s he r "shattered , exhausted , frozen , sobbing silently , with flowing tears. " He r attemp t t o find consolatio n i n religion doe s no t succeed , an d afte r Leon' s departur e fo r Paris , "th e evi l days o f Toste s [begin ] again " (II , vii) . Fille d wit h " a num b despair, " Emma regret s "he r steril e virtue. " Sh e spend s mone y lavishly , become s increasingly unstable , and develop s psychosomatic ailments . Her despai r

Madame Bovary | 20 5 is s o grea t tha t sh e react s wit h indifferenc e whe n sh e begin s t o spi t blo'od: "wha t doe s it matter? " Emma's spirit s ar e revive d b y th e attention s o f Rodolphe , wh o seem s t o be exactly th e kin d o f ma n fo r who m sh e has bee n looking . Onc e again , Flaubert create s ironi c effect s b y showin g u s i n advanc e tha t Emm a i s bound t o b e disappointed . Rodolph e i s a calculatin g seduce r wh o wor ries abou t "ho w t o ge t ri d o f he r afterwards " befor e h e begin s th e relationship (II , vii) . Emm a an d Leo n wer e trul y kindre d spirits , bu t Rodolphe play s th e rol e o f th e melanchol y romanti c becaus e h e know s it appeal s t o her . Bemoanin g "provincia l mediocrity, . . . th e live s i t stifles, th e los t illusions, " h e tell s Emm a tha t h e i s "sinkin g i n gloom " and long s t o joi n thos e who ar e lyin g in moonlit graveyard s (II , viii). He may hav e ha d a n ai m i n lif e i f onl y h e ha d me t a woman h e coul d love , and h e cling s t o th e belie f tha t on e da y happines s wil l come . When on e is near despair , a voice suddenl y cries , " 'I t i s here!' Yo u fee l th e nee d o f confiding th e whol e o f you r life , o f givin g everything , sacrificin g every thing t o thi s person. " Ther e i s "n o nee d fo r explanations " becaus e th e other ha s bee n me t "befor e i n dreams. " Sensin g Emma' s desperation , Rodolphe easil y manipulate s he r b y employin g th e romanti c cliche s fo r which sh e is looking an d presentin g himsel f a s the ma n o f he r dreams . Rodolphe differ s fro m Leo n no t onl y i n cynically exploitin g a roman ticism h e does not reall y share , but als o i n enabling Emm a t o resolv e th e conflict betwee n rule s o f conduc t an d he r desires . One' s rea l duty , h e says, i s no t t o "accep t al l th e convention s o f societ y wit h th e hypocris y it forces upo n us " bu t t o "cheris h th e beautiful, " "t o fee l wha t i s great " (II, viii) . The passion s ar e "th e on e beautifu l thin g o n earth , th e sourc e of heroism , o f enthusiasm , o f poetry , music , th e arts. " Whe n Emm a objects tha t on e must accep t the world's morality t o som e extent, Rodol phe distinguishe s betwee n tw o moralities : "th e pett y one , th e moralit y of smal l men, " an d th e eterna l moralit y tha t govern s peopl e lik e them . In th e pett y morality , th e "nobles t feelings , th e pures t feeling s ar e perse cuted," bu t th e eterna l moralit y sanction s a beautifu l passio n lik e their s that ha d it s origi n "i n som e previou s stat e o f existence " (II , viii) . He r moral qualm s allayed , Emm a plunge s int o th e affair , whic h become s a source o f pride rathe r tha n o f shame . For th e first tim e sinc e he r mother' s death , Emm a feel s tha t sh e ha s succeeded i n risin g abov e th e mediocrit y tha t surround s her . Befor e th e

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affair i s consummated , Rodolph e flatter s he r skillfully , tellin g he r tha t although h e ha s trie d t o sta y awa y h e canno t "struggl e agains t Heaven ; it i s impossibl e t o resis t th e smil e o f angels ; on e i s carrie d awa y b y the beautiful , th e lovely , th e adorable " (II , ix) . Emma' s prid e unfold s "languidly i n th e warmt h o f thi s language , lik e someon e stretchin g i n a hot bath. " Afte r th e affai r i s consummated , Emm a feel s neithe r anxiet y nor remors e bu t rathe r tha t sh e ha s fulfille d a t las t "th e love-drea m o f her youth " (II , ix). She sees herself a s having joined th e "lyri c legion " o f adulterous women abou t whom sh e has read an d feel s that sh e no longe r need env y them . Sh e is to kno w th e "joy s o f love " a t last , "tha t feve r o f happiness o f whic h sh e ha d s o despaired! " Fo r th e first tim e i n he r life , her drea m o f glor y seem s attainable . Sh e feel s hersel f surrounde d b y a blue space , wit h "ordinar y existence " appearin g "onl y intermittentl y between thes e heights , dar k an d fa r awa y beneat h her. " I t ha s bee n Emma's objec t t o separat e hersel f fro m ordinar y existence , an d no w sh e looks dow n o n i t from th e heights o f he r illusor y grandeur . Emma has experienced what Karen Horney calls a vindictive triumph . She felt, say s Flaubert, " a satisfactio n o f revenge. How sh e had suffered ! But sh e ha d wo n ou t a t last " (II , ix) . Sh e ha s revenge d hersel f o n a n uncomprehending worl d b y defyin g it s mora l cod e an d gainin g th e happiness it wished t o deny her. And sh e has had he r revenge o n Charle s as well, whose mediocrit y ha s bee n s o humiliating. Anothe r featur e o f a vindictive triump h i s proving one' s tru e grandiosity . Emm a ha s bee n i n despair whe n i t ha s seeme d tha t he r claim s woul d neve r b e fulfilled , bu t they hav e bee n honore d a t last , validatin g he r bargai n an d confirmin g her exalte d conceptio n o f herself . Sh e s o conflate s realit y wit h he r dreams tha t sh e conduct s he r affai r i n a reckles s manner , feelin g n o concern fo r discovery , an d exercise s cautio n onl y a t Rodolphe' s insis tence. When Rodolph e become s bore d an d take s he r fo r granted , Emm a i s disenchanted onc e mor e an d know s "wha t i t [is ] t o repent " (II , x) . Reviewing he r life , sh e mourn s al l he r los t illusions , bu t sh e i s soo n caught u p in a new drea m o f glor y when Homai s propose s th e operatio n on Hippolyte . Sh e urges Charle s o n i n the hop e tha t "hi s reputatio n an d fortune wil l be increased" an d that sh e will have something "mor e solid " to lea n o n "tha n love " (II , xi) . Bu t th e operatio n fails , an d Emm a i s humiliated b y th e fac t tha t "she , wh o wa s s o intelligent—coul d hav e allowed hersel f t o b e deceive d again. " Th e remnant s o f he r virtu e crum -

Madame Bovary | 20 7 ble "awa y beneat h th e furiou s blow s o f he r pride, " an d sh e resumes he r affair wit h Rodolphe . Her relationshi p wit h Rodolph e i s characterize d no w b y a morbi d dependency i n whic h sh e abase s hersel f an d glorifie s him : " I a m you r servant, you r concubine ! Yo u ar e m y king , m y idol ! Yo u ar e good , yo u are beautiful , yo u ar e clever , yo u ar e strong! " (II , xii) . Emm a transfer s her prid e t o Rodolph e an d seek s t o exal t hersel f b y mergin g wit h him . One o f he r object s i n proposin g tha t the y elop e i s to bin d hi m t o he r i n a mutua l dependency : "Yo u ar e everythin g I have, an d I'l l b e everythin g to you . I'l l b e you r family , you r country ; I'l l loo k afte r you. " "Th e longer w e liv e together, " sh e proclaims , "th e mor e i t wil l b e lik e a n embrace, ever y da y closer , mor e complete. " Thi s prospect i s unbearabl y oppressive t o a detache d perso n lik e Rodolphe , wh o value s hi s freedo m and "hold s bac k hi s emotion s i n an y engagement. " Th e mor e fiercely Emma cling s to him, the more inevitable i t becomes that he will abando n her.

As we have seen , Emma's searc h fo r glor y takes man y forms : sh e tries t o confirm he r idealize d conceptio n o f hersel f throug h religiou s fervor , romantic love , devotio n t o duty , an d he r husband' s achievements . A s each solutio n fails , sh e turn s t o another , o r sh e escape s int o memories , reading, an d dreams . Whe n nothin g work s an d th e futur e look s hope less, he r rag e an d despai r lea d t o inconsisten t behavior , cynicism , an d psychosomatic illnesses . Through almos t al l of thes e changes, Emma ha s a persisten t desir e fo r materia l refinements , whic h ar e a symbo l o f th e exalted existenc e sh e craves. After Rodolph e abandon s her , Emm a ha s a momentar y impuls e to ward suicid e an d the n retreat s fro m a lif e sh e canno t bea r int o a lon g and seriou s illness . When sh e receives th e sacramen t a t th e heigh t o f he r illness, he r searc h fo r glor y revives . Sh e feel s hersel f "mountin g towar d God" an d faint s "wit h celestia l jo y a s sh e advance[s ] he r lip s t o accep t the bod y o f th e Saviou r presente d t o her " (II , xiv). She hears "th e musi c of seraphi c harps " an d perceive s Go d "o n a golde n throne " orderin g "angels wit h wing s o f fire t o carr y he r awa y i n thei r arms. " A s sh e recovers, sh e trie s t o hol d ont o thi s "splendi d vision " an d aspire s "t o become a saint" : "He r soul , torture d b y pride , a t lengt h foun d res t i n Christian humility , an d tastin g th e jo y o f weakness , sh e sa w withi n

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herself th e destructio n o f he r wil l openin g wid e th e gate s fo r heavenl y grace to conquer her. " Flaubert satirize s thi s religiou s phas e a s another for m o f romanticis m in which submissio n t o Go d replace s Emma's wish to merge with Rodol phe. A s sh e kneel s o n he r Gothi c prie-Dieu , sh e addresse s "t o th e Lor d the sam e suav e word s tha t sh e ha d murmure d formerl y t o he r love r i n the outpouring s o f adultery " (II , xiv) . Throug h Christia n humilit y sh e hopes to gain " a blis s that can replace happiness," a love that will "gro w forever!" Emm a feel s sh e ha s foun d a celestia l love r wh o wil l rais e he r to th e height s an d who m sh e ca n contro l throug h humilit y an d self abnegation. Sh e is not reall y humble, o f course, bu t take s "prid e [in ] her devoutness," comparin g hersel f "t o those grand ladie s of long ago whos e glory sh e had dreame d of " an d "who , trailing with s o much majest y th e lace-trimmed train s o f thei r lon g gowns , retire d int o solitud e t o she d a t the fee t o f Chris t th e tear s o f heart s tha t lif e ha d wounded. " Sh e "fan cie[s] hersel f seize d wit h th e finest Catholi c melanchol y eve r conceive d by an etherea l soul. " In the absence of earthly delights , Emma wearies of religion an d arise s from he r prayer s "wit h achin g limb s an d th e vagu e feelin g tha t sh e [is ] being cheated " (II , xiv) . Wit h th e failur e o f thi s solution , sh e i s onc e again tor n b y inner conflicts betwee n resignation , aggression , an d a wis h to b e good. Wrapping "al l things i n the sam e mood o f indifference, " sh e combines "gentlenes s o f speec h wit h suc h haught y looks " tha t on e can "n o longe r distinguis h selfishnes s fro m charity , o r corruptio n fro m virtue." When Charle s take s he r t o se e Lucia di Lammermoor, Emma' s drea m of lov e i s reawakened . Sh e feel s hersel f "carrie d bac k t o th e readin g o f her youth , int o th e mids t o f Si r Walter Scott " (II , xv). As Lucie longs fo r wings, Emma, too , wants "t o flee away fro m life , locke d i n a passionat e embrace." I n Lucie' s "melodiou s lamentations, " sh e recognize s "al l th e intoxication an d th e anguis h tha t ha d brough t he r clos e t o death, " bu t she feel s that , unlik e Lucie , sh e ha s neve r bee n love d b y th e righ t man . Once sh e married Charle s there wa s boun d t o b e conflict betwee n desir e and rule s o f conduct; bu t i f "befor e th e degradatio n o f marriag e an d th e disillusions o f adultery , sh e coul d hav e anchore d he r lif e upo n som e great, stron g heart, " sh e believe s that al l her need s could hav e bee n met : "virtue, affection , sensuou s pleasure , an d dut y woul d hav e combine d t o give her eterna l bliss. " Once again , Flauber t mock s Emma' s illusion , and , indeed , fo r a mo -

Madame Bovary | 20 9 merit sh e see s through i t herself . Sh e realize s tha t th e blis s o f whic h sh e dreams i s " a lie , a mocker y t o taun t desire " (II , xv) . Knowin g "ho w small th e passion s [are ] tha t ar t magnifie[s], " sh e strive s fo r "detach ment" an d smile s "inwardl y i n scornfu l pity " whe n th e her o reappears . But he r "critica l detachment " i s quickl y "swep t awa y b y th e poeti c power o f th e acting ; and, draw n t o th e ma n b y the illusio n o f th e part, " she begin s t o imagin e th e "extraordinary , magnificent " lif e o f th e tenor , Edgar Lagardy , "th e lif e tha t coul d hav e bee n hers " i f onl y fat e ha d brought the m together . Sh e woul d hav e travele d wit h hi m throug h al l the kingdom s o f Europe , sharin g hi s triumphs an d bein g th e sol e objec t of his desire. She becomes possessed b y the "ma d idea " tha t h e is looking at he r now , an d sh e long s t o ru n int o hi s arms , cryin g ou t "Tak e m e away! . . . All my passion an d al l my dreams ar e yours!" In his character istic way , Flauber t make s u s awar e o f Emma' s self-deceptio n b y havin g previously describe d Edga r Lagard y a s a "charlata n type , in which ther e was somethin g o f the hairdresser. " Meeting Leon at the opera, Emma soo n transfers he r romantic dream s to him . Flaubert' s accoun t o f thei r dialogu e i s deliriousl y comic . Emm a expatiates "o n th e frailt y o f earthl y affections , an d th e eterna l isolatio n that stifle s th e huma n heart" ; an d Leon , "t o sho w off , o r i n a naiv e imitation o f thi s melancholy, " declare s tha t h e ha s bee n "dreadfull y despondent" (III , i) . Bot h spea k o f wha t the y hav e dreame d an d wha t they have suffered, an d Emma say s that there would b e some consolatio n if he r pai n coul d a t leas t b e o f us e t o others . A t this , Leo n start s "of f i n praise of virtue, duty, and silen t immolation, having himself a n incredibl e longing fo r self-sacrifice. " Emm a woul d lik e t o wor k i n a hospita l a s a nursing Sister , an d Leo n praise s th e "hol y vocation " o f doctor . Emm a wishes sh e had die d in her illness , and Leo n is "quic k t o expres s hi s ow n longing fo r 'th e quie t o f th e tomb. ' " Listenin g t o Leon , Emm a feel s he r existence expand : "i t wa s lik e som e sentimenta l immensit y t o whic h sh e had returned. " Emma's relationshi p wit h Leo n follow s a predictable course . No ma n has "eve r seeme d t o he r s o beautiful " (III , i) , and , althoug h sh e fear s things migh t change , sh e feels onc e agai n tha t he r drea m i s coming true . To Leon, sh e is "th e mistres s o f al l novels, the heroin e o f al l the dramas , the vagu e 'she ' o f al l th e volume s o f verse " (III , v) . Afte r a n idylli c interval, ful l o f romanti c cliches , disenchantmen t set s in . Whe n Leo n allows himsel f t o b e delaye d b y Homais , h e seem s t o Emm a "incapabl e of heroism , weak , banal , mor e spiritles s tha n a woman , avariciou s an d

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timorous a s well" (III , vi). On hi s side, Leon resent s Emma's dominatio n and th e "increase d absorptio n o f hi s personalit y int o hers. " I t wa s a s though h e were her mistress, observes Flaubert, rather than sh e his. Since he is soon t o becom e hea d clerk , he feels i t is time to settl e down , t o giv e up "hi s exalte d sentiments , hi s poetic imagination. " "I n th e flus h o f hi s youth," say s Flaubert , "ever y bourgeois " ha s "believe d himsel f capabl e of immens e passions , o f loft y enterprises. . . . every notar y bear s withi n him th e debri s o f a poet. " Emm a differ s fro m Leo n i n th e persistenc e of he r youthfu l illusions , bu t Flauber t doe s no t presen t he r "exalte d sentiments" a s any less ludicrous tha n his . Becoming "a s sic k o f [Leon ] a s he [is ] weary o f her, " Emm a wonder s "how t o ge t ri d o f him " (III , vi), much a s Rodolphe ha d wondere d ho w to ge t ri d o f her . Sh e become s reckles s i n he r behavio r an d lasciviou s i n her love-makin g i n a desperat e effor t t o kee p he r passio n alive , bu t sh e destroys "ever y pleasur e b y alway s wishin g fo r i t t o b e to o great. " Disappointed agai n b y life , sh e read s luri d novel s i n orde r t o gai n vicarious excitemen t an d see s anothe r ma n i n he r mind' s ey e whil e writing t o Leon . H e i s " a phanto m fashione d ou t o f he r mos t arden t memories, o f he r favorit e books , he r stronges t desires. " He r phanto m lover become s "s o real , s o tangible " tha t sh e feel s h e wil l "ravis h he r entire bein g in a kiss." Emma's affai r involve s he r i n a n elaborat e tissu e o f lie s an d contri butes t o he r undoin g b y plungin g he r mor e deepl y int o debt . Sh e bor rows t o pa y fo r he r tryst s wit h Leo n an d reject s hi s suggestio n tha t the y meet a t a les s expensiv e hotel . I t i s he r luxuriou s habits , mor e tha n anything else, that ultimately lead to her downfall. Sh e needs to surroun d herself wit h materia l refinement s i n orde r t o confir m he r sens e o f gran deur an d avoi d th e feelin g tha t sh e i s sinkin g int o th e mir e o f ordinar y life. He r variou s form s o f romanticis m ar e linke d i n he r min d wit h elegant accoutrements . Lov e seem s inseparabl e "fro m boudoir s wit h silken curtain s an d thic k carpets , well-fille d flowe r stands, . . . the flashing of preciou s stone s an d th e golde n brai d o f liveries " (I , ix). When sh e aspires t o becom e a saint , sh e buy s rosaries , wear s hol y medals , an d wishes t o hav e b y he r be d " a reliquar y se t i n emeralds " (II , xiv) . Th e romance o f motherhoo d i s spoile d befor e Berth e i s bor n becaus e sh e cannot spen d a s muc h a s sh e woul d lik e "o n a suspende d cradl e wit h rose sil k curtains , an d embroidere d caps " (II , iii) . Emm a compulsivel y buys thing s a s a wa y o f keepin g u p he r moral e an d " soften [ing] th e bitterness o f he r life " (III , vii) . Flauber t meticulousl y detail s he r pur -

Madame Bovary | 21 1 chases after ever y disappointment. Th e more her othe r resource s fai l her , the more sh e consoles hersel f wit h materia l luxuries , which ar e a symbo l to her o f romantic glamou r an d socia l superiority . Emma's compensator y needs , combined wit h he r sens e of entitlement , lead he r t o fal l pre y t o Lheureux . Absorbe d i n he r passion s an d feelin g that sh e deserve s th e best , sh e worrie s "n o mor e abou t mone y matter s than a n archduchess " (III , vi). Lheureux tempt s he r wit h good s an d eas y credit, an d a s a resul t o f buying , borrowing , an d renewin g notes , sh e runs u p o f deb t o f eigh t thousan d franc s whil e havin g onl y a di m awareness o f wha t sh e i s doing . Whe n he r mone y trouble s clos e in , sh e deals wit h the m a t firs t b y denial , wishfu l thinking , an d longing s fo r escape. Sh e wants "no t t o b e alive, " "t o b e alway s asleep, " o r "t o tak e wing lik e a bird , an d fl y of f fa r awa y t o becom e youn g agai n i n th e realms o f immaculat e purity " (III , vi) . Finall y force d t o cop e wit h he r debt, Emm a employ s a serie s o f desperat e measures . Sh e appeal s t o Leon, who m sh e urge s t o stea l th e money , an d the n t o th e notary , Monsieur Guillaumin , wh o insult s he r b y seekin g sexua l favors . Despit e her indignatio n wit h him , sh e make s advance s t o th e timi d Bine t an d finally goes to Rodolphe , "unawar e tha t sh e was hastening t o offe r wha t had s o angere d he r a whil e ago , no t i n th e leas t consciou s o f he r prostitution" (III , vii). With Rodolphe' s refusal , he r world crumbles , an d she feels tha t sh e is going mad . With al l he r solution s failing , Emm a turns , lik e Hedd a Gabler , t o suicide. Lik e Hedda's , he r self-destructio n i s partl y a n escap e fro m a n intolerable situatio n an d partly a vindictive triumph. Her feelin g tha t sh e is goin g ma d i s a produc t o f bot h he r disappointmen t i n lov e an d he r impending financial disaster . Leon has let her down , an d Rodolphe , afte r telling he r tha t h e love s her , say s tha t h e doe s no t hav e th e mone y fo r which sh e i s asking . Sh e ha d bee n confiden t tha t "on e singl e glanc e would reawaken " hi s ardo r (III , vi) , an d a t first sh e seem s t o hav e succeeded. He r reques t fo r mone y chill s him , however , an d th e rag e an d despair Emm a fel t whe n h e deserte d he r ar e revived , alon g wit h he r profound sens e o f injustice : sh e woul d hav e "sol d all, " woul d "hav e begged o n th e high-roads, " fo r a smil e o r a loo k fro m him . A t first sh e "suffer[s] onl y i n he r love, " bu t whe n sh e return s t o Yonville , "he r plight, lik e an abyss , loom[s] befor e her " (III , viii). Although he r suicid e i s a n escape , an d perhap s als o a reveng e o n those wh o di d no t tak e he r pligh t seriously , Emma' s moo d i s not on e o f despair. Sh e take s arseni c i n "a n ecstas y o f heroism " tha t make s he r

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"almost joyous, " an d whe n n o symptom s immediatel y appear , sh e be lieves that deat h i s "bu t a littl e thing": " I shal l fal l aslee p an d al l will b e over" (III , viii). Emma i s almost joyou s becaus e sh e thinks sh e has foun d a wa y to escap e al l her sufferin g i n a way that seem s glorious t o her . Sh e will hav e fulfille d he r dut y no t t o other s bu t t o he r romanti c conceptio n of herself ; instea d o f bein g a patheti c victim , sh e wil l a t las t hav e mastered he r fate . Literature i s ful l o f protagonist s wh o ar e grante d romanti c deaths , who fee l tha t the y hav e actualize d thei r idealize d image s an d the n di e before the y ar e subjec t t o continue d failure , despair , an d self-hate . Shakespeare's Anton y an d Cleopatr a (Pari s 1991b) , Stendhal' s Julie n Sorel (Pari s 1974) , an d Conrad' s Lor d Ji m (Pari s 1974 ) com e t o mind ; and ther e ar e man y others , includin g Antigone , Hedd a Gabler , and , a s we shal l soo n see , Edn a Pontellier . I t i s precisel y suc h a deat h tha t Flaubert denie s Emm a Bovary . He describe s he r physica l agon y i n horri ble detail , an d th e appearanc e o f th e hideou s blin d ma n shatter s th e dream o f "celestia l glory " (III , viii) tha t ha d bee n induce d i n Emm a b y the las t sacraments . The blin d man , wh o sing s of ho w a young gir l lose s her virtue by dreaming her heart away , had filled Emma with drea d whil e she wa s i n th e mids t o f he r affai r wit h Leon , an d whe n h e reappear s a s she i s dying , sh e i s seize d b y a fea r o f damnation . A t th e soun d o f hi s "raucous voice, " sh e begin s to laugh , a n atrocious , frantic , desperat e laugh , thinkin g sh e sa w th e hideous fac e o f th e poo r wretc h loo m ou t o f th e eterna l darknes s lik e a menace. The wind blew very hard that day It blew her petticoat away. A final spasm threw her back on the mattress. She had ceased to exist. (Ill, viii) At th e end , Emm a i s wedde d no t t o he r drea m o f glor y bu t t o he r nightmare.

As w e hav e seen , th e author' s personalit y i s b y n o mean s absen t fro m this novel, as both Flauber t an d man y critics have claimed i t to be . There are numerou s authoria l comment s an d a satirica l treatmen t o f almos t every character an d se t of values . The primar y objec t o f Flaubert' s satir e is Emma' s romanticism , whic h i s show n t o b e foolish , derivative , an d

Madame Bovary | 21 3 destructive. Man y critic s fee l tha t Flauber t sympathize s wit h Emma' s frustrations, whic h ar e blame d o n th e meannes s o f bourgeoi s society . I think tha t they are not entirel y wrong in sensing that i t is not onl y Emm a but als o Flauber t wh o i s a thwarte d romantic . Th e implie d autho r ha s inner conflicts tha t ar e evident i n his ambivalent attitudes . While the expansiv e sid e of Flauber t empathize s wit h Emma' s cravin g for glory , his moralistic sid e condemns her , i n rather conventiona l ways , for he r prid e an d adultery . H e describe s he r a s corrupt , degenerate , he r soul "al l shrivele d up , like th e duk e o f Clarenc e i n his but t o f malmsey " (II, xii) . Hi s accoun t o f th e priest' s administratio n o f extrem e unctio n when Emm a i s dying reflects orthodo x attitudes : First, upon the eyes, that had so coveted all worldly goods; then upon the nostrils, tha t ha d bee n s o greed y o f th e war m breez e an d th e scent s o f love; the n upo n th e mouth , tha t ha d spoke n lies , moane d i n prid e an d cried out in lust; then upon the hands that had taken delight in the texture of sensuality; and finally upo n the soles of the feet, so swift whe n she had hastened to satisfy her desires. . . . (Ill, viii) Flaubert sometime s expresse s sympath y wit h Emma' s "poo r oppresse d heart," bu t hi s mora l judgmen t o f he r i s unremittin g an d severe . Whe n Charles affect s bohemia n manner s afte r he r death , Flauber t describe s Emma a s corrupting hi m fro m beyon d th e grave . The dominan t sid e o f Flaubert' s personalit y is , of course , hi s detach ment. Thi s result s no t i n th e disappearanc e o f th e autho r bu t i n th e presence o f a pervasive iron y which i s his defense agains t th e frustration , humiliation, an d despai r tha t ar e th e lo t o f thos e wh o allo w themselve s to expec t ver y muc h fro m life . Those wh o hav e extremel y limite d goals , like Binet , o r wh o aggressivel y pursu e cras s ones , lik e Lheureu x an d Homais, ma y succeed ; bu t thos e wh o hop e fo r mor e ar e boun d t o b e mocked b y fate . A s author , Flauber t play s th e rol e o f fat e himself , making fool s o f hi s dreamer s an d rewardin g onl y thos e whos e succes s is not wort h th e having . Wha t Emm a lack s mos t o f al l i s th e "critica l detachment" tha t sh e momentarily attain s durin g th e intermissio n a t th e opera an d tha t lead s he r t o smil e "inwardl y i n scornfu l pity " whe n th e hero reappear s (II , xv) . Scornfu l pit y i s wha t Flauber t feel s towar d Emma throug h mos t o f the novel . Seemingly afrai d bot h o f himself an d o f life, Flaubert seek s to becom e invulnerable b y repressing hi s desires . Emma represent s a side of himsel f that h e despises, pities, and fears . H e needs to expos e her foll y agai n an d

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again in order to reinforce hi s own resignation. What h e is telling himsel f through Emma' s stor y i s that there , but fo r hi s bitter wisdom , goe s he. It is this wisdom i n which Flaubert' s prid e i s invested. H e pursue s hi s ow n search fo r glor y b y mean s o f critica l detachment . H e see s me n a s th e victims o f thei r illusions , th e sordidnes s o f society , an d th e mocker y o f fate. Lik e Hardy , h e seek s t o ris e abov e th e commo n lo t b y bein g permanently disillusioned , b y despising worldly success , and b y escapin g the mockery o f fat e throug h hi s own superio r irony . There i s on e characte r i n th e nove l who m Flauber t admires . Thi s i s Dr. Lariviere , wh o i s a s glamorou s a figure a s an y Emm a create s i n he r fantasies: Disdainful o f honors , o f titles , an d o f academies , hospitable , generous , fatherly to the poor, and practicing virtue without believing in it, he would almost hav e passe d fo r a sain t i f th e keennes s o f hi s intellec t ha d no t caused him to be feared as a demon. His glance, more penetrating than his scalpels, looked straigh t int o your soul , and would detec t any lie, regardless of how well hidden. He went through life with the benign dignity that goes wit h th e assuranc e o f talen t an d wealth , wit h fort y year s o f hard working, blameless life. (Ill, viii) Dr. Larivier e i s supposed t o hav e bee n modeled o n Flaubert' s father , bu t he i s als o a n expression , I believe , o f Flaubert' s idealize d imag e o f himself. H e harmonize s Flaubert' s conflictin g need s fo r goodness , great ness, and critica l detachment . H e ha s the insight , talent, an d wealt h tha t Flaubert possesses but which ar e denied to Emma. He is Flaubert's visio n of himsel f a s th e venerated , disdainful , demonic , benign , dedicated , dignified, and , abov e all , omniscient artist .

12 The Awakening

The Awakening ha s frequentl y bee n compare d t o Madame Bovary. Lik e Emma Bovary , Edna Pontellie r crave s a kind o f passion she does no t find i n marriage , ha s a n extra-marita l affair , an d commit s suicide. Som e critic s fee l tha t a majo r differenc e betwee n th e novel s i s that "th e ironic distanc e o f Madame Bovary i s replaced b y a high degre e of narrative sympathy " (Walke r 1993 , 144). As Chopin tell s it, Edna's is not a story o f romantic foll y bu t of a woman's awakening . Other s agre e with Will a Cathe r tha t Edn a Pontellie r an d Emma Bovar y bot h "belon g to a class , no t large , bu t foreve r clamorin g i n ou r ears , tha t demand s more romance ou t of life tha n Go d put into it" (1899 , 6). These contrastin g response s reflec t on e o f th e majo r feature s o f th e criticism o f The Awakening: lac k o f agreemen t a s t o th e natur e o f th e story. Fo r som e th e nove l i s a feminin e Bildungsroman tha t depict s a woman's liberation , whil e fo r other s i t is the tale o f a woman wh o doe s not gro w u p o r wh o regresse s t o a n earl y stag e o f development . Ther e are man y othe r version s o f th e stor y a s well . Th e endin g ha s bee n th e subject o f the greatest controversy . I s Edna's deat h a victory o r a defeat , a triump h ove r th e force s tha t woul d thwar t he r authenticit y o r th e consequence o f psychologica l problem s tha t compe l he r to destro y her self? The critica l disagreement s ar e th e produc t no t onl y o f differin g per spectives bu t als o o f contradiction s withi n th e nove l itself . Th e indict ment o f the social syste m an d claims for self-realizatio n tha t Edn a seem s intended t o illustrat e ar e contradicte d b y th e mimeti c depictio n o f he r character, whic h shows , a s Elizabet h Fox-Genoves e ha s observed , tha t "we ar e dealin g wit h persona l patholog y . . . not wit h socia l o r sexua l injustice a t all" (Culle y 1994 , 262). The situation i s further complicate d by the fact tha t ther e are tensions not only betwee n rhetori c an d mimesis but withi n th e rhetoric itself . Althoug h th e narrator usuall y present s her heroine a s a woman strugglin g towar d freedo m an d self-realization , sh e

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engages a t time s i n a Flaubert-lik e mocker y o f Edna' s romanticis m an d describes he r a s foolis h o r immature . Ther e ar e moment s whe n th e narrator see s Edn a quit e clearly . I n orde r t o understan d th e relatio n between rhetori c an d mimesi s i n thi s novel , w e mus t firs t separat e th e strands o f th e rhetoric an d se e how the y conflict wit h eac h other . Although th e rhetoric i s full o f contradictions , th e mimetic portrait o f Edna i s consistent. Sh e is not a s full y draw n a s Emma Bovary , bu t sh e is still a well-conceive d an d fascinatin g character . He r puzzlin g behavio r has ofte n bee n misunderstood , bu t i t i s intelligible , I believe , i f ap proached fro m a Horneya n perspective . A psychologica l analysi s o f Edna wil l sho w tha t sh e is far fro m finding hersel f an d tha t sh e is drive n to suicid e not b y external conditions , as many critic s contend, bu t b y her inner conflicts . There i s little questio n tha t Chopi n want s u s t o se e Edna a s undergoin g a proces s o f liberatio n an d psychologica l growth . Edn a awaken s ou t o f a "life-lon g stupi d dream " (ch . 36 ) o f habitua l submissio n t o he r hus band an d he r society' s expectation s o f he r a s a woman . Sh e will no t b e one o f th e mother-wome n wh o idoliz e thei r children , worshi p thei r husbands, and estee m it " a hol y privilege to efface themselve s a s individ uals an d gro w wing s a s ministerin g angels " (ch . 4) . During th e summe r at Gran d Isle , she begin s t o resis t he r husband' s domination , an d o n he r return t o Ne w Orlean s sh e free s hersel f fro m on e afte r anothe r o f he r social obligations . Sh e get s i n touc h wit h feeling s sh e ha s suppressed , including he r sexuality , an d ha s a sens e o f becomin g mor e an d mor e herself. Chopin surround s thes e development s wit h a celebrator y rhetoric . When, bac k i n Ne w Orleans , Edn a goe s ou t o n he r at-hom e da y an d begins t o d o a s sh e likes , her husban d canno t se e that sh e i s "becomin g herself an d dail y castin g asid e tha t fictitious sel f whic h w e assum e lik e a garment with which t o appea r befor e th e world" (ch . 19) . This favorabl e rhetoric i s supported b y Dr. Mandelet' s observatio n tha t Edn a ha s bee n transformed "fro m th e listles s woman h e ha d known " int o a bein g wh o seems "palpitan t wit h th e force s o f life . . . . There wa s n o repressio n i n her glanc e o r gesture . Sh e reminded hi m o f som e beautiful , slee k anima l waking u p i n th e sun " (ch . 24) . Late r Chopi n tell s u s tha t ever y ste p Edna take s "towar d relievin g hersel f fro m obligation s add[s ] t o he r strength an d expansio n a s a n individual " (ch . 32) . Sh e now apprehend s "the deepe r undercurrent s o f life " an d n o longe r feed s o n opinion . Th e

The Awakening | 21 7 narrator doe s no t specif y wha t Edn a apprehends , bu t th e referenc e ma y be to he r sexua l awakening . Afte r sh e i s aroused b y Arobin's kiss , Edn a feels tha t a "mis t [has ] bee n lifte d fro m he r eyes, " enablin g he r t o comprehend "th e significanc e o f life " (ch . 29) . Sh e liberate s hersel f no t only fro m th e sexua l constraint s o f he r cultur e bu t als o fro m it s treat ment o f wome n a s property, proclaimin g t o Rober t tha t sh e i s no longe r "one o f Mr . Pontellier' s possessions " (ch . 36) . Thi s i s al l ver y stirrin g and ha s understandably sparke d feminis t interes t i n the novel . Edna ca n b e see n a s a mor e courageou s Hedd a Gable r o r a s a Nor a Helmer wh o mus t fac e th e consequence s o f he r rebellion . Sinc e A Doll's House end s wit h Nor a stormin g ou t int o th e night , Ibse n doe s no t hav e to imagin e wha t wil l happe n t o hi s heroine . Chopi n seem s awar e fro m the outse t tha t Edn a wil l no t b e abl e t o translat e he r emancipatio n int o a viable way o f life . After tellin g us that Edn a ha s begun to recognize he r relation t o interna l an d externa l realities , Chopi n foreshadow s th e en d of th e story : This may see m like a ponderous weigh t o f wisdo m t o descen d upo n th e soul of a young woman of twenty-eight—perhaps mor e wisdom than the Holy Ghost is usually pleased to vouchsafe to any woman. But the beginning of things, of a world especially , is necessarily vague, tangled, chaotic, and exceedingl y disturbing . How fe w o f u s ever emerge from suc h beginning! How many would perish in the tumult! (Ch. 7) Edna i s presente d a s a pionee r i n th e struggl e fo r women' s liberatio n who perishe s becaus e sh e knows to o muc h an d becaus e th e beginnin g o f things i s tangled, chaotic , an d disturbing . Thi s vagu e explanatio n i s no t developed i n th e novel , an d b y th e tim e w e reac h th e en d i t doe s no t seem to appl y t o what ha s happened t o Edna . When Edn a learn s t o swim , Chopi n introduce s a variatio n o n th e theme tha t sh e perishe s becaus e sh e i s to o fa r i n advanc e o f he r time . Exulting i n he r new-foun d power , Edn a grow s "darin g an d reckless, " overestimates he r strength , an d want s "t o swi m fa r out , wher e n o woman ha d swu m before " (ch . 10) . As sh e swim s ou t alone , sh e seem s "to b e reachin g ou t fo r th e unlimite d i n whic h t o los e herself. " Whe n she realizes how fa r sh e has gone , she has " a quic k visio n o f death " an d struggles "t o regain th e land. " Sh e tells her husband, " I thought I should have perished ou t ther e alone, " bu t h e assure s he r tha t sh e had no t gon e very fa r an d tha t h e wa s watchin g her . Th e messag e her e seem s t o b e that thos e who tr y to g o where n o other s have gon e befor e ar e in dange r

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of perishing . Th e rhetori c i s n o longe r exculpatory , sinc e i t seem s t o suggest tha t Edn a i s to o reckless , tha t sh e overestimate s he r strength , and tha t sh e i s a kin d o f Icaru s figure wh o aspire s t o transcen d th e human condition . Another importan t stran d o f th e rhetori c present s Edn a a s failin g t o achieve he r goal s becaus e sh e lack s sufficien t courage . Sh e ha s a goo d deal o f courage , o f course , an d act s ou t he r desire s rathe r tha n tryin g t o gratify the m safel y throug h a male , like Hedd a Gabler . Whe n sh e leave s no excus e fo r bein g absen t o n he r at-hom e day , Leonc e say s "peopl e don't d o suc h things " (ch . 17) , an d thi s i s certainl y somethin g tha t Hedda neve r woul d hav e done . Hedda' s first an d las t ac t o f rebellio n i s committing suicide . However , Chopi n suggest s throug h Mademoisell e Reisz that , bol d thoug h sh e is , Edn a doe s no t hav e "th e courageou s soul," "th e brav e soul, " "th e sou l tha t dare s an d defies " (ch . 21) . Mademoiselle Reis z tell s Edn a tha t "th e bir d tha t woul d soa r abov e th e level plai n o f traditio n an d prejudic e mus t hav e stron g wings " an d tha t it i s " a sa d spectacl e t o se e th e weakling s bruised , exhausted , fluttering back t o earth " (ch . 29) . The bird imagery is important i n the novel. When Mademoisell e Reis z plays th e piec e a t Gran d Isl e tha t Edn a entitle s "Solitude, " Edn a envi sions "th e figure o f a ma n standin g besid e a desolat e roc k o n th e seashore. He wa s naked . Hi s attitud e wa s on e o f hopeles s resignatio n a s he looke d towar d a distan t bir d wingin g it s flight awa y fro m him " (ch . 10). Thi s seem s t o expres s Edna' s hopelessnes s a t thi s poin t abou t he r ability t o soa r abov e th e leve l plain. The nakednes s o f th e figure an d th e fact tha t i t i s a ma n ma y expres s he r desir e fo r freedo m fro m inhibitio n and he r fligh t fro m womanhood . A t th e end , o f course , Edn a stand s naked o n th e seashore , hopeles s abou t he r abilit y t o soar . A "bir d wit h a broke n wing " i s "beatin g th e ai r above , reeling , fluttering, circlin g disabled down , dow n t o th e water " (ch . 39) . This i s the sa d spectacl e o f which Mademoisell e Reis z ha d spoken . I n he r final thoughts , Edn a imagines Mademoisell e Reis z laughing , perhap s eve n sneering , a t her : "And yo u cal l yourself a n artist ! What pretensions , Madame ! Th e artis t must posses s the courageous sou l that dare s an d defies " (ch . 39) . What, accordin g t o Chopin , doe s Edn a lac k th e courag e t o do ? He r list o f accomplishment s i s impressive . Sh e ha s sloughe d of f al l o f he r duties an d doe s a s sh e likes . Sh e ha s free d hersel f fro m he r husband' s domination, ha d a n affair , an d declare d he r lov e t o Robert : " I suppos e this i s what yo u woul d cal l unwomanly, " sh e says , "bu t I have go t int o

The Awakening | 21 9 the habi t o f expressin g myself " (ch . 36) . The on e thing sh e cannot d o i s to b e totall y indifferen t t o th e welfar e o f he r children . Whe n Chopi n introduces Mademoisell e Reisz , sh e describe s he r a s a "self-assertive " woman wit h " a dispositio n t o trampl e upo n th e right s o f others " (ch . 26). Mus t Edn a b e read y t o trampl e o n th e right s o f other s i f sh e i s t o soar abov e th e leve l plai n o f traditio n an d prejudic e i n orde r t o fulfil l herself? I s Chopi n sayin g tha t Edn a i s destroye d becaus e sh e i s onl y a t the beginning of a movement tha t will eventually allo w women t o pursu e their desire s withou t bein g concerne d abou t thei r children ? Thi s seem s to b e one implication o f th e rhetoric . While th e rhetori c usuall y present s Edna' s gettin g i n touc h wit h he r desires an d actin g the m ou t a s a goo d thing , on e o f it s strand s present s this i n a negativ e way . Emma' s experienc e durin g he r summe r a t Gran d Isle i s portraye d bot h a s a n awakenin g an d a s a regressio n t o th e stat e she wa s i n whe n sh e ra n throug h th e gree n meado w a s a child . Whe n she explain s t o Adel e tha t sh e wa s "runnin g awa y fro m prayers, " he r friend ask s if she has bee n running awa y fro m prayer s eve r since : " 'No ! oh, no! ' Edn a hastene d t o say . T was a littl e unthinkin g chil d i n thos e days, jus t followin g a misleadin g impuls e withou t question ' " (ch . 7) . "Sometimes I fee l thi s summer, " sh e goe s on , "a s i f I wer e walkin g through th e gree n meado w again ; idly , aimlessly , unthinking , an d un guided." Is Edn a gettin g i n touc h wit h hersel f an d strivin g t o develo p he r human potentialitie s o r unthinkingl y followin g misleadin g childis h im pulses? Chopi n seem s to b e supporting bot h positions . O n th e da y Edn a goes t o Cbentere wit h Robert , sh e i s describe d a s "blindl y followin g whatever impuls e move d her , a s i f sh e ha d place d hersel f i n alie n hand s for direction , an d free d he r sou l o f responsibility " (ch . 12) . Thi s doe s not soun d lik e a movemen t towar d self-realizatio n an d authenticity . Later, i n th e sam e chapte r i n whic h Edn a i s describe d a s "becomin g herself" whe n sh e give s u p he r Tuesday s a t home , w e ar e informe d tha t she use s he r ne w freedo m t o len d hersel f "t o an y passin g caprice " (ch . 19). Rober t tell s Edn a tha t sh e lack s "forethought " (ch . 12) , an d nea r the end , Madam e Ratignoll e say s tha t sh e seem s "lik e a child" : "Yo u seem t o ac t withou t a certai n amoun t o f reflectio n whic h i s necessary i n this life " (ch . 33) . Ar e w e suppose d t o se e Edn a a s freein g hersel f fro m the socia l institution s an d convention s tha t infantiliz e wome n o r a s throwing of f adul t responsibilitie s s o tha t sh e ca n behav e i n a n idle , aimless, unguided way ?

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Finally, Chopi n present s Edn a wit h Flaubertia n mocker y a s a woma n who i s give n t o romanti c fantasie s abou t unattainabl e men . Befor e sh e reaches pubert y Edn a become s "passionatel y enamore d o f a dignifie d and sad-eye d cavalr y office r wh o visit[s ] he r father " (ch . 7) . She canno t "remove he r eye s fro m hi s face , whic h [is ] somethin g lik e Napoleon's , with a lock o f blac k hai r fallin g acros s the forehead." Th e cavalry office r melts "imperceptibl y ou t o f he r existence, " bu t i n he r earl y teen s "he r affections [are ] deepl y engaged" b y the fiance o f a lady o n a neighborin g plantation. Th e realizatio n tha t sh e herself i s "nothing , nothing , nothin g to th e engage d youn g ma n [is ] a bitte r affliction " t o Edna , bu t he , too , goes "th e wa y o f dreams. " Evidentl y he r passion s wer e no t a s dee p a s she ha d imagine d the m t o be . A s a grow n youn g woman , sh e i s "over taken b y what sh e suppose[s ] t o b e th e clima x o f he r fate, " a s "th e fac e and figure o f a grea t tragedia n [begin ] t o haun t he r imaginatio n an d stir he r senses . Th e persistenc e o f th e infatuatio n len t i t a n aspec t o f genuineness. Th e hopelessnes s o f i t colore d i t wit h th e loft y tone s o f a great passion. " Th e tone her e is similar t o tha t o f Madame Bovary. Courted b y Leonc e whil e sh e i s "i n th e mids t o f he r secre t grea t passion," Edn a decide s t o accep t hi m whe n sh e realize s tha t "th e acm e of bliss , which woul d hav e bee n a marriage wit h th e tragedian , wa s no t for he r i n this world" (ch . 7). It i s not lon g befor e th e tragedian goe s th e way o f "th e cavalr y office r an d th e engage d youn g ma n an d a fe w others." Whe n sh e marries , Edn a feel s tha t sh e ha s close d "th e portal s forever behin d he r upo n th e real m o f romanc e an d dreams " an d ha s entered th e worl d o f reality . Sh e take s satisfactio n i n th e fac t tha t "n o trace o f passio n o r excessiv e an d fictitious warmth " color s he r affectio n for he r husband , "thereb y threatenin g it s dissolution. " Chopin present s Edna' s attractio n t o Rober t Lebru n no t onl y a s a sexual awakenin g bu t als o a s a retur n t o th e real m o f romanc e an d dreams, whic h wa s no t foreve r close d t o he r afte r all . Whe n Rober t leaves fo r Mexico , Edn a recognize s i n he r despondenc y "th e symptom s of infatuation " sh e ha d experience d a numbe r o f time s before , but , lik e Emma Bovary , she cannot vie w herself wit h critica l detachment : The recognition di d not lessen the reality, the poignancy o f the revelation [of he r lov e for Robert ] b y an y suggestio n o r promis e o f instability . The past was nothing to her; offered n o lesson which she was willing to heed. The futur e wa s a myster y whic h sh e neve r attempte d t o penetrate . Th e present alone was significant; was hers, to torture her as it was doing then with the biting conviction that sh e had lost that which she had held, that

The Awakening | 22 1 she had bee n denie d tha t whic h he r impassioned , newl y awakene d bein g demanded. (Ch. 15) The narrator , wh o possesse s th e detachmen t tha t Edn a lacks , seem s almost to make fu n o f he r heroine' s impassione d bein g in this passage. If Edna coul d hee d th e lesso n o f th e past , sh e would realiz e tha t wha t sh e feels fo r Rober t i s jus t a n infatuatio n tha t wil l g o th e wa y o f he r othe r dreams. But , lik e a child , sh e live s entirel y i n th e presen t an d i s unabl e either to imagine the future o r lear n fro m th e past. Chopi n seem s sympa thetic towar d Edna' s pain , whic h i s real, bu t scornfu l o f he r immaturity . When Edn a return s t o Ne w Orleans , sh e i s describe d a s bein g "stil l under th e spel l of he r infatuation " (ch . 18) . In par t a t least , The Awakening is , lik e Madame Bovary, a nove l o f disenchantment. Lik e Emma , Edn a i s presente d a s a n unstabl e perso n who i s happy whe n sh e is living in her romanti c dream s an d desponden t when i t seem s "a s i f lif e wer e passin g he r by , leaving it s promise broke n and unfulfilled " (ch . 25) . He r depression s d o no t persis t becaus e sh e i s repeatedly "le d o n an d deceive d b y fres h promise s whic h he r yout h [holds] ou t t o her. " Lik e Emm a Bovary , sh e i s a n irrepressibl e romanti c who i s doome d t o ultimat e disenchantmen t becaus e sh e demand s mor e of lif e tha n i t can give . Edna's final awakenin g i s presented a s a recognition o f life' s realities . After attendin g Madame Ratignolle' s accouchement , durin g which Adel e urges he r t o remembe r th e children , Edn a tell s Dr . Mandele t tha t sh e does no t wan t t o b e force d int o doin g things , tha t n o on e ha s th e righ t to mak e demand s o f her , excep t perhap s th e children . "The troubl e is, " sighe d th e Doctor , graspin g he r meanin g intuitively , "that youth is given up to illusions. It seems to be a provision of Nature; a decoy t o secur e mother s fo r th e race . An d Natur e take s n o accoun t o f moral consequences , o f arbitrar y condition s whic h w e create, and whic h we feel obliged to maintain at any cost." "Yes," sh e said . "Th e year s tha t ar e gon e see m lik e dreams—i f on e might go on sleeping and dreaming—but t o wake up and find—oh! well! perhaps i t i s bette r t o wak e u p afte r all , eve n t o suffer , rathe r tha n t o remain a dupe to illusions all one's life." (Ch . 28) Dr. Mandele t sound s a bi t lik e Thoma s Hard y here . The lur e o f parent hood i s on e o f Dam e Nature' s vulpin e trick s tha t perpetuate s th e rac e but brings misery to individuals. Once people procreate, they are trappe d by condition s the y fee l oblige d t o maintain . Thi s ma y no t b e a proble m

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for nurturin g wome n lik e Adel e Ratignolle , bu t Edna , lik e Hedd a Gab ler, feel s oppresse d b y " a responsibilit y fo r whic h Fat e ha d no t fitte d her" (ch . 8) . Throug h muc h o f th e nove l Edn a manage s t o unburde n herself o f he r children , bu t a t th e en d sh e realizes that sh e cannot escap e her materna l responsibilities . Edna tell s Rober t tha t he r encounte r wit h hi m o n Gran d Isl e awak ened he r ou t o f a life-lon g stupi d drea m o f habitua l submission , bu t sh e seems t o fal l immediatel y int o anothe r dream . O n th e nigh t sh e refuse s to g o t o be d despit e he r husband' s insistence , sh e i s eventually force d t o yield b y fatigue : "Edn a bega n t o fee l lik e on e wh o awaken s graduall y out o f a dream , a delicious , grotesque , impossibl e dream , t o fee l agai n the realitie s pressin g int o he r soul " (ch . 9) . Edna i s awakenin g her e no t from th e ol d drea m tha t ha d le d her to conform bu t fro m th e new drea m of assertin g he r wil l an d havin g th e freedo m t o follo w he r whims . Sh e lives in this secon d drea m afte r he r retur n t o New Orlean s bu t finds i t t o be grotesqu e an d impossibl e o f fulfillmen t whe n th e realit y o f mother hood presse s into he r soul . In term s o f plo t an d rhetoric , then , The Awakening i s a confusin g novel. I t seem s t o b e tellin g a numbe r o f differen t storie s tha t ar e ofte n incompatible wit h eac h other . I s it a stor y o f awakening , liberation , an d psychological growth , o r on e o f a woma n wh o throw s of f he r adul t responsibilities an d behave s i n a n aimless , unthinking , misguide d way ? Or i s it the story o f a foolish an d irrepressibl e romantic who i s ultimately disenchanted an d choose s deat h t o escap e reality ? O r i s it the stor y o f a victim o f nature' s entrapment s wh o finds hersel f i n a materna l rol e fo r which sh e i s not fitted bu t tha t sh e canno t disregard ? I s Edn a a pionee r in th e struggl e fo r women' s liberatio n wh o perishe s becaus e th e begin ning o f thing s i s tangle d an d chaotic ? O r doe s sh e peris h becaus e sh e i s too darin g an d reckless , overestimate s he r strength , an d aspire s t o g o where n o woman ha s gone before ? O r doe s sh e lack the courageous sou l that dare s an d defies , makin g he r unabl e t o ris e abov e th e leve l plai n o f tradition an d prejudice? W e can make sens e of the novel in terms of eac h of it s strands i f we ignore the others , but i t seems impossible t o integrat e them int o a unified whol e an d t o sa y what th e nove l is really about .

So fa r I hav e focuse d o n plo t an d rhetoric , bu t anothe r wa y o f ap proaching th e nove l i s to loo k a t th e mimeti c depictio n o f Edn a an d t o ask wha t stor y i t tells. Although Chopi n di d no t kno w wha t t o mak e o f

The Awakening | 22 3 her heroine , sh e understoo d he r intuitivel y an d ha d a gif t fo r character ization. A Horneya n approac h t o th e nove l wil l hel p u s t o recove r Chopin's psychologica l intuition s an d appreciat e he r mimeti c achieve ment. Whe n w e understan d Edn a i n motivationa l terms , w e shal l se e that som e o f th e author' s interpretation s ar e mor e appropriat e tha n others bu t tha t non e i s adequat e t o th e richnes s an d complexit y o f th e psychological portrait . I believ e tha t Elizabet h Fox-Genoves e i s correc t i n sayin g tha t a recognition o f Edna' s persona l patholog y turn s "th e indictmen t o f soci ety" int o "a n individua l cas e history" (Culle y 1994 , 262) . The Awakening resembles Great Expectations i n this respect . Chopi n doe s no t begi n by dwellin g o n Edna' s earl y life , a s Dicken s dwell s o n Pip's , bu t sh e provides enoug h informatio n t o enabl e u s t o se e tha t th e protagonist' s difficulties deriv e more fro m compulsiv e need s an d inne r conflict s gener ated i n childhoo d tha n the y d o fro m socia l conditions . Indeed , i t i s impossible t o envisio n an y socia l change s that woul d hav e enable d Edn a to fee l tha t sh e coul d hav e a satisfactor y life . I t i s striking tha t th e mor e she free s hersel f fro m he r conventiona l roles , th e mor e desponden t sh e becomes. He r problem s ar e relate d t o th e patriarcha l natur e o f he r society insofa r a s i t influence d th e behavio r o f he r father , th e fat e o f he r mother, an d he r experience s i n the family , bu t the y have little to d o wit h the condition s agains t whic h sh e rebel s a s a n adult . Sh e react s t o thes e conditions s o intensely an d self-destructivel y becaus e o f a hypersensitiv ity to constrain t tha t ha s its origins i n her famil y history . It i s throug h he r fathe r tha t th e youn g Edn a experience s th e oppres sion o f th e patriarcha l order . Th e onl y distinc t pictur e w e hav e o f he r response t o hi m i n childhoo d i s he r memor y o f "runnin g awa y fro m prayers, fro m th e Presbyteria n service , rea d i n a spiri t o f gloo m b y m y father tha t chill s m e ye t t o thin k of " (ch . 7) . Leonce tell s Dr . Mandele t that Edna' s fathe r "use d t o aton e fo r hi s week-da y sin s with hi s Sunda y devotions" (ch . 23) . The Colonel' s week-da y sin s see m t o hav e include d gambling awa y hi s blue-gras s far m i n Kentucky . Ou r mos t importan t information abou t Edna' s fathe r come s whe n h e reproache s Leonc e fo r being "to o lenient , to o lenien t b y far " wit h hi s wife : "Authority , coer cion ar e wha t i s needed . Pu t you r foo t dow n goo d an d hard ; th e onl y way t o manag e a wife . Tak e m y wor d fo r it " (ch . 25) . Chopi n observe s that "th e Colone l wa s perhap s unawar e tha t h e ha d coerce d hi s wif e into he r grave. " Edna grow s up , then , wit h a gloomy , tyrannica l fathe r wh o believe s

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that wome n mus t b e manage d wit h authorit y an d whos e coercio n ha s driven he r mothe r int o th e grave . Sh e has a n impuls e t o ru n awa y fro m his stern , hypocritica l religiosity , bu t sh e has nowher e t o turn. He r olde r sister "ha s al l th e Presbyterianis m undiluted " (ch . 22) , an d he r younge r sister i s hostile. Edn a deal s wit h thi s situatio n b y retreatin g int o herself : "At a ver y earl y perio d sh e ha d apprehende d instinctivel y th e dua l life—that outwar d existenc e whic h conforms , th e inwar d lif e whic h questions" (ch . 7) . I n orde r t o preserv e a sens e o f inne r freedom , sh e keeps other s a t a distanc e an d envelop s hersel f i n a "mantl e o f reserve. " In describin g th e adul t Edna , Chopi n observe s tha t "sh e ha d al l he r lif e long bee n accustome d t o harbo r thought s an d emotion s whic h neve r voiced themselves . The y ha d neve r take n th e for m o f struggles . The y belonged t o he r an d wer e he r own , an d sh e entertaine d th e convictio n that the y concerned n o on e bu t herself " (ch . 16) . In Horneya n terms , Edn a defend s hersel f b y becomin g detached . Sh e avoids conflic t wit h he r environmen t b y bein g outwardl y complian t an d keeping he r thought s an d emotion s t o herself . He r complianc e i s no t that o f th e self-effacin g person : sh e conform s no t fro m a desir e t o wi n love, protection, an d approva l bu t i n orde r t o avoi d frictio n tha t woul d disturb he r peac e an d intrud e o n he r inne r life . He r secre t thought s an d feelings d o no t generat e struggle s becaus e sh e doe s no t conside r actin g on them. Her environmen t i s too threatenin g fo r that . Sh e resigns hersel f to outwar d conformit y an d trie s t o preserv e a sens e o f freedo m b y guarding he r inne r life . Edna's detachmen t i s a respons e no t onl y t o a coerciv e environmen t but als o to th e absenc e o f love . She loses he r mothe r a t a n earl y ag e an d is "not ver y warmly o r deepl y attache d t o her father " (ch . 23). Her olde r sister Margaret , t o who m sh e mus t loo k fo r nurturing , i s describe d a s "practical" rathe r tha n "effusive. " Sh e is "matronl y an d dignified , prob ably fro m havin g assume d matronl y an d house-wifel y responsibilitie s too earl y i n life. " He r younge r sister , Janet , i s a "vixen " wit h who m Edna quarrel s a lot. With n o warmth availabl e to he r i n her family , Edn a tries t o d o without it , especiall y sinc e intimac y seem s dangerou s i n vie w of he r secre t thoughts . He r occasiona l gir l friend s al l see m t o hav e bee n "of on e type—th e self-contained . Sh e neve r realize d tha t th e reserv e o f her ow n characte r ha d much , perhap s everything , t o d o wit h this " (ch . 7). Edn a i s somewha t startle d b y th e warmt h an d cando r o f Adel e Ratignolle, since she is not "give n to confidences" hersel f an d i s unaccustomed "t o a n outwar d an d spoke n expressio n o f affection. "

The Awakening | 22 5 Edna want s t o b e self-sufficient , bu t sh e canno t hel p hungerin g fo r intimacy an d love . He r hunge r expresse s itsel f i n infatuation s tha t in wardly distur b he r "withou t causin g an y outwar d sho w o r manifesta tion" (ch . 7) . Edna "wonder[s ] at " thi s "propensity " becaus e i t is so ou t of keepin g with he r nee d fo r self-contro l an d reserve . Existing secretl y i n her imagination , he r infatuation s reflec t bot h he r cravin g fo r lov e an d her fea r o f intimac y an d emotion . The y compris e th e lov e lif e o f a ver y detached person . Edn a i s attracte d t o unavailabl e me n an d ha s n o rea l relationships befor e he r marriag e t o Leonce . He r passio n fo r th e grea t tragedian perfectl y suit s he r psychologica l needs . B y keeping hi s pictur e on he r desk , sh e can engag e i n he r fantas y unde r everyone' s nos e "with out excitin g suspicio n o r comment. " Indeed , sh e take s a wicke d deligh t in expressin g "admiratio n fo r hi s exalte d gifts " whil e passin g hi s phot o around. Whe n alone , sh e sometime s pick s u p th e photograp h an d "kisse[s] the cold glass passionately." Sh e can kiss it passionately becaus e it i s col d glas s an d no t a flesh-and-bloo d huma n being . He r menta l image o f th e tragedian "stirfs ] he r senses " fa r mor e tha n doe s th e actua l presence o f Leonc e Pontellier . Edna i s attracte d t o Leonc e i n par t becaus e ther e i s "n o trac e o f passion" i n he r feelin g fo r hi m (ch . 7) . Sh e marrie s hi m a s a wa y o f getting ou t fro m unde r th e paterna l roo f withou t havin g he r privac y invaded o r subjectin g hersel f t o anothe r authoritaria n male . Leonc e i s really a ver y easy-goin g husban d fo r th e time . H e offer s he r "absolut e devotion" an d a dignifie d plac e i n th e world . Th e fac t tha t he r fathe r and Margare t ar e violentl y oppose d t o he r marriag e t o a Catholi c i s a n additional attraction , sinc e it gives Edna a n opportunit y t o ac t ou t som e of he r rebelliou s impulses . Sh e submit s t o th e convention s o f marriage , represses he r desire s fo r intensity , passion , an d merger , an d relinquishe s her romanti c dreams . Thes e neve r amounte d t o anythin g anyway , sinc e they were s o out o f keepin g with he r nee d fo r emotiona l distance . Edna carrie s th e nee d fo r distanc e int o he r marriage , i n whic h sh e behaves i n a ver y detache d way . Leonce' s primar y complain t i s tha t while sh e i s "th e sol e objec t o f hi s existence, " sh e evince s "littl e interes t in thing s whic h concerne d him " (ch . 3) . Sh e i s als o inattentiv e t o he r children an d feel s a grea t sens e o f relie f wheneve r the y ar e take n of f he r hands. A s a marrie d woman , Edn a follow s he r practic e o f conformin g outwardly i n orde r t o b e lef t alone . Ther e i s les s struggl e tha n eve r because he r conformit y seem s to hav e deadene d he r inwar d questioning . She habitually yield s to Leonce' s desires , "no t wit h an y sens e o f submis -

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sion o r obedienc e t o hi s compellin g wishes , bu t unthinkingly , a s w e walk, move , sit , stand , g o throug h th e dail y treadmil l o f th e lif e whic h has bee n portione d ou t t o us " (ch . 12) . Sh e awaken s fro m thi s almos t somnambulistic stat e durin g th e summe r o n Gran d Isle . One o f th e majo r change s tha t occur s i n Edn a durin g tha t summe r i s that sh e moves fro m a passive, resigned for m o f detachmen t t o a n activ e rebellion agains t th e constraint s impose d b y marriage , motherhood , religion, an d society' s expectation s o f he r a s a woman . Whe n Leonc e reproaches he r fo r "he r habitua l neglec t o f th e children, " "a n indescrib able oppression " fills "he r whol e bein g wit h a vagu e anguish, " an d sh e has a cryin g spel l (ch . 4) . Edn a "coul d no t hav e tol d wh y sh e wa s crying," bu t sh e appear s t o b e oppresse d b y bot h he r husband' s re proaches an d he r dutie s a s a mother , agains t whic h sh e ha s passivel y rebelled b y bein g inattentive . Edna' s detachmen t involve s a resistance t o obligations tha t i s intensified , ironically , b y he r intimac y wit h Adele . While thi s relationshi p make s he r les s detache d i n tha t i t break s dow n her reserve , i t als o lead s he r t o ge t i n touc h wit h som e o f th e rebelliou s feelings sh e has repressed . The memor y tha t surface s a s sh e talk s wit h Adel e i s o f th e da y whe n she ra n awa y fro m prayer s rea d i n a spiri t o f gloo m b y he r father . Sh e had bee n religious "b y habit" sinc e the age of twelve, but now sh e begin s to questio n he r unthinkin g conformit y (ch . 7) . Edn a feel s tha t sh e i s returning thi s summe r t o th e aimless , impulsive, unguide d stat e tha t sh e was i n whe n sh e walke d throug h th e gree n meado w tha t day . Thi s ha d been a passing episod e i n he r youth , bu t i t i s memorable t o he r becaus e she was actin g ou t he r detache d desire s to follo w he r impulse s an d t o b e free o f authority . Sh e reenacts it , i n a way, when sh e blindl y follow s he r impulses b y goin g t o Cheniere wit h Rober t an d the n flee s fro m "th e stifling atmospher e o f th e church" sh e attends ther e (ch . 13) . Once the y ris e t o th e surface , Edna' s desire s t o b e fre e o f authorit y and t o follo w he r impulse s becom e stronge r an d stronger , first o n Gran d Isle an d the n i n New Orleans . When Leonc e trie s t o asser t hi s authorit y by tellin g he r tha t h e "can' t permit " he r t o sta y outsid e an d tha t sh e "must com e i n th e hous e instantly, " Edna' s "will " blaze s up , "stubbor n and resistant, " an d sh e canno t understan d wh y sh e ha d "submitte d t o his command " befor e (ch . 12) . "Don' t spea k t o m e lik e that again, " sh e tells him ; " I shal l no t answe r you. " I t seem s likel y tha t Edn a ha d lon g harbored desire s t o rebe l agains t th e coercivenes s o f he r fathe r bu t ha d never dare d t o ac t upo n them , except , perhaps , i n th e matte r o f he r

The Awakening | 22 7 marriage. Leonce , however , i s a muc h les s formidabl e figure. H e i s a doting, indulgen t husband , emotionall y boun d t o her , wh o canno t cop e with he r defiance . Th e feeblenes s o f hi s respons e intensifie s he r rebel liousness and allow s her to experience her need for freedo m wit h increas ing urgency . Edna's growin g impulsivenes s shoul d b e understood, I think, no t a s a regression t o a n infantil e stat e bu t a s a n expressio n o f he r detache d personality, wit h it s nee d fo r freedo m an d independence . N o doub t because o f he r father' s coerciveness , sh e ha s a hypersensitivit y t o al l forms o f constrain t tha t sh e ha s represse d an d conceale d becaus e o f it s dangerousness. Sh e deal s wit h i t b y resignation , automati c conformity , and th e cultivation o f a secret inner lif e tha t i s nobody's busines s bu t he r own. Whe n he r repressio n an d conformit y brea k dow n durin g th e sum mer o n Gran d Isle , he r hypersensitivit y rise s t o th e surface , an d sh e begins t o behav e impulsivel y a s a wa y gainin g th e sens e o f freedo m an d independence sh e craves. The mor e randoml y Edn a behaves , th e mor e sh e feel s tha t sh e i s he r own master . B y "blindl y followin g whateve r impuls e move[s ] her " (ch . 12), she "free[s ] he r soul " o f the "responsibility " tha t i s so oppressive t o detached peopl e lik e Edna , Jak e Horner , an d Hedd a Gabler . Onc e sh e learns t o swim , tha t activit y become s associate d i n he r min d wit h th e power t o d o what sh e wants, to go her ow n way . She plunges an d swim s "about wit h a n abando n tha t thrill[s ] an d invigorate[s ] her " (ch . 16) . As she sail s t o th e Cbeniere Caminada wit h Robert , sh e delight s i n th e feeling tha t sh e i s "bein g born e awa y fro m som e anchorag e whic h ha d held he r fast , whos e chain s ha d bee n loosenin g . . . leavin g he r fre e t o drift whithersoeve r sh e chose t o se t her sails " (ch . 12) . Edna ha s fel t lik e a prisone r i n chains . A s i s characteristi c o f th e detache d person , sh e craves freedom from constrain t rathe r tha n freedom to fulfil l herself . The main thin g sh e wants t o d o with he r freedo m i s to drift . Edna's rebellio n agains t authorit y escalate s whe n sh e return s t o Ne w Orleans. Sh e goes ou t o n he r at-hom e da y an d allow s hersel f t o fee l he r anger whe n Leonce , dissatisfie d wit h dinner , storm s ou t t o din e a t th e club. Suc h scene s ha d "ofte n mad e he r ver y unhappy, " bu t no w the y fill her with rage . She takes of f he r wedding ring , flings i t on th e carpet, an d tries to crus h i t with he r heel . When sh e cannot eve n make a mark upo n it, sh e shatter s a glas s vas e agains t th e hearth : "Sh e wante d t o destro y something. Th e cras h an d clatte r wer e wha t sh e wante d t o hear " (ch . 18). Chopi n tell s u s tha t Edn a i s "seekin g an d finding herself, " an d i n a

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sense thi s i s true . Sh e i s gettin g i n touc h wit h th e resentmen t an d fur y she ha s bee n suppressing , first i n he r father' s hous e an d the n i n he r marriage. Thi s i s no t th e sam e thin g a s finding he r rea l self , however , since wha t sh e i s uncovering ar e he r response s t o oppressiv e condition s rather tha n th e spontaneou s feeling s sh e would hav e ha d i n a nurturin g environment. I n a therapeuti c setting , experiencin g suc h rag e ca n b e a stage i n psychologica l growth , bu t gettin g i n touc h wit h he r ange r doe s not hel p Edn a t o find herself . Edna doe s not repea t he r outburs t bu t instea d throw s of f he r outwar d compliance an d begin s "t o d o a s sh e like[s] , an d t o fee l a s sh e like[s] " (ch. 19) . She abandon s he r Tuesday s a t home , doe s no t retur n th e visit s of callers , an d give s u p th e effor t "t o conduc t he r househol d en bonne menagere" Sh e take s u p painting , bu t i n a dilettantis h way , sinc e sh e has n o ambitio n an d onl y wants t o work "whe n i n the humor" (ch . 25). For th e mos t part , sh e seek s t o gai n a sens e o f freedo m b y comin g an d going "a s i t suit[s ] he r fancy " an d lendin g hersel f t o an y passin g capric e (ch. 19) . Chopi n describe s suc h behavio r a s "becomin g herself, " an d perhaps tha t i s th e wa y Edn a experience s it , bu t I thin k tha t Leonc e i s right "t o wonde r i f hi s wif e wer e no t growin g a littl e unbalance d men tally." Instea d o f becomin g mor e herself , sh e i s becoming mor e compul sively impulsive an d detached . When Leonc e i s shocke d an d angere d b y "he r absolut e disregar d fo r her dutie s a s a wife," Edn a respond s b y telling him , "Le t m e alone ; yo u bother me " (ch . 19) . Edn a want s t o b e lef t alone , no t t o b e bothered , and Chopi n s o arrange s thing s tha t sh e i s grante d he r wish . Leonc e leaves fo r a lon g sta y i n Ne w York , an d th e childre n visi t thei r grand mother. These departures giv e Edna a pang, but " a radian t peace settle[s ] upon he r whe n sh e a t las t [finds ] he r sel f alone " an d he r tim e i s "com pletely her own to do with a s she like[s]" (ch. 25). A "sense of restfulnes s invade[s] her , suc h a s she ha[s] not know n before. " After Leonce' s departure , Edn a take s additiona l step s t o fre e herself . She moves out of their house to a small one, dubbed "th e pigeon-house. " One o f he r reason s fo r doin g thi s i s tha t sh e i s "tire d o f lookin g after " the larg e hous e wit h al l it s servants ; sh e want s fewe r burden s an d responsibilities (ch . 26) . He r primar y motiv e i s t o achiev e a greate r "feeling o f freedo m an d independence " b y n o longe r relyin g o n Leonce . She wil l suppor t hersel f ou t o f he r inheritanc e fro m he r mother , he r winnings a t th e racetrack , an d th e sal e o f he r sketches ; an d whe n sh e moves, sh e takes onl y the thing s tha t ar e hers . She resolves "neve r agai n

The Awakening | 22 9 to belon g to anothe r tha n herself " an d feel s tha t he r financial autonom y frees he r o f he r "allegiance " t o he r husband . Sh e exercise s thi s freedo m by having a n affai r wit h Alce e Arobin . Perhaps a les s consciou s motiv e fo r he r mov e t o th e pigeon-hous e i s that i t is too smal l fo r a family. "Wher e o n earth, " ask s Adele, "wa s sh e going t o pu t Mr . Pontellie r i n tha t littl e house , an d th e boys? " (ch . 33) . There i s n o plac e i n Edna' s ne w lif e fo r eithe r he r husban d o r he r children. Whe n sh e tell s th e boy s abou t th e hous e durin g a visi t t o Iberville, the y as k wher e the y an d pap a wil l sleep . Edna' s repl y i s tha t "the fairie s woul d fix i t al l right" (ch . 32) . She is living i n a drea m fro m which sh e awakens a t th e end . At Edna' s dinne r party , give n o n he r twenty-nint h birthda y (Hedd a Gabler's age ) befor e sh e moves ou t o f Leonce' s house , sh e seems to b e in control o f he r life : "Ther e wa s somethin g i n he r attitud e . . . whic h suggested th e rega l woman , th e on e wh o rules , wh o look s on , wh o stands alone " (ch . 30) . Bu t Chopi n goe s o n t o sa y that , a s Edn a sa t among he r guests , she fel t th e ol d ennu i overtakin g her ; th e hopelessnes s whic h s o ofte n assailed her, which came upon her like an obsession, like something extraneous, independent o f volition. It was something which announced itself ; a chill breath that seemed to issue from som e vast cavern wherein discords wailed. Ther e cam e ove r he r th e acut e longin g whic h alway s summone d into her spiritual vision the presence of the beloved one, overpowering her at once with a sense of the unattainable. (Ch. 30) Edna seem s to have attaine d th e power t o make he r ow n choice s an d th e freedom fro m interferenc e t o whic h sh e ha s aspired , bu t sh e feel s a n ennui an d hopelessnes s ove r which sh e has no control an d i s full o f inne r discords. Sinc e her hopelessnes s seem s t o deriv e fro m he r longin g fo r a n unattainable beloved , sh e is not th e regal woman wh o i s content t o loo k on an d stan d alone . To comprehend wh y Edn a i s so unhappy despit e th e progress sh e seem s t o hav e made , w e mus t retur n t o th e summe r a t Grand Isle .

In addition t o her wish to be free o f authority an d t o follow he r impulses, other desire s ar e arouse d i n Edn a tha t summer . A s w e hav e seen , th e young Edn a ha d craving s fo r intimac y an d lov e tha t expresse d them selves i n th e for m o f romanti c fantasie s abou t inaccessibl e men . Unde r

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the influenc e o f Adel e Ratignoll e an d Rober t Lebrun , thi s sid e o f Edna' s nature reemerges , more highly eroticized tha n before . There ar e passage s suggesting no t onl y th e stirring s o f desir e i n relatio n t o Rober t bu t als o autoerotic feeling s an d a homoerotic attractio n t o Adele. Much ha s bee n made o f Edna' s sexua l awakening , an d I d o no t wis h t o minimiz e it s importance, bu t th e reviva l o f he r romanticis m i s th e mor e significan t development, sinc e it is the sourc e o f muc h o f he r late r hopelessnes s an d inner discord . Edna's laten t romanticis m i s stirre d b y he r "nigh t i n a dream " (ch . n ) . Tha t afternoon , "th e unaccustome d tast e o f candor " i n her conver sation wit h Adel e ha d "muddle d he r lik e wine , o r lik e a first breat h o f freedom" (ch . 7) . Edn a ha d neve r befor e opene d hersel f t o anothe r person. I n th e evening , Mademoisell e Reisz' s playin g furthe r liberate s her feelings , an d sh e experiences a pang o f self-pit y a s she recognizes he r hopelessness abou t eve r fulfillin g he r dreams . Thi s i s followe d b y Rob ert's suggestio n tha t the y al l g o int o th e wate r "a t tha t mysti c hou r an d under tha t mysti c moon " (ch . 10) , and, afte r havin g trie d unsuccessfull y all summer , Edn a finally learn s t o swim . Intoxicate d b y "he r newl y conquered power, " sh e want s t o "swi m fa r out , wher e n o woma n ha s swum before. " Rouse d fro m he r hopeles s resignation, Edn a immediatel y begins to drea m o f grea t things . The clima x o f th e evenin g i s Edna' s conversatio n wit h Robert , i n which sh e wonder s i f "an y nigh t o n eart h wil l eve r agai n b e lik e thi s one" (ch . 10) . Robert exalt s her as a demi-goddess who ha s been selecte d by th e spiri t wh o haunt s th e gul f an d fear s tha t perhap s sh e "wil l neve r again suffe r a poor , unworth y earthlin g t o wal k i n th e shado w o f he r divine presence. " Feelin g hersel f t o b e th e objec t o f a gran d passion , Edna experience s "th e first-felt throbbing s o f desire " an d refuse s t o g o in a t Leonce' s command . Th e deliciou s impossibl e drea m fro m whic h she awaken s whe n fatigu e force s he r t o g o to be d i s not onl y o f freedo m but als o o f romantic fulfillment . Edna reenter s he r drea m o f freedo m an d romanc e o n th e followin g day, when, under th e aegis of the "mysti c spirit," sh e is borne awa y fro m the anchorag e i n whic h sh e ha d bee n hel d fas t i n chain s an d sail s t o Cheniere wit h Robert . The y fantasiz e abou t furthe r excursions , i n on e of whic h th e Gul f spiri t wil l direc t Edn a t o th e islan d wher e treasure s are hidden . Late r i n Ne w Orleans , whe n storie s ar e bein g exchange d a t a dinne r party , Edn a tell s "o f a woma n wh o paddle d awa y wit h he r lover on e nigh t i n a pirogu e an d neve r cam e back . The y wer e los t ami d

The Awakening | 23 1 the Barataria n Islands , an d n o on e eve r hear d o f the m o r foun d trac e o f them fro m tha t da y t o this " (ch . 24) . The narrato r tell s u s that th e stor y is " a pur e invention" ; "perhap s i t was a dream sh e had had. " The fantas y Edn a ha s wove n aroun d Rober t help s u s t o understan d why sh e i s s o distraugh t whe n h e goe s t o Mexico : h e ha s reawakene d her longin g fo r a gran d romanc e an d the n lef t he r frustrated . Sh e ha s become s o emotionall y dependen t o n hi m tha t hi s departur e take s "th e brightness, th e color , th e meanin g ou t o f everything, " leavin g " a voi d and wildernes s behind " (ch . 16) . Her "whol e existenc e [is ] dulled, lik e a faded garmen t whic h seem s to b e no longe r wort h wearing. " Edna's experienc e i n he r famil y generate d need s fo r freedo m an d fo r love. I n youth , sh e deal s wit h th e conflic t betwee n thes e need s b y devel oping romanti c fantasie s abou t inaccessibl e men . When sh e marries, sh e gives u p he r fantasie s bu t remain s detache d an d become s passiv e an d resigned. Durin g th e summe r o n Gran d Isle , he r need s fo r freedo m an d romance ar e bot h reawakened , an d the y becom e mor e intens e a s th e novel proceeds. Neither nee d can b e satisfied, sinc e Edna want s absolut e freedom an d a gran d passio n tha t occur s onl y i n dreams . T o mak e matters worse , th e need s ar e i n conflic t wit h eac h other . Th e mor e obsessed Edn a become s wit h freedom , th e les s possible i t is for he r t o b e emotionally boun d t o anothe r person . As a n adult , Edn a trie s onc e agai n t o reconcil e he r contradictor y needs throug h fantasy , bu t sh e doe s no t alway s succeed . O n he r happ y days sh e like s "t o wande r alon e int o strang e an d unfamilia r places . Sh e discovered man y a sunny , sleep y corner , fashione d t o drea m in . And sh e found i t goo d t o drea m an d t o b e alon e an d unmolested " (ch . 20) . Sh e has here bot h th e solitud e an d freedo m fro m interferenc e tha t sh e crave s and dream s o f lov e throug h whic h sh e can escap e he r sens e o f isolation . There ar e unhapp y days , however, "whe n i t di d no t see m worthwhile t o be gla d o r sorry , t o b e aliv e o r dead ; whe n lif e appeare d t o he r lik e a grotesque pandemoniu m an d humanit y lik e worm s strugglin g blindl y toward inevitabl e annihilation . Sh e coul d no t wor k o n suc h a day , no r weave fancies t o sti r her pulses an d war m he r blood. " O n suc h days , she seems to b e suffering fro m wha t Jake Horne r call s cosmopsis, the cosmi c view, which paralyze s he r a s it does him . Edna oscillate s betwee n losin g hersel f i n dream s an d feelin g tha t lif e is absurd. I n a way, she is a combination o f Emm a Bovar y an d Flaubert . Like Emma , sh e ofte n feel s tha t lif e i s leaving it s promise unfulfille d bu t is repeatedly le d o n b y youthful dreams . Like Flaubert, sh e is a detache d

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observer wh o see s throug h th e illusion s an d follie s o f mankind . Ther e are time s whe n sh e look s a t lif e fro m a ver y grea t distanc e indeed . Sh e remembers awakenin g afte r havin g give n birt h "t o find a ne w littl e lif e to whic h sh e had give n being , added t o th e grea t unnumbere d multitud e of soul s tha t com e an d go " (ch . 38) . Thi s i s a n extraordinar y reactio n for a ne w mother . He r detachmen t her e i s perhap s close r t o Hardy' s than t o Flaubert's . Edna oscillate s als o betwee n seekin g freedo m an d independence — aspiring t o b e th e rega l woma n wh o look s o n an d stand s alone—an d feeling despai r becaus e o f he r "acut e longing " fo r Robert , whic h over powers he r "wit h a sens e o f th e unattainable " (ch . 30) . Sh e become s increasingly desponden t despit e he r growin g liberatio n becaus e o f he r hopelessness abou t fulfillin g he r romanti c dreams . Edn a ha s n o inne r core, no self-realizin g aspiration s that he r freedom enable s her to pursue . Like th e shallow-livin g detache d peopl e who m Horne y describes , sh e needs externa l stimulation , perhap s eve n danger , t o dispe l he r ennui , fill her inne r emptiness , and mak e he r fee l alive . Although Edna' s romanti c dream s ar e a n expressio n o f he r nee d fo r love, sh e i s no t lookin g fo r th e kin d o f domesti c blis s tha t he r frien d Adele ha s found . T o he r th e "fusion " o f th e Ratignolle s i s repugnant , and sh e feel s tha t "domesti c harmony " suc h a s their s woul d brin g "an appallin g an d hopeles s ennui " (ch . 18) . Sh e pitie s thei r "colorles s existence," the "blin d contentment " tha t would neve r giv e them a "tast e of life' s delirium. " Lik e Emm a Bovary , Edn a i s ofte n "restles s an d ex cited" an d want s "somethin g t o happen—something , anything " (ch . 25). She pursues excitement b y gambling at the racetrack an d associatin g with a ma n lik e Alce e Arobin. I t i s only a gran d passion , however , suc h as sh e envision s wit h Robert , tha t ca n giv e he r a tast e o f life' s delirium . Thus, despit e th e celebratio n o f he r impendin g freedo m a t he r birthda y dinner, sh e feels overtake n b y ennui . The aspec t o f Edna' s behavio r tha t I hav e th e mos t difficult y under standing is her becomin g involved with Alcee Arobin just afte r sh e learn s from Mademoisell e Reis z tha t Rober t lef t becaus e h e love d he r an d tha t he is about t o return. Sh e responds t o Arobin's kiss that evening , and sh e begins a n affai r wit h hi m th e nigh t tha t sh e move s ou t o f he r husband' s house. Nonetheless, sh e expect s Rober t t o see k he r ou t "a t th e ver y first hour" o f hi s retur n an d t o expres s o r betra y "i n som e wa y hi s lov e fo r her" (ch . 33) . I d o no t quit e kno w wha t t o mak e o f this . I n term s of rhetoric , Chopi n ma y b e emphasizin g th e speciousnes s o f Edna' s

The Awakening | 23 3 romanticism b y havin g he r becom e involve d i n a purel y physica l rela tionship with Arobin despit e the imminence o f Robert's return. Bu t wha t is Edna's motivation? I s it simply an ungovernable cravin g for immediat e sexual gratification? Sh e has bee n sexuall y awakened , t o b e sure, but he r needs thu s fa r d o no t see m t o hav e bee n overpowering . Ho w doe s sh e reconcile he r affai r wit h Arobi n wit h wha t sh e feel s t o b e he r exalte d passion fo r Rober t an d he r expectatio n tha t h e wil l declar e hi s love ? Thematically, he r relationshi p wit h Arobi n seem s t o paralle l Robert' s liaison wit h th e Ver a Cru z girl . I s Chopi n sayin g tha t i f me n ca n hav e casual se x whil e romanticall y devote d t o another , wome n ca n d o th e same? Is she attacking the double standard? Perhaps , but suc h a themati c reading doe s no t explai n Edna' s motivations . Doe s th e prospec t o f Rob ert's retur n arous e he r fear s o f emotiona l closenes s an d dependency , an d does sh e nee d t o confir m he r sens e o f freedo m an d independenc e b y having a n affair ? Whil e longin g fo r unio n wit h Robert , doe s sh e need t o prove tha t sh e doe s no t belon g t o an y man ? Thi s ma y b e th e bes t explanation. In an y event , whe n Rober t return s i t seem s a t first "a s i f [Edna's ] dreams [are ] comin g tru e afte r all " (ch . 33) . Sh e become s " a pre y t o despondency" whe n h e doe s no t cal l o n he r afte r thei r initia l reunio n (ch. 35) . The n sh e meet s hi m b y chance , boldl y declare s he r love , an d tries t o tak e possessio n o f him : "No w yo u ar e her e w e shal l lov e eac h other, m y Robert . W e shal l b e everythin g t o eac h other . Nothin g els e i n the worl d i s o f an y consequence " (ch . 36) . Bu t sh e i s called awa y t o b e with Adel e durin g he r delivery , an d whe n sh e return s Rober t ha s lef t because h e love s he r to o muc h t o destro y he r standin g i n society . Edn a does no t commi t suicid e becaus e o f Robert' s departure , however , bu t because o f problem s sh e would hav e ha d eve n i f he had remained .

What happen s a t th e en d i s tha t Edn a awaken s fro m he r drea m o f freedom an d lov e an d feel s trappe d b y realit y an d he r inne r conflicts . Her suicide , like Hedda Gabler's , has man y motives , serve s many needs , and i s both a triumph an d a defeat . Edna's drea m o f freedo m i s shattered whe n Adele , afte r havin g ha d a difficult delivery , urge s he r t o "Thin k o f th e children . . . . O h thin k o f the children ! Remembe r them! " (ch . 27) . Edna , o f course , ha s bee n trying t o forge t th e children . W e ar e tol d earl y o n tha t sh e i s not on e o f the mother-women , lik e Adele , bu t sh e i s draw n t o Adele , admire s her ,

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and canno t fre e hersel f entirel y from he r sens e of maternal responsibility . This clashe s wit h he r nee d fo r freedom , whic h ha s becom e s o intens e that sh e ha s a phobi c reactio n t o anythin g tha t impinge s o n her . Whe n Dr. Mandele t ask s i f sh e wil l b e goin g abroa d wit h Leonc e whe n h e returns, sh e says , "I' m no t goin g t o b e force d int o doin g t h i n g s . . . . I want t o b e let alone. Nobody ha s any right—except children , perhaps — and eve n then , i t seem s t o me—o r i t di d seem— " (ch . 38) . Edna' s bargain ha s bee n that i f she aske d nothin g o f anyon e else , no on e woul d have a right t o as k anythin g o f her—henc e he r nee d no t t o b e beholde n to he r husband . Bu t onc e Adel e assert s th e right s o f th e children , Edn a can n o longe r maintai n he r clai m t o b e le t alone . " I don' t wan t any thing," sh e explains to Dr. Mandelet, "bu t m y own way. That i s wanting a goo d deal , o f course , whe n yo u hav e t o trampl e upo n th e lives , th e hearts, th e prejudice s o f others—bu t n o matter—still , I shouldn' t wan t to trampl e upo n th e littl e lives. " Edna's inne r conflic t ha s bee n indicate d b y th e fac t tha t sh e i s draw n to bot h Madam e Ratignoll e an d Mademoisell e Reisz , wome n wh o em body opposit e solutions . Madam e Ratignoll e i s a self-effacin g woman , whereas Mademoiselle Reis z has a self-assertive tempe r an d a dispositio n to trampl e o n th e right s o f others . A t first, Mademoisell e Reisz' s influ ence appear s t o b e stronger; bu t sh e cannot ignor e Madam e Ratignolle' s pleas t o thin k o f th e children , t o remembe r them . Whe n Dr . Mandele t says that sh e shoul d no t hav e bee n a t th e delivery , Edn a answer s "indif ferently," " I don' t kno w tha t i t matters afte r all . One ha s t o thin k o f th e children som e tim e o r other " (ch . 38) . Sh e recognize s tha t sh e woul d eventually hav e had t o confront he r materna l responsibilitie s an d resign s herself t o th e fac t tha t sh e coul d no t hav e brough t hersel f t o disregar d them. It is her inabilit y t o fre e hersel f fro m he r sens e of obligatio n t o he r children tha t prevent s he r fro m soarin g abov e th e level plain o f traditio n and prejudice . Even befor e sh e returns hom e to find Robert gone , Edna feel s doome d by he r determinatio n t o thin k o f th e children , whic h "ha d drive n int o her sou l lik e a deat h wound " (ch . 38) . He r dilemm a i s tha t sh e ca n neither fre e hersel f o f he r responsibilitie s no r bea r th e feelin g o f bein g coerced b y them : "Th e childre n appeare d befor e he r lik e antagonist s who ha d overcom e her ; wh o ha d overpowere d an d sough t t o dra g he r into th e soul' s slaver y for th e rest o f he r days " (ch . 39) . Edna's feelin g o f enslavement is , in par t a t least , th e resul t o f he r hypersensitivit y t o an y form o f constraint, whic h ha s becom e intolerable t o her. Sh e has entirel y

The Awakening | 23 5 lost he r capacit y fo r outwar d conformity . Th e childre n woul d interfer e with he r lif e no t onl y b y disruptin g he r plan s fo r a n independen t exis tence i n th e pigeon-hous e bu t als o b y deprivin g he r o f sexua l freedom : "She ha d sai d ove r an d ove r t o herself : 'To-da y i t i s Arobin; tomorro w it wil l b e som e on e else . I t make s n o differenc e t o me , i t doesn' t matte r about Leonc e Pontellier—bu t Raou l an d Etienne! ' " Sh e feel s tha t sh e would b e indifferen t t o th e consequence s o f he r behavio r an d tha t Leonce's suffering doe s no t matter , bu t th e childre n woul d b e sociall y stigmatized. Sh e decides "t o elud e them" b y committing suicide . As Edn a conceive s it , he r suicid e i s a wa y no t onl y o f eludin g he r children bu t als o o f fulfillin g he r responsibilit y t o them . Durin g on e o f her conversation s wit h Adel e o n Gran d Isle , sh e ha d sai d tha t "sh e would neve r sacrific e hersel f fo r he r children , o r fo r an y one" : " I woul d give m y lif e fo r m y children ; bu t I wouldn't giv e myself " (ch . 16) . No t understanding Edna' s distinction , Adel e replie s tha t " a woma n wh o would giv e he r lif e fo r he r childre n coul d d o n o mor e tha n that. " Sinc e she identifie s he r "self " wit h th e freedo m t o follo w he r impulses , Edn a feels tha t i f sh e remaine d aliv e sh e woul d hav e t o sacrific e he r sel f fo r her children . B y sacrificing he r life , sh e will avoi d th e unbearabl e feelin g of bein g enslave d an d wil l protec t he r childre n fro m th e sham e sh e would hav e brough t upo n the m i f sh e insiste d o n havin g he r ow n way . Neither the y nor Adel e will be able to reproach her . As she swim s ou t t o her death , sh e think s o f Leonc e an d th e children : "The y wer e a par t o f her life . But they need no t have thought tha t the y could posses s her bod y and soul " (ch . 39) . One reaso n wh y Edn a commit s suicide , then, i s that, i n he r society , if she behave s a s sh e like s sh e wil l har m he r children , an d sh e canno t resolve he r inne r conflic t betwee n th e nee d t o b e absolutel y fre e an d th e need t o fulfil l he r responsibilitie s a s a mother . I t i s importan t t o recog nize, however, that i f Edna ha d possesse d the courageous sou l that dare d to def y th e dutie s o f motherhood , o r i f sh e ha d live d i n a societ y i n which he r sexua l behavio r woul d no t hav e harme d he r children , sh e would stil l hav e bee n trappe d b y he r conflictin g need s fo r freedo m an d love. He r romanti c fantasie s woul d stil l hav e collapsed , leavin g he r t o face th e prospec t o f continue d lonelines s an d despondenc y i n a serie s o f meaningless liaisons . Ther e ar e n o socia l change s tha t coul d resolv e Edna's psychological problems . It i s not onl y he r drea m o f freedo m fro m whic h Edn a awaken s a t th e end bu t als o he r drea m o f romanti c love . Robert' s departur e i s a blow ,

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of course, but sh e knows tha t h e still loves her. The decisiv e facto r i s her realization "tha t th e da y woul d com e whe n he , too , an d th e though t o f him woul d mel t ou t o f he r existence , leaving he r alone " (ch . 39) . This i s the realizatio n sh e fail s t o hav e whe n Rober t leave s fo r Mexico—tha t her infatuation s ar e no t th e gran d passion s sh e think s the m t o b e an d that the y will al l go the way o f dreams . She tells Robert tha t the y will b e everything t o eac h other , tha t nothin g els e i s o f an y consequence , bu t her visio n o f thei r relationshi p coul d neve r hav e bee n actualized . Befor e she knows tha t Rober t ha s left , sh e tells Dr . Mandele t tha t sh e wants t o be let alon e an d tha t sh e doe s no t wan t anythin g bu t he r ow n way . He r detachment i s th e mos t powerfu l forc e i n he r personalit y an d i s hardl y compatible wit h he r romanti c drea m o f merge r wit h he r lover . He r freedom i s more importan t t o he r tha n anythin g else . After Edn a return s t o fin d Rober t gone , sh e become s desponden t an d plans he r suicide . She is so disenchante d an d paralyze d tha t ther e i s "n o one thin g i n th e worl d tha t sh e desire[s] " (ch . 39) . Ever y desir e seem s either futil e o r i n conflic t wit h another . Suicid e provides a n escap e fro m her inne r conflict s an d externa l pressures , whil e givin g he r a sens e bot h of freedo m an d righteousness . Althoug h sh e i s drive n t o i t b y he r di lemma, sh e has the illusio n o f choice . Edna seem s t o experienc e committin g suicide , i n par t a t least , a s a triumph, a s a fulfillment o f her desire s for freedo m an d love . There ar e a number o f image s o f freedom . Dislikin g th e confinemen t o f clothing , like man y detache d people , sh e throw s of f he r "unpleasant , prickin g garments," stand s "nake d unde r th e sky, " an d feel s lik e a "new-bor n creature" (ch . 39) . A s sh e swim s out , sh e think s "o f th e blue-gras s meadow tha t sh e ha d traverse d whe n a littl e child , believin g tha t i t ha d no beginnin g an d n o end. " Th e meado w i s associate d wit h he r flight from he r father' s coercion . Instea d o f bein g narro w an d restrictive , lik e her everyda y world , th e meado w seem s t o presen t a limitles s expanse . In thi s respect , i t resemble s th e se a i n whic h sh e i s immersin g herself . As exhaustio n begin s t o overcom e her , sh e hear s th e voice s o f repres sion (he r fathe r an d he r siste r Margaret ) an d "th e barkin g o f a n ol d dog tha t wa s chaine d t o th e sycamor e tree. " Sh e ma y b e remindin g herself throug h thes e image s o f confinemen t o f th e enslavemen t sh e i s escaping. Edna's merge r wit h th e se a i s presented a s a kind o f eroti c fulfillment : "The touc h o f th e se a i s sensuous , enfoldin g th e bod y i n it s soft , clos e

The Awakening | 23 7 embrace" (ch . 39) . The se a i s a love r wit h who m sh e ca n b e alon e an d unencumbered. I t offer s he r th e combinatio n o f solitude , freedom , an d union tha t sh e requires becaus e o f he r inne r conflicts . Sh e has foun d thi s combination befor e onl y i n he r fantasies , on e o f whic h recur s a s sh e hears "th e spur s o f th e cavalr y officer " jus t befor e sh e drowns . Thi s seems to sugges t tha t sh e die s with a n illusor y sens e not onl y o f freedo m but als o o f romanti c fulfillment . Edna als o experience s committin g suicid e a s a defeat . Sh e imagine s that Mademoisell e Reis z would laugh , perhaps eve n sneer , a t he r "i f sh e knew"—if sh e knew , presumably , tha t Edn a wa s killin g hersel f becaus e she lacke d "th e courageou s sou l tha t dare s an d defies " (ch . 39) . Edn a despises hersel f becaus e sh e canno t actualiz e he r idealize d imag e o f herself a s th e woma n wh o goe s wher e n o othe r ha s gone , who ca n soa r above th e leve l plai n o f traditio n an d prejudice . Sh e i s caught , a s w e have seen, in a crossfire o f conflicting shoulds : if she lives up to the inne r dictates o f her detache d solutio n sh e will hate herself fo r tramplin g upo n the littl e lives , bu t i f sh e doe s he r dut y a s a mothe r sh e wil l hat e hersel f for allowin g hersel f t o b e enslaved . Sh e trie s t o escap e he r self-hat e b y committing suicide , an d sh e partiall y succeeds , bu t sh e canno t hel p imagining th e trul y unencumbere d woman , Mademoisell e Reisz , sneering a t her .

In a relativel y brie f novel , Kat e Chopi n ha s create d a remarkabl y ric h mimetic portrait o f he r heroine. She has grasped Edna' s conflicting need s and portraye d he r behavio r wit h considerabl e subtlety . At the same time, she ha s presente d a bewilderin g pictur e o f Edn a i n term s o f plo t an d rhetoric. Sh e seem s confuse d abou t th e natur e an d meanin g o f he r heroine's story . He r confusio n ma y b e partl y th e resul t o f Edna' s com plexity, whic h escape s he r consciou s understanding , bu t i t i s als o th e result o f he r psychologica l conflicts . I a m speakin g her e o f th e implie d author, th e Chopi n w e infer fro m th e text . Like he r heroine , Chopi n oscillate s betwee n detached , self-effacing , and aggressiv e tendencies . Th e detache d sid e o f Chopi n sympathize s with Edna' s desir e fo r freedo m an d independence , celebrate s he r rebel lion agains t th e constraint s impose d b y marriage , family , an d he r femi nine role , an d mock s Edna' s dream s o f romanti c lov e an d he r deceptio n by th e fres h promise s hel d ou t t o he r b y he r youth . He r aggressiv e sid e

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is aligne d wit h he r detachment . Sh e seem s t o criticiz e Edn a fo r no t having th e courag e t o trampl e o n th e right s o f others , includin g he r children, whe n tha t i s wha t sh e mus t d o i n orde r t o gai n he r freedom . Her self-effacin g sid e i s expressed i n he r admiratio n fo r Madam e Ratig nolle, throug h who m sh e insist s o n Edna' s materna l responsibilities , i n her repeate d suggestion s tha t Edna' s capriciousnes s i s misguide d an d immature, an d i n he r sympath y wit h Edna' s longing s fo r lov e an d merger. Chopin canno t resolv e th e conflic t betwee n thes e tendencies , an y more tha n ca n Edna , an d sh e i s ambivalen t towar d al l o f them . Sh e i s attracted t o bot h Madam e Ratignoll e an d Mademoisell e Reisz , bu t sh e is als o critica l o f eac h fro m th e poin t o f vie w o f th e opposin g solution s they represent . Sh e i s als o ambivalen t towar d Edna' s demand s fo r free dom an d he r desir e t o follo w he r passin g caprices . Sometime s sh e pres ents Edna's impulsiveness a s a sign that sh e is being true to herself, while at othe r time s sh e seems aware o f how compulsive an d self-destructiv e i s Edna's nee d fo r absolut e freedo m an d ho w littl e happines s sh e derive s from he r increasin g independence . Whil e presentin g he r heroine' s stor y as on e o f a woman's liberation , sh e seem s t o kno w tha t Edn a i s in dee p psychological troubl e an d tha t sh e cannot find he r way ou t o f it . Because o f he r inne r conflicts , Chopi n create s a themati c moras s ou t of which sh e cannot find her way. From a n aggressiv e perspective Edna' s rebellion doe s not g o far enough , bu t fro m a self-effacing on e it goes to o far. Th e drea m o f freedo m fro m whic h Edn a awaken s whe n fatigu e forces he r to go to be d i s described a s "grotesque " a s well as "delicious " (ch. 12) . When Leonc e remonstrate s wit h Edn a fo r spendin g s o much o f her tim e i n he r atelier , Edn a replies : " I fee l lik e painting . . . . Perhaps I shan't alway s fee l lik e it. " "The n i n God' s nam e paint! " say s Leonce , "but don' t le t th e famil y g o t o th e devil " (ch . 19) . Thi s i s not , o n th e face o f it , unreasonable . Leonc e wonder s i f hi s wif e i s "no t growin g a little unbalance d mentally. " Althoug h Chopi n dismisse s thi s b y sayin g that h e "coul d no t se e tha t sh e wa s becomin g herself, " Chopi n ha s allowed Leonc e to giv e expression t o som e o f he r ow n misgivings . Chopin's ambivalence s ar e wha t mak e th e novel , an d especiall y th e ending, ope n t o s o man y conflictin g interpretations . Sh e mock s Edna' s fantasies, but , lik e Flaubert , sh e empathize s wit h th e protagonist' s ro mantic aspiration s eve n a s sh e satirize s them , an d sh e sympathize s wit h Edna's frustration s eve n thoug h the y ar e th e frui t o f he r folly . Unlik e Flaubert, sh e take s pit y o n he r heroin e an d grant s he r a deat h i n whic h

The Awakening | 23 9 her craving s fo r lov e an d freedo m ar e fulfilled , i f onl y fleetingly , i n he r erotic unio n wit h th e sea . Bu t sh e canno t resis t introducin g Edna' s fear s that Mademoisell e Reis z i s sneerin g a t he r an d als o th e bir d wit h th e broken win g tha t i s "reeling , fluttering, circlin g disable d down , dow n t o the water" (ch . 39) .

13 Wutbering Heights

In th e openin g chapte r o f thi s book , I observe d tha t a Hor neyan approac h ha s le d m e t o se e tha t i n realisti c literatur e ther e ar e almost boun d t o b e disparitie s betwee n representatio n an d interpreta tion, mimesi s an d rhetoric , an d tha t I hav e als o com e t o realiz e tha t these disparitie s ca n b e eithe r exacerbate d o r reduce d b y th e choic e o f narrative technique . They ar e exacerbate d b y omniscient narrators , wh o by conventio n ar e suppose d t o b e authoritative , an d diminishe d b y first person narration , i n whic h interpretation s an d judgment s expres s th e point o f vie w o f a character . Firs t perso n narratio n ma y no t eliminat e the tension s betwee n rhetori c an d mimesis , however , sinc e th e perspec tives o f self-servin g narrators , suc h a s Pi p an d Jan e Eyre , ofte n see m t o be endorse d b y th e implie d authors . A s we hav e jus t see n i n th e cas e o f The Awakening, i n addition t o disparities betwee n rhetori c an d mimesis , there ma y als o b e inconsistencie s withi n th e rhetoric . Chopi n present s Edna fro m a variety o f perspective s tha t canno t b e reconcile d wit h eac h other. A compariso n o f Wuthering Heights wit h th e othe r novel s w e hav e studied wil l sho w jus t ho w muc h differenc e narrativ e techniqu e ca n make. Because Emil y Bront e employ s multipl e narrators , non e o f who m is endowed wit h authority , I do not find a disparity betwee n rhetori c an d mimesis i n thi s novel . Indeed , i t i s ver y difficul t t o locat e th e implie d author's rhetorica l stance . Sh e seem s t o hav e disappeare d fro m thi s novel, much a s Flaubert thought h e had don e fro m Madame Bovary. A s in The Awakening, character s ar e presente d fro m a variet y o f perspec tives, leavin g u s wit h a sens e o f bewilderment , bu t Wuthering Heights avoids thematic confusio n throug h it s impressionistic technique . Each of its narrators give s us an ex parte accoun t o f events , but sinc e no perspective i s privileged , it s limitation s belon g t o th e characte r rathe r tha n t o the implie d author , an d w e d o no t hav e t o reconcil e i t wit h th e others . Emily Bront e ha d a t leas t a s man y inne r conflict s a s Kat e Chopin , bu t

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Wuthering Heights | 24 1 she foun d a wa y o f givin g expressio n t o th e differen t side s o f he r personality tha t enriche s rathe r tha n damage s he r art . Before w e examin e th e novel' s narrativ e technique , w e mus t first con sider th e character s whos e stor y i s bein g told . Unlik e mos t critics , I believe tha t Heathclif f an d Cath y ar e imagine d huma n being s whos e behavior ca n b e understoo d i n motivationa l terms . On e o f th e majo r questions i n bot h th e nove l an d th e criticis m i s wha t kin d o f a bein g i s Heathcliff. I n th e novel , th e questio n i s posed mos t directl y b y Isabella : "Is Mr . Heathclif f a man ? I f so , i s h e mad ? An d i f not , i s h e a devil? " (ch. 13) . When sh e flees from th e Heights , Isabell a call s hi m a n "incar nate goblin " an d a "monster " an d wishe s tha t "h e coul d b e blotte d ou t of creation " (ch . 17) . Nelly replies , "Hush , hush ! He' s a huma n being " and urge s Isabell a t o "b e mor e charitable. " Nell y i s the chie f proponen t of Heathcliff's huma n status . Watching his agony a t the deat h o f Cather ine, sh e thinks , "Poo r wretch! . . . you hav e a hear t an d nerve s th e sam e as you r brothe r men! " (ch . 16) . Nea r th e end , however , eve n Nell y wonders i f Heathcliff i s " a ghoul , or a vampire" (ch . 34) . The issu e fo r critic s ha s no t bee n whethe r Heathclif f i s a ghou l o r a human being , but whether h e is a realistically draw n figure or some othe r kind o f characte r abou t who m i t i s inappropriat e t o as k motivationa l questions. A commo n vie w ha s bee n tha t a s a characte r i n a Gothi c romance, h e i s a n archetype , symbol , o r projectio n o f th e unconsciou s who i s no t suppose d t o b e understoo d a s thoug h h e wer e a person . I believe tha t Emil y Bront e mean t Heathclif f t o b e perceive d a s a huma n being, sinc e despit e th e aur a o f myster y wit h whic h sh e surround s th e question o f his nature, she is at pains to make his behavior see m natural istically motivated . A s France s Russel l Har t observes , th e Gothi c repre sents no t " a fligh t fro m nove l t o romance, " bu t " a naturalizin g o f myt h and romanc e int o novel " (1968 , 103) . The centra l experienc e i t offer s i s a "dreadful , sublim e shoc k t o one' s complacentl y enlightene d ide a o f human characte r an d th e realit y t o whic h i t belongs " (88) . I n orde r fo r the Gothi c t o achiev e this shock , it s characters mus t b e imagined huma n beings whose behavior , howeve r strange , is psychologically credible . Heathcliff retain s hi s huma n status , howeve r fiendlike h e becomes , because Emil y Bront e keep s tellin g u s tha t h e ha s bee n victimize d an d that his viciousness arise s from hi s misery. Perhaps the strongest evidenc e that sh e mean t u s to se e his cruelt y a s a natura l phenomeno n i s the fac t that severa l character s articulat e th e principl e tha t ba d treatmen t lead s

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to vindictivenes s an d severa l other s illustrat e it s operation . Eve n th e pampered, innocuou s Linto n girl s tur n savag e afte r a brie f exposur e t o Heathcliff. Afte r he r escape , Isabell a lust s fo r revenge . Soundin g muc h like Heathcliff, sh e wants t o "tak e a n ey e for a n eye , a tooth fo r a tooth ; for ever y wrenc h o f agon y [to ] retur n a wrench , [to ] reduc e hi m t o m y level" (ch . 17) . An d Nell y observe s o f th e youn g Catherin e tha t "th e more hur t sh e gets , th e mor e venomou s sh e grows " (ch . 30) . Abus e quickly generate s powerfu l vindictiv e impulse s i n thes e girls , an d thei r sufferings ar e trivial compare d t o what Heathclif f endure d i n childhood . I believe that th e failur e t o understan d Heathclif f a s a person ha s tw o main sources . Th e first i s tha t man y critic s hav e entertaine d a vie w o f the nove l a s predominantl y metaphysical , lyric , o r Gothi c tha t ha s pre vented the m fro m eve n attemptin g t o mak e sens e o f Heathcliff' s behav ior. The secon d i s that Heathcliff' s lov e for Cath y an d hi s vindictivenes s toward th e Earnshaw s an d th e Linton s hav e seeme d s o extrem e a s t o be beyon d th e pal e o f huma n nature . Critic s hav e deeme d Heathclif f unrealistic, i n effect , becaus e hi s behavio r ha s escape d thei r comprehen sion. Ther e i s alway s th e possibilit y tha t th e author' s intuitiv e gras p o f psychological phenomen a i s deepe r tha n ou r conceptua l understanding . We can recover Emil y Bronte's intuitions, I believe, with th e aid o f Kare n Horney, assiste d b y R . D . Lain g an d Abraha m Maslow . Heathcliff' s vindictiveness an d devotio n t o Cath y ar e bot h intelligibl e a s defensiv e reactions t o th e deprivatio n an d abus e t o whic h h e wa s subjecte d i n childhood.

According t o Abraha m Maslo w (1970) , al l human s hav e a se t o f basi c needs that must b e reasonably well met if they are to develop in a healthy way. In the orde r o f their potency , these ar e physiological surviva l needs , needs fo r safety , fo r lov e an d belonging , fo r esteem , an d fo r self-actual ization. Frustratio n o f th e basi c need s arrest s developmen t an d lead s individuals t o develo p defensiv e strategie s fo r makin g u p thei r deficienc ies. I f w e conside r Heathcliff' s childhoo d wit h th e basi c need s i n mind , it i s eviden t tha t h e w ras severel y deprived . Mr . Earnsha w finds hi m a t about th e ag e o f si x "starvin g an d houseless , an d a s goo d a s dum b i n the street s o f Liverpool" (ch . 4). He appear s t o hav e bee n abandone d b y his famil y an d t o hav e lost , o r neve r full y acquired , th e ar t o f language . When Mr . Earnsha w pick s hi m up , hi s ver y surviva l i s i n jeopardy . H e

Wuthering Heights | 24 3 has bee n living , fo r w e kno w no t ho w long , i n a stat e tha t i s radicall y devoid o f safety , lov e and belonging , an d esteem . When Mr . Earnsha w bring s hi m home , Heathclif f ha s a protecto r a t last; bu t h e meet s wit h contemp t an d rejectio n fro m th e othe r member s of the household. Everyon e refer s t o him a s "it" ; an d Nelly , the children , and Mrs . Earnsha w woul d al l lik e him t o disappear . H e graduall y gain s a plac e i n th e family , bu t i t i s neve r a secur e one , an d h e i s alway s an objec t o f hostility . Whe n Mr . Earnsha w dies , Heathclif f i s entirel y dependent o n Hindley, who hate s him . He ha s onl y one relationship tha t makes hi m fee l secure , an d tha t i s wit h Cathy . I t i s n o wonde r tha t h e clings to he r with suc h intensity . Heathcliff i s a severel y deprived , frequentl y abuse d chil d wh o devel ops al l thre e o f Horney' s interpersona l strategie s o f defense . Th e ver y reserved Lockwoo d describe s hi m a s " a ma n wh o seeme d mor e exagger atedly reserve d tha n myself " (ch . 1) . I n additio n t o hi s exaggerate d withdrawal, Heathcliff display s extreme form s o f aggression an d compli ance. Al l th e suggestion s o f demonism , vampirism , an d ghoulishnes s derive fro m hi s unrelentin g vindictivenes s an d hi s sadisti c deligh t i n th e suffering o f hi s victims . Hi s franti c dependenc y o n Cath y i s on e o f th e most intens e emotion s i n al l o f literature . I t i s s o extrem e tha t man y critics fee l i t ca n b e explaine d onl y i n metaphysica l terms . Unlik e mos t of th e peopl e Horne y describes , Heathclif f avoid s inne r conflic t no t b y subordinating an y o f hi s trends , bu t b y a proces s o f compartmentaliza tion. H e move s towar d Cathy , agains t Hindle y an d th e Lintons , an d away fro m everyon e else . Heathcliff's initia l defens e i s detachment. Whe n Mr . Earnsha w bring s him t o th e Heights , h e protect s himsel f agains t th e hostilit y h e meet s there b y tryin g t o b e invulnerable : "H e seeme d a sullen , patien t child, " says Nelly , "hardened , perhaps , t o ill-treatment : h e woul d stan d Hin dley's blows without winkin g o r sheddin g a tear, an d m y pinches move d him onl y to dra w i n a breath , an d ope n hi s eyes as if he had hur t himsel f by accident , an d nobod y wa s t o blame " (ch . 4) . Heathclif f i s showin g them, i n effect , tha t the y canno t hur t him . Hi s onl y wa y o f gainin g a sense o f contro l i n a hostil e worl d i s b y no t reactin g t o wha t i s don e t o him. H e follow s th e sam e patter n durin g hi s illness : whereas Cath y an d Hindley harass Nelly terribly, Heathcliff i s "a s uncomplaining a s a lamb, though hardness , no t gentleness , mad e hi m giv e littl e trouble. " H e give s little troubl e becaus e h e doe s no t expec t anyon e t o b e concerne d abou t

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him, an d i t i s importan t fo r hi m t o fee l tha t h e i s no t dependen t o n them. Heathcliff practice s a resignatio n t o suffering tha t remove s hi m fro m the powe r o f othe r peopl e an d make s hi m imperviou s t o th e sling s an d arrows o f outrageou s fortune . H e denie s tha t anythin g i s impingin g o n him an d distance s himsel f fro m hi s ow n feelings . Sinc e he ha s n o reaso n to trus t othe r peopl e o r t o expec t anythin g bu t pai n fro m hi s dealing s with them , h e i s sullen , withdrawn , an d unsociable . Whe n hi s situatio n worsens afte r th e deat h o f Hindley' s wife , "hi s naturall y reserve d dispo sition wa s exaggerated, " say s Nelly , "int o a n almos t idioti c exces s o f unsociable moroseness " (ch . 8). Heathcliff complain s s o little o f his injuries tha t Nell y thinks h e is not vindictive, bu t ther e i s a burnin g rag e beneat h hi s stoica l exterior . H e does not sho w hi s rage becaus e to expres s hostilit y woul d expos e him t o retaliations agains t which h e is powerless to defen d himself . The favorit ism o f Mr . Earnsha w allow s Heathcliff' s aggressio n t o surface ; i t give s "rich nourishment t o the child's pride and blac k tempers" (ch . 5) . Heathcliff i s a rejected an d abuse d chil d o n th e on e hand an d a spoiled on e o n the other . Th e rejectio n an d abus e generat e a grea t dea l o f anger , an d the protectio n o f Mr. Earnsha w allow s him to begi n to expres s it . Heathcliff's aggressio n i s directe d primaril y agains t Hindley , wh o i s his chie f tormentor . H e control s Hindle y b y absorbin g hi s abus e an d then threatenin g t o hav e hi m punishe d b y hi s father . H e force s Hindle y to exchang e horses , fo r example , b y threatenin g t o tel l Mr . Earnsha w "of th e thre e thrashing s you'v e give n m e thi s week , an d sho w hi m m y arm, whic h i s blac k t o th e shoulder " (ch . 4) . Whe n Hindle y menace s him wit h a n iro n weight , Heathclif f invite s hi m t o thro w it , "an d the n I'll tell how yo u boaste d tha t yo u would tur n m e out o f door s a s soon a s he died , an d se e whethe r h e wil l no t tur n yo u ou t directly. " Hindley' s rage toward th e "beggarl y interloper " who m h e sees as " a usurpe r o f hi s parent's affectio n an d hi s privileges " i s kep t i n chec k a s lon g a s Mr . Earnshaw i s alive ; bu t afte r hi s father' s death , Hindle y ha s hi s revenge . This, i n turn , fuel s Heathcliff' s anger , whic h h e expresse s throug h hi s rebelliousness whil e h e is a child an d b y revenging himself upo n Hindle y as soo n a s h e ha s th e power . Wuthering Heights resemble s a n Elizabe than reveng e tragedy i n which there is a seemingly endles s cycle of injur y and retaliation . Heathcliff's chie f defens e i s hi s attachmen t t o Cathy . Wuthering Heights i s above al l the stor y o f th e formatio n o f that attachmen t an d o f

Wuthering Heights | 24 5 the suffering s o f th e partner s whe n thei r bon d wit h eac h othe r i s threat ened. Heathcliff's need s for love , warmth, an d companionship hav e bee n repressed becaus e i t ha s seeme d impossibl e tha t the y woul d eve r b e satisfied. The y emerg e i n th e presenc e o f Cathy , however , an d h e be comes completel y dependen t upo n her . Sh e i s hi s first an d onl y friend , his sol e companion , th e onl y perso n t o who m h e risk s exposin g himsel f emotionally. Sinc e Mr . Earnsha w reject s Cath y becaus e o f he r naughti ness, she and Heathclif f ar e outcast s together . The y ar e in league agains t the others , an d Cath y i s th e leader . The y shar e a cod e tha t exalt s mastery, toughness , an d revenge . Whe n thei r situatio n become s muc h worse afte r th e deat h o f Mr . Earnshaw , the y tak e refug e i n eac h other , feed eac h other' s pride , an d reinforc e eac h other' s vindictiveness . The y react t o Hindley' s abus e b y running of f t o th e moors , forgettin g "every thing th e minut e the y wer e togethe r again , a t leas t th e minut e the y ha d contrived som e naught y pla n o f revenge " (ch . 6) . They compensat e fo r being outcast s b y belongin g t o eac h other , an d the y assuag e th e pai n o f their mistreatmen t b y plottin g retaliation . Wherea s eac h woul d fee l helpless alone , together the y hav e a feelin g o f solidarit y an d powe r tha t enables the m t o laug h a t their oppressors . Although Heathclif f i s far fro m bein g the typica l subordinat e partne r in a morbid dependenc y relationship , w e mus t recogniz e tha t i n relatio n to Cath y h e i s quit e self-effacing . H e submit s himsel f t o her , obey s he r commands, an d glorie s i n he r greatness . H e i s abl e t o gratif y bot h hi s need fo r lov e an d hi s nee d fo r aggressiv e triump h throug h her . Afte r h e has bee n scorne d b y the Linton s whe n Cath y i s injured b y their dog , h e restores hi s prid e b y dwellin g o n thei r admiratio n o f her : "sh e i s s o immeasurably superio r t o them—t o everybod y o n earth , i s sh e not , Nelly?" (ch . 6) . H e gain s a n intoxicatin g sens e o f wort h throug h hi s identification wit h thi s marvelous bein g to whom he is an objec t o f love . Since Heathclif f pursue s glor y throug h hi s idealize d imag e o f Cathy , h e must maintai n hi s sense of he r superiority . When h e beats he r i n the rac e from th e Height s t o th e park , h e excuse s he r defea t b y pointing ou t tha t she wa s barefoot . H e report s tha t whe n th e Linton' s bulldo g bi t int o Cathy's ankle , "Sh e di d not yel l out—no! Sh e would hav e scorne d t o d o it, i f sh e ha d bee n spitte d o n th e horn s o f a mad cow. " Sh e was sick , h e insists, "no t fro m fea r . . . bu t fro m pain. " Heathclif f i s spellboun d b y Cathy's aggressiv e qualitie s an d need s t o den y tha t sh e coul d eve r sho w weakness. Heathclif f i s no t enviou s o f Cath y becaus e h e share s i n he r triumphs. Her lov e and superiorit y ar e so important tha t h e represses hi s

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vindictive impulse s towar d he r whe n sh e hurt s hi m an d displace s the m onto others . I f sh e extend s he r protectio n t o others , h e wil l no t attac k them directly . He r wishe s accoun t fo r hi s initia l restrain t towar d bot h Edgar an d Hindley . Cathy save s Heathclif f fro m dee p feeling s o f unlovablenes s an d self contempt. Sh e i s th e on e perso n wh o find s hi m admirabl e an d wh o promises t o fulfil l hi s overwhelmin g nee d fo r affection . Thi s give s hi s feeling fo r he r th e neuroti c intensit y tha t make s i t s o romanti c an d tha t Horney associate s wit h morbi d dependency . Fo r th e dependen t partne r in such a relationship, love appears "a s the ticket to paradise": "n o mor e feeling lost , guilty , an d unworthy . . . . love seem s t o promis e protection , support, affection , encouragement , sympathy , understanding . I t will give him a feeling o f worth. I t will give meaning to his life. It will be salvatio n and redemption... . T o love , for him , mean s . . . t o merg e wit h anothe r being, to becom e on e heart an d on e flesh" (1950 , 239-40) . This passag e helps u s to understan d Heathcliff' s feelin g tha t h e has bee n cast into hel l when Cath y reject s hi m (sh e ha s bee n hi s salvation ) an d hi s anguishe d cry upo n he r death—" I cannot liv e withou t m y life ! I cannot liv e without m y soul!" (ch . 16) . It i s essentia l t o recogniz e tha t th e relationshi p i s a s importan t t o Cathy a s i t i s to Heathclif f an d tha t i t serve s he r psychologica l need s a s well as his. According to Nelly, within a few years of Heathcliff's arrival , Cathy was "muc h to o fond" o f him: "Th e greatest punishment w e coul d invent fo r he r wa s t o kee p he r separat e fro m him " (ch . 5) . It i s becaus e Cathy need s hi m almos t a s muc h a s h e need s he r tha t Heathclif f ca n open himsel f t o her . Whil e Heathclif f gain s a sens e o f powe r an d glor y through hi s identificatio n wit h Cathy' s superiority , sh e ha s thes e need s met throug h hi s deferenc e an d adulation , whic h mea n al l th e mor e t o her becaus e h e i s an aggressiv e perso n who m sh e respects . Although he r childhood i s certainl y bette r tha n Heathcliff's , Cathy , too , experience s deprivations tha t intensif y he r need s fo r lov e an d belonging . Sh e lose s her mothe r whe n sh e i s eight an d i s severely rejecte d b y he r father , wh o tells he r tha t h e canno t lov e he r an d tha t h e an d he r mothe r "mus t ru e that eve r w e reare d thee! " (ch . 5) . Cath y an d Heathclif f ar e bot h alien ated, emotionall y deprive d childre n wh o fee l a profoun d affinit y an d who clin g t o eac h othe r wit h passionat e intensity . Cath y identifie s wit h Heathcliff a s completel y a s h e doe s wit h he r an d feel s trul y a t hom e i n the world onl y through hi s existence . Heathcliff an d Cath y see m t o b e engaged , i n effect , i n a mutua l

Wuthering Heights | 24 7 morbid dependenc y whic h i s s o intens e tha t the y d o no t hav e a sens e o f themselves a s autonomou s being s wit h separat e identities . A s a result , each feel s tha t existenc e i s unbearabl e withou t th e other . Th e degre e o f their nee d fo r eac h othe r i s the product no t onl y o f thei r alienatio n fro m the world aroun d the m bu t als o o f thei r alienatio n fro m themselves . Th e pathological condition s o f thei r childhood s ar e suc h tha t the y ar e suffer ing fro m wha t R . D . Lain g call s "ontologica l insecurity, " tha t is , a n insecurity abou t th e distinctnes s an d substantialit y o f thei r ow n identi ties. Accordin g t o Laing , th e ontologicall y secur e perso n experience s "his ow n bein g a s real , alive , whole ; a s differentiate d fro m th e res t o f the worl d . . . s o clearl y tha t hi s identit y an d autonom y ar e neve r i n question;... a s havin g a n inne r consistency , substantiality , genuineness , and worth ; a s spatiall y coextensiv e wit h th e body ; and , usually , a s having begu n i n o r aroun d birt h an d liabl e t o extinctio n wit h death " (1965, 42) . Th e ontologicall y insecur e perso n ha s th e opposit e feelings . Heathcliff an d Cath y d o no t fee l real , alive , an d whol e i n an d o f them selves bu t onl y whe n the y ar e joine d wit h eac h other . The y d o no t fee l intrinsically genuin e an d worthwhile ; the y d o no t hav e a sens e o f per sonal autonomy ; the y d o no t believ e that th e sel f i s coextensive wit h th e body; and the y d o not fee l that their being s will end with thei r individua l deaths. Laing's descriptio n o f th e wa y i n which ontologicall y insecur e peopl e relate t o eac h othe r explain s i n a psychologica l wa y Cath y an d Heath cliff's mos t extrem e utterance s abou t thei r indivisibilit y an d wha t man y critics have taken t o b e the metaphysical dimensio n o f their relationship : A lack of sense of autonomy implies that one feels one's being to be bound up i n th e other , o r tha t th e othe r i s boun d u p i n oneself , i n a sens e that transgresse s th e actua l possibilitie s withi n th e structur e o f huma n relatedness. It means that a feeling that on e is in a position o f ontologica l dependency o n th e othe r (i.e. , dependen t o n th e othe r fo r one' s ver y being), i s substitute d fo r a sens e o f relatednes s an d attachmen t t o hi m based o n genuine mutuality. Utter detachmen t an d isolatio n ar e regarded as the only alternative to a clam- or vampire-like attachment i n which the other person's life-blood i s necessary for one's own survival. . . . Therefore, the polarity is between complete isolation or complete merging of identity rather than between separateness and relatedness. (1965, 53) Heathcliff an d Cathy' s relationshi p i s no t base d o n genuin e mutuality , especially afte r Cath y become s mor e refine d an d Heathclif f begin s t o

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degenerate, bu t o n a sens e o f necessity . Cath y explain s t o Nell y tha t he r love for Linto n "i s like the foliag e i n the woods. Time will change it. . . . My lov e for Heathclif f resemble s th e eterna l rocks beneath— a sourc e of little visibl e delight , bu t necessary . Nelly , I a m Heathcliff—he' s always , always i n m y mind—no t a s a pleasure , an y mor e tha n I a m alway s a pleasure t o myself—bu t a s m y ow n being " (ch . 9) . Althoug h h e i s les s articulate abou t it , i t i s clea r tha t Heathcliff' s sens e o f bein g i s equall y bound u p with Cathy . He doe s not wis h to surviv e her: "o h God ! woul d you lik e t o liv e wit h you r sou l i n th e grave? " (ch . 15) . Whe n the y ar e merged wit h eac h other , the y fee l a t hom e i n th e world , bu t whe n the y are separated , the y fee l completel y isolate d i n a univers e tha t ha s turne d into " a might y stranger " (ch . 9).

Wuthering Heights i s abov e al l a nove l abou t merge r an d separation . Cathy an d Heathclif f ar e embattle d childre n wh o becom e ontologicall y dependent o n on e anothe r an d wh o find i n thei r allianc e a mutua l support tha t save s the m fro m feelin g alon e i n th e worl d an d give s meaning t o thei r lives . They becom e embedde d i n thi s relationshi p an d are unabl e t o gro w beyon d i t o r t o fee l themselve s whol e being s wit h separate identities . Th e nove l explore s wha t happen s whe n peopl e wh o are s o bound t o eac h othe r ar e torn apart . Afte r thei r unio n i s shattered , they spen d th e rest o f their live s looking bac k upo n i t as a paradisal stat e from whic h the y hav e falle n an d lookin g forwar d t o a reattainmen t o f their bliss , if not here, then hereafter . Th e most radical separatio n occur s when Catherin e dies . Ther e i s a n eventua l movemen t bac k towar d merger, which occur s a t th e en d when Heathclif f join s her i n the grave . The first turnin g poin t i n th e relationshi p occur s whe n Hindle y de prives Heathclif f o f th e instructio n o f th e curate , drive s hi m int o th e company o f th e servants , an d make s hi m a commo n laborer . Heathclif f bears hi s "degradatio n prett y wel l a t first, becaus e Cath y [teaches ] hi m what sh e learnfs], an d work[s ] o r play[s ] wit h hi m i n th e fields" (ch . 6) ; but th e socia l differenc e Hindle y ha s create d become s importan t afte r Cathy's sta y a t th e Linton' s an d he r sister-in-law' s effort s t o mak e he r into a lady . Befor e bot h ha d bee n "rud e a s savages" ; no w Cath y look s at Heathclif f fro m a distanc e an d give s hi m th e messag e tha t somethin g is wrong wit h him . Cath y ha d bee n hi s sustainin g sourc e o f affirmation , the withdrawa l o f whic h expose s hi m t o painfu l feeling s o f inadequac y and self-hate . H e become s enviou s o f Edga r Linto n an d feel s tha t i n

Wuthering Heights | 24 9 order t o pleas e Cath y h e mus t becom e somethin g quit e differen t fro m what h e is . A s th e socia l an d cultura l ga p betwee n the m grows , Heath cliff become s increasingl y demoralized . Their estrangemen t i s almost a s painful t o Cath y a s it is to Heathcliff . Her visi t t o Thrushcros s Grang e throw s he r int o inne r conflic t b y givin g a ne w for m t o he r searc h fo r glory , on e tha t separate s he r fro m Heath cliff an d force s he r t o repres s som e o f th e stronges t component s o f he r own personality. Instead o f feeding he r pride through a spirited rebellion , she no w crave s th e approva l o f th e Lintons , wh o represen t th e conven tional world . Sh e want s t o triump h b y becomin g "th e greates t woma n of th e neighborhood " (ch . 9) , bu t i n orde r t o d o thi s sh e mus t giv e u p her unladylik e way s an d confor m t o accepte d manner s an d mores . Sh e must als o giv e up Heathcliff , a t leas t a s a mate. I t i s unthinkable fo r he r to marr y thi s coarse , ragged , impoverishe d youn g man . Sinc e he r nee d for socia l conques t i s i n conflic t wit h he r nee d t o remai n bonde d t o Heathcliff, sh e i s boun d t o experienc e frustratio n an d regre t whateve r she does. By marryin g Edgar , Cath y wil l fulfil l he r ambition , bu t sh e know s that sh e ca n neve r fee l a t hom e a t th e Grange , wher e sh e i s expecte d t o be submissive , calm , restrained , an d civilized . Heathclif f i s th e sam e psychological type , wherea s Edga r i s he r opposite . Heathclif f worship s her fo r th e untamed , rebellious , masterfu l spiri t o f whic h th e Linton s disapprove. Edgar i s a self-effacing perso n whose compliance sh e at onc e exploits an d despises . " I hav e suc h fait h i n Linton' s love, " sh e late r tell s Nelly, "tha t I believe I might kil l him, an d h e wouldn't wis h t o retaliate " (ch. 10) . Cath y ca n b e spontaneou s a t th e Heights , bu t b y marryin g Edgar Linto n sh e dooms hersel f t o a permanent sens e of constraint . The effect s o f Cathy' s decisio n o n Heathclif f ar e eve n mor e devasta ting tha n the y ar e upo n her . B y marrying Edgar , Cath y satisfie s a t leas t some o f he r conflictin g needs , bu t sh e leave s Heathclif f wit h nothing . Even the unromanti c Nell y understand s this : "he'l l b e the mos t unfortu nate creatur e tha t eve r wa s born ! A s soo n a s yo u becom e Mrs . Linton , he lose s friend , an d love , an d all ! Have yo u considere d ho w you'l l bea r the separation , an d ho w he'l l bea r t o b e quit e deserte d i n th e world? " (ch. 9). Perhaps th e severes t blo w o f al l is to Heathcliff' s sens e o f worth , which i s base d almos t exclusivel y o n Cathy' s lov e an d approval . W e d o not kno w wha t Heathclif f di d durin g hi s mysterious three-yea r absence , but hi s objectiv e i s clear . Eve r sinc e Cathy' s retur n fro m th e Lintons' , Heathcliff ha d wante d t o b e ric h an d refine d lik e Edgar ; an d h e run s

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away whe n h e hear s Cath y tellin g Nell y tha t i t woul d degrad e he r t o marry hi m now . His objectiv e i s to restor e hi s pride b y acquiring wealt h and polish , t o sho w Cath y tha t h e i s as good a s Edga r an d tha t sh e wa s wrong t o hav e despise d him . Cathy doe s no t expec t t o los e Heathcliff . Sh e intends t o marr y Edga r and becom e th e greates t woma n o f th e neighborhood , usin g he r ne w wealth t o rescu e Heathclif f fro m th e clutche s o f Hindle y an d hel p hi m to rise . Heathcliff wil l remain a s devote d t o he r a s always , an d the y wil l retain thei r intimat e bond . Unde r th e pressur e o f he r inne r conflicts , Cathy develop s a fantas y i n whic h al l o f he r need s wil l b e satisfied . Sh e envisions Edga r an d Heathclif f acceptin g a n arrangemen t tha t woul d b e extremely repugnan t t o bot h bu t tha t sh e must hav e if she is to fulfil l he r contradictory needs . Cathy's reactio n t o Heathcliff' s departur e i s intense . Sh e fall s int o a delirium , become s seriousl y ill , an d emerge s fro m he r illnes s mor e domineering tha n ever . Because of her sufferin g sh e feels entitle d t o tota l submission fro m everyon e else . Althoug h sh e marrie s Edga r afte r a couple o f year s an d seem s happ y wit h hi m a t times , sh e remain s i n a state o f chroni c depression . Sh e is moody an d demandin g an d i s kept i n temper onl y b y th e entir e complianc e o f Edga r an d Isabella . He r domi neering behavio r i s an indirec t expressio n o f he r rag e an d grief . While h e i s away , Heathclif f fear s tha t Cath y ha s forgotte n him , an d he expects nothin g fro m th e futur e bu t "death an d hell" (ch . 14) . On hi s return, h e intend s t o displa y hi s accomplishment s t o Cathy , t o kil l Hin dley, an d the n t o kil l himself . Cathy' s receptio n assure s hi m o f he r lov e and give s hi m a motiv e fo r living . Th e meanin g o f hi s lif e no w lie s i n maintaining hi s contac t wit h he r an d pursuin g hi s revenge . H e wil l attempt t o wip e ou t hi s earlie r humiliation s b y a serie s o f vindictiv e triumphs tha t wil l subjec t other s t o th e sam e kin d o f sufferin g the y ha d inflicted o n him . H e i s enrage d no t onl y wit h Hindle y an d Edgar , bu t also wit h Cathy , wh o h e feel s ha s treate d hi m "infernally " (ch . 11) . H e tells her tha t h e shal l no t "suffe r unrevenged" ; bu t hi s ol d tabo o agains t being vindictive towar d he r i s still in operation, an d h e plans to tak e ou t his rage on others . Cathy no w ha s bot h Edga r an d Heathclif f an d i s beginnin g "t o b e secure an d tranquil " (ch . n ) . Thi s precariou s situatio n deteriorate s rapidly, however , whe n Heathclif f an d Cath y argu e ove r hi s intention s toward Isabell a an d th e worm , Edgar , turns , forbiddin g Heathclif f ad mission t o th e hous e an d tellin g Cath y tha t sh e mus t choos e betwee n

Wuthering Heights | 25 1 them. Thi s renewe d separation , comin g s o soo n afte r thei r reunion , i s more tha n Cath y ca n bear . Enrage d b y th e thwartin g o f he r claims , sh e retaliates b y becomin g self-destructive : "I'l l tr y t o brea k thei r heart s b y breaking m y own. " He r strateg y succeeds , fo r throug h he r deat h sh e poisons Edgar' s lif e an d reduce s Heathclif f t o utte r desolation . I believ e that Emil y Bront e mean s u s t o se e Heathcliff a s wronged mos t o f al l b y Cathy, whos e betraya l an d deat h inflic t psychologica l torment s tha t account fo r muc h o f his demonic behavior . Cathy seek s deat h no t onl y a s a mean s o f revenge , bu t als o a s a wa y of achievin g reunio n wit h Heathcliff . Sh e i s eage r t o di e i n orde r t o escape int o a "gloriou s world, " whic h i s not heave n bu t a plac e lik e th e Heights wher e sh e wil l b e a t on e wit h her Heathcliff . Thi s i s no t th e angry ma n a t he r sid e i n th e final scene , wh o mingle s curse s wit h hi s kisses, bu t th e Heathclif f sh e retain s "i n [her ] soul " (ch . 15) . Sh e tell s Nelly tha t whe n sh e achieve s thi s union , sh e wil l b e "incomparabl y beyond an d above " the m all . Heathcliff canno t bea r th e though t o f thei r final separatio n an y mor e than coul d Cathy , an d afte r he r deat h h e turn s t o hi s belie f i n ghost s a s a refug e fro m hi s loneliness . Cath y ha s accuse d hi m o f killin g her . H e prays tha t he r spiri t wil l no t rest , tha t sh e wil l haun t hi m a s lon g a s h e lives: "B e with m e always—tak e an y form—driv e m e mad! onl y do no t leave m e i n thi s abys s wher e I cannot find you! " (ch . 16) . Cathy' s ghos t is presented s o ambiguousl y tha t i t i s impossibl e t o sa y whethe r w e ar e meant t o believ e i n it s actua l existence , bu t w e d o no t nee d t o believ e i n the ghos t t o accoun t fo r Heathcliff' s sens e o f bein g haunte d b y Cathy . Since lif e withou t he r i s truly unbearable , h e mus t believ e i n he r contin ued existenc e i n orde r t o assuag e hi s anguish , jus t a s sh e ha d t o believ e that sh e would b e reunited wit h hi m afte r he r death .

In childhoo d Heathclif f develop s tw o way s o f compensatin g fo r mis treatment, merging with his glorified imag e of Cath y an d plotting retalia tion. Th e first hal f o f th e nove l i s th e stor y o f Heathcliff' s love ; th e second i s the stor y o f hi s revenge . At first Heathclif f i s the objec t o f ou r sympathy a s victi m an d lover ; i t i s no t unti l th e deat h o f Cath y tha t h e becomes a monster . Th e storie s o f hi s lov e an d hi s reveng e ar e closel y intertwined, sinc e hi s rag e i s fueled i n par t b y hi s ange r wit h Cath y an d his despair a t losing her, and i t subsides only when he senses the prospec t of achievin g reunion .

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The harshnes s o f hi s earl y experienc e lead s Heathclif f t o develo p arrogant-vindictive trends . H e i s obsesse d wit h a desir e t o retaliat e fo r his humiliations an d t o prove his superiority to those who have damage d his pride . H e need s t o hur t hi s enemie s mor e tha n the y hav e hur t him : his scheme s ar e designe d t o reduc e hi s persecutor s an d thei r representa tives t o a stat e o f miser y an d degradatio n greate r tha n hi s own . Hi s sadistic behavio r i s fuele d als o b y hi s grie f a t Cathy' s loss ; h e trie s t o assuage hi s pai n b y makin g sur e tha t everyon e els e bear s hi m compan y in his misery . The firs t objec t o f Heathclif f ' s vindictivenes s i s Hindle y Earnshaw , whose treatmen t o f hi m wa s enough , say s Nelly , "t o mak e a fiend o f a saint" (ch . 8) . His behavio r towar d Hindle y follow s th e lex talionis: h e wants t o ven t hi s rag e an d restor e hi s prid e b y doin g t o Hindle y wha t Hindley ha s don e t o him . H e spend s muc h o f hi s childhoo d waitin g fo r the tim e whe n h e wil l b e powerfu l enoug h t o eve n th e score : "a t leas t while I' m thinkin g o f that , I don' t fee l pain " (ch . 7) . Hindle y literall y ruins Heathcliff' s lif e b y demeanin g hi m i n suc h a wa y tha t h e i s sepa rated sociall y fro m Cathy . Heathclif f retaliate s b y contributin g t o Hin dley's degradatio n an d gainin g contro l o f hi s possessions , renderin g Hindley a s powerles s an d frustrate d a s h e ha d been . H e repay s Hindle y for al l thos e childhoo d floggings b y kickin g an d tramplin g o n hi m an d dashing hi s hea d agains t th e flags whil e h e i s unconscious . Hi s rag e toward Hindle y i s immense . Hindley' s self-inflicte d en d give s hi m grea t satisfaction, bu t hi s need t o eve n th e scor e i s not ye t satisfied , an d s o hi s revenge continue s int o th e nex t generation . H e exult s a t havin g th e opportunity t o degrad e Hareto n no w a s Hindley ha d degrade d him . H e revels i n th e feelin g tha t h e ha s go t Hareto n "faste r tha n hi s scoundre l of a fathe r secure d me " an d tha t hi s victi m i s "damnabl y fond " o f hi m (ch. 21) . He imagine s Hindle y seein g what h e ha s don e an d suffering a t having bee n "outmatched. " Heathcliff ha s no t bee n abuse d b y th e Linton s a s h e ha s b y Hindley , but h e stil l ha s ampl e motive s fo r revenge . O n hi s first encounte r wit h the family , whe n Cath y i s bitte n b y thei r dog , the y trea t hi m wit h contempt an d hostility . Heathclif f ha s a n overwhelmin g nee d t o restor e his pride throug h a serie s o f vindictiv e triumph s ove r them . I t give s hi m immense satisfactio n t o b e adored b y the onc e scornfu l Isabell a whil e h e despises her . H e want s t o tur n th e table s o n th e Linton s b y gainin g power ove r them an d puttin g the m i n the position h e once occupied. Hi s sadistic behavio r towar d Isabell a an d Cath y I I i s fuele d i n par t b y hi s

Wuthering Heights | 25 3 particular animosit y towar d Edgar , wh o ha s taken Catherin e awa y fro m him. Sinc e h e i s restrained b y Cathy' s regar d fo r Edgar , h e use s Edgar' s sister an d daughte r a s proxies i n suffering . Heathcliff ' s viciousness towar d th e Linton s ca n b e attribute d i n par t to th e fac t tha t the y ar e th e opposit e psychologica l types . Cath y an d Heathcliff bot h hav e contemp t fo r Edgar' s self-effacin g qualities . Heath cliff i s outrage d tha t Edga r has , i n fact , triumphe d ove r him ; lik e Iag o (see Pari s 1991a) , h e ha s a nee d t o demonstrat e hi s superiorit y t o sof t people lik e that. H e show s tha t thei r strateg y doe s no t wor k b y treatin g them mor e harshl y whe n the y appea l fo r pit y an d usin g thei r self effacing qualitie s agains t them . H e know s tha t th e Linton s canno t resis t an appea l t o thei r sympath y o r affection ; an d this , combine d wit h hi s own contemp t fo r al l suc h appeals , make s the m eas y victims . Hi s con quests vindicat e hi s ow n characte r traits , which wer e rejecte d fo r theirs , and demonstrat e thei r inferiority . Heathcliff i s s o crue l t o th e Linton s als o becaus e h e i s threatene d b y their self-effacin g behavior , t o which h e reacts with extraordinar y inten sity. Th e reactio n o f th e arrogant-vindictiv e perso n t o self-effacin g be havior i s s o extreme , explain s Horney , becaus e "i t i s prompte d b y hi s need to figh t al l softer feeling s i n himself" (1945 , 69-70). He despise s i n others "thei r compliance , thei r self-degrading , thei r helples s hankerin g for love . I n short , h e despise s i n the m th e ver y self-effacin g trend s h e hates an d despise s i n himself " (1950 , 207) . Heathcliff' s self-effacin g behavior i s al l channele d towar d Cathy . H e romanticize s it s intensity , but he , too , display s th e complianc e an d ha s th e helples s hankerin g fo r love tha t h e despise s i n Isabella . Indeed , hi s enslavemen t i s fa r mor e extreme than hers . Isabella suggest s this b y her comment o n his behavio r after Cathy' s death : "i f I were you , I' d g o stretc h mysel f ove r he r grav e and di e lik e a faithfu l dog . Th e worl d i s surely no t wort h livin g i n now , is it?" (ch . 17) . The Linton wome n ar e constantly appealin g t o the softe r side o f Heathcliff' s nature . I f h e allowe d himsel f t o respond , h e woul d have t o despis e himsel f fo r bein g lik e the m an d t o condem n himsel f fo r his cruelty. Th e mor e the y plead , th e harshe r h e become s i n hi s effor t t o avoid self-hate . Heathcliff's vindictivenes s serve s a numbe r o f psychologica l func tions. I t restore s hi s pride , expresse s hi s rage , an d help s hi m forge t his pain . Cath y I I understand s ver y wel l th e relationshi p betwee n hi s lovelessness, hi s misery , an d hi s cruelty : "Yo u hav e nobod y t o lov e you ; and, howeve r miserabl e yo u mak e us , we shal l stil l hav e th e reveng e o f

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thinking tha t you r cruelt y rises from you r greate r misery ! You are miserable, ar e you not? Lonely , like the devil, and enviou s lik e him?" (ch . 29). What contributes most to the sadistic person's callousness toward others , observes Horney , i s hi s "bitte r envy " o f them , whic h "stem s fro m hi s feeling exclude d fro m life " (1950 , 211) . Heathclif f trie s t o assuag e hi s suffering b y persecutin g other s s o tha t the y wil l b e "a s defeate d an d degraded a s he" an d wil l shar e i n his misery (1945 , 202). Heathcliff's en d i s in keepin g wit h wha t w e kno w o f hi s personality . The turning point i s the scene in which the young Cath y defie s Heathclif f to strik e he r an d announce s tha t sh e an d Hareto n ar e allies . H e seem s about t o tea r he r i n piece s whe n h e stops , gaze s intentl y i n he r face , draws hi s han d ove r hi s eyes , an d let s he r go . Heathclif f i s disarme d b y the allianc e o f Cath y an d Hareton , whic h remind s hi m o f hi s ow n alliance with th e first Cathy , an d b y Cathy' s eyes , which ar e those o f he r mother. Th e resemblanc e betwee n Hareto n an d th e first Cath y i s eve n stronger, especiall y afte r hi s menta l facultie s hav e bee n awakened , an d Heathcliff's tabo o o n vindictivenes s towar d Cath y no w become s opera tive towar d Hareto n a s well . Hareto n remind s hi m o f hi s earlie r self , moreover. Hareton' s aspect , h e tells Nelly, i s "th e ghos t o f m y immorta l love, of my wild endeavours t o hold m y right, my degradation, m y pride, my happiness, and m y anguish" (ch . 33) . Heathcliff ha s bee n doin g unt o others wha t h e feel s ha s bee n don e unt o him ; bu t onc e h e begin s t o identify Cath y I I an d Hareto n wit h Cath y an d himself , h e see s the m a s victims rather tha n a s enemies an d lose s his desire to strike . Heathcliff's los s o f vindictivenes s i s als o th e resul t o f hi s growin g indifference t o everythin g aroun d hi m a s h e become s mor e an d mor e absorbed b y th e ide a tha t hi s reunio n wit h Cath y i s near. Thi s develop ment i s triggered b y th e resemblance s w e hav e jus t examine d an d b y hi s experience o f seein g Cathy' s a s yet uncorrupte d bod y i n he r coffi n whe n Edgar i s buried . Bot h o f thes e thing s giv e hi m a stronge r sens e tha n h e has ye t ha d o f th e proximit y o f hi s beloved . Wit h hi s los s o f interes t i n revenge an d hi s sens e o f Cathy' s nearness , hi s energie s no w concentrat e on a singl e objective . H e long s fo r death , a s Cath y ha d don e earlier , a s the onl y means b y which h e can reestablish thei r union . Afte r h e loosen s one sid e o f Cathy' s coffin , h e bribe s th e sexto n t o pul l i t awa y whe n h e is laid ther e an d t o slid e ou t a sid e o f hi s coffi n to o s o that "b y th e tim e Linton get s t o us , he'l l no t kno w whic h i s which!" (ch . 29) . His drea m of merge r no w take s th e for m o f th e minglin g o f thei r dus t s o tha t the y can n o longe r b e identifie d a s separat e entities . H e die s wit h a "gaz e o f

Wuthering Heights | 25 5 exultation" i n hi s eye s tha t Nell y i s unabl e t o remove . H e ha s finally reentered hi s heaven . Except fo r th e possibl e presenc e o f ghosts , whos e actua l existenc e i s never confirmed , Wuthering Heights i s a s realisti c a s mos t othe r Victo rian novels . Heathcliff , Cathy , th e Lintons , Lockwood , an d Nell y ar e all mimeti c character s whos e behavio r i s intelligibl e i n term s o f thei r psychological traits . I n it s presentatio n o f th e devastatin g effect s o f traumatic childhoo d experiences , Wuthering Heights i s one of a long line of nineteenth-centur y novels , an d i t i s mor e perceptiv e tha n mos t i n it s recognition o f th e destructiv e effect s o f abus e o n th e huma n personality . What ofte n happen s i n Victoria n fiction i s tha t abuse d character s de velop self-effacin g trend s whic h ar e then glorifie d becaus e o f thei r seem ing unselfishness . Sufferin g i s presented a s ennobling , a sourc e o f mora l growth. Emily Bronte understand s bette r tha n mos t o f he r contemporar ies that ba d treatmen t i s harmful t o people , an d sh e vividl y portray s it s destructive consequences . Heathclif f i s suc h a memorabl e characte r no t because h e i s a demon , symbol , o r principle , bu t becaus e h e act s ou t i n an extrem e wa y response s w e hav e al l ha d t o lonelines s an d rejection . We find hi m a frightenin g ye t sympatheti c figure becaus e h e show s u s some very real potentialities o f ou r nature .

Although Cliffor d Collin s say s tha t ther e i s perhap s "n o othe r nove l i n English whic h i t i s possibl e t o interpre t strictl y i n term s o f themati c development" (Sal e 1963 , 314) , I find Wuthering Heights t o b e ex tremely difficult , i f no t impossible , t o interpre t thematically . I t i s one o f those novel s abou t whic h Wayn e Boot h (1961 ) complain s i n whic h th e author ha s disappeared . Th e stor y i s tol d largel y b y Nelly , throug h Lockwood, an d ther e i s little agreemen t abou t Emil y Bronte's relation t o her narrators . Mar k Schore r feel s tha t Emil y Bront e se t ou t t o celebrat e "the mora l magnificenc e o f unmora l passion " bu t that , partl y a s a resul t of he r narrativ e technique , th e triump h a t th e en d "i s o n th e sid e o f th e cloddish world , whic h survives " (1950 , xii) . Th e "voic e tha t drone s o n is th e perdurabl e voic e o f th e country , Nell y Dean's " (xv) . Joh n K . Mathison represent s a larg e bod y o f critics , however, whe n h e say s tha t "as Nell y contentedl y provide s he r superficia l interpretation s o f motiv e . . . w e ar e constantl y directe d towar d feelin g th e inadequac y o f th e wholesome, an d towar d sympath y wit h genuin e passions , n o matte r how destructiv e o r violent " (Sal e 1963 , 338).

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There is clearly a system of contrasts i n the novel involving Heathcliff , Cathy, an d th e Height s o n th e on e han d an d th e Lintons , Nelly, an d th e Grange o n th e other ; bu t wha t exactl y i s being contrasted? Accordin g t o Schorer, Bront e i s presenting throug h Heathclif f an d Cath y " a devasta ting spectacl e o f huma n waste " (1950 , xi) , bu t man y othe r critic s fee l that their s i s th e stor y o f a splendi d passion , th e grandeu r o f whic h i s emphasized b y th e contras t wit h ordinar y experience . Wha t i s Emil y Bronte's attitud e towar d Heathclif f an d Cathy , Nell y an d th e Lintons , the Height s an d th e Grange ? Why doe s sh e tell her stor y o f extrem e lov e and hat e throug h th e mediu m o f Nell y an d Lockwood , neve r speakin g in her ow n voice ? From a Horneya n perspective , th e Height s represent s extrem e form s of bot h aggressiv e an d self-effacin g behavio r (ther e i s extrem e detach ment, too) , wherea s th e Grang e represent s a moderat e for m o f self effacing behavio r combine d wit h a moderat e detachment . Bot h Hindle y and Heathclif f ar e inconsolabl e o n th e deat h o f th e woma n the y lov e and ar e destructiv e t o themselve s an d others , wherea s Edgar , thoug h grief-stricken, i s eventuall y comforted . Heathcliff , Cathy , an d Hindle y are al l highl y vindictiv e people , whil e th e Linton s represen t a mor e charitable attitude . The y tur n vindictiv e whe n the y ar e persecuted , bu t this i s a passing phas e fo r the m rathe r tha n a fixed trai t o f character . I n the secon d generation , th e characteristic s associate d wit h bot h Height s and Grang e ar e combined an d softened . The novel' s syste m o f contrast s i s develope d no t onl y throug h th e juxtaposition o f Height s an d Grange , bu t als o throug h it s narrativ e technique. Th e stor y o f extrem e lov e an d hat e i s tol d b y th e moderat e and predominantl y self-effacin g Nell y t o th e detache d Lockwood , wh o tells i t to us . All three o f the Horneya n trend s ar e present i n the nove l i n varying degree s o f intensit y an d i n various combinations . Where doe s Emil y Bront e stan d i n thi s syste m o f contrasts ? If , a s Mark Schore r says , i t i s Nelly' s voic e tha t endure s a t th e end , Bront e would see m t o b e favorin g th e moderat e self-effacin g position . A goo d case can b e made for this . Nelly represents the standard complian t value s of he r culture . She is the voice of the community an d perhap s als o o f th e implied author . Sh e stand s fo r forgivenes s a s oppose d t o revenge . "I t i s for Go d t o punis h wicke d people, " sh e admonishe s Heathclif f whe n h e swears t o eve n the scor e with Hindley ; "w e shoul d lear n t o forgive " (ch . 7). Sh e late r urge s Isabell a t o "b e mor e charitable " towar d Heathclif f

Wuthering Heights | 25 7 and scold s her for he r vindictiveness: "On e migh t suppos e you had neve r opened a Bibl e i n you r life " (ch . 17) . Sh e disapprove s o f Cathy' s vanit y and arroganc e an d hope s the y wil l b e chastened . O f Heathclif f sh e thinks, "You r prid e canno t blin d God ! Yo u temp t Hi m t o wrin g [you r heart an d nerves] , til l H e force s a cr y o f humiliation " (ch . 16) . Whe n Heathcliff i s nea r death , sh e urge s hi m t o sen d fo r a minister—"yo u have live d a selfish , unchristia n life"—an d i s "shocke d a t hi s godles s indifference" (ch . 34) . Sh e side s wit h Edga r agains t Cathy , "fo r h e wa s kind, an d trustful , an d honourable, " wherea s sh e ha s "littl e faith " i n Cathy's "principles , and stil l less sympathy fo r he r feelings" (ch . 10) . She compares Hindley' s mora l deterioratio n afte r th e deat h o f hi s wif e t o Edgar's piou s resignation : "Linto n . . . displaye d th e tru e courag e o f a loyal an d faithfu l soul : h e truste d God , an d Go d comforte d him . On e hoped, an d th e othe r despaired " (ch . 17) . The nove l i s s o ful l o f Nelly' s pious reflections tha t sh e seems to man y t o spea k fo r Emil y Bronte . One o f Nelly' s dict a i s tha t "peopl e wh o d o thei r dut y ar e alway s finally rewarded " (ch . 25) ; an d this , wit h it s corollary , tha t th e wicke d are punished , i s born e ou t b y th e novel . Heathclif f an d Cath y are , a s Schorer says , " a devastatin g spectacl e o f human waste " (1950 , xi). They are miserabl e an d self-destructive . Th e nove l end s wit h th e goo d peopl e triumphant. Bront e seem s t o b e tryin g t o provid e throug h Cath y I I an d Hareton a mor e desirabl e alternativ e t o th e personalitie s an d action s o f Cathy an d Heathcliff . He r mother' s spiri t an d rebelliousnes s ar e presen t in Cath y II , but muc h softene d an d combine d wit h he r father' s moderat e compliant traits : "he r ange r wa s neve r furious ; he r lov e neve r fierce; i t was dee p an d tender " (ch . 18) . Sh e seem s t o combin e th e bes t o f th e Heights an d th e Grange . I t i s Cath y wh o break s th e cycl e o f injur y an d revenge b y he r movemen t towar d Hareto n afte r sh e ha s treate d hi m scornfully. Sh e i s prompte d t o thi s b y Nelly' s scoldin g an d b y he r guil t for havin g pu t a n en d t o Hareton' s effort s a t self-improvement . He r alliance wit h Hareto n i s crucia l i n leadin g Heathclif f t o relinquis h hi s quest fo r revenge , a s w e hav e seen . Hareto n i s abl e t o respon d t o he r because, despit e hi s degradatio n a t th e hand s o f Heathcliff , h e doe s no t have a vindictive personality . Th e member s o f th e secon d generatio n ar e better, i n par t a t least , becaus e the y hav e bee n bette r treated . Th e marriage o f Hareto n an d Cath y represent s th e triump h o f lov e an d forgiveness ove r hatre d an d revenge , an d i t i s "th e crown " o f Nelly' s wishes: " I shal l env y n o on e o n thei r wedding-day—ther e won' t b e a

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happier woma n tha n mysel f i n England! " (ch . 33) . The fac t tha t Cath y and Hareto n ar e goin g t o mov e t o th e Grang e seem s t o b e a fina l endorsement o f the values for whic h i t stands . Plausible a s th e precedin g interpretatio n is , i t i s no t th e dominan t view o f th e novel , whic h tends , rather , t o se e i t a s celebratin g th e intensity o f Cath y an d Heathcliff' s lov e fo r eac h othe r an d justifying , t o some exten t a t least , Heathcliff' s revenge . Nell y surround s Cath y an d Heathcliff's stor y wit h a haz e o f disapproval , bu t thei r glamou r some how shine s throug h he r moralizin g an d make s he r an d th e peopl e sh e favors see m dull an d commonplac e b y comparison. A s many critic s hav e pointed out , Emil y Bronte makes i t quit e evident tha t Nell y is frequentl y obtuse i n her dealing s with Cath y an d sometime s drive s he r int o frenzie s of self-destructiv e behavior . I t i s no t difficul t t o mak e a cas e tha t Nell y is an objec t o f satir e i n the novel an d th e sourc e o f much o f th e mischief . Although self-effacin g trait s an d value s ar e ofte n glorified , the y ar e also mocked an d scorned , especiall y b y Cath y an d Heathcliff . Cath y ha s contempt fo r Edgar' s "wea k nature " (ch . 11 ) an d Heathclif f fo r hi s "puny being " (ch . 14) . Edgar' s attendanc e o n Catherin e durin g he r illness is scoffed a t b y Heathcliff: "tha t insipid , paltry creatur e attendin g her fro m duty an d humanity! Fro m pity an d charity!" Thes e ar e feebl e motives compare d t o Heathcliff' s all-consumin g passion . A s w e hav e seen, Heathclif f ha s enormou s contemp t fo r Isabella' s "sighin g an d wheedling." Althoug h sh e talk s o f he r vindictiv e impulse s t o Nelly , Isabella i s incapabl e o f takin g reveng e whe n sh e ha s th e opportunit y t o do so . Hindley trie s t o enlis t he r a s a n ally , but whe n Heathclif f appear s Isabella warn s hi m o f Hindley' s plans . When Hindle y abuse s he r fo r he r "base spirit, " w e ten d t o agre e an d t o sympathiz e wit h hi s contentio n that "treacher y an d violenc e ar e a jus t retur n fo r treacher y an d vio lence!" Man y critic s hav e argue d tha t Heathcliff' s victim s ar e gettin g what the y deserve . Bronte ofte n make s vindictivenes s see m justified . In addition to the scorn of Cathy and Heathcliff, ther e are other thing s that make humane or compliant behavior seem weak or foolish. The kindhearted Mr. Earnshaw harbors Heathcliff "t o his bane" (ch . 34), and Ed gar's parents di e as a result o f carin g for Catherin e whe n sh e is ill. Edgar is caught whe n Cath y strike s hi m an d the n threaten s t o cr y hersel f sic k if he leaves. Nelly trie s t o encourag e hi m t o depart : " 'Mis s i s dreadfull y wayward, sir! ' I called out . " 'A s bad a s any marred child—you' d bette r be riding home, or else she will be sick, only to grieve us' "(ch . 8). But "th e soft thing " is "doomed , an d flie s to his fate!" A blow to the pride is ofte n

Wuthering Heights | 25 9 what precipitate s lov e in a self-effacing person , and a display of sufferin g usually has a coercive effect. Cathy , like Heathcliff, understands the weaknesses of those she wishes to manipulate an d skillfull y exploit s them. Th e scorn for Edga r come s here from Nelly , who stand s up to aggressive people bu t i s hersel f a sof t touc h fo r self-effacin g ones . Sh e urge s Edga r t o confront Heathclif f afte r hi s return, since "there' s harm in being too soft " (ch. 11) ; but a good dea l o f mischie f i s caused b y her inabilit y t o b e firm with Cathy II. When Heathcliff put s pressure on Cathy to come to see Linton despite her father's prohibition, Nelly gives in: "I couldn't bear to witness her sorrow" (ch . 23). Cathy is likewise compelled b y Linton's suffer ings. He r "indulgen t tenderness " (ch . 27 ) towar d tha t repulsiv e youn g man puts her in his power, an d in Heathcliff's. I t is an unsavory spectacl e that doe s not win admiratio n fo r self-effacin g behavior . Nelly an d Cath y are happy in the end, as their virtue is rewarded; but so is the unrepentan t Heathcliff, who dies in a state of exultation. Go d never forces a cry of hu miliation from him . Miriam Allot t argue s tha t Wuthering Heights "i s a n effor t t o explor e and, if possible, t o reconcil e conflictin g 'attractions ' " (1970 , 186) . Whereas Allot t see s Emil y Bront e a s draw n "b y differen t part s o f he r nature towar d bot h stor m an d calm, " I woul d sa y tha t sh e wa s draw n toward bot h th e arrogant-vindictiv e an d self-effacin g solution s a t th e same tim e tha t sh e sa w thei r destructiveness . Ou r inabilit y t o determin e where sh e stands i n the syste m o f contrast s result s fro m th e fac t tha t he r inner conflic t i s expresse d bu t no t resolve d b y th e novel . Sh e see s eac h solution no t onl y from withi n bu t als o from th e perspective o f the other , and sh e feel s fo r eac h th e scor n tha t i s generated b y th e opposin g se t o f attitudes. Sh e manage s t o giv e coheren t expressio n t o he r ver y mixe d and complicate d attitude s b y mean s o f he r narrativ e technique . Sh e allows th e aggressiv e sid e o f he r natur e t o b e expresse d throug h th e story o f Cath y an d Heathcliff , bu t sh e combine s wit h i t a continuou s commentary fro m th e self-effacin g poin t o f view , makin g i t impossibl e for u s to accus e he r o f approvin g thes e monsters . He r scor n fo r he r self effacing sid e i s expresse d throug h Cath y an d Heathcliff , an d i n othe r ways a s well, while havin g Nell y tel l the stor y permit s he r t o pas s mora l judgment an d t o satisf y he r self-effacin g shoulds . The detache d sid e o f Emil y Bront e i s als o expresse d throug h he r narrative technique . Lockwoo d i s usuall y see n a s th e representativ e o f civilization, bu t h e ma y als o b e see n a s a representativ e o f detachment . He come s t o th e regio n i n orde r t o ge t awa y fro m hi s fellow s an d finds

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it " a perfec t misanthrope' s heaven " (ch . i) . He tells us a great dea l abou t himself i n hi s reactio n t o Heathcliff' s reserve . A t first h e attribute s Heathcliff's morosenes s t o "a n aversio n t o show y display s o f feeling, " but the n h e realizes tha t h e ma y b e bestowin g hi s "ow n attribute s over liberally o n him. " Lockwoo d despise s himsel f fo r hi s detachment : "Le t me hope m y constitution i s almost peculiar : m y dea r mothe r use d t o sa y I should neve r hav e a comfortable home , an d onl y las t summe r I prove d myself perfectl y unworth y o f one." He was attracted t o " a most fascinat ing creature" unti l sh e showed sign s o f reciprocatin g hi s interest, an d h e then "shrun k icil y int o [himself] , lik e a snail. " Lockwoo d long s fo r human companionshi p bu t i s terrifie d o f emotiona l involvement . H e visits Heathclif f a secon d tim e becaus e Heathcliff' s ow n greate r reserv e makes hi m saf e t o b e with. Afte r hi s painful experience , however , Lock wood curse s himsel f fo r hi s socia l impuls e an d remind s himsel f tha t " a sensible ma n ough t t o find sufficien t compan y i n himself " (ch . 3) . H e seeks Nelly' s compan y despit e hi s determinatio n t o hol d himsel f "inde pendent o f al l socia l intercourse " an d the n feel s himsel f t o b e a "wea k wretch" fo r doin g s o (ch . 4). The outermos t fram e o f th e nove l i s Lockwood' s flirtatio n wit h th e idea o f a romanc e wit h Cath y II , bu t h e i s ver y muc h afrai d o f "th e fascination tha t lurks" in her eyes (ch. 14 ) and does not want to "ventur e [his] tranquillity b y running int o temptation " (ch . 25) . When h e return s to find Cath y engage d t o Hareton , however , h e bite s his lip, "i n spite , a t having thrown awa y [his ] chance" (ch . 32) . It seems clear a t the end tha t Lockwood wil l neve r b e abl e t o for m a lovin g relationshi p an d hav e a comfortable home . Nelly's narrativ e enable s Lockwoo d t o engag e i n a characteristicall y detached wa y o f experiencin g life , tha t is , throug h othe r people' s pas sions. Lockwoo d i s afrai d o f hi s feeling s an d i s constantl y defendin g himself agains t them. The result o f his detachment i s boredom, however , a sens e o f th e emptines s o f life . Nelly' s stor y i s of peopl e wh o ar e actin g out their impulse s all the time, in an intense, uninhibited way . Cathy an d Heathcliff ar e no t emotionall y dead , the way Lockwoo d is ; and throug h them h e get s a vicariou s sens e o f bein g alive : " I coul d fanc y a lov e fo r life her e almos t possible " (ch . 7) . Wha t make s Cath y an d Heathclif f appealing t o th e reade r is , i n part , thei r juxtapositio n wit h Lockwood . They hav e the vitality an d intensit y h e lacks. Their gran d passio n i s selfconsuming, bu t his tepid littl e romance neve r get s off th e ground, an d h e goes away with nothing . In comparison t o theirs, his life i s sterile.

Wuthering Heights | 26 1 The detache d sid e o f Emil y Bront e i s attracte d b y th e intensit y o f Cathy an d Heathcliff , jus t a s Lockwoo d is ; but , lik e him , sh e i s als o frightened b y it. Cath y an d Heathclif f ar e fascinating creatures ; but the y confirm Lockwood' s wors t fears , tha t i f yo u los e contro l o f you r emo tions, especiall y i n relatio n t o th e opposit e sex , yo u wil l b e destroyed . Their fat e reinforce s hi s detache d solution , jus t a s i t doe s Nelly' s self effacing one , at the ver y same time tha t i t challenges it s validity. Detach ment i s treate d wit h th e sam e ambivalenc e a s ar e th e aggressiv e an d compliant solutions . Given Emil y Bronte' s inne r conflicts , i t i s amazin g tha t Wuthering Heights i s no t a s thematicall y confuse d a s The Awakening. Th e differ ence lie s i n th e narrativ e technique . B y havin g th e stor y tol d b y Nell y and Lockwood , wit h muc h interna l quotatio n fro m othe r characters , Emily Bronte can give expression t o al l of her trends, and t o the crossfir e of conflictin g should s the y generate , withou t havin g an y on e positio n emerge a s normative , an d therefor e a s inadequat e t o he r ambivalence . Each se t of trends ca n b e at onc e expressed, justified, an d criticize d fro m the poin t o f vie w o f th e others . Chopin' s inne r conflict s wrea k havo c i n a nove l tha t employ s omniscien t narration ; bu t Wuthering Heights i s a n impressionistic novel, like Lord Jim (se e Paris 1974) , m whic h interpreta tion i s dramatized . Al l o f th e valu e judgment s an d attitude s belon g t o the character s an d ar e appropriat e t o thei r personalities . Thi s create s a problem o f narrativ e reliabilit y i n th e sens e tha t w e d o no t kno w wher e in the novel's system of conflicting value s the autho r stands , but i t avoid s the problems that would hav e resulted fro m th e establishment o f a mora l norm. Bronte' s narrativ e techniqu e serve s th e need s o f he r detachmen t by preservin g he r privacy , b y enablin g he r t o disappear . Sh e doe s no t want u s t o kno w wher e sh e stands . I t i s a wa y o f managin g he r inne r conflicts tha t doe s much t o produc e th e novel' s richnes s an d complexity , its elusiveness an d never-endin g fascination .

Conclusion

I hav e trie d t o sho w tha t Kare n Horney' s matur e theor y ha s an importan t contributio n t o mak e t o th e stud y o f literature . Lik e an y other theory , it doe s not appl y to al l texts, bu t i t fits many work s fro m a wide range o f periods an d cultures , an d i t illuminates a variety o f issues . It yields a distinctive se t of insight s an d i s a valuable critica l tool . One us e of Horne y i s in the analysi s o f mimetically draw n characters . Such characters hav e always bee n appreciated b y readers, but their stud y is on e o f th e leas t develope d area s o f literar y criticism , i n par t becaus e we have lacke d conceptua l system s tha t woul d permi t u s to se e and tal k about the m i n detail . Fo r man y characters , Kare n Horney' s theor y sup plies thi s deficiency . I t help s u s t o mak e sens e o f thei r ofte n puzzlin g behavior an d t o se e them , howeve r differen t thei r cultures , a s imagine d human being s who ar e very much lik e ourselves. It permits u s to recove r the psychologica l intuition s o f th e grea t realisti c writer s an d t o appreci ate thei r geniu s i n mimeti c characterization . Horneya n theor y i s espe cially suitabl e fo r characte r analysi s becaus e o f it s emphasi s o n th e current structur e o f th e psych e rathe r tha n o n infantil e origins , abou t which ther e i s rarely muc h information . I f childhoo d materia l i s presen t it can b e utilized, bu t i f it is absent i t need no t b e invented . When w e analyz e character s i n motivationa l terms , w e ofte n sens e a disparity betwee n rhetori c an d mimesis . Authors ten d t o glorif y charac ters whose solution s ar e clos e to thei r ow n whil e realisticall y portrayin g the advers e effect s o f thei r defenses . A Horneya n approac h ca n hel p u s to distinguis h betwee n th e implie d author' s vie w o f a characte r an d th e character actuall y portraye d an d t o understan d th e defense s tha t gover n the rhetoric . Such a n approac h ca n als o hel p u s t o se e ho w pattern s o f actio n ar e driven b y defensiv e strategies . Som e plot s celebrat e o r vindicat e a pre ferred strategy , som e deflat e a despise d strateg y o r sho w i t leadin g t o a character's downfall , an d som e sho w a chang e fro m a faile d strateg y t o

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Conclusion | 26 3 a favore d one . Plot s endin g i n disenchantmen t portra y irreconcilabl e inner conflict s an d th e inabilit y o f protagonist s t o find a viable solution . Two o f th e mos t frequen t pattern s o f actio n i n Western literatur e ar e education plots , i n whic h flawed character s gro w a s a resul t o f thei r mistakes, an d vindicatio n plots , i n whic h nobl e bu t devalue d protago nists prov e thei r wort h an d receiv e th e recognitio n the y deserve . From a Horneyan perspective , education plots portray the collapse of narcissisti c and arrogant-vindictiv e solutions , whic h ar e usuall y replace d b y self effacement. Sometime s self-effacin g character s mus t lear n t o b e eve n more self-effacing , an d sometime s detache d character s discove r th e ste rility o f thei r solution . Thes e plot s d o no t portra y psychologica l growt h but rathe r creat e th e illusio n o f educatio n b y replacin g a faile d o r condemned defensiv e strateg y wit h on e approve d b y th e autho r an d better adapte d t o th e culture . Vindicatio n plot s justif y perfectionistic , self-effacing, and , occasionally , detache d protagonists , wh o ar e no t a s wonderful a s plo t an d rhetori c suggest . Mimeti c character s ar e "cre ations insid e a creation " wh o ofte n escap e thei r themati c role s an d subvert th e patterns o f actio n withi n whic h the y exist . There ar e sometime s disparitie s no t onl y betwee n plo t an d rhetori c on th e on e han d an d mimesi s o n th e othe r bu t als o betwee n differen t strands o f th e rhetoric . A n autho r ma y hav e contradictor y attitude s toward a characte r becaus e o f hi s o r he r ow n inne r divisions . On e o f the virtue s o f Horney' s theor y i s tha t i t enable s u s t o mak e sens e o f inconsistencies a s par t o f a syste m o f inne r conflicts , withou t resortin g to the sor t o f rationalization tha t i s common i n literary criticism . The psychological analysi s o f character, plot , an d rhetori c ca n hel p us t o understand th e personalit y o f th e author . Whe n w e spea k o f "th e au thor," w e ca n mea n on e o f thre e things : th e "implie d author " o f a particular work , th e "authoria l personality " w e ca n infe r fro m som e o r all o f a writer' s works , o r th e historica l perso n wh o create s th e work s but als o ha s a lif e independen t o f them . W e ca n tak e a Horneya n approach t o al l these form s o f "th e author. " A Horneya n approac h ca n hel p illuminat e author s throug h thei r works becaus e i n the cours e o f artisti c creatio n thei r defensiv e strategie s tend t o expres s themselve s i n a variety o f ways . Their work s are , amon g other things , effort s t o reinforc e thei r predominan t solutio n an d t o resolve their inne r conflict s b y showing themselves, a s well a s others, th e good an d evi l consequences o f the various trends that ar e warring withi n

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them. They will tend t o glorif y character s whos e strategie s ar e similar t o their ow n an d t o satiriz e thos e wh o embod y thei r represse d solutions . Their rhetori c wil l affir m th e values , attitudes , an d trait s o f characte r that ar e demande d b y thei r dominan t solution , whil e rejectin g thos e forbidden b y it . Thei r plot s wil l ofte n b e fantasie s i n whic h thei r claim s are honore d i n magica l ways , while thei r represse d strategie s ar e show n to brin g misery an d retribution . Because author s canno t hel p als o expressing their subordinat e trends , their work s wil l frequently manifes t thei r inne r conflicts . Thei r attitudes , values, an d belief s wil l ofte n b e inconsisten t o r self-contradictory . Thei r conflicting trend s wil l lead them t o criticiz e eac h solutio n fro m th e poin t of vie w o f th e other s an d t o hav e towar d thei r character s th e mixe d feelings the y hav e towar d th e aspect s o f themselve s th e character s em body. Moreover, th e relationships amon g their solution s ma y vary i n th e course o f thei r lives , an d thi s wil l b e reflecte d i n shift s i n th e kind s o f characters they portray, in their rhetoric, and i n their dominan t fantasies . In thi s boo k I hav e analyze d th e implie d author s o f a numbe r o f works, an d elsewher e I hav e describe d th e authoria l personalitie s o f Thomas Hard y (1976a) , Jane Austen (1978b) , and Shakespear e (1991a) . To illustrat e th e kind s o f conclusion s w e ca n reac h abou t a n authoria l personality, I shal l dra w o n Bargains with Fate fo r a brie f accoun t o f a basic conflic t i n Shakespeare' s personalit y tha t ca n b e inferre d fro m a study o f hi s corpus . From 1 Henry VI to The Tempest, a frequent concer n o f Shakespeare' s plays i s how t o cop e wit h wrong s an d remai n goo d i n a n evi l world. In the historie s an d th e tragedies , th e tendenc y o f th e mai n character s i s t o respond t o wrong s b y taking revenge , bu t thi s contaminate s th e reveng ers an d eventuall y result s i n thei r destruction . I n Horney' s terms , th e arrogant-vindictive solution , with it s emphasis o n retaliation an d vindic tive triumph, doe s no t work . Bu t i n these plays the self-effacin g solutio n does no t wor k either , a s man y innocent , well-intentioned , bu t wea k characters perish . Hamlet' s problem , a s I se e it , i s ho w t o tak e reveng e and remai n innocent . Th e proble m i s insolubl e an d nearl y drive s hi m mad. I n a numbe r o f th e comedie s an d romances , Shakespear e explore s a differen t respons e t o bein g wronged—namely , merc y an d forgiveness . Because o f th e convention s o f thes e genres , with thei r providentia l uni verse an d miraculou s conversions , wronge d character s d o no t hav e t o take revenge : eithe r fat e doe s i t fo r the m o r the y forgiv e thei r enemies , who ar e the n permanentl y transformed . I n thes e plays , th e self-effacin g

Conclusion | 26 5 solution, wit h it s accompanyin g bargain , work s ver y well , bu t onl y because the plays ar e unrealistic . What I infe r abou t Shakespear e fro m hi s play s i s tha t h e ha s stron g vindictive impulses , but eve n stronge r taboo s agains t thos e impulse s an d a fea r o f th e guil t an d punishmen t t o whic h h e woul d b e expose d i f h e acted the m out . H e doe s ac t the m ou t imaginativel y i n th e historie s an d tragedies an d i s purged o f the m throug h th e destructio n o f hi s surrogat e aggressors. H e als o ha s a fea r o f hi s self-effacin g side , however ; an d h e shows bot h himsel f an d u s throug h character s lik e Henr y VI , Hamlet , Desdemona, an d Timo n o f Athen s tha t peopl e wh o ar e to o goo d an d trusting canno t cop e an d wil l b e destroyed . I n th e tragedie s h e portray s the inadequac y o f bot h solutions . I n som e o f th e comedie s an d i n th e romances h e fantasize s th e triump h o f goo d peopl e an d avoid s guil t either b y glorifyin g forgivenes s o r leavin g reveng e t o th e gods . I n The Tempest, throug h Prospero' s magic , h e imagine s a solutio n t o Hamlet' s problem; fo r Prosper o i s a t onc e vindictiv e an d noble , vengefu l an d innocent. H e take s hi s reveng e throug h hi s magi c b y raisin g a tempes t and inflictin g variou s psychological torments , bu t he does not reall y hur t anybody, an d whe n h e ha s ha d hi s vindictiv e triumph , h e give s u p hi s magic and forgive s everyone . From a Horneya n poin t o f view , on e o f Shakespeare' s majo r project s was t o find a wa y o f givin g expressio n t o th e hostile , vindictive , aggres sive sid e o f hi s personalit y withou t violatin g hi s stronge r nee d t o b e noble, loving , an d innocent . Recognizin g thi s help s u s t o understan d many o f hi s play s an d als o a numbe r o f th e sonnets . The Tempest i s perhaps th e mos t brillian t solutio n h e eve r imagine d t o thi s essentiall y insoluble problem , an d i t i s not surprisin g tha t i t was hi s last grea t play . In Henry VIII, whic h followed , th e self-effacin g sid e o f Shakespear e i s overwhelmingly predominant , an d w e n o longe r fee l ourselve s t o b e i n the presenc e o f a comple x an d fascinatin g personality . Shakespeare' s inner conflicts hav e much t o do , I suspect, with th e richness an d ambigu ity of his greatest art . The relatio n betwee n author s an d thei r work s i s a vexe d question , o f course. W e mus t alway s mak e allowance s fo r artisti c motivations , fo r generic requirements , an d fo r th e inne r logi c o f individua l works . Eve n so, i t i s possibl e t o tel l a goo d dea l abou t author s fro m thei r literar y creations whe n w e examin e suc h thing s a s thei r recurrin g preoccupa tions, the personal elemen t i n their fantasies , th e kinds o f character s an d relationships the y habitually create , and thei r rhetorica l stance .

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Conclusion

In orde r t o determin e wha t th e implie d autho r an d th e authoria l personality tel l u s abou t th e write r a s a person , w e mus t tes t ou r infer ences against biographica l dat a tha t ar e not draw n fro m th e works—th e sort o f informatio n tha t i s no t availabl e fo r Shakespeare . S o fa r I hav e not attempte d a biograph y o f a literar y artist , bu t I a m convince d tha t there ar e man y instance s i n whic h a Horneya n analysi s o f th e authoria l personality coul d contribut e a grea t dea l t o ou r understandin g o f th e writer's inne r life , an d I hope t o undertak e suc h a stud y i n th e future . I t might thro w a goo d dea l o f ligh t o n th e relatio n betwee n ar t an d neurosis an d th e natur e o f th e creative process (se e chapter 8 , note i) . Such a stud y ha s bee n undertake n b y Lawranc e Thompso n i n hi s monumental biograph y o f Rober t Frost . Thompso n accepte d Frost' s invitation t o b e his official biographe r i n 1939 , when Fros t wa s 6$, wit h the understandin g tha t nothin g wa s t o b e publishe d unti l afte r Frost' s death, whic h di d no t occu r unti l 1963 . A s h e collecte d materia l i n th e intervening years , Thompso n becam e awar e o f Frost' s man y cruelties , self-contradictions, an d inne r conflicts , whic h h e se t ou t t o describ e i n his biography . After completin g a draft o f the first volume, Thompson rea d Neurosis and Human Growth an d foun d i n i t th e analyti c concept s h e neede d t o make sens e o f hi s bewilderin g subject . I f "i t mentione d Fros t o n ever y page," h e wrote i n his notebook, "i t couldn' t hav e come close r t o givin g a psychologica l framewor k t o wha t I'v e bee n tryin g t o sa y i n th e first volume o f th e biography " (Sheeh y 1986 , 398) . Thompson' s noteboo k contains on e hundre d an d thirt y page s o f note s an d excerpt s fro m Horney intersperse d wit h suc h application s t o Fros t a s th e following : "Frost's patter n involve d . . . a n affectionat e clingin g t o hi s mother ; a fear o f beating s (whic h he got) fro m hi s father an d a consequent attemp t at compliant appeasement ; bu t mor e than these , his 'conflict ' cause d hi m to 'kee p aloof. ' Th e first stor y h e eve r trie d t o write , h e said , wa s th e story o f hi s runnin g awa y t o th e Happ y Valle y wher e th e India n tribe s were s o nice to him " (quote d b y Sheeh y 1986 , 405). Although Horney' s ideas giv e a n interpretiv e structur e t o th e biography , sh e i s no t men tioned i n the text , th e footnotes , o r th e inde x o f an y o f th e volumes . We owe a knowledg e o f Thompson' s us e o f Horne y t o th e wor k o f Donal d Sheehy (1986) . After studyin g Neurosis and Human Growth, Thompso n revise d hi s first volume to reflect hi s Horneyan interpretatio n o f his subject. H e sa w Frost a s a ma n wh o develope d a searc h fo r glor y i n respons e t o earl y

Conclusion | 26 7 humiliations an d wh o longe d t o triumph ove r an d retaliat e agains t thos e who ha d hur t him . Frost' s contradictor y account s o f hi s lif e wer e a product bot h o f hi s inne r conflict s an d o f hi s nee d t o confir m hi s ideal ized image b y mythologizing himself . His poetry reflect s thes e dynamics . Sometimes Fros t use d i t t o "escap e fro m hi s confusion s int o idealize d postures," whil e a t othe r time s it serve d "a s a means o f strikin g bac k at , or o f punishing" thos e he considered hi s enemies (Thompso n 1966 , xix). Horney argue s that work s o f art , lik e dreams, can originat e i n our effor t to "creat e solution s fo r a n inne r conflic t tha t i s disquietin g us " (1950 , 330), and Thompso n claim s that Frost' s poetry ofte n ha d suc h a genesis. The central proble m o f hi s life "wa s t o find orderl y way s o f dealin g wit h the dangerou s conflict s h e foun d operativ e withi n himsel f o r betwee n himself an d others " (1966 , xxii). "At his artistic best," h e "trie d t o mak e his poems provide a n effective wa y o f coming to grips with hi s inner an d outer confusions , honestly , fo r purpose s o f resolvin g them " (xix-xx) . Thompson conclude s tha t th e widesprea d appea l o f Fros t derive s fro m the fac t tha t "n o theme s ar e mor e universa l an d attractiv e tha n thos e which tr y t o offe r affirmativ e resolution s fo r th e conflict s dramatize d i n his lif e an d i n hi s poetry " (1970 , xix) . T o many , Horney' s theor y ha s a similar appeal . When I first bega n developin g a Horneya n approac h t o literature , I felt tha t author s wit h inne r conflict s wer e boun d t o produc e work s ful l of inconsistencies , bu t I have com e t o se e that disparitie s betwee n rheto ric an d mimesi s an d themati c contradiction s ca n b e exacerbated , re duced, o r eve n eliminated , i n fiction a t least , b y th e choic e o f narrativ e technique. Althoug h conventio n call s fo r omniscien t narrator s t o b e authoritative i n thei r interpretation s an d judgments , the y ar e ofte n mis leading, confused , o r defensive , thu s frustratin g th e reader' s expecta tions. I n first perso n narration , simila r inconsistencies , misjudgments , and blin d spot s belon g t o th e characte r rathe r tha n t o th e work , an d they ca n b e strength s rathe r tha n weaknesse s i f the y contribut e t o th e richness an d accurac y o f th e psychologica l portrait . I f th e first perso n narrator's perspectiv e i s endorse d b y th e implie d author , however , a s i s the cas e wit h Pi p an d Jan e Eyre , th e problem s ar e th e sam e a s i n omniscient narration . Th e bes t solutio n seem s t o b e first perso n narra tion i n which th e implie d autho r canno t b e identifie d wit h th e narrator , as i n Notes from Underground (Pari s 1974 ) an d The End of the Road, or narratio n fro m severa l dramatize d perspectives , a s i n Lord Jim (Pari s 1974) an d Wuthering Heights. I f w e ar e t o understan d wha t motivate s

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the telling of the story , we must analyz e bot h omniscien t an d dramatize d narrators, along with the implied author . With many works, a Horneya n approach ca n hel p us to accomplis h this . If th e tellin g o f th e stor y i s psychologicall y motivated , s o als o i s th e reader's response . W e ten d t o reac t t o work s i n term s o f ou r ow n defenses, inne r conflicts , an d struggle s towar d growth . Horne y observe d that analyst s hav e a "persona l equation " tha t lead s the m t o respon d t o the solution s an d conflict s the y encounte r i n patient s i n term s o f thei r own personalit y structures , an d th e sam e thin g i s tru e fo r reader s re sponding t o texts . A n interpretatio n ofte n tell s u s a s muc h abou t th e critic a s i t doe s abou t th e work . Reader s ar e boun d t o hav e differen t reactions; but , whil e recognizin g th e subjectivit y o f perception , a Hor neyan approac h ca n hel p u s make sens e o f conflictin g interpretation s b y seeing eac h on e a s respondin g t o som e aspect s o f th e tex t whil e sup pressing awarenes s o f others . In th e criticis m o f Vanity Fair, for example , mos t commentator s fee l that Ameli a an d Dobbi n ar e presente d i n a favorabl e ligh t an d tha t Becky i s consistentl y portraye d a s a villain . However , a n importan t minority fee l tha t Thackera y ha s contemp t fo r Ameli a an d Dobbin , tha t he admire s Becky , an d tha t h e i s inconsisten t towar d th e en d whe n h e characterizes he r a s a monster . I n A Psychological Approach to Fiction (1974), I argued tha t th e implie d autho r o f Vanity Fair has a personalit y in whic h self-effacin g trend s predominat e bu t i n whic h suppresse d ag gressive drive s ge t themselve s expresse d i n disguise d o r indirec t ways . The self-effacin g sid e o f Thackera y exalt s Ameli a an d Dobbi n an d con demns Becky , while hi s aggressiv e sid e delight s i n Becky' s triumph s an d scorns Ameli a a s a parasit e an d Dobbi n a s a spooney . Bot h group s o f critics ca n fin d evidenc e t o suppor t thei r interpretations , bu t thos e wh o are sympatheti c t o self-effacin g behavio r ar e likel y t o emphasiz e Thack eray's glorificatio n o f Ameli a an d Dobbin , whil e mor e expansiv e critic s will dwell o n hi s secret admiratio n o f Becky . There i s als o a goo d dea l o f detachmen t i n Vanity Fair, whic h i s manifested b y th e them e tha t al l i s vanit y an d b y th e narrator' s ofte n unfocused irony , which is the means by which the implied autho r negate s what h e has affirme d an d protect s himsel f fro m bein g identified wit h th e folly o f hi s characters . Ther e ar e critic s wh o defen d Thackera y agains t charges o f sentimentality , cynicism , an d inconsistenc y b y pointing t o hi s

Conclusion | 26 9 irony. Th e iron y i s there , bu t thes e critic s ignor e th e self-effacin g an d expansive component s o f th e novel . I hav e foun d a simila r stat e o f affair s i n th e criticis m o f Shakespear e (Paris 1991a ) an d Jan e Auste n (Pari s 1978b) . Thos e wh o offe r th e orthodox Christia n readin g o f Shakespear e ar e responding t o th e sid e of him tha t believe s tha t righ t make s migh t an d virtu e i s rewarded , whil e those wh o clai m tha t hi s portraya l o f realit y i s close r t o th e moder n absurdist positio n ar e mor e sensitiv e t o th e expansiv e sid e o f Shake speare that see s through conventiona l beliefs . I n the case of Jane Austen , some critic s emphasiz e th e aggressive , satirica l componen t o f he r art ; some stres s he r gentlenes s an d conservatism ; an d som e focu s o n th e detached, ironi c qualit y o f he r vision . Eac h grou p overemphasize s a n important componen t o f he r wor k whil e showin g littl e awarenes s o f conflicting elements . All of the interpretations offere d i n this book ar e instances o f my ow n psychologically motivate d response s t o literature . T o me , Horne y seem s highly congruent wit h the texts I have chosen, bu t I know tha t thi s is not the cas e fo r man y othe r readers . Horne y work s fo r m e becaus e sh e i s compatible wit h m y temperament , experience , an d mode s o f under standing, an d m y readings wil l b e most appealin g t o thos e wh o shar e a t least som e o f my premises . Although I hav e wante d t o focu s o n literature , o r a t leas t o n m y perspective upo n it , rathe r tha n o n th e epistemologica l problem s tha t beset al l interpreter s o f texts , I am no t unawar e o f thos e problems . Th e disparity betwee n rhetori c an d mimesi s o f which I so frequently spea k i s really a disparit y betwee n m y interpretatio n o f th e author' s vie w o f a character an d my understanding o f what I regard a s the mimetic portrait . I kno w tha t m y approac h t o character , plot , rhetoric , an d narrativ e technique wil l b e o f interes t mainl y t o thos e wh o ar e receptiv e t o Hor ney. I t i s m y hope , o f course , tha t tha t receptivit y wil l b e increase d b y my Horney-inspire d reading s o f majo r work s o f Western literatur e fro m Antigone t o The End of the Road.

Notes NOTES T O CHAPTE R I

i. Horneya n studie s hav e bee n previousl y publishe d o n th e followin g au thors: Jan e Auste n (Pari s 1978b) , Honor e d e Balza c (Portno y 1949) , Charle s Baudelaire (Va n Bar k 1961) , Sau l Bello w (Pari s 1976b) , Emil y Bront e (Pari s 1982), Charlott e Bront e (Buter y 1986 ; Pari s 1993a) , Rober t Brownin g (Lewi s 1986), Pear l Buc k (Vollmerhause n 1950) , Fran k Capr a (Gordo n 1994) , Josep h Conrad (Pari s 1974 , 1993b) , Anit a Desa i (Band e 1988) , Charle s Dicken s (El dredge 1986) , Fyodo r Dostoevsk y (Va n Bar k 1961 ; Paris 1974 , 1978c , 1991c , 1994b), Georg e Elio t (Pari s 1974 , 1986b ; Butery , 1982 ; Laue r 1985) , Willia m Faulkner (Haselswerd t 1986 ; Buter y 1989 ; Bocktin g 1995) , Gustav e Flauber t (Paris 1981) , Rober t Fros t (Thompso n 1966 , 1970 ; Thompso n an d Winnic k 1976; Sheeh y 1986) , Graha m Green e (Strau b 1986) , Thoma s Hard y (Pari s 1976a; Buter y 1982) , Ernes t Hemingwa y (Yalo m an d Yalo m 1971) , Henri k Ibsen (Breitbar t 1948 , Pari s 1978a) , Henr y Jame s (Buter y 1982 ; Laue r 1985) , James Joyc e (Bartlet t 1993) , D . H . Lawrenc e (Smalle y 1986) , Dori s Lessin g (Westkott 1986 , Eldredg e 1989) , C . S . Lewi s (Bartlet t 1989) , W . Somerse t Maugham (Weis s 1973) , Georg e Meredit h (Wat t 1984) , Arthu r Mille r (Becke r 1987), Eugen e O'Neil l (Fal k 1958) , Samue l Richardso n (Eldredg e 1982) , Wil liam Shakespear e (Rosenber g 1961 ; Rabkin an d Brow n 1973 ; Greenberg 1985 ; Lewis 1985 ; Paris 1989b , 1991a , 1991b , 1994c ; Taylor 1994) , Georg e Bernar d Shaw (Bartlet t 1991) , La o Sh e (Yo u 1995) , Mar y Shelle y (Keyishia n 1989) , Stendhal (Pari s 1974) , Willia m Styro n (Huffma n 1986) , Willia m Makepeac e Thackeray (Pari s 1974) , Edit h Wharto n (Laue r 1994) , an d Richar d Wrigh t (Fishburn 1977) . Se e als o Huffma n 199 4 fo r Horneya n observation s o n suc h American writers as Horatio Alger, Theodore Dreiser, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Carso n McCullers, Rober t Pen n Warren , Nathanae l West , Thoma s Wolfe , an d Bud d Schulberg. NOTES T O C H A P T E R 2

i. Fo r details of Horney's lif e an d a fuller discussio n o f her ideas , see Bernar d J. Paris , Karen Homey: A Psychoanalyst's Search for Self-Understanding (Ne w Haven: Yale University Press , 1994) .

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Notes

NOTES T O CHAPTE R 3

i. I am using the Eva Le Gallienne translatio n o f A Doll's House an d Hedda Gabler, published b y the Modern Library . NOTES T O CHAPTE R 4

i. I shoul d lik e t o shar e wit h th e reade r th e comment s o f m y colleagu e Andrew Gordo n i n response to a draft o f this chapter : The docto r i s another masterfu l characte r lik e Joe. Jake is torn betwee n these two authority figures. H e comes unde r th e sway o f the Doctor, who plays o n hi s self-effacement . The n h e come s unde r th e swa y o f Jo e and even begin s t o imitat e Jo e as a mean s o f defyin g th e Doctor. I n th e end, the Docto r triumphs , winnin g bac k tota l contro l ove r Jake . Jake's retrea t to th e Doctor's far m represent s detachment , bu t it i s als o a for m o f self effacement, fo r the Doctor confirm s Jak e in the notion tha t he has no self. The Doctor , i n a way, does to Jake wha t Jo e does to Renni e an d wha t Jake trie s to do to women (whe n h e preys o n Peggy an d later o n Rennie). Almost everyon e i n thi s nove l aggressivel y set s ou t t o subdue people , t o erase the m an d remake the m t o thei r heart' s desire , t o us e them fo r thei r own ends . It may be that al l the characters in the novel secretl y fear tha t the y hav e no self , do not exist, ar e nothing, an d that thei r defens e agains t thi s fear is aggressively to cancel the selves of others. Jake's final stance of detachmen t may mak e him feel mor e awar e tha n others , but it ironically confirm s tha t he i s nothing , fo r on e scarcely exist s wh o has no relation s t o others . H e comforts himsel f b y believing that other s ar e nothing an d do not exist. NOTES T O CHAPTE R 5

i. I am using Michae l Murphy' s editio n o f The Canterbury Tales: The General Prologue and Twelve Major Tales in Modern Spelling (Lanham , Md. : University Pres s o f America , 1991) . Reference s ar e t o lin e numbers . I agre e wit h Murphy tha t i t make s sens e t o provid e Chauce r i n moder n spelling , a s we do Shakespeare an d other earl y authors . NOTES T O CHAPTE R 6

i. I am using the Kittredge-Ribner editio n o f The Merchant of Venice. NOTES T O CHAPTE R J

i. I a m usin g th e Elizabet h Wyckof f translatio n o f Antigone, publishe d i n The Complete Greek Tragedies, ed . David Gren e an d Richmond Lattimore , Vol.

Notes |

27 3

2 (Chicago : University o f Chicag o Press , 1959) . References ar e to lin e numbers . 2. I am usin g th e Davi d Gren e translatio n o f Oedipus the King, publishe d i n The Complete Greek Tragedies, Vol . 2. NOTES T O CHAPTE R 8

i. I suggest tha t Dicken s i s doing fo r Pi p what hi s ar t doe s fo r Dickens , tha t is, normalizing hi s inner lif e b y portraying externa l realit y i n a way tha t justifie s his obsession s an d anxieties . A s ha s ofte n bee n observed , Great Expectations i s obliquely autobiographica l i n tha t Dicken s seem s t o b e drawin g o n th e feeling s of bein g tainte d tha t h e connecte d wit h hi s blackin g hous e experience . Thos e feelings hav e seeme d t o som e t o b e i n exces s o f th e occasio n an d t o indicat e previously existin g problem s tha t mak e th e experienc e s o traumatic . I n Pip , Dickens imagine s a characte r whos e childhoo d explain s hi s reactions t o suc h a n episode, a characte r wh o als o need s t o kee p th e episod e secre t an d wh o canno t overcome hi s feeling s o f guil t an d sham e despit e hi s socia l an d economi c eleva tion. Dicken s seem s t o b e tryin g t o imagin e throug h Pip' s experience s a n objec tive correlativ e tha t wil l mak e th e irrationa l feeling s b y whic h h e i s haunte d seem grounded i n reality. He confirm s Pip' s responses becaus e they ar e similar t o responses o f hi s ow n fo r whic h h e i s seekin g corroboration . Th e hallucinator y intensity o f hi s novel s ma y b e the result , i n part, o f hi s need t o creat e a world t o which hi s overreaction s ar e appropriate . Th e enthusiasti c receptio n o f hi s wor k must hav e provide d a preciou s validation , bu t i t di d no t reliev e hi m o f hi s problems, an y more tha n Pi p was cure d b y his great expectations . NOTES T O C H A P T E R I

I

i. I am usin g th e Pau l D e Ma n translatio n o f Madame Bovary, publishe d i n the Norton Critica l Editio n (Ne w York : W. W. Norton, 1965) .

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Paris, B . J . 1976b . Herzo g th e Man : A n Analyti c Vie w o f a Literar y Figure . American Journal of Psychoanalysis 36 : 249-60 . . 1978a . Horney' s Theor y an d th e Stud y o f Literature . American Journal of Psychoanalysis 38 : 343-53. . 1978b . Character and Conflict in Jane Austen's Novels: A Psychological Approach. Detroit : Wayne Stat e University Press . . 1978c . The Two Selve s of Rodio n Raskolnikov . Gradiva 1 : 316-28 . . 1981 . Third Forc e Psycholog y an d th e Stud y o f Literature , Biography , Criticism, an d Culture . Literary Review 24 : 181-221 . . 1982 . "Hush , Hush ! He' s a huma n being" : A Psychologica l Approac h to Heathcliff . Women and Literature 2 : 101-17 . , ed. 1986a . Third Force Psychology and the Study of Literature. Ruther ford, N.J. : Fairleigh Dickinso n Universit y Press . . 1986b . Third Forc e Psycholog y an d th e Stud y o f Literature , Biography , Criticism, an d Culture . I n Third Force Psychology and the Study of Literature. . 1989a . Interdisciplinar y Application s o f Horney . American Journal of Psychoanalysis 49 : 181-88 . . 1989b . Th e No t S o Nobl e Antonio : A Horneya n Analysi s o f Shake speare's Merchant of Venice. American Journal of Psychoanalysis 49 : 189 200.

. 1991a . Bargains with Fate: Psychological Crises and Conflicts in Shakespeare and His Plays. Ne w York : Plenum Press . . 1991b . Character as a Subversive Force in Shakespeare: The History and Roman Plays. Rutherford , N.J. : Fairleig h Dickinso n Universit y Press. . 199ic . A Horneya n Approac h t o Literature . American Journal of Psychoanalysis 51 : 319-37. . 199 3 a. Jane Eyre a s a Novel o f Vindication . I n Approaches to Teaching Bronte's Jan e Eyre . Ed . Dian e Hoevele r an d Bet h Lau . Ne w York : Moder n Language Associatio n o f America . . 199 3 b. Marlow' s Transformation . Aligarh Journal of English Studies 15:65-72. . 1994a . Karen Horney: A Psychoanalyst's Search for Self-Understanding. New Haven : Yale University Press . . 1994b . Pulkheri a Alexandrovn a an d Raskolnikov , M y Mothe r an d Me . In Self Analysis in Literary Criticism. Ed . Danie l Rancour-Laferriere . Ne w York: New Yor k University Press. . 1994c . Petruchio' s Tamin g o f Kate : A Horneya n Perspective . American Journal of Psychoanalysis 54 : 339-44 . . 1997 . The Searc h fo r Glor y i n Madame Bovary: A Horneyan Analysis . American Journal of Psychoanalysis 57 : 5-24 .

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Portnoy, Isidore . 1949 . "Th e Magi c Skin" : A Psychoanalyti c Interpretation . American Journal of Psychoanalysis. 9 : 67-74 . Rabkin, Lesli e Y. , an d Jeffre y Brown . 1973 . Som e Monste r i n Hi s Thought : Sadism an d Traged y i n Othello. Literature and Psychology 23 : 59-67. Robinson, Jame s K. , ed . 1977 . Norto n Critica l Editio n o f The Mayor of Casterbridge. Ne w York : W. W. Norton . Rosenberg, Marvin . 1 9 61. The Masks of Othello . Berkeley : Universit y o f Cali fornia Press . Rubins, Jack . L . 1978 . Karen Homey: Gentle Rebel of Psychoanalysis. Ne w York: Dial Press. Saint-Beuve, Charle s Augustin . 1857 . Madame Bovary, b y Gustav e Flaubert . I n Norton Critica l Editio n o f Madame Bovary. Ed . Pau l D e Man . 1965 . Ne w York: W. W. Norton . Sale, Willia m M. , Jr. , ed . 1963 . Norton Critica l Editio n o f Wuthering Heights. New York : W. W. Norton . Scholes, Robert, an d Rober t Kellogg . 1966 . The Nature of Narrative. Ne w York : Oxford Universit y Press . Schorer, Mark. 1950 . Introduction t o Wuthering Heights. Rinehar t edition . Ne w York: Rinehart . Sheehy, Donald . 1986 . Th e Poe t a s Neurotic : Th e Officia l Biograph y o f Rober t Frost. American Literature 58 : 393-410 . Smalley, Barbara . 1986 . Lawrence' s "Th e Princess " an d Horney' s "Idealize d Self." I n Third Force Psychology and the Study of Literature. Ed . B . J. Paris . Rutherford, N.J. : Fairleigh Dickinso n Universit y Press . Straub, Joe. 1986 . A Psychological Vie w o f Priesthood , Sin , an d Redemptio n i n Graham Greene' s The Power and the Glory. I n Third Force Psychology and the Study of Literature. Ed . B . J. Paris . Rutherford, N.J. : Fairleigh Dickinso n University Press . Taylor, Mark . 1994 . Farthe r Privileges : Conflic t an d Chang e i n Measure for Measure. Philological Quarterly 73 : 169-93. Thompson, Lawrance . 1966 . Robert Frost: The Early Years 1874-1915. Ne w York: Holt, Rinehar t & Winston . . 1970 . Robert Frost: The Years of Triumph 19 15-193 8. New York: Holt , Rinehart & Winston . Thompson, Lawrance , an d R . H . Winnick . 1976 . Robert Frost: The Later Years 193 8-1963. Ne w York : Holt, Rinehar t 6 t Winston . Van Bark , Bell a S . 1961 . The Alienate d Perso n i n Literature . American Journal of Psychoanalysis 21 : 183-97. Vollmerhausen, Joseph. 1950 . "Pavilio n o f Women: A Psychoanalytic Interpreta tion. American Journal of Psychoanalysis 10 : 53-60 . Walker, Nancy , ed . 1993 . The Awakening. Ne w York : Bedfor d Books , St . Mar tin's Press.

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Index

Abraham, Karl , 1 7 Absolom, Absolom! (Faulkner) , 2 9 Actual self , 30-3 1 Adler, Alfred, 3 Aggressive women i n Shakespeare , 9 3 Alexander, Franz , 1 7 Alger, Horatio, 27 1 n. 1 Alice Mellings (The Good Terrorist), 2 2 Allott, Miriam, 25 9 Amelia Sedle y (Vanity Fair), 5 , 22, 26 8 Anne Elliot (Persuasion), 2 7 Antigone (Sophocles) : analyzed, 105-1 6 Antigone, 212 ; analyzed, 105 , 106 , 110 16 Antonio (Merchant of Venice), 112 ; analysis of, 93-10 4 Antony (Antony and Cleopatra), 22 , 93 Antony and Cleopatra (Shakespeare) , 22 , 9 3 , 21 2

Arrogant-vindictive (aggressive ) solution : defensive strategie s of , 22-24 , 253-54 ; examples o f in literature, 24 . See analyses of Catherin e Earnshaw ; Creon ; Hedda Gabler ; Michael Henchard ; Pip ; Shylock Auerbach, Erich , 19 6 Austen, Jane, 5,13 , 22 , 27, 29, 264, 271 n. 1 ; criticism of , 26 9 Author: a s historical person , 263-64 ; im plied, 263-64 ; inner conflict s of , 2 6 3 65; meanings o f the term, 26 3 Authorial personality : Horneyan approac h to, 263-67 ; of Jane Austen, 13 , 264; of Thomas Hardy , 13 , 264; of Shakespeare , 13, 264-6 6 Awakening, The (Chopin) , 240, 261; analysis of, 215-39 ; thematic confusion s of , 215-22

Axel Heyst (Victory), 6 5

Balzac, Honore de , 271 n. 1 Bargains with Fate: Psychological Crises and Conflicts in Shakespeare and His Plays (Paris) , 33, 93, 103, 264 Bargain wit h fate : defined , 3 3 Barth, John: analysi s o f The End of the Road, 64-8 1 Basic anxiety, 1 8 Basic needs, 1 8 Baudelaire, Charles, 27 1 n. 1 Beach, Joseph Warren, 16 8 Becky Sharp (Vanity Fair), 5 , 24, 26 8 Bellow, Saul, 22 , 65, 271 n. 1 Bennet, Mr. (Pride and Prejudice), 2 9 Biography: Horneyan approac h to , 266-6 7 Bleak House (Dickens) , 2 2 Booth, Wayne, 25 5 Bronte, Charlotte , 27 1 n. 1 ; analysis of Jane Eyre, 144-6 7 Bronte, Emily, 271 n. 1 ; analysis of Wuthering Heights, 240-61 ; psychologica l con flicts of , 256-6 1 Browning, Robert, 24 , 271 n. 1 Brutus (Julius Caesar), 2 7 Buck, Pearl, 27 1 n. 1 Caine Mutiny, The (Wouk) , 11 5 Capra, Frank , 22 , 271 n. 1 Cassius (Julius Caesar), 2 4 Cather, Willa, 21 5 Catherine Earnsha w (Wuthering Heights), 244-51 Characterization: aesthetic , 6 ; E. M. For ster on , 6-10 ; illustrative , 6-7 ; mimetic , xii 7 , 9-10; taxonom y of , 6- 7 Characters: as "creation s insid e a creation," 7 , 10 , 144 ; formal analysi s of, 6 ; a Horneyan approac h to , xi, 8-9 ; a s imagined huma n beings , xi, 10 ; mimetic

281

28z I

Index

Characters (continued) in conflict wit h plo t an d rhetoric , I O - I I , 262-63; psychological analysi s of , xi , 8 9, 262 ; thematic analysi s of, 6 . See also analyses of individual characters Characters analyze d a t length : Antigone , 110-16; Antonio i n The Merchant of Venice, Cath y i n Wuthering Heights, 244-51; Creo n i n Antigone, 105-10 ; Edna Pontellie r i n The Awakening, 2 2 3 3 7; Elizabeth-Jane i n The Mayor of Casterbridge, 168-69, 182-92 ; Emma Bo vary i n Madame Bovary, 193-212 ; Griselda i n "Th e Clerk' s Tale," 82-87 , 90-92; Heathcliff i n Wuthering Heights, 241-55; Hedda Gabler , 52-63 ; Jake Horner i n The End of the Road, 64-59 , 73-77, 80-81 ; Jane Eyre , 144-67 ; Joe Morgan i n The End of the Road, 66-72 , 77-80; Michae l Henchar d i n The Mayor of Casterbridge, 168-82 , 187-88 ; Nor a Helmer i n A Doll's House, 39-52 ; Pip in Great Expectations, 119-43 ; Rennie Morgan i n The End of the Road, 68-70 , 72-74, 77-79 ; Rochester i n Jane Eyre, 151-57, 159 , 163-64 . 167 ; Shylock i n The Merchant of Venice, 102-4 ; Walter in "Th e Clerk' s Tale," 82-84 , 87-9 0 Charles Bovar y (Madame Bovary), 197 200

Chaucer: analysi s o f "Th e Clerk' s Tale," 82-92 Chopin, Kate, 240 , 261 ; analysis of The Awakening, 215-39 ; psychological con flicts of , 237-3 9 Cinderella archetype , 14 4 Claims, neurotic, 30-3 3 Clarissa (Richardson) , 2 7 "Clerk's Tale, The" (Chaucer) , 82-9 2 Clarissa Harlow e (Clarissa), 2 7 Collins, Clifford, 25 5 Compliant solution . See Self-effacing (com pliant) solutio n Compson, Quenti n (Absalom, Absalom! and The Sound and the Fury), 2 9 Conrad, Joseph, 5 , 22, 25, 6^, 27 1 n. 1 Contradictions i n theme an d rhetoric : in The Awakening, 215-22 ; a Horneyan ap proach to , 4-5, 263 ; in Vanity Fair, 4-5 , 13, 268-6 9

Cordelia (King Lear), 27 , 8 6 Coriolanus, 9 3 Coriolanus (Coriolanus), 2 7 Creon (Antigone), 105-10 , 11 5 Crime and Punishment (Dostoevsky) , 2 4 Deconstruction, 5 Decoud (Nostromo), 6 5 Desai, Anita, 27 1 n. 1 Desdemona (Othello), 21 , 9 1, 265 Despised self , 3 0 Detached (resigned ) solution : defensiv e strategies of , 27-29 ; examples o f i n liter ature, 29 . See analyses o/"Edn a Pontel lier; Elizabeth-Jane Henchard ; Hedd a Gabler; Jake Horner ; Lockwood ; Mi chael Henchard; Walter ("Th e Clerk' s Tale") Dickens, Charles, 22 , 223, 271 n. 1 : analysis of Great Expectations, 119-43 ; Ps v _ chological functio n o f ar t for , 27 3 Disenchantment: Madame Bovary a s a novel of , 197-9 8 Dobbin (Vanity Fair), 5 , 22, 26 8 Doll's House, A (Ibsen) , 55 , 63, 217; analysis of, 39-5 2 Dorothea Brook e (Middlemarch), 144 , 16 3 Dostoevsky, Fyodor, 5 , 24, 29, 80, 271 n . 1

Dreiser, Theodore , 27 1 n. 1 Edmund (King Lear), 2 4 Edna Pontellie r (The Awakening), 212 ; analysis of, 215-3 7 Education pattern , xii , 15 ; in Antigone, n o ; i n Great Expectations, 119 ; in Jane Eyre, 144 , 150-51 , 158 ; in The Mayor of Casterbridge, 168-69 Education plots : Horneyan approac h to , 15, 26 3 Elinor Dashwoo d (Sense and Sensibility), 27 Eliot, George , 4, 5 , 22, 163 , 271 n. 1 Elizabeth-Jane Henchar d (The Mayor of Casterbridge), 144 ; analysis of , 168-69 , 182-92 Emma (Jan e Austen), 14 4 Emma Bovary : analysis of , 193-212 ; an d Edna Pontellier , 215 , 220, 221, 231, 232 Emma Woodhous e (Emma), 2 5

Index | End of the Road, The (Barth) , 267; analysis of, 64-8 1 Epistemological problems , 26 9 Esther Summerso n (Bleak House), 2 2 Expansive solutions : defensive strategie s of, 22-27 . See also Arrogant-vindictiv e (aggressive) solution ; Narcissistic solu tion; Perfectionistic solutio n Fanny Price (Mansfield Park), 2 2 Farfrae (The Mayor ofCasterbridge), 1 7 1 75 Faulkner, William, 24 , 29, 271 n. 1 Feminine Psychology (Horney) , 1 7 Fitzgerald, F . Scott, 27 1 n. 1 Flaubert, Gustave , 240 , 271 n. 1 : analysis of Madame Bovary, 193-214 ; Flau bertian element s i n The Awakening, 216 , 220, 231-32 , 238 ; presence i n Madame Bovary, 196-9-7; psychological conflict s of, 212-21 4 Forster, E. M., 7 , 1 0 Fortunate fall , 14 4 Fox-Genovese, Elizabeth, 215 , 22 3 Freudian criticism , 3 Frost, Robert: psychobiography of , 13 , 266-67, 2 7 J n - z Glory, search for , 14 , 3 1 Good Terrorist, The (Lessing) , 2 2 Gordon, Andrew , 27 2 Gothic romance, 24 1 Great Expectations (Dickens) , 144 , 168 , 169; analysis of , 119-43 ; autobiographi cal nature of , 27 3 Greene, Graham, 22 , 271 n. 1 Griselda ("Th e Clerk' s Tale"), 64 , 97; anal ysis of, 82-87 , 90-92; Guid o (The Ring and the Book), 2 4 Hamlet, 21 , 65, 93, 95, 264-6 5 Hardy, Thomas, 13 , 22, 85, 193 , 214, 221, 232, 27 1 n. 1 ; analysis o f The Mayor of Casterbridge, 168-92 ; personality of , 189, 192 , 26 4 Harry Halle r (Steppenwolf), 6 5 Hart, France s R., 24 1 Heathcliff (Wuthering Heights), 145 , 146 ; analysis of, 241-5 5

28 3

Hedda Gabler , 64 , 79, 153 , 154 , 211 , 212; analysis of , 52-63 ; compare d t o Edn a Pontellier, 217 , 218 , 222, 22 7 Hedda Gabler (Ibsen) : analysis of , 52-6 3 Helena (A Midsummer Night's Dream), 2 1 Helen Burn s (Jane Eyre), 149-51 , 157-5 8 Hemingway, Ernest , 27 1 n. 1 Henry Esmond (Thackeray) , 14 4 Henry VI {Henry VI, Parts 1, 2, 3), 93, 26 5 Henry VI, Parts 1, 2, 3 (Shakespeare) , 93, 264 Henry VIII (Shakespeare) , 26 5 Herzog (Bellow) , 2 2 Hesse, Herman, 6 5 Horatio (Hamlet), 2 9 Horney, Karen, 93, 94, 271 ; on feminin e psychology, 17 ; and Freud , 17 ; and Ib sen, 39 ; inner conflict s i n theory of , 19 , 30; interpersonal strategie s i n theory of , 19-29; intrapsychic strategie s i n theor y of, 29-35 ; life of , 17 ; mature theor y of , 17-35; selve s in theory of , 3 0 Horney, Oskar , 1 7 Horneyan studie s of literar y authors , published, 27 1 n. 1 Horneyan theory , applications of , xii , 3 16, 262-69 ; to autho r a s historical per son, 263-64 ; to authoria l personality , 263-67; to biography , 2 6 6 - 6 7 ; t o c o n ~ flicting interpretations , 2 6 8 - 6 9 ; t o c o n ~ flicts betwee n form , theme , and mimesis , 10-12; to contradictions i n theme an d rhetoric, 4-5, 263 ; to disparit y betwee n rhetoric an d mimesis , 2 6 2 - 6 3 ; t o educa tion plots , 15 , 263; to implie d author , 263-64; to inne r conflict s o f author , 263-65; to mimeti c characters, 5-9 , 262; to narrative technique , 13-15 , 267 68; to patterns o f action , 15 , 262-63; to personality o f author , 263-67 ; to psy chological analysi s o f rhetoric, 13 ; to reader response , 268-69 ; to vindicatio n plots, 15 , 263. See also analyses of characters and literary works Huffman, James , 27 1 n. 1 Iago (Othello), 24 , 102 , 25 3 Ibsen, Henrik, 64 , 217, 271 n. 1 ; analysis of A Doll's House an d Hedda Gabler,

39-^3

2.84 I

Index

Icarus, 21 8 Idealized image , 29- 3 2 Idealized self, 30-3 1 Implied author : Horneya n analysi s of , 263-64 Inner conflicts : o f author , Horneya n analy sis of, 263-65 ; Horney's theor y of , 19 , 30 It's a Wonderful Life (Capra) , 2 2 James, Henry, 27 1 n . 1 James, William, 3 5 Jane Eyre, 82, 168 , 169 , 193 , 194, 240 , 267; analysis of , 144-6 7 Jacob Horne r (The End of the Road), 167 , 227, 231 ; analysis of , 64-69 , 73-77, 80 81 Job, 9 2 Joe Christma s (Light in August), 2 4 Joe Garger y (Great Expectations), 12 4 Joe Morgan (The End of the Road): analy sis of, 64 , 66-72, 77-8 0 Joyce, James, 27 1 n. 1 Julien Sore l (The Red and the Black), 24 , 212

Jungian criticism , 3 Kellogg, Robert, 6 King John (Shakespeare) , 9 3 King Lear (Shakespeare) , 24 , 25, 86, 93 Klein, Melanie, 3 Kohut, Heinz , 3 Lady Macbeth (Macbeth), 24 , 93 Laing, R. D., 24 7 Lao She , 271 n. 1 Lawrence, D. H., 27 1 n. 1 Leon (Madame Bovary), 203-4 , 209-1 0 Lessing, Doris, 22 , 271 n. 1 Lewis, C. S., 27 1 n. 1 Lockwood (Wuthering Heights), 259-6 1 Lord Jim (Conrad) , 267 ; narrative tech nique of, 26 1 Lord Jim, 21 1 Lovborg (Hedda Gabler): relationshi p wit h Hedda, 39 , 52-6 3 Lydgate (Middlemarch), 14 4 Macbeth, 24 , 27, 17 9 Macbeth (Shakespeare) , 9 3

Madame Bovary, 240 ; analysis of, 1 9 3 214; compared t o The Awakening, 215 , 220, 22 2

Maggie Tulliver (The Mill on the Floss), 2 2 Mansfield Park (Austen) , 22 , 14 4 Margaret (Henry VI), 9 3 Marlow (Lord Jim), 2 2 Maslow, Abraham: o n basi c needs, 18 , 24 2 Master Builder, The (Ibsen) , 2 2 Mathilde d e la Mole (The Red and the Black), 2 5 Mathison, John K. , 25 5 Maugham, W. Somerset, 27 1 n. 1 Mayor of Caster bridge,The (Hardy) , 144 ; analysis of , 168-92 ; compared t o Madame Bovary, 193 , 196, 20 2 McCullers, Carson , 27 1 n. 1 Measure for Measure (Shakespeare) , 21, 93, 10 3 Meredith, George , 27 1 n. 1 Michael Henchar d (The Mayor of Casterbridge), 144 , 193 ; analysis of , 168-82 , 187-88 Middlemarch (Georg e Eliot), 14 4 Midsummer Night's Dream, A (Shake speare), 2 1 Miller, Arthur, 27 1 n . 1 Mill on the Floss, The (Georg e Eliot), 5, 22, 14 4 Mimesis: vs. plot, xii; as subversive force , 14 Mimetic characters : a Horneyan approac h to, 5-9 , 262 . See also analyses of individual characters Mitchell, Giles , 19 4 Moses Herzog (Herzog), 22 , 6 5 Multiple narrators : in Wuthering Heights, 240,267 Narcissistic solution : defensive strateg y of , 24-25, 194-96 ; examples o f i n litera ture, 25 . See Emma Bovary , analysis of Narrative technique : of The Awakening, 15; conflicts betwee n rhetori c an d mime sis exacerbated o r reduce d by , xiii, 1 3 14, 240 ; first person narration , 13-14 , 267; of Great Expectations, 15 ; Horneyan analysi s of, 13-15 , 267-68; of Jane Eyre, 15 ; of Madame Bovary, 15 ; of The Mayor of Casterbridge, 15 ; multiple

Index | narration, 14 , 240, 267 ; omniscient nar ration, 13-14 , 267 ; psychological analy sis of, 14 ; of Wutbering Heights, 15 , 240, 255-61 , 26 7 Nausea (Sartre) , 6 5 Nelly Dean (Wuthering Heights), 255-5 9 Neurosis and Human Growth (Horney) , 8 , 17-18, 19-20 , 26 , 39, 26 6 Neurotic Personality of Our Time, The (Horney), 1 7 New Ways in Psychoanalysis (Horney) , 17 , 26 Nietzsche, Friedreich, 2 3 Nora Helme r (A Doll's House), 64 , 79, 85, 9j, 217 ; analysis of , 39-52 , 6 3 Nostromo (Conrad) , 6 5 Notes from Underground (Dostoevsky) , 5 , 29, 26 7 Oedipus, 111-12 , 11 4 Oedipus at Colonus (Sophocles) , 11 4 Oedipus the King (Sophocles) , i n O'Neill, Eugene , 27 1 n. 1 Ontological insecurity , 24 7 Othello (Shakespeare) , 2 1 Our Inner Conflicts (Horney) , 17 , 19-20 , 39 Paradise Lost (Milton) , J9 Paralyzed intellectuals , 6 5 Patterns o f action , 15 , 262-63. See also Ed ucation pattern ; Plot; Vindication pat tern Perfectionistic solution : defensiv e strategie s of, 26-27 ; examples of , i n literature, 27 . See analyses of Antigone , Joe Morgan , St. John River s Perls, Fritz, 3 Persuasion (Austen) , 2 7 Pip (Great Expectations), 82 , 168 , 193, 194, 240 , 267 , 273 ; analysis of , 119-43 ; compared t o Jane Eyre , 145 , 146 , 165 , 167 Plot: education, xii , 15 , 263; vs. mimesis, xii, 11 , 15; vindication, xii , 15 , 263. See also Education pattern ; Mimesis; Vindication patter n Poet o f Sonnets (Shakespeare) , 93, 94, 96 Power and the Glory, The (Greene) , 2 2 Pride, neurotic, 31 , 33-34

28 5

Pride system, 31-3 4 Prospero (The Tempest), 21 , 93, 10 1 Psychobiography, 13 , 266-6 7 Psychological Approach to Fiction, A (Paris), 5 , 26 8 Queeg (The Caine Mutiny), 11 5 Rank, Otto , 3 Raskolnikov (Crime and Punishment), 2 4 Reader response , 268-6 9 Real self, 30-3 1 Red and the Black, The (Stendhal) , 5 , 24, 25, 21 2 Reich, Wilhelm, 3 Rennie Morga n {The End of the Road), 85, 97; analysis of, 64 , 66-72, 77-8 0 Resigned solution . See Detached (resigned ) solution Rhetoric: defined, n ; glorifie s neuroti c so lutions, 12 ; inconsistencies in, xiii, 13; inconsistencies of , i n The Awakening, 215-22; vs. mimesis, xii, n - 1 2 ; psycho logical analysi s of , 1 3 Richard II I (Richard III), 2 4 Richardson, Samuel , 27 , 271 n. 1 Ring and the Book, The (Browning) , 2 4 Rochester (Jane Eyre): analysi s of , 151-57 , 159,163-64, 16 7 Rodolphe (Madame Bovary), 205-7 , 21 1 Roquentin (Nausea), 6 5 Rosmersholm (Ibsen) , 5 5 Sainte-Beuve, Charle s Augustin , 19 6 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 6 5 Scholes, Robert, 6 Schorer, Mark , 255 , 256, 25 7 Schulberg, Budd, 27 1 n. 1 Self-effacing male s in Shakespeare, 9 3 Self-effacing (compliant ) solution : defen sive strategies of , 20-22 ; examples of , i n literature, 21-22 . See analyses of Anto nio; Elizabeth-Jane Henchard ; Griselda ; Heathcliff; Jane Eyre; Michael Hench ard; Nelly Dean ; Nora Helmer ; Pip; Rennie Morga n Self-hate, 3 4 Selves in Horney an theory: actual , 30-31 ; despised, 30 ; idealized, 30-31 ; real , 3 0 3i

286 I

Index

Sense and Sensibility (Austen) , 2 7 Shakespeare, 5 , 13 , 33; aggressive wome n in, 93; analysis o f The Merchant of Venice, 93-104; authorial personalit y of , 103-4, 264-66 ; criticism of , 269 ; Hor neyan studie s of , 27 1 n. 1 ; self-effacin g males in, 9 3 Shakespeare, works of : Antony and Cleopatra, 22 , 93; Coriolanus, 27 , 93; Hamlet, 21 , 29, 93, 95; Henry VI, Parts 1, 2, 3> 93; Julius Caesar, 24, 27; King Lear, 24, 25 , 27, 93; King John, 93 ; Macbeth, 24, 93; Measure for Measure, 21 , 93, 103; The Merchant of Venice, 93-104; A Midsummer Night's Dream, 21 ; Othello, 21, 24 , 27 ; Richard II, 25 ; Richard HI, 25; Sonnets, 21-22 , 93, 94, 96; The Tempest, 21 , 93, 101, 264, 265 ; Timon of Athens, 21 , 29, 93, 265; Titus Andronicus, 93 ; Troilus and Cressida, 29 ; Twelfth Night, 21 , 90 Shaw, George Bernard , 27 1 n. 1 Sheehy, Donald, 26 6 Shelley, Mary, 27 1 n. 1 Shirley (Charlott e Bronte) , 16 6 Shoulds, tyrannical, 30-3 3 Shylock (The Merchant of Venice): analysis of, 100-10 4 Sonnets (Shakespeare) , 2 1 Sophocles: analysis o f Antigone, 105-1 6 Sound and the Fury, The (Faulkner) , 2 9 Stendhal, 5 , 24, 25, 271 n. 1 Steppenwolf (Hesse) , 6 5 St. John River s (Jane Eyre): analysi s of , 160-63 Styron, William, 27 1 n. 1 Tamora (Titus Andronicus), 9 3 Tempest, The (Shakespeare) , 93, 264, 26 5 Tess of the d'Urbervilles (Hardy) , 22 , 8 5 Tess Durbeyfield (Tess of the d'Urbervilles), 22 , 85 , 90 Teufelsdrockh, Diogene s (Sartor Resartus), 65

Thackeray, W. M., 4, 5 , 22, 268-69 , 271 n . 1 Thematic contradictions : in The Awakening, 5 , 215-22; a Horneyan approac h to , 4-5, 263 ; in Vanity Fair, 5, 13 , 268-6 9 Thersites (Troilus and Cressida), 2 9 Third Forc e psychology, 6 7 Thompson, Lawrance , 13 , 266-6 7 Titus Andronicus (Shakespeare) , 9 3 Torvald Helme r (A Doll's House): relation ship with Nora , 39-52 , 6 3 Timon (Timon of Athens), 2 1 Timon of Athens (Shakespeare) , 93, 265 Troilus and Cressida (Shakespeare) , 2 9 Twelfth Night (Shakespeare) , 21 , 90 Underground ma n (Notes from Underground), 29 , 65, 80-8 1 Vanity Fair (Thackeray), 13 , 24, 197 ; conflicting interpretation s of , 2 6 8 - 6 9 ; t n e " matic contradictions in , 4-5, 268-6 9 Victory (Conrad) , 6 5 Vincentio (Measure for Measure), 21 , 93 Vindication pattern , xii ; in Antigone, n o ; and Cinderell a archetype , 15 ; defined , 15; Horneyan approac h to , 263 ; in Jane Eyre, 144-45 , I 5 ° J J 5 8 - 5 9 ; in The Mayor of Casterbridge, 168-69 , z 82 Viola (Twelfth Night), 9 0 Volumnia (Coriolanus), 9 3 Walter ("Th e Clerk' s Tale"), 64; analysi s of, 82-84 , 87-9 0 Warren, Rober t Penn , 27 1 n. 1 West, Nathanael, 27 1 n. 1 Wharton, Edith , 27 1 n. 1 Winnicott, D . W, 3 Wolfe, Thomas, 27 1 n. 1 Wright, Richard, 27 1 n. 1 Wuthering Heights, 267 ; analysis of , 240 61

About th e Autho r BERNARD J . PARI S i s th e leadin g authorit y o n Kare n Horne y and th e applicatio n o f he r psychoanalyti c theorie s i n literar y criticism . His first book , Experiments in Life: George Eliot's Quest for Values, reflects hi s training i n themati c analysi s an d th e histor y o f ideas . He ha s subsequently publishe d a serie s o f studie s tha t emplo y Kare n Horney' s theories to examine a variety o f authors an d critica l issues. These includ e A Psychological Approach to Fiction: Studies in Thackeray, Stendhal, George Eliot, Dostoevsky, and Conrad; Character and Conflict in jane Austen's Novels: A Psychological Approach; Bargains with Fate: Psychological Crises and Conflicts in Shakespeare and His Plays; and Character as a Subversive Force in Shakespeare: The History and Roman Plays. H e has edite d Third Force Psychology and the Study of Literature an d coedited Shakespeare's Personality (wit h Norma n Hollan d an d Sidne y Homan). His most recent book , Karen Horney: A Psychoanalyst's Search for Self-Understanding, wa s selecte d a s a Notabl e Boo k o f th e Yea r b y the New York Times Book Review. Paris receive d hi s Ph.D . fro m Th e Johns Hopkin s Universit y an d ha s taught a t Lehig h University , Michiga n State , an d th e Universit y o f Flor ida, where h e is Emeritus Professo r o f English an d forme r directo r o f th e Institute for Psychologica l Stud y of the Arts. He has been Visiting Profes sor a t th e Victorian Studie s Centr e o f th e University o f Leiceste r an d ha s held NE H an d Guggenhei m fellowships . H e i s an Honorar y Membe r o f the Associatio n fo r th e Advancemen t o f Psychoanalysis , a Scientifi c Associate o f the American Academ y o f Psychoanalysis , an d a member o f the editoria l boar d o f The American Journal of Psychoanalysis. H e i s founder an d directo r o f the International Kare n Horne y Society .

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