Illustrated History of Small Arms: From Flintlocks to the Lateat Specialised Weapons of Today [1 ed.] 1855018314, 9781855018310

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Illustrated with high quality artwork and photographs, the Illustrated History of Small Arms is an invaluable guide to the personal weapons that that helped decide the nature of warfare in the current century. Starting with a brief look at the technical aspects that paved the way for modem small arms, the book con¬ centrates of the development and nature of weapon types such as the rifle, machine gun, sub-machine gun, and pistols that form the bulk of the personal weapons used throughout the twentieth century. The primary tendencies in this period have been a reduction in gun calibre in recent years as rate of fire has become more significant, and a switch away from longer-range, and therefore toward

heavier

and

shorter-range

bulkier

weapons,

assault

weapons

characterised by lighter weight and more compact overall dimensions, allied with features such as larger magazines, provision for single-shot, burst and fully automatic fire, and a measure

of interchangeability in

families of related weapons. Appealing to the military specialist and the ‘buff’, the Illustrated History of Small Arms is a detailed guide to the infantryman’s weapons of the twentieth century, and also includes tables of the main weapons together with their primary data.

£16.95

Christopher Chant

TIGER BOOKS INTERNATIONAL LONDON

This edition published in 1996 by Tiger Books International PLC, Twickenham © Graham Beehag Books, Christchurch, Dorset All rights reserved Printed and bound in Singapore

ISBN 1-85501-831-4

Illustrated History of Small Arms

ctt:

This compact wheel-lock pistol was made in Saxony in 1590, and its design and construction are notable for the considerable size of the spring-operated wheel-lock firing mechanism.

ICJmall arms are projectile-throwing weapons designed for offensive or defensive employment by one person, or, in the case of some machine guns, two people and employing some type of controlled detonation to produce the gases that accelerate a small projectile along and out of the barrel. Other aspects of any such individual weapon include its furniture so that the firer can handle the weapon properly, a trigger mechanism to initiate the process by which the weapon is discharged, a method of reloading preferably as rapidly as possible, and a sighting system to ensure that the weapon can be aimed as accurately as possible. This is all straightforward in its basic sense but the diversity of options within this simple exposition remain considerable as designers try to produce weapons offering significant advantages. The first propellant used in firearms of all types was gunpowder. Despite the historical and military significance of this substance, its origins remain largely obscure, but it is known that the Chinese were using it by AD 1000. The first extant references to gunpowder in Western literature occur in the middle of the thirteenth century. The origins of small arms are also wrapped in mystery. It is clear that the Chinese and Arabs knew at an early date how to make and use 'roman candles' (probably based on bamboo tubes) loaded with layers of gunpowder and incendiary material as a means of starting fires at a distance for

The Early Period

Although completely obsolete in technical terms by Western standard, the matchlock was still being made in Japan up to the 1860s.

When the trigger bar of a primitive matchlock was pressed, the link dropped the cock against the pressure of its spring and thereby lowered the smouldering match against the touch-hole and the powder in it.

military purposes. But details of this weapon are lacking, as too are any clear indications of the first use of genuine firearms for the propulsion of projectiles from a tube. There are claims that the Moors used such a cannon in 1247 for the defence of Seville, and that the German town of Amberg possessed a rudimentary cannon in 1301, but these claims (especially that for the Moors) seem exaggerated. The first documented example of a gunpowder weapon is the cannon illustrated in a manuscript of 1326: the barrel of the weapon is pot-shaped and mounted on a four¬ legged table, and the projectile is a large finned arrow. There are other indications that such pot cannon were used at Ghent in 1313 and at Metz in 1324. From this it would seem that cannon were moderately widely used by the first quarter of the fourteenth century, indicating that gun protagonists must have overcome the enormous technical problems associated with gun founding and with the manufacture of gunpowder during the second half of the thirteenth century. What cannot be disputed, however, is the fact that the gunpowder weapons of the period were all of distinctly limited utility: they were structurally indifferent as a result of the period's poor foundry techniques, they were very heavy as there was no scientific method of determining the strength of materials and were therefore designed to the minimum thicknesses of metal required to contain the forces produced on the firing of the weapon, and they were characterised by only a short range as a result of the almost universal mismatch of the ball (often made of stone) and the bore of the weapon. Yet such weapons were militarily effective, generally as a result of the shock effect of their noise and considerable impact at close ranges, and spurred their designers to greater efforts in terms of reliability, range and projectile velocity.

Illustrated History of Small Arms

In the true flint-lock, activation of the trigger released the spring-load cock to fly forward and downward, scraping the flint held in its jaws against the steel, thereby showering sparks into the powder in the pan.

The earliest small arms were of the 'cannon lock' type in which the muzzleloaded weapon was touched off by the ignition (by the agency of a lighted coal or hot iron) of a small powder priming charge in the touch-hole leading down to the main propellant charge in the breech, which is the section of the barrel's rear behind the ball. The barrel itself was generally made of cast bronze or brass, although wrought iron was also used on occasion, and the combination of poor propellant (in powder rather than granular form and with only a low saltpetre content), a poorly fitting ball or bolt and relatively ineffective wadding resulted in a slow powder burn and pressure build-up, and thus a low muzzle velocity, low range and poor accuracy. That this was the case was perhaps fortunate, however, for the considerably faster bum rate possible with improved gunpowder, in combination with the better obturation (the sealing of gaps through which the propellant gas could escape), would have undone the work of the gun founder in the form of a barrel explosion. The cannon lock method of ignition was used in both artillery weapons and in the first small arms. The latter seem to have been small artillery pieces with the barrel attached to the end of a pole that was carried at the rear under the firer's right arm and at the front by the left hand, the right hand being reserved for ignition of the powder. The commonality of design features between pieces of artillery and small arms is a strong indication that the two types of weapon were probably designed and used in parallel. The cannon lock was probably used for 50 or more years, and although during this period improvements were made in the quality of the powder and the technology of casting weapons so that more effective barrels were produced, the basic design of pole weapons was not developed to any major extent. Thus the next important step in the evolution of small arms was the invention of the 'matchlock' in late fourteenth- or early fifteenth-century Germany. The salient feature of such a lock was burning match, which was a length of hemp cord soaked in a mixture of saltpetre and other chemicals so that it burned slowly but steadily, held in the upper end of a C-shaped bar hinged at its lower end to the barrel, so that by pushing the bar down with his fingers the firer could bring c o

The Early Period

The powerful spring of the wheellock was wound with an external spanner, which was turned until the lock’s wheel engaged the gear.

the match into contact with the priming charge in the touch-hole. This meant that the weapon could be held with both hands, making it possible to aim more accurately and thereby opening the way for the development of sights. From this stemmed the development of weapons with shaped butts, allowing the weapon to be held more comfortably and firmly in the hand or against the shoulder for steadier aiming, and in the course of the next half century the matchlock transformed the nature of small arms as designers evolved a genuinely effective firing mechanism (with a trigger-operated match holder of serpentine shape and a covered pan to prevent the priming charge from blowing away) on a weapon that also possessed sights and shaped wooden furniture. There were numerous variants on this basic theme, but what cannot be denied is the fact that the precursor of the true small arm had arrived. The weapon was still heavy, bulky and clumsy in use, which limited its military applications to static engagements, but with the matchlock the day of practicality had dawned for small arms. It should also be noted that the development of the effective firearm, sparked by the matchlock, also resulted in a significant expansion in related experi¬ mentation. The period from the end of the fifteenth century saw widespread development in Europe of rifled barrels (with the barrel grooved helically on its inner surface to spin the projectile and thus improve its stability and accuracy once it had left the muzzle), increasingly accurate sights, interchangeable barrels to permit the use of barrels of different calibres or even different types with the same firing mechanism and furniture, breech loading in an effort to secure a faster rate of fire, pre-loaded chamber pieces in another effort at higher rates of fire, repeating weapons generally fitted with cylindrical magazines, and multibarrelled guns. There was much technical and tactical foresight in most of these developments, but many of these weapons foundered on the inability of gunmakers to provide gas-tight seals between the breech and the barrel, leading to considerable loss of propellant gas pressure with consequent loss of range and penetrative power, not to mention a measure of danger to the firer. The accumulation of experience, design ability and manufacturing skill also played a great part in improving small arms through a reduction in their size and weight. Two immediate consequences were the increasing availability of the pistol and the improvement of the tactical mobility of larger small arms to the disadvantage of the armoured and horsed nobility whose military superiority (derived from the combination of protection and mobility) was soon whittled

This cutaway illustration reveals the basic internal details of the wheel lock.

Illustrated History of Small Arms

away to nothing. Henceforward, the gun-armed infantryman became one of the arbiters of the battlefield even though cavalry, with lighter protection in deference to armour's lack of utility and to the requirements of increased mobility, still exercised a major role. Despite its success, the matchlock was certainly not without its disadvantages in that the match burned away, could be dislodged from the jaws of the lock, and could be extinguished by rain. Fully conscious of these facts, designers tried to find another way to ignite the priming charge. The result was the 'wheel lock', which was probably invented in Germany or Austria during the first quarter of the sixteenth century. The wheel lock's concept was simple: instead of the match and its holder, the wheel lock had a rough steel plate turned, by the action of a pre-wound spring operated by a key, against a flint when the trigger was pulled, the mechanism being designed so that the resulting shower of sparks fell on the priming charge and ignited it. The wheel lock was immediately adopted all over Europe as it offered such advantages over the matchlock, and appeared in countless forms. A corollary of the wheel lock's adoption was the introduction of safety mechanisms: when small arms had been difficult to fire there seemed little point to such devices, but the simplicity and consistency with which a wheel lock could be fired prompted the adoption of devices to ensure that the weapon could not be discharged accidentally. The major problem with the wheel lock was its considerable expense, resulting from the need to use high-grade materials in a mechanism that required an accuracy of manufacture hitherto unknown. This led to the introduction of the 'snaphaunce' as an improved but cheaper version of the matchlock, with pyrites held in the jaws of the lock, and designed to snap down on a steel anvil beside the priming charge and so produce the necessary shower of ignition sparks. The snaphaunce first appeared in about 1525, but it was some 100 years before the logical development of the type appeared in the form of the classic 'flint-lock'. This worked in much the same way as the snaphaunce, but was designed so that the downward movement of the flint-carrying cock towards the steel lifted the frizzen that otherwise covered the priming pan to prevent the priming powder from blowing away or being wetted by rain. The flint-lock won universal acceptance, and it rapidly became the classic action for muzzle-loading small arms during the second half of the seventeenth century. Gun designers and makers, with a reliable action available to them in the form of the flint-lock, next expended great effort in the type's perfection. Better powder and manufacturing processes also exercised a major role in the swift progress made with flint-lock pistols and muskets in place of the earlier arquebuses, while the availability of improved iron alloys made it feasible to abandon bronze and

in 1U

This beautifully made pistol is an Italian wheel-lock weapon of about 1640, this view emphasising the relationship of the circular steel and the cock whose jaws held the flint against which the steel turned under the impetus of the main spring,

The Early Period

Top: This is an English snaphaunce revolver made by John Dafte in about 1680 as one of this period’s many far¬ sighted but technically overambitious attempts to create a multi-shot weapon. Centre: This is an English dog-lock pistol of the English Civil War (1642-48) period, and its most notable features are the cast bronze barrel and the unusual ball trigger. Bottom: This is a seventeenthcentury Scottish snaphaunce pistol with a fishtail butt and typical scrollwork decoration.

brass for the manufacture of small arms. These factors coincided to make possible the development of weapons that were lighter than their predecessors yet of sturdier construction and offering a greater degree of accuracy. As had been the case when the matchlock was introduced, designers were extremely bold in the development of variants, most of them intended to yield a higher rate of fire. Such experiments (there were also a limited number of 'production' examples) either used a breech-loading system based on increasingly successful obturation of the opening breech mechanism for the rapid loading of single rounds, or attempted the more complex combination of a revolving magazine and semi-automatic priming system for multi-shot capability. Huge ingenuity was summoned in an effort to make systems of this sort practical, but the inaccuracy of contemporary manufacturing processes meant that such experiments rarely progrssed to the production stage. It is worth noting that the adoption of the first primitive mass production techniques at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution had made it possible to make and issue service weapons with at least a measure of parts inter¬ changeability, thereby easing the logistics aspect of weapon maintenance and at the same time enhancing the tactical reliability of these weapons. Improved manufacturing capabilities also made possible the evolution of the rifle as an effective weapon. With its rifled bore imparting a considerable spin to the ball for gyroscopic stability and thus improved accuracy, the rifle demanded a lengthier and more expensive manufacturing process than the musket, and was therefore not particularly attractive to a military that had quickly become accustomed to the advantages of mass-produced standardisation and had evolved the volley-fire tactics best suited to the characteristics of the musket. The

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Illustrated History of Small Arms

From top to bottom, these eighteenth-century weapons are a German infantry musket, an American ‘Kentucky’ musket, an English ‘Brown Bess’ musket and an American ‘fusil’ musket.

military appreciated that the musket, with its shorter barrel and looser-fitting ball, was easier and quicker to reload, allowing ranks of infantry to deliver devastating volleys of fire at short ranges and over fairly protracted periods. The rifle did offer considerable attractions to the specialist, however, for this weapon offered far greater accuracy and range. The value of the weapon was amply proved by American irregulars in the War of Independence (1776-83), when their ability to 'pick off' British troops at long range proved to be one of the most important military lessons of the period. From this time onward, therefore, the military virtue of concentrated but short-range musket volleys was initially com¬ plemented and later replaced by rifle fire, which was employed at first by special units trained for reconnaissance and for harassment of the enemy with accurate long-range individual rather than volley fire. Up to this time the development of small arms had been limited by the use of

/

This illustration of a musket being fired helps to provide a perspective of the size of the weapon relative to the man using it, notable features being the length of barrel and furniture ahead of the left hand. The item carried in the furniture under the barrel is the ramrod.

12

The Early Period

gunpowder for ignition and to propel the ball along the barrel. Even after the adoption of the frizzen-equipped flint-lock, there were major difficulties with the tactical use of the weapons thus fitted, for the priming powder was still vulnerable to damp and could be blown away as the frizzen opened. Gunpowder had to be ignited to start the firing process, however, and as long as gunpowder remained the only suitable primer the gunmakers had to do the best they could with this material. Here, the chemist entered the scene to remove the gunmakers' reliance on gunpowder as the priming agent that provided the essential link between the mechanical action of the lock and the chemical transformation of the main propellant charge from solid grains to a rapidly expanding volume of hot gases. The requirement now was a more effective and less interruptable method to translate the mechanical energy of the lock into the chemical energy that could be used to fire the propellant charge, and such a means was found in fulminate of mercury, which explodes when struck sharply. Although the properties of fulminate of mercury had been discovered at the very beginning of the eighteenth century, it was not until the start of the next century that the compound was employed in weapons, at first in a simple evolution of the flint-lock action: fulminate of mercury in powder form was used instead of the gunpowder priming, the shock of the cock hitting the powder being sufficient to ensure detonation and the passage of hot gas down the touch-hole to ignite the primer and propellant charge. The main figure in this development was a Scottish minister, Alexander Forsyth, who produced an effective 'percussion lock' pistol in 1805, and then went on to design percussion caps to replace the loose powder he had used up to that time. In the percussion cap, the fulminate of mercury was sandwiched between two thin layers of paper that could then be produced in a long roll for use as required. The development of the new lock was rapid, and the paper percussion cap was soon supplemented by a tubular variety and by the copper cap. This was the definitive expression of the fulminate of mercury primer: the explosive compound was held in a copper shell with a short skirt that fitted tightly over a nipple extending from the touch-hole for detonation, and the consequent ignition of the priming powder under it, as the hammer of the lock fell. The percussion lock removed the ignition uncertainties of the flint-lock,

This contemporary illustration shows the Forsyth lock in the primed position (top) and ready-to-fire position (bottom).

Illustrated History of Small Arms

American cavalry under the command of Harry Lee, better known as 'Light Horse Harry’, at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse in March 1781 during the American Revolutionary War (1776-83). The mounted man is using a short musket of the type that would be developed into the carbine.

which rapidly disappeared. Fast progress was therefore in prospect for the automation or semi-automation of the loading process, and this was in turn made more feasible by continued improvements in the associated manufacturing processes. From the 1830s the rifle rapidly replaced the musket, the campaigns of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792-1815) having confirmed that the rifle was the better weapon under the right circumstances. At the time it was standard to make the ball very slightly smaller than the bore of the rifle so that it could be wrapped in cloth and then rammed without undue and ball¬ distorting effort down the barrel for a tight and relatively gas-proof fit. The next step was to produce a ball with protrusions that would fit into grooves, which at first numbered just two. By the early 1840s it was appreciated that the spherical ball was inferior in ballistic terms to a conical type, and the first cone¬ nosed bullets were issued in the mid-1840s despite problems with barrel fouling. The solution, at least in the short term, was provided by a French officer, Capitaine Charles Minie, who developed a slightly elongated conical bullet with a diameter less than the bore of the rifle for ease of loading and a hollow base fitted with a small iron cup: as the powder in the firing chamber was ignited, the iron cup was driven up into the base of the bullet and caused it to expand across the full bore of the rifle, primarily to engage the bullet in the rifling but incidentally preventing the escape of propellant gas and thus providing maximum muzzle velocity with minimal barrel fouling. There were still problems, resulting mainly from the indifferent standards of manufacture of both barrel and bullet, and although a number of experimental solutions were tried (including a hexagonal bullet in a hexagonal barrel), the solution was finally found to lie in more accurate manufacture, largely with the aid of improved machine tools. The main difficulty with small arms during the period was a low rate of fire: the use of conical bullets in rifled barrels offered considerable improvements in accuracy, and the use of copper percussion caps offered^great reliability, but the retention of the muzzle-loading concept maintained the practical rate of fire to so low a figure that there were severe tactical disadvantages. Improvements had been made with adoption of the paper cartridge, which was a waxed or greased container for the bullet and just the right quantity of powder for a single shot: after he had torn open the cartridge, the firer poured the powder into the barrel, and then rammed the cartridge paper down as a wad before spitting in the bullet and ramming it down. Even so, the firer had to go through the loading motions, prime the weapon and fit a cap before he could bring the rifle to his shoulder once more. The answer to this rate of fire limitation was clearly a breech-loading arrangement, which would remove the need to ground the butt and use a ramrod. Many such systems were evaluated during the second quarter of the nineteenth century, but most proved wholly unsatisfactory in terms of obturation: no matter how tightly closed the breech appeared to be, the firing of a round inevitably resulted in significant loss of propellant gases through the breech and thus a reduction in the pressure of the propellant gas behind the bullet. The problem of 1 A 14-

The Early Period

obturation was gradually solved, in part at least, and by the middle of the nineteenth century there were four practical breech-loading systems. The most celebrated of these is the bolt action invented by a German, Nicholas Dreyse, for his Zundnadelgewehr (needle gun). In this weapon, a sliding bolt was withdrawn to provide access to the breech, into which a paper cartridge was loaded before the bolt was closed. From front to rear, this cartridge held the bullet, the primer/ percussion cap and the propellant powder, and when the trigger was pulled, a long firing needle inside the bolt was driven forward through the powder to strike the percussion cap, so setting off the propellant which, Dreyse believed, burned more evenly when ignited at the front. It was little appreciated at the time, but the significance of the Dreyse system was not its needle or cartridge but its turn-bolt locking system, which was destined to come into its own only with the adoption of the metal cartridge later in the century. Next in importance was the drop-block locking system, which was utilised to a limited extent in Europe but found its greatest favour in the United States in the action of the classic Sharps weapons. The system is simple in its basic features, as any operating system must be if it is to provide adequate reliability and ease of maintenance under operational conditions. The lowering of the hinged trigger guard pulls down the breech block into mortises let into the frame, allowing a cartridge to be pushed forward into the chamber, after which the trigger guard is raised, lifting the breech block and locking the rear of the chamber. In the days of the paper cartridge the system had two other advantages: the raising of the breech block sheared off the back of the cartridge and thus provided a better seal in this vital area, and the removal of the cartridge's rear allowed the blast of the percussion cap to ignite the propellant charge without an intervening primer charge. This further simplified operation of the weapon, and also speeded the loading process. There were also a number of hinge-frame weapons similar in concept to the shotgun, the barrel being broken to provide access to the chamber and a good seal then being provided by the close fit of the component parts that could be manufactured to very close tolerances by the more capable machine tools that were now available.

15

Designed by Major Patrick Ferguson, a British officer of the 71st Regiment of Foot and one of the finest shots of his time, the Ferguson breech¬ loading rifle was based on the rotation of the trigger guard, by means of the attached lever, to drop the vertical screw plug that passed through the breech end of the barrel. As the quick-thread screw descended, the ball was dropped into the chamber through the opening in the top of the breech, and the powder or cartridge followed before the trigger guard was swung back to raise the breech plug. All that was then needed was for the pan to be primed and the cock to be pulled back.

Illustrated History of Small Arms

All armies of the flint-lock era carried large numbers of moulds so that bullets could be created from locally procured lead. From top to bottom, the moulds above are a French type with two sizes of bullet, an English type with two sizes of bullet, an English/American type, and a type for the manufacture of swivel-gun projectiles.

The last important type, but one that failed to secure more than moderate acceptance for rifles even though it later became universal for revolver pistols, was the revolver type that is generally accepted as originating with Samuel Colt in 1836. This is based on a cylindrical magazine loaded with five rounds successively brought into coincidence with the barrel by mechanical action controlled by movement of the trigger. As with all weapon systems designed for breech loading in the days before fixed ammunition was available, the Colt system had distinct limitations but it did offer its firer the considerable tactical advantage of having ready-to-fire rounds at a time when the opposition (unless he too had a Colt or other revolving rifle) had only one round. The Colt revolving rifle had its failings, but must nonetheless be recognised as a weapon that pointed the way forward for military weapons in having a magazine and mechanical reloading system to offer multi-shot capability. The second quarter of the nineteenth century is thus of major historical interest as the time in which the primary features of the modern rifle and pistol began to appear in genuinely practical forms. As yet, no single weapon had all of the requisite features, but several had begun to pull together the diverse features that were contributing towards far more satisfactory weapons. The major limitations at this stage were lack of stimulus, this deriving from the fact that there were few large-scale wars during the period, so that there was little impetus for sustained development and even current weapons could not be fully evaluated under operational conditions, and the fact that ammunition development did not proceed at the same pace as weapon development. However, the success of the percussion cap persuaded designers that it was now feasible to produce fixed ammunition (a bullet extending from the front of a case containing the percussion cap, primer and propellant) for direct loading into the breech. Although large numbers of ammunition designs were now produced, evaluated and mostly abandoned, the proliferation of fixed ammunition designs is a telling indication that the core advantages of the concept had been recognised in full. Such ammunition was easy to carry and simple to load, the latter offering a major increase in rates of fire. Dreyse's needle-fire round of 1830 has been mentioned above, and other interesting rounds of the period were the tit-fire type in which a copper-cased nipple containing the cap protruded through a hole in the rear of the breech block to be struck and detonated by the falling hammer; the Demondion tail-fire

The so-called duck’s foot pistol was a flint-lock weapon with a horizontal spread of four barrels to be fired as a massed charge.

16 ID

type in which the opening of the rifle for loading compressed a spring that, once the rifle had been loaded and the breech closed, snapped up on operation of the trigger to crush against the underside of the block, and so detonated a flat percussion tail projecting from the rear of the cartridge; and the pin-fire type developed from the Demondion type but using a pin driven by the hammer to strike and detonate the cap. Perhaps the most important of the pin-fire types was the Lefaucheux cartridge, which made its appearance in France during 1836. Although the pin-fire mechanism was eventually abandoned on the grounds that it was too complicated and too liable to accidental damage, the Lefaucheux cartridge for the first time successfully addressed the problem of breech obturation to prevent the escape of valuable propellant gas. Based on a cardboard body, the cartridge had a brass base that expanded under the pressure of the propellant gas to seal the gap between the chamber and the breech block, so preventing the movement of gas in any direction except up the barrel behind the bullet. The weapon/cartridge combinations were in general more satisfactory than the muzzle-loading muskets and less numerous rifles that had dominated up to the end of the Napoleonic War, but must nonetheless be characterised as being basically underdeveloped and too prone to failure under operational conditions. Nevertheless, the Dreyse gun gave the Prussians decisive advantages in the Prusso-Danish War (1864) and the Prusso-Austrian War (1866), for in spite of its many failings and an effective range as short as 165yds (150m) the Dreyse breech¬ loader was an enormous technological advance in comparison with the muzzleloaders still used by the Danes and Austro-Hungarians. From 1866 the French used the similar Chassepot needle-fire weapon with a rubber sealer to effect a measure of obturation until the repeated firing cycles of heat and pressure removed the rubber obturator's resilience. At much the same time the British were experimenting with ways to convert their Enfield muzzle-loading rifles into breech-loading weapons, the resulting competition finally being won by the American Jacob Snider. The Snider conversion called for the breech to be cut open, the removed section of metal then being hinged to open to the right and being fitted with a firing pin and spring operated by the original lock. One of the best features of the Snider system was the use of a claw on the breech block to extract the spent cartridge, but a significant disadvantage was the need to turn the rifle over so that the hot cartridge case would fall out.

17

Illustrated above are three types of early cartridge, and from top to bottom these are a pin-fire type with a fulminate of mercury primer, a centre-fire type, and the Colt type. Above left: This six-barrel flint¬ lock pistol was made in England by Brasher, and was a relatively successful early attempt to create a multi-shot weapon.

Illustrated History of Small Arms

The Americans had the edge over their European counterparts by this time, for already in widespread service were the Sharps and Henry drop-block weapons that were certainly far superior to the rifles used by the Europeans. Both offered complete reliability and great strength, and Henry's pioneering work with metallic cartridges and lever-action repeating rifles offered the certainty of considerable improvements without undue delay. It should be noted, however, that the starting point for Henry's work was the visionary but impractical Hunt Volitional Repeater of 1849, operated by two levers, one of them for the rocket-type ammunition and the other for the separately fed primers. The basic concept of the Volitional Repeater was then the starting point for Lewis Jennings, who evolved a repeating rifle with two features that were to become standard: the tubular magazine under the barrel and the 'toggle lock' action. Henry was involved in the making of the Jennings prototype for Robbins and Lawrence of Windsor, Connecticut and then moved to Smith and Wesson, for whom he worked on the Volcanic repeating rifle that combined features of the Jennings rifle with a special type of ammunition (each round was hollow-based to contain its own limited quantity of propellant powder held in place by a card base containing the priming charge) and the magazine for separate 'percussion pills' designed by Horace Smith. The Volcanic rifle was not in itself a success, but paved the way for Henry's later work. The solution to the problem of obturation now besetting the weapon designers lay with the metallic cartridge which could contain the powder, primer and percussion cap in its body, support the bullet at its front, and yet be made of a material ductile enough to expand readily as the round was fired and so seal the gap between the cartridge and the inner wall of the chamber to prevent the rearward escape of gases, but then contract as the gas pressure fell to allow easy extraction of the spent case before a new round was loaded. Another major ingredient of the metallic cartridge, and one that is often overlooked, is the need for the cartridge to provide the percussion cap with a solid 'anvil' on which it can be crushed by the hammer to ensure reliable detonation. The way had already been shown by the Lefaucheux pin-fire cartridge, which reached a practical level of reliability only when the modifications of Houiller, another Frenchman, had been incorporated. In such cartridges, designed primarily for sporting guns, the lessons of adequate obturation were evident for all to see, but most military authorities seemed wholly uninterested, leaving the development of effective cartridges to the civilian market in Europe and to the Americans. The latter drew the correct conclusions from the scientific evidence, which was then confirmed by

1 Q lo

The American ‘mountain’ type of flint-lock rifle was notable for its high degree of accuracy at long range, but required careful and therefore expensive manufacture.

The Mannlicher Carcano modello 1891 carbine was an Italian weapon in 6.5mm (0.256in) calibre and was notable for its use of a permanently attached bayonet, seen here folded down and to the rear under the forestock. Another feature of this bolt-action weapon was the six-round non-detachable box magazine forward of the trigger group.

The Early Period

The French Mousqueton modele 1892 was an 8mm (0.315in) calibre bolt-action weapon weighing 6.81b (3.1 kg) and fitted with a threeround non-detachable magazine.

The Mannlicher Carcano modello 1891TS was a 6.5mm (0.256in) bolt-action carbine weighing 6.91b (3.1kg), fitted with a six-round nondetachable magazine, and possessing a detachable bayonet.

the statistical results gleaned from an examination of muzzle-loading weapons abandoned at the Battle of Gettysburg (1863), when such weapons still constituted the most numerous weapon type in the armouries of both the Federal and Confederate armies. Of these 37,574 weapons found on the Gettysburg battlefield some 6,000 were correctly loaded and another 13,575 were empty: of the other weapons, one weapon had 23 rounds'in the barrel, some 6,000 weapons had between three and 10 rounds in the barrel and about 12,000 had two rounds in the barrel. There could be no clearer proof of the problems associated with muzzle¬ loading weapons under operational conditions, and the US authorities thus concentrated on the introduction of breech-loading weapons using the most effective cartridges available. The next step in the history of metallic cartridges was the development of the rim-fire cartridge, whose basic principles are inherent in much of Houiller's work and in the light cartridge produced in France during the early 1830s by Flobert for pistols and what are popularly termed 'parlour rifles' of very low power. It was the Americans who now took the lead, however, and the first successful rim-fire cartridge was that produced in 1857 by Smith and Wesson. The company was already a leader in the design and production of advanced ammunition with its process of producing comparatively cheap drawn cartridge cases, and it was thus' straightforward to include a priming charge spun into the rim that projected outward from the body of the case at its rear. This rim served to prevent the round slipping too deeply into the firing chamber by coming to rest against the base of the chamber, and therefore served as an admirable 'anvil' against which the primer-laden rim could be struck by the hammer to ensure the reliability of the detonation/initiation sequence.

The use of a brass or copper case also solved the problem of expansion and contraction to provide adequate obturation without detriment to the empty case's ejection, and this in turn facilitated the development of small arms rounds that were smaller and handier, and whose availability led to the designation of weapons that were smaller and lighter than their predecessors. Loss of propellant gas in inadequately obturated weapons such as the Chassepot meant that propulsive power was low, and to compensate for a modest velocity a comparatively massive bullet was used to ensure lethal kinetic energy (-mv2 where m is the mass of the bullet and v its velocity): the Chassepot fired an 11mm (0.434in) round and the Enfield a 0.577in (14.66mm) round, both with indifferent efficiency. The successful development of the Smith and Wesson rim-fire cartridge with its ductile case meant that rounds as small as 0.22in (5.6mm) became feasible for pistols and sporting rifles, although many military weapons were still chambered for calibres as large as

1Q iy

Illustrated History of Small Arms This diagram reveals the actions of some early European bolt-action rifles including, in the top two items, the Dreyse Zundnadelgewehr or ‘needle gun’ with its long firing pin to penetrate right through the bag of propellant to strike the primer located between the bullet and the propellant.

0.44in (11.2mm) or 0.45in (11.4mm) because of the lower velocity dictated by their combination of a shorter barrel and the limitations of black-powder propellants. However, the round fired even by these large-calibre weapons was smaller than that used in older guns, the smaller mass being more than balanced by considerably greater muzzle velocity for improved kinetic energy. Ammunition reached its definitive form with the evolution of the centre-fire cartridge as an alternative to the rim-fire type, which is still used in a number of small arms. The centre-fire type appealed to the military in particular as it offered the possibilities of rimless ammunition that could also be re-filled (the distortion of the rim making it impractical to re-fill a rim-fire cartridge) for use in the increasingly popular bolt-action weapon with a firing pin moving axially through the centre of the bolt to strike the percussion cap centred on a depression in the base of the cartridge. The first effective centre-fire round was that produced in France during 1857 by Pottet. This was nearer in concept to the card-cased shotgun type than higher-powered rounds, so the first practical centre-fire round was that introduced in 1861 by another Frenchman, F. Schneider. It was this centre-fire cartridge type that was specified for the British Snider-Enfield rifle produced after the Prusso-Danish War had confirmed the overwhelming superiority of the breech-loading rifle. All the components for the new generation of small arms were now available: the metallic cartridge provided good obturation and contained the right quantity of propellant, ignited with increasing reliability by an inbuilt primer, to propel a conical bullet mounted at the front of the case.

20

The Early Period

The standard British rifle from 1871 was the Martini-Henry, seen here in Mk II form dating from 1876. This was a leveraction weapon of 0.45in (11.43mm) calibre with the firing lock buried in the breech block of the falling block type.

The availability of metal-cased ammunition of adequate strength and reliability opened the way for more effective firearms based on breech-loading mechanisms, generally of the four types (or variants of the same) mentioned above, and initially of the single-shot type as the adoption of the breech-loading concept increased the practical rate of fire dramatically enough to obviate the immediate need for repeating weapons. The problem with a breech-loading system is not just obturation (solved by the metallic cartridge) but also the intrinsic strength of the lock that connects the moving part of the system to the fixed breech at the rear of the barrel. It is only if the locking system is adequately strong and reliable that the weapon can be deemed safe enough for general issue. The earliest and still the strongest of all breech-locking mechanisms is the drop-block system designed by Christian Sharps during the period of the percussion cap. The virtues of the system came to be recognised even more with the adoption of the metallic cartridge, for it provided great strength and unrivalled obturation. As a result, most of the original Sharps weapons were converted to accept rim-fire and centre-fire metallic cartridges, and the type maintained a superb record of reliability and accuracy, the Sharps rifle in varying calibres being the preferred weapon of buffalo hunters and 'sharpshooters'. Other drop-block weapons of the third quarter of the nineteenth century were generally American weapons, typical being the Sims, the Stevens, the Ballard and a 0.22in (5.6mm) Winchester designed as his first successful weapon by John M. Browning, undoubtedly the greatest figure in the history of small-arms design. Similar in concept is the falling block system attributed to Henry Peabody. The system was introduced in 1862, and features a breech block hinged at its rear on a line higher than the centre of the bore. The block is operated by a lever operated by the trigger guard, so that when the trigger guard is pushed down and forward, the lever pulls down the leading edge of the block, in the process opening the rear of the chamber and extracting the spent cartridge case so that a fresh round can be loaded before the raising of the trigger guard closes the action. Some US interest was expressed in the Peabody system, but the end of the American Civil War (1861-65) removed the spur for a radical innovation to be accepted, and the falling block system was therefore first adopted by the Europeans, who used the system on a widespread basis and also ordered weapons directly from Peabody after exhaustive tests had proved the system's reliability, safety and accuracy. The focus then shifted away from Peabody to a Swiss engineer, Frederick von Martini, who revised the Peabody action (with its external and separate hammer) to include initially a mechanism (worked by the loading action of a lever behind the trigger group) to cock the external hammer, and then a hammer inside the breech block. The Martini system was accepted by the British army in 1871 as the basis of the classic Martini-Henry rifle, which combined the Martini action with the polygonally rifled barrel designed by Henry. Other notable European manufacturers and designers to adopt and then adapt the Peabody falling block lock were the Bavarian Werder, the Belgian Francotte-Martini, and the British Westley-Richards.

01 Z.1

Similar in concept is the rolling block system devised in 1863 by an American, Leonard Geiger, as an exceptionally strong yet fully effective system. The system uses two major moving parts, the heavy breech block and the lighter hammer, each mounted on its own transverse pin below the level of the chamber. The breech block is fitted with a spur so that a thumb can be used to roll the block back and down (against the pressure of a spring that otherwise keeps the block against the face of the breech) once it has been unlocked, and in the centre of the rolling block is a hole containing the firing pin. As the trigger is pulled and the hammer moves forward, a projecting platform slides below the undersurface of the breech block and locks it in place so that the hammer can hit the firing pin only with the breech locked shut. A similar design was evolved by Joseph Ryder with the hammer's axis forward of that of the breech block, and the two systems were combined by Ryder into the Remington-Ryder system after the Remington company had bought both patents. By 1866 Remington was ready for production, but like the Peabody lock the type found favour with European forces rather than with the US military, and useful sales were also made in South America and China. Whereas the Americans proved the most inventive with the block-type actions for single-shot rifles and the Germans with the bolt-action rifle, the main advances with rifling came from Britain. Rifling had long been appreciated as a major factor contributing to accuracy, especially at longer ranges, but the development of more consistent propellants and adoption of the metallic cartridge made it imperative that effective rifling be developed to make full use of such weapons' consistently greater range. Two main factors contributing to the development of effective rifling were a better understanding of the physics of ballistic bodies, and the machine tools (initially of US manufacture but gradually replaced by British equipment after 1854) to produce accurate rifling. Until 1860, rifling had been of the polygonal type which, while effective, was

22

The traditional type of infantry action, based on the use of flint-lock muskets but carried over into the early days of the bolt-action rifle, was the shoulder-to-shoulder advance, here seen in this illustration of the 42nd Royal Highland Regiment of Foot (The Black Watch) advancing on the Russians with bayonets fixed during the Battle of the Alma in 1854.

The Early Period

At the time of the Crimean War (1851-54) between Russia and an alliance of France, Turkey and the UK, the British forces were equipped with percussion-cap weapons, most of them muskets of the type seen in this illustration of the ‘Devil’s Own', otherwise the 1st Battalion of the 88th Regiment of Foot (Connaught Rangers) before the Battle of the Alma.

particularly prone to black-powder fouling of the grooves in any type of sustained-fire engagement. In 1865 the British engineer Metford devised a new type of shallow rifling with curved rather than angled grooves and lands. This was an immediate success as it reduced fouling by a considerable degree, improved accuracy and minimised the degree of distortion that had previously afflicted both bullet and barrel. It is also worth noting that it was the Metford rifling system that introduced the 0.303in (7.7mm) calibre, which rapidly became the 'classic' British rifle calibre. Metford rifling soon became the standard type used throughout the world, and it was supplanted from the 1880s by the Enfield type only because of the introduction of nitro-cellulose propellants, which had a greater adverse effect than black powder on the smooth contours of the Metford rifling. The Enfield rifling was developed specifically for use with the new 'smokeless' propellants, and has deeper square-sided grooves concentric with the bore of the barrel. Hand-in-hand with the new type of rifling devised by Metford was the classic bolt action invented by the only real competitor to John Browning as the single most important small-arms designer, the German Peter Paul Mauser. Having trained at the government factory in Oberndorf, Mauser was well aware of the advantages offered by the Dreyse gun's adequate but primitive bolt action, which gave the Germans a decisive tactical edge in the Prusso-Danish and PrussoAustrian Wars, but decided that the Dreyse system was radically imperfect. After a period in the army, Mauser decided to investigate the possibilities of a better bolt action using the new type of metallic cartridge, about which he received much information from his brother Franz, who had emigrated to the USA and now worked for Remington.

23

Illustrated History of Small Arms

There had already been several largely unsuccessful attempts to improve on the Dreyse action, but Mauser proceeded with a single-minded dedication to solve a host of related problems in a logical and sensible sequence. The first step was the invention of an automatic cam cocking system in which the firing pin was withdrawn as the bolt was opened, so removing the possibility of accidentally discharging the weapon as the bolt was closed, and also making possible the introduction of effective extraction and ejection of the spent cartridge. Mauser then moved on to the design of the bolt-head face, which was made both gas-proof and removable, and to the classic Mauser turn-bolt locking system, which offers exceptional strength and safety. As might have been expected in the circumstances, Mauser was unable to interest the German authorities in his work, and thus secured his initial patents in the USA with the aid of the European representative of Remington. Plans for production in the USA and Belgium were not realised, but the political ramifications of this failure persuaded the German army to re-examine Mauser's work, resulting in the Mauser Gewehr 71 production model. Although more problems were to afflict his efforts, from this time forward Mauser was accepted as Germany's premier rifle designer, and as such was able to work consistently towards the development of improved models which really came into their own after the introduction of 'smokeless' propellants in the late 1880s. With effective bolt and moving-block breech-loading rifles available, and the French decisively defeated in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) by an emergent Prussia whose forces predominantly used the obsolete Dreyse rifle, European powers now began to rush into the development and procurement of new and better rifles offering major advantages over the current-generation weapons. The next logical step was thus a rifle in which a fresh round could be loaded directly into the chamber from a pre-loaded magazine by the operation of the weapon's breech block action. Only thus, it was rightly reasoned, could armies generate more firepower than opponents armed with manually loaded single-shot rifles. In fact, inventors had been at work for some time before any official requirement was issued. The first successful repeating rifle was the American Spencer design of 1860, which was made possible only by the development of the metallic cartridge. The Spencer looked like a conventional single-shot rifle of the lever-action type, but in the buttstock was a tube holding seven rounds successively pushed up from the butt plate by a spring. The action worked by the trigger guard lever comprised a semi-circular breech block that had a falling/rising element for unlocking/locking and a rotary element for ammunition feed. The work of Christopher Spencer, then only 20 years old, the rifle was not even examined by War Department officials, and it was only the chance that won Spencer an interview with President Abraham Lincoln, who was so impressed with the weapon that he intervened to secure orders from both the Navy and Army departments. Spencer's company boomed, but after the end of the Civil War orders were cut back and the company was bought by Oliver Winchester, who ceased production of the Spencer rifle and sold the surviving stocks to eliminate the only serious competitor to his own company. Another pioneer of repeating rifles was Tyler Henry, who only a few months after Spencer patented a Winchester repeater. This took longer to load than the Spencer, but the tubular magazine under the barrel carried 12 rounds, and with a thirteenth in the chamber the Winchester could be fired at an amazing 25 rounds per minute. The Winchester used an adapted toggle lock, in which the action of the trigger guard lever disjointed the lock and then drew it back, this action also cocking the hammer and bringing a cartridge into line with the breech block; as the lever was raised, the round was chambered and the action locked.

1A U±

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The Early Period

Seen in the hands of Indian cavalry during 1890, the Snider cavalry carbine was a simple single-shot weapon of the breech-loading type with a breech block hinged on its right-hand side to spring open when a catch was released. This allowed a cartridge to be pushed into the breech, whereupon the breech block was closed and its integral hammer pulled back to make the weapon ready to fire.

A major development incorporated in the succeeding Henry Repeating Rifle Model 1860 was the 'King improvement', namely a spring-loaded gate in the side of the breech to allow loading here rather than at the muzzle end of the tubular magazine as on the original model. With the reorganisation of the New Haven Arms Company as the Winchester Repeating Arms Company in 1866, the Model 1860 became the Winchester Model 1866. Although it had not been designed as a military weapon, the Model 1866 soon made its mark on history, and in the process spurred a great revival of interest in repeating weapons. The mark was the Battle of Plevna of 30 July 1877, when the overwhelmingly superior Russians were checked first by Turkish infantry armed With Peabody-Martini single-shot rifles used for accurate long-range fire against the advancing Russian masses armed with Berdan rifles and Krnka breech¬ loaders, and were then destroyed at close range by Model 1866 repeaters which the Turkish cavalry had given up to the infantry. Each man had 600 rounds of ammunition, and the wall of fire that the Winchesters generated was beyond the imagination and capabilities of the Russians, whose casualties are reckoned at 30,000 men on this day and on 11 September of the same year, when they repeated their tactical mistake. The lesson could not be missed, and every European army with any pretence to modernity started the search for repeating rifles. The Model 1866 was followed by the Models 1873, 1886 and 1894, and although not designed as military weapons (they used a low-powered 0.44 or 0.45in/11.18 or 11.43mm round) they were often used in that role when volume of fire was the paramount consideration. The same may be said of a number of other American lever-action repeaters such as the Ballard, Burgess, Colt Lightning, Kennedy and Marlin weapons. The only rifle designed to take a full-power military round was the Savage Model 1899, which used a rotary magazine (under the receiver) and a modified dropping block action. The capabilities of the lever-action rifle in combination with a tubular magazine were also examined by several European manufacturers, whose overall conclusion was that the system was better suited to sporting rifles than military weapons. As a result, the European manufacturers concentrated their efforts on

25

Illustrated History of Small Arms

A British soldier of the 2nd Battalion of the Gordon Highlanders, an infantry regiment used in the mounted role during the 1890s in South Africa, is seen with the Long Lee Enfield Rifle Mk I, a boltaction weapon with a 10round detachable box magazine.

box magazines of various types. The first such magazine was the Lee type designed by James Lee, who had been born in Scotland, brought up in Canada and then lived in the USA. In 1879, Lee developed his amazingly'simple yet revolutionary magazine as a box located centrally under the bolt to contain a number of rounds that were pushed upward by a spring to be stripped off individually and finally chambered by the forward motion of the bolt after this had been pulled back to open the breech and extract the previous round. Lee had not been working in a design vacuum, for he drew on the work of three British designers of the later 1860s who had appreciated the limitations of the tubular magazine for military rifles, but it was Lee who made the system practical and reliable. Lee also designed the Lee US Navy Rifle to use the new magazine, but then ran into problems with his sponsors and moved to the Remington Arms Company, whose flagging fortunes he revived with his magazine system. It is interesting to note that the early Lee magazine had no provision for a magazine cut-off, so if the weapon were to be used for single-shot fire the magazine had to be removed. This was clearly a limiting feature in the tactical sense, and later Lee magazines were provided with such a cut-off. In Europe, Mauser and the Austrian Mannlicher were also at work independently but on parallel lines to produce box magazine systems. France, Germany and Russia had already joined the ranks of those with repeating weapons with tubular-magazine rifles - adopted as rapidly as possible after Plevna - in the forms of the French Kropatschek, the German Mauser Model 1871/84 and the Russian development of the US Evans, but work was still proceeding with the development of box-magazine weapons better suited to the stringent requirements of the military. First into the field was the United Kingdom. The British army had been inclined towards the tubular magazine for its first repeating rifle during the first half of the 1880s, but learning that the Germans were seeking to replace their tubular-magazine weapons with box-

The Percival and Smith magazine pistol of 1850 was an attempt to create a powder and ball breech-loading weapon.

26

The Early Period This so-called 'harmonica' pistol of 1862 was an attempt to create a multi¬ shot weapon. The unique feature of the weapon was its laterally moving magazine block, each of whose chambers contained one pinfire cartridge.

magazine rifles, the British began an intense investigation of box magazine types. After studying the Lee action with a side-feed magazine, a Swiss type, and the Lee action with a Metford-rifled barrel of 0.402in (10.2mm) calibre, the British army finally opted during 1887 for the Lee action, the Metford rifling and the 0.303in (7.7mm) calibre to produce the great Lee-Metford Magazine Rifle Mk I, at first issued with a round using compressed black-powder propellant. Other European box-magazine rifles were similarly advanced, some like the Austro-Hungarian Mannlicher including features such as a clip-loading mechanism so that the magazine could be reloaded rapidly from rounds held together in a clip that fell through the base of the magazine after the rounds had been inserted. The whole concept of military firearms was about to change with the development and almost universal adoption of 'smokeless' propellants. Described above are the most important developments affecting the twohanded military firearm, designed to be supported against the shoulder by one hand on the buttstock (with the trigger located under it) and the other on the forestock about half-way between the bolt and the muzzle. Such weapons developed in practical terms from the arquebus via the musket to the breech¬ loading rifle and then to the breech-loading carbine. The carbine was evolved as the cavalry's equivalent to the rifle, with a shorter barrel (about 1ft 10in/0.56m) long, to make it suitable for carriage and use on the back of a horse. It was also adopted as the primary arm of second-line forces, who might need a weapon in emergencies for self protection and policing, but who would be hampered in their ordinary duties by the longer-barrel military rifle designed to deliver accurate fire at ranges as high as 1000yds (915m). The other main military weapon of the period was the pistol, designed for use in a single hand. Until recently, weapons of this type were customarily issued to officers, who were deemed to need a hand free for tasks such as signalling, and are now primarily a weapon of second-line units as well as the military police. From the earliest days of firearms there had been attempts to make pistols, but it was appreciated that the short-range capabilities of such weapons left the firer little time for reloading and that a multiple-shot capability would be useful. Some of the earliest repeating weapons were revolver pistols, in which a preloaded

27

Illustrated History of Small Arms

Top: The 0.38in (9.65mm) six-shot Colt cutlass-type revolver was a prototype of about 1842. Above: This 0.45in (11.43mm) Colt Peacemaker Model 1897 was a six-shot revolver with the Sears, Roebuck & Co. ‘Liberty’ grips.

The Early Period

CULTS PATENT

A§nulasi^

This Colt sidehammer pistol was presented to the Russian Archduke Mikhail Nikolayevich in 1858 and includes, in addition to the pistol itself, a cleaning tool, a box of percussion caps, a powder flask, a bullet mould, and a number of complete bullets.

chamber could be designed to feed a fresh round into line with the barrel as the previous round was fired. The production of a genuinely effective weapon of this type had to wait for the development of the fixed metallic cartridge, although progress thereafter was rapid. The first useful revolvers were the percussion-type weapons of Samuel Colt, who secured his initial patent for such a weapon in 1835. The Colt mechanism is simple: the cylindrical magazine is chambered for six rounds loaded (from the back once metallic cartridges had been adopted), and cut into the rear of the cylinder is a six-toothed ratchet which is moved round 60 degrees each time the hammer is cocked, the cylinder being locked into accurate position (with a chamber exactly behind the barrel) by a spring mechanism. The early Colt revolvers used a six-chambered cylinder in which each of the chambers was loaded with a ball and powder (or with a paper cartridge) before the individual nipple for each chamber was fitted with its percussion cap. Considerable care was taken in the design of the cylinder to prevent the flash from any one chamber reaching and detonating the charges in adjoining chambers. The first such weapons were made in 1836, but a six-year gap followed when the company went bankrupt, but by the mid-1840s Colt revolvers were again available, and quantities increased rapidly as the virtues of the type were appreciated and as Colt firmly crushed competitors' efforts to infringe his exceptionally tight patents. The most important of the early Colts were the Navy Model 1851 and the Army Model 1860 weapons, but the basic concept received a new lease of life with the adoption of metallic cartridges, which greatly eased and speeded the loading process by means of a hinged-gate mechanism behind the chamber. Colt produced his first metallic-cartridge revolver in 1872, and the most celebrated of these weapons is perhaps the most celebrated gun of all time, the Model 1873

29

Illustrated History of Small Arms

This 0.44in (11,18mm) Smith & Wesson Model 3 six-shot revolver was intended for the Russian market.

This is the Colt Model 1849 pocket revolver.

This is a Colt Navy Model 1851 revolver with engraved decoration added in about 1853.

This decorative pistol is a Derringer No.3.

The Early Period

This Colt Navy Model 1851 was presented to Tsar Nikolai I of Russia in 1854.

The Colt Navy or Belt pistol of 1851 was a revolver in 0.36in (9.14mm) calibre.

A decorated Colt Navy pistol which was engraved as a show model for the bicentenery of the Colt company in 1926.

W Celts W Btt.ett.tett

f k

This is one of a highly decorated pair of Colt Model 1860 revolvers in 0.44in (11.18mm) calibre presented to the King of Sweden in 1963.

31

SX S. IS.} ■ 1 77R - in?

Illustrated History of Small Arms

This is a 0.44in (11.18mm) Colt Peacemaker made by Smith & Wesson.

HTHHEHEnCBB

This is a 0.36in (9.14mm) Lippold Presentation Colt Navy Model 1861 revolver with additional decorative engraving.

This is a Colt Navy Model 1851 pistol with additional decorative engraving.

This is a 0.45in (11,43mm) Colt Peacemaker Model 1873 six-shot revolver.

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The Early Period

This is a 0.44in (11.18mm) Savage revolver.

fit

This is a Webley Longspur revolver of 1853.

mm * X I'l'lWM, :

This is a Colt Third Model Dragoon revolver with a Mexican snake and eagle motif on its ivory grip.

Revealing a strong Smith & Wesson design influence in its break-open configuration, this is a 9mm (0.354in) Type 26 double¬ action revolver that entered service in 1893 firing a unique type of rimmed pistol cartridge.

Illustrated History of Small Arms

Fitted with a detachable shoulder

otherwise known as the Peacemaker and a feature of nearly every Western film ever made. Other manufacturers who came into the market once the Colt patents expired were Remington, Savage, and Smith and Wesson. The last contributed greatly to the genre with the introduction of the hinged frame, in which the weapon is 'broken' to allow easy access to all the chambers. Initial models were broken forward and downward, but in 1892 the French devised a side-hinged system allowing the frame to be swung out to the left for reloading. A variation on the forward-breaking system was the Dodge fast-loading system, in which the breaking action operated a cam that lifted out all the cases in the cylinder to permit rapid reloading.

The 7.62mm (0.3in) Mannlicher Modell 1894 was a semi-automatic pistol with a blow-forward action.

Produced in both single- and double-action forms, the Nagant Model 1895 revolver was adopted by the Russians in 0.3in (7.62mm) calibre, and an unusual feature of the ammunition was the seating of the bullet below the cartridge case mouth to provide better obturation (sealing against gas leakage).

The Early Period

This is the Mauser Modell 1878 solid-frame revolver. The Colt .357 Python

Made by Paterson in New Jersey, this 0.28in (7.11mm) Colt revolver was a very early weapon with a barrel only 1.8in (2.74cm) long.

This is the Colt No.2 pocket pistol

The Colt .44-40 double action Frontier of 1878.

Illustrated History of Small Arms

L/lllthough great improvements had been made in the reliability and consistency of gunpowder over the centuries, from the military point of view such powder had two severe limitations: its burning produces large quantities of dark smoke, and its burning is too quick for effective use in barrelled weapons. The first factor had unfortunate consequences on the battlefield, for prolonged firing produced what was in effect a dense 'fog' that hung over the field, eventually making breathing difficult and reducing visibility to a tactically significant degree. The telltale cloud of black or grey smoke produced by the burning of black powder also made the use of concealed positions difficult. The second factor was of more importance to the designer, for it largely dictated the design of various weapons: the problem with gunpowder from the design point of view is that it burns extremely rapidly in most cases and so imposes enormous strains on the breech, the barrel and even the bullet because of the sudden and extremely high accelerations resulting from the virtually instantaneous combustion. It was the military liability of smoke clouds that led to the initial research into what were at first termed 'smokeless' propellants, and although Germany was in the forefront of development, it was the French who reached this important goal first. In fact, the development of 'smokeless' propellants was more an evolutionary process than an invention. As early as the 1830s' French chemists had started work on propellants with low smoke signatures, but it was the Germans who led the way, with Schoubein and his guncotton in 1846,

Hartig who showed in the 1860s how the rate of combustion could be controlled, and Schultz and Volkmann who developed the first primitive 'smokeless' propellants in 1867 and 1871 respectively. In 1884, it was Vieille who was finally able to consolidate these endeavours by producing what the French government was so desperately seeking in an effort to redress the military balance that had swung so heavily in favour of the Germans during and after the Franco-Prussian War. Vieille's propellant was essentially a mixture of nitro-cellulose and picric acid, the latter soon being replaced by ether and alcohol. Other nations were also developing propellants, and the most successful of these in the late 1880s resulted in the British cordite, which was a mixture of nitro-glycerine and guncotton turned into a gel by a solvent and then solidified by the addition of a mineral stabilizing agent.

36

The first modern rifle adopted by the Belgian army was the 7.65mm (0.3in) modele 1889 bolt-action weapon, which was based on the Mauser type of stripper-clip charger and the Mauser ‘modern’ action with the solid-bolt body bored from the rear and carrying its locking lugs at the head of the bolt.

A New Beginning

This photograph of Confederate dead after the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863 reveals the type of percussion-cap weapon used by most troops in the American Civil War (1861-65).

Vieille's propellant was highly successful, and freedom from smoke was only one of the new propellant's advantages over black powder, as experimentation soon revealed. The more important properties of the new type were thus shown to be greater chemical and ballistic efficiencies (providing higher but also more consistent power, weight for weight in comparison with gunpowder, for the propulsion of the bullet) in combination with significantly smoother combustion qualities. This meant that the mass of metal needed to contain gunpowder's combustion could be scaled down for weapons using nitro-cellulose propellant, a tendency further increased by the fact that the smoother acceleration made possible the use of smaller bullets that left the weapon at far higher muzzle velocities than those fired with black powder. A bonus for the average soldier was also the fact that the new propellant fouled the barrel far less than did black powder, thereby easing his task in keeping the weapon clean. Conversely, however, the designer was faced with a different set of barrel-wear problems. Another problem now facing the designer was that the lead bullet was incapable of handling the accelerations (in both the radial and axial planes) imposed by the new propellant. The solution, already available as a result of problems experienced with the radial accelerations imposed by the improved

37

Illustrated History of Small Arms

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rifling systems, was the jacketed bullet with a copper or cupro-nickel exterior over a lead core. This also proved capable of handling the stresses of the new propellant, and additionally possessed improved ballistic qualities as a result of the higher length-diameter ratio provided by the longer but slimmer bullet, and the inward movement of the centre of mass. The French rifle designed to use the new propellant was the Lebel Modele 1886, which had a bolt action and an eight-round tubular magazine, but the 8mm (0.315in) calibre was markedly smaller than that of most black-powder contemporaries. The muzzle velocity was considerably greater, however, at 2,379ft (725m) per second. Other nations were not far behind: Mauser designed the 7.65mm (0.301in) Model 1889 for Belgian manufacture before developing the Model 1893 for Spain and finally the definitive Gewehr 1898 for Germany in 7.92mm (0.312in) calibre. Austria-Hungary used a number of cleverly designed Mannlicher weapons; France also adopted the Berthier carbine, Italy had Carcano-designed but Mannlicher-inspired rifles, and the United Kingdom developed the Lee-Metford into the Lee-Enfield, perhaps with the Gewehr 1898 the definitive bolt-action rifle of all time. The effect of these changes was enormous, for the theoretical range of weapons using black-powder propellant became the practical range of weapons using nitro-cellulose propellant, radically increasing the range of tactical engagement on a battlefield and offering greater visibility for soldiers who could carry far larger numbers of rounds for weapons that were easier to handle. The advent of the magazine combined with the new propellant to open another major avenue of development to weapon designers and hence the armies of the

90 \3o

This is the bolt action and magazine of the German Gewehr 98, which is arguably the finest bolt-action military rifle ever made. This 7.92mm (0.312in) calibre weapon was designed by Mauser as an exceptionally strong weapon, and was made in vast numbers. The other details of this seminal weapon include a weight of 8.811b (4kg), length of 49.2in (1.25m) with a 29.1 in (0.74m) barrel, five-round staggered-row fixed box magazine, and muzzle velocity of 2,099ft (640m) per second.

A New Beginning

This is the action and magazine of the Russian Mosin-Nagant Ml891 rifle, a bolt-action weapon in 7.62mm (0.3in) calibre. The other details of this weapon included a weight of 10.631b (4.82kg) with bayonet and sling, length of 68.2 or 51.37in (1.73 or 1.305m) with or without the bayonet, barrel length of 31.6in (0.8m), fiveround inline box magazine, muzzle velocity of 2,660ft (810 m) per second, maximum sighted range of 2,495yds (2,280m), and rate of fire of between eight and 10 rounds per minute.

world. This avenue was the automatic operation of weapons, long a dream of designers and operators alike as a means of raising the rate of fire by automating the ejecting/cocking/loading cycle and so leaving the firer free to concentrate on aiming. Clearly such a system was only feasible with an ammunition magazine on which the automatic portion of the operating cycle could draw, and the clean¬ burning properties of nitro-cellulose propellants made it possible to draw upon the surplus gas energy in the barrel as the dynamic force for the operation. Essentially, the type of action initially desired by the designers was semi¬ automatic, or self-loading after the manual loading of the first round. There are several ways in which this objective can be attained, but safety considerations dictate that full-power weapons such as a rifle be fired only from a locked breech, so the gas-operated system was generally adopted for self-loading weapons. The basics of such a system are simple: as the first round is fired after manual loading, a small percentage of the gases driving the bullet up the barrel is tapped off through a small hole in the barrel, turned through 90 degrees and then used to drive back a piston (although some systems exclude the piston) whose rearward motion unlocks the breech and drives back the bolt (in the process extracting and ejecting the spent case) against the pressure of a return spring, which takes over after the energy of the gas/piston system has been expended to push the bolt forward (in the process stripping a fresh round from the magazine and chambering it), cock the action and lock the system after it is completely closed. At this point the soldier can pull the trigger to fire a round and initiate the reloading cycle once again. Quite apart from the increased rate of fire, a semi¬ automatic does not require the soldier to remove a hand from the weapon to

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The Mannlicher Carcano modello 91/24 carbine was introduced in 1924, and was an indifferent weapon in 6.5mm (0.256in) calibre. Some of this weapon’s other details included a weight of 6.91b (3.1kg), length of 36.2in (0.92m) with a 17.7in (0.45m) barrel, six-round inline non-detachable box magazine, and muzzle velocity of 2,297ft (700m) per second.

on

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Illustrated History of Small Arms

The first man to fully appreciate the problems of semi-automatic action was an American, Hiram Maxim. After early work in which he used the recoil of a Winchester rifle to work a system of springs and levers that reloaded and recocked the weapon, in 1884 Maxim developed a semi-automatic rifle mechanism of the recoil-operated type but soon found that such a system possessed relatively unsafe operating aspects and was also too heavy and bulky for practical use, especially in a weapon whose loaded weight should be no more than about 101b (4.5kg). Unlike many inventors of weapons-related features, who are often obsessed with their concept to the exclusion of practical matters, Maxim appreciated this point fully and accordingly turned his attention to a gas-operated system offering the probability of reduced bulk and weight. The first successful Maxim gas-operated self-loading rifle was an 1891 conversion of the British Martini-Henry, but Maxim thereafter turned his attentions almost completely to fully automatic guns (machine guns). Maxim's pioneering work was widely appreciated, however, and thus constituted the basis of many other semi¬ automatic weapons. At much the same time as Maxim, Mannlicher was working on a similar recoiloperated system in Austria-Hungary. And while the Mannlicher system was generally less refined than that of Maxim, it did use perhaps the first accelerator, a pivoted device to speed the movement of the breech block after the breech had been unlocked. Little came of Mannlicher's work in the short term, but it is interesting to note that John Browning was at the time working in Belgium at the Fabrique Nationale factory in Herstal, a facility that took considerable pride in

adopted in December 1902 as the standard British military rifle and is still in service with several countries. The Variant illustrated is the Rifle No.1 SMLE Mk IIJ that was adopted in World War I (1914-18) and made by three main manufacturers to the extent of more than 3.75 million units. The details of this magnificent weapon include a calibre of 0.303in (7.7mm), weight of 8.621b (3.91kg), length of 44.5in (1.13m) with a 25.19in (0.64m) barrel, 10-round detachable box magazine, and muzzle velocity of 2060ft (628m) per second.

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40

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1

A New Beginning

keeping fully up to date with small-arms development all over Europe. The pivoted accelerator was later a key component of Browning automatic weapon designs. There were many designers at work on the same basic lines at this time, and all were hampered to greater or lesser degree by the inconsistent firing characteristics of contemporary black-powder cartridges, a problem alleviated by the French development of the Lebel cartridge and the universal adoption of nitro-cellulose propellants. The first real fruit of the propellant revolution, so far as semi-automatic weapons were concerned, was a Mannlicher weapon based on the 1885 design but much improved in detail. The system was gas-operated, but additions comprised a Mannlicher box magazine so that the weapon could be loaded from above, a hold-open device so that the bolt was held back when the magazine was empty as a means of facilitating rapid reloading, and a cocking handle. This fully practical weapon found no official favour, but Mannlicher continued his work, in 1893 producing two more designs derived from turn-bolt and straight-pull repeating rifles, in 1894 two further weapons with solid breeches and moving barrels, in 1895 a locked-breech gas-operated rifle, and in 1900 another locked-breech gasoperated rifle. Although none of these weapons was accepted for production, they blossomed with innovative features, and while several items from the 1895 weapon were later used in the US Garand rifle, the 1900 weapon contributed to the Lewis light machine gun.

Some indication of the enthusiasm with which designers were trying to develop practical semi-automatic rifles is provided by a partial list of experimental models: in Denmark, the Bang rifle was produced in 1911; in France, a series of development models was produced at the St Etienne arsenal from 1894 onwards; in Germany, Mauser developed an experimental but not very effective rifle in 1898 and two more workmanlike models in 1902; in Italy, Cei-Rigotti produced a thoroughly workable weapon in 1900; in Japan, Nambu produced a useful weapon in 1904; in Sweden, the Kjellman rifle appeared in 1904; and in the USA, Remington and Winchester developed self-loading rifles in 1906 and 1903 respectively. Some of these weapons contributed to further developments, the

A highly unusual single-shot bolt-action rifle, the German T-Gewehr was developed in World War I as an anti-tank weapon, and was thus a largecalibre weapon firing a 13mm (0.512in) high-velocity round whose aerodynamic features were later adopted for the creation of the bullet fired by the classic 0.5in (12.7mm) Browning heavy machine gun.

Al

The standard bolt-action rifle in French service from the later part of the nineteenth century to the late 1930s, the Lebel modele 1886 was one of the first ‘modern’ bolt-action rifles adopted by any of the great powers, but even in its modele 1886/93 strengthened version was an indifferent weapon chambered for a poor 8mm (0.315in) round. The other details of this weapon included a weight of 9.351b (4.25kg), length of 51.3in (1.30m) with a 31.4in (0.8m) barrel, eight-round tubular magazine, and muzzle velocity of 2,380ft (725m) per second.

| Illustrated History of Small, Arms

French and German models to a greater degree than their contemporaries in other countries, but the first semi-automatic rifle to be used in combat was the Mondragon, which was a Mexican design. Small numbers were produced in Switzerland in 1913 and 1914, and featured a 10-round box magazine and a simple yet effective gas-operated system: a few Mondragons found their way into the hands of observers in aircraft during the early months of World War I. Allied to the self-loading or semi-automatic rifle in many of the basic operating principles is the machine gun, which is a fully automatic weapon designed to produce large volumes of rapid and concentrated fire. The notion of such a weapon is virtually as old as the firearm itself, but the same practical constraints that prevented the development of an effective semi-automatic rifle until the later 1880s also applied to the machine gun. However, this should not be construed as a denial of the fact that many ingenious designers had tried to develop weapons of this basic type as volley guns (with many barrels and designed to deliver a simultaneous volley, for example a few fifteenth-century organ guns and the 25barrel Billinghurst Requa volley gun of the American Civil War) and crank guns (using a hand crank to operate multiple chambers for a single barrel, such as the Ager Coffee Mill Gun of 1862). The American Civil War proved itself a decisive forcing ground for the machine gun, as it did for several other weapon types, and two of the more interesting results were the Williams and Gatling machine guns, each of them of the hand-operated type. The former was a Confederate weapon

/10 ^:Z

The crew of a British armed trawler in World War I practise with their Rifles, Magazine, Lee Enfield Mk I. This was the first version of the Lee Enfield to enter .service, an .event that took place in 1896, and was later known as the Long Magazine Lee Enfield to differentiate it from the Short Magazine Lee Enfield. The details of the original weapon included a weight of 9.251b (4.2kg), length of 49.5in (1.26m) with a 30.19in (0.77m) barrel, 10-round detachable box magazine, and muzzle velocity of 2,060ft (628m) per second.

A New Beginning

Used in some numbers during World War I, the Ross rifle was a Canadian weapon of considerable accuracy but without the strength needed for a service rifle. The details of this bolt-action weapon in 0.303in (7.7mm) calibre included a weight of 9.8751b (4.48kg), length of 50.56in (1.285m) with a 30.15in (0.775m) barrel, five-round box magazine, and muzzle velocity of 2,600ft (790m) per second.

designed to fire lib (0.45kg) rounds with a calibre of 1.57in (39.88mm): while one man turned the crank that operated the sliding breech block, others of the crew fed in paper cartridge rounds, and the type had a rate of fire estimated at 65 rounds per minute. Whereas the Williams gun was so heavy that it had to be moved on an artillery carriage, the Gatling was an altogether handier design, at least from the tactical point of view, and may therefore be reckoned as the world's first successful machine gun even though it was of the mechanical rather than gas-operated type: operation of the hand crank turned the mechanism that loaded, cocked, fired, extracted, ejected and reloaded the weapon, which had six 0.57in (14.48mm) barrels turning round a common centre in the earlier forms of this weapon. The whole device was practical if somewhat heavy and cumbersome, but was designed for the protection of important positions and lines of communications rather than for field operations. Further development improved the mechanical reliability of the Gatling gun, so that at times such weapons were deployed in the field, and until the advent of more advanced weapons the Gatling type was not uncommon in the USA and Europe. The French placed enormous reliance on a comparable weapon during the Franco-Prussian War, but were greatly disappointed by the general lack of success enjoyed by this deReffye Mitrailleuse, which was basically a frame containing 37 (later reduced to 25) rifle barrels. The loading device was a metal plate carrying ammunition holes that corresponded with the rear of the barrels: after the breech block had been moved back, the ammunition-loaded plate was dropped into slots at the sides of the breech block, after which the breech block was screwed forward to drive the rounds into the barrels, where they were fired by the rotation of a handle. With a ready supply of ammunition plates and an experienced crew, the French reckoned on a rate of fire as high as 300 rounds per minute. The whole device was extremely clumsy and heavy, however, and the French considered it almost as a piece of artillery to be used en masse against the Prussian artillery, whose light field pieces far outranged the Mitrailleuses. As with the self-loading rifle, the machine gun owes its practical origins (at least in its current form) to Hiram Maxim, who had already experimented with self-loading rifles using the recoil of the weapon as the energy source for the reloading cycle, but rapidly recognised that the principle was more suited to a fully automatic weapon such as a machine gun, whose lack was sorely felt by most European armies. Maxim set to work and in 1884 produced his first machine gun, which worked perfectly from the start of firing trials as a result of the design expertise of Maxim and the skill of the machine operators who had faithfully implemented his desires using the latest machine tools. The system used by Maxim was short recoil: as the first round was fired, the barrel and bolt were locked together, recoiling together for about 0.75in (19mm) before the barrel was halted and a toggle mechanism unlocked the bolt, which now continued to move to the rear on its own, in the process compressing a return spring, which then shot the bolt forward again to strip a fresh round from the feed mechanism, chamber it, lock itself to the barrel and then release the firing pin for the discharge of the round and the start of a new cycle. The feed mechanism was a canvas belt holding

43

Illustrated History of Small Arms

333 rounds, and a fastener at the end of this permitted belts to be linked together for continuous fire at different rates, controlled by a variable oil buffer device set by a lever on the right of the weapon's receiver. Despite the fact that it used black-powder rounds, this 1884 model worked reliably and effectively. The British army was quick to recognise the significance of the new weapon, and ordered from Vickers a production model that entered service in 1891. An early indication of the efficiency of the type occurred in the Matabele War (1893-94): on this occasion a group of 50 British infantrymen, armed with rifles and four Maxim guns, were faced by some 5,000 Matabele. In the course of a 90-minute engagement the Matabele charged the British position four times, and each time were repulsed by the well-sited Maxims. After the action the victors counted some 3,000 Matabele dead on the field. Similar occurrences then became frequent in the border and tribal wars of the British Empire, and although some might claim that these successes were achieved only against indifferently led and spear-armed tribesmen such as the Matabele, it is worth noting that most successes were gained against the tactically astute hill tribesmen of the NorthWest Frontier regions of India. Even so, these were police actions rather than genuine wars, and it was the success of the Maxim gun in the Battle of Omdurman, which effectively ended the Dervish War (1896-98), that secured full acceptance of the weapon: the British commander, General Sir Garnet Wolseley,

Top, above and above right: The Gatling gun was the world’s first genuinely effective rapid-fire weapon, although it was not a true machine gun as it was externally powered by the manual rotation or rocking of a hand crank. The weapon was heavy, and therefore better suited for the defence of fixed positions rather than employment in mobile operations except as a piece of horse-drawn light artillery, and was produced in a number of forms with different numbers of barrels, different calibres, and different feed systems including a horizontal drum, vertical stay and, perhaps most commonly, the Accles vertical drum.

AA

A New Beginning

■ -• i/

Illustrated History of Small Arms

\

A*l

The world’s first true machine gun, in which the energy surplus to the firing of one round was used to complete the cycle of extracting the spent case, loading a fresh round and recocking the action, was developed by Hiram Maxim. This is an example of an early Maximum machine gun on a naval pedestal mount with a protective shield. The weapon was of the water-cooled type using recoil operation, and was supplied with ammunition by a fabric belt. *

had been an advocate of the Maxim since its earliest days, and made sure that some of the guns were available for his troops in this war to recapture Sudan. Of the 20,000 or so Dervish dead at Omdurman, about 15,000 are thought to have been killed by the Maxim guns of the British force, which suffered the extraordinarily low casualty rate of only two per cent against very determined opposition. The main tactical limitation of the machine gun at this time was its weight, with the result that the early operators thought of the machine gun as suitable only for the delivery of covering fire in an attack, and for the provision of defensive fire as part of the defences of a fortification. In this thought they were supported by the weight of the water-cooled Maxim and its heavy mountings,

46

A New Beginning

The Maxim machine gun was also used on a light wheeled carriage for mobile operations in areas such as Africa. Right: These cutaway views reveal the basic simplicity of the Maximum water-cooled machine gun and its recoil operation.

although it was soon apparent that the wheeled carriage could be left to attract the attentions of the enemy while the gun itself was located in a tactically advantageous emplacement. In the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) the machine gun began to come into its own as a mobile attack weapon: the Russians used the Maxim in 7.62mm (0.3in) calibre, initially on a high wheeled mounting with a shield, while the Japanese used the lighter French-designed Hotchkiss of 8mm (0.31 Sin) calibre. On several occasions the efforts of the machine guns proved decisive, but the main lessons of

47

Illustrated History of Small Arms This is a Maxim machine gun on a naval pedestal mount.

Opposite: This is a Maxim machine gun detachment of the Natal Carabineers in 1899, the machine gun itself being handled by a crew of two or three with the other men serving as riflemen for the local protection of the Maxim gun and also as ammunition numbers for the filling and delivery of ammunition belts.

the campaign emphasised the defensive capability of the Maxim, especially when used on a low mount, and the relative unreliability of the air-cooled Hotchkiss. The Germans at first saw little need for the machine gun, and it was only in 1899 that the German army adopted the Maxim and launched the development programme that yielded the first-class MG08 in the standard German calibre of 7.92mm (0.312in). This model was produced at the state arsenal of Spandau, a name often applied generically to the MG08, which was a fairly heavy weapon fed from 250-round fabric belts. The other major German machine gun type of the period was the Bergmann, whose origins lay with a prototype of 1900. The definitive model appeared in 1902, and although the German army thought that the Maxim was a better weapon, the Bergmann was produced as a private venture and proved itself an excellent weapon The Bergmann used the short-recoil system and was a water-cooled design, but its real advantages lay in three special features: the quick-change barrel, the ammunition belt and the feed system. The The major limit to the tactical utility of the Maxim machine gun, which was operated by the British and their imperial allies in 0.303in (7.7mm) calibre, was the prodigious hunger for ammunition. Such was the strength and reliability of the weapon that it could be fired for hours if the relevant quantities of belted ammunition could be supplied. The loading of ammunition belts was a constant chore for British soldiers in World War I, when the Maxim gun in its British Vickers and German MG08 forms dominated the Western Front.

48

A New Beginning

Below: The Mitrailleuse, on which the French pinned such great but ultimately vain hopes in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), was a volley gun rather than machine gun. The weapon, designed by the Belgian Joseph Montigny and perfected by the French de Reffye, was an assembly of 25 barrels in a single cylinder, and the ammunition system comprised a plate with 25 holes aligned with the barrel breeches: each hole was filled with a round of ammunition that then entered the relevant breech as the plate was fitted and pushed forward by a screw-operated locking mechanism. Firing was achieved with a handoperated crank, and a welltrained crew could replace a used ammunition plate with a loaded unit in about five seconds, making possible a rate of fire approaching 300 rounds per minute.

ability to change the barrel without losing water was very useful, offering distinct tactical advantages as other water-cooled weapons overheated despite their coolant and had to be pulled out of action. The ammunition belt was made of non¬ disintegrating metal links and was specially designed for use with the feed system, which was capable of accepting (and repositioning) badly aligned rounds that would have caused a jam in any contemporary cloth-belt weapon. Another German machine gun that possessed good feed characteristics was the Dreyse, designed by Louis Schmeisser but named in honour of Johann Dreyse in 1907. The weapon was produced only in small numbers but set the manufacturing company on the path of automatic weapon design to the great advantage of Germany in World War II: the company was the Rheinische Metallwaren und Maschinenfabrik A.G., later known as Rheinmetall. The only other major German machine gun of the period was the Parabellum. This was introduced in 1911 by Deutsche Waffen und Munitions-Fabriken (DWM) as a radically lightened version of the Maxim (MG08) with air-cooling for enhanced tactical flexibility.

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Illustrated History of Small Arms

The Parabellum was a German light machine gun of 7.92mm (0.312in) calibre, and was most generally used in World War I as the trainable machine gun of German warplanes.

Other European countries were soon in the field with their own machine guns. Austria-Hungary evaluated the Maxim and decided that it was a truly formidable weapon, but rather than adopt a licence production system opted for an indigenously designed weapon of far poorer operational qualities. This was the 8mm (0.315in) Schwarzlose, in fact designed by a German in 1902 and entering Austrian production during 1905. Until modern times, delayed-blowback action for machine guns has been rare, and indeed the Schwarzlose was the only successful mass-production machine gun of this type until after 1950. Schwarzlose adopted the delayed-blowback system largely for economic reasons as the very close tolerances of recoil- and gas-operated machine guns required extensive machining and thus increased the price of the weapon. Schwarzlose therefore opted for a strongly made but comparatively simple delayed-blowback action, which fires from an unlocked breech but offers a genuine reduction in The standard machine gun of the Austro-Hungarian forces in World War I was the 8mm (0.315in) Schwarzlose Modell 1907/12, a water-cooled weapon which differed from most other machine guns of its period in being based on the delayed blowback operating system. The weapon was reliable but heavy, and among its details were a weight of 441b (19.9kg) excluding the 43.751b (19.8kg) tripod, length of 42in (1.066m) with a 20.75in (0.526m) barrel, ammunition supply from a 250-round belt, rate of fire of 400 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,034ft (620m) per second.

50

A New Beginning

Reliable and accurate, the Madsen light machine gun was of Danish origin and manufacture. The type was very popular with its operators despite the fact that it was expensive to make and required high-quality ammunition for reliable operation. The type was produced in a large number of calibres, and the variant intended for British 0.303in (7.7mm) ammunition weighed 201b (9.1kg), was 45in (1.143m) long with a 23in (0.584m) barrel, was supplied with ammunition from 20-, 25-, 30- or 40-round box magazines, had a rate of fire of 450 rounds per minute, and possessed a muzzle velocity of 2,350ft (715m) per second.

price. Recoil operation is based on the premise that when a round is fired in an unlocked breech, the breech begins to open under the influence of the recoil forces as soon as the bullet starts to move up the barrel, but can be controlled by powerful springs and a mechanical advantage system (which obviates the need for a singularly massive breech block) to ensure that, even with a full-power military round, the bullet has left the necessarily short barrel before the breech has opened significantly. Thereafter the operation is conventional, the breech recoiling to its maximum extent before being returned to battery and in the process stripping and chambering the next round. There were considerable teething problems with the type, which in its earlier forms required the individual lubrication of each round by an action-operated oil pump, but by 1912 the Schwarzlose reached a stage of adequate development. While it offered major cost advantages over comparable weapons with gas and recoil operating systems, however, it was still a heavy water-cooled weapon fed from a fabric belt. A similar recoil operation is used by the Danish Madsen machine gun, which was introduced in 1902 after development from the mid-1880s. The type is notable for its longevity, and despite frequent claims that the weapon cannot be safe, very many years of successful use have convincingly refuted this claim, which is based on the fact that the Madsen uses a unique variation on the recoil theme: with a modified Peabody-Martini action, the opened breech block is an oscillating mass that drops below the bore to strip a fresh round and chamber it before rising again into battery. Thus the Madsen has the only non-ramming action in machine gun design. Another advantage of the Madsen is its light weight, for it is an air-cooled weapon. The great name in the early days of French machine gun design is Benjamin Hotchkiss, who died in 1885 but left a thriving small-arms company that in 1893 received a visit from an Austrian of the minor nobility, Baron Adolf von Odkolek, who wanted to sell the rights to a gas-operated machine gun he had designed. Odkolek had chosen his moment well, for the earlier Hotchkiss designs (including various Gatling-type weapons) were faring badly in the world markets because of the success of the Maxim gun. Although the weapon offered by Odkolek was not particularly effective, at least in the rudimentary form first shown by the designer, it had two promotional advantages over the Maxim: it was air-cooled (and thus lighter than the Maxim) and it introduced a new feature to the standard gas-

51

operation principle in that the gas piston was carried in a tube under the barrel in a fashion that offered strength and compactness. Shrewd businessmen that they were, the directors of Hotchkiss refused any idea of a licence agreement and instead bought the rights to the Odkolek design, which by 1897 had been refined into a moderately useful locked-breech weapon operated by gas tapped off the underside of the barrel and using the standard 8mm (0.315in) Lebel round fed from an unusual metal strip system carrying 24 or 30 rounds on the left of the gun. The French of the period were inveterate modifiers, and variations on the original Hotchkiss theme were produced in the form of the Puteaux, St Etienne and Benet-Mercie machine guns, all of them unsuccessful mainly because they introduced changes to a workable design for no good reason. The definitive Hotchkiss was the Modele 1914, which consolidated the improvements made in preceding weapons to produce a truly effective lightweight machine gun. Although now little known for its machine gun designs, in the early period of automatic weapon development Italy produced one of the truly outstanding designs of all time, the Perino of 1901. The Italians were highly impressed with this weapon, but decided to keep it secret, large numbers of Maxims being bought to cover the fact that the Perino was to be built in conditions of great security. The best feature of this innovative water- or air-cooled machine gun was the feed system, using trays (each holding 25 rounds) fed in individually from a box on the left of the receiver. This ensured consistent feed characteristics as the rounds were well aligned, and any jam was quickly cleared by the operation of a button that ejected the troublesome round. The weapon possessed many other outstanding features, but Italy's delay in producing the weapon necessitated use of the Maxim and the 6.5mm (0.256in) Revelli, an indifferent air-cooled weapon that used a

52

By any standards a poor weapon with a notable lack of reliability, the Mitrailleuse St Etienne modele 1907 was one of France’s most important machine guns of World War I. The weapon was of the air¬ cooled type, and among its details were a weight of 56.751b (25.4kg), length of 46.5in (4.18m) with a 28in (0.71m) barrel, ammunition supply from a 24- or 30-round metal strip, rate of fire of 400 to 600 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,297ft (700m) per second.

A New Beginning

A poor weapon that was cumbersome as a result of its great weight, the gasoperated Mitrailleuse Hotchkiss modele 1914 was nonetheless one of France’s most important machine guns of World War I. The weapon was of the air-cooled type with five large copper ‘doughnuts’ round the rear of the barrel for greater heat dissipation, and among its details were a weight of 521b (23.6kg), length of 50in (1.27m) with a 30.5in (0.775m) barrel, ammunition supply from a 24- or 30round metal strip that could be linked to create 249 'strip belts’, rate of fire of 400 to 600 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,379ft (725m) per second.

described as locked only in the loosest sense of the word. There were other machine guns during this period, but the weapons described above were the more important examples to appear in the period leading up to World War I (1914-18), the titanic struggle that finally demonstrated the total dominance of this type of weapon in the static warfare it helped to establish. The development of nitro-cellulose propellants and effective self-loading mechanisms also opened the way for the emergence of practical semi-automatic pistols. Such weapons had been proposed in 1864 by a commission in the United Kingdom, but the first effective weapon of this type to enter production was Borchardt, but made in Europe by Ludwig Lowe

The Italian Perino, designed in 1901, could have become one of the world’s most important machine guns but for the Italian authorities' passionate desire to ensure this super-weapon’s secrecy. This ensured that production was kept to a very low rate until the time that the Italians needed the weapon in 1915, when they entered World War I by which time it was too late. The Perino used a mixture of air and water cooling, an unusual long recoil operating system, and ammunition supply from five 25-round strips carried in a box on the left-hand side of the weapon.

Illustrated History of Small Arms

of Berlin in 7.63mm (0.3in) calibre. Borchardt had worked for Winchester, and his passion for self-loading weapons finally resulted in this far-sighted weapon using a cumbersome but nonetheless workable toggle-lock pistol. The pistol appeared in 1893, and in common with many other weapons of the type was marketed with a removable rifle stock as a means of ensuring maximum accuracy at longer ranges. Other weapons followed quite rapidly, typical examples being the Bergmann weapon of 1894, the Mauser military model of 1895 (the world's first self-loading pistol designed specifically for military use), the Maxim of 1896, the Schwarzlose of 1898, and the Mannlicher of 1901. None of these early self-loading pistols was very successful, even though they are of historical importance and interest, but are perhaps more notable as the weapons which introduced the cartridges that became standard in later and more effective self-loading pistols. The Bergmann round, for example, was developed into the 0.32in (8.13mm) Colt Automatic Pistol round and the 7.65mm (0.301in) Browning Automatic Pistol cartridge.

Designed by Hugo Borchardt, one of the most important pioneers of automatic and semi¬ automatic pistols, the Luger Modell 1900 was the first production version of this worldfamous recoil-operated semi-automatic pistol, and was initially ordered by the Swiss army in 7.65mm (0.301 in) calibre.

54

Designed by Revelli but made by Fiat, the Mitriaglice modello 1907/12 was one of the most important Italian machine guns of World War I, and was a water-cooled weapon in 6.5mm (0.256irt) calibre. The weapon used the retarded blowback operating system, required an integral oiler to assist spent case extraction, and had an external buffer rod that could introduce dust into the oiled interior. The result was a weapon that suffered badly from lack of reliability. Among its other details were a weight of 37.51b (16.9kg) excluding the 49.51b (22.3kg) tripod, length of 46.5in (1.18m) with a 25.75in (0.654m) barrel, ammunition supply from a 50-round magazine divided into 10 fiveround compartments, rate of fire of 450 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,116ft (645m) per second.

Opposite top: One of the classic pistols of all time, the ‘Broomhandle Mauser’ is more formally known as the Mauser Pistole C96, in this instance of the Modell 1910 subvariant with the detachable buttstock that doubled as a shoulder holster. The details of this recoil-operated selective-fire pistol included a calibre of 7.63 or 9mm (0.3 or 0.354in), weight of 2.931b (1.33kg) without the butt or 3.931b (1.78kg) with the butt, length of 11.75in (0.298m) without the butt or 25.5in (0.647m) with the butt, feed from a 10-, 20- or 40-round magazine, and muzzle velocity of 1,575ft (480m) per second with the 7.63mm round.

A New Beginning

One of the first automatic pistols, the Bergmann Nr.3 was a 6.5mm (0.256in) blowback-operated weapon that appeared in 1896.

By far the best of these early weapons was the Browning Model 1898, designed by the legendary John M. Browning and made in Belgium by Fabrique Nationale as no US manufacturer was interested in this precursor of one of the best and most successful families of semi-automatic pistol ever developed. In the shorter term, the most important of the series was the 0.45in (11.43mm) Colt M1911, designed by Browning for the Colt Company and adopted in 1911 as the standard US service semi-automatic pistol, a position it held virtually up to the present (a 9mm/0.354in Beretta weapon having been selected as its successor in 1985).

A truly classic military pistol that was accepted for American service in 1911 as the Model 1911 firing the powerful 0.45in (11,43mm) Automatic Colt Pistol round designed to stop a man in his tracks at short range. This recoil-operated weapon was designed by John M. Browning and made by Colt, and reached its definitive form in 1926 as the M1911A1 with a seven-round detachable box magazine in the handle.

DD

Illustrated History of Small Arms

Other notable weapons are the German Pistole 08 (better known as the Luger after its designer) and the German Pistole 10 (known as the 'Broomhandle Mauser' for its shape and designer). Georg Luger was an employee of Ludwig Lowe when the Borchardt pistol was being refined into production form, and he played an important part in the process of streamlining this clumsy American weapon. Luger saw, however, that a total redesign would produce a far superior weapon, and set to work on his own version, which was eventually produced in 1900 by DWM in 7.65mm (0.301in) calibre. The type was adopted in 1908 as the standard German weapon, although the calibre was enlarged to 9mm (0.354in) in the new Parabellum round: the calibre and round have since become standard for self-loading pistols and sub-machine guns, but the Pistole 08 was their first application. The 9mm (0.354in) Parabellum round was developed from the 7.65mm (0.301in) type, so the change of calibres was simply effected by use of a different barrel with bore and chamber appropriate to the larger calibre. Two of the main features of the Luger have always been the 'portability' of the weapon leading to good natural aim as the gun becomes a simple extension of the firer's arm and hand, and an excellent combination of strength and reliability. The pistol is loaded by the insertion of a loaded eight-round inline magazine through the bottom of the butt until the magazine locks into place. The firer's free hand is then used to grasp the milled knobs on the sides of the toggle mechanism, which is pulled up and back as far as it will go before being released to move forward under the power of the compressed recoil spring. This strips a round from the top

C/O

Seen here in an artwork with its full assembly of supporting elements such as the detachable buttstock/shoulder holster and maintenance tools, the Luger Pistole 08 is depicted in its long-barrel form for the German artillery arm. A notable feature, is the 32-round ‘snail’ magazine with most of the rounds carried in the drum under the handle.

A New Beginning In a photograph typical of the heavy-handed humour of World War I propagandists, a British soldier armed with a Luger Pistole 08 ‘forces’ a captured German to eat a raw potato.

of the magazine and chambers it, and the action then locks as the central hinge line of the toggle is below the other two hinge lines. This allows the connection of the trigger sear, and the weapon can be fired. As the pistol is fired, the lockedtogether barrel and recoiling mechanism drive back together for a short distance, allowing gas pressure in the barrel to drop to safe levels, before the central hinge of the toggle strikes an angled surface on the frame and is deflected upwards to unlock the weapon and so initiate the extraction, ejection, cocking, reloading and relocking cycle. It is worth noting that the Luger can also be fitted with the 'snail' magazine in which a rotary extension is added to the inline box to provide a magazine capacity of 32 rounds. While the Luger is a recoil-operated weapon, the Mauser is a blowback weapon. And while the Luger may have the advantages of better 'pointability', the Mauser has the appearance of a very purposeful weapon, which indeed it is. The

This cutaway illustration highlights the internal features of the 9mm (0.354in) Luger Pistole 08, whose details included a weight of 1.931b (0.875kg), length of 8.75in (0.22m) with a 4.06in (0.103m) barrel, feed from an eight-round detachable box magazine, and muzzle velocity of 1,050ft (320m) per second.

57

Illustrated History of Small Arms

Seen here in the form of a highly decorated example, the 0.45in (11.43mm) Colt Model 1911A1 was and still is a thoroughly utilitarian recoiloperated semi-automatic pistol designed specifically for military use. The details of this potent weapon include a weight of 2.431b (1.1kg), length of 8.62in (0.219m) with a 5in (0.127m) barrel, feed from a seven-round detachable box magazine, and muzzle velocity of 830ft (253m) per second.

'broomhandle' is comfortable to hold, even if angled somewhat straight down, while the magazine housing in front of the rigger group provides a good handhold for the free hand, so providing the opportunity for two-handed operation for greater steadiness and accuracy. Like the I*uger, the Mauser can be used with a shoulder stock, that of the Mauser being a cleverly designed item that doubles as a holster and also contains the weapon's cleaning and maintenance equipment. The period between 1885 and 1914 was thus a particularly important one for the history of small arms, and was made possible by the twin developments of fixed metallic cartridges and nitro-cellulose propellants. These turned the previous breech-loading weapons into far more potent pieces with higher muzzle velocity and lower structure weight, and also opened the possibility of new weapon types because of the ammunition's more consistent qualities and greater basic strength. Earlier thoughts about semi-automatic and automatic weapons now became feasible in terms of their dynamics, while parallel developments in metallurgy and machining made it possible to turn designers' work into practical hardware, even if much of this hardware was expensive. But it was a period in which international tensions were rising, and the affluence of many Western nations made it possible for them both to want and to procure the latest and the best.

58

The Machine Gun

A light machine gun of French origin but also used in World War I by the forces of the British empire and the USA, the Fusil Mitrailleur Ftotchkiss modele 1909 was often called the Benet-Mercie and was a wholly indifferent gasoperated weapon of varying calibres, most notably the French 8mm (0.315in) and the British 0.303in (7.7mm). The weapon used the same type of metal-strip feed as the Flotchkiss medium machine guns, but in this instance the system was inverted and this further degraded the already poor reliability of the feed system. Other details of the modele 1909 included a weight of 25.81b (11.7kg), length of 46.85in (1.19m) with a 23.62in (0.6m) barrel, feed from a 30-round metal strip, rate of fire of 500 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,428ft (740m) per second.

LTulthough there had been major conflicts such as the Crimean War (1850-53), the American Civil War and the Franco-Prussian War during the Victorian age, few of these conflicts had taken place during the most productive period of small-arms development, so the lessons and tactical implications of the new-generation weapons remained largely unexplored or confined to the results of colonial wars. There were, admittedly, lessons to be learned from the American Civil War and the 2nd Boer War (1899-1902), and some conclusions were indeed drawn, but for the European powers these conflicts were too remote to exercise any direct influence on their beliefs in the nature of war in the 'civilised' world. The same was also true of the Russo-Japanese War, which was fought by modern armies with modern weapons and should therefore have created a full alert about the nature of the new warfare that had been forcefully dragged from the conventions still held by most European armies by the effect of modern weapons, especially artillery and repeating small arms. As a result of this somewhat wilful ignorance, the start of World War I - and with it the emergence of the new warfare - left deep and enduring scars on the Western psyche. The armies of all the combatants went forward into a war they confidently believed would be both short and marked by fluid tactical movement, only to be shocked both emotionally and physically into a rigid tactical immobility. The weapons that produced this static and increasingly bitter novelty were rapid-firing rifles and machine guns, backed by artillery and barbed wire. The whole nature of warfare had to be reconsidered as the comparatively small professional armies of the period disappeared in a welter of lead and high

59

Illustrated History of Small Arms

explosive, to be replaced by very much larger armies that were in effect conscriptboosted militia forces armed with vast quantities of the latest weapons. The core weapon in this terrible transformation was the machine gun. Artillery of the light, medium and heavy varieties could wreak enormous havoc with the landscape and with major positions, and rifles could pick off large numbers of men moving over open ground, but when it came to the static operations that prevailed between November 1914 and August 1918, the machine gun undoubtedly dominated the battlefield. In defence, a small number of interlocking machine gun positions could protect each other and pour a withering enfilading fire on massed infantry attacks moving across a churned no-man's-land. The defensive machine gun strongpoints were a primary target for the attackers' artillery, but at least some of these strongpoints survived, their crews surfacing from their deep underground bunkers to man their weapons as the attackers moved out of their own trenches. It was then a simple task to decimate the opposing infantry, or at least check them for a period long enough for the defence to bring up reinforcements. In attack the machine gun was less useful, although still a necessary adjunct to any major effort. The reason was the weapon's basic lack of mobility as a result of its weight (the weapon together with its mounting and cooling water could weigh in the order of 1001b/45kg) and the difficulty of moving up the prodigious quantities of ammunition such a weapon could fire in any type of protracted engagement. An immediate consequence of this limitation, which became apparent early in the course of the war (even while the fluid opening campaigns were under way), was the development of lighter weapons, generally of the air¬ cooled type and designed to fire from bipod mounts that were lighter than the tripod mounts of the heavier weapons and allowed the firer to lie rather than sit behind his weapon. Such weapons sometimes used the belted ammunition of their heavier brethren, but many of the more advanced weapons were designed to use magazine feeds. The latter reduced the difficulties of transporting large quantities of ammunition, could be reloaded with little difficulty with rifle ammunition secured from the accompanying infantry, and suffered fewer of the misfeed problems. Most of these heavy machine guns were already well established, having entered military service in the first decade of the twentieth century or earlier. The French used the Hotchkiss Modeles 1910 and 1914, the latter only marginally improved on the Modele 1910. Both weapons were air-cooled and might therefore be classified as medium machine guns, but were used in the same way as the standard water-cooled heavy machine guns for the delivery of sustained fire and at long ranges. Apart from the unusual Hotchkiss strip feed mentioned above (straight 24- or 30-round clips for the Modele 1910 and, additionally for the Modele 1914, a 249-round semi-articulated belt made up of three-round links), the most notable feature of these weapons was the incorporation of an additional cooling device in the form of five 'doughnuts' round the barrel just forward of the receiver. Made of brass or steel, and making the rear of the barrel look as though it had a concertina collar, these doughnuts added to the mass of metal to absorb the heat of firing, and also provided considerably more area from which the absorbed heat could be radiated. Production of the Hotchkiss guns was increased considerably during the course of the war, for the design proved sound and the troops at the front made increasing demands for the Hotchkiss to replace the Hotchkiss variants produced by government arsenals. The demands on Hotchkiss were increased further by the arrival of American forces to bolster the British and French armies in France from late 1917. The USA having become the slowest of the industrialised nations to adopt automatic

60

The Machine Gun

The standard medium and heavy machine gun of the British empire and commonwealth in World War II (1939-45) as well as World War I, the Vickers watercooled recoil-operated machine gun is still in service with some armies and was for its time a quite exceptional weapon offering complete reliability, the ability to fire for hours without halt, and the capability for indirect fire. The weapon illustrated is the 0.303in (7.7mm) Vickers Machine Gun Mk I whose details included a weight of 401b (18.14kg) with cooling water but without the 48.51b (22kg) tripod, length of 45.5in (1.156m) with a 28.4in (0.721m) barrel, feed from a 250-round belt, rate of fire of between 450 and 500 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,440ft (744m) per second.

weapons in a wholehearted fashion, the American armies in France inevitably lacked adequate numbers of indigenous machine guns and called for Hotchkiss weapons, despite the fact that some three years of trench warfare had confirmed that the Hotchkiss machine gun's major failing was the inadequate reliability of its feed system, especially in muddy conditions. The gun itself weighed 521b (23.6kg) and was usually installed on a substantial tripod mount with a screwelevation device for fixed-range fire, and its rate of fire was between 400 and 600 rounds per minute using the standard Lebel 8mm (0.315in) ammunition. The standard heavy machine gun of the British forces was the Vickers Mk I, a classic of its type and a weapon still encountered today in less advanced corners of the world. The Vickers was essentially the production version of the Maxim for the British army, although significant weight reduction in comparison with the Maxim was achieved when the Vickers engineers restressed the weapon and discovered that the Maxim was unnecessarily massive in certain features. Vickers also saw that the Maxim operating system could be inverted, with the toggle lock opening up rather than down, and this made it possible to reduce the weight of the lock to a marked extent. The operating system was in itself simple but extremely strong, and of the recoil type: the centrally hinged two-arm toggle was in line and thus locked at the moment of firing; however, a muzzle trap caught some of the gas and this energy was used to aid the recoil in driving back the combined barrel and breech block to a point at which the rear arm of the toggle hit an angled post and broke upward, unlocking the mechanism to complete the cycle of extracting, ejecting, cocking and reloading. The Vickers Mk I weighed 401b (18kg) without its cooling water, and was usually mounted on a tripod weighing 48.51b (22kg). Like that of the Hotchkiss gun, the Vickers tripod had a fixed-elevation screw, while the ability of the weapon to accept a bubble sight made night and indirect fire very real and useful capabilities. Fed with 0.303in

o±

Illustrated History of Small Arms

(7.7mm) ammunition from a 250-round fabric belt, the Vickers could fire virtually indefinitely at between 450 and 500 rounds per minute as long as the water coolant was kept topped up. This sustained-fire capability was realised early in the war and proved immensely valuable, although at first the plume of steam from boiling coolant was a tactical give-away: the jacket held 7 pints (4 litres) of water, and this quantity boiled after just three minutes of sustained fire at 200 rounds per minute. A solution was found in the provision of a condenser in the pipe leading the water back to the reservoir. At the beginning of the war, the weapon was issued on the scale of two per infantry battalion, but the importance of the weapon grew so rapidly that the Machine Gun Corps was raised to operate the type, it being appreciated that a dedicated unit well versed in the intricacies of rapid jam-clearing was preferable to increased allocations for standard infantry battalions. Another skill particular to the Machine Gun Corps was rapid barrel changing: even with an uninterrupted supply of coolant water the barrel had to be changed every 10,000 rounds, and as a hectic action could consume this number of rounds in less than one hour, a rapid-change barrel facility was tactically vital. A skilled crew could manage the

This captured German machine gun is the 7.92mm (0.312in) schwere Maschinengewehr 08, a weapon that was often called the 'Spandau’ as it was made at the Spandau arsenal outside Berlin. The weapon was of the water-cooled type and based on the recoil operating principle as, like the British Vickers that was its primary opponent in World War I, it was derived from the Maxim machine gun. The other details of this important weapon included a weight of 40.51b (18.4kg) with water but without the 65.51b (29.7kg) tripod, length of 46.25in (1.175m) with a 28.3in (0.719m) barrel, feed from a 100- or 250-round belt, rate of fire of between 300 and 450 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,953ft (900m) per'second.

A

Intended for the sustained-fire role, the 6.5mm (0.256in) Heavy Machine Gun Type 3 was introduced to Japanese service in 1914 and was in essence the French Hotchkiss machine gun adapted for Japanese production practices. The details of this weapon included a weight of 621b (29.5kg) without the 601b (27.2kg) tripod, length of 45.5in (1.37m) with a 29.2in (0.745m) barrel, feed from a 30-round metal strip, rate of fire of 400 to 500 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,434ft (742m) per second.

62

The Skoda Modell 1909, otherwise known as the Salvator Dormus and here seen in its sustained-fire form on a tripod and fitted with a protective shield for service in fixed Austro-Hungarian fortifications, used the delayed-blowback operating system. The type first appeared as the Modell 893 with an overhead stay for ammunition feed, and was then revised as the Modell 1909 with belt feed.

task in as little as two minutes without appreciable loss of water. Given its own operating formation, experienced crews and supply personnel, and the pressing tactical requirements of set-piece attacks in static warfare, it is not surprising that the Vickers should come to be regarded almost as a piece of light artillery. An instance that illustrates this point, and highlights the role of the heavy machine gun in World War I is the operation mounted by the 100th Machine Gun Company in the fighting for High Wood within context of the Battle of the Somme during the summer of 1916. On 24 August it was decided that an infantry attack would be supported by the 10 Vickers machine guns of the 100th MG Company located under cover in the Savoy Trench. It took two companies of infantry to stockpile the necessary ammunition, and during the attack the 100th MG Company fired continuously for 12 hours: carefully sited and zeroed in, the guns had a barrel change every hour, while the gunners and loaders were changed at frequent intervals as the Company kept up a deluge of fire to support the initial attack and to prevent any German counterattack. In the course of 12 hours, the 100th MG Company's 10 weapons fired just under one million rounds. Also on the Allied side, Russia used its own version of the Maxim in the form of the Pulemet Maksima 1910 that was identical with the PM05 initial model apart from having a steel rather than bronze water jacket. Massive and expensive, the PM10 was nonetheless a magnificent weapon ideally suited to Russian requirements in terms of availability and reliability: this fact is attested by continued production up to 1943, giving the PM10 the longest production run of any Maxim gun. The gun itself weighed 52.51b (23.8kg), an interesting comparison with the Vickers, and was generally used on a small carriage which, with its shield, weighed 99.71b (45.2kg). The calibre was 7.62mm (0.3in) and, fed with

63

Illustrated History of Small Arms

ammunition from 250-round fabric belts, the cyclic rate of fire was between 520 and 600 rounds per minute, which was slightly more than that of the Vickers. The fact that the PM10 used the original Maxim toggle lock is shown by the depth of the weapon below the bore. The German Maschinengewehr 08 (MG08) was also a Maxim gun and, like the Russian weapon, preserved the original layout of the toggle lock to produce a notably deep weapon. Calibre was the standard German 7.92mm (0.312m), and the feed system was a 250-round belt for a cyclic rate of 300 to 450 rounds per minute, a rate deliberately kept lower than might otherwise have been the case as the Germans were proponents not of massive firepower as such, but rather of the greatest possible quantity of aimed and genuinely effective firepower. This practice eased the problem of ammunition supply and barrel changing without any real penalty in terms of tactical capability. Generally known as the Spandau after the arsenal in which it was made, the MG08 weighed 136.71b (62kg) complete with tripod mount and spares. Like the Russians, the Germans found it expedient to provide this piece of Tight artillery' with a sledge mount for tactical mobility. German machine gunners were hand-picked, the army command appreciating by late 1914 that the machine gun was king of the battlefield. These men were notable for their dedication and skill, as the British and French losses in battles such as Chemin-des-Dames, Loos, Neuve Chapelle and Champagne fully testify. Although the Vickers, PM10 and MG08 were all variations of the same basic design, it is interesting to note that the Vickers had a muzzle velocity of 2,440ft (744m) per second with a 28.4in (0.721m) barrel, while the comparable figures for the MG08 were respectively 2,831ft (863m) per second with a 28.35in (0.72m) barrel and 2,953ft (900m) per second with a 28.3in (0.719m) barrel. The Austro-Hungarian heavy machine gun was the Schwarzlose Maschinengewehr Modell 1912 in 8mm (0.315in) calibre. This water-cooled delayed-blowback weapon weighed 43.91b (19.9kg) and was generally used on a tripod mounting weighing 43.71b (19.8kg). The weapon worked satisfactorily, but the 20.7in (0.526m) barrel was slightly too short for the full development of the power of the round used, with the result that the Schwarzlose frequently revealed its location through bright muzzle flash. Ammunition was supplied in 250-round fabric belts, the muzzle velocity was a poor 2,034ft (620m) per second, and the cyclic rate of fire was 400 rounds per minute.

4/1 Ort

Designed -by Giovanni Agnello but built by the Society Italiana Ansaldo after which it was named, the SI A was first produced for the Italian army in World War I but not issued, and then released for limited service in the period before World War II. The 6.5mm (0.256in) weapon was of the air-cooled type with a retarded-blowback operating system, and was supplied with ammunition from a tall overhead stay.

The Machine Gun

2nd Lieutenant V.A. Browning of the US Army fires an example of the 0.3in (7.62mm) Machine Gun M1917 machine gun designed by his father, John M. Browning. This weapon, which had a long and distinguished career, had its origins in the late 1890s but was adopted by the US Army only in 1917. The machine gun was of the recoil-operated type and was water cooled, and its other details included a weight of 32.61b (14.79kg) without cooling water and the 53.151b (24.1kg) tripod, length of 38.64in (0.981m) including a 23.9in (0.607m) barrel, feed from a 250-round belt of fabric or metal links, rate of fire of between 450 and 600 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,800ft (853m) per second.

Notwithstanding its demands for Hotchkiss machine guns of French manufacture, the US Army did use a number of American machine guns, including a small number of the Colt-Browning Model 1895 air-cooled gasoperated weapon that led eventually to the refined Marlin machine gun. Available in larger numbers and generally far more satisfactory was the Machine Gun M1917, another Browning design. This weapon was based on the short-recoil system, however, and paved the way for a series of great Browning machine guns. Like the Model 1895, it had a distinctive US design feature, namely the pistol-grip handle (at a time when most European weapons used one or two spade-grip handles) at the rear of the weapon, with a trigger just in front of it. Browning had started work on the new gun as the Model 1895 entered production, but had been unable to secure any official interest in the new weapon as finances were limited and as the Model 1895 was considered adequate for the 'colonial' type of warfare

The German Bergrmann machine gun was a well-engineered weapon in 7.92mm (0.312in) calibre, and used the short recoil type of operation. Notable features are the air-cooled barrel and the enclosure of the ammunition belt in a right-hand container for cleanliness and untwisted feed.

OD

Illustrated History of Small Arms

V*"

Top and above: Generally known as the Chauchat or CSRG, the Fusil Mitrailleur modele 1915 was a very poor weapon of French design and manufacture. Badly made from second-rate materials, the Chauchat was an extremely unreliable air-cooled light machine gun using the long recoil system of operation. Other details of this 8mm (0.315in) weapon included a weight of 20.31b (9.2kg), length of 45in (1.143m) including an 18.5in (0.47m) barrel, feed from a 20-round curved magazine carried under the weapon, rate of fire of between 250 and 300 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,297ft (700m) per second.

envisaged by the US Army after its experiences in the Spanish-American War (1898) and subsequent peacekeeping operations in Asia and Central America. But as the US entry into World War I approached, a closer examination of static warfare in the European theatre showed the army that it was very poorly equipped, especially with automatic weapons. Despite the speed with which the type was rushed into production and service, the M1917 proved itself remarkably free of problems. The type was chambered for the standard 0.3in (7.62mm) US round, resulting in a muzzle velocity of 2,800ft (853m) per second with the

66

The Machine Gun

A weapon that was important in World War I as it was an air¬ cooled light machine gun offering tactical advantages over the otherwise standard water-cooled medium machine guns used by the British and their allies, the Lewis gun was of an American design that first entered production in Belgium but was later widely made in the UK and USA as well as in France and Japan during the years between the world wars. A gas-operated weapon with a forced-draught cooling system, the 0.303in (7.7mm) Lewis Gun Mk I was otherwise notable for details including its weight of 271b (12.15kg), length of 49.2in (1.25m) including a 26.(Min (0.661m) barrel, feed from a 47- or 97round overhead drum magazine, rate of fire of 450 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,440ft (744m) per second.

M1917's 23.9in (0.607m) barrel, and with a weight 32.61b (14.8kg) without water, the M1917 was competitive with European machine guns. The weapon's tripod mount weighed 531b (24kg), and firing from a 250-round fabric belt the M1917 had a cyclic rate of 450 to 600 rounds per minute. Mounted semi-statically in carefully sited fire positions, these and other heavy machine guns proved themselves decisive in defensive warfare, and a useful adjunct to offensive warfare. However, attacking troops were aware that they were often pinned down by enemy machine guns in spots where they lacked their own machine guns to suppress the opposition. The policy of the period was to move up the heavy machine guns only after an objective had been secured, as a means of defeating the inevitable counterattack. This begged the question of how the attacking infantry were to take the position initially: theory proposed that the supporting heavy machine guns could contribute as they had long range for accurate fire, but this ignored the practical difficulties of telling the machinegunners where to fire in a tactical situation that had begun to diverge from the pre-ordained scheme and lacked any effective means of communication before the advent of portable radio equipments. By the end of 1915 the problem had become acute as trench warfare was firmly embedded in northern Europe. It was the British who took the lead, although the circumstances were economic rather than military, at least in the short term. The virtual destruction of the British regular army in 1914 and early 1915 had led to the raising of the vast 'Kitchener armies', and the logistical problem of how to

equip them. So far as automatic weapons were concerned, the British opted for the Lewis gun, a light machine gun that could be constructed in only one-sixth of the time it took to produce a Vickers gun. Initial plans called for each battalion to have four Lewis guns as the Vickers weapons were withdrawn to form the equipment of the new Machine Gun Corps, but as the real benefits of the Lewis became apparent the establishment was doubled to eight in mid-1916 and soon raised to 12, and by the year's end one Lewis was shared by every four platoons. The Lewis gun was designed by Samuel Maclean, but the rights were sold to another American, Colonel Isaac Lewis, who promoted the type in the USA and Europe from 1910, rights being taken up in the former by the Automatic Arms Company of Buffalo, New York (although US official interest was minimal) and in the latter by Fabrique Nationale of Belgium. Belgian manufacture began in 1913, but in 1914 the Birmingham Small Arms (BSA) company took over, placing the company in an ideal position when the expansion of the British army began later in that year. The Lewis was an unremarkable gas-operated weapon with a complex mechanism that required a great deal of careful maintenance, but it was the weapon's comparatively light weight and feed system that contributed to its importance. The gun used an ingenious forced-draught air-cooling system, and thus weighed a mere 271b (12.25kg), while the ammunition feed was a 47- or 97round rotary drum located above the receiver. The magazine proved vulnerable

(Ml 0/

Illustrated History of Small Arms

in service, and even slight damage could cause jams. Other salient figures include a cyclic rate of 450 to 500 rounds per minute, and a muzzle velocity of 2,440ft (744m) per second with a 26in (0.660m) barrel. Despite its problems and limitations, the Lewis gun was received with enormous enthusiasm by the troops: here at last was a weapon light enough for attacking soldiers to carry. It is fair to say that the bipod-mounted Lewis gun completely reordered the nature of tactics on the Western Front, and the ultimate accolade was that the Germans rapidly pressed all captured examples into service, while the Americans belatedly joined the production effort with a version chambered in the US 0.3in (7.62mm) calibre. With the adoption of the Lewis and the realisation of its capabilities by the Germans, the British evolved rushing tactics in place of the previous linear assaults: covered by a Lewis gun, a section or platoon rushed forward a short distance and then took cover so that it could provide support for the original support unit. The Germans quickly adopted the same tactic, and after suffering its effect at Verdun in 1916, so too did the French. Mutual-support advance by smaller parties thus came to succeed mass attack as the primary infantry tactic. However, the Germans had gone one step further than the Allies: rather than use support tactics to capture the original objective, the Germans decided that their new Sturmtruppen (storm troops) would ignore and bypass the original objective, instead using the rushing mutual-support tactic to sweep on past the trench system to the artillery lines in the rear and so destroy the basis of Allied defence. The weapon the Germans evolved for this role was the MG08/15, a much lightened and modified version of the MG08, with consequent advantages in maintenance and spares holdings. The trials undertaken before the MG08/15's selection evaluated the Madsen, Dreyse and Bergmann light machine guns, but the capabilities and logistic advantages of the MG08/15 swayed the final decision. Interestingly, the Germans did not call the MG08/15 a light machine gun, for although it was considerably lighter than the MG08 it still turned the scales at 39.71b (18kg) as it retained the MG08's water-cooling system, although with a smaller jacket. Major modifications were the use of a bipod mount in place of the heavy tripod, lighter walls in the receiver, and a butt/pistol grip arrangement so that the weapon could be aimed from the shoulder. It was also appreciated that the standard 250-round belt was too long for many tactical applications, and the MG08/15 was provided with 50- and 100-round belts, an alternative being the use of a side-mounted belt drum to keep the fabric and attached rounds out of the mud. Perhaps of greater significance for the future, the Germans in 1918 iintroduced a further lightened model, the MG08/18, in which the water-cooling system was

68

Designed as replacement for the unsatisfactory Chauchat, the Fusil Mitrailleur Chatellerault moddle 1924 was a 7.5mm (0.295in) light gas-operated machine gun of the air-cooled type. Fitted as standard with a folding bipod and a pistol grip just behind the trigger group (forward trigger for single-shot fire and rear trigger for automatic fire), the modble 1924/29 had a weight of 19.71b (8.93kg), length of 39.65in (1.007m) includigg a 19.7in (0.5m) barrel, feed from a 25-round detachable overhead box magazine, rate of fire of between 450 and 600 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,690ft (820m) per second.

The Machine Gun

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replaced by a light fretted air-cooled jacket. Only a few such weapons entered operational service, but the troops were greatly impressed with the lighter weight of this model, and the lesson was remembered for later exploration. In the light machine gun field, the French used initially the Hotchkiss Modele 1909, a lightened derivative of the Modele 1900 medium machine gun in the same 8mm (0.315in) calibre and with a notoriously unreliable feed mechanism, and the equally poor Chauchat introduced in 1915. Designed by a commission, the latter had all the vices typical of such origins, and was a thoroughly unreliable weapon adopted for production only because vested interests would not allow the weapon to perish. The weapon used the long-recoil operating system, in which the barrel and bolt moved together to the rearmost extent of the recoil, the bolt then being checked as the barrel is driven forward, following after a slight interval to strip and chamber the next round. Such a system can work, but needs careful manufacture from top-grade materials, and involves the movement of so much mass inside the weapon that keeping aim is difficult. The result was a very poor weapon whose only attributes were a weight of 20.31b (9.2kg) and a neat 20-round box magazine curved round into a semi-circle to save depth below the weapon. The US solution was an odd weapon which the Americans called an automatic rifle and all others called a light machine gun. Yet another of the great Browning designs, this was the Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR). Capable of single-shot or automatic fire, the gas-operated BAR was light enough at 161b (7.3kg) to be carried and operated by a single man. In the World War I version at least, there was no bipod or even monopod, so the weapon had to be used as a rifle: it can perhaps be regarded as the progenitor of the assault rifle in this respect, for it also possessed a cyclic rate of 550 rounds per minute and was fed with 0.3in (7.62mm) ammunition from a 20-round box magazine. The BAR was very highly regarded

oy

The Colt-Browning Model 1895 was the first Americandesigned machine gun to enter production, and is here seen in a form typical of machine gun installations before the start of the twentieth century, namely a wheeled carriage with the gun, a shield, ammunition boxes and a seat for the gunner. The weapon was of the gas-operated type with a swinging arm that descended to the vertical position, resulting in the gun’s nickname ‘potato digger’. The type saw moderately widespread service in World War I, and the details of the gun in its Belgian 7.65mm (0.301 in) calibre included a weight of 371b (16.8kg) excluding the 641b (29kg) tripod, length of 47.25in (1.2m) including a 28.35in (0.72m) barrel, feed from a 300-round fabric belt, and rate of fire of between 400 and 500 rounds per minute.

Illustrated History of Small Arms

by US troops in both world wars, and it was certainly a beautifully designed and excellently made weapon of considerable strength. The type reached its development peak in the later 1930s, when the BAR M1918A1 appeared with a neat folding bipod and a number of other detail improvements. In the event, the static domination of World War Ts battlefields by the machine gun and its barbed-wire outer defences was broken by the tank. After stock had been taken of the dreadful casualty rates of the 'Great War', the European powers and the USA saw that a repetition of these casualty rates could be avoided by emphasis only on mobile warfare in which the tank and its derivatives (supported by warplanes) would prevent the resurgence of the machine gun as the wholly dominant weapon. It was appreciated, nonetheless, that the machine gun still had a vital role to play, and great efforts were thus made into refining the type along three main avenues: lighter weight, higher rate of fire and lower production cost. The result was a division of the machine gun family from two types (the magazine-fed light machine gun operated by a single man and mounted on a bipod for assault purposes, and the belt-fed heavy machine gun operated by two men and mounted on a tripod for support or defensive purposes requiring sustained fire) into three types in the form of the same type of light machine gun, the same type of heavy machine gun, and between these two weapons the general-purpose or medium machine gun. This last weapon combined attributes of both World War I types in that it was light enough to be used as a single-man assault weapon yet sturdy enough to be mounted on a tripod and used in the sustained-fire role if required. Light machine guns usually followed the pattern set by World War I types such as the Lewis gun and MG08/18: they were generally air-cooled weapons fed from magazines carrying 20 to 30 rounds, mounted on a bipod, weighing slightly over 201b (9.1kg) and measuring about 48in (1.22m) in length. Typical of such weapons were the Czech vz26 and vz30 both in 7.92mm (0.312in) calibre; the disastrous Italian 6.5mm (0.256in) Breda modello 30; the mediocre Japanese Type 11 and Type 96 both in 6.5mm (0.256in) calibre; the moderate French Fusil Mitrailleur 1924/29 and Mitrailleuse 1931 both in 7.5mm (0.295in) calibre; the magnificent British 0.303in (7.7mm) Bren Gun; and the highly capable Soviet 7.62mm (0.3in) Degtyarev DR Of these, the best was undoubtedly the Bren Gun, developed from the Czech vz33 (produced at Brno) by the Royal Small Arms Factory (located in Enfield), hence the designation. The Bren Gun was a gas-operated weapon of extreme reliability and excellent accuracy (in either single-shot or automatic fire), and was

70

*

\

The standard Italian light machine gun of World War II, the Fucile Mitriagliatori Breda modello 1930 was a development of the earlier modelli 1924, 1928 and 1929 weapons from the same manufacturer, and was an air¬ cooled 6.5mm (0.256in) weapon working on tha delayed blowback principle. The modello 1930 was never a satisfactory weapon, largely as a result of the fact that it needed an integral oiler to ease spent case extraction and that this oiler could easily attract the dirt and dust that almost inevitably resulted in a jamming of the action. The details of the modello 1930 included a weight of 22.751b (10.24kg), length of 48.5in (1.232m) with a 20.5in (0.52m) barrel, feed from a fixed magazine capable of accepting ammunition from a 20-round charger, rate of fire of between 450 and 500 rounds per minute, and muzzle*velocity of 2,063ft (629m) per second.

The Machine Gun

Above and centre: Arguably the finest light machine gun ever produced in large numbers, the 0.303in (7.7mm) Bren machine gun was a British development of the Czechoslovak ZB vz26 via the ZB vz27, 30, 33 and 34 produced at Brno and made at Enfield, the combination of the two names resulting in the name Bren. Light, reliable, handy and capable of a high rate of fire, the Bren was a gas-operated weapon of the air-cooled type, and a quickchange barrel system was used to permit the weapon to be used in the sustained-fire role if required.

The Besal was designed in 0.303in (7.7mm) calibre as a light machine gun to enter production at the Birmingham Small Arms factory if production of the Bren machine gun was interrupted by German bombing of the Enfield factory, but in the event was not needed.

capable of a cyclic rate of 500 rounds per minute. Feed was from a 20-round curved overhead box and, firing the standard British 0.303in (7.7mm) round, the 25in (0.635m) barrel produced a muzzle velocity of 2,440ft (744m) per second, sufficient to give the weapon excellent stopping power at medium and long ranges. Yet with a weight of just over 221b (10kg) and an overall length of 45.5in (1.156m) the Bren Gun was an ideal light assault weapon fired either from the hip or on its bipod mount. Heavy machine guns followed the pattern of World War I, and indeed the same weapons were frequently used. However, two outstanding newcomers were the American M2 and the Soviet DShK, both 0.5in (12.7mm) air-cooled weapons of prodigious capability in terms of range and general firepower: the stopping power of the M2 against a human target may be gauged from the fact that the weapon can also be used against light armoured vehicles. Almost inevitably, the M2 was a Browning design and first appeared in 1921. The truly outstanding qualities of this weapon are attested by the fact that it is still in production, some 75 years later. The core of the M2 is its special round, which was developed on the basis of the 13mm

71

Illustrated History of Small Arms

Above: In the standard two-man crew for the American 0.3in (7.62mm) Browning Ml917 watercooled medium machine gun, the gunner sat or crouched behind the pistol grip/trigger group at the rear of the weapon and the loader similarly sat or crouched on the left of the weapon to ensure that the ammunition belt, which could be of fabric or metal links, fed into the weapon without twisting.

Without doubt the finest medium machine gun of World War II, the 7.92mm (0.312in) Maschinengewehr 34 was the cornerstone of the German army's infantry capabilities. This air-cooled weapon was delivered in light machine gun form with an integral bipod, but could be adapted for the medium machine gun role and would be fitted on the Maschinengewehr-Lafette 34 tripod mounting that could itself be adapted for the anti¬ aircraft role. The MG34 was a selective-fire weapon of the recoil-operated type, had a quick-change barrel, and was superbly made for very good performance and excellent reliability. The details of this great weapon included a weight of 26.71b (11,5kg), length of 48in (1,219m) with a 24.75in (0.627m) barrel, feed from a 75round saddle magazine or 50-round metal link belt linked into 250-round units, rate of fire of between 800 and 900 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,477ft (755m) per second.

72

The Machine Gun

(0.51in) anti-tank round used in the German T-Gewehr anti-tank rifle of World War I. The original M1921 version of the Browning 0.5in (12.7mm) was in essence a scaled-up and air-cooled Ml 917 machine gun, and this holds true of the later M2 and M2HB heavy-barrel versions. The weapon uses a 110-round metal-link belt of the type that became increasingly common in World War II as it was relatively immune to the effects of water and mud, made easier the positioning of the ammunition, and was also less prone to twisting; and, with a 45in (1.143m) barrel, the weapon has a muzzle velocity of 2,900ft (884m) per second as well as a cyclic rate of 450 to 575 rounds per minute. As might be expected of so powerful a weapon, the gun is heavy, turning the scales at 841b (38.1kg), although the associated M3 tripod mount is surprisingly light at 441b (20kg). The DShK entered service in 1938 and, while not as impressive as the Browning in appearance, has roughly comparable performance. The gun itself is slightly lighter at 73.51b (33.3kg), but was most often found on the massive wheeled carriage of the PM10. The most important of the new breed of general-purpose medium machine guns were one American and one German weapon in the forms of the M1919 and MG34 respectively. The M1919 was in essence a reworking of the M1917 with an air-cooled barrel, and this helped to reduce weight to 311b (14.1kg) for the definitive M1919A4 variant that was produced in vast numbers during World War II. The original rationale for the weapon was as a machine gun to equip the tanks which the Americans planned to produce in huge quantities during 1919, but the M1919's overall superiority to the M1917 led to its widespread adoption as a medium machine gun. The standard 0.3in (7.62mm) US round used in this still widely employed weapon is fired from a 250-round belt and, with a 41 in (1.041m) barrel, the muzzle velocity is 2,800ft (854m) per second. The M1919 has the useful

73

Above and top: The 0.3in (7.62mm) Machine Gun Ml919 was basically the air¬ cooled version of the watercooled Machine Gun M1917, and was the standard light and medium machine gun of the US forces in World War II.

Illustrated History of Small Arms

rate of fire of 400 to 500 rounds per minute, and is remembered best as the standard US medium machine gun of both World War II and the Korean War (1950-53), in which the type served faithfully and with utter reliability. The M1919 is not fitted with a bipod, and can thus be regarded more as a medium machine gun than as a general-purpose machine gun. The same cannot be said of the German MG34, which with its MG42 successor is undoubtedly the most important machine gun other than the epoch-making Maxim gun. One of the greatest spurs to the development of these two weapons was a provision in the Treaty of Versailles prohibiting the Germans from the development or possession of any sustained-fire weapon. The German general staff had undertaken a detailed operational analysis of World War I during the 1920s and had come to the inevitable conclusion that one of the keys to modern warfare was a sustained-fire machine gun, preferably of a weight light enough to enable the weapon to be kept in the front line of a mobile battle.

Opposite: Designed for the use of the German airborne forces, which came under the command of the Luftwaffe, the 7.92mm (0.312in) Fallschirmjager 42 was the world’s first assault rifle with capability for use in the light machine gun role. There was nothing especially advanced about any of the FG42’s individual features, but in combination these made the weapon very useful in the light tactical role.

•

Above: The MG34 was in

Ever ready with expedients, the Germans had shifted many weapons designers out of the country as a means of circumventing the restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles. As part of this programme, Rheinmetall-Borsig operated in Switzerland under the aegis of Solothurn. An early result was the Solothum Modell 1930 air-cooled machine gun, an advanced design that was produced in small numbers for sale to ground forces but which found greater fame as the MG15 aircraft-mounted machine gun. From the Modell 1930 stemmed the superb MG34, a beautifully designed and excellently engineered weapon weighing only 25.41b (11.5kg) with its bipod, yet capable of being mounted on a tripod and fitted with indirect-fire sights for the sustained-fire role, in which the quick-change facility for its air-cooled barrel proved of inestimable value. The ammunition feed was from a 75-round saddle drum or from 50-round metal-link belts that could be clipped together for continuous fire, and the rate of fire was a daunting 800 to 900 rounds per minute, making the MG34 an effective weapon against the low-flying aircraft that were increasingly to dominate the battlefield. The MG34 fired the standard 7.92mm (0.312in) round at a muzzle velocity of 2,475ft (755m) per second from a 24.7in (627m) barrel. The MG34 was light enough to be used as an assault weapon by a single man, but two- or three-man crews offered maximum capability for man-pack movement and the sustained-fire role with the gun, tripod, spare barrel and ammunition cases. The only problem with the MG34 was its superb capabilities, which meant that demand always outstripped production, especially as this well-

74

effect a product-improved version of the MG30 with a new but simple locking system, an easy way to change the barrel, and the use wherever possible of stamped components and spot welds to keep manufacturing time and cost to a minimum. The type was introduced in the spring of 1942, and proved an excellent weapon that is still in service with several armies and has also exercised a profound influence on the design of machine guns in the period since World War II. The details of this weapon included a weight of 25.51b (11.5kg), length of 48in (1.22m) with a 21 in (0.533m) barrel, feed from a 50-round metal belt that could be linked into 250round lengths, rate of fire of up to 1,500 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,477ft (755m) per second.

The Machine Gun

Opposite below: Designed as a 7.92mm (0.312in) machine gun of the air-cooled type specifically to evade the strictures of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles that forbade Germany from developing or fielding water-cooled machine guns, the MG30 was a pioneering weapon designed in Switzerland by Solothurn, a subsidiary of Rheinische Metallwaaren und Maschinenfabrik (later known as Rheinmetall-Borsig). Among the novel features introduced in this weapon were a quick-change barrel, ‘all in line’ design for a high rate of fire, and an unusual trigger in which pressure on the top half produced single¬ shot fire and pressure on the lower half resulted in continuous fire. The details of this little-known but important weapon, which was produced to the extent of about 5,000 units for the Austrian and Hungarian armies after being rejected by the German army, included a weight of 171b (7.7kg), length of 46.25in (1.174m) including a 23.5in (0.596m) barrel, feed from a 25-round box magazine, rate of fire of 800 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,493ft (760m) per second. From the MG30 Rheinmetall developed the MG 15 for aircraft use and then the superb MG34 for land use.

engineered weapon was expensive to produce. It has been said with a great degree of perception that use of the MG34 as a battlefield weapon was like using a Rolls-Royce to plough a field. The combination of simplified design and optimised production capability applied to the MP43/StG44 assault rifle was also applied to the MG34 generalpurpose machine gun. Although, this was all that the German army could desire in the way of performance and reliability, it was a high-quality weapon that was drastically expensive to produce. This factor had been appreciated as early as 1937, but the probability of larger armies and the possibility of protracted and expensive campaigns added urgency to the process of developing a cheaper replacement. The result was the MG42, evolved by the Mauser designers via the MG39/41 on the basis of the MG34 with design input from experimental weapons captured when the Germans overran Poland in 1939. In general, the operation of the MG42 followed that of the MG34 in that it was a recoil-operated weapon (with a muzzle trap to keep pressure high until the bullet was well clear of the barrel) of fair simplicity and considerable strength. Where the MG42 differed from the MG34 was in its bolt and locking system, the barrel and bolt recoiling in a straight line (without any turning) while remaining locked together. Attached to the rear of the barrel was a screwed-on extension with cams machined into its sides. As the bolt moved forward, a locking stud on each side of the bolt hit the appropriate cam in the barrel extension, forcing roller locking lugs out of the bolt into slots cut in the barrel extension as the bolt came flush with the rear of the chamber, so locking the bolt and barrel firmly together with a mechanically advantageous system. In the recoil phase of the action, the barrel and bolt moved back together as long as there was a high gas pressure in the barrel. As the rear of the recoil movement was approached, the studs on the bolt head were cammed out by the cams on the barrel extension, this withdrawing the locking lugs and allowing the bolt and barrel to separate. Moreover, a feed arm for the ammunition was operated by the movement of the bolt in a system that provided firm and completely accurate movement of the 50-round metal belt into a weapon with a prodigiously high rate of fire: at some 1,500 rounds per minute, the MG42's cyclic rate of fire was about double that achieved in previous weapons, and made the weapon aurally most impressive with a sound that has been likened to the tearing of linoleum. This rate of fire made the MG42 a highly capable sustained-fire weapon that also possessed enormous impact in the shock phase of assault operations. The high rate of fire and total reliability would in themselves have made the MG42 a noteworthy design. But allied to these technical advances in the design of the weapon's operation was basic engineering development that made the MG42 far easier, quicker and cheaper to produce than the MG34: sheet metal stampings were used wherever possible (most notably the receiver and the barrel housing) to ease production bottlenecks and speed construction. One of the results of this use of metal stampings was an angular appearance fully indicative of the weapon's utilitarian nature, and another was an ingenious barrel-change

75

Illustrated History of Small Arms

mechanism built into the barrel housing. Such changes were very important given the MG42's extremely high rate of fire. For the assault role the MG42 could be used from its folding bipod for the delivery of shock fire at close ranges, while the use of the Lafette 42 tripod mount and indirect-fire sights made the MG42 a formidable sustained-fire weapon. Like the MG34, the MG42 was a highly capable light anti-aircraft weapon, and the Lafette 42 could be adapted with simplicity to this role, again of significant importance as the tide of the war turned against the Germans, and Allied tactical warplanes came to play an increasingly dominant part in the course of ground operations. The MG42 was the most important machine gun of World War II and indeed of the period since the introduction of the Maxim gun, setting the pattern for the subsequent development of general-purpose machine guns. The weapon fired the standard 7.92mm (0.312in) round with a muzzle velocity of 2,475ft (755m) per second through a barrel 21in (0.533m) long, while the whole weapon was 48in (1.22m) long and weighed a mere 25.41b (11.5kg) complete with its bipod. A true measure of the weapon's importance can be gauged from the number of derivatives it spawned after World War II, and the extent to which its primary design features were copied into other weapons. The type was adopted for the West German army that was re-formed in the 1950s and is still used by the current army of a now-unified Germany: the MG1 started to emerge from the Rheinmetall production line in 1959, and is virtually identical with the MG42 other than the use of the standard NATO 7.62mm (0.3in) ammunition; the MG2 is ex-wartime stock rebuilt for the NATO round; and the MG3 is an updated version with a measure of light alloy (in less stressed parts) to reduce weight to 23.151b (10.5kg). With its detachable butt, the MG3 is 48.2in (1.225m) long, and the NATO 7.62mm (0.3in) round produces a muzzle velocity of 2,690ft (820m) per second with the 20.9in (0.531m) barrel. The cyclic rate is variable between 700 and 1,300 rounds per minute.

/D

Eugene Stoner of the USA has been a prolific-designer of capable small arms, and among the most fascinating of his concepts has been the 5.56mm (0.219in) ‘Stoner 63’ system of 15 modular elements that can be combined in various forms to create a rifle, carbine,

magazine-fed light machine gun, belt-fed light machine gun, trainable medium machine gun, and medium machine gun for vehicle installation. Illustrated here is the trainable medium machine gun on the tripod of the 0.5in (12.7mm) Browning M2 heavy machine gun.

The Machine Gun Introduced to Japanese service in 1936, the 6.5mm (0.256in) Light Machine Gun Type 96 was an indigenously designed weapon drawing heavily on features from two Czechoslovak and French weapons, namely the ZB vz26 and the Hotchkiss.

Opposite: Seen here on the same MaschinengewehrLafette 34 tripod mounting as used for the MG34, the MG42 was an exceptionally potent sustained-fire weapon.

The same basic weapon is also produced under licence in Italy, Pakistan, Portugal, Spain and Turkey, and also without the benefit of a licence in the former Yugoslavia, which adopted the type in 1945 and has since maintained the 7.92mm (0.312in) calibre for its own version, which is designated the SARAC M1953. French units took captured MG42s to Indo-China in the period between 1945 and 1954, and the type was later encountered in communist hands during the period of the Vietnam War that ended with the North Vietnamese capture of Saigon, the South Vietnamese capital, in 1975. The MG42 was thus a seminal weapon in the development of modem generalpurpose machine guns, for it inflicted losses that made Germany's opponents all too aware of the change wrought in battlefield tactics by this weapon. The results of this awareness helped to consolidate the wholesale change in tactics that has been evident since World War II, as the countries victorious in that war assessed the way in which Germany had nearly triumphed against larger numbers in the early stages of the war and then created a superb resistance to overwhelmingly superior numbers in the later stages of the war. It can be said, therefore, that modern battlefield tactics are derived largely from those employed by Germany during World War II.

Designed in the early part of the 1920s as the first machine gun of all-Russian concept, and accepted for service in 1928, the Pulemet Degtyareva Pekhotnii was notable for its simplicity, lightness, reliability and basic strength. This 7.62mm (0.3in) weapon was based on a gas-operated system with only six moving parts, and could be used without problem under any and all geographical and climatic conditions.

Illustrated History of Small Arms

The change is centred on the initiative of small combat units operating, as remotely controlled but self-contained teams equipped with a high degree of organic firepower and capable of considerable mobility on a high-threat battlefield. At the centre of this transformation at the basic infantry level have been the assault rifle and general-purpose machine gun, although by the mid1990s the latter has undergone an inevitable change, in this instance to the medium machine gun that is usually belt-fed and used for the sustained-fire role and the squad support weapon that is usually magazine-fed and used for support. This change has been prompted, in part at least, by the widespread reduction of rifle calibres as the full-power rifle was replaced by the assault rifle, which has slowly developed into smaller calibres: starting from the 7.62mm (0.3in) calibre that became standard in the 1950s, these weapons have declined to 5.56mm (0.219in) calibre, and serious consideration has been given to a further reduction to 4.85mm (0.19in) calibre. Although the smaller calibres are perfectly acceptable for assault rifles, their lack of range and stopping power reduces their suitability in the sustained-fire role, for which the 7.62mm (0.3in) calibre seems the feasible minimum. It thus appears likely that the post-war generation of 7.62mm (0.3in) generalpurpose machine guns will remain operational in the medium (sustained-fire) role, while assault-rifle calibres will become common for squad support weapons. This latter point is important as ammunition commonality is vital at the squad level, and as there is little requirement for squad support weapons to be markedly superior to assault rifles in range. The current widespread use of machine guns such as the Browning M2, the MG42 (otherwise MG1 series) and, in certain areas, the Bren Gun indicates that machine gun development has reached a plateau of technical perfection. As previously noted, the results of developments in World War II in the machine gun field was a relatively slow spate of general-purpose machine guns. Belgium was an early and highly successful entrant into this field, the Fabrique Nationale at Herstal producing the 7.62mm (0.3in) Mitrailleuse d'Appui General (MAG) in the early 1950s. The weapon is of typical FN excellence in design and construction (some parts being of sheet metal stampings riveted together but most being of machined high-quality steels), but is an unremarkable weapon except for the variable gas-regulator used to tap propellant gases from the barrel for the

78

Generally known in British service as the ‘Gimpy’, the L7 General-Purpose Machine Gun is the British variant of the Belgian FN MAG weapon, and is notable for its great reliability due to the excellence of the basic design, its manufacture in the highest-quality materials, and the provision of a variable gas port that can be opened if the gun is threatened by a fouling in the gas operating system. The details of this weapon, in its basic L7A1 variant with a quick-change barrel, include a weight of 241b (10.89kg) with the light barrel but without the 291b (13.15kg) tripod, length of 49.7in (1.26m) with a 24.75in (0.629m) barrel, feed from a metal link belt, rate of fire of between 700 and 900 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,800ft (853m) per second. The gun can also be fitted with a heavier barrel for more effective use in the sustainedfire role.

The Machine Gun

Above: The L7A1 is the basic version of the FN MAG light/medium machine gun for service with the British forces as its General-Purpose Machine Gun.

weapon's gas-operated action. This regulator allows the machine-gunner to vary the rate of fire at will, and also makes possible continued operation in adverse conditions: for example, the effects of a fouled barrel can be overcome by opening the regulator to allow the tapping-off of more gas. The weapon also has an easily changed 6.61b (3kg) barrel of the type vital in sustained-fire situations, and can be fired from a light bipod or from a 23.21b (10.5kg) tripod mounting; in the latter role the butt is usually removed. The weapon's one failing is the retention of a 50round belt for ammunition feed: this is perfectly acceptable in the sustained-fire role, but is cumbersome and at times dangerous when the machine-gunner has to move rapidly in the support role, for which the weapon is also somewhat heavy by modern standards. The MAG is typical of its generation, with a weight of 22.31b (10.1kg), an overall length of 49.6in (1.26m), a cyclic rate of between 600 and 1,000 rounds per minute, and a muzzle velocity of 2,756ft (840m) per second wTith a 21.5in (0.546m) barrel. The MAG has been widely exported and looks set to remain in service far into the foreseeable future. Countries that have made the MAG under licence include Argentina, Israel, Singapore, South Africa and the UK. The British version is the L7 which incorporates a number of modifications to suit the weapon to specific British requirements. The MAG is undoubtedly the most widely used post-war general-purpose machine gun of Western origins, its only real competitor being the US M60, which is also a gas-operated weapon in 7.62mm (0.3in) calibre. The M60 serves in large

The GPMG machine gun can also be installed on a number of vehicles either as a co-axial weapon or as a freely trainable weapon for local defence against ground forces and/or aircraft, usually in its L7A2 form with provision for a box to be attached to the side of the weapon for carriage of the metal-link ammunition belt.

7Q /y

Illustrated History of Small Arms The standard American light/medium machine gun from the late 1950s has been the M60, which is a gasopgrated weapon with an air¬ cooled barrel and capable only of automatic fire. The details of this weapon include a weight of 23.051b (10.46kg) excluding the 151b (6.8kg) mount, length of 43.75in (1.11m) including a 25.6in (0.65m) barrek feed from a disintegrating metal-link belt, rate of fire of 600 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,800ft (853m) per second.

numbers with the US Army, and is also employed by a number of the USA's allies in eastern Asia, the most significant being Australia, South Korea, and Taiwan (which also makes the weapon under licence). The M60 story began in World War II with a development design called the T44, which capitalised on the many superior features of German machine guns and assault rifles. The T44 thus featured the piston and bolt of the Fallschirmjager 42 paratroop assault rifle and the ammunition feed system of the MG42 machine gun, allied to Americandeveloped features in an overall design that made wide use of sheet metal stampings and plastics for ease of production and maintenance. After an extremely protracted development effort and evaluation programme, the T44 became the M60 and was issued to US Army units in the later part of the 1950s.

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The weapons carried by this team of British infantrymen include the L7 machine gun and L2 Sterling sub-machine gun.

The Machine Gun

Despite the type's lengthy gestation, the new weapon was unreliable and unpopular, its major failing being the decidedly awkward barrel-change system, which required about half the weapon to be taken apart before the new barrel, weighing 8.2451b (3.74kg), could be fitted: this was clearly a combat factor fraught with tactical danger. Extensive redevelopment was required before the weapon was brought up to fully acceptable standard, but even then it remained somewhat unpopular with many users for its lack of balance. This latter factor is so pronounced that M60 machinegunners generally carry their weapon with a sling rather than by the carrying handle, which is not on the weapon's centre of gravity. The use of the sling also means that the gunner can fire the weapon on the move, in much the same way as the BAR gunners of World War I before the type was provided with a bipod in its BAR M1918A1 form. In the sustained-fire role the M60 is generally used on a tripod mounting. Salient features of the M60 which, like the MAG, has been developed for use on armoured fighting vehicles and helicopters in remotely or directly controlled installations, include an overall length of 43.5in (1.105m), a barrel length of 22in (0.559m), a weight of 23.171b (10.5kg), a cyclic rate of 550 rounds per minute, a muzzle velocity of 2,805ft (855m) per second, and ammunition feed from 50-round metallink belts. The US Army plans to replace some of its M60s with the new M249 version of the Belgian FN Minimi. The M249 was conceived from 1966 as the squad automatic weapon (SAW) to complement the 5.56mm (0.219in) M16 assault rifle. The latter provided the basic infantry squad with an automatic weapon effective to a range of 330yds (300m), but US Army planners rightly decided that each of the two fire teams in the squad needed a tactical weapon offering greater

One of the most important modern light machine guns of the squad support type is the FN Minimi, created in Belgium as a 5.56mm (0.219in) weapon and since adopted by several countries including the USA, where the type is known as the M249 Squad Automatic Weapon.

Still in service despite the fact that it was adopted in World War I, the Browning Automatic Rifle or BAR falls into no specific category as it combines automatic rifle and light machine gun attributes. This gas-operated type was widely produced in different calibres for different markets, and the two main models are the M1918A1 selective-fire weapon with a bipod and provision for a shoulder strap, and the M1918A2 automatic weapon (two rates of fire) with a buttstock monopod.

81 OI

capabilities than the Ml 6 but without the weight and sophistication of the M60 machine gun that also fires ammunition of a different calibre to that of the squad's other weapons. The M249 was evolved as a derivative of the Minimi (detailed below) optimised to American requirements, and is notable for the smoothness of its operation and its extreme reliability under the most adverse of operational conditions. The M249 has an overall length of 39.4in (1.00m), a barrel length of 18.5in (0.47m), a weight of 221b (9.97kg) complete with a 200-round magazine, bipod, sling and cleaning kit, a cyclic rate of fire of 750 rounds per minute, a muzzle velocity of 3,033ft (924m) per second, and a maximum effective range of 1,420yds (1,300m) compared with the bipod-mounted M60's maximum effective range of 985yds (900m). A revised version of the M60 currently evaluated by several potential operators is the Maremount Lightweight Machine Gun. This is a much-improved weapon indicative of what the M60 could have become in the 1960s if a little more foresight had been applied to its basic design: the weapon has been lightened and simplified especially in the gas-operated part of the system, the bipod has been moved back to a location under the receiver, and a foregrip has been added. Apart from the pre-war Model 1924/29 light machine gun in 7.5mm (0.295in) calibre, the French after World War II used a number of British and US automatic weapons as well as a large quantity of captured MG42 machine guns. These weapons saw extensive service in Indo-China, where France was seeking to re¬ establish a colonial empire against the nationalist efforts of the Viet Minh and other groups. Among the many problems faced by the French forces in this war was the logistical difficulty of maintaining weapons of diverse origins and different calibres, and one of the few practical results of France's setbacks and eventual 1954 defeat in Indo-China was a politically motivated but serviceapproved scheme that, wherever possible, the French forces would be equipped with standardised weapon types of French design and manufacture. In the general-purpose machine gun field, this meant the development and construction of the 7.5mm (0.295in) AA 52, conceived from the outset as an effective weapon

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The MG3 was the last version of the MG42 manufactured by Rheinmetall for the German army, although in this form in 7.62iTinn (0.3in) calibre for the West German army created after 1954. The fact that the weapon was reintroduced to production after a considerable gap is an eloquent testimony of the enduring capability of this weapon, which was first readopted by the West German army as the MG2 (surviving MG42 weapons rebarrelled to 7.62mm/0.3in calibre), then placed in production as the MG1 and finally upgraded to MG3 standard. The details of this recoil-operated automatic weapon include a weight of 23.151b (10.5kg) without the 1.21b (0.55kg) bipod, length of 48.2in (1.225m) including a 20.9in (0.531m) barrel, feed from a 50-round metal-link belt, rate of fire of between 700 and 1,300 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,690ft (820m) per second.

A

The Machine Gun

The M60 is the standard light/medium machine gun of the American forces.

produced as easily and as cheaply as possible: machined parts were thus kept to a minimum, and extensive use was made of stampings and welded components. Whereas most modern general-purpose machine guns are gas-operated weapons, the AA 52 is based on the delayed-blowback operating system. The system works without difficulty in pistol and intermediate-power cartridges, but the French decision to combine delayed-blowback action with a full-power round meant that careful consideration had to be given to safety. The AA 52 thus has a two-part breech block, in the form of a light head and a heavier body: the head is locked against the breech by a lever system until the body has been driven back a certain distance, operating the lever action to unlock the head as the pressure in the barrel has by then dropped to a safe level. To ease the problem of spent-case extraction with low gas pressure, the breech is fluted to allow gas to seep between the cartridge case and the breech wall. The AA 52 was designed for use in the squad support and general-purpose roles, the former with the aid of a bipod and the latter on a tripod mount and fitted with a heavy barrel. One of the AA 52's major failings in the squad support role is the fact that the bipod is mounted directly onto the barrel, which makes barrel changes awkward, and also means the carriage of a surplus bipod with each spare barrel. Another difficult feature is the use of a box magazine for the 50round ammunition belt: if fitted on the left of the weapon this makes carriage difficult, and most AA 52 gunners prefer to leave the belt hanging free despite the chance of the ammunition becoming dirty or snagging. The export model of the AA 52 chambered for the NATO 7.62mm (0.3in) round is the NF-1, but this has not proved very successful in commercial terms. An apparently increasing tendency in recent years is the design and

83

Illustrated History of Small Arms

1

manufacture of indigenous weapons outside the major power blocs, the most prolific region in this respect being South America. As such weapons can be imported by Arab and Third-World countries without the political and economic strictures attached to US or what used to be Soviet arms supplies, it is likely that weapons such as the Brazilian Uirapuru Mekanika could find a comparatively ready export market. The Uirapuru Mekanika is a gas-operated general-purpose machine gun of orthodox construction but ungainly appearance, and can achieve a cyclic rate of 700 rounds per minute firing standard NATO 7.62mm (0.3in) ammunition. With butt and bipod the weapon is moderately heavy at 28.71b (13kg); the type can be used in the support role with its bipod, and in the medium role on a tripod and fitted with a heavier barrel. Ammunition feed is from a 50round belt. If the Uirapuru Mekanika secures the anticipated export orders, there seems every likelihood that other South American small arms will appear for local use and overseas sales. On the other side of the Iron Curtain, which effectively disappeared in the late 1980s with the dissolution of the USSR into the Commonwealth of Independent States and the disappearance of the Warsaw Pact, the major arms manufacturers and suppliers were Czechoslovakia (now the separate Czech and Slovak Republics) and the USSR. The former's primary contender in the light machine gun market is the vz59, a 7.62mm (0.3in) weapon that appeared in the later 1950s as successor to the overly complex vz52, itself a belt-fed derivative of the magazine-fed vz26 series that appeared between the two world wars. The vz59 is very similar in its workings to the original models, but can be used in the squad support role with a bipod and light barrel, or in the medium machine gun role with a tripod and heavy barrel, in each case feed being undertaken with 50- or 250-round belts. The light barrel is 23.35in (0.593m) long and produces a muzzle velocity of 2,657ft (810m) per second, while the heavy barrel is 27.3in (0.693m) long and generates a muzzle velocity of 2,723ft (830m) per second. The cyclic rate is between 700 and 800 rounds per minute, and the export potential of the model has been raised by the availability of a vz59N variant chambered for the NATO rather than Soviet 7.62mm (0.3in) round. The Soviet army has now fragmented into the armies of Russia and the other republics constituting the CIS, but these still operate on the former Soviet pattern with their original Soviet weapons and can therefore be regarded as a single entity. This uses separate general-purpose and squad support machine guns, die former being the PK chambered for the oddly antiquated 7.62mm x 54R rimmed round, and the latter the RPK chambered for the 7.62mm x 39 round as used in the AK series assault rifle to which the RPK is closely related. Such a system is hardly

84

Intended for use in the light machine gun role with a light barrel, bipod and monopod buttstock support, or as medium machine gun in the sustained-fire role with a heavier barrel and installed on the tripod mounting of the 0.5in (12.7mm) Browning M2 heavy machine gun, the standard French machine gun is the 7.5mm (0.295in) Arme Automatique Transformable modele 1952. The details of this delayed-blowback weapon include a weight of 21.71b (9.85kg) with the light barrel or 23.281b (10.56kg) with the heavy barrel, length of 45.9in (1.165m) with the buttstock extended or 38.6in (0.98nn) with the buttstock retracted, barrel length of 19.3in (0.4m) for the light barrel or 23.6in (0.6m) in each case without the flash suppressor, feed from a 50round metal-link belt, rate of fire of 700 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,690ft (820m) per second.

The Machine Gun

The standard light/medium machine gun of the Soviet (now Russian) forces is the Pulomet Kalashnikova, generally known as the PK except in the case of the variant installed on a tripod for the sustained-fire role, in which case the designation is PKS, the last letter standing for Stankovy (mounted). Seen here in its PK light machine gun form with a bipod, the weapon is a gas-operated machine gun firing the standard 7.62mm (0.3in) round and capable only of automatic fire. The details of this weapon include a weight of 19.81b (9kg), length of 47.2in (1.20m) including a 25.9in (0.66m) barrel, feed from a 100-, 200- or 250round metal-link belt, rate of fire of between 650 and 700 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,707ft (825m) per second.

sensible in logistical terms, but given the lavish scale on which Soviet small arms and ammunition were produced and distributed, this is clearly not an insurmountable difficulty. The PK, one of a series of weapons, is a highly capable weapon that first appeared in 1946 with a fluted heavy barrel for the medium machine gun role. The gun itself weighs 19.81b (9kg), and is usually fitted on a tripod weighing 16.51b (7.5kg) on which it is fed by 100-, 200- or 250-round belts for a cyclic rate of about 700 rounds per minute at a muzzle velocity of 2,707ft (825m) per second with a 25.9in (0.658m) barrel. In the sustained-fire role frequent barrel changes are advised, but like many other Soviet automatic weapons the PK has a chromeplated bore to reduce wear. The design is simple yet effective, a fact that is notable in all Soviet weapons, which were designed to be as 'soldier-proof' as possible. Other models in the series are the IKM product-improved and lighter variant, the PKS tripod-mounted AA variant, the PKM bipod-mounted squad support weapon, the PKMS tripod-mounted AA variant of the PKM, and the PKB with the standard butt/trigger group replaced by spade grips and a butterfly trigger. The PK is also made in China as the Type 80. The RPK is purely a squad support weapon, and first appeared in 1966 as a derivative of the AKM assault rifle, and the Chinese copy is the Type 74. Other than a longer and more substantial barrel plus a light bipod, the RPK can be considered identical with the AKM. Ammunition feed is the task of a special 75round drum, in whose absence 30- or 40-round box magazines can be used. The cyclic rate is 660 rounds per minute, but a more practical rate heavily impressed on trainees is 80 rounds per minute as the barrel cannot be changed. In the closing stages of its life, the USSR changed to a new standard 5.45mm x 18 round, and the RPK was adapted for this 5.45mm (0.215in) cartridge as the RPK-74. This is identical with the RPK in most respects. The tendency towards smaller rounds for assault rifles (otherwise known as individual weapons) is also evident in the West, and associated squad support

85

Designed as the standard squad automatic weapon of the Soviet (now Russian) forces, the Rushnoi Pulemet Degtyareva is better known as the RPD and is a 7.62mm (0.3in) weapon chambered for the Soviet intermediate-power round. The weapon was not designed with any sustained-fire capability in mind, and therefore lacks any provision for installation on a tripod mounting, and is a gas-operated weapon capable only of automatic fire.

weapons have thus been evolved to work in concert with these individual weapons. One of the most capable is another FN product, the Minimi, which is chambered for the new NATO SS109 5.56mm (0.219in) round. This was designed for a maximum effective range of 435yds (400m), which is now considered the maximum for battlefield engagements. The Minimi is a neat weapon with 100 or 200 rounds of belted ammunition in a box under the gun body, although the type can also use the 30-round box.magazine of the US M16A1 assault rifle, this fitting into the receiver under the belt-feed guides after the belt has been removed. The box magazine is fitted with a simple indicator to show the number of rounds remaining. Many of the Minimi's design features are adaptations of items in the MAG, typically the gas regulator and the quick-change barrel system, but the gasoperated bolt system has rotary locking, and moves inside the receiver on twin rails to provide absolutely smooth and vibration-free movement, a factor which

The General Electric (now Martin Marietta) Minigun is the modern equivalent of the Gatling gun inasmuch as it is an externally powered weapon with an assembly of barrels fixed to rotate round a central axis. Behind the barrel assembly is a cylindrical assembly with a specially contoured path machined into its inner side so that the cam followers on each breech block ride round this path to extract a spent round before stripping and chambering a fresh round for firing as soon as the relevant barrel reaches the requisite position in its rotation. The weapon has been produced in several calibres, and can achieve a rate of fire of up to 6,000 rounds per minute. That illustrated is the Ml34 in 7.62mm (0.3in) calibre.

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The Machine Gun

has helped to make the Minimi accurate and reliable. Overall length is 41.3in (1.05m), and the weapon complete with bipod weighs 14.31b (6.5kg) rising to 21.41b (9.7kg) when 200 rounds of ammunition have been added. The muzzle velocity and cyclic rate are 3,002ft (915m) per second and between 750 and 1,000 rounds per minute respectively. There is little doubt that the Minimi is an excellent weapon and the standard against which all comparable weapons must be judged. The type has been adopted by the US Army as the M249 Squad Automatic Weapon, and other large sales will probably follow. A competitor in Third-World and Asian markets must be the Ultimax 100, produced by Chartered Industries of Singapore and chambered for the US Ml 93 5.56mm (0.219in) round, which fires a slightly lighter and shorter projectile than the SS109. In effect, this weapon is the machine gun version of the M16 series assault rifle, and is thus a counterpart of the RPK, but is notably light at 14.331b (6.5kg) complete with a 100-round ammunition drum under the body, and possesses the high muzzle velocity of 3,248ft (990m) per second. The 100-round ammunition drum can be replaced by 20- or 30-round box magazines. The Ultimax 100 is available in a Mk 1 form with a fixed barrel and in a Mk 2 form with quick-change barrel, and sales have already been made to the Singapore armed forces. Several other armies are testing the type, and sales will inevitably follow. The British contender in this market is the gas-operated Light Support Weapon, which was developed for service as the L86A1 light machine gun counterpart of the L85A1 assault rifle. Original plans were for these two complementary weapons to use the British-developed 4.85mm (0.19in) round, but the attractions of commonality prevailed and the two members of the Enfield Weapon System (otherwise Small Arms 80 or SA80 family) are now chambered for the 5.56mm (0.219in) SSI09 NATO round held in the 30-round magazine of the M16 assault rifle. The main points of difference between the L86A1 and L85A1 are the former's bipod, heavier barrel and pistol grip under the 'stock', although the SA80 series is of the new 'bullpup' type of design based on a straight line between muzzle and butt with the trigger group forward of the box magazine.

87

The M214 ‘Six-pak’ is the 5.56mm (0.219in) variant of ^he General Electric (now

Martin Marietta) Minigun.

Illustrated History of Small Arms ctp

0, fnlRfl

cm

J he role of the machine gun in World War I was directly associated with infantry operations, either in support of one's own troops or defence against the enemy's troops, in the grim task of emerging from the trenches, crossing no-man’s-land and any wire entanglements that remained uncut by the preceding artillery bombardment, and then fighting into the enemy's trench system. With the trench system captured (in part if not in whole), the victors' machine guns could then be brought up and resited as defensive weapons against the counterattack that the ousted occupants of the trench system would inevitably launch. But the weapon of the infantryman as such was the rifle, a weapon that had reached a peak in the years before World War I but then proved generally unsuitable for the trench warfare. The peak attained was that of the manually operated breech-loading magazine rifle, which had been designed at the end of the nineteenth century as the accurate weapon of regular infantry who, according to theory, would have the musketry skills to pick off open-order attackers at long range from prone or kneeling positions. This emphasis on musketry had resulted in precision weapons with long barrels and high muzzle velocities, attributes which were almost a hindrance in World War I.

The opening campaigns of the war seemed to vindicate the theory of musketry in battles such as that at Mons, in which the high rate, accuracy and long range of the defending infantrymen's rifle fire persuaded the attacking Germans that the British must have equipped their infantry with additional machine guns. However, the stalemate of trench warfare that followed dictated a new series of priorities in rifle design: the structural and design strengths to operate under the worst of conditions, the delivery of a moderately high rate of fire in the hands of semi-skilled soldiers, accuracy to 400yds (365m) rather than the pre-war norms of 800yds (730m) or more, and short overall length so that the weapon could be used easily in the confines of the trenches. The weapon that most nearly met these requirements was the British Rifle No.l Mk III, the latest version of the Short Magazine Lee-Enfield Rifle (SMLE) introduced in 1907 as successor to the original Lee-Enfield rifle. The rationale of the SMLE came from the 2nd Boer War, in which the British had discovered that the standard rifle was too long for effective cavalry use. The SMLE was thus a hybrid weapon weighing 8.71b (3.9kg) and having an overall length of 44.6in (1.13m). It was chambered for the powerful 0.303in (7.7mm) round which, with a

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Opposite: This cutaway illustration of the Lee-Enfield rifle's bolt action reveals the salient details of most service weapons of this type. Starting fromJhe bolt’s fully withdrawn position, the cycle of operation starts with the movement of a fresh round into line with the breech under pressure from the magazine spring; forward movement of the bolt then engages the bolt head with the cartridge, which is driven into the breech; in the fast part of its forward movement, the bolt engages the trigger sear, thereby cocking the action, and lowering of the bolt handle rotates the bolt and locks it with the cartridge in the breech; pressure on the trigger now fires the rifle; lifting of the bolt handle unlocks the action and rearward movement of the bolt allows a claw on the bolt head to engage the rim of the spent case and then withdraw the case, which is ejected by the springloaded extractor, which allows the cycle to be repeated.

The variant of the Lee-Enfield illustrated here is the 0.303in (7.7mm) Rifle No.l, Short Magazine LeeEnfield HI (latepknown as the Rifle No.l Mk III), and its details included a weight of 8.621b (3.91kg), length of 44.5in (1.13m) including a 25.19in (0.64m) barrel, feed from a 10-round detachable box magazine, and muzzle velocity of 2,060ft (628m) per second later increased to 2,440ft (738m) per second. The rifle was notable for its accuracy at long range, and the combination of its large magazine and the ease with which the action could be operated allowed well-trained British infantrymen to reach a rate of fire never equalled with any other boltaction rifle.

The Rifle and Assault Rifle

Below: Unhappy with the 8mm (0.315in) cartridge that had had proved so unsuccessful in World War I, the French adopted a new and significantly better 7.5mm (0.295in) round in 1924, and the first rifle designed, to fire the new round was the Fusil Manufacture d’Armes St Etienne modele 1936, generally known as the MAS 36. The last bolt-action rifle to enter service anywhere in the world, this was obsolescent even as it was introduced for it lacked a safety catch and had only a five-round magazine.

barrel length of 25.2in (0.64m), developed a muzzle velocity of 2,080ft (634m) per second. Unlike the Mauser rifles, which used front-lug locking for the turn-bolt action, the Rifle No.l employed rear-lug locking which was theoretically weaker (but which never gave trouble) but gave an exceptionally smooth action that permitted very high rates of aimed fire with the 10-round box magazine, which was fed from above with ammunition in five-round charger clips. Various modifications led to the more easily produced Rifle No.l Mk III* which replaced some of the No.l Mk Ill's long-range and precision features without detracting from the type's utility in the trenches. The No.l Mk III* was the British rifle of World War I, and the design was so successful in general terms that it remained in service right through World War II, together with the No.4 Mk I improved version. No other Allied rifle could match the No.l, and the best of these was the standard American rifle, the Springfield Model 1903 in 0.3in (7.62mm) calibre. As its name indicates, this weapon was introduced in 1903 when the US Army realised that its 1892 Krag-Jorgensen rifles were becoming outmoded. A comparison of contemporary designs produced the decision that the Mauser action was the best of the batch, and a licence was secured for the production of a Mauser-type weapon at the Springfield Arsenal. The resulting Model 1903 was, like the SMLE and the No.l, a compromise weapon with a barrel length of 24in (0.61m), a figure intermediate between that of early rifles (typically 30in/0.762m) and current carbines at less than 22in (0.559m). The Model 1903 was nevertheless a fine rifle notable for its good accuracy and easily operated bolt action. Overall length was 43.2in (1.097m), weight 8.71b (3.9kg), muzzle velocity 2,800ft (853m) per second, and feed a five-round box. The French used the Lebel Modele 1886 in 8mm (0.315in) calibre, but this was at best obsolescent with its tubular magazine (resulting inevitably in slow loading

/

89

Illustrated History of Small Arms

and the perpetual threat of magazine explosion) and 31.4in (0.797m) overall length. Other French service weapons of this basic type were the Berthier and Gras carbines that were short and light but possessed only small magazines and had excessive muzzle flash as the standard 8mm (0.315in) round was used with the 17.7in (0.45m) barrel, and the Berthier Modele 1907 rifle incorporated the Lebel's action and a three-round box magazine. The Belgians used the 7.65mm (0.301 in) FN-Mauser Modele 1895 with a fiveround box magazine, and the Russians had the sturdy 7.62mm (0.3in) MosinNagant Model 1891 with a five-round magazine. Both were unexceptional weapons but were adequate to their tasks despite their considerable overall length, especially when fitted with long bayonets. The same may be said of the Italians' standard weapon, the 6.5mm (0.256in) Fucile modello 91, otherwise known as the Mannlicher-Carcano and fitted with a six-round box magazine. The trouble with this Italian rifle was its very poor round, which was decidedly underpowered and thus fired a small bullet which, as a result of its muzzle velocity of only 2,067ft (630m) per second, lacked stopping power to a tactically disadvantageous degree. The Central Powers fielded two excellent rifles in the form of the German Gewehr 98 and the Austro-Hungarian Mannlicher Modell 1895. The Gewehr 98, as noted earlier, was a Mauser design, and was possibly the most significant and influential bolt-action rifle ever produced. Generally well made, the Gewehr 98 was of unexcelled strength as a result of its basic design and the use of a two-lug front locking system for the straight-pull bolt. This action was not as smooth as the rear-lug type used in the SMLE and its derivatives, but was adequate for basic infantry use even if it reduced the rate of fire to a certain degree, especially as the charger-fed integral magazine held only five rounds. These may be considered petty quibbles in an otherwise classic weapon of enormous structural and dynamic strength. Given the conditions of World War I, the main failing of the Gewehr 98 was its overall length of 49.2in (1.25m). Firing the powerful 7.92mm (0.312in) German round, the Gewehr 98 had a muzzle velocity of 2,100ft (640m) per second with a 29.1in (0.74m) barrel, and weighed 9.31b (4.2kg). The Gewehr 98 was also the starting point for the Karabiner 98a, introduced in 1904 and made in vast numbers, especially after the needs of trench warfare persuaded the Germans that a weapon shorter than the Gewehr 98 would be more than useful in the front line: the weapon was 43.3in (1.1m) long with a 23.6in (0.60m) barrel, but otherwise retained the characteristics of the basic Gewehr 98. The Mannlicher Modell 1895 (Repetier Gewehr 1895) was in many respects comparable to the Gewehr 98, and was also a straight-pull bolt-action rifle with

qn 7U

Rivalling the Lee-Enfield for the accolade of best boltaction military rifle ever produced in large quantities, the Gewehr 98 was a Mauser design that offered good accuracy but without the high rate of fire possible with the Lee-Enfield. The details of this important weapon included a weight of 9.261b (4.2kg), length of 49.2in (1-25m) including a 29.1 in (0.74m) barrel, feed from a five-round box magazine, and muzzle velocity of 2,100ft (640m) per second.

The Japanese 6.5mm (0.256in) Type 38 rifle was selected for production by a commission headed by Colonel Arisaka, whose name is often used for the whole of the family of weapons dating from this time, and was introduced in 1905. There was little remarkable about the weapon, which was admirably suited to the small size and light weight of the average Japanese infantryman by reason of the low recoil forces resulting from the use of a round With a comparatively small bullet and modest propellant load. The details of the Type 38 included a weight of 9.251b (4.2kg), length of 50.2in (1.275m) including a 31.4in (0.797m) barrel, feed from a five-round magazine, and muzzle velocity of 2,395ft (730m) per second.

The Rifle and Assault Rifle The Japanese 7.7mm (0.303in) Type 99 rifle was introduced in 1939 after operational experience, in earlier campaigns and then in the first stages of the 2nd Sino-Japanese War (1937-45), had indicated the inadequacy of their 6.5mm (0.256in) round. In 1938 the Japanese therefore adopted a rimless version of the semi-rimmed 7.7mm (0.303in) round used in their heavy machine guns, and in the following year there appeared the Type 99 rifle to fire the new round. This rifle was produced in long and short forms, and the latter was also produced in take-down form with a barrel that could be divided into two for easier transport under cramped conditions. Illustrated here, with the folding wire monopod that could be lowered to support the weapon when the

position, is the Type 99 Short Rifle with a weight of 8.61b (3.9kg), length of 43.9in (1.115m) with a 25.8in (0.655m) barrel, feed from a five-round fixed box magazine, and muzzle velocity of 2,362ft (720m) per second.

The last service rifle using the Japanese 6.5mm (0.256in) round was the Type 38 rifle introduced in 1905, and this was based on the Mauser bolt action modified only in the details of its firing pin safety arrangement.

integral five-round box magazine. The weapon weighed 8.31b (3.8kg) and was 50in (1.27m) long overall, the 30.1in (0.765m) barrel firing standard 8mm (0.315in) ammunition with a muzzle velocity of 2,034ft (620m) per second. Like the Gewehr 98, the Model 1895 also spawned a carbine version, the Repetier Stutzen Gewehr 1895, which overcome many of the length problems associated with the fulllength rifle. The Mauser design provided the starting point for comparable rifles and carbines all over the world, and the Mannlicher design was extensively used in southern and eastern Europe and lent its features to a host of other weapons. Rifle development in the period between the two world wars followed a similar pattern of lightening, shortening and automating. The result was a generation of handier weapons with higher rates of fire, and these were optimised for the shorter battlefield ranges that had become standard in World War I. In some cases this meant little alteration to earlier weapons: the British, for example, retained the basic Lee-Enfield, the Germans the Gewehr 98 and the Soviets continued using the Mosin-Nagant. However, the British saw that while the No.l Mk III had a higher-than-average rate of fire for a bolt-action weapon, it was expensive to make: the weapon was thus redesigned as the more easily massproduced No.4 Mk I, which was also a better weapon as it had a heavier barrel and longer-base sights (the rear sight was shifted back to a place over the receiver), both factors contributing to improved accuracy at all ranges. Production began in 1939, and amounted to an enormous number of weapons.

The Germans were satisfied with the Gewehr 98 in all respects other than length, and thus in 1935 introduced the Gewehr 98k with the barrel shortened from 29.1 to 23.6in (0.74 to 0.60m) as a means of trimming overall length from 49.2 to 43.6in (1.25 to 1.108m) and weight from 9.3 to 8.61b (4.2 to 3.9kg). The Soviets followed this practice with the Mosin-Nagant rifle, in 1930 introducing the Model 1891/30 with a barrel length of 28.7in (0.729m). The Soviets also introduced a shortened version of the Mosin-Nagant Model 1910 carbine, the Model 1938 with a 20in (0.508m) barrel. Both these weapons were rugged arms well suited to Soviet operational doctrines, but the extent of growing Soviet technical innovation (a trait inherited from the much-despised Tsarists) is indicated by the adoption of a Tokarev-designed semi-automatic weapon. This was the gas-operated 7.62mm (0.3in) SVT38 of 1938, which lacked the strength for full-scale Soviet service and was thus followed in 1940 by the more robust SVT40. Both weapons were well engineered, but suffered from the use of a powerful round in terms of heavy recoil and excessive muzzle flash.

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Illustrated History of Small Arms

Self-loading capability was also a feature that appealed strongly to the Americans, who in 1932 adopted the 0.3in (7.62mm) Rifle Ml, a semi-automatic weapon generally known as the Garand after its designer. This was an excellent rifle of its type, but complex in its gas operation and thus expensive to make. Nevertheless, the Americans produced the weapon in vast numbers with few modifications, and it served them well right up to the 1960s. The weapon weighed 9.51b (4.3kg) and was 43.6in (1.107m) long overall. The barrel was 24in (0.609m) long, and this produced a muzzle velocity of 2,805ft (855m) per second. The clipfed five-round box magazine held eight rounds, and this was perhaps too low a capacity, especially as the firing of the last round resulted in a highly audible and therefore tactically disadvantageous ejection of the empty clip. Another US semi-automatic weapon was the Carbine Ml, a short and usefully light weapon firing a unique intermediate-power round of the standard 0.3in (7.62mm) calibre. The weapon was gas-operated and used a 15- or 30-round box magazine, but despite the bullet's low muzzle velocity of 1,970ft (600m) per second and very limited effective range of 110yds (100m), the Ml soon attracted great front-line favour from men who liked its light weight of 5.21b (2.36kg), compact dimensions including a length of only 35.6in (0.904m) and good ammunition load. The weapon had been designed for second-line troops and officers, but was soon widely employed by all combat elements. The French used their elderly Lebel and Berthier rifles, and also the new and generally unsatisfactory 7.5mm (0.295in) MAS36 rifle; the Japanese had the 7.7mm (0.303in) bolt-action rifle introduced in 1937 as a re-calibred 6.5mm (0.256in) Type 38 rifle, which had been introduced in 1905. There is a military truism which says that, at any given time, an army is best equipped to fight the war preceding the one in which it is currently involved. In its basic form, this truism was particularly relevant to the armies of World War II.

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The Rifle and Assault Rifle

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Opposite: Seen in action against the German forces near Mannheim in western Germany in 1945, these two American infantrymen are equipped with the Browning Automatic Rifle (left) and the 0.3in (7.62mm) Rifle Ml designed by John Garand as a semi-automatic weapon with a gas-operated action. This was the standard infantry rifle of the US forces in World War II, and the details of this weapon, which is still in service with a number of countries, include a weight of 9.51b (4.3kg), length of 43.6in (1,107m) with a 24in (0.609m) barrel, feed from an eightround fixed box magazine, and muzzle velocity 2,805ft (855m) per second. The Ml was an excellent weapon by the standards of its day except for one tactical disadvantage: the eight rounds are loaded into the magazine complete with their clip, and as the last round is fired this clip is ejected with a comparatively loud sound, indicating to any nearby enemy that the weapon is currently no threat.

The main campaigns of World War I had been subjected to a primitive form of operational analysis, and from the mid-1920s the dreadful lessons and bloody implications of World War I's combat had apparently been fully examined and adequately digested. As a result, the world's major armies embarked on the process of deducing the type of infantry combat likely to become dominant in the next major war, and specifying the nature of the infantry weapons that would be useful in the tactical situations that the armies' planners envisaged, and finally setting in motion the process of designing, developing and producing a whole new series of battlefield weapons. Some of the deduced lessons and resulting implications were valid, and the weapons developed accordingly did have considerable value. Other lessons had not been fully understood, however, and the resulting weapons did not adequately meet the requirements of a war whose campaigns were deliberately kept as fluid as possible. This desire for mobile operations was a direct result of the enormous casualty lists of World War I, which were deemed to have been a direct result of the static nature of the campaigning on the Western, Italian and, to a lesser extent, Eastern Fronts. So far as the infantryman and his weapons were concerned, World War I revealed a considerable decrease in combat ranges, down to the few hundred yards that generally separated the opposing trench lines, and the small arms of the 1920s and 1930s fully reflected this appreciation. But what World War II then showed was that these ranges were decreasing still further, and that the individual infantryman needed to generate a higher volume of fire either to keep the heads of the enemy down, or to stand a realistic chance of hitting a fleeting target. It is worth emphasising here that the steady linear or columnar advances typical of the early part of the nineteenth century could be met by perhaps five aimed rounds from the muzzle-loader of each defending infantryman, while the adoption of the breech-loader raised this total to perhaps 10 or 12 aimed rounds. The former was typical of the warfare between the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and the Crimean War, while the latter was revealed in primitive form by the American Civil War and the Franco-Prussian War. After this time there was a dearth of major wars in the last quarter century of the 'Pax Victoriana', but also a burgeoning of scientific research and technological application. This led to the evolution of the 'modern' bolt-action rifle firing reliable, smokeless and ballistically predictable bullets from a multi-round magazine. The effect was a higher rate of fire (up to a practical 30 rounds per minute in the case of the welltrained infantryman) over longer ranges and with a greater degree of accuracy. Such rifles were proved in a number of colonial wars, but the only major war to see the widespread use of such weapons was the Russo-Japanese War at the beginning of the twentieth century. The Western powers failed to appreciate the far-reaching implications of this war and therefore approached World War I with no real concept of the casualties that could now be inflicted by modern infantry against an enemy advancing in the open. The telling proof of this fact was the appalling mayhem created by the infantry battalions of the British Expeditionary Force against the Germans in the Battle of Mons (23 August 1914), when a high volume of well-aimed rifle fire took so heavy a toll of their infantry that the Germans thought they were faced with a concentration of machine guns. The decreasing combat ranges typical of World War I after the onset of trench warfare still allowed the defenders (with the support of machine guns) to loose off a heavy mass of aimed fire as the attackers crossed no-man's-land, and it was this factor that led to the evolution and widespread adoption of the light machine gun and its associated tactics for groups of advancing infantry to provide each other with mutual support as they

93

Illustrated History of Small Arms

leapfrogged forward. This type of small-unit tactic was developed so much in the 1930s and during the opening phases of World War II, however, that the chances of the defending infantry to make effective use of rifle fire were much reduced unless accuracy of fire was sacrificed to volume of fire. Conversely, the attackers' side also demanded high volume of fire so that small infantry units could deal competently with the opposition after they had reached their final assault objectives. This demand for more fire at shorter ranges left even the shorter-barrelled rifles evolved in World War I at a tactical disadvantage: these legacies of the 'Great War' were heavier than necessary and, because they fired a high-power round with a fairly massive bullet, lacked the magazine capacity (even in the self-loading weapons) for short, sharp engagements. One exception was the US Carbine Ml, which had been designed for second-line duties but was adopted in front-line units as being ideally suited to the new type of warfare: the effective range might be only 110yds (100m) as a result of the low-powered round, but the magazine held a useful quantity of ammunition (15 or 30 rounds), giving the firer the opportunity to complete an action without having to reload. And if this did become necessary, it was possible to change the magazine very rapidly. The German army, equipped with the 7.92mm (0.312in) Gewehr 98 and Karabiner 98k weapon at the beginning of World War II, soon discovered this lesson for themselves despite the tactical advantages they initially enjoyed as they were the aggressors and were using advanced operational techniques such as fastmoving armour operating in conjunction with dedicated close air support. It soon became clear that a self-loading weapon was needed for the infantry, and in 1941 the 7.92mm (0.312in) Gewehr 41 (W) was adopted. This was a Walther design based on the Danish Bang system (using a muzzle trap for the gases needed to operate the piston system), but it soon proved too complex for reliable operation in campaigns such as that on the Eastern Front. On the Eastern Front, however, the Germans encountered the Tokarev self-loading weapon, operated by gas tapped off through a hole in the barrel. This was manifestly an effective and reliable system, and the Germans copied it into a development of the Gewehr 41 to produce the far more reliable Gewehr 43. This weapon was 44in (1.117m) long and weighed 9.71b (4.4kg), but proved sufficiently accurate with a barrel only 21.6in (0.549m) long to serve as a sniping rifle. The magazine held 10 rounds, which was double the capacity of the magazine used in the Gewehr 98 series, and the muzzle velocity was 2,546ft (776m) per second. The demands of an increasingly difficult war situation later forced the Germans to economise in production requirements, and the Gewehr 43 appeared with plastic rather than wooden furniture and with other production shortcuts. Yet the Gewehr 43 and even shorter Karabiner 43 were not the answer to the Germans' need for higher rates of fire. Better results were achieved with the limited-production Fallschirmjager 42, designed by Rheinmetall for the Luftwaffe's paratroop arm. This used the standard 7.92mm (0.312in) round and

94

The German forces discovered in World War I that the main tactical problem with the 7.92mm (0.312in) Gewehr 98 rifle was the length of the complete weapon, which made it very awkward for trench warfare and was not, moreover, required for combat at the considerably shorter ranges that were now the norm. This resulted in the German adoption during 1935 of the Karabiner 98k that was a development of the Karabiner 98b with the overall and barrel lengths reduced from 49.2in (1.25m) and 29.1 in (0.74m) to 43.6in (1.107m) and 23.6in (0.60m) respectively. The Karabiner 98b, illustrated here, was introduced in the 1920s as an adaptation of the Gewehr 98 with revisions to the bolt handle, sling swivels and sights. The other details of the Karabiner 98b, which was used in very large numbers during World War II alongside the Karabiner 98k, included a weight of 91b (4.01kg), feed from a five-round fixed box magazine, and muzzle velocity of 2,574ft (785m) per second.

The Rifle and Assault Rifle

An American infantryman displays the kneeling position often used when firing the 0.3in (7.62mm) Rifle Ml.

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was designed without new technical features, thus achieving good reliability from the start. Where the new weapon was different, however, was in its combination of automatic characteristics (complete with a folding bipod) into a highly compact weapon with a straight-through design from muzzle to butt. At the cost of difficult and expensive manufacture, the FG42 achieved a selectivefire capability (single-shot or fully automatic at a cyclic rate of 750 to 800 rounds per minute) with a detachable box magazine holding 20 rounds, all for a weight of 101b (4.5kg) and a length of only 37in (0.94m). The FG42 was a remarkable and prescient weapon that showed at a completely practical level what was possible in future weapons, as soon as mass-production capability had been designed into such a weapon. The costly materials and complex manufacturing requirements of the FG42 dictated that the weapon could not be considered for adoption by the army, which had numerical needs significantly exceeding those of the Luftwaffe. The German army opted instead for a weapon expressly forbidden by Hitler: this was designed for the new 7.92mm (0.312in) short round developed by Schmeisser as an / intermediate-power round best suited to the new type of assault rifle being advocated as a replacement for the standard rifle. Hitler disapproved of the assault rifle concept, and the army had to adopt all manner of subterfuges to prevent the German dictator from discovering their plans. The result was the Haenel-designed Maschinenpistole (MP) 43, which must be regarded as the true precursor of today's assault rifles: in this capacity the MP43 was a simple gasoperated weapon that offered great reliability and effectiveness at up to intermediate ranges, despite its low production cost - resulting from the fact that machined parts were replaced by stamped and pressed components wherever possible. The design and its manufacturing process produced a thoroughly

95

Illustrated History of Small Arms utilitarian weapon of markedly aggressive appearance, and one that was also ideally suited to the requirements of the German army as it was forced increasingly onto the defensive in the second half of World War II. The weapon’s selective-fire capability meant that accurate single-shot fire could be used in static defence when there was the possibility of acquiring and tracking an individual target, while fully automatic fire was available for assault purposes or closequarter fighting when less discriminatory fire was desirable. The low-powered round had an obvious advantage in its lighter weight, which allowed the infantryman to carry a larger number of rounds for a given weight, while another advantage was its much reduced recoil, which made it entirely feasible to fire the weapon on full automatic without the muzzle-climbing

\

tendency of weapons firing the standard higher-powered rounds. This muzzle¬ climbing tendency made accurate fire all but impossible except for the first two or three rounds, after which the tree tops or even the sky were the main recipients of the burst. Once the MP43 was in production and Hitler learned about the type, he revised his opinion about assault rifles and ordered that the MP43 be designated as the Sturmgewehr (StG) 44, in the event a highly appropriate and prophetic designation. The StG44 weighed 11.51b (5.2kg), and the detachable curved box magazine held 30 rounds, sufficient for an effective burst at the cyclic rate of 500 rounds per minute. Its length was 37in (0.94m), and as might be expected from the use of an intermediate-power round, the muzzle velocity was comparatively low at a modest 2,132ft (650m) per second. The tactical effect of the StG44 was enormous, for the availability of this weapon removed from infantry the absolute need for machine gun support in combat at anything below intermediate range. Such support was still tactically useful and often vital, but for close-quarter fighting the infantryman could now generate his own automatic fire. German tactics were immediately adapted to the new weapon, and so great was the demand that an enormous production programme was initiated, although supply could never match requirements. As born in World War II, the assault rifle proper resulted from German operational analysis which showed that typical combat almost invariably took place at ranges of less than 435yds (400m) while the full-power rifle cartridges of the day were designed for ranges between 800 and 1,100yds (730 and 1,005m). The result was a new Polte-designed short round in the Germans' standard 7.62mm (0.3in) calibre, and as this was optimised for 435yd/400m combat, its propellant load was sufficiently light to make possible fully automatic weapons whose recoil could be handled easily in a one-man weapon. Another advantage of the smaller round was increased ammunition-carrying capability for the individual soldier. The first full-production assault rifle series was the MP43/StG44 series, whose capabilities so impressed the victorious Allies that they started work on their own

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Designed by Colonel Adolf Furrer and made by the Waffenfabrik Bern, the 9mm (0.354in) Modell 1941/44 was the sub-machine gun adopted by the Swiss army in the course of World War II, in which Switzerland was a neutral. Complicated and expensive to make, the Modell 1941/44 was in no way remarkable, and was a selective-fire weapon with the recoil type of operation. The details of this weapon included a weight of 11 Alb (5.17kg), length of 30.5in (0.775m) with a 9.8in (0.249m) barrel, feed from a 40-round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of 900 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 1,312ft (400m) per second.

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Introduced in 1936, the Avtomaticheskaya Vintovka Simonova o1936g was the first semi-automatic rifle to enter Soviet service. Designed by S.G. Simonov, the AVS was a gas-operated weapon that was never successful even though it could be used as a light machine gun as well as an automatic rifle as it was a selective-fire weapon. The main problem of the type was the exposed bolt handle, which flew backwards and forwards as the weapon was fired, threatening the firer’s face and allowing the ingress of dirt and dust. The weapon was withdrawn from 1938, but numbers were encountered by the Germans in the first stages of their invasion of the USSR from June 1941. The details of this 7.62mm (0.3in) weapon included a weight of 8.931b (4.05kg), length of 48.6in (1.234m) including a 24.16in (0.614m) barrel, feed from a 15-round detachable box magazine, and muzzle velocity of 2,756ft (840m) per second.

assault rifles, although it was realised that a need remained for the standard infantry weapon. The result in the short term was a series of definitive self¬ loading rifles of comparatively light weight and short overall length, but still chambered for a full-power round carried in useful numbers in a large magazine. Some of these weapons were capable of automatic fire, but most operators decided that single-shot or limited-burst capability was adequate for their requirements. As with the new breed of general-purpose machine gun, one of the first producers was the Fabrique Nationale of Herstal in Belgium, which introduced its Fusil Automatique Leger (FAL) during 1948: the weapon was initially chambered for the 7.92mm x 33 short round, but early moves towards a standard NATO round produced a revision to the 7.62mm x 51 round. The FAL soon found a ready market for Belgian and licence-produced models, and has become one of the most widely used weapons ever developed. In some respects the FAL is an unusual hybrid, for although its gas operation (using gas tapped off the barrel through a regulator) and 20-round detachable box magazine were advanced at the time of the weapon's introduction, the high quality of the materials and overall finish were legacies of a quality- rather than economy-conscious era. The weapon is still in widespread service, and its salient details include an overall length of 45in (1.143m), weight of 111b (5kg) loaded, and a muzzle velocity of 2,750ft (838m) per second. In single-shot mode the FAL can deliver 30 to 40 rounds per minute, while the cyclic rate of the automatic model is 650 to 700 rounds per minute. Given the modern tendency towards smaller calibres, FN has developed a 5.56mm (0.219in) version as the FNC, and it is possible that satisfied FAL customers may turn to this new model as the 5.56mm (0.219in) round reaches the remoter corners of the world. Other notable Western rifles of this genre are the Heckler und Koch (HK) G3 and the Israel Military Industries (IMI) Galil, both in 7.62mm (0.3in) calibre. The G3 was developed from a Spanish CETME design and issued to the West German army from 1959 and later bought from West German or licensed production by many other armies. The weapon is based on a roller-locking delayed-blowback action and was designed from the outset for mass production. The weapon thus lacks the solid feel of the FAL, although it is in no way weaker, as it uses steel pressings and plastic items wherever possible. The definitive assault-rifle version is the G3A3, which is 40.35in (1.025m) long and weighs 11.11b (5.025kg) loaded with a 20-round detachable box magazine. With a 17.7in (0.45m) barrel, the G3A3 has a muzzle velocity of 2,625ft (800m) per second, and in automatic fire mode has a cyclic rate of 500 to 600 rounds per minute. The fact that the G3 is a weapon dating from a generation later than the FAL is indicated not only by its more advanced design and construction, but also by the diversity of the weapons in the same basic family. For example, there are carbine versions (some with barrels so short that the weapons are sub-machine guns in all but name), light machine gun models (fitted with a bipod and heavier barrel, such as the HK21 belt-fed model that can also use the standard 20-round box magazine), an airborne forces' G3A4 version (with a telescopic butt that retracts to

97

Illustrated History of Small Arms

each side of the receiver) and a sniper model. Some 48 countries use the G3 series, and of these nations no fewer than 12 produce the type under licence. The type’s one main failing is its use of the powerful 7.62mm x 51 round, and the manufacturer has thus developed the HK33 model chambered for the new 5.56mm (0.219in) round. The HK33 can use 20- or 40-round box magazines, and it is also available in the same range of alternative models as the basic G3. The Galil uses the same operating system as the Soviet AK-47, from which it was derived by Israeli Military Industries via the Finnish Valmet assault rifle: gas tapped from the barrel works a piston moving the rotary-locking bolt. The weapon is widely used by the Israeli forces, is licence-produced in South Africa as the R4, and formed the design basis of the Swedish FFV 890C. Simple yet highly effective, the Galil was originally produced in 7.62mm (0.3in) calibre as the Galil ARM (Assault Rifle Multi-purpose) with a bipod and carrying handle, the Galil AR (Assault Rifle) without the bipod and carrying handle, and the Galil SAR (Short Assault Rifle) with a shorter barrel but otherwise similar to the Galil AR. All three models are fitted with folding stocks, and an indication of the practicality of Israeli weapon design is provided by the built-in bottle opener, fitted in a successful effort to prevent soldiers from using vital features such as the magazine lips in this role, and the wire-cutting provision of the Galil ARM's bipod. All models, as with other modern assault rifles, have a built-in device for the launching of rifle grenades, a special 10-round magazine being used for this purpose instead of the normal 20-, 35- or even 50-round magazines, although the last two are used mainly with the Galil ARM in the squad support role. IMI has also followed the downward trend in assault rifle calibres, and the Galil is now produced in 5.56mm (0.219in) form: in the ARM version the 5.56mm (0.219in) model weighs 10.21b (4.62kg) with a 35-round magazine, the comparable weight for the 7.62mm (0.3in) model being 10.31b (4.67kg) with a 20-round magazine. Both types have the same cyclic rate of fire, namely 650 rounds per minute, but the muzzle velocity of 3,215ft (980m) per second for the 7.62mm (0.3in) round drops to 2,790ft (850m) per second for the 5.56mm (0.219in) round. On the other side of the political fence between West and East, which finally disappeared in the late 1980s as the USSR collapsed under the strains of trying to match the USA in the development of 'Star Wars' weapons, the major weapon is the AK series designed by Mikhail Kalashnikov, and undoubtedly one of the five most important weapon types ever designed and placed in production. The series has seen manufacture by the million, and can be found in every area of the world where Soviet influence was felt, used by regular forces and also by ’freedomfighters’ and terrorists. The AK series was clearly inspired by the StG44, and the original AK-47 model was designed for a 7.62mm (0.3in) round equivalent to the Germans' 7.92mm (0.312in) short round. The AK-47 and its 7.62mm x 39 round

08 70

One of the greatest weapons of all time, the Avtomat Kalashnikova, generally called the AK-47 after its year of introduction, is a highly capable assault rifle designed to use the 7.62mm (0.3in) intermediate-power cartridge developed by the Soviets after they had digested the implications of the ammunition of this type developed by the Germans in World War II.

The Rifle and Assault Rifle

were thus developed expressly in response to the threat of the StG44. The first AK47 appeared in 1946 and rapidly achieved almost universal usage. It is a simple assault rifle of great design clarity, made from high-grade materials but intended as a mass-production weapon. Overall length is a mere 34.2in (0.869m) and weight is 11.31b (5.13kg) with a loaded 30-round detachable curved box magazine, while the muzzle velocity is 2,330ft (710m) per second with the 16.3in (0.414m) barrel, and the cyclic rate of fire is 600 rounds per minute. The weapon is well balanced, and among its many virtues is total reliability under all operating conditions and even with indifferent maintenance. So great was the success of the AK-47, whose action was copied in many other designs, that by the late 1950s it was decided that the design should be updated to ease production. Thus there appeared the basically similar AKM with a stamped-steel rather than machined receiver and a simplified locking system. Apart from the far greater ease with which the AKM can be made, the primary difference is in loaded weight, which drops to just 8.81b (4kg) in the AKM. The two types are still in worldwide complementary service, and will remain in such service for the foreseeable future. Eventually, the USSR decided to follow the West's lead into smaller calibres, and the result was the AK-74 firing the new 5.45mm x 39 round. The AK-74 is the AKM redesigned as required to take the new 5.45mm (0.215in) round, and first appeared in the early 1970s. The most noticeable external differences are a muzzle brake and a red plastic magazine that still holds 30 rounds but is shorter and less curved than that of the AK-47 and AKM series. The muzzle brake is notably efficient, and the significant reduction in recoil, even in long bursts of fire, makes possible extremely accurate fire. On the debit side, however, the muzzle brake increases muzzle flash to an amount some three times higher than on comparable assault rifles of Western origins, and this tends to blind the firer at night as well as revealing his position. The AK-74's loaded weight is 7.91b (3.6kg) and overall length is 36.6in (0.93m), while the cyclic rate and muzzle velocity are 650 rounds per minute and 2,955ft (900m) per second respectively. As with the AK-47 and AKM series, the AK-74 has been produced with a solid wooden stock and a folding metal stock. Another point worth noting about the AK-74 is its use of a bullet type prohibited under international law: this bullet has a hollow tip and a steel core with a centre of gravity towards the rear of the bullet, resulting in tumbling as the bullet enters flesh, which produces a particularly nasty wound. It should also be emphasised, however, that other rounds (such as the US Ml 93) display the same tendency as a side effect of their shape rather than as an inbuilt design feature, although the consequence to the recipient is much the same. The Ml 6 assault rifle in 5.56mm (0.219in) calibre was adopted for service with the US forces during 1961, and has its origins in a commercially developed weapon, the Armalite AR-15 designed by Eugene Stoner. The AR-15 was essentially the 7.62mm (0.3in) AR-10 redesigned for the new 5.56mm (0.219in) Fireball round later standardised as the M193, and was initially bought by the US Air Force and, in small quantities, by the UK in 1961. The weapon is a gasoperated type with rotary locking, and is notable for ease of production through the use of metal pressings and of nylonite for the furniture. The weapon became the Ml6 when the US Army adopted it, and since that time the type has been produced (by Colt in the USA and by overseas licence-holders in the Philippines, Singapore and South Korea) in vast numbers for the US forces and at least 12 other customers. The magazine is a 30-round box that has been adopted for several other weapon types, and other basic characteristics include a muzzle velocity of 3,280ft (1,000m) per second with the 20in (0.508m) barrel, and a cyclic rate of 700 to 950 rounds per minute.

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Intended to replace the 0.3in (7.62mm) Rifle Ml, 0.3in (7.62mm) Carbine Ml and M2, 0.45in (11.43mm) SubMachine Gun M3 and 0.3in (7.62mm) Browning Automatic Rifle M1918, the 7.62mm (0.3in) Rifle M14 was designed to fire the standard ammunition adopted by NATO in the early 1950s. The weapon is a selective-fire rifle with a gas-operated system, and its details include a weight of 8.71b (3.95kg), length of 44. Min (1.12m) including a 22in (0.559m) barrel, feed from a 20-round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of 750 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,800ft (853m) per second.

The original M16 suffered from unreliable ammunition and bolt-closing difficulties in muddy conditions, the former being remedied by tighter application of production control rules and the latter being solved by the addition of a plunger in the M16A1 variant that was introduced in 1966. The M16A1 was the standard infantry weapon used by the US forces in the Vietnam War, and among its features are the ability to use a 20- or 30-round magazine, and a bayonet, a bipod, and a telescopic day sight or a night sight. The M16A1 is also equipped to carry a 40mm M203 grenade launcher upit under the barrel. The grenades arc of various types, and can be fired with useful accuracy to a range of 330yds (300m). Special-purpose variants of the M16A1 include the Commando with a flash suppressor, telescopic sight, and shorter barrel reducing overall length to 27.9in (0.709m), and the M321 designed to be fired from inside the M2 Bradley series of mechanised infantry combat vehicles. The latest model of the Ml6 series is the M16A2. This resulted from dissatisfaction within the US Army and, more especially, the US Marine Corps about the M16Al's maximum effective range of 330yds (300m). This was adequate for the short-range fighting dictated by the close country in which the US forces operated during the Vietnam War, but from the late 1970s, increasing emphasis was placed on the need for US forces to be capable of intervention in areas such as the Middle East, where longer ranges are probable. The primary change in the M16A2, which was deemed necessary after a review launched in 1981, is the use of the new SS109 round fired through a heavier and more rigid barrel, characterised by a rifling twist of one turn in 7in (0.178m) rather than the M16Al's one turn in 12in (0.305m). A number of M16 series variants have

100

The Rifle and Assault Rifle

appeared (light machine guns with bipods, carbine versions and even a sub¬ machine gun), but these have not achieved great currency. The weapons discussed above are generally of conventional layout, even when revised to use the new small-calibre rounds currently in favour. However, there are a number of more advanced designs entering increasingly widespread service to increase this trend. The new weapons are known generically as 'bullpup' designs, and are characterised by a design concept that places the receiver mechanism in rather than forward of the stock to reduce overall length quite considerably, and ensures the maintenance of a straight line between the muzzle and the firer's shoulder to carry the recoil force from the barrel straight through to the firer's shoulder without any angles, so reducing the tendency of the muzzle to rise. Another feature of the design concept is the location of the trigger group forward of the magazine, so saving a great deal of length and associated weight. This latter factor is aided by the liberal use of nylonite (or comparable plastic materials) and light alloys in less-stressed components. Thus a typical

iJLUl m

Above and bottom: The 5.56mm (0.219in) Rifle M16 was designed as replacement for the Rifle M14, and is a gas-operated assault rifle of the selective-fire type that is still the current infantry rifle of the US forces. Below: The AK47 is now encountered in virtually every corner of the world in either its original Russian form or subsequent license-made versions.

Illustrated History of Small Arms

Tmllpup' design may have only its barrel and receiver made of high-strength steel, and this reduces not only weight but also manufacturing time and cost. It is no exaggeration to say that the new generation of 'bullpup' assault weapons is transforming the military world as did the advent of the machine gun or bolt-action rifle. The tendency is confirmed by the availability of whole families of weapons based on the same core design, so that armies can field the whole range of infantry small arms with a much reduced spares holding and its associated logistical infrastructure. The three leaders in this new 'bullpup' field are the Austrian Steyr AUG (Armee Universal Gewehr), the French FA MAS, and the Individual Weapon of the British SA80 series, all of them chambered for 5.56mm (0.219in) rounds. The AUG has a futuristic appearance and enjoys the advantages provided by features such as a clear plastic magazine (holding 30 rounds) so that the firer can see at a glance the number of rounds left, and modular construction of units such as the trigger group so that repairs can be effected simply and quickly by the replacement of the whole unit module. The weapon can be stripped with great simplicity, and the use of a chromed interior for the barrel ensures that this essential component is long-lasting and easy to clean. The standard xl optical sight (which, like that of the Ml6 series, forms a carrying handle) can without difficulty be replaced by other sights, and the 'portability' of the weapon is excellent as the right hand holds a shaped pistol grip under the trigger and the left grips another handle slightly further forward. The AUG is 31.1 in (0.79m) long and weighs 91b (4.1kg) complete with 30 rounds, and the other basic figures for this

11UZ 09

The Galil was developed in Israel as a family of assault weapons based on a gasoperated action. Produced in 7.62mm (0.3in) and 5.56mm (0.219in) forms, the family includes the Galil ARM all¬ purpose weapon with a carrying handle and bipod, the Galil AR assault rifle (illustrated) without the carrying handle and bipod, and the Galil SAR short assault rifle with a shorter barrel and no carrying handle or bipod.

A

Weapons intended for service with the Swedish forces must be strong, reliable and capable of sustained use under conditions of extreme cold, and typical of the infantry weapons of this type is the 7.62mm (0.3in) AK-4 semi-automatic rifle.

Opposite: The Czechoslovak vz58 assault rifle has an external resemblance to the AK-47 and, like this Soviet selective-fire weapon, is a gas-operated weapon firing the same type of 7.62mm (0.3in) intermediate-power round, but has a number of internal differences and is a well-manufactured weapon whose details include a weight of 8.421b (3.28kg) loaded, length of 32.28in (0.82m) including a 15.79in (0.401m) barrel, feed from a 30-round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of 800 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,330ft (710m) per second.

impressive weapon are a cyclic rate of 650 rounds per minute and a barrel length of 20in (0.508m). Sales have been made in the Middle East and South America as well as to the Austrian army and the prospects of this far-sighted weapon are very good, especially as other versions enable a purchaser to build up a family of technically and tactically matched weapons. The FA MAS is also a weapon of striking appearance, even if totally different from the AUG. A distinctive feature is the sight/carrying handle of massive appearance, but there is no forward handle, the firer having a wide but well¬ shaped grip under the barrel for his left hand plus a conventional pistol grip for the trigger hand. The butt is angular but very sensibly designed, and a light bipod is standard. Simplicity of manufacture and maintenance were stressed at the design stage, so the FA MAS is somewhat crudely finished (plastic being used wherever possible) and lacks such refinements as a chromed bore. The type is now well established in French service, and has proved popular and reliable. The weapon's overall dimensions are small as evidenced by a length of only 29.8in (0.757m), its weight is low at just 8.81b (4kg) with a loaded 25-round box magazine, and its rate of fire and muzzle velocity are 900 to 1,000 rounds per minute and 3,150ft (960m) per second respectively. The delayed blowback operation is simple and therefore highly reliable, and the firer has the option of three fire modes: single-shot, three-round burst or automatic. The Individual Weapon of the SA80 family was typical of British weapons for being under development for a considerable number of years, before entering service as the L85A1 at the end of 1985. The weapon looks distinctly aggressive: the SUSAT optical sight (replaceable by other sights for sniping and night work) is located over the body of the weapon, while the firer has a comfortable foregrip and the usual pistol grip under the trigger. As with other Tnillpup' designs, the 30-round box magazine is located well to the rear of the weapon, and against the firer's right forearm when the weapon is shouldered. And again in common with other 'bullpup' designs, the standard weapon can be used only by right-handers for the ejection port is level with the firer's cheek, meaning that the firer would be burned here if the weapon were used left-handed. The weapon's overall length is 30.3in (0.77m) and its barrel length is 20.4in (0.518m), the latter giving a muzzle velocity of 2,965ft (900m) per second and a cyclic rate of between 700 and 850 rounds per minute. The loaded weight is 10.141b (4.6kg), and the whole feel of the

103

Illustrated History of Small Arms

weapon is excellent, the last resulting in minimum recoil and good 'portability' for maximum accuracy. The receiver and stock are metal pressings, and the foregrip is made of nylon. The Soviets might have considered a move in the direction indicated by this Western trend, but were satisfied with the capabilities of the AK-74, which was in widespread service and large-scale production, so any such planning would have been undertaken on a longer- rather than shorter-term basis so that a more advanced weapon would be available to follow the AK-74. Even such planning was overtaken in the 1980s by the USSR's financial difficulties as it tried to match US expenditure on the 'Star Wars' programme. The collapse of the USSR into the CIS and effective dissolution of the Soviet empire has led to a savage curtailment of military expenditure, so it seems unlikely that any successor to the AK-74 and related weapons will emerge in the foreseeable future.

Even though the Tmllpup' concept marks a radical improvement in small-arms capabilities, it can be regarded as a development of standard design thinking rather than as a radical departure into new thinking. The next step in the evolution of military small arms may therefore be presaged by the Heckler und Koch Gil, a truly remarkable prototype that could well be a pointer to the way forward. The core of the innovative concept embodied in the Gil is caseless ammunition, which means that there is no spent cartridge case to be extracted and ejected before a fresh round can be stripped from the magazine and chambered. The 4.7mm (0.185in) caseless round developed by Heckler und Koch uses a rectangular block of propellant tipped by the bullet, and is apparently sufficiently flammable for ease of firing but not so flammable that the round will 'cook off' if left in a hot breech. The Gil was designed around this ammunition, and the gun is enclosed in a long outer casing on which the only projections are the combined carrying handle and sight above it, and the pistol grip and trigger below it. Above the barrel are carried two detachable magazines, each holding 50 rounds, and these rounds are fed into the chamber by a rotary device that prevents the ingress of dirt: once a magazine is exhausted it is removed, discarded and replaced by a fresh magazine. As there is no conventional ejection port, provision is made for the manual operation of the loading disc to open a port through which any misfired round can be extracted before a fresh round is chambered. A selector switch by the trigger can be set for single-shot, three-round burst or automatic fire, the burst rate being 2,000 rounds per minute and the automatic rate 600

104

\

The German company Heckler und Koch is one of the world's primary exponents of assault rifle design and manufactures in both 7.62mm (0.3in) and 5.56mm (0.219in) calibres. This is the HK33A3, the version of the 5.56mm (0.219in) KK33 assault rifle with a telescoping buttstock. The weapon is a selective-fire rifle with a delayed-blowback action, and its other details include a weight of 8.771b (3.98kg), length of 37in (0.94m) with the buttstock extended and 28.94in (0.735m) with the buttstock retracted, feed from a 20- or 40-round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of 750 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 3,018ft (920m) per second.

One of the smallest and most compact of modern assault rifles, the French 5.56mm (0.219in) FA MAS has an extremely pugnacious appearance with its 'bullpup’ straight-through line, plastic furniture and optical sight built into the carrying handle. A selective-fire weapon of the delayed-blowback type, the FA MAS has details that include a weight of 8.871b (4.025kg) loaded, length of 29.8in (0.757m) including a 19.21 in (0.488m)barrel, and feed from a 25-round detachable box magazine.

rounds per minute. The muzzle velocity is estimated at 3,050ft (930m) per second, and other details are an overall length of 29.5in (0.75m), a barrel length of 21.3in (0.54m), and a loaded weight of 9.91b (4.5kg). The advantages of such a weapon over a conventional or a 'bullpup' weapon are enormous: the caseless nature of the ammunition reduces both the weight of the round itself and the loaded weapon, the rectangular section of the round optimises the utilisation of volume in the magazine with consequent advantages in magazine size and weight, the use of pre-loaded magazines reduces the chances of misloading under the stress of battlefield operations, and the closed nature of the whole system reduces to a minimum the opportunity for dirt to enter the weapon's operating portions. The Gil is an experimental weapon, and few details of the propellant or of the feed and operating systems have been revealed, but Heckler und Koch appears to have solved the basic problems of caseless ammunition, and is the surest indication yet of the way ahead.

105

Illustrated History of Small Arms

\

JuUulti-shot capability and the delivery of high volumes of fire have long been the preoccupation of small-arms designers and operators, and the two factors are closely related. As noted previously, such weapons had to wait for the development of the right ammunition (in the form of metallic cartridges) to make feasible the practical development of the revolver pistol, and of the right propellant (in the form of 'smokeless' nitro-cellulose) to facilitate the practical development of the self-loading and automatic weapons. In both these instances, 'practical' is a significant word, for some earlier schemes in both fields had worked to limited degrees. But once metallic cartridges filled with nitro-cellulose were available, the development of the self-loading and then the fully automatic weapon proceeded rapidly to produce semi-automatic pistols and automatic machine guns.

Made by FN at Herstal in Belgium, the Model 1900 weapon in 7.65mm (0.301 in) calibre was the first of John M. Browning’s semi-automatic pistols to enter production.

An early semi-automatic pistol of Spanish manufacture was this Victoria weapon of 1906.

1IUO

Sub-Machine Guns, Pistols and Other Small Arms

A powerful weapon with an external hammer and magazine forward of the trigger group, the Bergmann-Bayard was manufactured in Belgium in modele 1908 and modele 1910 forms, the latter being illustrated, and fired from a locked breech.

As with other elements of the small-arms family, such weapons were heavily influenced by the nature of trench warfare in World War I. Pistols, for example, had been regarded as second-rate military weapons suitable only for officers and second-line troops, but trench fighting revealed all too dramatically that boltaction rifles were too long for such fighting, and too slow to reload. In these circumstances the revolver pistol was an ideal weapon, for it was handy and could deliver six large-calibre bullets in quick succession; earlier scepticism about the pistol's accuracy was proved to be largely irrelevant as ranges were so short during trench fighting. Semi-automatic pistols offered even better magazine capacity and rate of fire, but were generally regarded as unreliable in extreme situations. Thus the design and manufacture of revolvers and semi-automatic pistols came in for close examination between the world wars, and the result was a batch

Generally known as the Radom after the Fabryka Broni factory at Radom at which it was made, the wz35 was a Polish variant of the Colt-Browning locked-breech pistol design and was therefore a recoil-operated weapon capable only of semi-automatic fire. The other details of this weapon included a weight of 2.251b (1kg), length of 7.8in (0.198m) including a 4.7in (0.119m) barrel, feed from an eight-round detachable box magazine, and muzzle velocity of about 1,148ft (350m) per second.

107

Illustrated History of Small Arms

of reliable and useful pistols. Great progress was made with the reliability of semi-automatics, and the revolver began to slip into a secondary position, at least as far as front-line troops were concerned. The revolver was still widely used for second-line duties, however, by units such as the military police who preferred the massive stopping power of revolver bullets to the semi-automatic's higher rate of fire and compact overall design. Typical of such revolvers was the Enfield No.2 Mk 1, a six-shot 0.38in (9.65mm) weapon weighing 1.71b (0.77kg) and firing a heavy bullet at 600ft (183m) per second from a 5in (127mm) barrel. The weapon in its definitive No.2 Mk 1* form was a double-action weapon, in which the pulling of the trigger cocks and then releases the hammer to fire the weapon, without the practical difficulties of the original single-action No.2 Mk 1, in which the hammer had to be cocked manually before a pull on the trigger released it. These Enfield revolvers were heavy hinged-frame weapons with automatic ejection of the cases when the gun was broken, but were utterly reliable at short ranges. Comparable weapons were the Smith and Wesson 0.38/200, the Smith and Wesson M1917, the Colt Ml917 and the French Modele 1892. Since the end of World War II, however,

The first commercially successful semi¬ automatic pistol was the Borchardt C/13 of 1893. The details of this pioneering 7.65mm (0.301 in) toggle-lock weapon included a weight of 2.8751b (1.3kg), length of 14in (0.356m) including a 6.5in (0.165m) barrel, feed from an eight-round detachable box magazine, and muzzle velocity of 1,100ft (335m) per second.

108

The Bergmann Simplex was an early semi-automatic pistol produced in 1904 and updated 1904/10 variants.

Sub-Machine Guns, Pistols and Other Small Arms

The 1935 version of the Browning Hi-Power (or High Power) pistol manufactured in Belgium by FN at Herstal could be carried in a wood and leather shoulder holster that doubled as a detachable shoulder stock for improved longer-range accuracy.

the revolver has faded quite rapidly from the military scene, and is now used only by military police units. In the civil and para-military markets the revolver does survive, however, as a sporting, personal defence and police weapon. The country most involved in such design and manufacture is the USA, where many companies derive a very useful income from the production of new and highly capable weapons, and also copies of celebrated older models. Typical of these weapons are the Charter Arms Undercover Model (a short-barrel 0.38in/9.65mm Special five-shot weapon available in single- or double-action models); the Colt Trooper (a medium-barrel 0.38in/9.65mm Special or 0.357in/9.1mm Magnum six-shot weapon available in single- or double-action models); the Smith and Wesson Bodyguard (a shortbarrel 0.38in/9.65mm Special five-round weapon available in single- or double¬ action models); and the Ruger Blackhawk (a long-barrel 0.357, 0.41 or 0.457in/9.1,10.41 or 11.61mm Magnum six-shot single-action weapon). There are many other such models, most of them optimised for the police role with short barrels and shrouded hammers, and it seems likely that such revolvers will perform usefully in these roles for many years.

The Astra 400 was introduced in 1921 as a Spanish semi-automatic pistol able to fire several types of 9mm (0.354in) ammunition as well as the 0.38in (9.65mm) Super Automatic round. The details of this blowback-operated semi-automatic weapon, in its variant for the 9mm (0.354mm) Largo round, included a weight of 2.11b (0.95kg), length of 8.7in (0.22m) including a 5.9in (0.15m) barrel, feed from an eight-round detachable box magazine, and muzzle velocity of about 1,214ft (370m) per second.

Illustrated History of Small Arms The recoil-operated Webley Automatic Pistol was a British weapon first issued in 1912 and. produced in 0.38 and 0.455jn (9.65 and 11,56mm) calibres, the former being illustrated here. The details of the latter, which was a standard service weapon of the Royal Navy from 1912 to the late 1940s, included a weight of 2.431b (1.1kg), length of 8.5ir>(0.216m) including a 5in (0.127m) barrel, feed from a sevenround detachable box magazine, and muzzle velocity of 710ft (216m) per second.

This is the prototype of the Browning Hi-Power 9mm (0.354in) semi-automatic pistol that appeared in 1926 as a Belgian-manufactured weapon with the designation Grande Puissance (high power).

World War II was a very useful period for the semi-automatic pistol, proving the type in combat and generating massive orders. The best of the older generation remained in service (examples being the Pistole 08 and the Colt M1911A1), while newer and more convenient weapons were the 7.62mm (0.3in) Tokarev TT-33 from the USSR, the 9mm (0.354in) Walther P38 and PP/PPK series from Germany, the superb 9mm (0.354in) Browning Hi-Power from FN in Belgium, and the 9mm (0.354in) Beretta modello 1934 from Italy. The P38 was designed as a successor to the legendary P08, but never fully replaced its predecessor although it was an excellent weapon in its own right with an eight-round magazine and 4.9in (0.124m) barrel firing the standard Parabellum round at 1,150ft (350m) per second. The PP and PPK were designed as medium- and short-barrel police pistols, but found a ready market with the military and the para-military forces of Nazi Germany. The genuine worth of the type, which was introduced in 1929, is reflected in the fact that it is still in production and worldwide service. The PPK was available in a number of calibres, and fired a moderate bullet from a 3.4in (0.086m) barrel at a velocity of

110

Sub-Machine Guns, Pistols and Other Small Arms

The SIG P210 is a well-made Swiss semi¬ automatic pistol in 9mm (0.354in) calibre using the short recoil system of operation and carrying an eight-round detachable box magazine.

The Steyr Pistole Modell 1912, often known as the Repetier, is an Austrian semi-automatic pistol in 9mm (0.354in) calibre using the recoil system of operation and carrying eight rounds clip-loaded into an internal magazine.

The MBA Gyrojet pistol was a highly unusual American self¬ loading pistol in 13mm (0.51 in) calibre carrying six rocket-propelled rounds in its box magazine.

The Beretta modello 1934 is an orthodox semi-automatic pistol in 9mm (0.354in) calibre using the blowback system of operation and carrying a seven-round detachable box magazine.

Illustrated History of Small Arms

The Stechkin APS is a Soviet (now Russian) selective-fire pistol in 9mm (0.354in) calibre using the blowback system of operation and carrying a 20-round detachable box magazine. The weapon could be fitted with a shoulder buttstock that doubled as a shoulder holster.

The Walther P38 is one of the great semi-automatic pistols of all time, and is a German recoil-operated weapon in 9mm (0.354in) calibre and carrying an eight-round detachable box magazine.

Introduced in 1955, the Colt Model 1-3 was initially known as the Python and is now the New Police Python, and is a six-shot revolver in 0.357in (9.1mm) calibre.

920ft (280m) per second. The magazine held seven rounds. Altogether more powerful, but also heavier and possessing far greater recoil, the Browning HP had a 13-round box magazine in the butt, and fired 9mm (0.354in) Parabellum rounds from a 4.4in (0.112m) barrel at 1,160ft (354m) per second. Semi-automatic pistols continue to be developed, many of them variations on an older theme, and the most important of these is the new Beretta that has been selected to replace the faithful M1911A1 in US service.

Illustrated History of Small Arms

Introduced in 1915 as the world's first true sub-machine gun, albeit in twin-barrel form with a protective shield, the Villar Perosa fired the poor 9mm (0.354in) Glisenti round and used the delayed blowback system of operation. The weapon's other details included a weight of 14.31b (6.5kg), length of 21 in (0.533m) including two 12.56in (0.32m) barrels, feed from two 25-round detachable box magazines, rate of fire of 1,200 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 1,312ft (400m) per second.

Trench fighting in World War I also demanded greater volume of fire than could be delivered by pre-war weapon types, and here the sub-machine gun entered the scene as a hybrid type designed to combine the handiness of the semi-automatic pistol with the automatic-fire capability of the machine gun. It was, of course, impossible to develop such a weapon with the full-power rifle cartridge, for the recoil would have made the resulting weapon totally unmanageable, so the weapon that emerged was designed for a pistol-power round held in a large-capacity magazine, with a recoil-operated action to provide fully automatic fire. Such a weapon was clearly short-ranged and intrinsically inaccurate, but this was of little consequence in trench fighting where the firer wanted, on demand, to generate a mass of fire at very short range. The first such weapon was an Italian product, the Villar Perosa which appeared in 1915. The weapon was designed for aircraft use, but the far-sighted Italian authorities saw that its best application was in infantry use. The weapon was a double-barrelled device chambered for the poor 9mm (0.354in) Glisenti round, which was the same cartridge as used in the Beretta modello 1934 pistol, and not to be confused with the higher-powered 9mm (0.354in) Parabellum

One of the most important Soviet sub-machine guns of World War the PPSh-41 was introduced in 1941 as a 7.62mm (0.3in) selectivefire weapon of the blowbackoperated type.

11/1 11^

Sub-Machine Guns, Pistols and Other Small Arms Introduced late in World War I, the Bergmann MP18 was the first ‘modern’ sub-machine gun and was a 9mm (0.354in) weapon using the blowback system of operation for automatic fire.

The OVP was the single-barrel development of the twin-barrel Villar Perosa, and its details included a weight of about 81b (3.6kg), length of 35.5in (0.9m) including an 11 in (0.28m) barrel, feed from a 25-round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of 900 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 1,247ft (380m) per second.

The Suomi Model 1931 was a Finnish sub-machine gun of the selective-fire type in 9mm (0.354in) calibre using the blowback system of operation, and among its other details were a weight of 11.311b (5.13kg) with an empty 50-round magazine, length of 34in (0.86m) including a 12.62in (0.32m) barrel, feed from a 70-round detachable drum or 25- or 50-round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of between 800 and 900 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of about 1,312ft (400m) per second.

The Erma sub-machine gun was a German weapon introduced in the mid-1930s as a 9mm (0.354in) selectivefire weapon using the blowback system of operation, and among its details were a weight of 9.21b (4.2kg), length of 37.4in (0.95m) including an 11.8in (0.3m) barrel, feed from a 32-round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of 500 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 1,247ft (380m) per second.

Illustrated History of Small Arms The PPD-40 was a Soviet sub-machine gun introduced in 1940 as a 7.62mm (0.3in) selective-fire weapon using the blowback system of operation.

The Beretta modello 1938A was an Italian selective-fire sub-machine gun in 9mm (0.354in) calibre using the blowback system of operation.

Above: The Thompson Ml was an American selective-fire sub¬ machine gun of the early 1940s in 0.45in (11,43mm) calibre using the blowback system of operation.

The Lanchester Mk I was a British selective-fire sub-machine gun of World War II in 9mm (0.354in) calibre using the blowback system of operation, and among its other details were a weight of 9.621b (4.36kg), length of 33.5in (0.85m) including a 7.9in (0.2m) barrel, feed from a 50-round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of between 575 and 600 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 1,280ft (390m) per second.

Sub-Machine Guns, Pistols and Other Small Arms

Above: The standard British sub-machine gun of the World War II period was the Sten gun, seen here in its final Mk V form. This was a 9mm (0.354in) weapon of the selective-fire type with a

blowback action, and among its other details were a weight of 8.51b (3.86kg), length of 30in (0.762m) including a 7.8in (0.198m) barrel, feed from a 32-round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of 575 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 1,280ft (390m) per second. Right: The current sub¬ machine gun of the British forces is the L2 Sterling selective-fire weapon in 9mm (0.354in) calibre with blowback operation, and among the other details of this weapon are a weight of 81b (3.6kg), length of 34in (0.86m) with the buttstock extended and including a 7.8in (0.198m) barrel, feed from a 32-round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of 550 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 1,280ft (390m) per second.

round. Capable of delivering only fully automatic fire, the Villar Perosa was a delayed-blowback weapon weighing 13.31b (6.5kg) and firing at a cyclic rate of 1,200 rounds per minute from a 25-round detachable box magazine located above each receiver. From this initial model Italy developed two other 9mm (0.354in) Glisenti models in World War I (the OVP and the Beretta modello 1918), but design leadership in sub-machine guns had already passed to Germany with the Bergmann-designed Maschinenpistole 18, in effect the world's first true sub¬ machine gun. This was a simple blowback-operated weapon chambered for the 9mm (0.354in) Parabellum round, at first contained in a 32-round 'snail' magazine but later in 20- and 32-round box magazines inserted in the left of the weapon's body. The 32.1in (0.815m) weapon had a 7.87in (0.20m) barrel, and this was sufficient for the weapon to generate a muzzle velocity of 1,200ft (365m) per second and a cyclic rate of 350 to 450 rounds per minute. With a loaded weight of 11.61b (5.25kg), the fully stocked MP18 was easy to handle, and was firmly indicative of the design paths that would be followed in the future. The type was

117

Illustrated History of Small Arms The Austen, seen here in original Mk I form, was an Australian sub-machine gun of the World War II period, and was a 9mm (0.354in) selective-fire weapon with a blowback action. Among the weapon’s other details were a weight of 9.21b (4.17kg), length of 33.25in (0.845m) with the retractable buttstock extended and including a 7.8in (0.198m) barrel, feed from a 32-round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of between 500 and 550 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 1,290ft (390m) per second.

iiiiiim

Another Australian 9mm (0.354in) sub-machine gun of the blowback type, although in this instance capable only of automatic fire, was the Own Mk I of the World War II period. The details of this weapon, notable for its overhead magazine installation, included a weight of 9.81b (4.45kg), length of 31.8in (0.81m) including a 9.8in (0.249m) barrel, feed from a 30round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of 800 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of about 1,300ft (396m) per second.

118

Sub-Machine Guns, Pistols and Other Small Arms

Right: The L2 Sterling series of sub-machine guns is descended directly from the Lanchester and Sten weapons of World War II, but is a betterengineered weapon.

Below: The silenced version of the Sten gun was the Sten Mk IIS, and among the details of this 9mm (0.354in) blowbackoperated weapon were a weight of 7.481b (3.39kg), length of 37in (0.94m) including a 3.61 in (0.917m) barrel, and feed from a 32round detachable box magazine.

put back into production in 1928 as the MP28, this differing from the original model only in having a single-shot capability and in various detail modifications. There followed the MP34 and MP35, again from the Bergmann design team. The weapons were derived from the MP18, but refined considerably. The primary differences were the magazine housing in the right of the body, and a double-pull trigger system, the first position delivering a single shot and the second position delivering fully automatic fire. The MP35 was an improved MP34. In 1938 there arrived the classic MP38, which was more representative of the sub-machine gun as it is known today: the Bergmann and other weapons of its type had been made with the same care as contemporary rifles, but the MP38 was designed for ease of mass production. It used a folding wire-framed butt, the body was produced from simply-made sheet metal stampings, and the bolt was machined only in those places that absolutely needed it. The result was a weapon of thoroughly utilitarian and threatening appearance that worked extremely well in its designed role. A pistol grip at the rear of the receiver and the housing under the forward part of the body (for the vertical 32-round magazine) provided the firer with two good handholds, and the weapon could thus be pointed almost instinctively. Further refinement produced the MP38/40 with improved safety

119

Illustrated History of Small Arms Modelled closely on the Finnish Model 1944 but designed by ex-Mauser employees in Spain and initially made in that country, the Dux 51 is a 9mm (0.354in) sub-machine gun of the automatic-fire type with a blowback operating system, and among its details are a weight of 6.21b (2.8kg), length of 32.7in (0.83m) including a 9.8in (0.249m) barrel, feed from a 36-round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of 650 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 1,214ft (370m) per second.

The Finnish Model 1944 sub¬ machine gun was modelled closely on the Soviet 7.62mm (0.3in) PPS-43 but in 9mm (0.354in) calibre, and was thus a blowback-operated weapon capable only of automatic fire.

and the classic MP40 with yet further simplified manufacture. The MP40 weighed 10.41b (4.7kg) loaded, was 32.8in (0.833m) long with the stock extended, and could fire 9mm (0.354in) Parabellum rounds at a cyclic rate of 500 rounds per minute and with a muzzle velocity of 1,200ft (365m) per second from the 9.9in (0.251m) barrel. Further German work on sub-machine guns was unnecessary during World War II as the MP40 was fully adequate to its task and as the assault rifle arrived in the form of the StG44 to replace the rifle and sub-machine gun in the close-quarter role. The Italian sub-machine guns of World War II comprised two beautifully made and fully stocked weapons of the older design school, the Beretta modello 1938 and the Beretta modello 1938/42. These weapons originally used a Berettadeveloped 9mm (0.354in) round, but were later modified to take the standard 9mm (0.354in) Parabellum round. The Japanese also used a stocked weapon, the 8mm (0.315in) Nambu Type 100, which was an adequate weapon with too complex a feed mechanism and a highly curved 30-round box magazine.

120

Sub-Machine Guns, Pistols and Other Small Arms

A development of the Dux 51 via the Dux 53, the Dux 59 is a 9mm (0.354in) sub-machine gun of the automatic-fire type with a blowback operating system, and among its details are a weight of 6.61b (3kg), length of 31.2in (0.79m) including a 9.9in (0.251m) barrel, feed from a 32-round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of 550 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 1,198ft (365m) per second.

Above: A Japanese sub-machine gun of the World War II period, the Sub-Machine Gun Type 100 was a blowback-operated automatic-fire weapon in 8mm (0.315in) calibre. Below: Designed by Colonel Adolf Furrer in 1940, the SIG MP41 was the main sub-machine gun of the Swiss army in its period, and was a blowback-operated weapon in 9mm (0.354in) calibre and capable of selective fire.

Illustrated History of Small Arms

The Carl Gustav Model 1945B was the standard sub-machine gun of the Swedish forces in the period following the end of World War II, and was a 9mm (0.354in) selective-fire weapon with blowback operation. The other details of this weapon included a weight of 7.61b (3.45kg), length of 31.8in (0.81m) including an 8in (0.203m) barrel, feed from a 50round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of 600 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 1,214ft (370m) per second.

*

The British Patchett gun was developed out of the Sten gun after World War II and paved the way for the L2 Sterling series, and was thus a selective-fire weapon in 9mm (0.354in) calibre with blowback operation.

\

On the Allied side, the British moved from the fully stocked 9mm (0.354in) Lanchester with its 50-round magazine to the completely utilitarian and magnificently cheap Sten gun, also in 9mm (0.354in) Parabellum calibre and carrying a 32-round box magazine. The Sten was designed in 1940 by Major R.V. Shepherd and H.J. Turpin and produced at Enfield (hence the name, from the designers and location) in vast numbers for the British forces and overseas resistance fighters, and the basic design lives on as the L34 Sterling sub-machine gun. The typical Sten Mk II weighed only 8.21b (3.7kg) when loaded, and was 30in (0.762m) long; the cyclic rate was 550 rounds per minute, and a muzzle velocity of 1,200ft (365m) per second was attained with a 7.75in (0.197m) barrel. The Sten was generally reliable as it lacked many moving parts, and manufacturing standards were as low as possible in a crude but cleverly designed weapon intended almost as a throw-away gun for close-quarter combat. Early models had a wire-frame stock, but as the crisis for Britain passed in the later stages of the war, refinements such as a wooden stock were introduced.

122

Sub-Machine Guns, Pistols and Other Small Arms

Designed in Italy during World War II by Giovanni Oliani, the Armaguerra OG44 was made only in very small numbers and is of interest mainly for the fact that it introduced the concept of the bolt over the barrel.

Below: An extremely advanced weapon that did not enter production but was instrumental in helping further development of the ‘bullpup’ type of assault rifle whose capabilities effectively rendered the sub-machine gun obsolete as a battlefield weapon, the British 4.85mm (0.19in) Individual Weapon was developed in the 1970s as a gas-operated self-loading weapon.

1LAD 9^

Illustrated History of Small Arms

Above: The Carl Gustav Model 1945 was the standard Swedish sub-machine gun of the period after World War II. Right: The Steyr-Daimler-Puch MPi 69 was designed in Austria, and is a 9mm (0.354in) blowback-operated selectivefire sub-machine gun with a weight of 6.51b (2.95kg), length of 26.5in (0.673m) including a 10.24in (0.26m) barrel, feed from a 25- or 32-round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of 550 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 1,250ft (381m) per second.

mm

124

Sub-Machine Guns, Pistols and Other Small Arms One of the most fascinating weapons to have entered service in recent years, the Austrian Steyr Armee Universal Gewehr, better known as the AUG, is an advanced 5.56mm (0.219in) selective-fire assault rifle of the ‘bullpup’ type with an inbuilt optical sight and gas operation. The details of this weapon include a weight of 9.021b (4.09kg) loaded, length of 31.1 in (0.79m) including a 20in (0.508m) barrel, feed from a 30-round detachable box, and rate of fire of 650 rounds per minute.

Below: This photograph of a combined US and South Vietnamese patrol in 1964 reveals the mix of weapons current for the period, in the shape of a sub-machine gun, rifles and a light/medium machine gun.

11Z.O

Illustrated History of Small Arms

The Americans entered the war with the Thompson Gun, perhaps the most famous sub-machine gun of all time and best known as the 'Tommy gun'. The weapon was the brainchild of General John Thompson in 1918, and was designed for the standard US 0.45in (11.43mm) pistol round, 50 such rounds being accommodated in a drum magazine housed under the forebody just in front of the pistol grip and trigger. Various trial models were produced in efforts to make the highly complicated blowback operation work properly before the first effective production variant appeared as the Thompson M1928. Few sales were made in the later 1920s and early 1930s, but in 1940 large-scale production was launched because of the crisis in Europe. Eventually the action was redesigned as a simple blowback type, and the troublesome drum magazine was replaced by a box magazine holding 20 or 30 rounds. This was placed in production as the Ml or M1A1 with some external modifications to ease manufacture. The weapon retained its wooden stock and foregrip, however, and thus weighed 10.451b (4.75kg) with the box magazine.

Developed to meet the requirements of the newly created West German army in the late 1940s, the 9mm (0.354in) Erma MP58 was an interesting weapon designed down to a price rather than up to a standard, but was an effective weapon that nonetheless failed to enter production. The weapon used the magazine of the MP40 sub-machine gun of World War II, made extensive use of steel metal stamping that was spotwelded as required, had a telescopic return spring of typical Erma design, and had a folding wire buttstock that could be turned up and over to rest above the main body of the weapon. The details of this weapon, which was of the blowbackoperated type and capable only of automatic fire, included a weight of 6.61b (3kg), length of 27.6in (0.7m) including a 6.5in (0.165m) barrel, feed from a 32round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of 670 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 1,247ft (380m) per second.

11ZO OZ

Sub-Machine Guns, Pistols and Other Small Arms

Below right: These British troops, training in Norway during 1976, are equipped with the 7.62mm (0.3in) L1A1 British-made version of the FN FAL selfloading rifle and the 7.62mm (0.3in) L4A2 conversion of the 0.303in (7.7mm) Bren light machine gun. Bottom: The FBP M976 is a Portuguese sub-machine gun in 9mm (0.354in) calibre.

The Ml type was still expensive to produce and fairly clumsy in combat, so in 1942 a far simpler weapon was standardised as the M3, although it was more generally known as the 'grease gun'. This may be regarded as the US equivalent of the Sten, and, like the British weapon, was designed for ease of manufacture rather than sophistication of capabilities. The weapon had a retractable wire stock and was designed for the US 0.45in (11.43mm) pistol round, but was also made in 9mm (0.354in) Parabellum calibre for resistance forces. The initial model weighed 10.251b (4.65kg) when loaded with its 30-round box magazine, and had a cyclic rate of 350 to 450 rounds per minute. Operational experience and improved manufacturing processes led to the more capable M3A1 during the war, but the type did not enjoy great popularity and disappeared from service during the 1950s. The Soviets were great advocates of the sub-machine gun, although development of a suitable type had not begun until the early 1930s, resulting in the PPD-1934 soon refined into the PPD-1934/38. This weapon was derived in general from the MP18, and was chambered for 7.62mm (0.3in) Soviet pistol cartridges, of which 71 were held in a drum magazine derived directly from that

11Z/ 97

Illustrated History of Small Arms

Above: Seen during the type of urban fighting that became increasingly common in the closing stages of World War II, this trio of American soldiers looking for German opposition in a Belgian town are armed, from left to right, with the 0.3in (7.62mm) Carbine Ml, 0.45in (11,43mm) Sub-Machine Gun M3 and 0.45in (11.43mm) Sub-Machine Gun Ml.

128

Sub-Machine Guns, Pistols and Other Small Arms

of the Finnish Suomo m/1931 sub-machine gun. But the Soviets were quick to realise that they needed a mass-produced weapon equivalent to the German MP38 and British Sten, and so developed the classic PPSh-41, which had a loaded weight of 11.91b (5.4kg) and carried a 71-round drum or 35-round box magazine. The overall length was 32.6in (0.828m) and the cyclic rate of 900 rounds per minute was achieved with a 10.4in (0.264m) barrel that also generated a muzzle velocity of 1,600ft (488m) per second. Although a stocked type, the PPSh-41 was incredibly tough and ideally suited to Soviet tactics, and further refinement in terms of simplicity (and the elimination of wooden features plus most of the machining) produced the PPS-42. This was designed and made under the most adverse of circumstances inside beleaguered Leningrad during 1942, but was nevertheless a formidable weapon capable of a cyclic rate of 700 rounds per minute from a 35-round box magazine. The loaded weight was just 8.61b (3.9kg). It was clear by the end of World War II that the sub-machine gun was no longer popular as a front-line weapon, for the assault rifle offered a far better combat combination of firepower and accuracy without significant weight or size

Probably the most important sub-machine gun of modern Western origins, the Heckler und Koch HK5 is a German weapon that may be regarded as the sub¬ machine counterpart of the same company’s G3 rifle although chambered, of course, for the 9mm (0.354in) Parabellum rather than 7.62mm (0.3in) NATO round. This delayed-blowback weapon fires from a closed and locked breech block, which makes it notably accurate for a weapon of its type, and among its variants are the standard MP5A2 with a fixed buttstock (top) and MP5A3 with a retractable metal-strut buttstock (bottom).

Opposite bottom: The standard French sub-machine gun is the extremely rugged but cheap 9mm (0.354in) Manufacture d’Armes de Tulle modele 1949 (MAT 49), which is a blowback-operated weapon.

11

penalties and with the added advantage of simpler logistics. Yet the sub-machine gun is still in widespread service, largely with specialist units, artillery and tank crews, and second-line forces that can make effective use of its special attributes. The French 9mm (0.354in) MAT 49 picks up where the Sten left off in terms of reliability and simplicity (of both manufacture and operation), the Czech 7.65mm (0.301 in) vz61 Skorpion is a minuscule weapon perhaps better described as a machine pistol, and the American 0.45in (11.43mm) or 9mm (0.354in) Ingram Model 10 is an extraordinarily compact design with the phenomenally high rate of fire of 1,145 rounds per minute. But the two weapons that stand out above the rest as the current pinnacles of sub-machine gun design are the Israeli Uzi and the West German Heckler und Koch MP5. The 9mm (0.354in) Uzi first appeared in the early 1950s, and draws heavily on previous designs for most of its features, although the genius of the designer has

130

uiii'iiiii'infrfi

|

- ■

Illustrated History of Small Arms

Rivalling the MP5 as the Western world’s most important sub-machine gun, the Israeli 9mm (0.354in) Uzi is a blowback-operated weapon available with a fixed wooden buttstock or a folding metal buttstock, the latter being illustrated here. There is also a Mini-Uzi subvariant with provision for a smaller magazine and fitted with a lightweight metal-strut buttstock that folds to the right.

Opposite top: The main sub¬ machine gun produced by Beretta for the Italian forces and also for the export market is the 9mm (0.354in) modello 12 introduced in 1958 as a blowback-operated weapon with a folding metal buttstock.

Opposite bottom: Small and light, the vz61 Skorpion is a 7.65mm (0.301 in) weapon that falls between the sub-machine gun and machine pistol in terms of its size and rate of fire.

combined these into a formidably accurate and compact weapon only 25.6in (0.65m) long with a wooden stock, although the weapon is considerably shorter with a folded wire stock, and weighing 91b (4.1kg) with a loaded 32-round box magazine. There is also a Mini-Uzi with the same basic capabilities as its larger brother, but only 14.2in (0.360m) long with its wire stock folded, and weighing 6.81b (3.1kg) loaded with a 20-round magazine. The MP5 is one of the enormous and highly diverse family of small arms produced by Heckler und Koch. It is typical of the series, being a highly accurate weapon weighing only 6.61b (3kg) with a box magazine loaded with thirty 9mm (0.354in) Parabellum rounds. The overall length is 26.8in (0.68m), and the 8.86in (0.225m) barrel produces a cyclic rate of 800 rounds per minute and a muzzle velocity of 1,083ft (330m) per second. Variants on this basic theme include the MP5A2 with a fixed buttstock; the MP5A3 with a sliding and retractable single metal buttstock; the MP5SD silenced version of the MP5; the MP5K shortened version of the MP5 designed for concealed carriage by special forces; the MP5/10 version of the MP5 chambered for the 10mm (0.39in) Auto cartridge; and the HK53 development of the MP5 for the 5.56mm (0.219in) cartridge. The standard Soviet (now Russian) weapon in this class is the AKSU-74, which is basically the sub-machine gun counterpart of the AK-74 assault rifle and chambered for the same 5.45mm (0.215in) round. The weapon is very robust and reliable, but suffers from a pronounced muzzle flash as a consequence of the use of a rifle-power round in a short-barrelled sub-machine gun. The details of this weapon include a length of 26.575in (0.675m) with the buttstock extended and 16.535in (0.419m) with the buttstock folded, a cyclic rate of fire of 800 rounds per minute, feed from a 30-round box magazine, and a muzzle velocity of 2,625ft (800m) per second. It seems that the sub-machine gun will remain a viable weapon for special purposes over the foreseeable future, and further advances in design and materials will permit yet lower weights combined with greater strength. The only other small-arms type of weapon currently in service, and then only

131

Illustrated History of Small Arms

i

—

r5M U'Z"—--

•

The Colt Commando is a short-barrel development of the AR-15 assault rifle that was developed specifically for use in the Vietnam War, and the details of this gas-operated selective-fire assault rifle include a weight of 6.551b (2.97kg), length of 28in (0.711m) including a 10in (0.254m) barrel, feed from a 20- or 30-round box magazine, rate of fire of 750 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 3,000ft (915m) per second.

One of the great weapons of all time, the Kalashnikov AK-47 assault rifle was developed in the period following World War II and was made in huge numbers for service with the Soviet (now Russian) forces as well as their allies and clients. The type is still very widely employed in variants with a fixed wooden buttstock or folding metal-strut buttstock, and the details of this gas-operated selective-fire weapon in 7.62mm (0.3in) calibre with a wooden buttstock include a weight of 9.451b (4.3kg), length of 34.65in (0.88m) including a 16.34in (0.415m) barrel, feed from a 30-round detachable box magazine, rate of fire of 600 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,350ft (717m) per second.

1loz QO

Sub-Machine Guns, Pistols and Other Small Arms

Below: The Beretta modello 12 is an Italian sub-machine gun that has entered only moderately large-scale service despite its many good features.

133

Illustrated History ot Small Arms

The 7.62mm (0.3in) Kalashnikov AKM, seen here in its form with a folding metal-strut buttstock rather than fixed wooden buttstock, is an improved version of the AK-47 with features such as a stamped rather than machined receiver to ease production. The details of this gas-operated selective-fire weapon include a weight of 8.771b (3.98kg) loaded, length of 34.49in (0.876m) including a 16.3in (0.414m) barrel, feed from a 30-round box magazine, rate of fire of 600 rounds per minute, and muzzle velocity of 2,330ft (710m) per second.

The HK5A3 is the variant of the 9mm (0.354in) Heckler und Koch MP5 sub¬ machine gun with a retractable buttstock.

The MP5K is the short variant of the 9mm (0.354in) Heckler und Koch MP5 family of sub¬ machine guns.

134

Sub-Machine Guns, Pistols and Other Small Arms

to a very limited extent by para-military units and special forces, is the combat shotgun. This type of weapon has advantages for very short-range work, such as that in the jungle or in urban areas, in delivering a blast of firepower over a sizeable area. Modern combat shotguns are optimised for this type of role through their ability to fire a number of different cartridges including buckshot, armour-piercing, CS gas, andHatton (hinge-removing). The three most commonly used combat shotguns are currently two Franchi Special-Purpose Automatic Shotguns (the SPAS 12 and SPAS 15) and the Remington 870. The SPAS 12 has a skeleton butt with a device that allows single-handed firing, a choke that ensures a short spread of 35in (0.89m) at a range of 44yds (40m), provision for semi-automatic or automatic fire (the latter at an initial four rounds per second), and provision for a muzzle device that ensures an early spread of the shot for indoor firing. The SPAS 12 is a 12-gauge weapon weighing 9.251b (4.2kg) empty, possessing a length of 36.1in (0.93m) with the stock extended or 28in (0.71m) with stock folded, and having other data such as an effective range of 55yds (50m), practical rate of fire of 24 to 30 rounds per minute, feed from a seven-round internal magazine, and muzzle velocity dependant on the type of round used. The SPAS 15 is a development of the SPAS 12 with a box rather than tubular magazine, and can be operated in semi-automatic or pump-action modes. The weapon is of the 12-gauge type, and its details include a weight of 8.61b (3.9kg) empty, length of 36in (0.915m), effective range of 55yds (50m), practical rate of fire of 24 to 30 rounds per minute, feed from a six-round internal magazine, and a muzzle velocity dependant on the type of round used. The Remington 870 is perhaps the most widely used combat shotgun, and having been designed for this task is considerably more robust than any shotgun designed initially for civilian use but pressed into military service. This 12-gauge type's details include a weight of 7.941b (3.6kg) empty, length of 41.75in (1.06m), effective range of 44yds (40m), feed from a seven-round internal magazine, and a muzzle velocity dependant on the type of round used.

1X L/J

Illustrated History of Small Arms

GUN

CALIBRE

LENGTH WITH BUTT EXTENDED INS

WEIGHT EMPTY LBS

BARREL LENGTH INS

9P 9P

33.25 32.0

8.75 9.35

7.8 9.8

TYPEFIRE OF FIRE v*

AUSTRALIA Austen Mk 1 Owen

RATE OF

MAGAZINE TYPE AND CAPACITY

RPM

V

B 28 B 33

S S

500 700

B B B B

30 40 32 30

s s s s

700 600 \ 600 700

B 32

A

550

D 71

s

850

B 32 B 32

A A

600 600

CZECHOSLOVAKIA ZK 383 CZ 23 CZ 24 vz61 Skorpion

9P 9P 7.62mm 7.65mm

35.4 27.0 26.6 20.55

9.4 6.8 7.25 2.95

12.8 11.2 11.2 4.5 DENMARK

Madsen Ml950

9P

30.71

7.87

7.6

FINLAND Suomi Ml 931

9P

34.0

12.62

11.31

FRANCE MAS1938 MAT 1949

7.65mm 9P

24.9 26.0

6.4 8.0

8.8 9.0 GERMANY

Bergmann MP-18 Bergmann MP-28 Erma EMP Heckler und Koch MPS Heckler und Koch KKS3 MP-38 MP-59

9P 9P 9P 9P ,223in 9P 9P

32.1 32.0 37.4 26.0 30.1 32.8 28.8

9.2 8.8 9.2 5.6 7.4 9.0 7.0

7.9 7.8 11.8 8.85 8.85 9.9 8.3

%

B B B B B B B

32 32 32 30 40 32 30

A S S S S A A

400 500 500 650 650 500 620

B B B B B B B B B B B

32 50 34 32 32 32 32 32 32 34 34

S S S S S S S S S S

, s

600 600 600 550 550 450 550 600 475 600 475

B 40

s

750

B 32

s

600

B B B B B B

s

525 900 600 550 900 1200 x2

GREAT BRITAIN BSA Lanchester Patchen Mk 1 Sten Mk21 Sten Mk 2 Sten Mk 2S (silenced) Sten Mk 3 Sten Mk 5 Sten Mk 6 (silenced) Sterling L2A4 Sterling L34 (silenced)

9P 9P 9P 9P 9P 9P 9P 9P 9P 9P 9P

27.5 33.75 28.0 33.25 30.0 33.75 30.0 30.0 33.75 28.0 33.25

5.6 9.6 6.2 7.2 6.65 7.7 7.0 8.6 9.5 6.0 7.7

8.0 7.9 8.25 7.8 7.75 3.6 7.75 7.8 3.75 7.8 7.8 HUNGARY

Danuvia M39

9M

41.25

8.2

19.65 ISRAEL

Uzi

9P

25.2

7.7

10.2 ITALY

Armaguerra OG44 Beretta Mi 1918 Beretta M1938A Beretta MI2 OVP Villar Perosa

9P 95 9P 9P 95 95

30.2 33.5 37.25 25.4 35.5 21.0

6.8 7.2 9.25 6.6 8.0 14.2

11.6 12.5 12.4 7.9 11.0 12.6

1lv30

25 25 40 40 25 25 x 2

A S S S A

Sub-Machine Guns Data

GUN

CALIBRE

LENGTH WITH BUTT EXTENDED INS

WEIGHT EMPTY LBS

BARREL LENGTH INS

MAGAZINE TYPE AND CAPACITY

TYPE OF FIRE

RATE OF FIRE RPM

JAPAN Type 100/1940 Type 100/1944

8mm 8mm

34.0 36.0

7.5 8.5

9.0 9.2

B 30 B 30

A A

450 800

B D D B

25 71 71 35

S S S A

800 800 900 700

B 36 B 36 B 30

S A S

600 750 300/700

RUSSIA AND THE CIS PPD-34 PPD-40 PPSh-41 PPS-42

7.62mm 7.62mm 7.62mm 7.62mm

30.6 31.0 33.1 35.7

8.25 8.0 8.0 6.5

10.75 10.75 10.6 10.75 SPAIN

Gollat Labors Star SI 35

9BB 9BB 9BB

34.5 31.75 35.4

9.75 9.4 8.2

8.5 10.25 10.6 SWEDEN

Carl Gustav Ml945

9P

31.8

0

7.6

8.0

B 50

S

600

B B B B B

40 40 32 40 32

A S S A S

850 900 600 900 500

B B B B B B B B B B B

30 20 20 20 32 32 30 12 30/D 50 20 20

S S S A S S A S S

SWITZERLAND MP41 SIG MP41 Furrer Rexim-Favor SIC MKMO Steyr-Solothum

9P 9P 9P 9M 9St

31.4 30.5 34.3 40.25 33.35

9.6 11.5 8.4 9.8 8.6

12.1 9.8 13.4 19.25 7.8

UNITED STATES Atmed Colt Commando Hyde-Inland M2 Ingram Model 6 Ingram Model 10 Ingram Model 11 M3, M3A1 Reising Model 50 Thompson Ml028 Thompson Ml UDM-42

.45in ,223in .45in ,45in 9P 95 .45in ,45in .45in .45in 9P

34.5 31.37 32.1 28.5 21.57 18.0 29.8 35.75 33.75 f 32.0 32.3

11.5 9.75 12.10 8.0 5.75 5.12 8.0 11.0 10.5 10.5 11.0

9.5 6.0 9.25 6.5 6.76 3.25 8.15 6.75 10.75 10.5 9.12

Note on abbreviations: Calibres: 9P = 9mm Parabellum 9S = 9mm Short/,380 Auto 9BB = 9mm Bergmann-Bayard 9St = 9mm Steyr 9M = 9mm Mauser Export

Magazine type and capacity: B = box magazine D = drum magazine

Type of fire: A = automatic only S = selective single shot or automatic

11 0/ T7

s s

750 525 600 900 1000 400 550 675 700 700

Illustrated History of Small Arms

GUN

CALIBRE

LENGTH WITH BUTT EXTENDED INS

WEIGHT EMPTY LBS

BARREL LENGTH ' INS

MAGAZINE TYPE AND CAPACITY

8mm

42

44

20.75

RPM

V • K

AUSTRIA Schwarzlose M07/12

RATE OF TYPEFIRE OF FIRE

250 Belt

400

2050

Link Belt

850

2800

30 Box

500

2500

40 Box

450

2350

23 Strip 30 Strip 30 Strip 250 Belt 25 Box 25 Box 50 Belt

650 400-500 600 650 250 500 700

230 2300 2380

200 Belt 200 Belt 200 Belt 180 Drum 50 Belt 50 Belt 50 Belt 250 Belt 250 Belt 250 Belt 75 Drum Belt 25 Box

550 500 550-600 1800 750 800-900 1200 1250 300-450 450 850 850 800

2952 2925 2952 2900 2625 2480 2480 2750 2925 2925 2480 2690 2500

77 Drum 225 Belt 30 Box 30 Box 97 Drum 250 Belt 250 Belt 250 Belt 30 Box

450-500 450-500 600 ,500 550 600 600 450 600

2427 2700 2450 2400 2450 2750 2440 2450 2450

BELGIUM FN MAO

7.62mm

49.2

21.5

22.25

CZECHOSLOVAKIA ZB26

7.92mm

45.75

26.5

21.3 DENMARK

Madsen Ml 903

.303in

45

20

23

FRANCE Hotchkiss Puteaux Hotchkiss St Etienne Hotchkiss Model 1914 Hotchkiss FM1922 Chauchat Ml915 Chatellereault Ml924 AA52

8mm 8mm 8mm 6.5mm 8mm 7.5mm 7.62mm

-

-

46.5 50 44.1 45 42.6 39

28 30.5 23.6 18.5 19.7 19.3

54 56.75 52 21.4 20.25 20.25 21.75

-

2300 2700 2700

GERMANY Bergmann Ml910 Bergmann Ml 915 Dreyse MG-13 Mauser Ml 918 Heckler & Koch HK21 Mauser MG-34 Mauser MG42 Mauser MG-81 Maxim 1908 Maxim '08/15 Rheinmetall MG15 Rheinmetall MG-3 Solothurn MG-30

7.92mm 7.92mm 7.92mm 7.92mm 7.62mm 7.92mm 7.92mm 7.92mm 7.92mm 7.92mm 7.92mm 7.62mm 7.92mm

-

-

44.13

28.5

-

-

54.72 40 48 48 37 46.25 57 52.5 48.2 46.25

28.35 17.7 24.75 21 18.6 28.3 28.3 23.5 22.2 23.5

36 28.5 37.5 60 14.8 26.9 25.8 14 58.3 39 28 24.4 17

GREAT BRITAIN Beardmore-Farquhar Besa Mkl Besal Bren Mkl Lewis gun .303 Mkl Maxim Model 1884 Maxim .303 Vickers .303 Mkl Vickers-Berthier M3

.303in 7.92mm .303in ,303in ,303in .303in .303in .303in .303in

50 43.5 46.63 45.25 50.5 46.5 46.5 45.5 46.5

26 29 22 25 26.25 28.25 28.5 28.5 23.5

16.25 47 21.5 22.3 26 40 40 40 22 ISRAEL

Dror

7.92mm

42.5

22

14.75

20 Box

300-900

2800

ITALY Breda Ml930 Breda Ml 937 Breda Safat Ml935 Fiat Ml 935 Fiat Revelli M1914 Perino Ml908 Villar Perosa

6.5mm 8mm 7.7mm 8mm 6.5mm 7.7mm 9mm

48.5 50

20.5 26.75

-

-

-

46.5 21.1

22.75 43 27 40 37.5 50 18

26 25.75 -

12.6

1 QQ 1^)0

20 Box 20 Strip Belt Belt 50 Box 25 Strip 30 Box

450-500 450 800 500 400 600 800

2063 2600 2400 2600 2100 2400 1200

-

Machine Guns Data

GUN

CALIBRE

LENGTH WITH BUTT EXTENDED INS

WEIGHT EMPTY LBS

BARREL LENGTH INS

MAGAZINE TYPE AND CAPACITY

RATE OF TYPEFIRE OF FIRE

RPM

JAPAN Taisho 11 Model Taisho 3 Type 92 Type 96 Type 99

6.5mm 6.5mm 7.7mm 6.5mm 7.7mm

43.5 45.5 45.5 41.5 46.5

19 29.5 27.5 21.7 21.5

22.5 62 122 20 23

30 30 30 30 30

Hopper Strip Strip Box Box

500 400 450 550 850

2300 2400 2400 2400 2350

47 Drum 50 Belt 100 Belt Belt 75 Drum Belt 250 Belt

500-600 550 700 600 600 600 520-580

2760 2825 2410 2440 2400 3250 2830

RUSSIA AND THE CIS Degtyarev DP Degtyarev DShK Degtyarev RPD Goryunov SG-43 Kalashnikov RPK KPV Maxim Ml 910

7.62mm 12.7mm 7.62mm 7.62mm 7.62mm 14.5mm 7.62mm

50.8 62.5 41 44.1 41 78.8 43.6

23.8 42 20.5 28.3 23.2 53.1 28.4

20.5 78.5 15.4 30.25 10.5 10.8 52.5

UNITED STATES Browning Ml 917 A1 Browning Automatic Rifle M1918A2 Browning .30 M2 Browning .50 M2 Browning .30 Ml919 A4 Colt CMG-2 Colt Ml 895 GE Six-Pak Johnson Ml 941 M60 M61 Vulcan MI34 Minigun Marlin Maxim Ml 904

.30in

38.5

24

32.8

250 Belt

500

2800

,30in .30in .50in .30in 5.56mm 7.65mm 5.56mm .30in 7.62mm 20mm 7.62mm .30in .30in

47.8 39.9 65.1 41 41.9 47.25 41 42 43.75 73.8 31.5 40

24.07 23.9 45 24

-

20 Box 250 Belt 110 Belt 250 Belt Belt 300 Belt Link Belt 20 Box Link Belt Belt Belt 250 Belt 250 Belt

500-600 1200 500 550 650 400-500 10000 300-900 600 6600 6000 660 600

2650 2800 2950 2800 3250

-

19.4 23 84 31 13 37 33 14.3 23 26.4 67 22.5 40

-

28.35 27 22 25.5 -

22 28

The Maschinenpistole 44 was developed in Germany during the later stages of World War II as a pioneering assault rifle in 7.92mm (0.312in) calibre firing an intermediatepower round, and its technical success paved the way for the modern assault rifle.

1l oy

-

3250 2800 2800 3450 2850 2800 2750

Illustrated History of Small Arms

Barrel

tube up which the bullet proceeds from the breech to the muzzle, where it emerges into the air

Blowback operation operating system for semi-automatic and automatic weapons in which the cartridge case is blown to the rear by gas pressure, in the process driving the bolt back against its return spring and in the process giving it the energy to complete the ejection/loading cycle Bolt

mass of metal which holds the cartridge case in the breech as it is fired

Box magazine linear metal container holding a number of rounds ready to be loaded into the breech by the action of the bolt after being driven to the lips by a spring Breech chamber at the rear of the barrel and from which the bullet is fired by the expansion of the gases created by the firing of the round Buttstock

the wood or metal shoulder piece of a weapon

Cap insert in the base of the cartridge case which carries a detonating compound which, when struck by the firing pin, produces a flash to ignite the main propellant charge Chamber alternative name for breech, and therefore the rear part of the barrel enlarged and specially shaped to hold the unfired cartridge before it is fired Closed-breech firing system in which the round is ready in the chamber with the bolt fully closed when the trigger is operated, thereby giving a short lock time Cock (i) process of pulling back the bolt or hammer into the ready-to-fire position, in the process compressing the return or hammer spring to drive the firing pin forward as the trigger is pulled (ii) exterior moving part of an early operating lock carrying the slowmatch or flint Cycle of operations successive process of feeding, chambering, firing, extracting, ejecting and storing spring energy in the firing of an automatic or semi-automatic weapon A Drum magazine

circular metal container holding rounds that are loaded axially and driven to the lips by a spring

Ejector projection in the bolt way that strikes the head of the cartridge case after it has been extracted and causes it to be thrown out of the gun Extractor spring-loaded claw attached to the bolt head to engage with the extractor groove or rim of the fired cartridge case and draw it from the chamber after firing Frizzen hinged cover over the priming pan of a flint-lock weapon to prevent wind or rain from blowing away or wetting the priming powder before the descent of the cock's jaw lifts the frizzen and allows sparks to enter the pan Furniture Grooves

wooden or other assemblies on the exterior of a weapon to make it comfortable to carry and use series of helical spirals cut into the bore of the barrel

140

Glossary

Hammer sequence

moving weight whose activation propels the firing pin into a fresh round's primer to initiate the firing

Lands raised portions of the barrel interior between the grooves to engage in the bullet's jacket to provide spin and prevent the escape of propellant gases past the bullet Muzzle

open forward end of the barrel from which the bullet emerges into the air as it is fired

Obturation

sealing of the chamber to prevent the rearward escape of propellant gas as the round is fired

Open-breech firing system in which the bolt is held to the rear when the gun is in the ready-to-fire position; in this system the gun is empty as the trigger is pulled, the bolt then moving forward to strip and chamber a fresh round from the magazine before releasing the firing pin to fire the round Pistol grip

grip for the firing hand immediately to the rear of the trigger group

Propellant charge of stored chemical energy that, when burned, produces the rapidly expanding volume of gas that forces the bullet up the barrel Receiver

otherwise known as the body, this is the part of the weapon containing the bolt and its return spring

Return spring helical spring behind the bolt that is compressed as the bolt is moved to the rear, its subsequent expansion driving the bolt forward Rifling system of helical grooves and lands in the interior of the barrel to impart spin to the bullet as it moves up the barrel, thereby increasing its stability after it has left the muzzle Round

complete cartridge including bullet, cartridge case, propellant and primer

Safety catch catch that operates a system to prevent the unintended firing of any gun by locking the trigger, or disconnecting the trigger from the sear, or locking the sear or locking the bolt Sear part of the trigger mechanism which engages in a notch (properly known as the bent) in the bolt or hammer to prevent its movement Sighting the process of aligning any weapon's fore and rear sights with the target to ensure that the aim is accurate, the vertical alignment of the rear sight adding provision for the correct tangent elevation of the barrel to allow for the range to the target

1A1

Illustrated History of Small Arms

AA 52 machine gun 83 Ager Coffee Mill Gun 42 AKM machine gun 85 Amberg 7 Armalite AR-15 assault rifle 99 automatic operation 39

Ballard 21 Ballard rifle 25 Benet-Merce machine gun 52 Berdan rifle 25 Beretta 55 Beretta modello 1918 sub-machine gun 117 Beretta modello 1934 pistol 110 Beretta modello 1938 sub-machine gun 120 Beretta modello 1938/42 sub¬ machine gun 120 Bergmann machine gun 48, 68 Bergmann Maschinenpistole 18 sub-machine gun 117 Bergmann Maschinenpistole 28 sub-machine gun 119 Bergmann Maschinenpistole 34 sub-machine gun 119 Bergmann Maschinenpistole 35 sub-machine gun 119 Berthier carbine 38, 90 Billinghurst Requa volley gun 42 Birmingham Small Arms 67 Borchardt, Hugo 53 box magazine 26 Breda modello 1930 machine gun 70 Bren Gun machine gun 70 Browning Automatic Rifle M1918 69 Browning M2 heavy machine gun 71 Browning Machine Gun M1917 65 Browning Machine Gun M1919 73 Browning Model 1898 pistol 55 Browning, John M. 21,23,40 Burgess rifle 25

cannon lock 8 carbine 27 Carbine Ml 92 Cei-Rigotti 41 centre-fire round 20 CETME assault rifle 97 Charter Arms Undercover pistol 109 Chartered Industries Ultimax 100 machine gun 87 Chassepot 17,19 Chauchat machine gun 69 Colt Assault Rifle M16 86,99 Colt Lightning rifle 25 Colt M1911 pistol 55 Colt M1917 pistol 108 Colt revolver pistols 28-34 Colt Trooper pistol 109 Colt, Samuel 16,29 Colt-Browning Model 1895 machine gun 65

de Reffye Mitrailleuse 43 Degtyarev DP machine gun 70 Demondion 16 Dodge fast-loading system 34 Dreyse machine gun 68 Dreyse, Johann 23,24,49 Dreyse, Nicholas 15,17 drop-block locking system 15,21 DShK heavy machine gun 71

Enfield 17,19 Enfield No.2 Mk 1 pistol 108 Enfield rifling 23 Enfield Weapons System 87 Evan rifle 26

FA MAS assault rifle 102 Fabrique Nationale 40,67 falling-block weapons 21 flint-lock 10 FN Browning Hi-Power pistol 110 FN FAL rifle 97 FN FNC assault rifle 97 FN MAG machine gun 78 FN Minimi machine gun 81, 86

142

FN-Mauser 1895 rifle 90 Forsyth, Alexander 13 Franchi Special-Purpose Automatic Shotgun 135 Francotte-Martini 21 Fucile modello 91 90 fulminate of mercury 13 Fusil Mitrailleur 1924/29 machine gun 70

Garand Rifle Ml 92 Gatling machine gun 42-43 Geiger, Leonard 22 Ghent 7 Gras carbine 90

Haenel Maschinenpistole 43 assault rifle 95 Haenel Sturmg'ewehr 44 assault rifle 96 Hartig 36 Heckler und Koch Gil 104 Heckler und Koch G3 rifle 97 Heckler und Koch MP5 sub¬ machine gun 131 Henry Repeating Rifle Model 1860 25 Henry weapons 18 Henry, Tyler 24 hinge-frame weapons 15 Hotchkiss 1910 machine gun 69 Hotchkiss machine gun 47-48 Hotchkiss Modele 1910 machine gun 60 Hotchkiss Modele 1914 machine gun 60 Hotchkiss, Benjamin 51-52 Houiller 18,19 Hunt Volitional Repeater 18

IMI Galil assault rifle 97

jacketed bullet 38 Jennings, Lewis 18

Index

Kalashnikov AK-47 assault rifle 98 Kalashnikov AK-74 assault rifle 99, 104 Kalashnikov AKM assault rifle 98 Kalashnikov AKSU-74 sub-machine gun 131 Kennedy rifle 25 Kjellman 41 Krag-Jorgensen rifle 89 Krnka musket 25 Kropatschek rifle 26

L34 Sterling sub-machine gun 122 L7 General-Purpose Machine Gun 79 L85 Individual Weapon 87,102 L86 machine gun 87 Lanchester sub-machine gun 122 Lebel 38,41 Lebel Modele 1886 rifle 38, 89 Lee US Navy Rifle 26 Lee, James 26 Lee-Enfield rifle 38 Lee-Metford Magazine Rifle Mk I 27 Lee-Metford rifle 38 Lefaucheux 17,18 lever-action rifle 25 lever-action weapons 18 Lewis machine gun 67 Lewis, Colonel Isaac 67 Light Support Weapon 87 Lowe, Ludwig 53 Luger Pistole 08 56 Luger, Georg 56

Machine Gun M249 81 Machine Gun M60 79-80 Maclean, Samuel 67 Madsen machine gun 51, 68 Mannlicher 26,27, 40, 41 Mannlicher Repetier Gewehr 1895 rifle 90 Mannlicher rifles 38 Mannlicher semi-automatic pistol 54 Mannlicher-Carcano rifle 38, 90 Marlin rifle 25 Martini, Frederick von 21

Martini-Henry 21 MAS 36 rifle 92 Maschinengewehr 08/18 machine gun 68-69 Maschinengewehr 08 machine gun 48, 64 Maschinengewehr 08/15 machine gun 68 Maschinengewehr 1 machine gun 76 Maschinengewehr 15 machine gun 74 Maschinengewehr 3 machine gun 76 Maschinengewehr 34 machine gun 73 Maschinengewehr 42 machine gun 73 Maschinenpistole 38 119 Maschinenpistole 38/40 119 Maschinenpistole 40 sub-machine gun 120 Maschinenpistole 43 assault rifle 75 MAT 49 sub-machine gun 130 Mauser 26,41 Mauser Gewehr 1871/74 26 Mauser Gewehr 1898 rifle 38 Mauser Gewehr 71 24 Mauser Gewehr 98 rifle 90 Mauser Model 1889 rifle 38 Mauser Model 1893 rifle 38 Mauser Pistole 10 56 Mauser semi-automatic pistol 54 Mauser, Franz 23 Mauser, Peter Paul 23 Maxim semi-automatic pistol 54 Maxim, Sir Hiram 40,43 metallic cartridge 18 Metford rifling 23 Metz 7 Minie, Capitaine Charles 14 Modele 1892 pistol 108 Mondragon 41 Mosin-Nagant Model 1891 rifle 90 Mosin-Nagant Model 1891/30 rifle 91 Mosin-Nagant Model 1910 carbine 91 Mosin-Nagant Model 1938 carbine 91

143

Nambu 41 Nambu Type 100 sub-machine gun

120 needle-fire round 15,16 New Haven Arms Company 25 nitro-cellulose propellant 36 obturation 15 Odkolek, Baron Adolf von 51-52 OVP sub-machine gun 117

paper cartridge 14 Parabellum machine gun 49 Peabody 22 Peabody, Henry 21 Peabody-Martini rifle 25 percussion cap 13 Perino machine gun 52 pin-fire round 17 PK machine gun 84 PKB machine gun 85 PKM machine gun 85 PKMS machine gun 85 PKS machine gun 85 PPD-1034/38 sub-machine gun 127 PPD-1934 sub-machine gun 127 PPS-42 sub-machine gun 129 PPSh-41 sub-machine gun 129 Pulemet Maksima 1910 machine gun 63 Puteaux machine gun 52

Remington 23,41 Remington revolver pistols 34 Remington 870 shotgun 135 Remington Arms Company 26 Remington-Ryder 22 Revelli machine gun 52 revolver pistol 16,27 Rheinmetall Fallschirmjager 42 assault rifle 80,94 Rifle No.l Mk III 88 rifling 14 rim-fire round 20 Robbins and Lawrence 18 rolling-block weapons 22 RPK machine gun 84 RPK-74 machine gun 85 Ruger Blackhawk pistol 109 Ryder, Joseph 22

Illustrated History of Small Arms

SARAC M1953 machine gun 77 Savage revolver pistols 34 Savage rifle Model 1899 25 Schmeisser, Louis 49 Schonbein 36 Schultz 36 Schwarzlose machine gun 50 Schwarzlose Maschinengewehr 1912 machine gun 64 Schwarzlose semi-automatic pistol 54 Sharps weapons 15 Sharps, Christian 21 Shepherd, Major R.V. 122 Short Magazine Lee-Enfield rifle 88 Sims 21 Small Arms 80 family 87 Smith and Wesson 18,19 Smith and Wesson 0.38/200 pistol 108 Smith and Wesson Bodyguard pistol 109 Smith and Wesson Ml917 pistol 108 Smith and Wesson revolver pistols 34 Smith, Horace 18 snaphaunce 10 Snider, Jacob 17 Spencer rifle 24 Spencer, Christopher 24 Springfield Rifle Model 1903 89 St Etienne 41 St Etienne machine gun 52 Sten sub-machine gun 122 Stevens 21 Steyr AUG assault rifle 102 Stoner, Eugene 99 Sturmgewehr 44 assault rifle 75 Sub-Machine Gun M3 127 Suomi m/1931 sub-machine gun 129

T-Gewehr anti-tank rifle 73 tail-fire round 16 Thompson Sub-Machine Gun 126 Thompson, General John 126 tit-fire round 16 toggle lock action 24 Tokarev SVT38 rifle 91 Tokarev TT-33 pistol 110

tubular magazine 25,26 turn-bolt locking system 24 Turpin, H.J. 122 Type 11 machine gun 70 Type 38 rifle 92 Type 74 machine gun 85 Type 80 machine gun 85 Type 96 machine gun 70

\

Uirapuru Mekanika machine gun 84 Uzi sub-machine gun 130

Vickers Mk I machine gun 61 Vieille 37 Villar Perosa sub-machine gun 117 Volkmann 36 vz26 machine gun 70 vz30 machine gun 70 vz59 machine gun 84 vz61 Skorpion 130

Walter Gewehr 41 (W) rifle 94 Walter Gewehr 43 rifle 94 Walter Karabiner 43 carbine 94 Walter P38 pistol 110 Walter PP and PPK pistols 110 Werder 21 Westley-Richards 21 wheel lock 10 Williams machine gun 42-43 Winchester 21,41 Winchester Repeating Arms Company 25 Winchester rifle 24 Winchester Rifle Models 1866,1873, 1886 and 1894 25 Winchester, Oliver 24

Zundnadelgewehr 15

1/1/1

1

\

A

Christopher Chant is a successful writer on modem military matters, and has a substantial number of authoritative titles to his credit. He was bom in Cheshire during December 1943 but spent his childhood in East Africa, where his father was an officer in the colonial service. He returned to the UK for his education, at The King’s School, Canterbury and at Oriel College, Oxford, where he took a honours degree in Literae Humaniores. Military matters, and especially aviation, have long been a passion, and after taking his degree he moved to London as an assistant editor on the Purnell partworks History of the Second World War and History of the First World War. With the completion of the latter he moved to Orbis Publishing as editor of the partwork World War II, with the conclusion of this publication he decided to become a freelance writer and editor. Living

first

in

London,

and then

in

Lincolnshire after his marriage in 1978, he has written extensively on military and aviation subjects, and has also contributed as editor and writer

to

the

Encyclopedia

partworks

The

of Aircraft,

Warplane, and Take-Off,

War

Illustrated Machine,

and also to the

magazine World Air Power Journal. John Batchelor is a technical artist with a special interest in military equipment. He is a collector of antique and modem firearms, and has always had a deep appreciation of the combined technical and intuitive qualities that go into the creation of machines such as aircraft, and been conscious of the expertise and artistic skill to produce them. After service in the Royal Air force he really learned

his

profession

in

the

technical

publications departments of the Bristol Aero Company, Martin Baker Ltd. and Saunders-Roe Ltd., before turning freelance to work on a number of technical and boys’ papers, including the Eagle, and Purnell partworks History of the First World War and History of the Second World War, together with several Time-Life series.

o

of Small Arms in The Rifle

ling with the modern rifle in calibre weapon in its bolt-a automatic forms to the smaller a assault rifle.

The Machine Gun

e light machine gun weapon.

The Sub-Machine Gun e modern sub-machirs pistol-calibre round and capable of single-short, burst and fully automatic fire. The Pistol revolver and semi-automatic pistol, and also