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results
Contents
Introduction
........................................................
vi
The
influence
behaviour Unit
1
Research
Research
in
psychology ........................................
research:
the
Quantitative
experiment
research:
correlational
...............
2
Unit
9
Normality
5
Abnormal
versus
studies .......
20
Classification
Qualitative
research
...........................................
24
Prevalence
Qualitative
research
methods.............................
31
Validity
37
The
in
2
psychological
Biological
research .........................
and
role
of
approach
to
...................................................
used
to
behaviour ......................
study
the
for
to
behaviour
and
brain
Genes
and
..................................
78
87
Evolutionary
The
role
human
of
genetic
explanations
animal
behaviour
(HL
similarities..........
for
research
in
behaviour ........
94
108
Unit
6
3
Cognitive
Concepts
to
and
approach
principles
of
the
to
of
cognitive
Thinking
and
Reliability
of
115
Biases
in
and
Cognitive
only)
4
Cultural
norms
180
Social
origins
—cultural
The
digital
The
and
theory
individual
and
to
the
and
of
331
health
.............................................
339
2:
stress ...................................
344
350
of
human
relationships
discrimination............................
conflict
and
conflict
394
resolution ........
400
responsibility ..........................................
404
8
and
of
cultural
202
cognition
208
psychology
development ....................................
mind
Gender
220
of
empathy
and
446
455
peers
Effects
of
and
play ......................................
trauma
poverty
social
437
roles .......................
of
and
430
Attachment.......................................................
Role
identity
422
theory
............................................................
Childhood
group—social
group—social
Developmental
development ...........................................
Cognitive
and
on
464
resilience .....................
473
relationships ...................
481
identity Unit
theory
and
Development
attitudes,
...............................................
and
of
188
behaviour
......................................
the
explanations
world
approach
behaviour
dimensions
individual
cognitive
of
being
386
cognition.....................................
..............................................................
Cultural
and
370
Origins
individual
obesity
dynamics ...............................................
168
on
327
1:
......................................
decision-making ..........
behaviour—culture
health ....................................
psychology
relationships
Prejudice
........................................................
and
319
Psychology
160
influences
identities
......................
treatment
.......................................................
problem
7
Group
memory ....................................
Sociocultural
of
depression
131
Brain
Unit
306
313
in
of
........................................................
Unit (HL
depression ...................
123
processes:
the
300
health
Personal
in
295
Promoting
Unit
processing
depression ........
treatment ..........
problems
149
and
of
............
culture
cognitive
decision-making.........................
thinking
Emotion
of
overweight
141
reconstructive
of
treatment
problem
.................................................
cognitive
and
approach
memory ...........................................
theory
288
for
effectiveness
treatment
Determinants
Health
Schema
.............................
disorders—cognitive
behaviour
behaviour .....................................................
Models
280
disorders—biological
explanations
the
Health
Health
understanding
only) ............................
role
Social Unit
269
.............
72
behaviour ...............................
behaviour;
..................
diagnosis
in
.........................................
behaviour
and
in
56
The Pheromones
diagnosis
depression
for
Psychological Hormones
of
biases
262
266
64
Biological relation
disorders .........................
257
46
Assessing Techniques
and
for
sociocultural and
psychology
reliability
Explanations
Neurotransmitters
250
behaviour
........................................................
Neuroplasticity
individual
abnormality ..........................
clinical
explanations Localization
on
systems .......................................
rates
Explanations Unit
globalization
only).........................................
methodology
Quantitative
Ethics
of
(HL
stereotyping ...................................
9
Internal
assessment
229 Overview
of
the
requirements
for
internal
assessment ........................................................
488
v
...............................
490
The
Writing
the
introduction ..................................
493
Other
Writing
the
exploration ....................................
Planning
the
Conducting
Writing
Unit
a
the
the
References
10
investigation
497
evaluation .....................................
510
The
IB
conceptual
Examination
appendices
essay ..........................................
521
resources ................................................
528
Bibliography .....................................................
529
495
analysis ...................................
and
extended
..............................
512
Index
............................................................... 564
curriculum:
model
requirements
..............................
516
Introduction
This
of
book
is
a
Course
psychology
Diploma
in
the
Companion
for
International
Programme
at
higher
important
students
complex
Baccalaureate
and
standard
is
and
designed
at
to
home.
coverage
variety
of
of
be
We
all
used
have
topics
tried
in
arguments
extensively
the
to
both
provide
syllabus,
supported
by
in
class
“Psychology
concepts
deep
on
classic
a
research.
Your
job
is
to
study
along
you
have
with
in
the
class,
discussions
take
notes,
and
“ATL
and
use
other
techniques
all
its
is
aspects.
real
help
life”
in
features
the
you
text
see
to
the
will
apply
some
vast
the
real-life
practical
skills”
will
suggest
for
you
a
number
and
your
of
questions
classmates
activities
make
to
to
activities
develop
your
learning
skills
further,
and
mind help
maps
in
the
to that
behaviour
studied
and
and material
human
be
applications.
●
contemporary
in
discussed
scenarios,
focusing
both
because
should
levels. ●
It
skill
and
“compress”
you
become
better
researchers
and
the communicators.
information
you
it,
eat,
digest
so
you
which
Course
and
understand
chew
helps
the
you
Companion
it,
you
please
do
need
not
food
digest
is
to
no
the
topics.
before
the
swallowing
food
different:
chew
literally
it
better.
if
(this
chew
When
is
the
you
a
●
This
want
to
metaphor,
help
that
you,
you
the
can
book
use
to
has
a
your
Inquiry
questions
at
the
start
challenge
allowing
you
of
features
to
key
you
compare
to
to
see
psychological
other
knowledge
terms,
psychology
disciplines.
learning
skills.
Exercises
and
links
as
and
research
videos
beyond
staying ●
will
behind
book).
number
enhance
links
concepts
meaningfully
●
To
TOK
of
every
this
book
focused
to
external
while
on
materials
papers)
the
at
the
topics
will
take
same
(such
you
time
relevant
to
the
section syllabus.
will
encourage
that
do
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but
discover
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think
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ready
to
about
solution.
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it
problems
Take
as
a
There
you
that
ethics.
knowledge.
in ●
Material
provided
in
the
text
will
equip
a
range
of
arguments
and
two
are
Research
psychology
is
to
deepen
●
These
their
the
inquiry
hidden
arguments
empirical
will
research,
psychology
questions
is
it
is
be
supported
because
teacher
from
the
IB
in
order
course,
you
need
to
living
needs
will
provide
list
of
topics
how
focus
behind
of
it.
research
and
in
non-human
to
be
done
responsibly.
you
with
subject
information
guide:
that
you
aims
need
to
of
know,
requirements
and
criteria.
Remember
it refer
to
this
information
you
will
learn
in
this
section”
boxes
you
summarize
the
key
what
“This
section
making
also
links
links
to”
between
is
so
expected
that
you
of
you
at
clearly
all
times.
will is
a
journey
full
of
exciting
points.
will
support
topics—this
is
you
no
spoilers—you
will
see
for
yourself.
an Alexey
vi
the
beings—human
psychology
discoveries—but
in
discovery
and
claim
to
know
Psychology
●
of
every
obtained.
“What
help
because
research
Your
understand
●
history
because
with
to was
a
everything
research
knowledge
procedural:
fully,
important
in
book:
and
assessment understand
themes
this
dimensions.
the in
has
in
evaluation
animals—so uncover
is
important
psychology points
overarching
discussing
you Ethics
with
are
we
Popov,
Lee
Parker,
Darren
Seath
R E S E A R C H
M E T H O D O L O G Y
Topics
●
Introduction:
●
Quantitative
research:
the
●
Quantitative
research:
correlational
Research
in
●
Qualitative
research
●
Qualitative
research
studies
●
Ethics
used
the
psychology
experiment
in
methods
psychological
research
Introduction
This
unit
deals
in
psychology.
of
research
with
In
research
any
methods
methods
discipline,
greatly
increases
mind)
think
knowledge
to
understand
a
topic.
not
an
exception.
The
unit
ability
to
it
may
builds
seem
an
knowledge
critically
on
the
how
it
was
obtained
is
task,
if
you
a
little
important
abstract
to
foundation
you
for
essential
to
of
the
material
in
all
the
other
units.
basis Applying
of
easy
evaluate understanding
psychological
an
Psychology but
is
Not
it.
our This
ability
objectively.
about
the
knowledge
and
skills
related
avoid to
research
methodology,
you
will
be
able
to
misconceptions. critically
Speaking
plenty
of
popular
to
it
of
misconceptions,
them
numerous
is
is
Knowledge
whole
strengths
material
take
to
of
and
methods
by
extent
…”
the
the
at
allows
When
you
what
you
to
this
unit
the
concepts
We
start
no
You
we
its
is
a
special
two
hand,
it
is
will
time
read
what
and
to
this,
what
that
justied.
discipline.
scientic,
just
like
test
which
On
can
in
or
what
we
and
explanations
objective
in
unlike
an
knowledge.
natural
sciences
psychology
studies
is
the
and
referring
apply
and
you
back
reinforce
methodology.
and
what
to
four
but
not.
Then
research
at
These
the
complement
credibility,
in
same
each
Following
overarching
quantitative
sampling,
is
dramatically
investigation.
both
it
of
of
qualitative.
differ
objectives,
combined
to
denition
groups
and
methods
discuss
bias.
concepts
and
qualitative
Next,
we
look
at
the
generalizability
application
that these
concepts
separately
correlational
in
quantitative
studies)
and
eliminate
attempt
On
the
that
research.
Finally,
any
discipline
to involves
research
with
living
beings
other to
adhere
to
the
principles
of
ethics.
We
study discuss
“nature”,
of
conclusions,
unjustied
research
broad
holistic
apply
needs hand,
and
keep
areas
chemists,
that achieve
it
two
of
be
a
qualitative competing
specic
balanced
can
to
in
the
means
physicists
hypotheses
you
discussing
(experiments, rigorously
will
related
rationale
other
was
of psychologists,
at
quantitative
groups
their
have
and one
We
that
introduce
methods:
the
longer
psychologists
by
research: Psychology
so
psychology,
see
all
studying
will
understand
are
to
arrive
misconceptions
generalizations.
So
with
psychologists”
inferences
avoiding
a
vulnerable
clearly,
value.
and
is
and
knowledge
not.
“British
face
“British
their
is
also
chapter,
lines
it
understand
it
process
like
Psychology
makes
limitations.
this
discovered
between
what
psychology
are
interpretations.
clearly
research
in
eld.
which
and
statements
done
this
popular
important
psychology
the
in
discipline
there
evaluate
ethical
considerations
in
psychological
humans, research.
inherently
an
attempt
subjective
to
study
creatures.
the
So
subjective
psychology
(for
is
example,
1
1
Research in psychology
Inquiry questions
●
What
●
How
is
scientic
can
we
tell
psychology?
if
a
research
study
is
credible?
●
How
is
correlation
●
How
is
quantitative
qualitative ●
How
can
we
study
subjective
different
from
research
causation?
different
from
research?
phenomena
objectively?
What you will learn in this section
●
What
is
●
psychology?
Research
methodology:
qualitative Psychology
behaviour
is
the
and
scientic
mental
study
quantitative
and
methods
of
processes
Qualitative
versus
quantitative
comparison Science
and
non-science
Types Behaviour
and
mental
of
quantitative
experimental,
A
study
of
non-human
IB
psychology
is
correlational,
descriptive
animals Types
What
research:
processes
of
qualitative
research
not ●
Sampling,
bias
●
in
There
credibility,
research:
should
be
an
a
generalizability
and
overview
history
of
independent
W ? attempts “Psychology
is
the
scientic
study
of
behaviour
to
test
the
theory
or
replicate
the
and study.
mental
to
use
short
Let’s
processes.”
throughout
denition,
try
and
This
this
there
uncover
is
the
book.
are
a
them
denition
Although
lot
of
one
we
it
is
are
quite
implications
by
going
in
a
it.
one.
TOK Psychology
is
the
scientic
study…
This
part
of
the
Science versus non-science demarcation is one of the denition
excludes
such
areas
as
pop
psychology,
key topics in TOK . The following concepts are impor tant that
is,
simple
and
appealing
explanations
that
are
in the discussion of demarcation criteria: not
a
backed
theory
between
TOK
the
up
or
a
by
study
science
question
book,
empirical
but
evidence.
scientic,
and
or
where
non-science?
and
you
here
are
will
return
some
What
This
to
major
it
is
makes
the
is
line
largely
●
empirical evidence
●
falsication/falsiability
●
replication.
a
throughout
points.
While reading this unit, take a note of examples that ●
It
should
be
supported
by
empirical
evidence
illustrate these three concepts. and
be
based
on
this
evidence.
Think of other similar examples from such areas of ●
It
should
be
falsiable,
that
is,
it
should
be
knowledge as human sciences, natural sciences and possible
for
the
theory
or
study
to
be
proven
mathematics. wrong.
2
R e s e a R c h
he
Exercise
had
taught
(addition,
at
the
following
research
questions
one
that
you
nd
Do
children
shows
who
become
watch
more
more
violent
Does
3.
Are
extrasensory
hoof
violent?
perception
of
their
attracted
to
men
public
Is
by
the
They
smell
experienced
heterosexual
and
Are
breathing
test
differently
What
gay
effective
Are
in
people
do
people
movies
experience
in
a
when
cinema?
you
were
to
would
such
they
the
arranged
who
marriages
married
conduct
question
you
as
go
who
would
clues
a
by
be
the
it?
you
study
picked,
Think
about
participants
required
results
was
that
arrive
a
later
What
and
to
how
how
be,
you
would
if
are
the
of
von
interested
partially
Osten,
Hans
Commission).
concluded
So
that
Hans’s
the
abilities
phenomenal!
investigation
Pfungst,
It
a
psychologist,
demonstrated
mental
that
by
was
operations
Hans
very
such
as
responsive
to
unsuspecting
conclusions,
Pfungst
humans.
alternative
successively
hypotheses.
give
the
and
horse
the
hints
or
questioner
clues?
in
spectators,
tasks
but
the
horse
the
continued
solve
correctly
anyway.
would What
if
von
Osten
himself
gives
the
horse
some
ensure Another
questioner
was
used
during
believable.
twentieth
evolved
interest.
lot
trials,
but
the
horse’s
performance
did
worsen.
What
if
something
answer
Blinders
turned
out
Did
were
that
the
so
or
know
not
out
that
that
questioner
of
the
to
horse
test
Hans
consciously
though?
the
the
let
hoof
it
answer
to
Hans
the
horse
either
the
could
taps)
was
all.
Additional
questioner
Clever
hypothesis.
So,
after
the
feel
wearing
of
time.
gives
can
this
was
number
the
questioner
answer,
organized
did
(the
questioners
correct
used
most
the
the
and
when
responses
incorrect
in
in
away
know
trials
were
knew
questions.
only
It
answer
Wilhelm von Osten and Clever Hans
Darwin’s
of?
as
horse
horse
to
turned
capable
the
of
of
the
least
a
was
what
4.
very
the
fraud.
Oskar
spectators
something
humans
Osten
gained
committee
and
perform
these
tested
were
was
Von
and
details
would
do,
you
at
blinders
early
a
results.
absence
It
the
(called
tests
provided
number
that?
Charles
times.
independent
by
but
were
correct
of
or
tapping
how
3.
In
of
by
to
not
Figure 1.1
respond
special
not
actually
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▲
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recognized
different
clues?
that
would
choice?
research
that
about
your
results
some
verbally
happier
2.
measure
asked
frequently
of
another
out
not
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series
multiplication,
1. If
be
number
horse
ofcially
tested than
understand
anxiety?
horror
people
problems
division,
for
To 7.
Hans
Germany
a
However,
relationships?
exercises
emotions
watching
arithmetic
in
could
6.
and
could
attention.
in
yielded reducing
spell
certain
the
ran
carried 5.
and
performance
body?
abuse
solve
multiplication,
exist?
were 4.
a
exhibited
formed
women
read,
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writing,
his
TV
of 2.
to
interesting: in
1.
Hans
and German.
pick
p s y c h o l o g y
subtraction,
fractions),
Look
i n
in
from
case
Hans
was
so
animals
what
horse.
the
Its
teacher,
answer
are
be
at
they
a
lot
Wilhelm
claimed
This
to
if
sparked
owner
public
must
exactly
Hans
questions
the
correctly
in
when
the
questioner
knew
advance.
inuence
the
intelligence:
Clever
mathematics
under
evolution,
animal
of
a
of
animals,
intelligent,
The
a
century,
theory
the
that
changed
the
the
questioner.
observations,
who
knew
more
focus
tense
correct
it
the
as
answer
posture
and
When
was
hoof
which
facial
research
Pfungst
concluded
answers
the
of
had
a
the
horse
out
his
questioners
tendency
be
expressions
carried
that
tapping
would
from
to
become
approached
reected
without
in
the
their
them
3
1
RE SE AR CH
realizing
horse
it.
was
detection
a
was
not
This
was
using.
of
survival
certainly
M E T H O D O LO G Y
small
skill
was
probably
This
makes
postural
for
horses
clever,
but
mathematical
the
clue
sense
changes
in
the
the
is
wild.
nature
(Goodwin,
that
the
evolutionarily,
important
Clever
of
his
as
as
Hans
scientically),
but
effects
processes
So,
mental
we
world
can
as
infer
we
can
observe
have
something
on
the
indirect
one’s
about
the
behaviour.
mental
well.
abilities
2010)!
ATL skills: Thinking
Brainstorm some behavioural indicators of the following:
ATL skills: Thinking ●
attention
●
anxiety
●
embarrassment.
How does Pfungst ’s investigation illustrate the
concepts of empirical evidence, falsication and
replication?
To what extent do you think is it possible to use behavioural
indicators to infer these “internal” phenomena? Would the Von
Osten
himself,
however,
was
never
convinced
inference be reliable? of
Pfungst’s
the
horse
was
rigorous
and
as
one
before.
of
human
experiments,
the
the
if
he
It
carefully
artifacts—results
effect
of
points
unforeseen
was
as
much
Throughout
for
“behaviour”
designing
in
psychology
recognized
controlled,
that
exhibit
scientically,
methodology
sciences.
to
gaining
Nonetheless,
starting
not
continued
Germany,
experimental
other
produce
and
throughout
popularity
this
ndings
are
that
whole
associated
with
while
aware
used
factors.
story
shows
tested
how
claims
scientically,
that
can
is,
systematic
evidence-based
in
a
one
hypothesis
rigorous
fashion.
investigation
rather
than
Note
attempted
support
to
another
also
how
falsify
that
and
the
the
in
study
of
mental
investigation
processes.
requires
an
of
to
research,
that
is,
general
as
a
means
of
sense,
you
of
need
to
“behaviour”
as
So
an
is
umbrella
sometimes
be
often
term
you
to
This
mental
is
not
processes
exactly
as
accurate,
theory
that
specify
the
denition
human
because
an
of
behaviour
research
integral
with
part
of
psychology
or
mental
non-human
psychology.
does
not
processes.
animals
Since
This
is
humans
A just
a
stage
in
the
continuous
process
of
empirical
relying
data
term
references
the
study
of
animals
may
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on understanding
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psychological.
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research.
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psychology
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of
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self-report
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of
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researcher
p s y c h o l o g y
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stress
weight
multiple
loss.
operationalized;
creativity
in
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ways
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the
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q
good
operationalization
essence
of
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observable All
research
methods
used
in
psychology
can
as
either
quantitative
or
in
quantitative
numbers.
usually
that
to
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aim
arrive
at
characterize
individuals
like
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the
comes
in
of
quantitative
numerically
behaviour
(that
aim
of
is,
the
of
universal
natural
the
is
the
directly
measurable.
examples
in
this
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book,
you
it
is
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often
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in
makes
research
a
in
outstanding.
is
laws
groups
laws).
that
form
research
expressed
large
sciences
captures
yet
qualitative.
psychology of
reliably
throughout
creative Data
and
that
and
be
see categorized
construct
of
is
much
which
ATL skills: Research and communication
it
In small groups think of operationalizations of the has
been
the
ideal
for
a
long
time
to
have
a
set
following constructs: belief in God, asser tiveness, of
simple
rules
that
describe
the
behaviour
throughout
the
universe
of
all
shyness, pain, love, friendship, prejudice, tolerance to material
objects
(think
uncer tainty, intelligence, wisdom. about
for
laws
of
example).
orientation
gravity
In
on
in
classic
philosophy
deriving
Newtonian
of
science
universal
physics,
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such
laws
is
called
the
Discuss each other ’s operationalizations and outline
nomothetic
approach .
their strengths and limitations.
Quantitative
A
variable
values”)
research
(“something
is
any
operates
that
can
characteristic
with
take
that
is
variables.
on
varying
objectively There
registered
and
quantied.
Since
●
deals
that
be
an
with
are
a
not
lot
of
“internal”
directly
important
characteristics
observable,
operationalized
rst.
distinction
For
are
three
types
they
this
between
need
reason,
to
there’s
constructs
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its
and
simplest
variable
(DV),
(IV)
for
is
example,
memory,
any
theoretically
violence,
attention,
dened
aggression,
love,
anxiety.
construct,
expected
to
you
it
give
from
it
a
other
denition
similar
Such
As
a
denitions
rule
example,
if
you
they
are
called
have
based
cannot
constructs
“constructed”
important
is
the
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one
DV
as
the
IV
changes.
is
For
on
to
investigate
depression,
the
you
effect
might
assign
participants
to
two
groups:
the
dissimilar)
for
them
group
will
receive
psychotherapy
on
be
the
control
group
will
not.
After
a
while
directly might
measure
the
level
of
depression
by
a conducting
reason—we
IV
researcher.
want
psychotherapy
you
observed:
potentially
variable
which
(and
are
constructs
dependent
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in
independent
dene
while
theories.
the
change
experimental
constructs.
other
experiment
one
attraction,
To
randomly
delineates
research.
variable,
of
a
one
controlled.
by
The
includes
and
the
are
manipulated
construct
quantitative
studies .
form
while
variables
operationalizations.
A
of
psychology
based
a
standardized
clinical
interview
on (diagnosis)
with
each
of
them.
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this
case
theory. the
To
enable
research,
operationalized.
means
aggression
insulting
swear
For
you
it
Facebook
in
terms
example,
might
comments
words
need
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expressing
behaviour.
constructs
per
posts”.
per
100
To
to
look
of
of
a
construct
in
or
verbal
number
“the
the
operationalize
psychotherapy.
changing
depression;
of
recent
anxiety
different
that
of
number
most
by
is
it
standardized
observable
“the
hour”
IV
be
operationalize
at
words
to
IV
you
in
a
the
only
in
is
yes
manipulate
or
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operationalized
two
in
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method
value:
diagnostic
the
change
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its
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the
is
that
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why
you
“caused”
the
allows
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may
a
the
DV
through
procedure.
groups,
The
the
is
the
DV
is
conclude
change
experiment
is
the
cause-and-effect
inferences.
5
1
RE SE AR CH
M E T H O D O LO G Y
classmates
or
even
by
observation
in
a
natural
Other variables: X
setting)
and
the
per
spent
average
number
of
hours
controlled
day
watching
violent
television
Cause-and-effect
shows.
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you
can
correlate
these
two
Independent inference Dependent variable variable (IV):
variables
using
obtained
a
a
formula.
Suppose
you
(DV): changes manipulated
means
more
Other variables:
large
that
time
positive
there’s
an
a
correlation.
trend
adolescent
in
the
spends
This
data:
the
watching
X
violent
controlled
is.
▲
Figure 1.2
shows,
However,
Correlational
studies
that
are
the
is
want
to
(there
how
are
and
establish
violent
much
television
time
effect
inferences
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you
behaviour
(by
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or
they
is
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of
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may
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relationship
their
a
could
and
low
violent
sample
ratings
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make
he
or
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could
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third
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to
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on
surface”
fact
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violence
of
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that
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observe
of
direction
popular,
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that
that—“co-relation”,
from
it
studies.
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one
the
case
violent
the
television
and
you
the
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self-esteem)
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know
be
be
who
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even
correlational
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not
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violent
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not
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adolescents
watch
adolescents
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assumption).
you
watching
by
violence
any
between
if
recruit
measure
in
manipulate
relationship
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you
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not
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shows,
adolescents
no
the
if
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from
does
quantied.
between
of
different
measured
them
studies.
researcher
variables
are
more
cannot
Cause-and-eect inference
variables,
●
the
you
is
one
violent
television.
just
variable
changes.
ATL skills: Communication and social
In small groups come up with results of ctitious studies that would demonstrate either correlation or causation. Here
are two examples.
1.
In a group of adults we measured their attitudes to horror lms and the number of siblings they have. We found that
the more siblings you have, the more you like horror lms.
2.
We told one group of astronauts that their mission would star t in a month and the other group that the mission
would star t in a year. We measured anxiety and found that it was higher in the group of astronauts who expected the
mission to star t in a month.
As you go through your list of ctitious studies, the other groups will have to say whether the study shows correlation or
causation.
●
Descriptive
studies.
In
relationships
between
variables
investigated,
separately.
quantitative
survey.
We
support
and
we
answers
studies
are
a
to
are
variables
would
current
in
used
used
deeper”
be
in
in
into
are
are
a
the
approached
public
of
opinion
the
“Do
question.
of
Descriptive
to
research
in-depth
study
entails
measured
realm
and
of
of
human
meanings.
such
data
interview
conduct
of
on.
approaches.
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but
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what
the
as
data
analysis
achieve
of
use
interviews
of
a
and
degree
than
quantitative
science
or
texts:
notes,
deeper
through
philosophy
be
the
makes
involves
is
can
into
form
observational
of
focus
interpretations
research
in
main
phenomenon.
quantied
methods
comes
transcripts,
usually
beyond
and
experiences,
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can
different.
particular
Qualitative
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subjectivity,
we
a
going
collection
observations.
is
of
objectively
so
before
an
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they
and
phenomenon
specics.
you
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distribution
sociology
a
is
example,
psychology
of
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studies
not
descriptive
(for
the
particular
often
a
policies
interested
this
of
questions
investigation
“delving
6
study
sometimes
broad
the
example
ask
the
are
and
An
descriptive
such
R e s e a R c h
orientation
case
or
on
an
in-depth
phenomenon
analysis
(without
Parameter
Quantitative
Aim
Nomothetic
applicable
of
trying
a
to
particular
universally
derive
idiographic
research
approach:
i n
p s y c h o l o g y
applicable
Qualitative
derive
universally
Idiographic
laws
laws)
is
called
the
approach .
research
approach:
understanding
of
a
in-depth
particular
case
or
phenomenon
Data
Numbers
Texts
Focus
Behavioural
manifestations
Human
(operationalizations)
Objectivity
More
objective
eliminated
▲
Table 1.1
this
researcher
the
studied
is
More
reality)
in
research
chapter
methods
that
we
will
discuss
for
the
subjective
the
studied
conclusions
Similarly,
are:
people ●
interpretations,
(the
researcher
is
included
reality)
Quantitative versus qualitative research
Qualitative
in
(the
from
experiences,
meanings
if
you
and
you
study
you
will
be
political
recruit
your
able
to
views
sample
make.
of
by
unemployed
asking
a
small
observation
●
interview
number
of
possibly
friends
a ●
focus
●
case
●
content
limited
participants
of
sample
to
bring
friends),
because
their
you
friends
might
people
of
end
(and
up
similar
with
political
group
views
are
more
likely
to
be
friends
with
each
other.
study
Credibility
refers
of
can
to
the
degree
to
which
the
results
analysis.
is
the
study
closely
study
be
linked
do
not
to
trusted
bias,
reect
to
reect
because
reality
if
the
the
there
reality.
results
was
of
some
It
the
sort
of
s , rb, rzb bias
b rr
Sampling,
are
some
research
These
but
credibility,
of
the
study
they
can
even
with
express
way
A
make
to
these
So
the
very
its
of
down
sciences,
terms
research.
you
start
as
of
individuals
taking
of
the
hypothesis,
bias
with
the
research
nding
There
is
and
are
recruiting
different
important
limitations
study.
see
(in
if
For
to
as
school
sampling
be
aware
if
you
only
will
the
for
the
their
aim
of
the
your
sample
important
the
is
to
teenagers
teenagers
neighbourhood,
have
of
research
in
to
the
in
a
controlled
study
is
and
qualitative
and
bias
way
them
in
or
of
research
distinctly
to
contradicting
approaches
sources
and
credibility
high.
different,
their
potential
knowledge
be
think
supporting
that
eliminated,
believed
aim
researchers
conrming
ignore
our
the
they
Or
while
responses
guess
that
to.
notice
indication
best
researcher
interview,
actually
unintentionally
in
some
of
the
Quantitative
to
credibility
although
they
aspects.
Generalizability
it
and
results
aggression
may
interested
is
an
a
of
study.
and
strengths
affect
in
that
interviewee’s
selectively
there
are
the
expecting
being
If
“traps”
example,
respond
is
may
and
of
part
process
techniques,
with
criminal
technique
of
may
the
correlates
a
is
individuals
sampling
but
in
Sampling
sampling
example,
anxiety
general),
one
study.
lot
believes
and
were,
abilities,
a
participants
study
evidence.
are
For
researcher
overlap in
into.
true,
research
concepts.
group
be
of
and
quantitative
Let’s
walk
evidence
to
that
concepts
There
researcher
to
the
it.
themselves,
by
sometimes
important
in
a
quality.
differently
sets
is
bias
social
researchers,
it
the
describe
of
for
overarching
broken
and
to
judgment
different
ideas.
qualitative
is
a
used
universal
qualitative
are
overarching
sample
are
approached
both
they
compared
the
be
and
same
understand
the
and
distinctly
the
generalizability
characteristics
characteristics
quantitative
can
in
from
your
implications
the
results
the
sample
itself.
of
the
and
the
Sometimes,
research,
sample
you
to
a
research
study
of
is
the
extent
be
applied
settings
to
used
in
group
your
conducted
the
study
people
is
to
from
the
(called
discover
Sometimes
in
which
beyond
ndings
of
aim
behaviour.
in
to
quantitative
generalize
wider
because
laws
to
can
especially
want
much
“population”)
universal
refers
study
articial
the
settings
7
1
RE SE AR CH
(for
example,
want
way
any
in
to
in
their
case,
the
which
a
believe
M E T H O D O LO G Y
laboratory
people
natural
setting
generalizability
interpretation
quantitative
approach
experiment),
that
of
is
will
in
an
daily
of
the
is
in
ways
these
time
distinctly
Overview
credibility
and
Quantitative
Overarching
Experimental
studies
gives
concepts
As
time
read
better.
so
an
to
overview
characterize
credibility
correlational
you
concepts
to
you
used
generalizability,
experimental,
general
generalizability,
below
main
research.
in
studies
different.
Sampling,
table
the
sampling,
In
aspect
research
ndings
of
same
too.
Again,
qualitative
generalizability
life
The
you
the
important
ndings.
and
but
behave
that
on,
you
Refer
you
to
place
and
and
bias
qualitative
will
understand
this
table
them
from
clearly
in
the
framework.
table:
bias
in
qualitative
and
research
quantitative
Qualitative
Correlational
research
research
studies
concepts
Sampling
Random
Same
Quota
sampling
Stratied
Purposive
Self-selected
Theoretical
sampling
Opportunity
Snowball
sampling
sampling
Convenience
Generalizability
External
validity:
Population
Construct –
Population
–
Ecological
validity
Sample-to-population
validity
generalization
validity
Case-to-case
Credibility
Internal
what
validity:
extent
some
is
by
variables:
No
to
the
the
other
Controlling
keeping
IV
and
variable?
confounding
eliminating
constant
in
special
used:
DV
or
term
“validity”
“credibility”
Credibility
and
can
be
used
interchangeably
Credibility
bias
is
high
if
=
trustworthiness.
no
occurred
extent
do
reect
the
the
Iterative
internal
validity:
On
the
level
rapport
–
History
–
Maturation
on
the
bias:
of
Selection
variables:
checks
descriptions
Participant
of
measurement –
a
questioning
Reexivity
Thick
to
what
Triangulation
Credibility
Threats
To
ndings
reality?
Establishing
all
conditions
Bias
generalization
validity
inuenced
not
generalization
validity Theoretical
Construct
sampling
–
Acquiescence
–
Social
–
Dominant
–
Sensitivity
depends
method
desirability
of
respondent
measurement
–
Testing
effect On
–
the
level
of
Researcher
Instrumentation interpretation
–
Regression
to
–
Experimental
–
Experimenter
–
Demand
the
mean
mortality
ndings:
–
characteristics
Curvilinear
relationships
bias
–
The
third
bias:
of
variable
–
Conrmation
–
Leading
–
Question
–
Sampling
–
Biased
bias
questions
order
bias
problem
–
Spurious
correlations
▲
8
Table 1.2
bias
bias
reporting
Quantitative research: the experiment
Inquiry questions
●
Why
do
experiments
allow
cause-and-effect
●
How
inferences?
of
can
ndings
people
be
from
a
small
generalized
to
an
group
entire
population? ●
How
can
bias
in
experimental
research
be
●
prevented?
How
can
experiments
be
designed?
What you will learn in this section
●
Confounding
variables
External
validity:
population
and
ecological ●
Sampling
in
the
experiment
●
Bias
in
experimental
research:
threats
to
Representativeness internal
Random
validity
sampling Selection
Stratied
sampling History
Opportunity
sampling
Self-selected
sampling
Maturation
Testing
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Experimental
effect
designs Instrumentation
Independent
measures
design Regression
Matched
pairs
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Repeated
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order
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characteristics
counterbalancing
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during
Suppose
For
person
the
neutral,
hypothesize
are
the
random.
decision-making.
participants
the
not
at
non-
experimental
that
participants
somehow
to if
be
disproportionally
subconsciously
can
in
condition experiment,
is
designing
way
need
the
they
This
will
You
should
point
that
deception
means
to
of
example,
conceal
anxiety
refers
which
characteristics,
control
same
ways
for
would
This
average
drop
a
the
behaviour
because fact
a
groups.
characteristics .
in
purpose
expects.
probability
is
not
Demand
in
assume
become
anxiety
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than
such
interpretation.
intervention.
mortality .
which
two
counteract
other
would
demand 7.
to
in
their
probability
will
the
the
the
conditions
the
who
naturally
the
anxious.
reduction
same
we
the
counter-measure
in
way
situation
group
and
we
to
without
less
a
80–100
if
issue,
students
8.
you
session
precisely,
may
training
students
students
even
appears
as
is
students
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an
anxious
more
of
training
again.
they
issue
equivalent
scores
in
example,
these
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were
more
issues
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reduction
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anxious
that
trials.
sample
(for
your
anxious
will
a
experiment,
now.
Ethical
become
effectiveness,
anxiety
anxious
to
questionnaire
scale).
extremely
less
that
score
effects
become
its
select
conduct
their
testing
anxiety
test
and
tendency
subsequent
anxiety
largest
measure
that
To
an
students
have
on
designed
administer
of
statistical
groups
the
refuse
out,
methodological
two
(sensitivity)
mortality have
a
group
drop
group.
by
several
a
reliable extreme
control
the
that
experimental
presents
even
approved
and
and
possible
an
becomes
score
be
participants
quite
Suppose
so
represented concern
not
is
in
in
the
it
participation
variable interesting
would
committee).
equivalent 6.
among
issues;
continue
the
observers.
distress
ethical
to
well:
possible
e x p e R i m e n t
participants
aside,
standardize
as
a
ethics
t h e
create
raises
such
short
lunch
crowded.
try
in
behaviours.
the
much
groups
group
tired
during
break
more
should
and
more
groups
conditions
comparison
morning
important
the
one
observations
accurate
the
might
R e s e a R c h :
Rats
but
students)
(1963).
for
were
the
In
their
split
laboratory
were
“maze-bright”
told
that
and
17
1
RE SE AR CH
the
other
M E T H O D O LO G Y
one
difference
assistants
in
had
standardized
rats
were
learning
be
an
rats,
was
to
follow
on
maze
identical
and
genetic.
a
their
task.
study
results
“maze-dull”
was
was
showed
that
the
rats
signicantly
the
which
so-called
both
of
been
identical
that
from
Rosenthal
told
if
which
Fode
would
of
had
is
from
The
have
assistants
rats
bias
and
experiment.
laboratory
group
designs
introduce
participants
the
and
the
could
the
conducting
double-blind
to
double-blind
information
people
study
in
supposed
with
using
where
withheld
in
performance
conducted
is
this
and
procedure
This
performed
that
Laboratory
rigorous
experimental
tested
the
but
“maze-dull”
ability
been
had
which
not
label.
labelled
worse
Exercise than
the
ones
concluded
labelled
that
the
“maze-bright”.
result
was
an
It
was
artifact:
it Once
was
caused
by
experimenter
bias
rather
again
leaf
description
any
genuine
differences
between
the
groups
Post-experiment
investigations
of
any
experimenter
To
bias
was
not
intentional
The
results
were
what
induced
by
handled
it,
in
the
assistants
slightly
for
the
rats.
handled
longer
these
way
For
rats
and
than
laboratory
example,
stress
for
was
realizing
rats
●
If
for
extent
internal
morereduced
“maze-dull”
against
to
was
one
this
of
validity?
credibility
rats.
experimenter
you
more
of
do
not
experimental
the
sources
What
the
have
information
even
of
study
threat
does
it
tell
you
study?
read
the
enough
on
the
original
detail,
study
nd
online,
or
article.
A
●
counter-measure
a
assistants
without
“maze-bright”
so
nd
subtle
about differences
and
study.
or
to conscious.
book
revealed
susceptible that
this
experimental
of
●
rats.
through
than
Present
the
results
of
your
analysis
in
class.
bias
ATL skills: Self-management
Athabasca University has a great learning resource on threats to internal validity. One tutorial consists
of two par ts, where par t 1 is the theoretical background and denitions and par t 2 is a practical
exercise involving the analysis of 36 hypothetical experiments.
If you want to practise identifying potential sources of bias in experiments, you can access the tutorial
here: https://psych.athabascau.ca/open/validity/index.php
the
results,
and
then
model
a
testing
situation
and
Q-r r r compare
r
is
Quasi-experiments
experiments
not
done
in
that
randomly.
inter-group
meaning
be
groups
at
cannot
sure
the
differences
a
difference
Suppose
test
of
an
in
your
to
school
test
anxiety
two
one
allocation
is
the
of
major
the
hypothesis
You
(anxious
that
This
An
and
a
of
of
be
divide
be
the
by
sample
administer
sample
non-anxious)
in
to
have
line
“anxiety
strictly
For
is
is
that
linked
speaking
we
test
To
“inuence”
this
the
so
high
we
this
DV
we
variable
it
is
not
test
not
Pre-existing
cannot
of
able
able
that
it
is
performance.
to
conclude
performance”,
be
be
differs
anxiety
and
test
be
is
does
that
levels
will
test
study
possible
attention,
inuences
to
in
study.
example,
will
inuences
and
used,
with
that
IV
researcher
only
unstable
attention
bottom
in
are
the
students
the
IV
anxiety
groups.
school
tend
levels)
the
is
The
to
say
but
“anxiety
performance”.
inuences
obvious
to
that
two
However,
anxiety
two
actually
variables.
opportunity
would
that
high
The
accompanied
intuitively
has
manipulate
the
also
we
comparison
anxiety
sure
in
a
because
(it
differences
prex
pre-existing
that
an
really
is
cause-and-effect
is
confounding
is
hypothesis
is
limitation
may
have
students.
groups
anxiety
performance.
performance.
“true”
pre-existing
“Quasi”
study:
variable
from
into
equivalence
questionnaire,
groups
is
made.
unexpected
this
some
used.
design
be
start
performance.
high
way
18
in
of
different
Instead
The
quasi-experimental
cannot
the
difference
“almost”.
inferences
are
test
into
based
on
test
the
experiment
to
would
manipulate
anxiety?
One
randomly
the
be
IV .
How
example
into
two
hypothesis
required,
is
can
and
true
we
you
splitting
groups
a
so
would
have
manipulate
participants
telling
one
of
the
Q u a n t i t a t i v e
groups
that
college
applications
these
in
they
results
the
should
would
(Note
ethical
creates
that
issues
since
distress
group.
such
it
an
of
their
Anticipation
increase
Then
the
major
many
of
The
anxiety
test
experiment
involves
among
results
today.
probably
experimental
given.
expect
later
can
would
R e s e a R c h :
have
deception
and
participants.)
in
a
internal
examples
of
pre-existing
differences
gender,
cultural
background
and
of
experimental
implies
a
groups
based
quasi-experiment.
“true”
experiment
cannot
be
on
is
impossible
how
do
you
experiments
to
manipulate
manipulate
are
age
conducted
the
or
IV
the
way
they
(for
gender?)
so
quasi-
on
IV ,
resemble
“true”
are
of
the
more
possible
like
(supercially)
experiments,
inferences
correlational
train
come
to
researchers
lower
experiment
(1969)
pretended
subway
to
and
observed
help.
To
if
other
manipulate
were
carrying
a
cane
(the
while
others
were
carrying
a
bottle
condition).
experiments,
conducted
here
the
in
just
like
participants’
researcher
has
eld
natural
no
experiments,
environment,
control
over
the
quasi-
but
(essentially)
IV
occurred
naturally.
Ecological
validity
in
in natural
terms
Piliavin’s
researchers
subway
condition)
drunk
IV—the experiments
a
would
some
Natural
are
designed
eld
over
is
example,
justied.
are
a
there
because
but In
of
control
so
these
(the it
variables
example
and
the
experiments
less
Sometimes cane
a
An
to
is
controlled.
higher
occupation.
the variables
compared
limitation
be
is
are
passengers Formation
as
Rodin
which
cannot
experiments
confounding
Piliavin,
collapse age,
variables
The
validity.
in
e x p e R i m e n t
eld
validity
potentially
is
of
laboratory.
study Other
extraneous
strength
ecological
be
t h e
experiments
is
an
advantage
and
internal
they validity
is
control
over
a
disadvantage
owing
to
there
being
less
studies.
advantage
be
F r r
IV ,
used
for
of
confounding
natural
when
it
example,
is
variables.
experiments
unethical
comparing
to
Another
is
that
they
manipulate
rates
of
can
the
development
r in
Field
life
but
experiments
setting.
since
Type
The
are
researcher
participants
of
conducted
are
experiment
in
a
manipulates
in
their
real-
the
natural
Independent
orphans
stayed
IV ,
setting
in
that
the
manipulate
were
adopted
orphanage.
the
IV ,
all
and
Since
natural
in
those
researchers
experiments
who
do
not
are
quasi-experiments.
variable
Settings
Can
we
infer
causation?
True
laboratory
Manipulated
by
the
researcher
Laboratory
Yes
Manipulated
by
the
researcher
Real-life
Yes
experiment
True
eld
experiment
(but
there
confounding
Natural
experiment
Quasi-experiment
Manipulated
Not
by
the
manipulated;
nature
Real-life
pre-existing
difference
▲
may
be
variables)
No
Laboratory
or
No
real-life
Table 1.6
Exercise
Go
online
and
nd
examples
of
quasi-experiments,
natural
experiments
and
eld
experiments
in
psychology.
19
Quantitative research: correlational studies
Inquiry questions
●
What
does
correlate
●
What
it
mean
with
should
each
be
for
two
variables
●
to
Can
other?
avoided
two
correlating
variables
be
unrelated
in
fact?
when
interpreting
●
Can
correlations?
correlations
show
curvilinear
relationships?
What you will learn in this section
●
What
is
a
Effect
correlation?
Curvilinear
size
Spurious
Statistical
●
signicance
Sampling
relationships
correlations
and
generalizability
in
correlational
studies ●
Limitations
of
correlational
studies
●
Causation
The
third
cannot
be
variable
Credibility
you
are
interested
relationship studies
are
different
in
that
no
variable
is
manipulated
researcher,
so
causation
cannot
be
or
more
variables
are
a
group
measured
of
and
between
them
is
in
investigating
between
anxiety
and
if
there
is
a
aggressiveness
of
students.
students
For
and
this
you
measure
recruit
anxiety
a
with
self-report
questionnaire
and
aggressiveness
the through
relationship
studies
inferred. a
Two
correlational
by sample
the
in
from in
experiments
bias
problem
W rr?
Correlational
and
inferred
observation
during
breaks.
Yo u
get
mathematically two
scores
for
each
participant:
anxiety
and
quantied. aggressiveness.
The
way
it
graphically
is
done
can
through
be
illustrated
scatter
plots.
Suppose
values
from
graphically
0
Suppose
to
100.
both
The
represented
with
100
)sixa-y( ssenevisserggA
Correlation
50
Jessica
70 0
100
Anxiety (x-axis)
▲
20
Figure 1.7
Scatter plot
scores
whole
a
can
sample
scatter
take
can
plot.
be
Q u a n t i t a t i v e
Each
dot
person.
the
on
scores
example,
x-axis
is
50
plot
the
The
scatter
obtained
Jessica’s
y-axis
looks
like
a
between
is
two
of
represents
each
each
and
on
of
her
“cloud”
a
space
variables.
is
70
linear
straight
line
that
best
Graphically
a
can
A
the
scatter
In
the
example
Y,
we
probably
and
is
vice
we
a
link
Y
increases,
high
also
that
score
got
the
Y
high
is
inuences
X
X.
variable
score
where
two
that
increases,
on
does
name
we
“co-
not
inuences
All
X,
on
the
variables
correlation
say
between
a
This
from:
cannot
that
X
a
versa.
comes
Remember
say
as
got
s t u d i e s
imply
Y,
know
nor
is
that
them.
is correlation
coefcient
can
vary
from
−1
to
“cloud” +1.
in
person
there
correlation
this
tendency:
causation:
relationship
approximates
a
individual
“correlation”
A a
is
an
relate”.
the
variables.
c o R R e l a t i o n a l
variable
scatter
in
if
that
For
(the
aggressiveness
participants
of
so
you
variables.
whole
two
there
one
give
on
The
the
measure
the
score
of
of
dot
anxiety
coordinate).
two-dimensional
correlation
for
score
coordinate)
(the
plot
coordinates
R e s e a R c h :
The
scatter
plots
below
demonstrate
some
plot. examples:
because
the
above,
cloud
of
the
correlation
participants
is
is
positive
oblong
and
Positive correlation
Zero correlation
sixa-y
sixa-y
sixa-y x-axis
▲
A
Negative correlation
Figure 1.8
positive
x-axis
x-axis
Examples of correlations
correlation
demonstrates
the
tendency Correlation
for
one
variable
to
increase
as
the
other
effect
increases.
A
negative
correlation
inverse
tendency:
when
one
size
Interpretation
(r)
demonstrates Less
the
coefcient
variable
than
0.10
Negligible
variable
0.10–0.29 increases
steeper
A
the
the
perfect
line
other
line,
variable
the
stronger
correlation
with
the
slope
decreases.
of
of
1
45
(or
the
relationship.
−1)
is
degrees:
a
as
straight
one
0.30–0.49
Medium
0.50
Large
(or
to
zero
that
tells
us
variable
like
a
a
unit,
by
is
a
relationship
fact
X
one
decreases)
close
no
by
exactly
at
scored
about
Graphically
circle
or
a
other
one
line.
between
person
nothing
Y.
the
It
variable
unit.
A
shows
the
two
high
his
or
such
or
there
variables:
low
her
on
is
the
variable
score
scatter
larger
Table 1.7
Eect sizes for correlation coecients
increases
correlation
that
and
variable
▲ increases
Small
The
plots
on
The
is
effect
size
important
coefcient.
are
more
rectangle.
obtained
the
that
by
turn
a
a
zero?
only
is
the
It
parameter
that
In
level
of
other
you
sample
a
will
and
of
statistical
depends
on
this
shows
size
words,
the
the
has
what
replicate
the
that
correlation
signicance
correlation
chance.
different
to
the
interpreting
Statistical
probability
with
not
Another
signicance.
likelihood
is
when
the
study
correlation
sample
been
is
will
size:
e z with
The
absolute
(the
number
How
do
There
you
are
Cohen’s
size
of
value
from
know
widely
(1988)
of
−1
if
the
to
a
correlation
1)
is
accepted
in
the
is
social
to
effect
small
guidelines
suggestions
correlations
called
correlation
coefcient
based
interpret
sciences.
or
size.
large?
on
the
effect
small
obtained
has
not
With
samples
been
large
reliable
and
genuine
you
is
a
if
due
it
to
be
more
product
reection
of
a
of
be
is
sure
that
relatively
random
correlation
can
not
cannot
even
obtained
samples
correlation
a
you
correlation,
chance.
estimates
condent
random
relationship
an
large,
are
that
more
the
chance
between
but
the
21
1
RE SE AR CH
two
that
variables
a
is
the
chance
due
to
can
than
been
be
The
obtained
estimated.
that
random
than
population.
has
probability
More
Less
in
correlation
random
The
M E T H O D O LO G Y
the
probability
due
to
Again,
result
are
conventional
considered
to
Notation
Interpretation
points
when
results
signicant”
or
are
not.
p
=
n.s.
Result
is
non-signicant
p