IAA Reports 55: Bet Dagan. Intermediate Bronze Age and Mamluk-Period Cemeteries. 2004–2005 Excavations 9789654064514, 9654064510

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IAA Reports, No. 55

Bet Dagan

Intermediate Bronze Age and Mamluk-Period Cemeteries 2004–2005 Excavations

Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

With contributions by Guy Bar-Oz, Noa Raban-Gerstel and Reuven Yeshurun

ISRAEL ANTIQUITIES AUTHORITY JERUSALEM 2014

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IAA Reports Publications of the Israel Antiquities Authority Editor-in-Chief: Judith Ben-Michael Series and Production Editor: Ann Roshwalb Hurowitz Volume Editor: Nava Panitz-Cohen Back Cover: Copper artifacts (photographer, Clara Amit) Cover Design, Production, Layout and Typesetting: Ann Buchnick Abuhav Illustrations: Natalya Zak Printing: Art Plus Ltd., Jerusalem ©2014, The Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem POB 586, Jerusalem 91004 ISBN 978-965-406-451-4 H,6%1 www.antiquities.org.il

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To my wife, Tami Yanai

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Contents

Abbreviations

vi

Foreword

vii

Chapter 1: Introduction

Eli Yannai

1

Chapter 2: the Tombs and Their Contents

Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

9

Chapter 3: The Pottery

Eli Yannai

121

Chapter 4: THE Beads and Copper artifacts

Eli Yannai

173

Chapter 5: The Faunal Remains

Reuven Yeshurun, Noa GerstelRaban and Guy Bar-Oz

181

Chapter 6: The Anthropological Remains

Yossi Nagar

191

Chapter 7: Burial customs and Practices

Eli Yannai

203

Chapter 8: the burials

Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

217

Chapter 9: The Anthropological Remains

Yossi Nagar

237

Part I: The Intermediate Bronze Age CemeterY

Part II: The Mamluk-period Cemetery

241

References Appendix: List of the Intermediate Bronze Age Tombs and their contents

Bet-Dagan-chap-opening-pages.indd 5

Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

247

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vi

Abbreviations

AASOR ADAJ ‘Atiqot (ES) ‘Atiqot (HS) BAR Int. S. BASOR BSAE ESI HA HA–ESI IAA Reports IEJ JARCE JPOS NEA OIP PEFA PEQ QDAP RB SIMA ZDPV

Bet-Dagan-chap-opening-pages.indd 6

Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan ‘Atiqot (English Series) ‘Atiqot (Hebrew Series) British Archaeological Reports, International Series Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research British School of Archaeology in Egypt Excavations and Surveys in Israel Hadashot Arkheologiyot (Hebrew) Hadashot Arkheologiyot–Excavations and Surveys in Israel Israel Antiquities Authority Reports Israel Exploration Journal Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society Near Eastern Archaeology Oriental Institute Publications Exploration Fund Annual Palestine Exploration Quarterly Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities of Palestine Revue Biblique Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins

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vii

Foreword

The excavations at Bet Dagan were conducted during two seasons, the first a probe carried out in September and October 2004, and the second, a salvage excavation conducted from January to March 2005 (IAA Permit No. A-4243). The excavation was initiated in wake of damage to antiquities during construction of the infrastructure for a new neighborhood. The excavation was directed by Eli Yannai of the Israel Antiquities Authority, with the assistance of Mark Molokandov and Dor Golan. The authors would like to thank the following people for their help during the excavation: Eli Bechar (field administration), the staff of the Tel Aviv office of the IAA Central District—Edna Ayash, Moshe Ajami and Oren Shmueli—for their logistical help, and the Almog C.D.A.I. building company that hosted the expedition at their construction site with great patience and forbearance. Field photography, plans and pottery drawing were done by Eli Yannai. We wish to thank the following people for their contribution to the processing of material for this volume: Elisheva Kamaisky (pottery restoration), Clara

Bet-Dagan-chap-opening-pages.indd 7

Amit (photography of the beads and copper objects) and Natalya Zak (plans). Thanks are also due to Judith Ben-Michael and Rivka Cohen-Amin for their help in storing the finds and organizing their drawing, and to Sylvia Krapiwko of the IAA archives for her help in locating old maps. Thanks are also due to Zvi Greenhut, Zach Horowitz and Alon de Groot for their help in interpreting the finds, to Ram Gophna for sharing his knowledge of the Intermediate Bronze Age settlement along the coast, and to Moshe Gottesman and Shmuel Arbel of the Erosion Study Center in the Ministry of Agriculture, and to Rina Sivan of the University of Haifa, for their help in clarifying the geological makeup of the region. The authors also wish to thank Judith BenMichael, for her help in preparing this monograph, Ann Roshwalb Hurowitz and Nava Panitz-Cohen, for their helpful comments when editing this volume; and Ann Buchnick Abuhav, for the typesetting and layout of the volume.

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Chapter 1

I ntroduction Eli Yannai

200

190

found in the eastern part of the site (Areas A and C), while a Muslim cemetery dated to the Mamluk period was revealed on the western summit (Area B). The present report deals with the finds from both cemeteries. The first part presents the 128 Intermediate Bronze Age tombs and their contents, including 398 pottery vessels, 15 copper objects, and 35 beads, as well as animal bones and anthropological remains. This is one of the largest tomb assemblages dating to this period to have been excavated. The tomb data are followed by a general discussion and conclusions. The second part presents the graves from the Mamluk period, which did not contain any burial goods. The

180

The cemetery at Bet Dagan (map ref. NIG 1840/6558) is located to the southeast of the remains of the Arab village and ancient tell of Beit Dajan (Fig. 1.1), on a red loam (hamra) hill 33 m above sea level, halfway between Jaffa and Ramla. The hamra hill on which the site was located had been previously damaged by extensive quarrying, and only part of it remained to be systematically excavated. The nature of construction at the site dictated the necessity to expose a wide area, after which the entire hill was leveled and no longer existed. During the two seasons of excavations, two cemeteries of different periods were exposed. A cemetery dated to the Intermediate Bronze Age was

N. Qana

Country Club

Horeshim

Ramat Ha-Hayyal 670

Exhibition Hadar Yosef Grounds

Sede Dov

Mediterranean Sea

Tel Qana 670 N. Yarqon

Eretz-Israel Museum Pinsker St. Qirya Quarter

Rosh Ha-‘Ayin Tel Ha-Shomer

Tel Aviv

Nahshonim Shoham (N)

N. Ay

660

yalon

Yehud

660

Shoham Bet Nehemya

Azor

Bat Yam Rishon Le-Ziyyon Dunes

Bet Dagan

N. Navalat Lod Ramla

0

5

km

650 200

Built-up Area 180

650

190

Settlement/Cemetery

Fig. 1.1. Intermediate Bronze Age sites and cemeteries in the Nahal Ayyalon and Yarqon basins.

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Eli Yannai

anthropological remains from these graves and their significance are discussed. The tombs and burials in both cemeteries were mostly dug into the hamra soil, whose corrosive nature resulted in severe damage to the skeletal remains and the pottery vessels (when relevant). This characteristic of the soil affected the ability to thoroughly analyze the anthropological finds, and in most cases, identification did not go beyond a general description of postcranial bones.

Route 412

2 1

3 Tel Bet Dagan

M

en

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em

Be

gin

Bl

vd

.

4

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St.

on

St

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Lil

akh

St.

5

6

va ze

let

St.

t.

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niot S

Ha -H a

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Kala

The cemetery at the site had been damaged in the past, possibly as a result of the establishment of an irrigation system in the orchards that had occupied the site in the 1920s and 1930s, including the digging of wells. This apparently is the source of three copper blades from Bet Dagan that are on exhibit in the British Museum (Shalev 1988:303).1 The initial, formal excavations at the site were conducted under the auspices of the British Mandate, led by Jacob Ory in 1941–1942, during the course of construction of a police headquarters at the Bet Dagan intersection, about 200 m to the west of the excavation discussed in this volume.2 This excavation, which was never published, revealed a number of stone-lined cist graves along the southern perimeter of the police compound, near the Jaffa–Ramla road, dated by Ory to the Roman period. In 1950, agricultural activity of the Vulcani Institute and development of the area south of the Jaffa–Ramla road, c. 300 m east of the Bet Dagan intersection, resulted in damage to a number of Intermediate Bronze Age tombs (Gophna 1974:91). An illicit excavation that was never reported to the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums took place; one intact storage jar found in that excavation reached the Tel Aviv artist, Nachum Gutman, who incorporated it in the background of several of his paintings.3 An additional excavation was conducted at Bet Dagan in 1996, directed by Martin Peilstöcker, who uncovered a large Byzantine winepress to the west of the ancient tell of Bet Dagan, c. 500 m northwest of the excavation discussed in the present volume. Peilstöcker excavated, also in 1996, several squares along the western edge of the tell (Permit Nos. A-2572, A-2545, A-2980, A-3421), which yielded sherds from Iron Age I, Iron Age II and the Persian period (Peilstöcker and Kapitaikin 2000). In yet another excavation (Permit

Ramban St.

History of Excavation (Fig. 1.2)

Ha-Yovel

2

0

1. Peilstöcker 1996 2. Sharvit 2003 3. Peilstöcker and Kapitaikin 1996

250 m

4. Rauchberger 2006 5. Yannai 2004–2005 6. Peilstöcker 1998

Fig. 1.2. Bet Dagan excavations (by year).

No. A-2980), Peilstöcker, in 1998, uncovered five tombs c. 40 m to the north of the cemetery discussed in the present volume, seven dating to the Intermediate Bronze Age and two to the Roman period (Peilstöcker 2006). Excavation was also conducted by Jacob Sharvit in 2003, along the road between Bet Dagan and Yehud (Permit No. A-4039), revealing remains of a plastered winepress (unpublished). An excavation was conducted by Lior Rauchberger in 2006 (Permit No. A-4664) to the south of the tell and some 250 m northeast of the excavation discussed in the present volume (Rauchberger 2008). The western part of the Mamluk cemetery discussed in the present volume was excavated in 2005 by Yehudah Guvrin on behalf of the Hebrew Union College (License No. B-296) and remains unpublished.

Geographical and Geological Background The site of Bet Dagan is located on the edge of a kurkar ridge overlaid with hamra (Yaalon and Dan 1967; Karmeli, Yaalon and Ravina 1968). The lower eastern

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Chapter 1: Introduction

part of this hamra unit adjoins alluvial clay that is part of the Nahal Ayyalon basin. The relations between the hamra and the alluvial soil affected the location, shape and state of preservation of the two cemeteries. The accelerated development in the greater Tel Aviv area and the area south of Bet Dagan caused severe damage to the geological infrastructure and did not permit an orderly mapping of the excavated area. Information concerning the geological conditions can be gathered from old maps from the end of the eighteenth century (Jacotin 1799), the Palestine Exploration Fund map of Jaffa (Conder and Kitchener 1886) and Sandel’s map (1880) from the late nineteenth century, German and British maps from the beginning of the twentieth century, and British Mandate maps that were compiled prior to the development of the area that caused the aforesaid damage. Aerial photographs are a source of information as well. The coastal plain landscape was shaped during the Quaternary period. Climatic changes mainly in the Late Holocene contributed to the formation of the present topography, hydrology and geomorphology of the lower Nahal Ayyalon basin, where Bet Dagan is located. To the north of Nahal Ayyalon is an exposed calcareous sandstone (kurkar) and hamra ridge, while to its south are the young sand dunes of Rishon LeZiyyon that extend until Lod. Nahal Ayyalon crossed the kurkar ridge and deposited eroded soils from the Samaria Hills and the lowlands of Lod and Gezer. The rocks and soils in the area of Bet Dagan today include hamra, nazaz (pseudogley), sand and kurkar. The site of Bet Dagan is located on the third kurkar ridge, extending 3–4 km from the lower part of the Nahal Ayyalon basin on the west and up to Bet Dagan on the east. The kurkar is composed of two layers, a lower massive unstratified layer formed of marine sediments and an upper crumbly stratified layer, identified as aeolianite (Picard and Solomonica 1936; Emery and Neev 1960). This upper layer, along with sand and clay hamra and other derived soils, such as nazaz, gray nazaz (which was used to block the tomb entrances) and brown grumosol (Dan and Yaalon 1968) served as the base into which the Bet Dagan burials were dug. The geographic setting during the periods of use of both cemeteries discussed in the present volume differed from that seen today. During the Intermediate Bronze Age, the hamra and kurkar ridges were exposed, with only a small part near the coast having

Bet-Dagan-chap-1.indd 3

3

been covered by shifting sands that were dated by 14C to 4810–3770 BP (Almagor 2005:138). Calibration of these dates (Stuiver and Kra 1986; Stuiver and Becker 1993) yields a range of 5580–4110 BP. New sands were deposited along the coast at the end of the Byzantine period, a process that continues until today. The use of the cemetery during the Mamluk period took place while large areas south of Nahal Ayyalon were covered by sands, known as the Rishon Le-Ziyyon dunes, which blocked the outlet of Nahal Ayyalon to the sea, creating extensive swamps that affected passage through the area, limited raw material sources and the ability to utilize the soil for agriculture, thus profoundly affecting the settlement pattern in the region (Netser 1994:117). Despite the fact that the soil makeup of the hamra and kurkar ridges was the same in both periods of the cemeteries, different modes of burial were used, clearly reflecting cultural and not technological choices. During the Intermediate Bronze Age, the tombs contained shafts and burial chambers that were dug well into the hard soil layers, entailing a special effort, while during the Mamluk period, the graves were merely shallow pits, sometimes marked with bricks.

Description of the Site The hill into which the two cemeteries were dug is composed of three ridges on a north–south axis, each comprising different soil combinations. On the uppermost part of the hill, the Intermediate Bronze Age shaft tombs and burial chambers were dug into a composite hamra of coarse dark red sand that contained layers of light red and sandier hamra. The hamra layer was preserved only 1 m deep, its uppermost part having been removed during development of the area, as well as by natural erosion; it is thus impossible to reconstruct its original depth. Under the hamra layer was a dark yellow kurkar layer, 7–8 m deep, underneath which was a layer of light yellow sand. The borders between these layers were erratic and pockets of hamra sand were found penetrating into the kurkar. Modern elements found on the summit of the hill included a well on the northern edge of the hill and remains of terraces and concrete retaining walls. The site had suffered much natural and man-made damage in the modern era. The uppermost part of the cemetery hill (in the area of the central and eastern ridges) was lower than its original height due to

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4

Eli Yannai

656 200

Area B

Quarry

Area A

Pave

656 100

Quarry

Area A

d Ro

ad

Area C

Quarry

0

50 m

656 000

Fig. 1.3. Bet Dagan cemeteries, excavation areas.

Bet-Dagan-chap-1.indd 4

The full extent of the Intermediate Bronze Age cemetery remains unknown, due to several factors: the abovementioned quarrying; the construction of modern buildings along the northern and southern sides of the site; and the coverage of a 4–5 m deep layer of eroded alluvial soil above the hamra layer on the eastern side, which prevented excavation and where additional modern construction also took place. Above, it was mentioned that Intermediate Bronze Age tombs were damaged during development work south of the Jaffa–Ramla road; no tombs were found in the plowed fields to the south of this area, so it seems that this might represent the southern border of the cemetery of this period. If this is correct, then the cemetery extended some 300 m to the south of the excavated area.4 The northernmost tombs uncovered in Area A seem to delineate the northern border of the cemetery, since further to the north, where modern buildings were constructed, apparently no additional tombs existed. To the west of Area C is an unexcavated area that might represent the continuation of the cemetery. It seems that in light of the above data, only about half of the original cemetery has been preserved.

Significance of the Site

183 900

183 800

erosion and agricultural activity, including the planting of an orchard, the shallow pits of which are still seen throughout the excavation site. The hill was subjected to extensive illicit quarrying of sand and hamra, resulting in deep ravines and pits that damaged many tombs throughout the site, compounded by the paving of a road between Areas A and C. None of these destroyed burials were documented. As a result of these activities, only three parts of the hill remained intact and thus, three excavation areas were established: Area A on the north, Area B on the west, and Area C on the south. Areas A and C contained tombs from the Intermediate Bronze Age (Fig. 1.3), and Area B, tombs from the Mamluk period. In the former, preservation of the skeletal remains and pottery was very poor, although the burial goods were well-preserved. The skeletal remains in the Mamluk cemetery were in an extremely poor state of preservation and there were no burial goods. The quarrying damaged the western part of the Intermediate Bronze Age cemetery, so that the exact border between it and the Mamluk cemetery to its west remains unknown (see Fig. 1.3).

Intermediate Bronze Age tombs have been found at many sites in the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins (see Fig. 1.1)—in a large cemetery at Azor, excavated by Shapira (Yannai 2007), at Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1992), Yehud (Yannai 2004b), Ramat HaHayyal (Yankelevitz 2005), in the Qirya Quarter in Tel Aviv (Braun and van den Brink 2005), at Shoham (Kletter 2003) and Shoham North (van den Brink and Gophna 1997:84–85). The excavations at Azor and Yehud did not yield anthropological remains. The anthropological remains from the cemeteries at Horeshim and Bet Nehemya are sporadic and of no statistical significance. The cemetery at Bet Dagan (despite damage caused during development and construction at the site), with its numerous tombs and anthropological remains, affords us a rare opportunity to closely and intensively examine a large corpus of tombs and deceased and to conduct a comparative study of Intermediate Bronze Age society. As well, it provides much data concerning the processes and finds associated with burials in the coastal plain. Until the excavations at Bet Dagan, shaft tombs had been found exclusively carved into kurkar ridges (i.e., Azor—Ory

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Chapter 1: Introduction

1944; Yannai 2007) and soft limestone hills (i.e., Dhahr Mirzbâneh—Lapp 1966, Finkelstein 1990; Jericho— Kenyon 1960, 1965). The Bet Dagan cemetery is the only one in which shaft tombs were dug into hamra soil. Despite our assumption that tombs dug into hamra would be pit burials, the hamra around Bet Dagan was deliberately chosen as the location for this shaft-tomb cemetery. Clay-like hamra has a stone-like

5

consistency; it seems that the ancient inhabitants who chose this location for their cemetery were familiar with this feature and related to the hamra as though it were stone. The significance of the Muslim cemetery lies in the fact that it is unique in having no tombs, grave goods or child burials.

Notes 1

See also Chapter 4. The report of this excavation, including text, plans and photographs, is kept in the IAA Archives at the Rockefeller Museum, File No. ATQ786, dated 5.2.1942. I would like to thank Arieh Rochman-Halperin for his help in locating this information. 2

Bet-Dagan-chap-1.indd 5

3 I would like to thank Prof. Ram Gophna for this information and Prof. Hemi Gutman, Nachum Gutman’s son, for generously allowing me to view the storage jar, which belongs to the artist’s estate. 4 I would like to thank Prof. Ram Gophna for this information.

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Part I: The I ntermediate Bronze Age Cemetery

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Chapter 2

The Tombs and their contents Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Introduction1 The Intermediate Bronze Age cemetery was located in the eastern part of the site and covered the moderate southeastern slope of a hamra hill. It was exposed over an area of 300 sq m in Areas A and C (see Figs. 1.2, 1.3); a total of 128 shaft tombs were excavated. The tombs were evenly distributed throughout the entire area (see Figs. 2.1, 2.49). Mechanical equipment and modern quarrying and agricultural activity had severely damaged most of the tombs, so that the walls and ceilings of the burial chambers had collapsed, and very little, if any, remained of the entrance shafts. Reconstruction of the plan is thus based on the only tomb (T780) whose shaft was found intact, as well as on the preserved bottoms of other shafts and on the position of the skeletal remains and other objects found in the burial chambers.2 It is assumed that in most of the tombs, the deceased was laid against one of the burial chamber’s walls, and thus its location served to reconstruct at least that part of the chamber’s borders. It is also assumed that the length of the skeleton equals the length of the burial chamber and that the flexed burial posture of the deceased was suited to the actual size of the chamber. For the most part, vessels were deposited in the chamber after the deceased was interred, as they were found in front of the skeleton, between it and the entrance. However, in some instances, this order was reversed and vessels were placed behind the skeleton, apparently before interment. Rarely (in only six tombs), a storage jar was found at the bottom of the entrance shaft. Aside from isolated cases, all the tombs contained three main components: an oval or round coneshaped3 vertical entrance shaft, 1.2–1.5 m in diameter and 2–3 m deep (based on the one intact shaft, Tomb 780);4 a mostly oval (up to 3 m in length), although

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 9

occasionally round, burial chamber to the west of the shaft; and a passage leading into the burial chamber from the entrance shaft, generally 0.4–0.6 m wide. The passage was blocked with gray bricks (made of a clayey material from nearby swamps), which stood out against the red hamra into which the tomb had been dug. In most cases, the entrance was higher than the floor of the burial chamber and it is assumed that this gap was bridged by either steps or a ramp carved out of the hamra, or possibly by the use of a removable short ladder or stool. Most of the gray bricks were found collapsed onto the burial chamber floor and it was thus difficult to reconstruct their original position. In the majority of the tombs, the entrance shaft was to the east of the burial chamber. From a structural point of view, the direction of the entrance was chosen in order to leave as thick a ceiling as possible for the burial chamber. It can be assumed that after a few dozen tombs were prepared, the direction of digging and the location of the burial chamber were set as a constant in order to prevent the digging of a new tomb from damaging a nearby existing tomb. In three instances, two tombs shared the same entrance shaft, one in Area A (Tombs 571 and 574) and two in Area C (Tombs 754 and 755; Tombs 767 and 768). Aside from Tomb 566 (Area A), all the tombs contained only one interment in what apparently was a primary burial, as the bones were found in anatomical articulation, with the deceased placed on its side in a flexed position, aside from two cases (Tombs 559 and 729) where the skeleton was found on its back. However, this seems to be a matter of post-depositional displacement and not an intentional burial position. Most of the tombs contained three to four pottery vessels, including bowls, goblets, mugs, storage jars, amphoriskoi, jugs, teapots and lamps.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

596 586 584

595

594

585

593 587 588

509

576

592 577 598

575 573 589

578 565

579

572

591

552

568

590

581 566

567

569

597

554

580 555

582

583

551 556

510

518 570 0

4

m

571

507

558

504 505

574

501

506 502

503

Fig. 2.1. Area A. distribution of tombs.

Area A (Fig. 2.1) Fifty tombs were excavated in Area A (Fig. 2.1). Tomb 501 (Plan 2.1; Fig. 2.2) The round entrance shaft, 1.5 m diameter, was wellpreserved to a depth of 0.6 m. The bottom of the shaft is round and is lower on its western side, which faces the passage into the burial chamber. Three gray bricks were found in situ in the passage from the shaft to the chamber; it seems that a fourth brick had originally topped them. The passage sloped slightly down to the floor of the chamber, c. 0.4 m below the bottom of the shaft. The burial chamber, which had been damaged by

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 10

Inventory, Tomb 501 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

50101

3.3:6

2

Lamp

50102

3.35:11

a later refuse pit on its western side, was estimated at 1.4 m long and of unknown width. Near the skeleton’s hands were a goblet and a lamp.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

11

Fig. 2.2. Tomb 501.

36.14

50101 1

1

50102 35.61

0 37.00

1

m

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing north. Upper jaw fragment: central incisor and first molar show attrition of half crown height. Lower jaw: first molar shows attrition of over half crown height, first premolar lost ante-mortem, second premolar shows attrition of half crown height and in the central fossa. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: >60 years. The mastoid process was relatively small, characteristic of a female. Tomb 502 (Plan 2.2; Fig. 2.3)

36.00

1-1 35.50

Plan 2.1. Tomb 501.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 11

The estimated size of the bottom of the oval entrance shaft is 1.0 × 1.6 m. A passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber, 0.5 m wide and 0.6 m long, represents the only case in which such a passageway was identified. The passage was full of gray brick debris that had eroded from the bricks that had originally formed the blockage. The bottom of the entrance shaft was 0.75 m higher than the passageway,

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

which in turn was c. 0.5 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.5 × 1.7 m. A lamp was found near the head, and a storage jar and goblet near the hands. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the western wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented north–south, head in the north, facing east.

The bicondylar width of the distal femur was measured as 76 mm. Upper jaw: premolar shows dentine cup in both cusps, second molar shows dentine cup in one of the cusps. Lower jaw: canine shows shallow dentine cup, second molar shows dentine cup in one of the cusps, third molar erupted. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–50 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

50201

50202 50203 35.29

35.77

36.51

Inventory, Tomb 502 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

50203

3.5:3

2

Storage jar

50201

3.13:3

0

3

Lamp

50202

3.35:4

Plan 2.2. Tomb 502.

1

m

Fig. 2.3. Tomb 502.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 12

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 503 (Plan 2.3; Fig. 2.4) The diameter of the entrance shaft was 1.1 m. The opening leading from the entrance shaft to the chamber was 0.45 m wide, marked by a dark gray brick. The bottom of the entrance shaft was c. 0.4 m higher than the burial chamber floor. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.1 × 1.7 m. A dark gray brick was found on the southern side of the chamber, next to an amphoriskoi. A goblet and a lamp were found near the hands, which were close to the head.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the western wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented north–south, head in the north, facing east. Lower jaw: incisors show dentine cup, first molar shows shallow dentine cup in one of the cusps, second molar shows dentine exposure in two cusps, third molar erupted. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–40 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

50303 50302 35.23

34.85

Inventory, Tomb 503

50301

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

50302

3.5:6

2

Amphoriskos

50301

3.22:5

3

Lamp

50303

3.35:8

0

1

m

Plan 2.3. Tomb 503.

Fig. 2.4. Tomb 503.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Tomb 504 (Plan 2.4; Figs. 2.5, 2.6) The round entrance shaft was somewhat irregular, 1.2–1.3 m in diameter. Eroded gray bricks marked the passage from the shaft to the burial chamber. The bottom of the burial chamber was c. 0.35 m higher than the bricks, which in turn were c. 0.5 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.5 × 1.6 m. a bowl, a goblet, a storage jar and a lamp were found in the northwestern part of the chamber. A broken storage jar was found in the entrance shaft (Fig. 2.6).

50403

50404

50405

50402 50401 37.83 38.72 38.35

0

1

m

Plan 2.4. Tomb 504.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing north. Lower jaw fragment: premolar shows shallow dentine cup in one of the cusps, first molar shows dentine cup in two cusps, second molar shows dentine cup in one cusp, third molar erupted. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–40 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Fig. 2.5. Tomb 504; storage jar in shaft.

Inventory, Tomb 504

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No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

50403

3.1:11

2

Goblet

50404

3.2:4

3

Storage jar

50401

3.11:1

4

Storage jar

50405

3.15:2

5

Lamp

50402

3.34:15

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Fig. 2.6. Tomb 504.

Tomb 505 (Plan 2.5; Figs. 2.7–2.9) The round entrance shaft, 1 m in diameter, was excavated to a depth of 0.9 m. The passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber was stepped, descending c. 0.3 m from the bottom of the shaft to the chamber’s floor. Dark gray bricks blocked the passage. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.1 × 1.5 m. A storage jar was found on the western side of the chamber and a goblet in the stepped passageway. Near the center of the chamber was a long copper blade to which poorly preserved traces of wood were still attached. Another copper blade was found on the northeastern side of the chamber (see Chapter 4). Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its left side, oriented east–west, head in the east.

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Epiphyses in the long bones were fused, indicating an adult individual (>18 years old). Sex estimation was not possible.

Inventory, Tomb 505 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

50502

3.5:18

2

Storage jar

50501

-

3

Copper blade

50504

4.2:1

4

Copper blade

50503

4.2:2

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Fig. 2.7. Tomb 505.

50503 50501 36.93 50502

50504

36.61

0

1

m

Plan 2.5. Tomb 505.

Fig. 2.8. Close-up of Tomb 505.

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Fig. 2.9. Blade in Tomb 505.

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17

Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 506 (Plan 2.6; Fig. 2.10) The estimated diameter of the oval burial chamber is 1.2–1.4 m. A storage jar was found in the southeastern part of the chamber and a lamp between the head and the hands. Four beads were found near the neck (see Fig. 4.1). Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical

articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the northern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing south. Upper teeth: first molar shows dentine exposure in one cusp. Lower jaw: canine shows dentine exposure, premolar shows enamel attrition (root closed). Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 15–20 years. Sex estimation was not possible, yet, the beads found with the bones might indicate a female.

50602

50601

Inventory, Tomb 506 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

1

Storage jar

50601

Fig. 3.14:1

2

Lamp

50602

3.33:17

3

4 beads

50603–50606

Fig. 4.1:4

0

1

m

Plan 2.6. Tomb 506.

Fig. 2.10. Tomb 506.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Tomb 507 (Plan 2.7; Fig. 2.11) Only the eastern end of the entrance shaft was preserved, with the passage to the burial chamber, 0.4 m wide, marked by a gray brick. The bottom of the shaft was c. 0.6 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.1 × 1.4 m. A goblet, a storage jar and a lamp were found to the northwest of the skeleton.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing north. Upper teeth: premolar shows enamel attrition (root closed), first molar shows dentine exposure in one cusp, second molar shows enamel attrition. Lower teeth: premolar and second molar show enamel attrition. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 15–20 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

37.61

50703 50702 50701

37.0

Inventory, Tomb 507 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

50702

3.4:14

2

Storage jar

50701

3.10:1

3

Lamp

50703

3.34:17

0

1

m

Plan 2.7. Tomb 507.

Fig. 2.11. Tomb 507.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 518 a goblet and two amphoriskoi marked the existence of this tomb, which lacked skeletal remains. Inventory, Tomb 551 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

55103

3.4:20

2

Storage jar

55101

-

3

Storage jar

55102

-

4

Lamp

55104

3.33:3

Inventory, Tomb 518 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

51803

-

2

Amphoriskos

51802

3.22:3

3

Amphoriskos

51801

3.28:3

Tomb 551 (Plan 2.8; Fig. 2.12) The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.0 × 1.3 m. a goblet, two storage jars and a lamp were found to the south of the skeleton’s legs. The upper part of the latter three vessels had been cut by the mechanical equipment. Animal bones were found in front of the skeleton.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in the northwest in a flexed position on its left side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the northeast, facing south. The mastoid process was relatively small, characteristic of a female. Upper teeth: premolar shows dentine exposure in both cusps, first molar shows dentine cup in one cusp, second molar shows dentine exposure in one cusp. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 20–30 years.

55104 55102

55101

55103

0

1

m

Plan 2.8. Tomb 551.

Fig. 2.12. Tomb 551.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Tomb 552 (Plan 2.9)

Tomb 553

The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.9 × 1.1 m. Several gray bricks that had originally blocked the entrance from the passage to the burial chamber were uncovered near the skeleton (not drawn in the plan). A goblet and a storage jar were found to the south of the skeleton, and a lamp to its north.

All that remains of this tomb are several gray bricks exposed some 10 m to the north of Tomb 552, as well as traces of the contour of an oval burial chamber (c. 1.2 × 1.6 m); no skeletal or other remains were found. Tomb 554 (Plan 2.10) The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.8 × 1.2 m. Traces of gray bricks on the east apparently mark the location of the entrance. A bowl, two goblets (only one in the plan) and an amphoriskos were found to the west and southeast of the poorly preserved bones.

Inventory, Tomb 552 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

1

Goblet

55201

3.5:7

2

Storage jar

55203

3.17:5

3

Lamp

Fig.

55202

3.33:16

Inventory, Tomb 554 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

55401

3.1:8

2

Goblet

55405

3.3:1

3

Goblet

55403

3.6:13

4

Amphoriskos

55402

3.30:8

55202 42.55 42.67 55401 55203 0

55201 1

m

55402 55403

Plan 2.9. Tomb 552. 0

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head facing north. Upper teeth: incisor shows dentine cup, canine shows dentine exposure, premolar shows shallow dentine cup in both cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–40 years. The brow ridges and superior nuchal line are relatively developed, indicating a male.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 20

1

m

Plan 2.10. Tomb 554.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull and teeth. The burial position could not be reconstructed. The deciduous teeth were in place. Lower permanent molar shows fully developed crown and incipient root. Age estimation, based upon tooth development stages: 3–5 years.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 555 (Plan 2.11) The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.8 × 1.0 m. Traces of bricks on the east apparently mark the location of the entrance. a goblet, a storage jar and an amphoriskos were found. The tomb contained few fragmentary animal bones.

Anthropological Remains Few fragmentary skull fragments. Age and sex estimations were not possible, although it was not an infant.

Inventory, Tomb 556 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

55603

3.3:13

2

Goblet

55602

3.5:12

3

Storage jar

55601

-

4

Lamp

55604

3.35:2

Inventory, Tomb 555 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

55503

3.4:7

2

Storage jar

55501

3.13:4

3

Amphoriskos

55502

3.27:2

Skull 55602 55601

Brick

55604 55603 0

1

m

Plan 2.12. Tomb 556. 55503

55502

Tomb 558 (Plan 2.13; Fig. 2.13) 55501 0

Skull 1

m

Plan 2.11. Tomb 555.

The estimated diameter of the burial chamber is 1 m. One well-preserved gray brick on the east marks the location of the entrance. The chamber contained a goblet, a storage jar and a lamp.

Anthropological Remains Few small unidentified human skull fragments. Tomb 556 (Plan 2.12) The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.6 × 1.2 m. Traces of bricks on the east apparently mark the location of the entrance. two goblets, a storage jar and a lamp were found close together to the west of the skeleton, suggesting that they were placed before the deceased was interred. The tomb contained fragmentary animal bones.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 21

Inventory, Tomb 558 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

55802

-

2

Storage jar

55801

-

3

Lamp

55803

3.36:1

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

55802

55801 55803 0

1

m

Plan 2.13. Tomb 558.

Fig. 2.13. Tomb 558.

Anthropological Remains A few poorly preserved long bone fragments. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed oriented north–south. Age and sex estimations were not possible, although it was not an infant. Tomb 559 (Fig. 2.14) This tomb is located somewhat to the north of the others and is unique in the position of the deceased as well. Two storage jars (not registered and not illustrated) were placed on both sides of the deceased. No other tomb in this cemetery contained a skeleton on its back flanked by vessels; the burial position is always flexed and the vessels are placed on one side of the deceased. It seems that the anthropological and ceramic contents of Tomb 559 were not found in their original state and it is possible that the two jars did not originate from this tomb and that the skeleton had been moved from its original position. The anthropological remains were not examined.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 22

Fig. 2.14. Tomb 559.

Tomb 565 An unarticulated, poorly preserved skeleton and a few unidentifiable sherds were uncovered on the edge of the cut made by mechanical equipment in the middle of the area, slightly to the north of Tomb 580. The damage made it impossible to reconstruct the plan or contents of this tomb. Anthropological Remains The remains included fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of a young individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was put in a flexed position on its left side, oriented east–west, head in the west. Lower jaw: canine shows slight dentine exposure, two premolars show enamel attrition, third molar shows fully developed crown. Age estimation based upon tooth attrition and development stages: 12–15 years.

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23

Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 566 (Plan 2.14; Figs. 2.15, 2.16)

Upper

On the east were bricks, 0.25 m wide, marking the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the bricks was c. 0.45 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.5 × 1.7 m. To the north of the skeleton were a goblet, a storage jar and an amphoriskos. Underneath this skeleton was another skeleton (Fig. 2.15), which did not have any accompanying burial goods. Tomb 566 is the only one in the Intermediate Bronze Age cemetery with more than one interment. Since the lower skeleton did not have its own burial offerings, and the vessels placed with the upper skeleton are typical of all the other tombs, it seems that both individuals were interred at the same time.

56601 56603

56602

42.27

41.84

Lower

0

1

m

Plan 2.14. Tomb 566.

Inventory, Tomb 566 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1 2

Goblet

56601

3.4:4

Storage jar

56603

3

3.18:1

Amphoriskos

56602

3.23:5

Fig. 2.15. Tomb 566 Lower.

Fig. 2.16. Tomb 566 Upper.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Anthropological Remains

Tomb 567 (Plan 2.15; Fig. 2.17)

566 Upper Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southwestern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented northwest–southeast, head in the southeast, facing north. Upper jaw: central incisors show dentine cup, premolar shows dentine cup in both cusps. Lower jaw: incisors show attrition of over half crown height, first and second molars (R + L) were lost ante-mortem, right third molar shows dentine cup in one cusp, left third molar shows enamel attrition. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 40–60 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.8 × 1.2 m. A storage jar, a goblet and a lamp were placed to the southeast of the skeleton, near the left leg. Animal bones were found in front of the skeleton.

566 Lower Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual (15 years). The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east. age and sex estimations were not possible.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the northwestern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the east, facing southeast.

Inventory, Tomb 567 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

56702

3.6:15

2

Storage jar

56701

-

3

Lamp

56703

-

43.57 43.74

56703

56702 56701 0

1

m

Plan 2.15. Tomb 567.

Fig. 2.17. Tomb 567.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Upper teeth: incisors show dentine exposure, premolar shows dentine exposure in one cusp. Lower teeth: first molar shows dentine cup in two cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 20–30 years. Sex estimation was not possible. Tomb 568 (Plan 2.16; Fig. 2.18) Due to damage by mechanical equipment, only the eastern side of the oval burial chamber was preserved (0.8 × 1.0 m). To the north of the skeleton was a storage jar, and to its south, a goblet. Animal bones were found in front of the skeleton.

Inventory, Tomb 568 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

56802

Fig. 3.4:19

2

Storage jar

56801

-

25

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its right side, oriented southeast–northwest, head in the southeast, facing south. Upper teeth: central incisor shows dentine exposure, premolars show enamel attrition, second molar shows dentine exposure in two cusps, third molar erupted. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 18– 25 years. Sex estimation was not possible. Tomb 569 (Plan 2.17; Fig. 2.19) The entrance was blocked with dark gray bricks, some of which were found dispersed on the floor of the entrance and others above the skeleton in the burial chamber. The floor of the stepped entrance was c. 0.6 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.4 × 1.5 m. Two amphoriskoi and one lamp were found to the west of the skull. Two goblets were placed near the hands, which were near the head. It thus appears that the amphoriskoi and lamp were placed before the deceased was interred, and the goblets afterward.

56801 40.60

56802

40.46 0

1

m

Plan 2.16. Tomb 568.

Fig. 2.18. Tomb 568.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

upon tooth attrition stages: 50–60 years. The glabella and brow ridges are relatively developed, indicating a male. Tomb 570 (Plan 2.18; Fig. 2.20)

Inventory, Tomb 569 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

56905

3.4:6

2

Goblet

56904

3.6:16

3

Amphoriskos

56902

3.23:1

4

Amphoriskos

56901

3.30:7

5

Lamp

56903

-

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position against the western wall on its right side, oriented north–south, head in the south, facing east. Lower teeth: incisors and premolar show attrition of half crown height, right first, second, and third molars show dentine cup in all cusps, left second and third molars were lost antemortem. Age estimation, based

On the east were a few fragments of dark gray brick that mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.0 × 1.6 m. To the east of the skeleton were a goblet, two amphoriskoi and a lamp.

Inventory, Tomb 570 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

57003

3.2:12

2

Amphoriskos

57001

3.26:6

3

Amphoriskos

57002

3.26:8

4

Lamp

57004

3.33:19

56901

56902

56903 56904

56905

0

1

m

Plan 2.17. Tomb 569.

Fig. 2.19. Tomb 569.

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27

Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the western wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented north–south, head in the north, facing east. Upper teeth: central incisor shows deep dentine cup. Lower teeth: incisors show attrition of nearly half crown height, premolar shows attrition of nearly half crown height without attrition of the central fossa, right first molar was lost antemortem. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 40–50 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Tomb 571 (Plan 2.19; Figs. 2.21, 2.22) Tombs 571 and 574 shared an entrance shaft. The entrance to Tomb 571 was located on the western side of the entrance shaft and the entrance to Tomb 574 (see description below) was on the northern side of the shaft. Gray bricks blocked this entrance. The floor of the entrance shaft was c. 0.5 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber of Tomb 571 is 1.1 × 1.6 m. To the north of the skeleton were a lamp and a bowl, found near the hands that were close to the skull. To the east of the skeleton were a goblet and an amphoriskos.

57004

57003 42.01

41.89

Inventory, Tomb 571 57002 57001

0

1

m

Plan 2.18. Tomb 570.

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

57104

-

2

Goblet

57102

3.6:1

3

Amphoriskos

57101

3.22:4

4

Lamp

57103

3.34:16

Fig. 2.20. Tomb 570.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the western wall in a flexed position on its left

side, oriented north–south, head in the north, facing east. Epiphyses in the long bones were fused, indicating an adult individual (>18 years old). Sex estimation was not possible.

T574 57401

57402 40.05

57403 57404

T571 57104

40.36 57103 57102

40.67 57101

40.16

Fig. 2.22. Tomb 571. 0

1

m

Plan 2.19. Tombs 571 and 574.

Fig. 2.21. Tombs 571 and 574.

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29

Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 572 (Plan 2.20; Fig. 2.23) The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.9 × 1.1 m. To the northwest of the skeleton were a bowl (not in the plan and not counted), two goblets and a storage jar. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southeastern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the northeast, facing northwest. Upper jaw: central incisor shows deep dentine cup, one premolar shows dentine cup in both cusps, other premolar shows attrition of nearly half crown height without attrition of the central fossa. Lower jaw: right first and second molars were lost antemortem, third molar shows dentine cup in all cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 50–60 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Inventory, Tomb 572 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

57204

-

2

Goblet

57201

3.3:14

3

Goblet

57203

3.5:14

4

Storage jar

57202

3.17:2

57201

57202

43.80 43.60 57203

Plan 2.20. Tomb 572. ►

0

1

m

Fig. 2.23. Tomb 572.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Tomb 573 (Plan 2.21; Fig. 2.24) Dark gray bricks on the east, 0.5 m wide, marked the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.7 × 1.7 m. To the southwest of the skeleton were two goblets, a storage jar and a lamp. Animal bones were found in front of the skeleton. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical

articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the northern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing south. The iliac crest and ischial tuberosity are fused, characteristic of an individual >20 years old. Lower teeth: central incisors show dentine exposure, premolar shows dentine exposure in one cusp. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 20–30 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

57301

Inventory, Tomb 573 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

57303

3.3:2

2

Goblet

57302

3.6:4

3

Storage jar

57301

-

4

Lamp

57404

3.34:4

57304

57302

57303 0

1

m

Plan 2.21. Tomb 573.

Fig. 2.24. Tomb 573.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 574 (Plan 2.19; Fig. 2.25) The entrance to the tomb was through a shaft shared with Tomb 571 (see above), from the northern side of the shaft. Gray bricks mark the blockage of this entrance. The floor in the entrance shaft was c. 0.3 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.2 × 1.5 m. To the north of the skeleton were two amphoriskoi. A goblet and a lamp were found near the hands. Animal bones were found in front of the skeleton.

31

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in the middle of the chamber in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the west, facing south. Lower teeth: canine shows attrition of half crown height, premolar shows dentine cup in one cusp, first molar show dentine cup in all cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–50 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Inventory, Tomb 574 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

57404

3.2:14

2

Amphoriskos

57401

3.21:4

3

Amphoriskos

57402

3.30:3

4

Lamp

57403

3.34:1

Fig. 2.25. Tomb 574.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Tomb 575 (Plan 2.22; Fig. 2.26) The oval burial chamber measured c. 1.1 × 1.5 m. To the north of the skeleton were two goblets, a storage jar and an amphoriskos. Animal bones were found in front of the skeleton. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical

articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southwestern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented northwest–southeast, head in the south, facing north. Upper teeth: central incisor shows dentine cup, canine shows deep dentine cup. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–40 years. The epicondylar width of the distal humerus was measured as 65 mm, indicating a male.

57501

57504

Inventory, Tomb 575

57503 57502

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

57503

3.2:13

2

Goblet

57504

3.6:18

3

Storage jar

57501

3.13:1

4

Amphoriskos

57502

3.29:7

0

1

m

Plan 2.22. Tomb 575.

Fig. 2.26. Tomb 575.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 32

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33

Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 576 (Plan 2.23; Fig. 2.27) The tomb was very poorly preserved and only part of the burial chamber can be reconstructed, measuring 0.7 × 1.2 m. To the south of the skeleton were a goblet and a bowl (near its knees), and another goblet and an amphoriskos to their east.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, tooth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its left side in the north of the chamber, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing south. Lower premolar tooth shows shallow dentine cup in one cusp. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 25–40 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

43.69 5761 43.82

Inventory, Tomb 576 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

57602

-

2

Goblet

57603

-

3

Goblet

57601

-

4

Amphoriskos

57604

3.24:6

57601 57602

0

57603

57604

1

m

Plan 2.23. Tomb 576.

Fig. 2.27. Tomb 576.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 33

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34

Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Tomb 577 (Plan 2.24; Fig. 2.28) The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.8 × 1.10 m. To the west of the skeleton were a goblet, an amphoriskos and a lamp. Animal bones were found in front of the skeleton.

the southeast of the chamber in a flexed position on its right side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the northeast, facing northwest. All deciduous teeth erupted, permanent first molar shows fully developed crown. Age estimation, based upon tooth development stages: 3–5 years. Tomb 578 (Plan 2.25; Fig. 2.29) Traces of gray bricks on the east mark the blockage of the entrance (not drawn in plan), The bricks are about 0.7 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.9 × 1.6 m. a goblet, a storage jar and a lamp were found to the northwest of the skeleton.

Inventory, Tomb 577 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1 2

Goblet

57702

-

Amphoriskos

57701

3.28:8

3

Lamp

57703

3.33:10

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of a child. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing north. Lower jaw: canine shows attrition of nearly half crown height, premolar shows dentine cup in both cusps, first molars were lost antemortem, second molar shows

57702 57701

57703

0

1

m

Plan 2.24. Tomb 577.

Fig. 2.28. Tomb 577.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 34

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35

Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Fig. 2.29. Tomb 578.

57803 57801 43.14 42.45

57802

dentine cup in all cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 40–50 years. Sex estimation was not possible. Tomb 579 (Plan 2.26; Fig. 2.30)

0

1

Traces of gray bricks on the east mark the blockage of the entrance (not drawn in plan). The bricks are about 0.5 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated diameter of the round burial chamber is 0.8 m. a goblet and a teapot were found to the east of the skeleton.

m

Plan 2.25. Tomb 578.

Inventory, Tomb 578 Vessel

1

Goblet

57802

-

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

2

Storage jar

57801

3.10:3

1

Goblet

57902

3.5:17

3

Lamp

57803

3.33:13

2

Teapot

57901

3.32:1

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 35

Reg. No.

Inventory, Tomb 579

No.

Fig.

02/01/2015 11:28:27

36

Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

42.65

57902

43.11

57901 0

1

m

Plan 2.26. Tomb 579.

Fig. 2.30. Tomb 579.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east. Lower jaw: canine shows attrition of nearly half crown height, premolar shows dentine cup in both cusps, first molars were lost antemortem, second molar shows dentine cup in all cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 40–50 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing north. The distal epiphysis of the femur and the metatarsal epiphyses are fused, indicative of an adult individual, >17 years old. Sex estimation was not possible.

Tomb 580 (Plan 2.27; Fig. 2.31) The estimated diameter of the round burial chamber was 1 m. a goblet, a storage jar, an amphoriskos and a lamp were found to the north of the skeleton. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southern wall in a flexed

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 36

Inventory, Tomb 580 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

58004

3.3:5

2

Storage jar

58002

3.11:2

3

Amphoriskos

58001

3.30:5

4

Lamp

58003

3.34:9

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37

Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

58004 58001

58002 58003

0

1

m

Plan 2.27. Tomb 580.

Fig. 2.31. Tomb 580.

Tomb 581 (Plan 2.28; Fig. 2.32) Remains of dark gray bricks on the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The burial chamber was oval (1.8 × 1.8 m). Near the skeleton’s head was a lamp and near its feet was a storage jar; between these two vessels was a goblet. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of a young individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the northwestern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the northeast, facing southeast. Upper teeth: canine shows dentine exposure, premolar shows enamel attrition, first molar shows dentine exposure in one cusp, second molar shows enamel attrition. Lower teeth: second molar shows enamel attrition. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 13–15 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 37

Inventory, Tomb 581 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

58102

3.6:10

2

Storage jar

58101

3.17:4

3

Lamp

58103

3.35:7

4

Flint

58104

-

02/01/2015 11:28:28

38

Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Fig. 2.32. Tomb 581.

58103

58102 58104 (Flint)

58101 0

1

m

Plan 2.28. Tomb 581.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull and postcranial bones of a young individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southwestern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented northwest– southeast, head in the southeast, facing northeast. Upper teeth: central incisor shows slight dentine exposure, first molar shows dentine exposure in one cusp, second molar shows enamel attrition, third molar shows partially developed crown. Age estimation based upon tooth attrition and development stages: 12–13 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Tomb 582 (Plan 2.29; Fig. 2.33) Traces of gray bricks on the east mark the entrance (not drawn in plan). The bricks are c. 0.55 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.2 × 1.3 m. a goblet, an amphoriskos and a lamp were placed just to the north of the skeleton.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 38

Inventory, Tomb 582 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

58202

-

2

Amphoriskos

58201

-

3

Lamp

58203

3.33:1

02/01/2015 11:28:29

39

Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

58202 58201 42.71

42.18

58203

0

1

m

Plan 2.29. Tomb 582.

Fig. 2.33. Tomb 582.

Tomb 583 (Plan 2.30; Fig. 2.34) The estimated diameter of the round burial chamber is 1.5 m. A few dark gray bricks that apparently fell in steps, each 0.4 m high, were found on the eastern side of the burial chamber, although not in situ. The highest brick is c. 0.6 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. A goblet and two amphoriskoi were found to the north of the knees. A lamp was placed behind, to the south of the skeleton. Animal bones were found near the skull. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing north. Upper teeth: incisors show attrition of over half crown height, all the posterior teeth were lost antemortem. Lower jaw: all the posterior teeth were lost antemortem (only one side remained). Age estimation, based upon

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 39

Inventory, Tomb 583 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

58303

-

2

Amphoriskos

58302

3.30:4

3

Amphoriskos

58301

3.26:9

4

Lamp

58304

3.33:7

tooth attrition stages: >60 years. The mastoid process was relatively developed, the vertical diameter of the proximal head of the femur measured 48 mm, indicative of a male.

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40

Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Fig. 2.34. Tomb 583.

58302 58301

42.24

58303

41.63

Inventory, Tomb 584

58304 0

1

m

Plan 2.30. Tomb 583.

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

58404

3.1:16

2

Goblet

58402

3.2:19

3

Storage jar

58401

3.17:1

4

Amphoriskos

58405

3.30:9

Tomb 584 (Plan 2.31; Fig. 2.35) Gray bricks on the east, 0.55 m wide, mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The bricks are c. 0.45 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated diameter of the round burial chamber is 1.2 m. a bowl, two goblets, a storage jar and an amphoriskos were placed near the skeleton’s knees. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 40

articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the western wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented north–south, head in the north, facing east. Upper teeth: premolar shows dentine exposure in both cusps. Lower teeth: premolar shows dentine cup in one cusp, right first molar was lost antemortem, left first molar shows dentine cup in all cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–40 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Fig. 2.35. Tomb 584.

43.87 43.43 58402 58404 58405 58401 0

1

m

Inventory, Tomb 586

Plan 2.31. Tomb 584.

Tomb 585 The only remains associated with this tomb are a few non-indicative fragmentary bones found scattered about. age and sex estimations were not possible, although it was not an infant. Tomb 586 (Plan 2.32; Fig. 2.36) A complete dark gray brick and fragments of others arranged as steps, 0.4 m wide, that had blocked the entrance were found in situ on the eastern side of the chamber. The highest brick is c. 0.3 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.3 × 2.2 m. a bowl, a goblet

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 41

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

58603

3.1:22

2

Goblet

58602

3.4:12

3

Amphoriskos

58601

3.20:2

and an amphoriskos were found near the skeleton’s elbows and hands. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position against the northern wall on its left side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing southeast.

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42

Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Fig. 2.36. Tomb 586.

58603 43.49 43.20 58602 58601

Inventory, Tomb 587 0

1

m

Plan 2.32. Tomb 586.

Upper teeth: central incisor shows dentine cup, canine shows dentine exposure, premolar shows shallow dentine cup in one cusp. Lower jaw: first molar shows dentine cup in all cusps, third molar erupted. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–40 years. Sex estimation was not possible. Tomb 587 (Plan 2.33; Fig. 2.37)

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

58702

3.6:17

2

Amphoriskos

58701

3.27:6

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull and a long bone fragment of a child. The deceased was probably placed in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east. Upper teeth: deciduous canine shows complete skull and at least half crown, no attrition was noticed, deciduous second molar shows fully developed crown at least. Age estimation, based upon tooth development stages: 2–4 years.

This tomb and skeletal remains were very poorly preserved. a goblet and an amphoriskos were found to the north of the bones.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 42

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43

Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Fig. 2.37. Tomb 587.

58701 58702 43.49

0

43.85

1

m

Plan 2.33. Tomb 587.

Tomb 588 (Plan 2.34; Fig. 2.38) The tomb was very poorly preserved. The estimated diameter of the round burial chamber is 1.7 m. An amphoriskos was found to the southwest of the skeleton. To the northeast of the skeleton were a goblet and a lamp. A copper pin was found in the tomb (not on the plan). Animal bones were found to the south of the skull. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 43

Inventory, Tomb 588 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

58802

3.5:16

2

Amphoriskos

58801

3.21:5

3

Lamp

58803

3.34:6

4

Copper pin

58804

Table 4.2:1

articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its right side, oriented northwest–southeast, head in the southeast, facing north. Upper teeth: central incisor shows dentine exposure, premolar shows slight dentine exposure in one cusp, first molar shows dentine exposure in all cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 20–30 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

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44

Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Fig. 2.38. Tomb 588.

58802 43.06 58803

Inventory, Tomb 589

43.33 58801

0

1

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

58901

3.3:18

2

Amphoriskos base

58902

-

m

Plan 2.34. Tomb 588.

Tomb 589 (Plan 2.35; Fig. 2.39) Traces of dark gray brick debris on the east mark the blockage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The brick is c. 0.2 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.0 × 1.5 m. To the south of the skeleton were a goblet and the base of what appears to have been an amphoriskos.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 44

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was put in a flexed position on its left side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing south. Upper teeth: central incisor shows dentine cup, premolar shows dentine exposure in two cusps, first molar shows dentine exposure in one cusp. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–40 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

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45

Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Fig. 2.39. Tomb 589.

58901

43.43 43.64

58902 58901 0

1

m

Plan 2.35. Tomb 589.

Inventory, Tomb 590

Tomb 590 (Plan 2.36; Fig. 2.40) The bottom of the entrance shaft and the passage from the shaft to the burial chamber were preserved, with several dark gray bricks marking the blockage of the entrance found in situ. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.8 × 2.5 m. a goblet and a storage jar were found near the skeleton’s knees and a lamp was found near the hands. One bead lay between the neck and hands. Animal bones were found between the hands and the lamp.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 45

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

59002

3.3:19

2

Storage jar

59001

3.12:1

3

Lamp

59003

3.34:3

4

Bead

59004

4.1:5

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the western wall in a flexed position

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46

Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Fig. 2.40. Tomb 590.

Tomb 591 (Plan 2.37; Fig. 2.41) 59003

59002

59001

0

1

m

Plan 2.36. Tomb 590.

On the east were three dark gray bricks in situ and an additional brick on a slightly lower step to their west (not seen in the plan), marking the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The estimated size of the burial chamber is 1.3 × 1.8 m. One amphoriskos was found near the knees and a bowl was found near the hands, which were close to the skull. Between the entrance and the skeleton was a goblet. Another amphoriskos was found behind (to the west) of the skeleton’s feet, suggesting it had been deposited before the deceased was interred. Animal bones were found in front of the skeleton.

on its left side, oriented north–south, head in the north, facing east. Upper teeth: premolar shows dentine cup in one cusp, second molar shows shallow dentine cup in one cusp. Lower teeth: incisors and canine show dentine cup. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30– 40 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 46

Inventory, Tomb 591 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

59104

3.1:21

2

Goblet

59103

3.5:15

3

Amphoriskos

59101

3.26:2

4

Amphoriskos

59102

3.28:9

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47

Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Fig. 2.41. Tomb 591.

Tomb 592 (Plan 2.38; Fig. 2.42) 59102 59101

59103

59104 0

1

m

Plan 2.37. Tomb 591.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The dead was placed in a flexed position on its left side, oriented north–south, head in the north. Upper teeth: premolar shows dentine cup in one cusp, second molar shows shallow dentine cup in one cusp. Lower teeth: incisors and canine show dentine cup. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30– 40 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 47

On the east were dark gray bricks, 0.45 m wide that marked the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. One brick was found in situ, while the others were collapsed down at an angle onto the burial chamber floor. The highest brick was 0.55 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.0 × 1.3 m. The skull was close to the bottom step of the entrance passage. a goblet and an amphoriskos were placed near the knees, and a lamp, between the head and the lowest brick. The tomb contained animal bones.

Inventory, Tomb 592 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

59202

3.4:18

2

Amphoriskos

59201

3.23:4

3

Lamp

59203

3.33:8

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48

Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Fig. 2.42. Tomb 592.

42.78

59202 59201

42.23

0

59203

1

m

on the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The entrance shaft was c. 0.4 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. A storage jar was found at the bottom of the entrance shaft. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.5 × 2.5 m. A storage jar was placed near the knees, a goblet near the hands and a lamp near the head. Animal bones were found between the goblet and the lamp.

Plan 2.38. Tomb 592.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull and postcranial bones of an adult individual (>15 years). The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing north. age and sex estimations were not possible.

Inventory, Tomb 593 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

59303

3.3:8

Tomb 593 (Plan 2.39; Fig. 2.43)

2

Storage jar

59301

3.15:1

Part of the round entrance shaft was preserved, 0.45 m deep, with an estimated diameter of 0.5 m. Gray bricks

3

Storage jar

59302

-

4

Lamp

59304

-

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 48

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49

Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Fig. 2.43. Tomb 593.

Tomb 594 (Plan 2.40; Fig. 2.44)

59301

42.76 42.34 59303

59302 59304 0

1

The bottom of the entrance shaft and the passage from it to the burial chamber were found intact. The entrance on the east, 0.49 m wide, was blocked by one dark gray brick. The entrance shaft was c. 0.5 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated diameter of the burial chamber is 1.0 × 1.1 m. A goblet, a storage jar and an amphoriskos were found to the north of the skeleton and a lamp near the head.

m

Plan 2.39. Tomb 593.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southwestern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented northwest–southeast, head in the southeast, facing northeast. Upper teeth: central incisor shows attrition of half crown height, premolar shows dentine cup in both cusps. Lower teeth: first molar shows dentine cup in all cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 40–50 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 49

Inventory, Tomb 594 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1 2

Goblet

59403

3.5:10

Storage jar

59402

3.17:3

3

Amphoriskos

59401

3.22:6

4

Lamp

59404

3.33:4

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50

Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Fig. 2.44. Tomb 594.

Tomb 595 (Plan 2.41; Fig. 2.45) 59401 59403 59402

42.79

43.28

The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.0 × 1.3 m. two goblets and an amphoriskos were found near the knees. Animal bones were found near the hands.

59404 0

1

m

Plan 2.40. Tomb 594.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of a child. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing north. Lower jaw: deciduous molars and canines in place, show dentine cup, first permanent molar erupted, shows enamel attrition, second permanent molar did not erupt yet. Age estimation, based upon tooth eruption stages: 6–10 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 50

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was put in a flexed position against the northwestern

Inventory, Tomb 595 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

59502

3.3:7

2

Goblet

59503

3.6:12

3

Amphoriskos

59501

3.21:3

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51

Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Fig. 2.45. Tomb 595.

Animal bones were found to the east of the skeleton’s hands.

59503 59501 59502

0

1

m

Plan 2.41. Tomb 595.

wall on its left side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the northeast, facing south. The epiphyses of the phalanges and metacarpals are fused, indicative of an adult individual (>15 years). Sex estimation was not possible.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southwestern wall in a flexed position on its right side, in a northwest–southeast, head in the southeast, facing north. Epiphyses in the phalanges are closed, indicating an adult individual. Lower teeth: second or third molar shows enamel attrition, root broken. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: >15 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Tomb 596 (Plan 2.42; Fig. 2.46) A dark gray brick on the east, 0.44 m wide, marked the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.7 × 2.0 m. a goblet, an amphoriskos and a lamp were found to the north of the upper part of the skeleton. A copper pin was found in the tomb (not in the plan).

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 51

Inventory, Tomb 596 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

59602

3.4:5

2

Amphoriskos

59601

3.30:2

3

Lamp

59603

3.33:14

4

Copper pin

59604

Table 4.2:2

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Fig. 2.46. Tomb 596.

59601 59603

59602

0

1

m

Plan 2.42. Tomb 596.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed with its back against the western wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented north–south, head in the south, facing east. Upper teeth: first molar shows dentine exposure in one cusp, premolar shows enamel attrition. Lower teeth: second molar shows dentine exposure in one cusp, third molar erupted. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 18–25 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Tomb 597 (Plan 2.43; Fig. 2.47) The tomb and skeletal remains were very poorly preserved, its preserved size c. 0.5 × 0.9 m. a goblet, an amphoriskos and a lamp were found to the east of the skeleton’s knees. Animal bones were found in front of the skeleton.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 52

Inventory, Tomb 597 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

59702

3.5:8

2

Amphoriskos

59701

3.29:4

3

Lamp

59703

3.34:8

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

59702 59701 59703

0

1

m

Plan 2.43. Tomb 597.

Fig. 2.47. Tomb 597.

Tomb 598 (Plan 2.44; Fig. 2.48) On the east was a dark gray brick in situ, 0.6 m wide (not drawn in plan), that marks the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber; the width of the passage was 0.6 m. The estimated size of the burial chamber is 1.5 × 1.6 m. A goblet, an amphoriskos and a lamp were found to the south of the skeleton. Animal bones were found in front of the skeleton.

Inventory, Tomb 598 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

59802

3.5:11

2

Amphoriskos

59801

3.30:1

3

Lamp

59803

3.33:12

59803 59802 59801 0

1

m

Plan 2.44. Tomb 598.

Fig. 2.48. Tomb 598.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Area C (Fig. 2.49)

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its left side, oriented east–west, head in the east. Upper teeth: central incisor shows dentine exposure, premolar shows dentine cup in one cusp. Lower teeth: second molar shows dentine exposure in two cusps, third molar erupted. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 20–30 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Area C was located to the south of Area A, separated from it by a c. 10 m east–west strip resulting from development work at the site prior to the excavation; a paved road ran through this strip (see Fig. 1.3). Thus, although the two parts of the cemetery are presently detached, it is most likely that they were originally the same cemetery and that the area between them had contained densely placed tombs, as in the two excavated areas (A and C) that flank it. The southern part of Area C was damaged by development work and quarrying. The unexcavated western part of this area apparently contained additional tombs, as evidenced by a few tombs that were identified but not excavated in this area (Fig. 2.49). Seventy-nine tombs were excavated in Area C; Tombs 701, 702, 708 and 709 do not appear on the area plan, as they were not measured due to their extremely poor preservation (Fig. 2.49).

741 743

747

749

740 751

754

727 750

728 732 724 736

744

745

715 Not Excavated

717

777

772

775 780

769 773

757

776 781

778

718 707

726

759

752

706

710 737

774

764

762

722

714 713

767

770

733 756

768

771

760

763

766 761

758

734

765

721

719

748

735

716

720 Not Excavated

738 731

746

712

711

739

730

705(?)

753

729

725

779 755

704

703 0

742

4

m

Fig. 2.49. Area C. distribution of tombs.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 701 (Plan 2.45) 70205

The tomb was too damaged to reconstruct. It contained fragments of two amphoriskoi.

70202

70201

70203 70204 0

1 m

Plan 2.46. Tomb 702.

Tomb 703 (Plan 2.47) The only remnant of this tomb is a pile of dark gray bricks and to its west, a smashed amphoriskos. Inventory, Tomb 701 Inventory, Tomb 703

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Amphoriskos

70101

3.25:3

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

2

Amphoriskos

70102

-

Amphoriskos

70301

-

70101

70301

70102 0

1 m

0

Plan 2.45. Tomb 701.

Anthropological Remains The remains included pelvis fragments and a femur of an adult individual (>15 years). The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its left side, oriented north–south, head in the north. Sex estimation was not possible.

1 m

Plan 2.47. Tomb 703.

Tomb 704 (Plan 2.48) The tomb was too damaged to reconstruct. Fragments of an unrestorable amphoriskos were found near the bones. Inventory, Tomb 704

Tomb 702 (Plan 2.46)

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

Amphoriskos

70401

-

The tomb was too damaged to reconstruct and no skeletal remains were identified. It contained a bowl, a goblet, a storage jar, an amphoriskos and a lamp.

70401

0

Inventory, Tomb 702

Plan 2.48. Tomb 704.

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

70203

3.1:3

2

Goblet

70204

-

3

Storage jar

70201

-

4

Amphoriskos

70202

3.30:11

5

Lamp

70205

-

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 55

1 m

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary long bones found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was oriented north–south, head in the north. Age and sex estimations were not possible, although it was not a young child.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Tomb 705

Tomb 707 (Plan 2.50)

Anthropological Remains The only remains in this tomb were a fragmentary skull and a femur of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position oriented north–south, head in the north. age and sex estimations were not possible.

The tomb was too damaged to reconstruct. It contained a bowl, a goblet and two amphoriskoi.

Tomb 706 (Plan 2.49) The tomb was too damaged to reconstruct. To the east of the skeleton were a goblet, two storage jars, an amphoriskos and a lamp. One goblet was found to its west.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its left side, oriented north–south, head in the north. Upper teeth: canine shows shallow dentine cup, first molar shows dentine cup in all cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–50 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Inventory, Tomb 706 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

70603

-

Inventory, Tomb 707

2

Goblet

70604

3.6:6

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

3

Storage jar

70601

-

1

Bowl

70702

3.1:17

4

Storage jar

70602

-

2

Goblet

70703

3.6:8

5

Amphoriskos

70606

-

3

Amphoriskos

70701

-

6

Lamp

70605

-

4

Amphoriskos

70704

-

70603 70605

70704

70701

70601 70604

70602 70702

70606 0

Plan 2.49. Tomb 706.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its left side, oriented north–south, head in the north, facing east. Upper teeth: premolar shows attrition of half crown height and in the central fossa. Lower teeth: second and third molars show dentine cup in all cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: >50 years. The mastoid process and the superior nuchal line are relatively developed, indicating a male.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 56

70703

0

1 m

1 m

Plan 2.50. Tomb 707.

Tomb 709 Anthropological Remains The only remains in this tomb were a fragmentary skull and long bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its right side, oriented north–south, head in the north. Epiphyses in the long bones were fused, indicating an adult (>18 years old). Sex estimation was not possible.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 710 (Plan 2.51; Fig. 2.50) The tomb was too damaged to reconstruct and only fragmentary bones could be identified. Two dark gray bricks in the east, 0.45 m wide, mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The floor of the entrance shaft was c. 0.4 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. a bowl and two amphoriskoi were found to the east of the bones. The anthropological remains were not examined.

Inventory, Tomb 710 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

71003

-

2

Amphoriskos

71001

3.24:5

3

Amphoriskos

71002

3.30:6

Tomb 711 (Plan 2.52; Fig. 2.51) 71001

71002

71003

0

Plan 2.51. Tomb 710.

1

m

Fragments of dark gray bricks on the east marked the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft and the passage to the burial chamber. The brick was c. 0.3 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.5 × 1.9 m. a bowl, a goblet and an amphoriskos were found near the skeleton’s torso, and a lamp near the hands, which were near the head.

Fig. 2.50. Tomb 710.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Fig. 2.51. Tomb 711.

71103

43.49

71104 43.18

71101 71102

0

Tomb 712 (Plan 2.53; Fig. 2.52) 1

m

Plan 2.52. Tomb 711.

Inventory, Tomb 711 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

71103

-

2

Goblet

71104

-

3

Amphoriskos

71101

-

4

Lamp

71102

-

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its left side, oriented northwest–southeast, head in the northwest. The skull had been badly damaged by modern activity.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 58

Upper teeth: lateral incisor shows dentine exposure. Lower teeth: canine shows enamel attrition, first molar shows dentine cup in two cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 20–30 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Fragments of gray bricks on the south mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the gray brick is c. 0.12 m higher than the floor of the chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.9 × 1.5 m. A storage jar was found near the feet, and a goblet and lamp near the hands that were close to the head. Animal bones were found near the top of the skull. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the eastern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented north–south, head in the south, facing west. Lower jaw: right first molar was lost antemortem, premolar shows dentine exposure in one cusp,

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

second molar shows dentine exposure in all cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–40 years. The mastoid process and the glabella are relatively developed, indicating a male.

Tomb 713 (Plan 2.54; Fig. 2.53) Gray bricks in the northeast, found sloping down, mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the bricks is c. 0.4 m higher than the floor of the chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.0 × 1.8 m. a bowl, a goblet and an amphoriskos were found at the bottom of the bricks, northeast of the skeleton’s hands.

Inventory, Tomb 712 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

1

Goblet

2

Storage jar

3

Lamp

71203

Inventory, Tomb 713 Fig.

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

71202

-

1

Bowl

71302

3.1:12

71201

3.8:2

2

Goblet

71303

3.4:15

-

3

Amphoriskos

71301

3.20:1

71201

42.59 71202 71203 43.11

0

1

m

Plan 2.53. Tomb 712.

Fig. 2.52. Tomb 712.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southeastern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the northeast, facing northwest. The superior nuchal line is relatively developed. The epiphyses of the long bones are fused, indicating an individual >18 years old. Sex estimation was not possible.

Tomb 714 (Plan 2.55; Figs. 2.54, 2.57) Gray bricks on the east, found sloping down, mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The bricks were 0.45 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.9 × 1.1 m. A teapot was found near the skeleton’s knees, and a bowl and a goblet near the hands.

Inventory, Tomb 714 44.38

71301

71302 71303 42.90

0

1

m

Plan 2.54. Tomb 713.

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

71403

3.1:6

2

Goblet

71402

3.6:19

3

Teapot

71401

3.32:3

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of a child. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the northwestern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the northeast, facing southeast.

Fig. 2.53. Tomb 713.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

71403 71401 42.57 43.03

0

1

m

Plan 2.55. Tomb 714.

Fig. 2.54. Tomb 714.

Upper jaw: permanent lateral incisor erupted, permanent premolar did not erupt. Lower jaw: deciduous molar present, permanent first molar erupted. Age estimation, based upon tooth eruption stages: 6–7 years. Sex estimation was not possible. Tomb 715 (Plan 2.56; Fig. 2.55) The estimated diameter of the round burial chamber is 1.4 m. Two amphoriskoi with a lamp between them were found to the north of the skeleton (apparently along the northern wall of the chamber), and a bowl lay near its elbows.

Inventory, Tomb 715 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

71504

-

2

Amphoriskos

71501

3.28:2

3

Amphoriskos

71502

3.22:2

4

Lamp

71503

-

71502

71501 71503 71504

0

1

m

Plan 2.56. Tomb 715.

Fig. 2.55. Tomb 715.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing north. Upper jaw: central incisor and canine show dentine exposure, premolar shows dentine exposure in one cusp. Lower jaw: first molar shows dentine exposure in two cusps, second molar shows enamel attrition, third molar erupted. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 18–25 years. Skull morphology is characteristic of a female.

Inventory, Tomb 716 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

71605

-

2

Goblet

71606

3.5:13

3

Storage jar

71603

3.19:4

4

Storage jar

71604

-

5

Lamp

71601

3.34:10

Tomb 716 (Plan 2.57; Fig. 2.56) Several gray bricks on the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.3 × 1.4 m. To the east of the skeleton’s lower body were a bowl, a goblet and two storage jars. A lamp was found near the hands, which were near the head. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical

articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the western wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented north–south, head in the north, facing east. Lower jaw: right posterior teeth were lost antemortem, other teeth were not found. Age estimation: >30 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

71606 42.64 71605 71604 71603 71602 0

1

m

Plan 2.57. Tomb 716.

Fig. 2.56. Tomb 716.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 717 (Plan 2.58; Figs. 2.57, 2.58) The estimated diameter of the burial chamber is 1 m. An amphoriskos was found to the north of the skeleton.

Inventory, Tomb 717

71701 42.55

0

1

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Amphoriskos

71701

3.30:12

m

Plan 2.58. Tomb 717.

Fig. 2.57. Tombs 714+717.

Fig. 2.58. Tomb 717.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull and postcranial bones of a young individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southeastern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented east–west, head in the southwest. The femoral length is >250 mm, indicating an individual >5 years old. Sex estimation was not possible.

Inventory, Tomb 718 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

71804

3.2:1

2

Storage jar

71802

3.18:2

Tomb 718 (Plan 2.59; Fig. 2.59)

3

Amphoriskos

71801

3:28:1

Dark gray bricks on the north, 0.45 m wide that had blocked the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber were found fallen on the chamber floor. The entrance to the tomb from the north is rare. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.0 × 1.5 m. Four vessels were found to the east of the skeleton, apparently against the eastern wall: a storage jar and an amphoriskos near the legs, and to their north, a goblet and a lamp near the bricks in the entrance.

4

Lamp

71803

-

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical

articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its left side, oriented north–south, head in the north. Lower jaw: incisors show deep dentine cup, premolar shows attrition of less than half crown height (the tooth was covered by patina, thus the exact attrition was impossible to reconstruct), all molars were lost antemortem. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 40–50 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

42.78

71804 71803 42.77 71802

71801 0

1

m

Plan 2.59. Tomb 718.

Fig. 2.59. Tomb 718.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 719 (Plan 2.60; Fig. 2.60) Gray bricks on the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.5 × 1.5 m. A goblet and a lamp were found near the knees, and an amphoriskos to their south. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical

articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the northwestern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the northeast, facing southeast. Upper jaw: premolars show dentine cup in both cups, first molar shows attrition of over half crown height. Lower jaw: incisors show attrition of nearly half crown height, all molars were lost antemortem. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: >50 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

43.90 42.33 71903 71904

Inventory, Tomb 719 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

71903

3.2:8

2

Amphoriskos

71901

3.22:1

3

Lamp

71904

-

71901 0

1

m

Plan 2.60. Tomb 719.

Fig. 2.60. Tomb 719.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Tomb 720 (Plan 2.61; Fig. 2.61)

Tomb 721 (Plan 2.62; Fig 2.62)

The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.6 × 1.2 m. The deceased was placed on its side near the southern wall, head in the east, facing north. To the north of the skeleton were a bowl, a goblet and a small amphoriskos. The anthropological remains were not examined.

The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.3 × 1.6 m. The poorly preserved bones indicated that the deceased was placed on its side on a north–south orientation, head in the south. A storage jar was found near the femur, a goblet near the skull, and another goblet near the feet. An amphoriskos was located between the skeleton and the western wall of the burial chamber. Assuming that the entrance had been from the east, this would indicate that this jar was deposited prior to the interment of the deceased. The anthropological remains were not examined.

Inventory, Tomb 720 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

72003

3.1:18

2

Goblet

72002

3.5: 9

3

Amphoriskos

72001

-

72001 72002

Inventory, Tomb 721

72003

0

1

m

Plan 2.61. Tomb 720.

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

72103

3.5:2

2

Goblet

72104

-

3

Storage jar

72101

3.18:4

4

Amphoriskos

72102

3.26:1

Fig. 2.61. Tomb 720.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

72104

72101

72102

72103 0

1

m

Plan 2.62. Tomb 721 Fig. 2.62. Tomb 721.

Tomb 722 (Plan 2.63; Fig. 2.63) The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.7 × 1.0 m. It contained a mug, a storage jar and a lamp. Inventory, Tomb 722 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Mug

72202

3.7:5

2

Storage jar

72201

3.13:2

3

Lamp

72203

3.36:2

72201 72202 72203 0

1

m

Plan 2.63. Tomb 722.

Fig. 2.63. Tomb 722.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Anthropological Remains The remains included few cranial and postcranial fragments. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. Although very poorly preserved, it seems that the deceased was placed oriented east–west, head in the east. Age and sex estimations were not possible, although it was not an infant. Tomb 723 (Plan 2.64; Fig. 2.64) This tomb was too damaged to reconstruct. Six fallen dark gray bricks that marked the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber were found collapsed onto the chamber floor. To the west of the bricks were an amphoriskos and a goblet.

Tomb 724 (Fig. 2.65; Plan 2.65) The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.6 × 1.4 m. A storage jar, a mug and a lamp were placed closely together to the north of the skeleton. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented east–west, head in the west, facing north.

Inventory, Tomb 724 Inventory, Tomb 723

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Mug

72402

3.7:6

1

Goblet

72302

-

2

Storage jar

72401

3.19:3

2

Amphoriskos

72301

3.30:10

3

Lamp

72403

3.34:18

72301 1

72302

1 0

1

m

1-1

Plan 2.64. Tomb 723.

Fig. 2.64. Tomb 723.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

72402 72401 72403

69

41.80

0

1

m

Plan. 2.65. Tomb 724.

Fig. 2.65. Tomb 724.

Upper jaw: incisors show deep dentine cup. Lower jaw: incisors and premolar show attrition of nearly half crown height, first molar was lost antemortem, second molar shows dentine cup in one cusp, third molar shows enamel attrition. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 40–50 years. Sex estimation was not possible. Tomb 725 (Plan 2.66; Fig. 2.66)

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east. Upper teeth: second molar shows dentine exposure in one cusp, third molar shows enamel attrition. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 18–25 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.6 × 1.1 m. To the west of the skeleton were a storage jar and an amphoriskos.

Inventory, Tomb 725 No.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 69

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Storage jar

72501

3.18:3

2

Amphoriskos

72502

3.24:1

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

72501

41.66

72502 0

1

m

Plan 2.66. Tomb 725.

Fig. 2.66. Tomb 725.

Tomb 726 (Plan 2.67; Fig. 2.67) This tomb was cut into the kurkar layer. The only remains identified in this tomb are two dark gray bricks

that mark the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The bricks are c. 0.75 m higher than the floor of the chamber. a bowl, a goblet and two amphoriskoi were found to the west of the bricks.

Inventory, Tomb 726

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 70

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

72604

3.1:20

2

Goblet

72603

3.2:10

3

Amphoriskos

72601

3.25:1

4

Amphoriskos

72602

3.26:4

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

72601 72602 40.37

72604

0

41.11 72603

1

m

Plan 2.67. Tomb 726.

Fig. 2.67. Tomb 726.

Tomb 727 (Plan 2.68; Fig. 2.68) Dark gray bricks on the south marked the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The bricks were c. 0.3 m higher than the floor of the chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.7 × 1.3 m. A goblet and an amphoriskos were found to the southwest of the skeleton. Twelve beads had been hung around the neck of the deceased.

Inventory, Tomb 727 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

72702

3.4:8

2

Amphoriskos

72701

3.25:4

3

12 beads

72703–72714

4.1:8–19

Beads 72703-72714 72701 41.65 72702 41.93 0

1

m

Plan 2.68. Tomb 727.

Fig. 2.68. Tomb 727.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the northern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing south. Lower teeth: three premolars show enamel attrition, first molars show dentine cup in two cusps, third molar erupted. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 20–30 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

was placed against the northwestern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the northeast, facing southeast. The pelvic sciatic notch is relatively wide, indicative of a female. Lower jaw: central incisors show attrition of nearly half crown height, left first molar was lost antemortem, second molar shows shallow dentine cup in one cusp. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–50 years. The skull morphology is indicative of a female.

Tomb 728 (Plan 2.69; Fig. 2.69) Dark gray bricks on the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The bricks were c. 0.4 m higher than the chamber floor. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.1 × 1.5 m. a bowl, a mug and an amphoriskos were found to the east of the skeleton, in the narrow space between it and the bricks. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased

Inventory, Tomb 728 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

72803

3.1:14

2

Mug

72802

3.7:2

3

Amphoriskos

72801

3.27:5

41.53 41.94

72803 72802 72801 0

1

m

Plan 2.69. Tomb 728.

Fig. 2.69. Tomb 728.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 729 (Plan 2.70; Fig. 2.70) A concentration of gray bricks on the east marks the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The bricks were found fallen on the burial chamber floor. The top of the bricks was c. 0.6 m higher than the floor. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.4 × 1.5 m. a mug and an amphoriskos were found to the west of the head, indicating that they had been deposited before the deceased was interred. Animal bones were found to the southeast of the skull.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary lower jaw and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was found on its back with both knees flexed, oriented north–south, head in the south. The bones probably moved from the original burial posture, which was most likely in a flexed position on its left side. Lower jaw: central incisor and canine show dentine exposure, left first molar shows dentine cup in two cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 20–30 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

41.25 41.84 72901

Inventory, Tomb 729 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Mug

72902

-

2

Amphoriskos

72901

3.26:5

72902 0

1

m

Plan 2.70. Tomb 729.

Fig. 2.70. Tomb 729.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Tomb 730 (Plan 2.71; Fig. 2.71) Gray bricks in the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the bricks was c. 0.35 m higher than the floor. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.8 × 1.8 m. A jug was found to the south of the arms.

Tomb 731 (Plan 2.72; Fig. 2.72)

Inventory, Tomb 730 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Jug

73001

3.31:1

41.24

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the northern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing south. Upper teeth: central incisors show deep dentine cup, first molar shows deep dentine cup in all cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 40–50 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Remnants of gray bricks in the southeast mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber, The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.0 × 1.5 m. a goblet and an amphoriskos were found to the south of the skeleton.

41.59

Inventory, Tomb 731

73001

No. 0

1

m

Plan 2.71. Tomb 730.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

73102

3.6:14

2

Amphoriskos

73101

3.28:4

Fig. 2.71. Tomb 730.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

73102 41.55 73101

0

1

m

Plan 2.72. Tomb 731.

Fig. 2.72. Tomb 731.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the northern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing south. Upper teeth: central incisor shows dentine exposure, premolars show enamel attrition. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 17–25 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

was placed against the southern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing north. Upper teeth: premolar shows dentine exposure in both cusps, first molar shows dentine cup in two cusps. Lower teeth: incisors show shallow dentine cup, first molar shows dentine exposure in two cusps, second molar shows enamel attrition, third molar erupted. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 20–30 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Tomb 732 (Plan 2.73; Fig. 2.73) Two bricks found in situ in the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The bricks were c. 0.5 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.1 × 1.7 m. a bowl, a goblet, a storage jar, and part of another storage jar were found to the north of the skeleton. Another goblet was discovered after the tomb was excavated and the finds removed, and does not appear in the plan. Animal bones were found near the skull. Anthroplogical Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 75

Inventory, Tomb 732 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

73204

3.1:7

2

Goblet

73205

-

3

Goblet

73203

3.5:5

4

Storage jar

72301

3.17:6

5

Storage jar

72302

-

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

73202 73203 73204 73201 41.34 40.86

0

1

m

Plan 2.73. Tomb 732.

Fig. 2.73. Tomb 732.

Tomb 733 (Plan 2.74; Fig. 2.74) Several dark gray bricks on the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The bricks were c. 0.55 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.6 × 1.2 m. The deceased was placed in a flexed position near the eastern wall, head in the south. A storage jar was found near the hands, and a goblet and an amphoriskos were found near the skull. The anthropological remains were not examined.

Inventory, Tomb 733 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

73303

3.4:13

2

Storage jar

73301

3.14:5

3

Amphoriskos

73302

3.26:3

40.58

41.15 73301 73303 73302

0

1

m

Plan 2.74. Tomb 733.

Fig. 2.74. Tomb 733.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 734 (Plan 2.75; Figs. 2.75, 2.76) The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.6 × 1.1 m. a goblet, two amphoriskoi and a lamp were found near the skull.

77

shows enamel attrition, third molar erupted. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 18–25 years. Skull morphology indicates a male.

Inventory, Tomb 734 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

1

Goblet

73403

Fig. 3.4:1

2

Amphoriskos

73401

-

3

Amphoriskos

73402

-

4

Lamp

73404

3.36:9

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the western wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented north–south, head in the south, facing east. Upper teeth: central incisor shows dentine exposure, premolar shows enamel attrition, left first and second molars were lost antemortem. Lower teeth: right first molar shows dentine cup in one cusp, second molar

Fig. 2.75. Tomb 734.

73401 73404 40.71 73402 73403 0

1

m

Plan 2.75. Tomb 734.

Fig. 2.76. Tomb 734.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Tomb 735 (Plan 2.76; Fig. 2.77) Gray bricks in the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The bricks are c. 0.4 m higher than the floor of the chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.4 × 2.1 m. Two amphoriskoi were found to the north of the skeleton’s knees. To the east of these vessels were a goblet and a lamp. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing north. Lumbar vertebrae show osteophytes larger than 1 mm, indicating an individual >40 years old. Upper teeth: premolar shows dentine cup in both cusps. Lower jaw: left first molar shows deep dentine cup in all cusps, second molar was lost antemortem. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 40–60 years. The superior nuchal line was relatively undeveloped. However, the pubic angle was relatively acute, characteristic of a male.

Inventory, Tomb 735 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

73504

3.2:15

2

Amphoriskos

73501

3.23:3

3

Amphoriskos

73502

3.29:1

4

Lamp

73503

3.33:20

Plan 2.76. Tomb 735. ►

73501

41.39 73504

73502

41.04 73503

0

1

m

Fig. 2.77. Tomb 735.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

73601 41.29 73603

73602 0

1

m

Plan 2.77. Tomb 736.

Fig. 2.78. Tomb 736.

Tomb 736 (Plan 2.77; Fig. 2.78)

Tomb 737 (Plan 2.78; Fig. 2.79)

Gray bricks on the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.5 × 1.9 m. The deceased was laid near the western wall, its head in the south. A goblet, an amphoriskos and a lamp were found between the skeleton and the entrance. The anthropological remains were not examined.

Part of a gray brick on the east marks the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. a bowl, a goblet and a lamp were found near the poorly preserved skeletal remains.

Inventory, Tomb 737 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

73702

3.1:15

2

Goblet

73701

3.2:17

3

Lamp

73703

3.36:8

Inventory, Tomb 736 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

73602

3.4:9

2

Amphoriskos

73601

3.28:5

3

Lamp

73603

3.34:2

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 79

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its left side, oriented north–south, head in the north. Upper teeth: central incisor shows shallow dentine cup, premolar shows slight dentine exposure in one cusp. Lower teeth: first molar shows dentine cup in one cusp, dentine exposure in the other cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 20–30 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

73702 73703

41.03 73701 0

1

m

Plan 2.78. Tomb 737.

Fig. 2.79. Tomb 737.

Tomb 738 (Plan 2.79) 73801

Several dark gray bricks on the east, 0.4 m wide, the uppermost one in situ, mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the bricks was c. 0.5 m higher than the floor of the chamber. The estimated diameter of the burial chamber is 1.2 × 1.7 m. To the north of the skeleton were a goblet and an amphoriskos. A lamp was found near the skull, just west of the lowest brick. Animal bones were found near the skeleton.

73802 73803

41.17 41.65 0

1

m

Plan 2.79. Tomb 738.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull and postcranial bones. The deceased was placed in a primary burial oriented east–west, head in the east. Some of the bones were displaced. age and sex estimations were not possible, although it was not an infant. Tomb 739 (Fig. 2.80; Plan 2.80) Inventory, Tomb 738 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

73802

3.4:10

2

Amphoriskos

73801

3.21:1

3

Lamp

73803

3.34:12

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 80

The bottom of the entrance shaft was found on the east, with a smashed storage jar. The top of the storage jar was c. 0.7 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.6 × 2.0 m. A lamp was found near the hands. a goblet and an amphoriskos were discovered behind the skeleton

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

on the southwest, incidating they had been deposited before the deceased was interred. Animal bones were found next to the hands. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased

was placed against the southwestern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented northwest–southeast, head in the southeast, facing northwest. Lower jaw: canine shows deep dentine cup, premolar shows dentine cup in both cusps, first molar was lost antemortem. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 40–50 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

73903 73904 40.81 73902

Inventory, Tomb 739 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

41.53

Fig.

1

Goblet

73902

3.6:3

2

Storage Jar

73904

-

3

Amphoriskos

73901

3.24:4

4

Lamp

73903

3.33:9

73901

0

1

m

Plan 2.80. Tomb 739.

Fig. 2.80. Tomb 739.

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Tomb 740 (Plan 2.81) A dark gray brick, 0.45 m wide, found in situ in the south, marks the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The brick was c. 0.1 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. This is one of the rare cases in which the entrance shaft was not on the eastern side of the tomb. Only part of burial chamber was preserved. A goblet was placed near the skeleton’s knees.

41.65 74001 41.73

0

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary postcranial bones, found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position against the northern wall on its left side, oriented east–west, head in the east. Epiphyses in the metatarsal bones are fused, indicating an adult individual. Sex estimation was not possible.

Inventory, Tomb 740 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

74001

3.6:2

1

m

Plan 2.81. Tomb 740.

Tomb 741 (Plan 2.82; Fig. 2.81) Remains of dark gray bricks on the south mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. This is one of the rare cases in which the entrance shaft was not on the eastern side of the tomb. The northern part of the burial chamber had been damaged. The upper part of the skeleton was found in anatomical articulation in the eastern part of the burial chamber and the lower limbs, in the western part. The deceased had been placed against the northern wall, with its head in the east, facing south. In the narrow

74101 74102 74103

41.84 74104

41.19 0

1

m

Plan 2.82. Tomb 741.

Fig. 2.81. Tomb 741.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

area between the skeleton and the bricks were a mug, two amphoriskoi and a lamp. The anthropological remains were not examined.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull and postcranial bones of an adult individual (>15 years). The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing north. Sex estimation was not possible.

Inventory, Tomb 741 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

1

Mug

74103

Fig. 3.7:1

2

Amphoriskos

74101

3.26:7

3

Amphoriskos

74102

3.24:3

4

Lamp

74104

-

Tomb 742 (Plan 2.83; Fig. 2.82) Remains of gray bricks in the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The bricks are c. 0.5 m higher than the floor of the chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.6 × 1.8 m. a mug and a storage jar were found to the north of the skeleton, and a lamp near the skull. Animal bones were found near the legs.

Inventory, Tomb 742 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Mug

74202

3.7:9

2

Storage jar

74201

3.10:2

3

Lamp

74203

-

74201 40.65 74202 40.07

74203

0

1

m

Plan 2.83. Tomb 742.

Fig. 2.82. Tomb 742.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Tomb 743 (Plan 2.84; Fig. 2.83) On the east, the bottom of the entrance shaft was found, with two gray bricks in situ, 0.5 m wide, marking the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.5 × 2.0 m. To the south of the skeleton were a mug, an amphoriskos and a lamp.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the northern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the east, facing south. Lower jaw: right first molar was lost antemortem, second molar shows dentine cup in one cusp. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 20–40 years. The mastoid process is relatively developed, possibly indicative of a male.

L1034 40.64

74302 74303 74301

Inventory, Tomb 743 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Mug

74302

3.7:8

2

Amphoriskos

74301

3.20:3

3

Lamp

74303

-

0

1 m

Plan 2.84. Tomb 743.

Fig. 2.83. Tomb 743.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 744 (Plan 2.85; Fig. 2.84) Several dark gray bricks on the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The skull adjoined the western end of the bricks. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.4 × 1.6 m. A group of vessels was found to the northwest of the skeleton, including a bowl, a goblet, an amphoriskos, a storage jar and a lamp. A copper pin was found in the tomb (not on the plan).

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southeastern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the east, facing northwest. Lower jaw: premolars, first molars, and right second molar were lost antemortem. Right third molar shows dentine cup in one cusp, left third molar shows dentine exposure in one cusp. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: >30 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

74404

74401 41.62

74402

Inventory, Tomb 744 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

74403

3.1:5

2

Goblet

74404

3.3:9

3

Storage jar

74402

3.16:3

4

Amphoriskos

74401

3.27:1

5

Lamp

74405

-

6

Copper pin

74406

4.3:2

74405

74403

0

1

m

Plan 2.85. Tomb 744.

Fig. 2.84. Tomb 744.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Tomb 745 (Plan 2.86; Fig. 2.85) One dark gray brick on the east was found in situ, 0.7 m wide, marking the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The brick was c. 0.8 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.4 × 1.4 m. A lamp was found near the knees and a goblet near the skull. An amphoriskos was found to the west of the skeleton, indicating that it had been deposited before the deceased was interred. A copper pin was found in the tomb (not in the plan). Animal bones were found near the lower part of the skeleton.

Inventory, Tomb 745 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

74502

-

2

Amphoriskos

74501

3.27:4

3

Lamp

74503

3.33:18

4

Copper pin

74504

Table 4.2:4

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the western wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented northwest–southeast, head in the southeast, facing northwest. The epiphyses in the long bones are fused, indicative of an individual >20 years old. Sex estimation was not possible.

74503 41.58 40.76 74501

74502

Plan 2.86. Tomb 745. ►

0

1

m

Fig. 2.85. Tomb 745.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 746 (Plan 2.87; Fig. 2.86)

Tomb 747 (Plan 2.88; Fig. 2.87)

Fragments of dark gray bricks on the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the poorly preserved burial chamber, whose estimated diameter is 1 m. The bricks were c. 0.55 m higher than the floor of the chamber. No skeletal remains were identified. The tomb contained a teapot near the lower part of the skeleton and one bead.

The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.0 × 1.9 m. A poorly preserved goblet found near the hands. To the west of the skeleton were an amphoriskos and a copper blade laid alongside the shoulder and head. These two items had been deposited before the deceased was interred.

Inventory, Tomb 746 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Teapot

74601

3.32:2

2

Bead

74602

4.1:6

41.36 74601

Inventory, Tomb 747 40.80

0

1

m

Plan 2.87. Tomb 746.

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

74702

3.2:3

2

Amphoriskos

74701

3.21:2

3

Copper blade

74703

4.2:6

Fig. 2.86. Tomb 746.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

74701

42.60

74703 74702 0

1

m

Plan 2.88. Tomb 747.

Fig. 2.87. Tomb 747.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, tooth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its right side, oriented north–south, head in the south, facing east. The epiphyses of the long bones are fused, indicative of an adult individual (>18 years). Skull morphology is indicative of a male.

Inventory, Tomb 749 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Storage jar

74902

-

2

Amphoriskos

74901

-

3

Lamp

74903

3.35:10

Tomb 749 (Plan 2.89; Fig. 2.88) Gray bricks on the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The bricks were c. 0.55 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.6 × 1.4 m; its northern side was severely damaged by modern activity. a storage jar and an amphoriskos found on the northern side of the burial chamber had been damaged. A lamp lay near the knees.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 88

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull and postcranial bones of a child. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented east–west, head in the west. Epiphyses in the tibia and humerus are still open, indicative of an individual 40 years. The glabella and brow ridges, and the mastoid process are relatively developed, indicative of a male.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

75001

75003 75002 41.51

41.04 75004

0

1

m

Fig. 2.90. Tomb 750.

Fig. 2.89. Tomb 750.

Tomb 751 (Plan 2.91; Fig. 2.90) A fragment of a dark gray brick on the south marks the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the brick is c. 0.2 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. Only part of the burial chamber was preserved. An amphoriskos was found to the south of the hands. One bead was found in this tomb.

Inventory, Tomb 751 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Amphoriskos

75101

-

2

Bead

75102

4.1:7

41.34

75101 0

41.53 1

m

Plan 2.91. Tomb 751.

Fig. 2.90. Tomb 751.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of a child. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in the north in a flexed position on its left side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing south. Lower teeth: deciduous molars show dentine cup, permanent premolar erupted on the left side only, permanent first molar shows enamel attrition. Age estimation, based upon tooth eruption and attrition stages: 8–10 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

position on its left side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the northeast, looking southeast. Upper teeth: incisors show dentine exposure, premolar shows enamel attrition, first molar shows dentine cup in one cusp. Lower teeth: first molar shows dentine cup in three cusps, third molar about to erupt. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition and eruption stages: 18–25 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Tomb 752 (Plan 2.92; Fig. 2.91) The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.1 × 1.5 m. a bowl, a goblet, a storage jar and a lamp were found near the knees, and another goblet, near the skull. A storage jar discovered near the feet seems to have originally been part of this group of vessels, but subsequently moved.

75206

40.93

40.20

75204

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the northwestern wall in a flexed

75202

75203

75201 0

1

m

Plan 2.92. Tomb 752.

Inventory, Tomb 752 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

75204

3.1:13

2

Goblet

75203

3.4:17

3

Goblet

75205

-

4

Storage jar

75201

3.15:3

5

Storage jar

75202

-

6

Lamp

75206

3.33:2

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 91

Fig. 2.91. Tomb 752.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Tomb 753 (Plan 2.93; Fig. 2.92) Several gray bricks in situ in the east, 0.8 m wide, mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the brick is c. 1 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.5 × 1.8 m. A storage jar lying on its side and two goblets were found between the lower part of the skeleton and the bricks; one goblet was standing on its base and the other lying on its side, the vessels possibly having been knocked over when some of the bricks that had blocked the entrance collapsed into the chamber. An animal bone was found next to the skeleton.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its right side, oriented southeast–northwest, head in the southeast, facing northeast. The upper part of the skeleton was in the southeast and the lower part was in the northwest. Upper teeth: second molar shows dentine cup in all cusps. Lower teeth: premolar shows shallow dentine cup in one cusp, enamel attrition in the other cusp. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–50 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

75301

75302 40.34

41.39

75303

Inventory, Tomb 753 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

75302

3.4:11

2

Goblet

75303

-

3

Storage jar

75301

3.14:2

0

1

m

Plan 2.93. Tomb 753.

Fig. 2.92. Tomb 753.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tombs 754 and 755 (Plan 2.94; Figs. 2.93–2.95) Tombs 754 and 755 shared a common entrance shaft. Tomb 754 was dug to the southwest of the shaft, while Tomb 755 was dug to its northeast. Tomb 754 (Plan 2.94; Figs. 2.93, 2.94) Gray bricks in the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The bricks are c. 1.4 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber

93

is 1.0 × 1.2 m. a bowl, a goblet, a storage jar and an amphoriskos were found near the knees, and a lamp near the hands, close to the entrance to the chamber. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the northwestern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented northwest–southeast, head in the northeast, looking southeast.

Inventory, Tomb 754 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

75404

3.1:9

2

Goblet

75403

3.3:3

3

Storage jar

75401

3.19:2

4

Amphoriskos

75402

3.25:2

5

Lamp

75405

3.36:3

Fig. 2.93. Tomb 754.

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T755 75503 40.62 75502

T754 75501

75504

41.06

75405 41.15 39.72 75403

75404

75401 75402 0

1

m

Plan 2.94. Tombs 754 and 755.

Fig. 2.94. Tombs 754 and 755.

Upper teeth: central incisor shows dentine exposure, premolar shows dentine exposure in one cusp, first molar shows dentine cup in one cusp. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 20–30 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 94

Tomb 755 (Plan 2.94; Figs. 2.94, 2.95) Gray bricks in the southwest mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the bricks are c. 0.5 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.9 × 1.4 m. a goblet, a storage jar

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

and a lamp were found between the skeleton and the bricks. A bowl was found near the knees. Animal bones were found between the skeleton and the goblet.

Upper teeth: central incisor shows deep dentine cup, premolar shows dentine exposure in one cusp. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–40 years. Sex estimation was not possible. Tomb 756 (Plan 2.95; Fig. 2.96) Gray bricks on the east, 0.4 m wide, mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.9 × 1.5 m. An amphoriskos was found near the soles of the feet, and a mug and an amphoriskos near the knees, close to the bricks. A lamp lay to the north of the skull.

Inventory, Tomb 755 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

75503

3.1:10

2

Goblet

75502

3.3:11

3

Storage jar

75501

3.14:3

4

Lamp

75504

3.33:5

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the northeastern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the southeast, facing southwest.

Inventory, Tomb 756 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Mug

75603

3.7:3

2

Amphoriskos

75601

-

3

Amphoriskos

75602

3.28:6

4

Lamp

75604

3.36:4

Fig. 2.95. Tomb 755.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

75604 75603 75602 41.16

75601

0

1

m

Plan 2.95. Tomb 756.

Fig. 2.96. Tomb 756.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the western wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the north, facing east. Upper teeth: incisors and canine show dentine exposure. Lower teeth: incisors show dentine exposure, premolar shows enamel attrition. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 18–25 years. Sex estimation was not possible. Tomb 757 (Plan 2.96; Fig. 2.97) Gray bricks on the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The bricks are c. 0.45 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.7 × 1.2 m. A goblet and an amphoriskos were found to the north of the skull, near the bricks. Animal bones were found between the skull and the bricks.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 96

Inventory, Tomb 757 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

75702

3.2:16

2

Amphoriskos

75701

3.29:6

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of a child. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing north. Upper teeth: first molars show no attrition, the crown is fully developed, the root is broken. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition and development stages: 4–6 years.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

75701 75702 40.57 41.06

0

1

m

Plan 2.96. Tomb 757.

Fig. 2.97. Tomb 757.

Tomb 758 (Plan 2.97; Fig. 2.98) The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.0 × 1.8 m. An amphoriskos was found near the elbows and a goblet near the hands, possibly having been originally grasped by them. A copper pin was found to the north of animal bones near the knees. Anthropological Remains The remains included fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the

Inventory, Tomb 758 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

75802

3.5:4

2

Amphoriskos

75801

3.25:6

3

Copper pin

75803

4.3:1

75803

75801 75802 41.17

0

1

m

Plan 2.97. Tomb 758.

Fig. 2.98. Tomb 758.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

southern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing north. Upper teeth: central incisor shows dentine cup, premolar shows dentine exposure in two cusps. Lower teeth: canine shows dentine exposure, first molar shows dentine cup in all cusps, second molar shows dentine cup in one cusp, third molar erupted. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–40 years. Sex estimation was not possible. Inventory, Tomb 759 No.

Tomb 759 (Plan 2.98; Fig. 2.99) Gray bricks on the east, eroded onto the floor of the burial chamber, mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.9 × 1.4 m. A storage jar was found 0.5 m above the floor in the center of the burial chamber, just west of the bricks; it is possible that the jar had been originally placed on the bottom of the entrance shaft, but eventually rolled into the chamber along with the collapse and erosion of the gray bricks that had blocked the passage from the shaft to the chamber. Above this storage jar were a bowl and a lamp, and on the floor of the burial chamber was another storage jar. Animal bones were found between the hands and the bricks.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

75903

3.1:1

2

Storage jar

75902

3.15:4

3

Storage jar

75901

3.16:1

4

Lamp

75904

3.36:7

40.35 40.60 75902 75904

0

75901

75903

1

m

Plan 2.98. Tomb 759.

Fig. 2.99. Tomb 759.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the northern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing north. Upper teeth: central incisor shows attrition of half crown height, first and second molars were lost antemortem. Lower teeth: canine shows attrition of half crown height, first and second molars were lost antemortem. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 50–60 years. Skull morphology possibly indicative of a male.

Inventory, Tomb 760 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

76003

3.1:4

2

Amphoriskos

76001

3.25:5

3

Teapot

76002

3.32:4

4

Lamp

76004

3.33:6

Tomb 760 (Plan 2.99; Fig. 2.100) Gray bricks on the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the brick was on the same level as that of the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.0 × 1.9 m. An amphoriskos was found near the soles of the feet. A bowl and a teapot were discovered to the east of the skeleton. A lamp lay in front of the skeleton’s hands. The placement of vessels all around the deceased is rare. Animal bones were found behind the skeleton, to the east of the amphoriskos.

76001

40.05

76002 40.02 76003

76004 0

1

m

Plan 2.99. Tomb 760.

Fig. 2.100. Tomb 760.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its left side, oriented northwest–southeast, head in the southeast, facing southwest. This is the only instance in which the skeleton faced away from the entrance. Upper teeth: central incisor shows attrition of nearly half crown height, premolar shows dentine cup in both cusps. Lower teeth: left first molar was lost antemortem, second molar shows dentine cup in all cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 40–50 years. Sex estimation was not possible. Tomb 761 (Plan 2.100) Gray bricks on the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the bricks are c. 0.6 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The diameter of the burial chamber is c. 1.5 m. Two amphoriskoi were found near the knees, and a goblet near the elbows.

76103 76101

40.01

40.61

76102 0

1

m

Plan 2.100. Tomb 761.

Tomb 762 (Plan 2.101; Fig. 2.101) In the southeast of the chamber were two gray bricks that had fallen onto the floor from the blockage of the entrance passage. The top of the bricks is c. 0.6 m higher than the floor of the chamber. The estimated diameter of the burial chamber is 1.1 m. a goblet, a storage jar and a lamp were found near the knees.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placled against the northeastern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the northeast, facing southeast. The pelvic iliac crest is fused, indicative of an individual >20 years old. Sex estimation was not possible.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the northwestern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the northeast, facing southeast. Upper teeth: central incisor shows attrition of half crown height. Lower teeth: right first and second molars show dentine cup all cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 40–50 years. The pelvic symphyseal angle is relatively narrow, indicative of a female.

Inventory, Tomb 761

Inventory, Tomb 762

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

76103

3.2:18

1

Goblet

76202

3.2:2

2

Amphoriskos

76101

3.29:3

2

Storage jar

76201

-

3

Amphoriskos

76102

3.28:7

3

Lamp

76203

3.34:7

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Fig. 2.101. Tomb 762.

40.12 40.70

76203 76202 76201 0

1

m

was placed against the southeastern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented northwest–southeast, head in the southeast, facing north. Upper teeth: central incisors show deep dentine cup, premolar shows dentine cup in both cusps. Lower jaw: first molar shows deep dentine cup in all cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 40–50 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Plan 2.101. Tomb 762.

Tomb 763 (Plan 2.102; Fig. 2.102) A concentration of bricks on the east marks the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the bricks are c. 0.65 m higher than the floor of the chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.8 × 1.7 m. A storage jar was found near the knees, and a goblet near the hands, which were by the skull. A lamp was found behind the skull, indicating that it might have been placed before the deceased was interred. Two copper blades were discovered in this tomb. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 101

Inventory, Tomb 763 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

76302

3.3:15

2

Storage jar

76301

3.16:2

3

Lamp

76303

3.35:1

4

Copper blade

76305

4.2:4

5

Copper blade

76304

4.2:5

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Fig. 2.102. Tomb 763.

76301 76304

39.97

76305 39.31 76303 0

1

m

Plan 2.102. Tomb 763.

Tomb 764 (Plan 2.103; Fig. 2.103) Gray bricks on the east mark the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1 × 2 m. An amphoriskos was found near the skull, and a goblet near the knees. The placement of a storage jar near the head of the deceased is relatively rare in the Bet Dagan cemetery. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing north. Upper teeth: premolar shows dentine exposure in one cusp. Lower teeth: first molar shows shallow dentine cup in all cusps, second molar shows dentine cup in

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 102

one cusp, third molar shows enamel attrition. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 25–40 years. The mastoid process is relatively developed, the mandibular gonial angle is relatively narrow and shows prominent eversion, indicative of a male.

Inventory, Tomb 764 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

76402

3.4:2

2

Amphoriskoi

76401

3.20:4

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Fig. 2.103. Tomb 764.

40.67 76402

0

76401

1

Upper teeth: incisor and canine show dentine exposure, premolar shows slight dentine exposure in one cusp. Lower jaw: left first molar was lost antemortem, second molar shows enamel attrition. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 20–30 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

m

Plan 2.103. Tomb 764.

Tomb 765 (Plan 2.104; Fig. 2.104) Despite severe damage, gray bricks on the east and an oval burial chamber, estimated as 1.2 × 1.9 m, can be reconstructed. a goblet and a storage jar were found in the southeast and a lamp to their west, which had apparently been placed near the knees. Animal bones were found near the lamp. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in a flexed position on its right side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the northeast.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 103

Inventory, Tomb 765 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

76502

3.2:7

2

Storage jar

76501

3.9:1

3

Lamp

76503

3.34:14

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

40.49

39.87 76501

76502

76503 0

1

m

Plan 2.104. Tomb 765.

Fig. 2.104. Tomb 765.

Tomb 766 (Plan 2.105; Fig. 2.105) A gray brick on the south marks the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the brick is c. 0.6 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. This is one of the few instances where the entrance to the tomb is not on the east. The estimated diameter of the burial chamber is 1.3 m. A storage jar lying on its side was found in the center of the burial chamber, with some of the skeleton’s bones to its north and west. The tomb also contained a goblet.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary lower limb bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was oriented northeast–southwest, head in the southwest. The epiphyses in the long bones are fused, indicative of an individual >18 years old. Sex estimation was not possible.

76602

39.92 76601

40.56

0

1

m

Plan 2.105. Tomb 766.

Fig. 2.105. Tomb 766.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 767 (Plan 2.106; Fig. 2.106) Gray bricks on the south blocked the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the

Inventory, Tomb 766 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

76602

3.2:11

2

Storage jar

76601

3.8:1

Inventory, Tomb 767

Tombs 767 and 768 (Plan 2.106; Figs. 2.106, 2.107) These two tombs shared a common entrance shaft. Tomb 767 was dug to the north of the shaft, while Tomb 768 was dug to its west. A storage jar (76804; see Tomb 768) was found on the bottom of the entrance shaft, near dark gray bricks that had blocked the passage from the shaft to the burial chamber of Tomb 768.

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Mug

76702

3.7:4

2

Storage jar

76701

3.15:5

3

Lamp

76703

3.36:5

4

Copper blade

76705

4.2:7

5

Copper blade

76704

4.2:8

T767 76703 40.10 76705

76702

76701

76704

T768 40.61 76802 76803

76801 76804 40.55

0

1

m

Plan 2.106. Tombs 767 and 768.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Fig. 2.106. Tomb 767.

bricks is c. 0.5 higher than the floor of the chamber. This is one of the few instances where the entrance to the tomb was not on the east. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.1 × 1.5 m. A mug and a storage jar were found between the skeleton and the entrance. A lamp lay behind the neck, indicating that it had been deposited before the deceased was interred. A copper blade was found near the knees and an additional copper blade, possibly the back part of the same object (probably a spearhead), was discovered in the center of the burial chamber. Animal bones were found behind the skeleton. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the northern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the west, facing south. Upper teeth: canine shows dentine exposure, premolar shows enamel attrition, first molar shows dentine exposure in three cusps, second molar shows enamel attrition, third molar erupted. Lower teeth: premolar shows enamel attrition. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 17–25 years. The glabella and mastoid process are relatively developed, indicative of a male.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 106

Tomb 768 (Plan 2.106; Fig. 2.107) Gray bricks on the east marked the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.2 × 2.0 m. Between the skeleton and the bricks in the entrance were a goblet, a storage jar and a lamp (not on the plan). Animal bones were found behind the legs.

Inventory, Tomb 768 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

76802

3.2:6

2

Storage jar

76801

3.11:3

3

Storage jar

76804

3.18:5

4

Lamp

76803

3.36:6

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Fig. 2.107. Tomb 768.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the western wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented north–south, head in the south, looking east. Upper jaw: central incisor shows dentine cup, premolar shows dentine cup in one cusp. Lower jaw: first molar shows deep dentine cup in all cusps, third molar erupted. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–40 year. The pelvic sciatic notch is relatively narrow, indicative of a male.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the western wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented north–south, head in the south, facing east.

Tomb 769 (Plan 2.107; Fig. 2.108) The bottom of the entrance shaft was 1.1 m in diameter and preserved to a depth of 0.45 m; it was c. 0.9 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. A smashed storage jar was found in the entrance shaft. The estimated diameter of the burial chamber is 1.8 m. Between the entrance and the skeleton were a bowl, a goblet, an amphoriskos and a lamp. Animal bones were found in front of the skeleton.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 107

Inventory, Tomb 769 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

76903

3.1:19

2

Goblet

76902

3.4:3

3

Storage jar

76905

3.12:2

4

Amphoriskos

76901

3.24:2

5

Lamp

76904

3.35:3

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

40.77 39.90 76901 76905

76902 76903 76904 0

1

m

Plan 2.107. Tomb 769.

Fig. 2.108. Tomb 769. ►

Chronological changes in the symphysis pubis (phase IV) are indicative of an individual 25–55 years old. Upper teeth: central incisor shows dentine cup, premolar shows dentine cup in both cusps. Lower jaw: left first molar shows dentine cup in all cusps, third molar is absent (agenesis). Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–40 years. The pelvic sub-pubic angle is relatively narrow, indicative of a male.

anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east. The epiphyses of the distal femur and proximal tibia are fused, indicative of an individual >19 years old. Sex estimation was not possible.

Tomb 770 (Plan 2.108; Fig. 2.109) Gray bricks on the east, 0.7 m wide, marked the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the bricks are 0.7 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated diameter of the burial chamber is 1.0–1.1 m. a bowl, a goblet and an amphoriskos were placed to the northwest of the skeleton. A lamp was found adjoining the bricks in the entrance. Anthropological Remains The remains included fragmentary postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 108

Inventory, Tomb 770 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

77001

3.1:23

2

Goblet

77002

3.3:4

3

Amphoriskos

77003

3.29:2

4

Lamp

77004

3.34:13

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

77001 40.57 77002 77004 39.87 77003

0

1

m

Plan 2.108. Tomb 770.

Fig. 2.109. Tomb 770.

Tomb 771 (Fig. 2.110) The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.8 × 1.4 m. A goblet, placed in a concentration of animal bones, was found near the hands, which were close to the skull. a goblet, a storage jar and a lamp were found behind the skeleton on the west, indicating that they had been deposited before the deceased was interred. Animal bones were found in front of the skeleton, near the skull.

Inventory, Tomb 771 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

77102

3.3:12

2

Goblet

77103

3.6:11

3

Storage jar

77101

-

4

Lamp

77104

3.34:5

Fig. 2.110. Tomb 771.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 109

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in the west in a flexed position on its left side, oriented north–south, head in the north. Upper teeth: canine shows dentine exposure, premolar shows dentine cup in one cusp. Lower teeth: canine shows dentine cup, premolar shows dentine exposure in one cusp, first molar shows dentine cup in all cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 25– 40 years. Sex estimation was not possible. Tomb 772 (Plan 2.109; Fig. 2.111) Gray bricks on the north, 0.4 m wide, marked the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The bottom of the entrance shaft, estimated as 1.5 m in diameter, was preserved to a depth of 0.55 m. The top of the bricks are c. 0.65 m higher than the floor of the burial chamber. This is one of the few instances where the entrance to the tomb was not from the east. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.2 × 1.4 m. A goblet and an amphoriskos were placed to the south of the skeleton. Two lamps were placed near the hands. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical

articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed to the south of the entrance, in a flexed position on its left side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing south. The femoral cortical cross-section is relatively narrow. Upper jaw: right premolar shows dentine cup in one cusp, first molar shows dentine cup in two cusps. Lower jaw: premolar shows attrition of half crown height, right first and second molars were lost antemortem, third molar shows dentine cup in all cusps. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 40– 60 years. The posterior border of the mandibular ramus is indicative of a female, the gonial angle shows no eversion.

Inventory, Tomb 772 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

77202

3.6:7

2

Amphoriskos

77201

3.29:5

3

Lamp

77204

3.35:6

4

Lamp

77203

3.35:9

40.61

39.96

77204 77202

77203

77201 0

1

m

Plan 2.109. Tomb 772. Fig. 2.111. Tomb 772.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 773 (Plan 2.110; Fig. 2.112) Gray bricks on the east, 0.5 m wide, marked the blockage of the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the bricks are c. 0.8 m

111

higher than the floor of the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.0 × 1.3 m. The skeleton was placed in a flexed position, with its back against the southern wall of the burial chamber, head in the east. A bowl and a storage jar were found near the knees. A mug was found near the entrance, and a lamp and a copper blade lay near the hands. The anthropological remains were not examined, although they do not represent an infant. Tomb 774 (Plan 2.111; Fig. 2.113)

Inventory, Tomb 773 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

77303

3.1:2

2

Mug

77302

3.7:7

3

Storage jar

77301

3.12:3

4

Lamp

77304

3.35:5

5

Copper blade

77305

4.2:3

Gray bricks on the east, 0.7 m wide, mark the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the bricks is c. 0.7 m higher than the floor of the chamber. The bottom of the entrance shaft, 1.3 m in diameter, was preserved to a depth of 0.35 m. Fragments of an amphoriskos were found at the bottom of the shaft and on the bricks. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.5 × 1.7 m. Vessels were found in a semicircle around the hands and skull: a goblet and a storage jar were found near the hands and to their west, near the skull, were a bowl and a lamp. Sixteen beads had been strung around the neck. Animal bones were found near the goblet.

77301 40.37 77303 39.60

77302 77304 77305

0

1

m

Plan 2.110. Tomb 773.

Fig. 2.112. Tomb 773.

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Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical

articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the western wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented north–south, head in the north, facing east. Upper teeth: central incisor shows slight dentine exposure, canine shows shallow dentine cup. Lower teeth: premolar shows dentine exposure in one cusp. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 20– 30 years. Sex estimation was not possible, although the bead necklace might indicate a female.

77403 77404

77401 77402

Beads

40.12

Inventory, Tomb 774

39.38

No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Bowl

77403

3.1:24

2

Goblet

77402

3.4:16

3

Storage jar

77401

3.9:2

4

Amphoriskos

77405

-

5

Lamp

77404

3.34:11

6

16 beads

77405–77420

4.1:20–35

77405

0

1

m

Plan 2.111. Tomb 774.

Fig. 2.113. Tomb 774.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Tomb 775 (Plan 2.112; Fig. 2.114) Gray bricks on the east, 0.9 m wide, mark the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the bricks is c. 0.5 m higher than the floor of the chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.0 × 1.5 m. A storage jar was found near the skeleton’s knees. a goblet and a storage jar were found in a row to the northwest of the skull, and a lamp lay near the hand. An animal bone was found in front of the skeleton. Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southeastern wall in a flexed position on its left side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the northeast, facing northwest. Upper jaw: central incisor shows deep dentine cup, premolar shows dentine cup in both cusps. Lower jaw: left first molar shows attrition of over half crown height, third molar shows dentine exposure in one cusp. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 40–50 years. The posterior border of the mandibular ramus is indicative of a male, the gonial angle shows pronounced eversion. The epicondylar width of the distal humerus is 65 mm, indicative of a male.

Inventory, Tomb 775 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

77503

3.2:9

2

Storage jar

77501

3.11:4

3

Storage jar

77502

3.14:4

4

Lamp

77504

3.33:11

77502 77503 77504

40.01

39.48 77501

0

1

m

Plan 2.112. Tomb 775.

Fig. 2.114. Tomb 775.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

Tomb 776 (Plan 2.113; Fig. 2.115) Gray bricks on the east, 0.7 m wide, mark the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the bricks is c. 0.45 m higher than the floor of the chamber. The bottom of the entrance shaft (1.3 m in diameter) was preserved to a depth of 0.35 m. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.1 × 1.8 m. a goblet and a storage jar were found near the skeleton’s knees. Animal bones were found near the hands.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the southern wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented east–west, head in the east, facing north. The epiphyses in the fingers are fused, indicative of an adult individual (>15 years). age and sex estimations were not possible.

39.58

77602 77601

39.14

Inventory, Tomb 776 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

77602

3.5:1

2

Storage jar

77601

3.16:4

0

1

m

Plan 2.113. Tomb 776.

Fig. 2.115. Tomb 776.

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115

Tomb 777 (Plan 2.114; Fig. 2.116)

Tomb 778 (Plan 2.115; Fig. 2.117)

Gray bricks on the east, 0.6 m wide, mark the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 0.8 × 1.0 m. Between the skull and the bricks in the entrance were a goblet and two teapots.

Gray bricks on the east, 0.6 m wide, mark the passage from the entrance shaft to the burial chamber. The top of the bricks is c. 0.9 m higher than the floor of the chamber. The estimated size of the oval burial chamber is 1.3 × 1.5 m. An amphoriskos was found near the legs, and a goblet near the hands. A copper pin was found near the waist.

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of a child. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the western wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented north–south, head in the south, facing east. Lower jaw: deciduous molars erupted, show enamel attrition, first permanent molar shows fully developed crown. Age estimation, based upon tooth development stages: 3–4 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Inventory, Tomb 777 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

77703

3.6:5

2

Teapot

77701

3.32:5

3

Teapot

77702

3.32:6

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of an adult individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed against the western wall in a flexed position on its right side, oriented north–south, head in the south, facing east. Chronological changes in the symphysis pubis (phase III) are indicative of an individual 25–45 years old. Upper teeth: incisors show dentine cup, premolar shows dentine cup in one cusp. Lower teeth: incisors show dentine cup, left first molar shows dentine cup in all cusps, right first and second molars were lost antemortem, third molar erupted. Age estimation, based upon tooth attrition stages: 30–40 years. The sub-pubic angle is relatively narrow, indicative of a male. Skull and lower jaw morphology is indicative of a male.

77701

77702 0

77703 1

m

Plan 2.114. Tomb 777.

Fig. 2.116. Tomb 777.

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Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

77801

39.56 40.48

Pin 77803 77802

0

1

m

Plan 2.115. Tomb 778.

Fig. 2.117. Tomb 778.

Inventory, Tomb 778 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

77802

3.3:17

2

Amphoriskos

77801

3.23:2

3

Copper pin

77803

Table 4.2:5

Anthropological Remains Fragmentary skull, teeth and postcranial bones of a young individual. The bones were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased was placed in the west in a flexed position on its right side, oriented northeast–southwest, head in the southwest, facing northeast. The proximal epiphysis of the tibia is not fused, indicative of an individual 40 years. Sex estimation was not possible.

Inventory, Tomb 781 No.

Vessel

Reg. No.

Fig.

1

Goblet

78103

3.2:5

2

Amphoriskos

78101

3.20:5

3

Amphoriskos

78102

3.27:3

4

Lamp

78104

3.33:15

78101

78102 78104 78103

0

Plan 2.118. Tomb 781.

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 118

1

m

Fig. 2.120. Tomb 781.

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Chapter 2: the Tombs and their contents

Parallels to the Shaft Tombs (see Fig. 1.1) The shaft tombs uncovered in the Bet Dagan cemetery are similar to others excavated in Israel and Transjordan during the Intermediate Bronze Age. Four cemeteries in the Nahal Ayyalon basin date to the Intermediate Bronze Age: Azor, Yehud, the Qirya Quarter in Tel Aviv and Bet Dagan. Aside from these large cemeteries, isolated tombs have been found. One shaft tomb was found at Ramat Ha-Hayyal (Yankelevitz 2005); it contained a shaft 1 m in diameter and a burial chamber 2.5 m long. The excavator reconstructed a gabled ceiling in the burial chamber. No details were given concerning the anthropological remains. Kaplan excavated an additional tomb nearby (Kaplan 1950). The cemetery at Azor, excavated by Shapira, included dozens of tombs dating to the Intermediate Bronze Age (Ory 1944; Shapira 1964a, 1964b; Yannai 2007). An additional tomb from the Intermediate Bronze Age was excavated by Davis in the industrial area of Holon (Azor, see Chapter 1—Davis 1975:30; Yannai, forthcoming a). This tomb contained pottery vessels, beads, and a copper dagger and dagger butt. Intermediate Bronze Age sherds, comprising bowls, storage jars and amphoriskoi, were also found in a salvage excavation conducted south of the ancient tell at Yehud (Yannai 2004b); the vessels represented indicate that there had been a cemetery nearby, although its exact location was not determined. In the Bet Dagan tombs, a combination of pottery vessels and other finds was rare, and only in five tombs were copper items found, and in five other tombs, beads were recovered. A comprehensive comparative study of the distribution of shaft tombs was conducted by Horowitz (2000). Such tombs were found in numerous locations. A number of shaft tombs were found to the south of Tel Rehov in the Bet She’an Valley (Tzori 1975:9–14; Yogev 1985: Plans 1, 3.5). A large group of shaft tombs was excavated at Jericho (Kenyon 1960; 1965:41–66). Two shaft tombs were excavated at Jebel Ta‘amur (Chanin 1984). A large shaft tomb was excavated at Ramat Moza (Bahat 1975) and one at Tell Beit Mirsim (Ben-Arieh 2004: Plan 1.2). Another shaft tomb was found at Pisgat Ze’ev (Seligman 1995:192–193). Shaft tombs with one burial chamber and a shaft shared by two chambers were found in the cemetery at Kh. elKirmil (Dever 1975: Figs. 2, 3). A large cemetery of the Intermediate Bronze Age was exposed at Dhahr Mirzbâneh northeast of Ramallah (Lapp 1966; Dever

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 119

119

1972; Finkelstein 1990) and at Sinjil north of Ramallah (Dever 1971a). Shaft tombs were also found at Efrat (Gonen 2001) and in the Holyland compound in the southwest of Jerusalem (Zelinger and Golani 2005; Greenhut et al. 2011). A single shaft tomb was excavated near Ibtin in the Zevulon Valley (Yannai 2004a). Shaft tombs were also found at Umm Bijal in Transjordan (Helms and McCreery 1988: Figs. 4, 5). Shaft tombs were dug into the kurkar at Ma‘abarot (Gophna 1969; Dar 1977) and at Horbat Abrichtas (Edelstein 1971). Several scholars attempted to divide the shaft tombs into subgroups (Greenhut 1992; Horowitz 2000). Horowitz, based on the study of tombs at the ‘En Esur intersection, divided the tombs into groups based on the shape of the shaft and the passage from the shaft to the burial chamber, as well as according to the shapes and quantities of burial chambers (Horowitz 2000:39– 41). This study reviewed all the shaft tombs found throughout the country until 2000 and it constitutes the most comprehensive corpus until that time. Horowitz’ study showed that there is a regional division of shaft tombs (Horowitz 2000:55–56). However, it seems that this division is somewhat too detailed, as it defines groups according to the similarity of their shafts and burial chambers that, in fact, was determined simply due to the geological formations and types of rock into which they were hewn. The question remains whether the tomb diggers worked according to a preferred mental template. Was the shape a compromise between the goal of achieving the pre-planned design of the tomb and the dictates of the soil and rock? Proof of this is that shaft tombs with a single burial chamber that were hewn into limestone are different from those that were hewn into kurkar or dug into hard hamra, such as at Bet Dagan. This supports the assumption that the tomb diggers worked according to a preferred preconceived plan. It seems that the shape of the shaft is not a meaningful criterion and that there was no preference as to whether it would be round or any other shape mentioned here. The proximity of the Bet Dagan cemetery to that of the larger cemetery at Azor affords us the opportunity to look closely at the composition of the two cemeteries. While the cemetery at Bet Dagan contained exclusively shaft tombs, the cemetery at Azor (Yannai 2007), only 2.5 km away, contained 60 shaft tombs out of a total of several hundred that were hewn into the kurkar. The Bet Dagan cemetery was excavated into hamra, more conducive for digging tombs than the kurkar at Azor,

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the shaft tombs into subgroups, such as at Jericho and ‘En Esur, shows that there is very little standardization or systematics in the tombs. One factor that is found in almost all the tombs, although it has not been pointed out until now, is that the Intermediate Bronze Age tombs were dug in a way that did not cause damage to previous tombs. Several of the tombs were reused in later periods. Such a phenomenon of preserving the more ancient tombs intact is known both from regions where there is a plethora of available land for burial, as well as in areas where the tombs were densely laid (such as the area of Bet Dagan). Before and after the Intermediate Bronze Age, the inhabitants of the country buried their dead in large caves in which dozens of people were placed, along with hundreds of burial offerings, mostly pottery vessels. This type of burial was practiced in the Intermediate Bronze Age in a few instances, mostly in the north, but the most common burial practice was single burials (Palumbo 1990:125). It is difficult to determine the reason for this change. The effort invested in digging a tomb for a single individual was much larger and took up much more land. It is also difficult to determine why the burials that contained numerous people and artifacts during EB I–III continued into the Intermediate Bronze Age in some places, but not in others. The Bet Dagan cemetery fits the pattern of single burials, identified in the central and southern coastal plain, as well as in the Shephelah and the Central Hill Country. The total lack of mass burials and exclusive use of single burials in this region indicates that these regions shared similar religious and social ideas (see Chapter 7).

which is composed of several steps of varying hardness. At Bet Dagan, as at Azor, the entrance shaft was coneshaped (this description is extrapolated from the fact that all the entrance shafts at Azor are complete). The Bet Dagan burial chambers exhibited a wider variety in their shape and size than those at Azor, perhaps due to the ease of excavation into hamra vs. kurkar. Despite this relative ease, the burial chambers at Bet Dagan are not symmetrical. It seems that in both cemeteries there was no specific goal of digging symmetrical tombs. In different parts of Israel, as well as in Transjordan, the number of burial chambers related to each shaft is not consistent. In the Bet Dagan cemetery, only three shafts were found that accessed two burial chambers; one burial chamber per shaft was the norm. In the Azor cemetery, there was only one burial chamber per shaft in all the tombs. It seems that, aside from a few anomalies, shaft tombs with one burial chamber were found in the coastal plain, the Central Hill country, in the Judean Shephelah and in parts of the Jericho cemetery. This distribution reflects a multi-regional pattern, especially in the Jezreel Valley and to its south. In other parts of Israel, round shafts with more than one burial chamber were found at Ibtin, Tiberias, Hazore‘a, Bet She’an, Nazareth and Megiddo. Thus, the shape of the shaft and number of burial caves is a regional trend found in the north or the south of the country. Excavations over the years have yielded cemeteries with a variety of shaft and burial cave types (for example, at Dhahr Mirzbâneh and ‘En Esur), as well as cemeteries whose shafts and burial chambers were very uniform (for example at Bet Dagan). At this stage of our knowledge, it seems that the attempt to divide

Note 1

The description of the tombs and their contents was written by Eli Yannai, and the physical anthropological data, by Yossi Nagar. The analyses of the finds detailed by tomb are presented in their relevant chapters; a list of all the contents by tomb appears in the appendix 2 The reconstruction of the shaft is also based on the intact entrance shafts excavated by Shapira in the Azor cemetery in the 1960s (Yannai 2007).

Bet-Dagan-chap-2.indd 120

3

With the top wider than the bottom. Entrance shafts of similar depth were found in the tombs in the other parts of the country as well, such as at Ibtin in the north (Yannai 2004a) and in the Holyland compound in southwestern Jerusalem (Zelinger and Golani 2005: Plan 1). 4

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Chapter 3

The Pottery Eli Yannai

Methodology Pottery vessels were found in all the tombs that were excavated in the Bet Dagan cemetery and comprise by far the most common burial offering. The hamra soil and layer of sand into which the tombs were dug caused much damage to the vessels; many of them simply began to disintegrate when touched. The documentation of each vessel thus entailed six stages: 1. After the entire tomb with its vessels was photographed, each vessel was drawn in situ. Since this was a salvage excavation and work was pressured, entailing the excavation of four to five tombs per day, we were unable to have a surveyor or photographer on the site full time. An additional contingency was the location of the excavated area in a residential neighborhood, exposing the site to robbery attempts or vandalism. In light of all this, the tombs and their contents were measured and the finds were removed at the end of each work day. The vessels, especially the storage jars and amphoriskoi that were particularly fragile, were drawn in situ with the aid of instruments that were especially designed for such a purpose, including an instrument that measured the vessels on a scale of 2:5, which enabled us to obtain the dimensions from a variety of angles and positions. These instruments were designed and built by the author especially for this purpose. 2. Following the measurement and drawing, those vessels that could be removed were sent to be processed in a special area devoted to this purpose. 3. The next stage entailed the dry cleaning of the vessels. 4. After this, the drawings of those vessels that were removed from the field were rechecked, with the vessel now placed on the drafting table, where corrections, if necessary, were made. 5. The vessels were then washed, which resulted in some vessels disintegrating (especially the large ones);

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 121

sometimes decoration or other details that were not detected in the field. 6. These details were then added to the drawings. Following this process, those vessels able to withstand it were sent for restoration, while the others were discarded.

Technology The Intermediate Bronze Age vessels from the cemetery were made by hand, and it seems that the upper part of many of them underwent secondary finishing on a tournette or fast wheel (London 1985:151; Kamaisky 2012). In fact, as a whole, the pottery vessels found in the Bet Dagan tombs reflect well the contemporary ceramic manufacturing and decoration techniques known in other parts of Israel (Kamaisky 2012:102–106). Despite the small variety of types and the large number of vessels, there was very little standardization. Production was conducted according to a set tradition that expressed a degree of individuality within the limited repertoire (London 1985:147; Kamaisky 2012). No attempt was made to achieve standardized production or decoration, for example, by using molds. The variability of each vessel can be seen even in the simple shapes, such as bowls and goblets. Thus, the type series was limited, since over 90% of the vessels were singular and thus did not lend themselves well to the methodology of forming a typology. The resulting types were, therefore, defined on the basis of broad similarity. The division into groups was based, first and foremost, on the dimensions of the vessel, the body shape, and the location of the handles and their mode of attachment, as well as the overall body proportions— height and diameters of the base, body, neck and rim. In those types where the vessels were relatively similar, the finish of the rim was the parameter used to determine the division into subgroups.

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Catalogue Bowls (Fig. 3.1) While overall, most of the bowls are similar to each other, they differ in proportions and various details, making the typological division difficult. The basic division is into types that differ in their technology, sizes and basic shape; for each type, the discussion emphasizes the similarities and differences between the various bowls attributed to the type. The bowls are divided into non-carinated and carinated types. Only three bowls (Fig. 3.1:1–5) are solely coil made, and all the rest were coil made with the upper part wheelfinished (London 1985:151; Kamaisky 2012:103). It seems that the carination was not a technological change, but rather a manufacturing artifact that occurred during the subsequent smoothing of the otherwise handmade bowl on the wheel. Some bowls have a prominent carination, while others have a vestigial carination that is barely visible in the drawing. Non-Carinated Bowls Hemispherical Bowls (Fig. 3.1:1–3) Hemispherical body, sharpened rim and rounded base. Figure 3:1:1 represents a small and rather shallow bowl, and Fig. 3.1:2, a medium-sized and somewhat more open bowl. Figure 3.1:3 is the largest of this type, its size similar to the smallest bowls of other bowl types (Fig. 3.1:4, 15). As mentioned above, the hemispherical bowls were solely handmade. A parallel to the hemispherical shape was found in tombs at Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 66:451) and Tell Beit Mirsim (Dever 2003: Fig. 1:7). Some parallels were found at Tell Jericho in Section 1 Layer 42 (Kenyon and Holland 1982: Fig. 20:13; 1983: Fig. 20:13). Rounded Wall Bowls Very Slightly Rounded Bowls with Flat Base (Fig. 3.1:4, 5). Very slightly rounded, almost straight sides, sharpened rim and flat base. These bowls are smaller than the large bowls of the previous category and are also solely handmade. Only one parallel was found, in a tomb from Ramat Ha-Hayyal (Yankelevitz 2005: Fig. 6.1). Rounded Rim Bowls (Fig. 3.1:6–10) Inturned body, flat base. Figure 3.1:6, 7 represent small bowls; Fig. 3.1:8, 9, medium-sized; and Fig. 3.1:10, large. These size groups are similar to those found in

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Fig. 3.1 ► No. 1

Tomb

Reg. No.

759

75903

2

773

77303

3

702

70203

4

760

76003

5

744

74403

6

714

71403

7

732

73204

8

554

55401

9

754

75404

10

755

75503

11

504

50403

12

713

71302

13

752

75204

14

728

72803

15

737

73702

16

584

58404

17

707

70702

18

720

72003

19

769

76903

20

726

72604

21

591

59104

22

586

58603

23

770

77001

24

774

77403

other bowl types in the cemetery and it seems that they constitute standardized size categories. On one bowl of this type (Fig. 3.1:8) was a decoration of horizontal incised lines made with a one-toothed tool. This is the only decorated bowl of this category found in the Bet Dagan cemetery. Parallels to this bowl were found in tombs at ‘En Esur (Horowitz 2000: Fig. 21:2) and Jebel Qa‘aqir (London 1985: Fig. 2: A.1:5, A.8:5). A parallel to Fig. 3.1:9 was found in a Jericho tomb (Kenyon 1965: Fig. 89:10); this bowl type is very rare at Jericho, while it is relatively common at Bet Dagan (Peilstöcker 2006: Fig. 3:4). A variation of rounded rim bowls was found in a tomb at ‘En Esur with a thickened, folded rim (Horowitz 2000: Fig. 21:4–6) and sometimes with a ledge handle (Horowitz 2000: Fig. 21:7). In a tomb at Lakhish, a variation of this bowl type has thicker walls and a rim decorated with horizontal incisions (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 66:428).

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1

2

4

3

5

9

6

7

10

12

11

14

13

15

16

18

21

8

17

19

20

22

23

24 0

10

Fig. 3.1. Bowls.

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Rounded Bowls with Everted Rims (Fig. 3.1:11–13). Rounded sides, everted rim, flat base. The bowls depicted in Fig. 3.1:11, 12 bear horizontal incised lines on the upper exterior. The shape of these bowls is similar to one carinated bowl (Fig. 3.1:21), although the latter is more carinated (see below). These bowls appear in small (Fig. 3.1:11), medium (Fig. 3.1:12) and large (Fig. 3.1:13) sizes. A parallel to the smaller bowl occurred in a tomb at Azor (Yannai 2007: Fig. 3:1). A parallel to the larger bowls was discovered in a tomb at Jebel Qa‘aqir (Dever 1981a: Fig. 4:2). Carinated Bowls Open Carinated Bowls (Fig. 3.1:14–20). These are the most common bowls in the Bet Dagan cemetery. Round sided, high carination, straight or slightly everted upper part; the rim top is squared or rounded. These bowls appear in three sizes: the small ones (Fig. 3.1:14–16) were also made with shallow proportions, and the larger bowls (Fig. 3.1:19, 20) were deeper. Carinated Bowl with Straight Rim (Fig. 3.1:21). A slightly carinated body, straight rim, squared rim top, flat base. The slight carination seems to be the result of the finishing of the upper part of this handmade bowl on the wheel. Carinated Bowls with Inverted Upper Part (Fig. 3.1:22, 23). A pronounced carination at the upper third of the body, upper part inverted, flat base; this bowl type’s body is similar to the open carinated bowls (Fig. 3.1:14–20) but differs in its closed stance. Parallels are rare, found in a tomb at Dhahr Mirzbâneh (Dever 1972: Fig. 4:3) and in a tomb at Gal‘ed (Meir 1974: Fig. 8:9). Small Carinated Bowl (Fig. 3.1:24). Small bowl, carination on the upper quarter of the body, short slightly inverted rim, flat base. Most of the carinated bowls were of standardized proportions. The bowls of this type were made in two stages: first, the bowl was formed entirely by hand and then its upper part was finished on a wheel to achieve its final shape. There are differences in the position and shape of the carination. Some bowls have a pronounced carination that is incised on the interior and exterior (Fig. 3.1:14, 15, 17–19). Other bowls have a very slight carination (Fig. 3.1:21), probably simply the result of the wheel finishing of the upper part of

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 124

the bowl. The upper part of the bowl differs; some are short and straight (Fig. 3.1:21), high (Fig. 3.1:22), or everted (Fig. 3.1:23, 24). Several of the bowls have thin incised lines on their upper part (Fig. 3.1:14–17, 20–22). It seems that these lines were not meant as a decorative element, but rather are the result of the bowl being turned during finishing. The rare instances in the Bet Dagan cemetery wherein the bowls bear incisedline decoration are very clear, with the incisions made with a single or multi-toothed comb, and very prominent, in contrast with the slight lines found on bowls from this group. Parallels to the large bowls with incised lines on their upper part were found in the tombs from Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1992: Fig. 1:1, 2); Jebel Qa‘aqir (London 1985: Fig. 3.1:8); ‘En Esur (Horowitz 2000: Fig. 21:3); Gal‘ed (Meir 1974: Figs. 4:5, 7; 8:9) and Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 66:429–431). Parallels to the medium-sized bowl with an incised upper part were found in tombs at Azor (Yannai 2007: Fig. 20:1) and Jebel Qa‘aqir (London 1985: Fig. A.13:2). A parallel to the slightly carinated bowl was discovered in tombs at Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1992: Fig. 1:4), Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 66:432–436), Efrata (Gonen 2001: Fig. 21:4) and Azor (Yannai 2007: Fig. 3:1). Some parallels were found in the dwelling site at erRujum (Milevski et al. 2012: Fig. 18:1); and in Cave G23 in the settlement at Jebel Qa‘aqir (Gitin 1975: Fig. 3:10, 13, 15). These bowls are also common in the Jordan Valley (Bahat 1976: Fig. 3.5; Hess 1984: Fig. 1.1), although generally the northern Jordan Valley and the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins represent two entirely different ceramic traditions. Indeed, in general, the bowls from the Bet Dagan cemetery are similar to contemporary types found in the southern part of the country. For example, the most common bowl in tombs at ‘En Esur (Horowitz 2000: Fig. 21:4–7), with a thickened rim, is unknown from sites in the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins. Goblets Goblets are the most common vessel found in the Bet Dagan cemetery (see Fig. 3.37; 95 of the 114 goblets found were drawn). All the goblets have a flat base, slightly rounded or straight sides, and a straight sharp rim. Despite this basic simple shape, and the fact that they were found in such large quantities, the goblets

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Chapter 3: The Pottery

demonstrate a high degree of variability and in fact, no two are exactly alike. Five main types were discerned, based on the size, general shape and the relationship between the rim and base diameters and the vessel’s height. However, this is a schematic division and some goblets incorporate characteristics found on other types. Goblets with Flared Body (Fig. 3.2:1–11) Rounded lower body, everted upper body, flat base. Most are decorated with horizontal incisions made with a single-toothed comb. The goblet in Fig. 3.2:1 is decorated with a an incision under the rim. The goblet in Fig. 3.2:3 is incised with two horizontal bands framing a wavy band, made with a multi-toothed comb. These incisions were all made while the goblet was turned on a wheel. Six goblets (Fig. 3.2:2, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11) were incised with horizontal lines made with a single-toothed comb; the incision was not made when the vessel was turning on the wheel, as the spaces between the lines are uneven. This is the most common decorative pattern found on the vessels in the Bet Dagan cemetery in general (see below, ‛surface treatment’). Parallels to goblets of this type were found in a tomb at ‘En Esur (Horowitz 2000: Fig. 21:12). Goblets with Open Body (Fig. 3.2:12–19; 3.3; 3.4) Rounded lower body, straight upper body, flat base. The goblets attributed to this type demonstrate less standardization than those of the flared body goblets. This variegated group includes tall (Fig. 3.4:1, 2) and short (Fig. 3.4:18, 19) goblets; most of the goblets are wide-bodied and few are narrow-bodied (Figs. 3.3:19; 3.4:4). Several goblets have emphasized joins between the upper and lower parts of the body (Fig. 3.3:10, 14), while in most of the goblets, there is no differentiation between these two parts. Fourteen goblets are undecorated (Figs. 3.2:5, 8, 9, 12, 15, 16, 18, 9; 3.4:1, 2, 9, 10, 12, 17). The rest of the goblets were decorated with incised or multitoothed combing. Multi-toothed combing presents a wide variety of decorations and can be divided into three different categories: (1) single band (Figs. 3.2:1, 14; 3.3:19; 3.4:4, 7); (2) double or multiple band (Figs. 3.2:13; 3.3:11); (3) complex band (Figs. 3.2:3, 17; 3.3:1, 2, 3, 6, 13, 14, 17; 3.4:5, 7, 19). The goblet in Fig. 3.2:17 is decorated with one horizontal incised band, above which is a wavy incised band, both made

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125

with a multi-toothed comb. Four have two horizontal bands framing a wavy band, all incised with a multitoothed comb (Figs. 3.2:3; 3.3:1, 2, 6). All the other goblets of this group bear incisions made with a singletoothed comb. Parallels to the goblets decorated with complex bands were found at Lakhish in L1529 (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 66:397, 410), and at Tell Jericho in Section I (Kenyon and Holland 1983: Fig. 21:15, 16) and Section III Layer 20 (Kenyon and Holland 1983: Figs. 104:4; 105:19). Parallels that bear incised horizontal bands are known from tombs at Azor (Yannai 2007: Fig. 4:6, 8), Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1992: Fig. 1:9) and Pisgat Ze’ev (Seligman 1995: Fig. 4:1). Parallels to goblets with incised bands under the rim exterior were discovered in tombs at Azor (Yannai 2007: Fig. 4:14), Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1992: Fig. 1:6–8) and Gal‘ed (Meir 1974: Fig. 6:12). Parallels to goblets with incised horizontal bands framing one or more wavy band(s) were found in tombs at Azor (Yannai 2007:4:13, 15), Kh. Majdal (Yannai 1993: Fig. 2:1), ‘En Esur (Horowitz 2000: Fig. 21:9, 14) and Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 66:438–440), Parallels to incised horizontal bands framing one or more wavy bands were recovered from settlement sites at er-Rujum (Milevski et al. 2012: Fig. 17:3, 4) and at Tell Jericho in Section I Layer 42 (Kenyon and Holland 1982: Fig. 20:25), Section III Layer 20 (Kenyon and Holland 1982: Fig. 104:6), Section I Layer 42 (Kenyon and Holland 1982: Fig. 20:9, 10) and Section II Layers 21 and 22 (Kenyon and Holland 1982: Fig. 69:5), from Cave G23 in the settlement site at Jebel Qa‘aqir (Gitin 1975: Fig. 4:4–6) and from Cave 2 at Arâq en-Nasâneh (Dever 1974: Pl. 9:1–3). Goblets with Closed Body (Fig. 3.5) Narrow rounded body, straight or slightly inturned rim, flat base. Two goblets of this type (Fig. 3.5:1, 9) have a wide horizontal band under the rim exterior incised with a multi-toothed comb. All the others with incisions were incised with a single-toothed comb on their upper part. The spaces between the incisions are uneven; some are densely spaced while others are far apart. Only four goblets of this type were undecorated. Parallels to goblets of this group were found in other tombs at Bet Dagan excavated by Peilstöcker (2006: Fig. 3:2, 5, 7, 9), as well as in tombs at Azor (Yannai 2007: Fig. 4:1–3), Ramat Ha-Hayyal (Yankelevitz 2005: Fig. 6:4), Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1992:

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Fig. 1:10), Shoham (Kletter 2003: Fig. 2:3), Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 66:439, 440) and Jebel Qa‘aqir (London 1985: Fig. A.7:8), as well as at Efrata (Gonen 2001: Fig. 19:4) and Tell el-‘Ajjul (Petrie 1931: Type 29; Kenyon 1956: Fig. 7:4). Parallels also come from tombs at Tiwal esh-Sharqi in the Central Jordan Valley (Helms 1983: Fig. 18:7–10) and from settlement Cave G23 at Jebel Qa‘aqir (Gitin 1975: Fig. 4:10) Tall Goblets with Narrow Body (Fig. 3.6:1–3) Round body with rounded everted upper part, flat base. The tall narrow body is similar to that of the mugs (see below), and differs from the other more common goblets in the cemetery, which were generally wider and more open. In fact, despite our typological definition of vessels with no handles as goblets rather than mugs or jugs, it seems that in the case of this type, the potter made a narrow mug and for some unknown reason, did not attach handles to it. Small Goblets (Fig. 3.6:4–19) This group of small goblets contains shapes that can be attributed to the various goblet types enumerated above. However, they are presented separately due to their small size. The vessels in Fig. 3.6:4–6 are similar to flared body goblets; Fig. 3.6:7–10 and 17, to open body goblets; Fig. 3.6:11, 12, to closed body goblets; Fig. 3.6:13–16 and 18, to tall and narrow body goblets; and Fig. 3.6:19, to small goblets. It is difficult to determine whether these small goblets were votive vessels produced as small models of their larger counterparts. Parallels to small goblets were recovered from tombs at Kh. el-Kirmil (Dever 1975: Fig. 5:24, 25). The goblets found in the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 126

Fig. 3.2 ► No. 1

Tomb

Reg. No.

718

71804

2

762

76202

3

747

74702

4

504

50404

5

781

78103

6

768

76802

7

765

76502

8

719

71903

9

775

77503

10

726

72603

11

766

76602

12

570

57003

13

575

57503

14

574

57404

15

735

73504

16

757

75702

17

737

73701

18

761

76103

19

584

58402

differ somewhat from the goblets from the southern Judean hills, where they are of more open shape, with their height equal to or smaller than their diameter (Dever 1975: Fig. 5:16–19, 21, 22), while most of the Bet Dagan goblets are more elongated and their diameter is smaller than their height.

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1

2

3

4

5

6

7

9

10

11

13

14

17

8

12

15

16

18

19 0

10

Fig. 3.2. Goblets.

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Eli Yannai

2

1

5

3

6

9

10

13

14

17

4

8

7

12

11

16

15

19

18 0

10

Fig. 3.3. Goblets.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 128

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Chapter 3: The Pottery

◄ Fig. 3.3 No. 1

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 129

Tomb

Reg. No.

554

55405

Fig. 3.4 ► No. 1

Tomb

Reg. No.

734

73403

2

573

57303

2

764

76402

3

754

75403

3

769

76902

4

770

77002

4

566

56601

5

580

58004

5

596

59602

6

501

50101

6

569

56905

7

595

59502

7

555

55503

8

593

59303

8

727

72702

9

744

74404

9

736

73602

10

780

78003

10

738

73802

11

755

75502

11

753

75302

12

771

77102

12

586

58602

13

556

55603

13

733

73303

14

572

57201

14

507

50702

15

763

76302

15

713

71303

16

779

77903

16

774

77402

17

778

77802

17

752

75203

18

589

58901

18

592

59202

19

590

59002

19

568

56802

20

551

55103

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130

1

Eli Yannai

2

5

9

13

17

3

6

4

7

8

10

11

12

14

15

16

18

19 0

20

10

Fig. 3.4. Goblets.

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1

2

5

3

6

9

7

10

13

4

8

11

14

12

16

15

17

18 0

10

Fig. 3.5. Goblets. No.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 131

Tomb

Reg. No.

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

776

77602

10

594

59403

2

721

72103

11

598

59802

3

502

50203

12

556

55602

4

758

75802

13

716

71606

5

732

73203

14

572

57203

6

503

50302

15

591

59103

7

552

55201

16

588

58802

8

597

59702

17

579

57902

9

720

72002

18

505

50502

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Eli Yannai

1

3

2

5

9

13

4

6

7

8

10

11

12

16

15

14

17

18 0

19 10

Fig. 3.6. Goblets. No.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 132

Tomb

Reg. No.

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

571

57102

11

771

77103

2

740

74001

12

595

59503

3

739

73902

13

554

55403

4

573

57302

14

731

73102

5

777

77703

15

567

56702

6

706

70604

16

569

56904

7

772

77202

17

587

58702

8

707

70703

18

575

57504

9

779

77904

19

714

71402

10

581

58102

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Mugs (Fig. 3.7) The lower part of the body is wide and rounded, with a narrow upper body that widens on top and ends in a sharp rim; a handle extends from the rim to the lower body. Although closed vessels with one handle are usually termed jugs, the term mug is used for these vessels in order to emphasize the direct relationship between them and the tall and narrow goblets (see Fig. 3.6:1–3) and to differentiate them from the jugs with narrow and wide necks that were found at other sites. Ten mugs were found. Three were undecorated (Fig. 3.7:2, 3, 8). Two mugs bear bands incised with a multitoothed comb (Fig. 3.7:4, 5) and three are incised with a single-toothed comb (Fig. 3.7:1, 6, 7). The mug in Fig.

1

2

3.7:9 has several small incisions around the attachment of the handle to the body. It is difficult to say whether they were intended to be a decoration or if they were made inadvertently. A parallel to Fig. 3.7:5, with three horizontal incised bands, was found in a tomb at Azor (Yannai 2007: Fig. 3:17). Figure 3.7:6, too, has a parallel at Azor (Yannai 2007: Fig. 4:18) and at Tel Aviv (Amiran 1974: Fig. 3:10). Two mugs found in tombs at Azor have incised horizontal bands flanking a wavy band (Yannai 2007: Fig. 4:19, 20). Such a decorative pattern is seen on a number of goblets (described above) and on one teapot (see below) from the Bet Dagan cemetery, emphasizing the affinity between goblets and mugs. A mug was found at Tell Jericho in Section 2 Layers

3

4

7

6

5

8

9 0

10

Fig. 3.7. Mugs.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 133

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

741

74103

6

724

72402

2

728

72802

7

773

77302

3

756

75603

8

743

74302

4

767

76702

9

742

74202

5

722

72202

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21–22 (Kenyon and Holland 1982: Fig. 67:3); this mug is very rare in the Tell Jericho assemblage and its handle extends from the neck rather than from the rim. A fragment of an additional mug from Tell Jericho (Kenyon and Holland 1982: Fig. 67:8) might belong to this type, as it is very similar to the mugs from the Bet Dagan and Azor cemeteries. Storage Jars The jars constitute one of the largest groups in the assemblage (see Fig. 3.37). All have a flat base, elongated or barrel-shaped body, short neck and rounded everted rim. The jars, as all the closed vessels, were handmade with coils. The join of the coils is very visible on the interior of most of the vessels. The walls of most of the vessels, including the large ones and even the largest storage jars, are very thin, often no more than 1 cm thick. It may be assumed that these large vessels were not originally formed with such thin walls, which would have caused the vessel to collapse during manufacture. Rather, after drying leather-hard, the surface of the vessel was thinned with a knife to a thickness that would be conducive for effective firing. The perfect symmetry of the rounded body shows that the scraping/thinning was done while turning, possibly on a wheel. At this stage, the neck and rim, which were made separately on a wheel, were joined to the body. Then the surface of the vessel was smoothed. In the next stage, the vessel was combed and incised as required. Thus, all the closed vessels bear telltale traces of the potter’s work on the interior, while the exterior was perfectly smoothed, which obliterated all signs of the formation technique. Most of the jars were without handles—only a few have short ledge handles that protrude about 1 cm from the body of the vessel; such handles were only found on one type of jar (below).1 The jars occur in a wide range of sizes. Some are extremely large (Figs. 3.8–3.10) and some are small (Fig. 3.19:4). They were also made in a wide range of shapes, with some having a broad barrellike body, and others having a narrow cylindrical body. The large variety of dimensions and shapes makes it difficult to divide them into specific groups, yet the characteristics of some of the jars allow us to assign them to different groups. They are presented below from large to small, but this division does not reflect the overall differences between the jars.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 134

Large Storage Jars (Figs. 3.8–3.12) Barrel-shaped body, narrow neck, thickened rounded rim exterior, flat base. Height ranges from 0.9 to 1.0 m. The storage jar in Fig. 3.8:1 has a short and sharpened rim, while most of the others have a cut rim that is typical of many vessels in this period. Some of these storage jars have narrow necks (Figs. 3.8:2; 3.10:1, 2; 3.11:2; 3.12:2), while the others are wide (Figs. 3.8:1; 3.9:1, 2; 3.10:3; 3.11:1, 3, 4; 3.12:1, 3). Three storage jars are decorated with horizontal bands incised with a multi-toothed comb (Figs. 3.9:1, 2; 3.11:1), while the rest are undecorated. Two storage jars (Fig. 3.10:1, 3) bear coils of clay attached to the exterior of the body after the vessel was leather-hard. Only fourteen large storage jars found in the Bet Dagan cemetery could be drawn and documented, alongside several others that we were unable to draw in the field. Parallels to large storage jars were found at the settlement site at er-Rujum (Milevski et al. 2012: Figs. 20:1–8; 21:1–9). Medium-Sized Storage Jars (Figs. 3.13–3.19:1–3) Thirty-two medium-sized storage jars that could be drawn and documented were found in the Bet Dagan cemetery, along with several others that we were unable to draw in the field or in the laboratory. The group of storage jars demonstrates a wide range of variability in their dimensions, shape, decoration, plastic relief and finish quality. Despite the large number of storage jars, only four were identical (see below), while it is difficult to classify the others into types due to their heterogeneity. Thus, the typological division is not based on clear-cut or standardized criteria. The parallels to the storage jars reflect only some of the ceramic assemblages found in Israel. For example, almost no parallels were found in the Jericho tombs, while there are numerous jars at the tell from Layer 42 in Section I and Layers 21–22 in Section III whose upper part is identical to that of the Bet Dagan storage jars. However, these comparisons were not included in the list of parallels (below) since the typology of the Bet Dagan storage jars is based on size, while only the upper part of the Jericho jars was published, making comparison difficult. The one complete example that was published from Tell Jericho (Kenyon and Holland 1982: Fig. 104:12) shows that there was a high degree of similarity between the two assemblages. Based on the shape and the diameter of other storage jars published from Jericho, the storage

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Chapter 3: The Pottery

jars from settlement layers at Jericho are very similar to the storage jars from Bet Dagan. Both have cut or sharp rims and their decorative assemblage includes numerous examples of horizontal incisions on the upper part of the vessel. Medium-Sized Storage Jars with Short, Wide Round Body (Figs. 3.13; 3.14). An almost globular wide body, some with a short neck (Figs. 3.13:2, 3; 3.14:1, 4). Some rims have a rounded exterior or a cut finish. Three jars (Fig. 3.14:1–3) represent minor variations of the short, wide round body group (Fig. 3.13). Figure 3.13:4 has two horizontal bands incised with a multitoothed comb. One jar belonging to this type (Fig. 3.14:4) is decorated with incisions made by a sharp instrument at the join of the neck and the body. The rim of this jar is a folded ring that is unique among all the other vessels in the Bet Dagan cemetery. Parallels to those storage jars were found in tombs at Azor (Ory 1944: Fig. 1; Yannai 2007: Fig. 5). Several of the jars from the Azor tombs have flat ledge handles. It may be assumed that some of the storage jars from Bet Dagan originally had such handles but they were not preserved. Other parallels include storage jars from tombs at Ramat Moza (Bahat 1975: Fig. 3:1, 2) and Tell el-‘Ajjul (Kenyon 1956: Fig. 8:8). The parallels show that storage jars appeared mainly along the coast and in the Judean Hills around Jerusalem. Medium-Sized Storage Jars with Tall, Wide Round Body (Figs. 3.15; 3.16). Nine storage jars of different shapes, typed together due to their size. Four storage jars have a narrow neck (Figs. 3.15:2, 4; 3.16:2, 3); the others have a wider neck. Four other storage jars have an everted neck and a truncated rim (Figs. 3.15:1, 3; 3.16:1, 3), while three others have a sharp rim (Figs. 3.15:4, 5; 3.16:2). One jar (Fig. 3.15:3) sports a vertical coil attached to it in the leather-hard stage. Figure 3.16:4 has a horizontal band incised with a multitoothed comb and a single horizontal band. Three coils, each 3 cm long and 1 cm wide, were attached vertically to the exterior of the body when the vessel was leatherhard (Milevski et al. 2012:105). Parallels to these storage jars were excavated in tombs at Bet Dagan by Peilstöcker (2006: Fig. 3:1), as well as in tombs at Azor (Yannai 2007: Figs. 7:3, 4; 8:1, 3), Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 67:458, 460, 461, 472) and Tell Beit Mirsim (Dever 1981a: Figs. 3:4; 4:4).

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 135

135

Medium-Sized Storage Jars with Narrow Body (Figs. 3.17; 3.18; 3.19:1–3). Fourteen of the storage jars found in the Bet Dagan cemetery belong to this heterogeneous group of medium-sized jars with narrow bodies. Most of the medium-sized jars are unique and therefore it is difficult to subdivide them. Several of these jars have wide barrel-shaped bodies that are almost hemispherical (Fig. 3.18:2, 5; 3.19:1, 3), while the majority have barrel-shaped bodies (Figs. 3.17; 3.18:1, 3, 4). Most of the jars have synchronized proportions between the width of the body and the neck diameter: storage jars with wide bodies have wide necks and jars with narrow bodies have narrower necks. One of these jars has a narrow base (Fig. 3.19:2), making it similar to jars from EB II–III (i.e., de Vaux and Stève 1948: Figs. 7:3; 9:1). Most of the other jars from Bet Dagan have a base and lower body diameter that is wider than the upper part. One jar attributed to this group has a sharp rim (Fig. 3.19:3). One of these jars (Fig. 3.18:1) bears six horizontal incisions in three groups of two incisions each. The upper part of the storage jar in Fig. 3.17:3 has a vertical coil attached to its upper body on the exterior. Parallels to these jars were found in tombs at Azor (Yannai 2007: Fig. 10:44, 46, 47), Ramat Ha-Hayyal (Yankelevitz 2005: Fig. 6:5), Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 67:464, 475, 482), Tell el-‘Ajjul (Kenyon 1956:50; Fig. 8:7), Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1992: Fig. 2:2, 4; 3:2), Moza ‘Illit (Greenhut 2003: Fig. 152:1), Ramat Moza (Bahat 1975: Fig. 3:1), Efrata (Gonen 2001: Fig. 21:1, 2), ‘En Esur (Horowitz 2000: Fig. 27:85) and Tell Beit Mirsim (Ben-Arieh 2004: Fig. 2.5:1–3). Other parallels come from Cemeteries 1500 and 200 at Tell el-‛Ajjul (Petrie 1931; 1932: Pl. XLI: Types 30F, 30G). Small Storage Jar (Fig. 3.19:4) A wide barrel-shaped body, narrow neck, delicate wellformed cut rim. The dimensions of this jar are unique in the Bet Dagan cemetery. A small piece of clay was attached horizontally to the exterior of the upper body. Such a phenomenon was identified on other storage jars in the Bet Dagan cemetery. Parallels to this jar were found in tombs at Efrata (Gonen 2001: Fig. 31:9), Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 67:483, where a coil of clay was attached at the join of the neck to the body and with an incised and punctured horizontal band), Tell el-‘Ajjul (Petrie 1931: Type 30G9) and Jericho (Kenyon 1965: Fig. 89:9).

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136

Eli Yannai

1

2 0

10

Fig. 3.8. Storage jars. No.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 136

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

766

76601

2

712

71201

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1

137

2 0

10

Fig. 3.9. Storage jars.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 137

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

765

76501

2

774

77401

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138

Eli Yannai

1

2

3 0

10

Fig. 3.10. Storage jars.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 138

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

507

50701

2

742

74201

3

578

57801

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Chapter 3: The Pottery

1

139

2

3

4 0

10

Fig. 3.11. Storage jars.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 139

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

504

50401

2

580

58002

3

768

76801

4

775

77501

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140

Eli Yannai

2

1

3

0

10

Fig. 3.12. Storage jars. No.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 140

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

590

59001

2

769

76905

3

773

77301

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1

141

2

3

4

0

10

Fig. 3.13. Storage jars.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 141

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

575

57501

2

722

72201

3

502

50201

4

555

55501

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142

Eli Yannai

1

2

3

4

5 0

10

Fig. 3.14. Storage jars.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 142

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

506

50601

2

753

75301

3

755

75501

4

775

77502

5

733

73301

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143

Chapter 3: The Pottery

2

1

3

0

10

5

4

Fig. 3.15. Storage jars.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 143

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

593

59301

4

759

75902

5

767

76701

2

504

50405

3

752

75201

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144

Eli Yannai

1

2

4

3 0

10

Fig. 3.16. Storage jars. No.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 144

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

759

75901

2

763

76301

3

744

74402

4

776

77601

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Chapter 3: The Pottery

1

2

3

4

5

6 0

10

Fig. 3.17. Storage jars.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 145

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

584

58401

2

572

57202

3

594

59402

4

581

58101

5

552

55203

6

732

73201

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146

Eli Yannai

1

2

3

0

4

10

5

Fig. 3.18. Storage jars. No.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 146

Tomb

Reg. No.

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

566

56603

4

721

72101

2

718

71802

5

767/768

76804

3

725

72501

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Chapter 3: The Pottery

147

2

1

3

4 0

10

Fig. 3.19. Storage jars.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 147

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

780

78002

2

754

75401

3

724

72401

4

716

71603

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148

Eli Yannai

Amphoriskoi (Figs. 3.20–3.30) Amphoriskoi are defined here as vessels with two shoulder handles. Most of the handles are pierced vertical handles attached at the join of the neck to the body of the vessel (Milevski et al. 2012:99). One group has two strap handles with a rectangular section. The amphoriskoi comprise the second most common vessel group in the Bet Dagan assemblage (see Fig. 3.37); many variations were discerned. The dimensions of the large amphoriskoi are identical to those of the large storage jars. The smallest amphoriskoi are about 10 cm high. There is a wide variety of sizes among the amphoriskoi. Giant Amphoriskoi (Figs. 3.20; 3.21:1–3) Elongated body, wide neck, aside from one with a narrow neck (Fig. 3.20:5), sharp (Fig. 3.20) or cut (Fig. 3.21:1–3) rim. The flat base has a diameter that is wider than that of the neck. One amphoriskos (Fig. 3.20:5) has a horizontal band incised with a multi-toothed comb on its upper body; all the others are undecorated. Large Amphoriskoi Large Amphoriskoi with Narrow Body (Figs. 3.21:4, 5; 3.22:1, 2). Round (Fig. 3.21:4) or more elongated (Fig. 3.22:2) body, flat base. None of these amphoriskoi are decorated. Two amphoriskoi (Fig. 3.22:1, 2) are similar to the narrow-bodied storage jars (i.e., Figs. 3.16:1; 3.17), emphasizing the close affinity between the storage jars and the amphoriskoi. In fact, the only difference is often the placement of the handles at the join of the neck to the body. Most of these amphoriskoi were coil made and only their upper part was formed on the wheel, the join marked by a step on the interior (Figs. 3.21:4, 5; 3.22:1). This indicates that the upper part was made separately and joined to the body when it was leather hard. The only parallel to these amphoriskoi was found in a tomb at Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 67:482). Large Amphoriskoi with Wide Body (Figs. 3.22:3–6; 3.23). The various vessels attributed to this type were divided into two groups: one with a cut rim (Fig. 3.22:3–6) and one with a sharp rim (Fig. 3.23). Most of these amphoriskoi have a slightly elongated body and the diameter of the base is somewhat larger than

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 148

that of the neck. One amphoriskos (Fig. 3.22:5) is wider than the others, while another (Fig. 3.23:5) has a base and rim of equal diameter. This latter trait is very rare among the vessels in the Bet Dagan assemblage. The amphoriskos in Fig. 3.22:5 has two horizontal bands incised with multi-toothed combs. Another amphoriskos (Fig. 3.23:4) has one such horizontal band, while yet another (Fig. 3.22:4) has six horizontal incisions. Most of the amphoriskoi of this group are reduced versions of the larger amphoriskoi. Tall Amphoriskoi with Narrow Body and Large Loop Handles (Figs. 3.24; 3.25). A tall, narrow barrel-shaped body, and a narrow flat base that is wider than the rim diameter. Four amphoriskoi of this type (Figs. 3.24:6; 3.25:3, 4, 6) have sharp rims, four (Figs. 3.24:1; 3.25:1, 2, 5) have cut rims and another four (Fig. 3.24:2–5) have rounded rims. Only one amphoriskos of this type (Fig. 3.24:1) was decorated with incisions. The main characteristic of this group is the elongated body and large loop handles. These handles have a narrow ribbon-like section and they differ entirely from all other handles found on amphoriskoi in the Bet Dagan assemblage, which all have perforated handles. They also differ from those occurring on the jug and the mugs, which have wide handles. All the amphoriskoi of this type were made of light or dark pink clay, which differs from the yellow, orange or brown clay of the other vessels in the assemblage. This standardization of unique shape and fabric set this type apart and points to their production in a more specialized workshop. Parallels to this type were found in tombs at Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1992: Fig. 3:4) and Azor (Amiran 1970: Fig. 6; the exact location of the tomb mentioned by Amiran remains unknown). No parallels to such amphoriskoi were found outside the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins. Medium-Sized Amphoriskoi Medium-Sized Amphoriskoi with Narrow Body (Fig. 3.26). Rounded elongated body, sharp rim. One amphoriskos (Fig. 3.26:1) is narrower and has a base diameter equal to its rim diameter, whereas all the others have a base wider than the rim diameter. Figure 3.26:9 depicts a vessel somewhat different from the others in its higher everted neck, as opposed to the short straight

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Chapter 3: The Pottery

neck of the others. These two amphoriskoi (Fig. 3.26:1, 9) also exhibit a different body shape, with the widest part in the center, as opposed to the lower third in all the other examples of this type. Two amphoriskoi (Fig. 3.26:1, 3) have two horizontal bands incised with a multi-toothed comb on their upper body. Parallels to these amphoriskoi were found in tombs at Bet Dagan excavated by Peilstöcker (2006: Fig. 3:8) and in tombs at Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 67:481, 482). Medium-Sized Amphoriskos with Wide Body (Figs. 3.27–3.29; 3.30:1–5). This is the most common type of amphoriskos in the Bet Dagan cemetery assemblage. This type includes amphoriskoi of several shapes, sizes and proportions. The largest vessels in this group (Figs. 3.27:1–5; 3.28:1) are very similar to the small amphoriskoi of this group (Fig. 3.28:3, 8, 9; 3.29:2, 3), while the smallest examples attributed to this group (Figs. 3.28:3, 4; 3.29:7) are very similar to the ‘small’ amphoriskoi (see below, Fig. 3.30:6–12). It seems that the potters made a wide variety of medium-sized amphoriskoi so that the typological division into this and other groups is mainly the researchers’ decision. Several amphoriskoi have a narrow and elongated body (Fig. 3.28:1, 2, 4), and one is wide and squat (Fig. 3.28:5). Most of them have a body diameter almost equal to their height. Several examples have a cut rim (Figs. 3.27:6, 7; 3.28:2, 3); these are the smallest vessels that have such a rim. All the other amphoriskoi of this type have a sharp rim. Seven amphoriskoi are decorated with horizontal grouped lines made by a one-toothed stylus (Fig. 3.27:2, 4; 3.28:1, 4; 3.29:6; 3.30:1, 4). Two amphoriskoi have a horizontal band incised with a multi-toothed comb (Figs. 3.27:5). Six amphoriskoi (Figs. 3.27:3; 3.28:3, 5, 7, 9; 3.29:6) have two such incised bands. One amphoriskos (Fig. 3.28:8) has two such bands flanking a row of diagonal punctured dots; it seems that both the incised bands and the punctured dots were made with the same tool. A similar design occurs on the upper part of a storage jar found in the tombs at Tell Beit Mirsim (Ben-Arieh 2004: Fig. 2.5:2) and Kh. el-Kirmil (Dever 1975: Fig. 4:6, 12). Parallels to medium-sized squat amphoriskoi were found in tombs at Pisgat Ze’ev (Seligman 1995: Fig. 4:4) and Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 67:483). Both the amphoriskoi from Lakhish and Pisgat Ze’ev had

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 149

149

coils attached to the join of the neck to the body. Such a feature is found on vessels from the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins. Some of the amphoriskoi have incised decoration, added when the vessel was turned on a wheel just before it dried to a leather-hard state. The width of the incised area varies from covering the entire upper body (Fig. 3.29:5) to a quarter of the upper body (Figs. 3.27:2, 4; 3.28:1; 3.30:1, 4). The amphoriskos in Fig. 3.27:4 shows a coil attached to the exterior of its upper body after the vessel had been partially dried. Small Amphoriskoi (Fig. 3.30:4–12) Sharp rim; the most common type has a round slightly elongated body (Fig. 3.30:6, 7, 9–11). One amphoriskos (Fig. 3.30:9) has an almost globular body, while another (Fig. 3.30:8) has a slightly elongated body. Figure 3.30:11, also with an almost globular body and two horizontal bands incised with a multi-toothed comb, is a miniature version of the amphoriskoi in Fig. 3.30:2, 4; it is possibly a votive vessel. Small amphoriskoi (Fig. 3.30:6, 7) are paralleled in tombs at Azor (Yannai 2007: Fig. 12:59, 60), Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1992: Fig. 1:12, 14–16), ‘En Esur (Horowitz 2000: Fig. 25:60, 61), Tell el-‘Ajjul (Kenyon 1956: Fig. 9:12) and Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 67:497, 498). The smaller amphoriskoi in Fig. 3.30:8–11 have parallels in tombs at Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1992: Fig. 1:17, 18), ‘En Esur (Horowitz 2000: Fig. 25:57, 59), Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 67:490, 493, 494), Tell el-‘Ajjul (Petrie 1931: Type 33M7) and Jebel Qa‘aqir (London 1985: Figs. A.1:1, 3, 4; A.2:9, 10; A.3:4, 6, 7; A.5:7, 11; A.7:3, 6; 10A.13:3). Rare parallels come from the settlement site at er-Rujum (Milevski et al. 2012: Fig. 23:2–8). One amphoriskos (Fig. 3.30:12) is different from the others and in fact is unique in the Bet Dagan assemblage. It has an elongated high tubular neck, while its lower body is widest at the lower third, like the other amphoriskoi of this type. Parallels to this amphoriskos were found in a tomb at Kh. Majdal (Yannai 1993: Fig. 2:9–11) and in two tombs at Ma‘abarot (Gophna 1969: upper center). Other parallels come from the settlement site at er-Rujum (Milevski et al. 2012: Fig. 23:1), L1529 at Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 66:418) and Section III Layer 20 at Tell Jericho (Kenyon and Holland 1982: Fig. 104:9).

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150

Eli Yannai

1

2

3

4

0

10

5

Fig. 3.20. Amphoriskoi. No.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 150

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

713

71301

2

586

58601

3

743

74301

4

764

76401

5

781

78101

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Chapter 3: The Pottery

1

2

3

4

5 0

10

Fig. 3.21. Amphoriskoi.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 151

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

738

73801

4

574

57401

5

588

58801

2

747

74701

3

595

59501

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152

Eli Yannai

1

2

4

3

5

6 0

10

Fig. 3.22. Amphoriskoi.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 152

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

719

71901

2

715

71502

3

518

51802

4

571

57101

5

503

50301

6

594

59401

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Chapter 3: The Pottery

1

2

3

4

5 0

10

Fig. 3.23. Amphoriskoi.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 153

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

569

56902

2

778

77801

3

735

73501

4

592

59201

5

566

56602

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154

Eli Yannai

1

2

4

3

5

6

0

10

Fig. 3.24. Amphoriskoi.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 154

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

725

72502

2

769

76901

3

741

74102

4

739

73901

5

710

71001

6

576

57602

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Chapter 3: The Pottery

1

4

2

3

5

6 0

10

Fig. 3.25. Amphoriskoi.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 155

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

726

72601

2

754

75402

3

701

70101

4

727

72701

5

760

76001

6

758

75801

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156

Eli Yannai

1

2

4

3

5

7

6

8

9 0

10

Fig. 3.26. Amphoriskoi. No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

721

72102

4

726

72602

7

741

74101

2

591

59101

5

729

72901

8

570

57002

3

733

73302

6

570

57001

9

583

58301

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 156

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157

Chapter 3: The Pottery

2

1

3

6

5

4

7 0

10

Fig. 3.27. Amphoriskoi. No.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 157

Tomb

Reg. No.

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

744

74401

5

728

72801

2

555

55502

6

587

58701

7

750

75001

3

781

78102

4

745

74501

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1

2

4

3

5

7

6

8

9

0

10

Fig. 3.28. Amphoriskoi. No.

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Tomb

Reg. No.

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

718

71801

6

756

75602

2

715

71501

7

761

76102

3

518

51801

8

577

57701

4

731

73101

9

591

59102

5

736

73601

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1

2

4

3

5

6

7 0

10

Fig. 3.29. Amphoriskoi.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 159

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

735

73502

2

770

77003

3

761

76101

4

597

59701

5

772

77201

6

757

75701

7

575

57502

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1

2

4

3

5

7

6

8

10

9

11

12 0

10

Fig. 3.30. Amphoriskoi.

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◄ Fig. 3.30 No. 1

Tomb

Reg. No.

598

59801

2

596

59601

3

574

57402

4

583

58302

5

580

58001

6

710

71002

7

569

56901

8

554

55402

9

584

58405

10

723

72301

11

702

70202

12

717

71701

Jug (Fig. 3.31) Squat body, wide cylindrical neck, handle extending from the rim, flat base. This vessel is unique and no other such vessels are known in the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins. Parallels to this jug were found in tombs at Kh. Majdal (Yannai 1993: Fig. 2:8) and ‘En Esur (Horowitz 2000: Fig. 23:28–32). Many jugs were found in assemblages from the Judean Hills (Dever 1975: Fig. 5:10–14), as well as in Transjordan. The single jug from Bet Dagan emphasizes the rarity of jugs in the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins.

1 0

5

161

Teapots (Fig. 3.32) Six teapots were excavated at Bet Dagan. Two (Fig. 3.32:1, 2) are squat, while another (Fig. 3.32:3) has a tall barrel-shaped body. Three others have almost globular bodies (Fig. 3.32:4–6). On one of the teapots (Fig. 3.32:1), the spout is attached to the body without an adjoining handle, while the rest of the teapots have such a handle. One teapot (Fig. 3.32:4) has three horizontal bands flanking a wavy band, all incised with a multi-toothed comb (see below, ‘Surface Treatment’). This is the most complex incised design found in the Bet Dagan cemetery. A similar complex design occurs on goblets from Tell Jericho Section I Layer 43 (Kenyon and Holland 1982: Fig. 21:2, 15), as well as on a mug and a small storage jar from Section II Layers 21–22 (Kenyon and Holland 1982: Fig. 67:3, 17). Figure 3.32:5 has a horizontal band incised on its upper third and Fig. 3.32:6 has two horizontal bands incised on the upper half. Parallels to Fig. 3.32:5 were found in a tomb at Azor (Yannai 2007: Fig. 13:62); this is the only teapot found in the Azor cemetery. Parallels to the teapot with a tall barrel-like body (Fig. 3.32:3) were found in tombs at Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1992: Fig. 2:1) and Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 67:487). Parallels to the small teapot (Fig. 3.32:6) were recovered from tombs at Kh. Majdal (Yannai 1993: Fig. 2:6), ‘En Esur (Yannai 1996: Fig. 7:11, 13; Horowitz 2000: Fig. 22:17, 18) and Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 67:486). Other parallels were found at settlement sites such as ‘Afula (Gal and CovelloParan 1996: Fig. 10:20) and er-Rujum (Milevski et al. 2012: Fig. 23:9). No teapots with a handle joining the rim and the spout were discovered in the Jebel Qa‘aqir cemetery; it seems that this type is more common in the northern part of the country.

Fig. 3.31. Jug.

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No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

730

73001

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1

2

4

3

5

6

0

10

Fig. 3.32. Teapots. No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

579

57901

4

760

76002

2

746

74601

5

777

77701

3

714

71401

6

777

77702

Lamps Four-Spouted Lamps (Figs. 3.33–3.35) Four-spouted lamps were made by folding a bowl upward and inward at four corners. The diameter of the bowl before folding was uneven and thus, the fold itself differs. Therefore, despite the large amount of lamps, no two are exactly alike. Most of the lamps have a low and short fold (Fig. 3.33:1–18), while a few have more emphatic folds (Figs. 3.33:19, 20; 3.34). Most of the lamps are of a standard size, with only a centimeter difference between the largest and the smallest examples. One lamp (Fig. 3.35:11) is much larger than all the others. Most of the lamps have a round base that was occasionally lightly scraped. Six lamps have flat bases (Figs. 3.34:18; 3.35:4, 7–10); the rim of these lamps is much more folded than the round-based lamps, forming long narrow wicks. Only a few lamps bear incised decoration or plastic relief. Figure 3.35:1 has two horizontal incised lines, and Fig. 3.35:2, three such lines. Figure 3.35:3 has diagonal incisions near the fold, and Fig. 3.35:4, narrow diagonal incisions. The incised decoration was applied only on one of the folds. An applied piece of round clay on one of the four

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 162

folded sides can be seen on the lamps in Fig. 3.35:5 and 6. A parallel to an incised lamp was found in the tombs at Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1982: Fig. 3:8) and Azor (Ory 1944: Pl. XIV:3; Yannai 2007: Fig. 13:64). The only parallel from outside the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins comes from a tomb at Gibeon (Pritchard 1963: Fig. 31:6). Parallels to lamps with low short folds and a round base were found in tombs at Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1992: Fig. 3:7) and Jericho (Kenyon 1965: Figs. 28:12; 54:1, 8; 69:6), and to lamps with round bases and deep folds, in tombs at Azor (Yannai 2007: Fig. 13:63–68) and Jericho (Kenyon 1965: Figs. 43:7; 47:5; 77:4, 5). An additional parallel was discovered in a tomb at Dhahr Mirzbâneh (Dever 1972: Fig. 4:2). Parallels to four-spouted lamps with flat bases were found in tombs at Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1992: Fig. 3:5, 6) and Pisgat Ze’ev (Seligman 1995: Fig. 4:11, 12). This type of lamp is the most common one in the Dhahr Mirzbâneh cemetery (Lapp 1966: Figs. 3:6; 6:17; 12:5, 7; 15:4; 24:4, 8; 32:7, 9; 37:10–12; Dever 1972: Fig. 4:1). More such lamps were uncovered in a tomb at Sinjil (Dever 1971a: Fig. 1:2, 3), Kh. el-Kirmil

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(Dever 1975: Fig. 4:16), Tell Beit Mirsim (BenArieh 2004: Fig. 2.5:4) and Efrata (Gonen 2001: Figs. 21:6; 31:10; 50:1). Many flat-based lamps were found in tombs at Jericho (Kenyon 1965: Figs. 43:4; 46:17; 47:16, 17; 72:6), as well as on Tell Jericho in the occupation layer Phase 53 in Section I (Kenyon

1

2

6

11

16

7

12

17

and Holland 1983: Fig. 19:20) and in Section I Layer 42 (Kenyon and Holland 1983: Fig. 20:6, 14). Other parallels were found at the Jebel Qa‘aqir settlement site (Gitin 1975: Fig. 1:19) and in tombs in its cemetery (London 1985: Figs. A.1:7, 8, 10; A.2:11, 13, 14; A.3:5; A.4:6, 10; A.6:3, 4; A.7:5; A.8:12),

3

8

4

5

9

10

13

14

15

18

19

20

0

10

Fig. 3.33. Lamps.

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Fig. 3.34 ►

◄ Fig. 3.33 No. 1

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 164

Tomb

Reg. No.

582

58203

No. 1

Tomb

Reg. No.

574

57403

2

752

75206

2

736

73603

3

551

55104

3

590

59003

4

594

59404

4

573

57304

5

755

75504

5

771

77104

6

760

76004

6

588

58803

7

583

58304

7

762

76203

8

592

59203

8

597

59703

9

739

73903

9

580

58003

10

577

57703

10

716

71601

11

775

77504

11

774

77404

12

598

59803

12

738

73803

13

578

57803

13

770

77004

14

596

59603

14

765

76503

15

781

78104

15

504

50402

16

552

55202

16

571

57103

17

506

50602

17

507

50703

18

724

72403

18

745

74503

19

570

57004

20

735

73503

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1

6

11

2

3

4

5

7

8

9

10

12

16

13

14

17

15

18 0

10

Fig. 3.34. Lamps.

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1

2

5

3

6

4

7

9

8

10

11 0

10

Fig. 3.35. Lamps. No.

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Tomb

Reg. No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

763

76303

No. 7

581

58103

2

556

55604

8

503

50303

3

769

76904

9

772

77203

4

502

50202

10

749

74903

11

501

50102

5

773

77304

6

772

77204

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One-Spouted Lamps (Fig. 3.36) The one-spouted lamps have thin walls. The bowls used to make the one-spouted lamps were identical to those used for the four-spouted lamps. The diameters varied, as in the four-spouted lamps. The extent of the fold differs as well. Thus, as with the four-spouted

lamps, there is a high degree of variability among the one-spouted lamps. Parallels to one-spouted lamps were found in tombs at Azor (Yannai 2007: Fig. 13:69, 70), Moza ‘Illit (Greenhut 1992: Fig. 152:2), Jebel Qa‘aqir (London 1985: Figs. A.1:11; a.2:12) and in L1529 at Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 66:399).

2

1

3

6

5

4

7

8

9

0

10

Fig. 3.36. Lamps. No.

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Tomb

Reg. No.

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

558

55803

6

768

76803

2

722

72203

7

759

75904

3

754

75405

8

737

73703

9

734

73404

4

756

75604

5

767

76703

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Surface Treatment The decorations found at Bet Dagan were made in a variety of techniques, including a single incisor, a comb, and rarely, a combination of these two. Another technique entailed attaching coils of clay to the vessel (Kamaisky 2012:105). None of the vessels was painted and it seems that lack is typical of ceramic assemblages in the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins. Painted decoration is found in assemblages in the northern Jordan Valley, the western Jezreel Valley and along the coast south of the Nahal Hadera basin. Combing and Incising Combing was performed when the vessel was almost leather hard, while being turned slowly on the wheel. The comb was held in the potter’s hand, or was attached to an instrument placed at the side of the vessel. The grip on the comb was not strong and distortions in the combed lines are visible. The most simple combed decoration was composed of one or more horizontal bands incised on the upper part of the body. The most commonly used combs had six to seven teeth (Kamaisky 2012:105). In rare instances, numerous horizontal combed bands were incised, thus covering a broad surface. Several vessels were decorated with a more composite combed design which included horizontal bands flanking a wavy band. Such a design was found on the upper part of a storage jar and a closed goblet (of a type not found at Bet Dagan) from Kh. el-Kirmil (Dever 1975: Figs. 4:2, 5; 5:16, 20); on a goblet (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 66:397) and on the upper part of an amphoriskos (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 66:423) at Lakhish; on the bodies of flared goblets at er-Rujum (Milevski et al. 2012: Fig. 17:3, 4); and on the upper part of an amphoriskos (Kenyon 1965: Fig. 36:16) and on a goblet from Level 42 in Section 1 (Kenyon and Holland 1982: Fig. 20:8, 25) at Jericho. Such a design was not found among the rich material from tombs in the Samaria Hills and along the coastal plain. In light of the above parallels, the distribution of this composite combed design was to the south and east of Bet Dagan, in the Judean Hills, the southern Jordan Valley and the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins (including Bet Dagan); the latter is the northernmost limit of the distribution of this border.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 168

It has been suggested that the location of the combing on the upper part of the vessel was aimed at disguising the join of the body to the neck (Amiran 1969a:80). However, for the most part, the storage jars found in the Bet Dagan tombs lacked combed decoration and in fact, the join of the neck to the body was very apparent on the interior. It thus seems that this is not the reason for the placement of combing on this part of the vessel. In addition, the combed decoration is most common on goblets, which were not made in two parts. Also, the vessels produced in the north of the country were made in two parts but they lack combed decoration at the join of neck to body (Gal and Covello-Paran 1996: Fig. 11). The combed decoration is sometimes combined with punctures made with a comb; punctures made with a comb are very rare. Only one amphoriskos at Bet Dagan was so decorated, and only a few parallels for it were found. Designs comprising diagonal punctures made with a comb above a horizontal combed band were found in tombs at Kh. el-Kirmil (Dever 1975: Fig. 4:6, 12), Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 66:149) and Efrata (Gonen 2001: Fig. 21:3). While the distribution of this design is basically the same as the combed design, it was lacking at Jericho. Most of the vessels are decorated with horizontal lines incised with a single-toothed comb/stylus on the upper part of the body. Such incisions were found on all the vessel types at Bet Dagan: bowls, goblets, mugs, storage jars, amphoriskoi, teapots and four-spouted lamps. The incision was done on the wheel when the vessel was almost leather hard. The incising tool was held by the potter or attached to an instrument, similar to the technique used for combing. The potters did not take care in keeping the lines evenly spaced. Sometimes the lines are so closely spaced that they look like combing, while others have as much as a 1 cm space between the lines. The difference between combing and incised multi-lines is in the depth of the incision, with the latter being deeper. Punctured Decoration The puncture decoration is not as common as the combing and the incising. The design usually comprises a row of diagonal incisions that are often termed “rope decoration.” Such a decoration was found on one amphoriskos and on lamps.

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Single-Spouted Lamps 2% (9)

Plastic Decoration Plastic decoration was generally composed of a coil attached to the body. Two lamps had short coils, while longer coils were found on the storage jars and amphoriskoi. The coils are neither symmetric nor homogeneous and the aim of this decoration is not clear, although it is certain that they were deliberately added. On several vessels, the coils were attached on top of the combing or incision, which were carefully executed. The attachment of coils is also found at sites outside the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins. A coil attached to the join of the neck to the body was found on vessels in tombs at Pisgat Ze’ev (Seligman 1995: Fig. 4:4) and on storage jars at Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 67:483, 484). A coil applied on top of a combed band was found at Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 67:466) and on storage jars at Azor (Yannai 2011: Figs. 23:31– 34; 24:38). The manner of application of the coils on the Bet Dagan vessels indicates that despite the conservative methods of clay preparation, formation techniques and firing of the vessels, the potters were individualistic in the shape and decoration of the vessels. Although all the vessels in the Bet Dagan tombs were prepared as burial offerings, and in spite of the small range of vessel types, no two vessels were exactly the same.

Discussion Characteristics of the Ceramic Assemblage The assemblage of vessels found in the Bet Dagan tombs included almost 400 items and constitutes one of the largest assemblages found in Israel, comparative to those found in the cemeteries at Jericho and Dhahr Mirzbâneh. The Bet Dagan assemblage permits us to closely examine a homogeneous group that was deposited for a specific purpose during a relatively short period of time, and allows comparison to pottery found in other regions of Israel, as well as in Transjordan. In light of the typology and parallels presented above, several disparate main characteristics may be pointed out for this assemblage. It also allows us to make several observations on both micro- and macro-implications. a. Bowls here represent a relatively common vessel type in the cemetery (Fig. 3.37), as opposed to their generally not being a common burial offering.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 169

Teapots 2% (6)

Bowls 8% (31)

Four-Spouted Lamps 16% (65)

Goblets 29% (114)

Jug (1)

Mugs 3% (10)

Amphoriskoi 24% (95) Storage Jars 17% (67)

Fig. 3.37. Relative frequency of pottery types.

b. Proximity of cemeteries does not necessarily mean complete duplication of vessels in the cemeteries. Even nearby cemeteries may not provide the same range of vessels. For example, despite the cemetery at Azor, only some 2.5 km from Bet Dagan, having very similar, if not identical vessels, it contains a unique basin that was not found at Bet Dagan (Yannai 2007: Fig. 3:8). c. Distribution of certain types between tomb and settlement assemblages can lead to their being understood as having funerary or quotidian functions. Excavations have shown that the deposit of a large quantity of bowls as burial offerings is not common in Intermediate Bronze Age tombs, while their presence is more frequent in settlements (Milevski et al. 2012:93–94, Fig. 19). No bowls were found in the cemetery at Jericho, while a large quantity of bowls was found in the nearby settlement. Tel Megiddo tombs held vessels not found in the settlement layers, and vice versa. It thus may be concluded that the pottery assemblage recovered from the Bet Dagan tombs does not necessarily reflect that of the Nahal Yarqon basin area settlements, but can only be understood as representative of burial offerings. d. Goblets and mugs can be grouped together. Goblets are ubiquitous at Bet Dagan with one or more examples appearing in almost 99% of the Bet Dagan tombs, while other cemeteries contained no or only a few goblets. In addition, the large number of goblets found in the Bet Dagan tombs vs. that of mugs seems to indicate that mugs are a variation of goblets. This is illustrated especially by the tall-and-narrow-bodied goblet (see

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Fig. 3.6:1–3), which could in fact be better defined as a handle-less mug (the fact that there are so few of them is in keeping with the small number of mugs). d. Certain types can be used to indicate geographic restrictions: the goblets (see above), which appear rarely in other cemeteries; and the large mugs and the narrowbodied amphoriskos with a cylindrical neck and two loop handles, which are types not found outside the Nahal Ayyalon basin, perhaps indicating that this was the area of their distribution.2 The giant and large amphoriskoi in the Bet Dagan cemetery also have not been discovered in any other assemblages in Israel or Transjordan, aside from two amphoriskoi from Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 67:481, 482), which lies outside the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins. Also, incised or punctured lamps had been published so far from the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins only from tombs at Azor (Ory 1944: Fig. 3) and Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1992: Fig. 3:8); they have not been found outside this geographic area. In summary, it can be said that the Bet Dagan assemblage is characteristic of the funerary ceramic repertoire of the the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins; it contains types that are very different from other tomb assemblages in Israel and Transjordan. It may also be concluded that the pottery assemblage recovered from the Bet Dagan tombs does not necessarily reflect that of the Nahal Yarqon basin area settlements (e.g., Kh. er-Rujum; Milevski et al. 2012) and can only be understood as representative of burial offerings. Regionalism as Reflected By Pottery Groups Division into Groups and Their Internal Chronology Amiran (1969a; 1970) was the first to divide the ceramic assemblage of this period into regional groups. In her initial study (Amiran 1969a), she divided the pottery into three groups—a northern group, a southern group and the Megiddo group. Following the publication of the cemetery at Dhahr Mirzbâneh, she added a fourth group, the Central Hill country group (Amiran 1969b; 1974). Dever (1970; 1973; 1980) divided the pottery into seven regional groups. Following the excavation of the cemetery at ‘En Esur, an additional group from the northern Sharon plain was added (Horowitz 2000). Subsequent to the publication of the material from the tombs at Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1992:7), a separate group from the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins was identified. Augmented by the material from

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 170

the tombs at Azor and Bet Dagan, this became one of the most well-known pottery groups from this period. This group differs from the other regional groups in both the vessels themselves and the decoration, as well as in the burial customs (see below). The main differences between the Bet Dagan pottery assemblage and that at other cemeteries appear in the goblets, small storage jars and spouted storage jars. The goblets found at Bet Dagan, despite their wide variety, are not of the typical southern open goblet, known, i.e., from Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 66:403, 409, 416, 422), Jebel Qa‘aqir (Dever 1981a: Fig. 3:7) and Tell Beit Mirsim (Dever 2003: Fig. 1:4, 5). Bet Dagan lacks the small storage jars that were found in the tombs at Jericho (Kenyon 1965: Fig. 47:6–12), Sinjil in the Samaria Hills (Dever 1971a: Fig. 1:4–6) and Dhahr Mirzbâneh (Lapp 1966: Figs. 2:3–5; 3:1–4; 12:1, 3, 9; 35:1–10, and numerous others). The distribution of these small jars reached Moza ‘Illit (Greenhut 2003: Fig. 152:3, 4) and Pisgat Ze’ev (Seligman 1995: Fig. 4:5–9). Another vessel type absent from Bet Dagan is the spouted storage jar, found at Lakhish (Tufnell 1985: Pl. 455–457), Tell el-‘Ajjul (Petrie 1931: Type 30J4; 1932: Type 30J) and Jericho (Kenyon 1965: Figs. 65:2; 71: 7, 8). At Tell el-‘Ajjul, as at Bet Dagan, only one jug has been found (Petrie 1931: Type 37B6). The pottery assemblage from the Bet Dagan cemetery does not fit into the groups defined by Amiran (1969a; 1974), nor by Dever (1973; 1980). Most of the parallels to the vessels in the Bet Dagan tombs were located in cemeteries in the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins, at Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1992), Bet Nehemya (Kletter 2003), Azor (Yannai 2007) and Tel Aviv (Braun and van den Brink 2005), while some parallels come from tombs in the southern part of the country, such as Lakhish (Tufnell 1958), Tell el-‘Ajjul (Kenyon 1956), and Tell Beit Mirsim (Ben-Arieh 2004: Fig. 2.5). Various scholars have suggested that the differences between the groups, as well as within them, are chronological. Initially, Dever (1974) suggested a chronological and typological overlap between the various groups. However, further study has supported the division into regional groups and chronological subgroups in Transjordan (Dever 1973; 1980). The division into chronological groups was based mainly on the material published from the Bet She’an cemetery (Oren 1973a; 1973b), receiving further support from the studies conducted on the material from ‘Aro‘er (Olávarri 1969),

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Iktanu (Prag 1974), and Kh. Iskander (Parr 1960). Helms (1986; 1989:32) suggested a different chronological division for the northern and southern groups. Palumbo (1990: Fig. 27) also made a chronological division of the assemblages from Transjordan into an early and a late group. Additional excavations conducted in the 1980s and 1990s in Transjordan, particularly at Kh. Iskander, resulted in new proposals that changed the existing schematic division into strict chrono-regional groups, pointing to the overlap between the groups and indicating trade in vessels between regions and groups (Helms 1986; Richard 1986, 2000; Richard and Boraas 1988; Long 1988, 1990; Palumbo 1990; Palumbo and Peterman 1993; Goren 1996). The development of the study of Intermediate Bronze Age pottery shows that each new excavation, such as those at Dhahr Mirzbâneh in the Samaria Hills, at Horeshim in the Nahal Yarqon basin and at ‘En Esur in the northern coastal plain, adds new and previously unknown pottery groups. A similar and even more complex picture emerges from excavations in Transjordan. The increase in pottery assemblages has led to an increase in the chronological differences between and within the various groups. Richard (2000:410–413) has pointed out similarities between various groups in Transjordan. Goren (1996) has shown that various vessels found in the Negev were made in Transjordan. The parallels for the Bet Dagan vessels indicate that the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basins comprise a separate regional group, among the many groups defined in Israel and Transjordan. While several vessels in the Nahal Yarqon and Ayyalon basin group were similar to vessels in nearby groups, the dominant vessels in those other groups were not found at Bet Dagan (particularly the small amphoriskoi). Several vessels known from Bet Dagan (i.e., the mugs) were not discovered in any other group. The most common vessels at Bet Dagan (i.e., the goblets) were not recovered from tombs at Jericho or Dhahr Mirzbâneh, where small amphoriskoi, which are lacking at Bet Dagan, were found. The features that characterize each group, and that distinguish one group from another, are not consistent; the differences between the assemblages from Dhahr Mirzbâneh and Bet Dagan are not the same as the differences between the latter and the assemblage from Lakhish. The parallels presented above reflect possible connections between various groups. However, it is not certain whether the lack of parallels between Bet Dagan and another group can be interpreted as a lack of

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171

connections. This issue must be addressed on a quantitative, and not just a typological or technological basis. It is difficult to determine whether a lone parallel, such as four-spouted lamps, is significant, and what is the portent of the lack of parallels between ceramic assemblages. It seems that the picture in Transjordan is similar, indicating the existence of various groups that were made in different techniques in different regions. However, it is methodologically incorrect to make a complete separation between these groups. The potters used similar raw materials, although the particular recipe differed according to the geological formation of each region. However, these differences are not noticeable in the production and formation of the vessels. Each group and assemblage contains almost the same vessel types with similar shapes, which is the result of the vessels’ intended functions and not due to the minor variations in the components of the raw materials. Thus, inter-regional typological similarity is the result of similar functions, while the differences are due to particular ceramic traditions and to regional patterns of consumption, wherein different vessel groups were chosen as offerings in each region. Funerary vs. Mundane Vessels The differences between the use of burial vessels vs. that of everyday vessels points to differences in the needs attributed to the dead and to the living. This conclusion is based on the archaeological data, particularly the composition, quantities and types of the various pottery vessels. It is difficult to determine whether these differences reflect functional needs or whether the composition of the burial offerings is the result of beliefs and tradition. It is also difficult to know how changes in daily life affected the composition of the burial offerings. Our knowledge of the religious and spiritual ideology that is reflected in the burials is indirect, while the data concerning everyday life is direct. The data indicate that in each region in Israel and Transjordan there were substantial differences in the makeup of the burial and settlement pottery assemblages. The differences between the groups perhaps reflect different local traditions and burial customs, although it seems that all the groups shared basic principles (Baxevani 1995:93). The pottery assemblage we have presented above may exemplify this dichotomy.

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Note 1 In all the Intermediate Bronze Age assemblages in Israel, some of the storage jars had ledge handles. However, not one such handle was found in the Bet Dagan cemetery. It seems that if there had been ledge handles, the poor state of preservation caused their disintegration during cleaning.

Bet-Dagan-chap-3.indd 172

2 Due to the exigencies of excavation and preservation (see above), only the mugs from Area A (see Fig. 3.7) could be drawn, making it impossible to determine whether there were morphological differences between the mugs from Areas A and C.

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Chapter 4

The Beads and Copper Artifacts Eli Yannai

Despite their small quantity, the presence of beads and copper artifacts in the Intermediate Bronze Age tombs, both considered high-status items, indicates that while most of the tombs contained a standardized burial kit that obscured the differences between individuals, several exceptions were made for certain items of higher value (Baxevani 1995).

Beads Thirty-five beads were found in the Intermediate Bronze Age tombs. One bead each was found in Tombs 740 and 751, five beads were found in Tomb 506, twelve beads were found in Tomb 727 and sixteen in Tomb 774 (Table 4.1; Fig. 4.1). The typological definition of the bead shapes is based on Beck 1928: Pls. II, III. The beads were made of three different types of stone: limestone, calcite and carnelian. One bead was of hard yellow limestone, probably dolomite (Tomb 751). The twelve beads from Tomb 727 were produced from a dark yellow, slightly transparent calcite, with white veins; one large bead from Tomb 740 was of dark pink calcite. The remaining twenty-one beads were made from two variations of carnelian—six small beads found in Tomb 774 were made of dark red carnelian with yellow veins, while all the other carnelian beads were either dark or light red in color. The perforations in the elongated beads were drilled from both sides, mostly with a cylindrical drill, while the perforations of the short beads were drilled with

Bet-Dagan-chap-4.indd 173

a triangular drill from both sides, creating a biconical perforation (Chevalier, Inizan and Tixier 1982:56). Most of the beads show a deviation of about 0.5 mm from the center of the meeting point of the two ends of the perforation (Gwinnet and Gorelick 1993: Fig. 7). Beads are commonly found in Intermediate Bronze Age tombs. Selected parallels for the carnelian beads come from tombs at the Kedesh cave (Tadmor 1978: Fig. 11:7016), Hazore‘a (Meyerhof 1989: Pl. 33:96, 176, 116), Gal‘ed (Meir 1974: Figs. 6:6–9; 7:34), Dhahr Marzbâneh (Lapp 1966: Figs. 6:18; 15:8; 27:14), Jericho (Kenyon 1965: Figs. 33:50, 51; 49:1, 2; 82:1), Ma‘ale Adummim (Sion 1997), Ramat Moza (Bahat 1975: Fig. 11:3), Ramat Ha-Hayyal (Yankelevitz 2005:34), Azor (Ory 1944: Pl. XIV:4; Yannai 2007: Fig. 29:71–73). The presence of carnelian beads that were made of non-local raw material is the only concrete evidence of trade in the Intermediate Bronze Age tombs at Bet Dagan. The choice of carnelian as a raw material could have been related to its vivid color (Clark 1986:65), which Golani (2010) suggested symbolized human and animal blood. Carnelian was one of the most commonly used minerals in bead making during the Intermediate Bronze Age, being an available and easily worked raw material (Clark 1986:70). Discussing carnelian beads in EB IB, BenAri (2010:84) claimed that much effort was invested in obtaining the raw materials and in the production of these beads; such a conclusion seems valid for the Intermediate Bronze Age as well.

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Table 4.1. Inventory of Beads in Tombs Tomb

Reg. No.

Type*

Length (mm)

506

50603

C.2.f

10.0

506

50604

C.2.f

11.5

506

50605

D.2.f

506

50606

D.2.f

590

59004

746 751

Diam. (mm)

Perforation diam. (mm)

Perforation Shape

Color

Material

7.0

2.0

Biconical

Red

Carnelian

8.5

2.0

Biconical

Red

Carnelian

20.0

8.5

1.5

Cylindrical

Red

Carnelian

22.0

8.5

1.5

Cylindrical

Red

Carnelian

D.2.f

23.0

9.0

2.0

Cylindrical

Red

Carnelian

74602

C.2.f

23.0

15.0

3.0

Cylindrical

Dark pink

Calcite?

75102

C.2.f

9.0

8.5

2.5

Cylindrical

Yellow

Dolomite?

727

72703

B.1.f

4.0

8.0

2.0

Biconical

Dark yellow

Calcite

727

72704

C.2.f

10.0

8.5

2.0

Cylindrical

Dark yellow

Calcite

727

72705

C.2.f

8.0

7.5

1.0

Cylindrical

Dark yellow

Calcite

727

72706

C.2.f

10.5

8.5

1.0

Cylindrical

Dark yellow

Calcite

727

72707

C.2.f

10.0

8.0

1.5

Cylindrical

Dark yellow

Calcite

727

72708

C.2.f

10.0

8.5

2.0

Cylindrical

Dark yellow

Calcite

727

72709

C.2.f

10.0

8.0

2.0

Cylindrical

Dark yellow

Calcite

727

72710

C.2.f

10.0

7.5

2.0

Cylindrical

Dark yellow

Calcite

727

72711

C.2.f

9.0

10.0

2.0

Cylindrical

Dark yellow

Calcite

727

72712

C.3.b

9.0

8.5

2.0

Cylindrical

Dark yellow

Calcite

727

72713

C.2.f

9.0

9.0

1.5

Cylindrical

Dark yellow

Calcite

727

72714

C.2.f

9.0

10.0

1.5

Cylindrical

Dark yellow

Calcite

774

77405

D.2.f

25.0

7.0

2.0

Cylindrical

Red

Carnelian

774

77406

D.2.f

22.0

7.5

2.0

Cylindrical

Red

Carnelian

774

77407

D.2.f

22.5

7.5

3.0

Cylindrical

Red

Carnelian

774

77408

C.1.f

17.5

7.5

1.0

Cylindrical

Red

Carnelian

774

77409

C.1.f

13.0

8.5

2.0

Cylindrical

Red

Carnelian

774

77410

C.1.f

12.0

6.0

1.0

Cylindrical

Red

Carnelian

774

77411

C.1.f

12.0

5.0

1.0

Cylindrical

Red

Carnelian

774

77412

C.1.f

12.0

5.5

1.0

Cylindrical

Red

Carnelian

774

77413

C.1.f

12.0

5.0

1.0

Cylindrical

Red

Carnelian

774

77414

C.1.f

10.0

5.5

1.0

Cylindrical

Red, dark yellow veins

Carnelian

774

77415

C.1.f

10.0

5.5

1.0

Cylindrical

Red, dark yellow veins

Carnelian

774

77416

C.1.f

9.5

5.5

1.0

Cylindrical

Red, dark yellow veins

Carnelian

774

77417

C.1.f

9.0

5.0

1.0

Cylindrical

Red, dark yellow veins

Carnelian

774

77418

C.1.f

9.0

6.5

1.0

Cylindrical

Red, dark yellow veins

Carnelian

774

77419

C.1.f

9.0

6.0

1.0

Cylindrical

Red, dark yellow veins

Carnelian

774

77420

C.1.f

8.0

5.5

1.0

Cylindrical

Red

Carnelian

*Based on Beck 1928: Pls. II, III: Type B.1.f—short truncated convex biconical; Type C.1.b–standard barrel; Type C.1.f–standard truncated convex biconical; Type C.2.f—standard truncated biconical; Type C.3.b—standard concave; Type D.2.f—long truncated biconical

Bet-Dagan-chap-4.indd 174

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1

2

3

7

8

13

14

15

19

20

21

26

27

25

4

9

31

5

10

16

22

28

32

33 0

6

11

12

17

18

23

24

29

30

34

35

2

Fig. 4.1. Beads. No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

506

50603

13

727

72708

25

774

77410

2

506

50604

14

727

72709

26

774

77411

3

506

50605

15

727

72710

27

774

77412

4

506

50606

16

727

72711

28

774

77413

5

590

59004

17

727

72712

29

774

77414

6

746

74602

18

727

72713

30

774

77415

7

751

75102

19

727

72714

31

774

77416

8

727

72703

20

774

77405

32

774

77417

9

727

72704

21

774

77406

33

774

77418

10

727

72705

22

774

77407

34

774

77419

11

727

72706

23

774

77408

35

774

77420

12

727

72707

24

774

77409

Bet-Dagan-chap-4.indd 175

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Copper Artifacts Fifteen copper artifacts were recovered from the Intermediate Bronze Age tombs, comprising eight blades and seven pins. Blades (Fig. 4.2) The exact function of the long flat blade is unknown; they are most frequently defined as weapons. The longer blades are often termed ‘swords’, while the shorter ones are defined as ‘spearheads’. The longest blade dating to the Intermediate Bronze Age, 106.5 cm long and 8.4 cm wide, was apparently found at Bet Dagan (Shalev 1988:304). Aside from this blade, most of the blades dated to the Intermediate Bronze Age did not exceed 50 cm in length. Despite the propensity to view these various blades as weapons (spear, javelin or sword), this is not necessarily the case for all such objects and other functions may have been possible as well. As opposed to pottery, where significant regional differences may be discerned in the Intermediate Bronze Age, the division of metal blades is not regional; similar or identical types can be found throughout the country. Although Philip (1995:152) contended that there were local metal industries at that time, it is, in fact, almost impossible to identify local features. Tanged Dagger with Rivets or Rivet Holes Figure 4.2:1. This blade was found in Tomb 505 and was most likely part of the same object as Fig. 4.2:2 (see below). It is a long flat blade with a central shaft on both faces along its entire length, 26.1 cm long. The front of the blade is narrow, while its back is triangular, its widest point at the join of the blade to the handle. The tip is broken. The back end is rounded and contained five extant copper nails, as well as traces of wood. Most of the parallels to this type of blade were found in tombs at Tell el-‘Ajjul (Petrie 1931:12, Pls. XVIII [left], XIX:47; 1932: Pls. IX, XII:60, 62) and Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 22:5). Figure 4.2:2. This blade was found in Tomb 505, together with Fig. 4.2:1 (see above); both probably belonged to the same dagger. It has a wide, flat ovalshaped blade that is slightly rounded and is 16.1 cm long. The tip is rounded and the back has a long narrow

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tang. It seems that this blade was made by casting and folding. Figure 4.2:3. This blade was found in Tomb 773. It is generally similar in shape to Fig. 4.2:1, with a narrow front widening at the join to the back; two extant copper nails were found at this widest point. It is 24 cm long. Figure 4.2:4. This blade was found in Tomb 763, together with Fig. 4.2:6 (see below). It has a very narrow sharp front with a shaft along its entire length, 23.5 cm long. The join of the front to the back is very wide and almost rounded. Most of the back was not preserved so that its shape remains unknown. Two extant copper nails were found in the blade and two more nails were found in sifting. Similar blades were found in tombs at Ma‘abarot (Gophna 1969:50), Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pl. 22:4), ‘En Esur (Yannai 1996: Fig. 8:1, 2), Gal‘ed (Meir 1974: Figs. 4.8; 8.1), Sinjil (Dever 1971a: Fig. 1:9– 12), Dhahr Mirzbâneh (Lapp 1966: Fig. 24:12), Kh. el-Kirmil (Dever 1975: Fig. 6:8) and Jericho (Kenyon 1965: Fig. 41:9, 10, 12, 14). A comparative blade was found out of context at Gedera; its shape indicates that it had originated from an Intermediate Bronze Age tomb (Gorzalczany 2000: Fig. 78). Tanged Spear Head Figure 4.2:5. This blade was found in Tomb 763, together with Fig. 4.2:4 (see above). It is generally similar in shape to Fig. 4.2:8, with a long narrow blade that has a pointed tip and a narrow hooked back, 22 cm long. Such blades are often defined as ‘spear butts’.

Fig. 4.2 ► No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

505

50504

2

505

50503

3

773

77305

4

763

76305

5

763

76304

6

747

74703

7

767

76705

8

767

76704

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2

1

5

3

6

7 0

4

8

6

Fig. 4.2. Copper blades.

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Parallels to this type were found in tombs at Kh. el-Kirmil (Dever 1975: Fig. 6:5), Menahemya (Bahat 1976: Fig. 4:2), Barkai (Gophna and Sussman 1969: Fig. 3:14), Geva‘-Carmel (Amiran 1974: Fig. 1:5), Sinjil (Dever 1971a: Fig. 1:7, 8) and Dhahr Mirzbâneh (Lapp 1966: Fig. 24:13).

cemeteries that also contain multiple burials. However, the Bet Dagan cemetery contained only one burial in each tomb, so that such a criterion is not definitive in identifying these as “warriors’ tombs”.

Figure 4.2:6. This blade was recovered in three parts from Tomb 747. The front third is a narrow elongated triangle with a rounded top. Its center is an elongated cylinder, slightly wider near the back, which is narrow. Its back is squared with a rounded edge. It is 32.5 cm long. Parallels to this type were found in tombs at Kh. el-Kirmil (Dever 1975: Fig. 6:6, 7) and Jericho (Kenyon 1965: Fig. 41:11, 13).

Seven pins were found in the tombs, two of which are illustrated in Fig. 4.3. The pins range from 6 to 10 cm in length and have a square or round section in the center and a round section at the tip. One pin (Fig. 4.3:2) was found stuck into the bone of a sheep or goat, which might have served as its handle. The location of the pins inside the tombs was not consistent and they were not always found adjacent to the hands or heads of the deceased.

Pins (Fig. 4.3)

Figure 4.2:7. This blade was found in Tomb 767. The blade tip is slightly rounded; both of the sharp edges are straight. It is 27.2 cm long. Its back is trapezoidal and contained four extant copper nails. Parallels to this type of blade were found in tombs at Horeshim (Gilboa and Yannai 1982: Fig. 4.1), Tell el-‘Ajjul (Petrie 1932: Pls. IX; XIII:64, 66, 67; Stewart 1974:51, 83), Lakhish (Tufnell 1958: Pls. 21:8; 22:5) and Menahemya (Bahat 1976: Fig. 4.1), as well as in an assemblage of bronze objects from ‘Enan (Eisenberg 1985: Fig. 9:47, 48). Figure 4.2:8. This blade was found in Tomb 767, together with that in Fig. 4.2:7. It is 32.3 cm long. Parallels for this blade were found in tombs at Jericho (Kenyon 1965: Fig. 73:1) and Ramat Moza (Bahat 1975: Fig. 5:3, 4). Discussion The eight blades were evenly distributed throughout the cemetery and were not concentrated in particular tombs. The pottery vessels in the tombs that contained the metal items were of routine types. Studies of the distribution of tombs that contain metal items (Deshayes 1960: Maxwell-Hyslop 1964; de Maigret 1976) show that there is a similar distribution of items in tombs in Israel, Syria and ancient Mesopotamia, up to western Iran. Tombs that contain metal weapons have been termed “warriors’ tombs” (Philip 1995:140). One of the parameters that defines a “warriors’ tomb” is a single burial (Philip 1995:142). This is a relevant definition when such tombs are found in

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1

2 0

1

Fig. 4.3. Copper pins. No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

758

75803

2

744

74406

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Similar pins were found in tombs at ‘Enan (Eisenberg 1985: Fig. 102–158), Barqai (Gophna and Sussman 1969: Fig. 3:12), ‘En Esur (Yannai 1996: Figs. 8:3; Horowitz 2000: Fig. 33:4), Dhahr Mirzbâneh (Lapp 1966: Figs. 6:19; 15:7; 27:11), Gal‘ed (Meir 1974: Figs. 4:9; 7:4, 5, one with a bone handle), and from one of the dolmens in the Golan Heights (Epstein 1985: Fig. 3.19). Table 4.2. Copper Pins (not on tomb plans and not illustrated) No.

Tomb

Reg. No.

1

588

58804

2

596

59604

3

750

75004

4

745

74504

5

778

77803

Discussion Daggers found in tombs are usually attributed to warriors (Oren 1971; Philip 1995). This definition is based on neither ethnographic nor archaeological evidence, but on an underlying premise that such blades were weapons. If we examine the distribution of Intermediate Bronze Age settlements, such as at Kefar Ha-Noar Ha-Dati (Yannai, forthcoming c), Yeruham (Kochavi 1967), Tel Iztabba (Yannai 2014a), Tel Zivda (Yannai 2014b), Horbat Qishron (Smithline 2002), Nahal Rimmonim (Covello-Paran 2008; Covello-Paran and Teper 2014) and Migdal Ha-‘Emeq (CovelloParan 1999), we see that all are located in wide, open lowlands, away from tells. Their population left the

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179

defendable hills and tells to settle in less-secure areas, indicating that personal security was not a problem at that time. Clearly, the choice of the site was not dictated by security concerns. A second assumption is that such blades be attributed to hunters. However, as the Intermediate Bronze Age tombs discussed here contained bones of domesticated animals only, we may rule out this possibility. Ethnographic sources illuminate possible other approaches. In tombs of the Bontoc Igorot (tribes of hunters in the mountain regions of Indonesia), those who were buried with their battle axes were not warriors, but rather unmarried young men (Saxe 1971). In a study of ancient Anglo-Saxon tribes, weapons deposited in tombs were defined as ethnic indicators rather than markers of social status or profession (Dickinson and Watts 1980). These ‘weapons’ were found in tombs of the very young, as well as the elderly. Examination of the bones of the deceased in tombs with the daggers showed that they accompanied those with diseases; the weapon may possibly have served as protective amulets (Härke 1991). The distribution of Intermediate Bronze Age sites, along with the ethnographic analogies, coupled with the specific findings in the Bet Dagan cemetery of domesticated animal bones only (Chapter 5) and the random distribution of the daggers in the tombs (Chapter7), indicate that social status cannot be determined simply from a single object or from a group of special objects, as the object’s use or its symbolism within its society is unknown. It is therefore improbable that the few copper blades found in the Bet Dagan tombs served as weapons; their true function within the society/in the burial customs cannot be determined.

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Chapter 5

The Faunal R emains R euven Yeshurun, Noa Gerstel-R aban and Guy Bar-Oz

Introduction1 This report presents the results of the zooarchaeological and taphonomic analysis of the faunal remains from the Intermediate Bronze Age cemetery of Bet Dagan, including the species represented, taphonomic observations, skeletal parts profile and demographic composition. The animal bones analyzed in the present study derived from 20 of the 41 tombs that were registered as having contained animal bones (see Chapter 2 for details).2 This partial sample was due to the very poor state of preservation of many of the bones, which disintegrated or were not identified during excavation, and thus were not subjected to analysis. The 41 tombs with animal bones comprise about 32% of the 128 tombs excavated in this cemetery. It is surmised that the faunal remains from the 20 tombs examined in the present study constitute a representative sample. The faunal remains were found inside the tombs, in proximity to the skeletons.

Faunal Analysis Procedures All the animal bones recovered during the excavation and subjected to analysis were examined and documented in the laboratory. The majority of bones were coated with a hard matrix that was difficult to extract and clean. Consequently, all faunal specimens were immersed in 15% diluted acetic acid. Following this procedure, the bones were soaked in a basic solution (potassium hydroxide, KOH) and rinsed with fresh water in order to buffer the acid. This procedure enabled us to carry out anatomical and taxonomic identifications; however, the preservation of bone surfaces was so poor that no bone-surface modifications, such as butchery marks, traces of burning or carnivore gnaw marks, could be detected. Bone remains were identified to skeletal element and species using the comparative collections of the

Bet-Dagan-chap-5.indd 181

Laboratory of Archaeozoology at the University of Haifa. Skeletal elements were identified to the closest possible taxonomic unit. Elements for which species’ identification is less reliable (i.e., ribs, vertebrae, skull fragments and diaphysis shaft fragments) were grouped with the closest species size category. Separation of sheep and goats was based on morphological criteria (Boessneck 1969). Sheep and goat skeletal elements that could not be identified to species were combined in a sheep/goat category. Bone fusion data was recorded in order to assess the age profiles of the animals (Silver 1969). The relative abundance of different taxa was quantified using number of identified specimens (NISP), minimum number of elements (MNE) and minimum number of individuals (MNI). These values were calculated using the assumptions described in Klein and Cruz-Uribe (1984) and Lyman (1994). The NISP was used as a basic measure of taxonomic abundance (Grayson 1984). The degree of bonesurface destruction (i.e., loss of cortical surface, abrasion and bleaching; Lyman 1994) and the preserved circumference of limb bone shafts (Bunn 1983) were recorded.

The Faunal Assemblage A total of 174 complete and fragmentary identified skeletal animal remains (NISP) were derived from the 20 analyzed tombs. The amount of bones varied between loci (Tables 5.1; 5.4). Nineteen cases of articulated bones were found, mostly intermediate and lower limb elements. Bone preservation is poor, especially in respect to the preservation of cortical surfaces, which appear to be ‘peeled’ as a result of chemical destruction. Virtually all bones are bleached and many appear twisted and distorted. The deformed nature of the material prevented measurement of the bones and sexing the remains. Finally, 16% of the NISP show signs of abrasion.

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Table 5.1. Weight And Number of Identified Specimens (NISP) per Tomb Tomb

Weight (g)

NISP

555

170

6

567

92

7

568

254

14

588

470

35

590

90

4

591

100

3

592

268

2

596

184

8

712

118

8

729

162

15 12

738

124

742

164

8

753

32

1

757

160

15

758

200

8 13

759

210

760

156

6

767

110

5

769

116

1

776

148

3

On the other hand, the skeletal elements are not very fragmented and many were found complete. This is indicated by the ratio of the fragmentationsensitive NISP count to the MNE, which is immune to fragmentation (Lyman 1994). A fragmentation index of one means that the NISP and MNE are equal and thus no fragmentation has occurred; increases in the fragmentation index reflect greater fragmentation. Many skeletal elements in the Bet Dagan assemblage display a fragmentation index of one, and only some pelvic parts display a fragmentation index higher than three. The average NISP/MNE index for a given bone is 1.2, pointing to the relative completeness of the bone elements in the assemblage. Moreover, the majority of long bones (85%) retained their full shaft circumference. It seems that strong post-depositional chemical decomposition processes affected the bones,

Bet-Dagan-chap-5.indd 182

along with moderate sediment compaction. These two processes removed cortical surfaces and distorted the original shape of bone elements. These processes, however, did not significantly change the original composition of the assemblage in regard to skeletalelement representation, as further discussed below. The bone assemblage comprises solely caprovine (sheep and goat) remains (total assemblage MNI = 10; Tables 5.2 and 5.4). On the basis of taxonomically distinctive bone features, the assemblage is heavily dominated by sheep bones (Ovis aries; NISP = 18). Only a single bone (a proximal radius) was distinctively identified as a goat (Capra hircus). This very low species diversity is remarkable and unique for the traditional Middle Eastern faunal assemblages, thus reflecting a clear selection for a specific taxon to be placed with the deceased. The distribution of body parts is unique as well (Table 5.2; see Table 5.4 for a detailed list of the findings in each tomb). No head, neck or foot elements were found. The assemblage is totally dominated by limb elements (mainly forelimb), along with some pelvis elements representing the axial region. Ribs are scarce and no vertebrae were found (Figs. 5.1, 5.2). Despite the poor state of bone preservation, it is extremely unlikely that this pattern of skeletal-element representation stems from post-depositional destruction patterns. Rather, the pattern seems to represent the specific elements laid next to the deceased as burial offerings, particularly because very durable and dense elements such as teeth are absent, while more porous elements, such as longbone joints and pelvic acetabula, are abundant. This situation is the opposite of what would be expected if skeletal-element representation would have been largely influenced by density-mediated destruction (e.g., Marean, Dominguez-Rodrigo and Pickering 2004). Based on the ratio of fused to un-fused epiphyses of selected elements (distal parts of the tibia, radius, femur, metapod and calcaneus, following Davis 1983), the bone epiphysis fusion data (Table 5.3) reveals that the majority of animal offerings that were placed in the tombs derived from adult individuals, while only about one-fifth of the animals were juveniles or sub-adults.

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Table 5.2. Number of Identified Specimens (NISP), Minimum Number of Elements (MNE) and Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) of Each Taxon    

Capra hircus

Ovis aries

NISP

MNE

NISP

MNE

Rib complete

 

 

 

 

Rib head

 

 

 

Rib shaft

 

 

 

Scapula glenoid fossa R

 

 

Capra/Ovis NISP

MNE

Body 4

3

 

1

1

 

27

7

 

 

3

3

Forelimb  Scapula glenoid fossa L

 

 

3

3

3

3

Scapula blade R

 

 

 

 

1

1

Scapula blade L

 

 

 

 

2

1

Scapula blade

 

 

 

 

2

1

Humerus complete L

 

 

 

 

1

1

Humerus proximal R

 

 

 

 

1

1

Humerus proximal L

 

 

 

 

1

1

Humerus shaft R

 

 

 

 

1

1

Humerus shaft L

 

 

 

 

2

2

Humerus distal

 

 

 

 

1

1

Humerus distal R

 

 

2

2

5

3

Humerus distal L

 

 

3

3

4

5

Radius proximal R

1

1

2

2

7

6

Radius proximal L

 

 

1

1

2

2

Radius proximal

 

 

 

 

2

2

Radius shaft R

 

 

 

 

3

3

Radius shaft L

 

 

 

 

1

1

Radius shaft

 

 

 

 

4

2

Radius distal R

 

 

1

1

1

1

Radius distal L

 

 

 

 

1

1

Radius distal

 

 

 

 

1

1

Ulna proximal R

 

 

 

 

3

3

Ulna proximal L

 

 

 

 

1

1

Ulna shaft R

 

 

 

 

1

1

Ulna distal R

 

 

 

 

2

2

Carpal scaphoid

 

 

 

 

1

1

Carpal

 

 

1

1

Pelvic acetabullum R

 

 

 

 

6

5

Pelvic acetabullum L

 

 

 

 

3

3

Pelvic illium acetabullum L

 

 

 

 

1

1

Pelvic illium acetabullum

 

 

 

 

1

1

Hindlimb

Bet-Dagan-chap-5.indd 183

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Reuven Yeshurun, Noa Gerstel-Raban and Guy Bar-Oz

Table 5.2. (cont.)    

Capra hircus

Ovis aries

Capra/Ovis

NISP

MNE

NISP

MNE

NISP

MNE

Pelvic illium caudal R

 

 

 

 

3

3

Pelvic illium caudal L

 

 

 

 

5

2

Pelvic illium caudal

 

 

 

 

2

2

Pelvic illium cranial

 

 

 

 

1

1

Pelvic ischium R

 

 

 

 

1

1

Pelvic ischium

 

 

 

 

3

1

Pelvic ischium acetabullum L

 

 

 

 

1

1

Pelvic pubis L

 

 

 

 

1

1

Pelvic pubis

 

 

 

 

1

1

Pelvic pubis acetabullum

 

 

 

 

1

1

Femur proximal R

 

 

 

 

1

1

Femur proximal

 

 

 

 

1

1

Femur shaft

 

 

 

 

3

3

Femur distal R

 

 

 

 

2

2

Femur distal L

 

 

 

 

2

2

Femur distal

 

 

 

 

1

1

Hindlimb (cont.)

Tibia proximal R

 

 

1

1

1

1

Tibia proximal L

 

 

 

 

1

1

Tibia shaft R

 

 

 

 

4

3

Tibia shaft L

 

 

 

 

4

2

Tibia shaft

 

 

 

 

3

2

Tibia distal R

 

 

 

 

2

2

Tibia distal L

 

 

 

 

2

2

Metatarsus shaft

 

 

 

 

1

1

Astragalus R

 

 

 

 

3

2

Astragalus L

 

 

 

3

2

2

1

1

 

1

1

Calcaneus R

 

Calcaneus L

 

 

2

2

Distal fibula

 

Total NISP

1

18

155

Total MNI

1

3

6

 

Summary and Conclusions The faunal remains were found inside the tombs, in close proximity to the skeletons and thus most likely represent the remains of funerary ceremonies, food offerings for the afterlife of the deceased, or gifts to appease the gods (see review and references in Horwitz 2001a, 2001b; see also Horwitz 1987; Lev-Tov and Maher 2001). This assumption was verified by the

Bet-Dagan-chap-5.indd 184

2

 

zooarchaeological and taphonomic analysis, which showed that limbs of sheep, aside from one specimen which was goat, were placed next to the deceased. It should be noted that in the Intermediate Bronze Age cemetery at Bet Dagan, such deposits were found in only a small portion of the tombs, while the majority of tombs lacked animal bones altogether. Although after their deposition, the faunal remains underwent severe chemical diagenesis and some mechanical destruction

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Chapter 5: The Faunal Remains

b

a

Fig. 5.1. Faunal remains from Bet Dagan before (a) and after (b) cleaning in 15% acetic acid.

10

Minimum Number of Individuals

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Horn

Head

Neck

Axial

Upper Lower Upper Lower Forelimb Forelimb Hindlimb Hindlimb

Feet

Fig. 5.2. Skeletal-element representation by MNI.

so that bone-surface modifications and fracture patterns were not preserved, analysis of the skeletal-element

Bet-Dagan-chap-5.indd 185

representation provided important information, confirming the ritual nature of this assemblage.

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Fig. 5.3. Diagram of a caprovine skeleton showing the bones present in the Bet Dagan assemblage (gray-shaded).

Table 5.3. Bone Fusion Data (all tombs) Fused

Unfused

Distal scapula

9

0

Distal humerus

10

1

Proximal radius

13

0

Distal tibia

3

1

Distal metapod

0

1

Proximal humerus

1

0

Proximal ulna

3

1

Proximal femur

0

1

Distal radius

3

1

Distal femur

5

0

Proximal tibia

0

2

Calcaneum

1

0

Acetabulum pelvic

6

0

The clear association of the animal bones with human burials, their partial articulation, the monospecific composition of the assemblage (all but one being sheep) and the fact that only certain meat-rich body parts were found (limbs and pelves), testify to the ritual nature of this assemblage and bear great similarity to other

Bet-Dagan-chap-5.indd 186

contemporaneous cemeteries (reviewed in Horwitz 2001a, and references therein). These characteristics also imply that the forequarters of sheep were offered for the deceased and were not part of a communal feast of animals sacrificed and consumed during the burial rites. In the latter case, we would not expect to see articulated elements or a total absence of head and foot parts (Horwitz 2001b; Weissbrod and Bar-Oz 2004). The narrow range of animal species and deliberate selection of meat cuts with ample flesh contrasts sharply with faunal assemblages from the Bronze Age that represent domestic refuse. These are typically dominated by a broad spectrum of skeletal elements (including heads and toes) and comprise similar representations of sheep and goat (e.g., Hellwing and Feig 1989; Hellwing and Gophna 1994; Horwitz 2002; Horwitz et al. 2005). The faunal assemblage of Bet Dagan joins several other assemblages deriving from Intermediate Bronze Age cemeteries (Horwitz 2001a). These assemblages undoubtedly represent meat offerings for the deceased and as such, they yield information concerning the rituals and the religious world of the people of this period. The analysis of the animal bones from the Bet Dagan cemetery provides a valuable contribution to our understanding of the mortuary practices of Intermediate Bronze Age societies.

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Bet-Dagan-chap-5.indd 187

Capra/Ovis

Capra/Ovis

MNE

MNE

NISP

NISP

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

Scap. bld L

Scap. blade

Humerus comp L

Humerus prox R

Humerus prox. L

Humerus shaft R

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Radius prox R

Radius prox. L

Radius prox.

Radius shaft R

Radius shaft L

Radius shaft

Radius dist R

Radius dist L

Radius dist

Ulna prox R

Ulna prox L

Ulna shaft R

Ulna dist R

Scaphoid

 

 

 

Humerus distal L

Carpal

 

 

Humerus dist R

 

Humerus distal

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

Humerus shaft L

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

Scap. bld R

NISP

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

NISP

 

MNE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Capra/Ovis  

 

 

 

NISP

Scap. glen. fossa L

MNE

Scapula glenoid fossa R

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

Capra/Ovis  

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

NISP

Forelimb

MNE  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

  1

1

1

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

1

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

1

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Capra/Ovis  

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

1

 

2

 

Capra/Ovis  

 

 

 

1

 

2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2

 

 

1

 

3

 

   

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2

 

1

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Capra/Ovis  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2

 

1

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

NISP

 

MNE

 

NISP  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NISP

 

MNE

 

MNE  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NISP

 

MNE

 

NISP  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

1

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

NISP

 

MNE

 

MNE  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

1

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

2

 

 

NISP

 

MNE

 

NISP  

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

2

 

 

MNE

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

NISP

 

MNE  

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

MNE

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

NISP

 

NISP  

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NISP

 

MNE

1

MNE  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NISP

 

MNE

3

NISP  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

NISP

 

MNE

Rib shaft

Capra/Ovis MNE  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

568

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

1

1

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NISP

 

Capra/Ovis  

Capra/Ovis MNE

 

Capra/Ovis

 

767

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

1

1

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NISP

 

Capra/Ovis

 

738

MNE

 

Capra/Ovis

 

729

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

742

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

1

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NISP

 

776 Ovis aries

 

769

MNE

 

760 Capra/Ovis

 

759

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

1

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NISP

 

758 Ovis aries

 

757

Table 5.4. List of Identified Faunal Remains by Tomb

MNE

 

753

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NISP

 

712 Capra/Ovis MNE

 

596

588

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

1

1

#

 

4

NISP

 

592 Ovis aries

MNE

Rib head

591 Ovis aries

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

1

1

3

 

3

MNE

Rib complt.

590 Capra hircus

1

567 Ovis aries

1

555

Capra/Ovis

Body

Tomb No.

Chapter 5: The Faunal Remains

187

Capra/Ovis

Ovis aries

Capra/Ovis

Capra/Ovis

Capra/Ovis

02/01/2015 11:11:34

Bet-Dagan-chap-5.indd 188

Capra/Ovis

MNE

NISP

NISP

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pelvic illium cranial

Pelvic isch. R

Pelvic isch.

Pelvic isch. acet. L

Pelvic pubis L

Pelvic pubis

Pelvic pubis acet.

Femur prox R

Femur prox.

Femur shaft

Femur dist. R

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

Tibia shaft R

Tibia shaft L

Tibia shaft

Tibia dist R

Tibia dist L

Metatars. shaft

Astrag. R

 

6

1

Distal fibula

NISP

MNI

 

1

  1

3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

2

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

8

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

8

 

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2

15

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

8

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

2

13

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2

 

1

1

   

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

Capra/Ovis

4

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Capra/Ovis

1

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

1

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

6

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

1

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

1

1

1

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Capra/Ovis  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

6

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

2

9

1

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

4

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

8

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

1

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

1

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

4

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

12

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

4

 

 

 

 

 

Capra/Ovis

7

 

 

Calc. L

 

1

1

Calc. R

1

 

Astrag. L

1

 

 

 

Tibia prox L

1

 

 

 

 

Tibia prox R

 

 

 

Femur distal

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Femur distal L

1

 

 

Pelvic illium caudal

1

 

 

Pelvic illium caud L

NISP

1

MNE

 

NISP

 

MNE

 

NISP

 

MNE

Pelvic illium caud R

MNE  

NISP

 

MNE  

 

NISP

 

MNE

 

NISP  

NISP

 

MNE

 

MNE 1

NISP

 

MNE

 

NISP 1

NISP

 

MNE

1

MNE 1

NISP

 

MNE

1

NISP 1

NISP

 

MNE

 

MNE  

NISP

 

MNE

 

NISP  

NISP

 

MNE

 

NISP

 

MNE

 

NISP

 

MNE

1

Capra/Ovis MNE 1

NISP

Pelvic illium acet.

Capra/Ovis MNE

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

1

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NISP

Pelvic illium acet. L

NISP 1

568

MNE

 

Capra/Ovis  

767

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

742

1

7

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

1

 

 

 

NISP

 

Capra/Ovis

 

738

MNE

 

Capra/Ovis

 

729

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

1

 

 

 

1

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NISP

 

Capra/Ovis

 

776

MNE

 

769

Table 5.4 (cont.) 760 Capra/Ovis

 

759

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

4

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NISP

 

758 Ovis aries

 

757 Capra/Ovis MNE

 

753 Ovis aries

 

712

588

 

1

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

30

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

1

1

NISP

 

596 Capra/Ovis

 

592 Ovis aries

1

591 Ovis aries MNE

Pelvic acet. L

590 Capra hircus

1

567 Ovis aries

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

1

1

MNE

Pelvic acet. R

555 Capra/Ovis

Hindlimb

Tomb No.

188 Reuven Yeshurun, Noa Gerstel-Raban and Guy Bar-Oz

Capra/Ovis

Ovis aries

Capra/Ovis

Capra/Ovis

Capra/Ovis

Capra/Ovis

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189

Notes 1

The complete research protocol and dataset for each of the identified zooarchaeological specimens are stored in the Israel Antiquities Authority Archives or may be acquired from the authors. The bone assemblage is stored in the Archaeozoology Laboratory of University of Haifa. We

thank Eyal Dan for his assistance in cleaning the bones and Vera Demov for preparing Fig. 5.3. 2 For details of the exact location of the animal bones in each tomb, see the description of the tombs in Chapter 2.

R eferences Boessneck J. 1969. Osteological Differences between Sheep (Ovis aries Linne) and Goat (Capra hircus Linne). In D.R. Brothwell and E. Higgs eds. Science in Archaeology. London. Pp. 331­–358. Bunn H.T. 1983. Evidence on the Diet and Subsistence Patterns of Plio-Pleistocene Hominids at Koobi Fora, Kenya, and Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. In J. Clutton-Brock and C. Grigson eds. Animals and Archaeology 1: Hunters and Their Prey (BAR Int. S. 163). Oxford. Pp. 21–30. Davis S.J.M. 1983. The Age Profiles of Gazelles Predated by Ancient Man in Israel: Possible Evidence for a Shift from Seasonality to Sedentism in the Natufian. Paléorient 9:55–62. Grayson D.K. 1984. Quantitative Zooarchaeology: Topics in the Analysis of Archaeological Faunas (Studies in Archaeological Science 12). London. Hellwing S. and Feig N. 1989. Animal Bones. In Z.E. Herzog, G. Rapp Jr. and O. Negbi eds. Excavations at Tel Michal, Israel (Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University Monograph Series 8). Minneapolis–Tel Aviv. Pp. 236–247. Hellwing S. and Gophna R. 1994. The Animal Remains from the Early and Middle Bronze Ages at Tel Aphek and Tel Dalit: A Comparative Study. Tel Aviv 11:48–59. Horwitz L.K. 1987. Animal Offerings from Two Middle Bronze Age Tombs. IEJ 37:251–255. Horwitz L.K. 2001a. Animal Offerings in the Middle Bronze Age: Food for the Gods, Food for Thought. PEQ 133:78– 90. Horwitz L.K. 2001b. The Contribution of Archaeozoology to the Identification of Ritual Sites. In S. Pike and S. Gitin eds. The Practical Impact of Science on Near Eastern and Aegean Archaeology (Wiener Laboratory Monograph 3). London. Pp. 63–68.

Bet-Dagan-chap-5.indd 189

Horwitz L.K. 2002. Archaeozoological Remains. In A. Kempinski, N.A. Scheftelowitz and R. Oren eds. Tel Kabri: The 1986–1993 Seasons (Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology). Tel Aviv. Pp. 395–401. Horwitz L.K., Bar Giora N., Mienis H.K. and Lernau O. 2005. Faunal and Malacological Remains from the Middle Bronze, Late Bronze and Iron Age Levels at Tel Yoqne‘am. In A. Ben-Tor, D. Ben-Ami and A. Livneh eds. Yoqne‛am III: The Middle and Late Bronze Ages; Final Report of the Archaeological Excavations (1977–1988) (Qedem Reports 7). Jerusalem. Pp. 395–435. Klein R.G. and Cruz-Uribe K. 1984. The Analysis of Animal Bones from Archaeological Sites. Chicago. Lyman R.L. 1994. Vertebrate Taphonomy. Cambridge. Lev-Tov J.S.E. and Maher E.F. 2001. Food in Late Bronze Age Funerary Offerings: Faunal Evidence from Tomb 1 at Tell Dothan. PEQ 133:91–110. Marean C.W., Dominguez-Rodrigo M. and Pickering T.R. 2004. Skeletal Element Equifinality in Zooarchaeology begins with Method: the Evolution and Status of the “Shaft Critique”. Journal of Taphonomy 2:69–98. Silver I.A. 1969. The Ageing of Domesticated Animals. In D.R. Brothwell and E. Higgs eds. Science in Archaeology. New York. Pp. 283–302. Weissbrod L. and Bar-Oz G. 2004. Caprines and Toads: Taphonomic Patterning of Animal Offering Practices in a Late Bronze Age Burial Assemblage. In S.J. O’Day, W.V. Neer and A. Ervynck eds. Behaviour behind Bones: The Zooarchaeology of Ritual, Religion, Status and Identity (Proceedings of the 9th ICAZ Conference. Durham 2002 vol. 1). Oxford. Pp. 20–24.

02/01/2015 11:11:35

Chapter 6

The Anthropological R emains Yossi Nagar

Reconstructing the biological history of past human populations from ancient Israel is relatively common, involving large skeletal samples from numerous periods (Nagar 2012). However, such an analysis has never been conducted in respect to the Intermediate Bronze Age. The relatively large sample of human skeletal remains, found in the Bet Dagan cemetery and dated to this period, affords an opportunity to examine various parameters related to this period. Although the human skeletal remains from this context were poorly preserved and had to be reburied soon after their excavation, the bones were inspected onsite by the author prior to their reburial. As a result, the anthropological study focuses mainly on the reconstruction of the original burial posture and the demographic aspect of estimations of age and sex. The specific age and sex estimations obtained for each skeleton were detailed previously (see Chapter 2 ). The estimation of age at death was based mainly on tooth eruption, development and attrition stages (Hillson 1986:176–201). When teeth were absent, closure of epiphyses in the long bones was used to differentiate between children and adults (Johnston and Zimmer 1989). The estimation of sex was based mainly on skull and pelvic morphology and, in a few cases, on the measurement of the vertical diameter of the femoral head (Bass 1987:82, 204, 220). The

fragmentary nature of the bones and their compression by dense layers of soil prevented any possibility of taking reliable measurements, even from the better preserved skeletons, nor was it possible to record epigenetic traits. Relatively large skull and longbone fragments were checked for the presence of pathologies.

R esults Minimum Number of Individuals The minimum number of individuals (MNI) was determined in the 113 tombs in which anthropological remains were found. One individual per tomb was the routine MNI in the Bet Dagan cemetery, regardless of the age and sex of the individuals, aside from one tomb (T566), in which two individuals were interred, one atop the other. Burial Posture Reconstructing the burial posture of the dead was often difficult, since, aside from several cases, only few poorly preserved fragments remained. The results of the study are summarized in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1. Burial Postures in the Intermediate Bronze Age Tombs Body Orientation

East–West

Head orientation Side facing the ground

East R

L 1

Children

3

Adult males

3

Adult females

2

1

14

14

Adults, sex unknown Unknown age Total

Bet-Dagan-chap-6.indd 191

Northeast–Southwest

West R

L 3

1

Northeast R

L

R

1

1

1

1

1

1 2

2

9

L

North–South North

3 15

5

Northwest–Southeast

South

R

L

1

1

R

L

Northwest R

1

3

2 40

Southwest

L

?

Southeast R

L

1

6

1

1 2

3

1

1

4

17

10

3

2

5

2 2

12

0

9

2

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Yossi Nagar

All the individuals were found in anatomical articulation, indicating primary burial. The deceased were placed in a flexed position on their right or left side. The body orientation and the side facing the ground varied, with the heads in different directions. Paleodemography The bones found in the Intermediate Bronze Age cemetery represent at least 114 individuals. The age and sex of the skeletal remains were estimated and the individuals were then sorted into ten-year-wide age cohorts. The results are presented in Table 6.2. Children and adults of a wide age range were represented in the sample. However, no infants (defined here as under 3 years old) were found. The age of the youngest individual in the first age group (NB–4) was estimated as 2­–4 years. The age of 32 individuals could not be estimated to the exact tenyear-wide cohort. However, as a minimum age could

be estimated for these individuals, it is known that none of them represented an infant. Paleodemographic parameters were calculated by means of a ‘life-table’, based on the age at death estimations (Table 6.3, following Ubelaker 1974). To increase the available sample for the demographic calculation, it is possible to consider individuals for which only a “minimum age” was determined (e.g., Jordana, Isidro and Malgosa 2010). Prior to reconstructing the ‘life-table’ (Table 6.3), the partially aged individuals were distributed into the relevant age groups in the following way: First, individuals aged >50 years were proportionally distributed into the last two age groups (50–60 and >60), according to the nonrevised results derived from the better aged sample. Following this division, individuals aged >40 years were proportionally distributed into the last three age groups, taking into account the already revised two older groups. Similarly, the rest of the individuals were added in decreasing order (see Table 6.2: Revised

Table 6.2. Age and Sex Distribution in the Intermediate Bronze Age Cemetery Sex Estimation

Age Estimation (Years)

M

F

NB–4

5–9

10–19

20–29

30–39

40–49

50–59

>60

Unknown Age

16

8

4

6

8

21

20

15

6

2

32*

Revised data

4

6

9

28

28

23

12

4

Percent death (%)

9

8

25

25

20

10

3

Number of individuals

* Of them, at least 25 adults

Table 6.3. ‘Life Table’ of the Bet Dagan Skeletal Population* Age Interval (years)

Number of Deaths

Percent of Deaths

Survivors Entering

Probability of Death

Total Years Lived between X and X+5

Total Years Lived between X and X+5

Life Expectancy

(X)

(Dx)

(dx)

(lx)

(qx)

(Lx)

(Tx)

(e0x)

0–9

70

40.00

100.0

0.4

800

2369

23.7

10–19

9

5.14

60.0

0.1

574

1569

26.1

20–29

29

16.57

54.9

0.3

466

994

18.1

30–39

28

16.00

38.3

0.4

303

529

13.8

40–49

23

13.00

22.3

0.6

157

226

10.1

50–59

12

6.86

9.1

0.8

57

69

7.5

4

2.29

2.3

1.0

11

11

5.0

>60 Total

175

2367

* percent of first cohort artificially standardized to 40%

Bet-Dagan-chap-6.indd 192

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Chapter 6: The Anthropological Remains

Data). Before the final reconstruction of the ‘life-table’, the first (biased) age group was artificially set as 40%, a standardization based on accepted models (Coale and Demeny 1966). As the absence of infants prevented reliable calculation of life expectancy at birth, the life expectancy by the age of 10 is not influenced by this obvious bias and is therefore a better indicator for the paleodemographic discussion. The results showed that life expectancy by the age of 10 was 26 years, the adult mean age at death (MAD) for individuals aged >15 years was 37 years. Presumably, these parameters were not affected by the biased first age group data (NB–5). Thus, they well describe the palaeodemography of the Bet Dagan population. Setting a standard figure of 40% death of the first (0–10 years) age group, as was noted earlier, is based on other, more reliable samples, and allows the reconstruction of a mortality curve suitable for comparison with other populations (Fig. 6.1). Regardless of the hypothetical, yet reasonable, first age group, the curve fits the expected shape of a mortality curve of a regular historical population.

Pathology and Morphology The poor state of preservation did not allow for a comprehensive survey of pathologies in the sample. However, antemortem tooth loss was recorded whenever possible. It was noticed in 23 individuals, involving the lower, upper, or both jaws. Figure 6.2 shows the proportion of each tooth type in the available sample of 73 antemortem lost teeth. Antemortem loss affected mainly the lower first molar, as expected. The frequency of porosity in the orbital roof (cribra orbitalia) and the skull vault (porotic hyperostosis) was also recorded. However, the sample available for this study was extremely small: Cribra orbitalia was not found in two adult orbital roofs and porotic hyperostosis was not found in four adult vaults. Recording the frequency of epigenetic traits was impossible. The only trait recorded was the number of cusps in the lower first molar teeth. Four out of 23 available teeth (17.5%) showed four, rather than the normal five cusp pattern. The appearance of this epigenetic trait is considered to have a hereditary

45.0 40.0 35.0

Percent Death

30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 0–9

10–19

20–29

30–39

40–49

50–59

>60

Age Group (Years)

Fig. 6.1. Mortality curve of the Bet Dagan population (based on Table 6.3).

Bet-Dagan-chap-6.indd 193

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194

Yossi Nagar

40 M1 35 Percent of “Lost Teeth” Sample

Lower 30

Upper

25 M2 20 15 10

PM1

M3 PM2

5 0

I1

I2

Canine Tooth Type

Fig. 6.2. Tooth-type proportions in the ‘antemortem lost teeth’ sample (n = 73).

basis. Its frequency in Bet Dagan was not markedly different from that reported for historical [Jewish and non-Jewish] populations in Israel (14.5%; Hertzeanu 1993:40).

Discussion Minimum Number of Individuals The minimum number of individuals (MNI) in a tomb and their burial postures in the Bet Dagan cemetery generally resemble these parameters in many other Intermediate Bronze period sites. Each tomb was used for only one individual that was laid on its side in a flexed position. The minimum number of individuals per tomb was compared to 34 contemporary burial sites from various areas in ancient Canaan (Table 6.4). These sites include data from recent excavations which have not yet been published, taken from the IAA databank. Anthropological remains from some Intermediate Bronze Age burial sites reviewed by Greenhut (1992), such as Horeshim Cave 2 (Gilboa and Yannai 1992), were not included in Table 6.4, since the MNI figures given by the excavator were unreliable estimations. This is especially true in cases where the burial space was reused in periods other than the Intermediate Bronze Age, or when scattered bones were identified as secondary burial of several individuals, but were

Bet-Dagan-chap-6.indd 194

not examined by an anthropologist. An exception is the anthropological remains from the Kerem 47 site at Kibbutz Gal‘ed, based on subsequent reanalysis by the author. Data were obtained using the same methodologies used for the Bet Dagan skeletal population, and corrections were made to the original publication (Meir 1972; 1974). The results presented in Table 6.4 show that two burial modes were practiced in Intermediate Bronze Age cemeteries: interment of a single individual or interment of several, yet relatively few, individuals. Mass burials, known from other phases of the Bronze Age, were not found. Apart from one exception (Kerem 47, Cave X), in which 20 individuals were piled in a large one-chambered cave, most Intermediate Bronze Age tombs were used for a single burial, or, at the most, for no more than seven individuals. The difference in the average MNI between caves from the Intermediate Bronze Age and the Early or Middle Bronze Age sites is marked, even when exactly the same cemetery was used during succeeding periods. For example, the average MNI in the burial caves at Tel Esur (Barqai South, Gilan South and ‘En Esur) was 80 during the Early Bronze Age (Nagar and Winocur, forthcoming), as opposed to single burials during the Intermediate Bronze Age. The MNI in Jericho Tomb 94 was 113 during the Early Bronze Age, while there were only single burials during the Intermediate Bronze Age (Kenyon 1960:19; 1971). The average MNI of burials

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195

Table 6.4. Minimum Number of Individuals in Intermediate Bronze Age Burials Region

North

Center and Shephelah

Judean Hills and dead sea

Negev

Site

MNI in Cave/ Chamber

Remarks

‘Enan

1–5

Two chambers of one cave; Eisenberg 1985

Hanita

1

Arensburg 1973

Amot Nahal Bet Ha-‘Emeq

1

IAA database; License No. G-2/02

Sheikh Da’ud

2

IAA database; Permit No. A-4577

Tiberias

1

Tzaferis 1968

Deganya A

4

Kochavi 1973; bones inspected by B. Arensburg, one more individual is possible

Qanat el-Ja‘ar (A)

1–7

IAA database; Permit No. A-4830

Qanat el-Ja‘ar (B)

1–3

Slightly larger number is possible; IAA database; Permit No. A-3566

Tel Rehov

1–3

IAA database; Permit No. A-3586

Tel Rehov

1

Only one grave; cited by Greenhut 1992

Bet She’an

1

Cited by Greenhut 1992

Tel ‘Amal

1–3

Feig 1991

‘En Ha-Naziv

4–8

Cited by Greenhut 1992

Kerem 47 (Gal‘ed)

4–20

See text for discussion

Megiddo

1–3

Guy and Engberg 1938:40

Barqai (South)

1

IAA database; Permit No. A-4105

Dhahr Mirzbâneh

1

With few exceptions of 2 in a chamber; cited by Greenhut 1992

Ma‘abarot

1

Gophna 1969

Horeshim

3

Gilboa and Yannai 1992

Mazor (El‘ad), Sites 96–99

1

Zilberbod and Amit 2001

Shoham

1–3

IAA database; Permit No. A-3302

Bet Dagan

1

Present study, with one exception of 2 in a chamber

Qirya Quarter, Tel Aviv

1–2

IAA database; Permit No. A-3646

Holon

1

Only one grave; cited by Greenhut 1992

Yavne

1

Only one grave; cited by Greenhut 1992

Efrata

1–4

Gonen 2001:22–33

Emeq Refa’im

2

IAA database; Permit No. A-2934

Holyland

1

IAA database; Permit No. A-5385

Jebel Qa‘aqir

1–9

Smith 1982

Ma‘ale Adummim

1

Sion 1997

Jericho

1

Kenyon 1971

Qiryat Gat

1

Tahal 1998

Horbat Resisim

1-4

IAA database

Biq‘at ‘Uvda

1

Reich 1990; bones inspected by J. Zias

‘En Ziq

1

Only one grave; cited by Greenhut 1992

in the Tel Aviv Qirya Quarter was 28 during the Early Bronze Age, as opposed to individual burial in most of the Intermediate Bronze Age tombs, with the exception of double burials (two individuals in the same tomb) in 11% of the cases (Nagar, forthcoming). A marked difference was also noted between the single or multiple (two to seven individuals) Intermediate Bronze Age

Bet-Dagan-chap-6.indd 195

burials in the region of the western Galilee (e.g., Hanita, Amot Nahal Bet Ha-‘Emeq, Sheikh Da’ud; Table 6.4), as opposed to burials dated to the succeeding Middle Bronze Age in the same region (e.g., Kefar Veradim and Nahal Yehi‘am). The average MNI in the latter burials was 11–26, although the settlements adjacent to these Middle Bronze Age burials were relatively

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small (Getzov and Nagar 2002). Taking into account the absence of infants from the Middle Bronze Age tombs (Getzov and Nagar 2002) and their presence in the multiple-burial, Intermediate Bronze Age tombs with the largest MNI (at Kibbutz Gal‘ed, Qanat el-Ja‘ar and Jebel Qa‘aqir), the difference in MNI between these periods would have been even larger. These comparisons emphasize the uniqueness of the Intermediate Bronze Age in terms of the MNI. Regarding the number of individuals in a tomb, some scholars have claimed that the two modes of burial practiced during the Intermediate Bronze Age (single and multiple) reflect cultural regionalism. Oren (1973:46) and Getzov (pers. comm.) assume that multiple burials were characteristic of northern Israel. This idea was also expressed by Greenhut (1992:171) as a “rule of thumb,” although he was aware of exceptions. However, the geographic data presented in Table 6.4 do not support this hypothesis. Although multiple burials were indeed more common in the north, it seems that single burials (with a few exceptions of double burials) were the overriding practice in this period, even at sites where multiple burials were also found. In general, single burial was mainly practiced in the very large (regional?) graveyards, while multiple burials of two to seven individuals was more common in smaller (local?) cemeteries. In the latter case, it is possible that the multiple burials represent reuse of the grave by the same family. However, burial of several individuals in one single episode cannot be refuted. Comparing the multiple-burial MNI data in Table 6.4 to the average MNI in repeatedly used family-owned graves in other periods (e.g., Jewish tombs during the HellenisticRoman period; Nagar and Torgë 2003), shows that the Intermediate Bronze Age values were much smaller. Therefore, the idea expressed by Getzov (1995) and Meir (1972; 1974), that the tombs containing a number of individuals were used repeatedly as large family graves, is less probable than the single episode of death hypothesis expressed above. Yet, it cannot be ruled out that the 20 individuals buried together at the Kerem 47 site mentioned above, is an exception.

the ground, it was found that in 60% of the burials, the head pointed to the east, whether directly or approximately (northeast or southeast; Fig. 6.3; n = 106). This relatively high frequency of individuals oriented to a certain direction may indicate a specific intention or meaningful ritual practice. This hypothesis may be tested only by comparison with other sites, yet there is very little comparative anthropological data to date. Two relevant studies include data from Qanat elJa‘ar1 and the Qirya Quarter,2 although the remains from both cemeteries are few. At Qanat el-Ja‘ar, three burial caves were excavated (Caves 100, 101, 102), with two to seven individuals in each. The remains in Caves 100 and 101 were disturbed, but the bones in Cave 102 were still partially articulated and the burial postures of the deceased could be compared with the data from Bet Dagan. Five out of seven individuals in Qanat el-Ja‘ar Cave 102 were oriented east–west, with the head in the east, while the other two were oriented northeast– southwest, with the head in the northeast. The cave, used for several dead, was large enough to allow for the interment of the deceased in any direction, regardless of the position of the entrance. Thus, the preference to place the deceased with their heads generally directed to the east was a deliberate choice. The direction of the only Intermediate Bronze Age skeleton for which burial posture could be recorded in the Qirya Quarter site (Cave 15) was north–south, with its head in the north (Nagar, forthcoming); the entrance to this burial

Northwest 0%

North 16.0% Northeast 14.2%

West 8.5% Southwest 3.8%

South 11.0%

East 37.7%

Burial Posture Analyzing the burial postures of the deceased shows that body orientation largely varied (see Table 6.1). The deceased were laid on their side. However, while there was no consistency regarding the side that faced

Bet-Dagan-chap-6.indd 196

Southeast 8.5%

Fig. 6.3. Orientation of the head of the individuals buried in the Intermediate Bronze Age tombs.

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chamber was on the south. The Intermediate Bronze Age Tel Aviv Qirya Quarter cemetery largely resembled that of Bet Dagan in its burial practices. However, the above data are insufficient to determine a clear pattern of cosmologically based orientation preferences in burial directions. Paleodemography The demographic profile of the skeletal population was that expected of a regular historical population. The skeletal sample included children, sub-adults, and adults of both sexes. The life expectancy by the age of 10 was 26 years (see Table 6.3); adult mean age at death was 37 years. The only demographic abnormality was the absence of infants from the skeletal sample. The dense distribution of the graves in the excavated areas excluded the possibility that infants were not found because their graves (which might be simple and without offerings) could not be detected throughout the excavation. Rather, infant absence could be the result of cultural behavior dictating burial practices. Such demographic deviation in past cemeteries, in which infants less than 3 years old are not present, was abundant in cemeteries dating to various periods in Israel since the Chalcolithic period (Getzov and Nagar 2002; Nagar and Eshed 2001; Nagar 2013). Life expectancy by the age of 10 and adult mean age at death are better paleodemographic indicators than life expectancy at birth in the present study, since they are not biased by the expected under-representation of infants in the sample. Comparing these parameters with data retrieved from other Bronze Age sites showed a large similarity between the population of Bet Dagan and that of other sites (Table 6.5). The collapse of urbanization in Canaan during the Intermediate Bronze Age is often understood as a socio-

economic crisis between two periods of urbanization and is referred to as a period of instability characterized by a low level of social complexity (Greenberg 2002). However, the similarity in the gross demographic parameters between the Intermediate Bronze Age and the highly urbanized Early Bronze and Middle Bronze Age populations refutes the possibility of a sociodemographic collapse as a probable explanation for the Intermediate Bronze phenomenon. Rather, it supports theories suggesting that a different population inhabited the southern Levant during this intermediate period (Nagar 2003:75–79). This new population should not be considered to have been socio-economically inferior, but rather should be understood as practicing a different life style. The Biological Affinity of the Intermediate Bronze Age Population Many Intermediate Bronze Age graves were found in Israel. Yet, only a few fragmentary skeletons from that period have been anthropologically examined (e.g., Arensburg 1986, Hughes 1965, Nagar 2002). At Tell Jericho, human presence successively continued from the Early Bronze Age to the Middle Bronze Age. However, the number of burials from the Intermediate Bronze Age on the tell itself was relatively small; most of the skeletal remains were disordered and poorly preserved and some graves were also reused in later periods (Kenyon 1957:186–209; 1971:11–18). Based on their burial practices and ceramic artifacts, Kenyon maintained that the Intermediate Bronze Age population “arrived in Palestine…as nomads and destroyers of a pre-existing urban civilization” (Kenyon 1966:76) and primarily associated this newly introduced population with the Biblical Amorites (Kenyon 1966:54–77). Kenyon argued that these people

Table 6.5. Comparison of Paleodemographic Parameters between Several Bronze Age Populations Site

Bet-Dagan-chap-6.indd 197

Period

Sample Size

Life Expectancy by the Age of 10

Mean Adult Age at Death

Reference

Bet Dagan

IB

113

27 years

37 years

Current study

‘En Esur and Barqai

EB I

149

27 years

-

Nagar and Winocur, forthcoming

Rishon Le-Ziyyon

MB IIB

163

26 years

37 years

IAA databank

Horbat Zelef

LB I

101

27 years

-

Nagar 2011

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were not the descendants of the former Early Bronze Age population, but rather were a foreign population. She also noticed a marked cultural difference between the Intermediate Bronze Age population and the later Middle Bronze Age population, employing the term “Intermediate Early Bronze–Middle Bronze period” to emphasize this difference (Kenyon 1971:11–18). The definition of this period as an intermediate cultural phase was adopted by other scholars as well (e.g., Kochavi 1969). Yet, Kenyon still considered these “Amorites” as the core population from which the Canaanite culture of the Middle Bronze Age subsequently emerged (Kenyon 1966:54–77). The most effective way to approach the question of the biological affinity of the Intermediate Bronze Age population to other ancient populations would be by means of a direct comparison of DNA samples. However, these are still unavailable. Nevertheless, epigenetic study, including non-metrical traits and morphometric analysis of data retrieved from various sites in Israel, can help shed light on this question. An Intermediate Bronze Age skull found at Hanita was described by Arensburg (1986) as “general Mediterranean” type, no different from the other Bronze Age populations of the southern Levant. However, this conclusion was based mainly on vault measurements which are highly variant and therefore less relevant for morphological comparisons, as acknowledged by Arensburg himself (Arensburg 1973:41). To the contrary, in an anthropological analysis focusing on non-metrical dental markers, differences between an Intermediate Bronze Age population from Jebel Qa‘aqir and a Middle Bronze Age population from Sasa was proposed (Peretz and Smith 2004). Further differentiation in metrical traits between populations from these two periods was also demonstrated by Acreche (2001), measuring skulls and mandibles from graves at Efrata.

In order to further examine this question, a study was conducted by the author wherein ten Intermediate Bronze Age skulls from a variety of sites (Dimona, Kibbutz Gal‘ed, Ma‘ale Adummim and Ramat Matred)3 were compared to a varied sample of skulls from different periods and geographic regions in Israel, including populations from the Chalcolithic period, the Roman–Byzantine period (non-Jews), and past and present-day Bedouins. A battery of 25 measurements was compared between the two samples. The measurements were carefully selected to represent the cranial, facial, and skull base areas of the skull, using male individuals only. To avoid inter-observer error, all the measurements were taken by the same investigator, based also on data routinely collected for the IAA databank (Nagar 2012). The measurement techniques followed Howells (1973), and the description of the calculation of indices is detailed by Nagar (1999:50– 55; 2012). Comparison was made by means of a (hierarchical) cluster analysis, using the SPSS statistical application (see Table 6.6 for the average metrical data used in the analysis). The dendogram presenting the results of the cluster analysis of the metrical data (Fig. 6.4) manifests the relative distance between the populations of the study. To evaluate the magnitude of the distance between the local populations (presented in the graph in arbitrary units), a reference population from India (see Fig. 6.4:4) was also examined. The results of this comparative study clearly showed that the Intermediate Bronze Age population deviated to a large degree from the other local populations tested. Although the very small Intermediate Bronze Age sample could have contributed to these exceptional results, one cannot disregard or reject the possibility that these ten skulls represent the true average morphology of the population of this period. While exceptional morphology of one or two skulls in a

1 2 3 5 4 1. Chalcolithic-period population (N = 39); 2. Bedouin population (N = 92); 3. Roman–Byzantine nonJewish autochthonous population (N = 29); 4. Reference population (Indian; N = 52); 5. Intermediate Bronze Age population (N = 10)

Fig. 6.4. Distance graph between the Intermediate Bronze Age sample and four other populations.

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Table 6.6. Statistical Data Used for the Morphometric Analysis of the Intermediate Bronze Age Skulls* Population Measure/ index

Chalcolithic

Bedouin

Roman– Byzantine

Indian

Intermediate Bronze Age

Maximum length

185.8

186.0

182.7

178.0

183.0

Maximum breadth

141.1

136.4

141.1

132.6

137.0

75.9

73.3

77.4

74.6

75.0

153.8

151.6

150.1

146.8

153.5

Mean height index

82.8

82.7

81.9

83.9

83.8

Vault height index

84.9

85.1

86.1

85.5

85.5

Frontoparietal index

66.6

70.0

68.3

70.2

70.2

Bregma angle (Na-Ba)

47.3

48.3

48.7

48.2

47.8

Frontal angle

129.1

128.3

131.2

127.9

128.9

Parietal angle

132.6

132.9

131.8

134.2

131.2

Occipital angle

120.1

120.1

114.7

118.8

121.0

Upper facial height

67.4

65.3

66.9

62.2

67.5

Upper facial index (1)

52.5

51.1

51.6

49.7

54.4

Upper facial index (2)

50.2

49.1

49.5

47.8

50.8

Orbital index

79.3

81.0

80.6

80.8

81.4

Interorbital breadth index

21.7

22.1

22.9

20.5

20.3

eye size index

54.8

56.6

55.6

59.9

58.9

Cheek height index

33.6

33.9

34.2

32.2

-

Nasal index

48.4

49.2

47.1

52.8

45.4

Cranial index Cranial module index

Maxillofrontal index

38.4

40.8

38.0

37.4

Zygomaxillary angle

125.5

125.0

127.7

125.5

127.0

-

Biauricular breadth

118.4

119.2

123.4

116.6

114.4

Palatine index

80.7

79.4

82.2

84.4

75.4

Basion angle (na-prost)

40.3

38.2

38.1

37.6

39.5

Foramen magnum index

87.1

81.8

83.8

84.8

78.5

(1) height nasion-prosthion X 100/byzigomatic breadth (2) height nasion-prosthion X 100/height basion-bregma *

The numbers in the table represent means of variable sample sizes; the samples were taken from the Tel Aviv University skeletal collection

small sample could have largely affected the results, combining together skulls from several sites prevented the influence of kinship between these few individuals and had an averaging effect on the results. Thus, it is possible to suggest that the Intermediate Bronze Age population differs from the general expected physical characteristics of the other historical local populations inspected in this study. These results support the exceptional nature of the Intermediate Bronze Age population and agree with similar ideas postulated by Acreche (2001), Nagar (2003:75–79) and Peretz and Smith (2004).

Bet-Dagan-chap-6.indd 199

Accordingly, regarding the Intermediate Bronze Age people as the core of the later autochthonous populations of Israel is refuted. summary and conclusions

The bones found in the Intermediate Bronze Age cemetery represent at least 114 individuals, which makes it the largest skeletal sample of that period in Israel ever studied. The very poor state of preservation and the need to rebury the bones instantly made it impossible to reconstruct some very important anthropological parameters, such as skull measurements and analysis

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of pathologies. However, systematic description of the available fragmentary skeletal remains yielded very significant results and helped to further establish our knowledge of the anthropology of this period. One individual per burial chamber was found in 112 cases in the Bet Dagan cemetery; the only exception being two individuals interred together in Tomb 566. Comparing the results obtained from 34 other Intermediate Bronze Age sites (see Table 6.4), it was found that the number of graves in which multiple burials were observed was indeed higher in the north, as suggested by other scholars. However, this custom was not restricted to this region. It may be suggested that singular interment was the norm in the large Intermediate Bronze Age burial fields, probably used as regional cemeteries, while deviation from this norm was sometimes practiced in smaller, local cemeteries serving only the adjacent village. The several individuals (regardless of their age and sex) sometimes interred in the same tomb might indicate that it was family owned. Nevertheless, the average number of individuals interred in the tombs used for multiple burials was relatively small in comparison to repeatedly used family tombs in other periods. Therefore, it is more likely that the use of these tombs for several individuals represents a single episode of death and not a continuous family burial. Reconstructing the burial posture of the deceased in the Bet Dagan cemetery showed that all the individuals were primarily interred in a flexed position on their side. The body orientation and the side facing the ground varied between the graves, with the heads in different directions. However, since 60% of the dead were placed with their heads approximately in the east (see Fig. 6.3), intentional orientation of the body in favor of this direction was also considered. While the orientation might have been the result of the tomb architecture, dependent on the location of the tomb’s entrance, as suggested by Yannai (see below, Chapter 7), a cultural explanation is possible, wherein the east was the preferred direction in the majority of cases, as a part of the burial practice. Comparison with other Intermediate Bronze Age burials yielded inconsistent results, particularly in light of the heretofore limited comparative anthropological data. The skeletal sample included children, sub-adults, and adults of both sexes, as expected of a regular historical population. The only demographic abnormality was the absence of infants from the

Bet-Dagan-chap-6.indd 200

skeletal sample. The analysis of the mortality data based on age at death estimations of the skeletal remains showed that life expectancy by the age of 10 was 26 years and the adult mean age at death was 37 years. These results were similar to paleodemographic data retrieved from other large skeletal samples from the Early and Middle Bronze Ages (see Table 6.5), as was the mortality curve (see Fig. 6.1). The socio-economic status of a given population is traditionally expressed by various derivatives of mortality, such as life expectancy and MAD, as discussed above (Palmore and Gardner 1994). The routine paleodemographic profile of the Bet Dagan skeletal population refuted the possibility of a sociodemographic collapse between the urbanized (Early Bronze and Middle Bronze) periods. On the contrary, it may be concluded that the Intermediate Bronze Age population was no less developed socio-economically than its predecessors and successors, although they practiced a markedly different life style. The state of preservation of the skeletal remains in the Bet Dagan cemetery did not allow any metrical description of the population. However, combining all available skull metrical data obtained from Intermediate Bronze Age sites in Israel, it was possible to morphologically compare the population of this period to other local samples. The results (see Fig. 6.4) show that the Intermediate Bronze population largely deviated from the other local populations examined, whether earlier (Chalcolithic), later (Roman– Byzantine), or present day (Bedouin). Due to the nature of the available skeletal collection, it remained impossible to compare the Bet Dagan population to the immediate previous or succeeding Bronze Age populations. The term ‘Intermediate Bronze Age’ was adopted by scholars who culturally distinguished this period from the Early and Middle Bronze Ages (Kochavi 1969), although no substantial anthropological evidence has been found to support this distinction. The results of the current study support the hypothesis that the period between the Early and Middle Bronze Ages in Canaan was truly an intermediate one. Whereas in Syria, the Early Bronze Age population manifested cultural continuity into the Middle Bronze Age, the archaeological evidence points to a cultural gap between these periods in Canaan (Greenberg 2002). This phenomenon was highlighted in the current study. The results show that the Intermediate Bronze

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Age population in Canaan differed markedly from the Early and Middle Bronze Age populations in all aspects of their burial practices: MNI, burial posture and demographic composition of the skeletal population. Moreover, comparing metrical results obtained from several Intermediate Bronze Age sites with three other local populations (and one foreign reference group), the exceptional morphological nature of the Intermediate Bronze population was emphasized. Based on the anthropological parameters and on the distinct archaeological characteristics of this period, the uniqueness of the Intermediate Bronze Age phenomenon is outstanding. This phenomenon may be explained by a temporary population change. For a short period of time, Canaan could have been inhabited mostly by a population which was different from the regular, autochthonous one. Who these Intermediate Bronze people were remains a mystery. Yet, based on this study, their source is not to be sought in ancient Canaan. Seeking it among Hindu-

201

European nomads, as was suggested by several scholars in the past (Kochavi 1969), is one possibility, although other options would be feasible as well. The general lack of Early, Intermediate or Middle Bronze Age substantial morphometric databases prevents the affirmation of this conclusion. However, future studies of larger skeletal samples, and possible direct genetic comparative studies, may provide better answers to this riddle. Among the numerous Intermediate Bronze Age burials throughout Israel that were reviewed in a previous study by Greenhut (1992), only one cemetery (Lakhish) was mentioned in the Shephelah region and the central/southern coast. Since that study, many excavations have taken place that have added much data to our knowledge of burials in this period and in this region. The present study of the large Bet Dagan necropolis, along with data presented from smaller unpublished sites recently excavated, marks a major contribution to filling this regional gap.

Notes 1 2

3

IAA Permit No. A-4830. IAA Permit No. A-3646.

I would like to thank Prof. Israel Hershkovitz from Tel Aviv University for his help with the statistical analysis of the metrical data. I would also like to thank Dr. Zvi Greenhut for his helpful comments.

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Coale A.J. and Demeny P. 1966. Regional Model Life Tables and Stable Populations. Princeton, N.J. Eisenberg E. 1985. A Burial Cave of the Early Bronze Age IV (MB I) near ‘Enan. ‘Atiqot (ES) 17:59–73. Feig N. 1991. Burial Caves of the Early Bronze Age IV at Tel ‘Amal. ‘Atiqot (ES) 20:119–130. Getzov N. 1995. Tombs from the Early and Intermediate Bronze Age in the Western Galilee. ‘Atiqot 27:1*–18* (Hebrew; English summary, p. 211). Getzov N. and Nagar Y. 2002. Middle Bronze Age II Burials in the Western Galilee. In Z. Gal ed. Eretz Zafon: Studies in Galilean Archaeology. Jerusalem. Pp. 1–48 (Hebrew; English summary, p. 178*).

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Gilboa E. and Yannai E. 1992. Burial Caves from the Intermediate Bronze Age at Horshim. ‘Atiqot 21:3–8 (Hebrew; English summary, p. 173). Gonen R. 2001. Excavations at Efrata: A Burial Ground from the Intermediate and Middle Bronze Ages (IAA Reports 12). Jerusalem. Gophna R. 1969. A Middle Bronze Age I Tomb with a Fenestrated Axe at Ma‘abarot. IEJ 19:174–177. Greenberg R. 2002. Early Urbanism in the Levant: A Regional Narrative. London. Pp. 112–122. Greenhut Z. 1992. Tombs and Burial in the Early Bronze Age IV in Eretz-Israel. M.A. thesis. Tel Aviv University. Tel Aviv (Hebrew). Guy P.L.O. 1938. Megiddo Tombs (OIP XXXIII). Chicago. Hertzeanu M. 1993. Affinities between Jewish and NonJewish Groups in the Land of Israel in the Roman– Byzantine Period Based on Dental Morphology. M.D. thesis. Tel Aviv University. Tel Aviv (Hebrew). Hillson S. 1986. Teeth. Cambridge. Howells W.W. 1973. Cranial Variation in Man (Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology 167). Cambridge, Mass. Hughes D.R. 1965. Human Bones. In K.M. Kenyon. Excavations at Jericho II: The Tombs Excavated in 1955–8. Jerusalem. Pp. 664–693. Johnston F.E. and Zimmer L.O. 1989. Assessment of Growth and Age in the Immature Skeleton. In M.Y. Iscan and A.R. Kenneth eds. Reconstruction of Life from the Skeleton. New York. Pp. 11–22. Jordana X., Isidro A. and Malgosa A. 2010. Interpreting Diachronic Osteological Variation at the Medieval Necropolis of the Sant Pere Churches (Terrassa, Spain). International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 20:670–692. Kenyon K.M. 1957. Digging up Jericho. London. Kenyon K.M. 1960. Excavations at Jericho I: The Tombs Excavated in 1952–4. London. Kenyon K.M. 1966. Amorites and Canaanites. London. Kenyon K.M. 1971. Burial Customs at Jericho. ADAJ 16:5– 30. Kochavi M. 1969. The Middle Bronze Age I (The Intermediate Bronze Age) in the Land of Israel. Qadmoniot 6:38–44 (Hebrew). Kochavi M. 1973. A Built Shaft-Tomb of the Middle Bronze Age I at Degania A. Qadmoniot 6:50–53 (Hebrew). Meir M. 1972. Burials without Pottery from the Beginning of the Middle Bronze IIa. Kibbutz Gal‘ed (Hebrew). Meir M. 1974. Early Burials near Kibbutz Gal‘ed. Kibbutz Gal‘ed (Hebrew). Nagar Y. 1999. The Anthropology of Rehovot-in-the-Negev as an Example of a Large Byzantine Settlement in the Negev. Ph.D. diss. Tel Aviv University. Tel Aviv.

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Nagar Y. 2002. Anthropological Report—Tel Rehov. IAA Archives (Hebrew). Nagar Y. 2003. Who Lived in Israel? A Story of Ancient Populations. Tel Aviv (Hebrew). Nagar Y. 2011. Human Skeletal Remains from a Burial Cave near Horbat Zelef: A Paleodemographic Study. ‘Atiqot 68:65–67. Nagar Y. 2012. Human Osteological Database at the Israel Antiquities Authority: Overview and Some Examples of Use. Bioarchaeology of the Near East 5:1–18. Nagar Y. 2013. Physical Anthropology of the Peq‘in Population. In D. Shalem, Z. Gal and H. Smithline eds. Peqi‘in: A late Chalcolithic Burial Site, Upper Galilee, Israel. Zemakh. Pp. 391–406. Nagar Y. Forthcoming. Skeletal Remains from the Qirya Quarter. ‘Atiqot. Nagar Y. and Eshed V. 2001. Where Are the Children? AgeDependent Burial Practices in Peqi‘in. IEJ 51:27–35. Nagar Y. and Torgë H. 2003. Biological Characteristics of Jewish Burial in the Hellenistic and Early Roman Periods. IEJ 53:164–171. Nagar Y. and Winocur E. Forthcoming. The Skeletal Remains from Assawir and Barqai South: Reconstruction of Some Demographic Parameters. In E. Yannai.‘En Esur (‘Ein Assawir) II: Excavations at a Protohistoric Site and Adjacent Cemeteries in the Coastal Plain, Israel. Oren E.D. 1973. The Northern Cemetery of Beth Shan. Leiden. Palmore J. and Gardner R.W. 1994. Measuring Mortality, Fertility, and Natural Increase. Honolulu. Peretz B. and Smith P. 2004. Dental Morphology and Pathology of Middle Bronze Age Populations in Israel: Sasa and Jebel Qa‘aqir. ‘Atiqot 46:45–49. Reich R. 1990. Two Sites in Biq‘at ‘Uvdah. ‘Atiqot (HS) 10:13–19 (English summary, pp. 2*–3*). Sion O. 1997. Ma‘ale Adummim. ESI 16:141. Smith P. 1982. The Physical Characteristics and Biological Affinities of the MBI Skeletal Remains from Jebel Qa‘aqir. BASOR 245:65–73. Tahal G . 2000. Qiryat Gat. ESI 20:120*. Tzaferis V. 1968. A Middle Bronze Age I Cemetery in Tiberias. IEJ 18:15–19. Ubelaker D.H. 1974. Reconstruction of Demographic Profiles from Ossuary Skeletal Samples: A Case Study from the Tidewater Potomac. Washington, D.C. Zilberbod I. and Amit D. 2001. Mazor (El‘ad), Sites 96–99. HA–ESI 113:54*.

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Burial Customs and Practices Eli Yannai

Distribution of Skeletal Remains and Finds

found in the concentration of bone-empty tombs (T710, T726 and T737) if they indeed represent infants. On the other hand, the remainder of bone-empty tombs are not grouped together. Tombs of adolescents, adults and the elderly are also distributed throughout the cemetery with no particular concentration. A similar picture emerges when examining the gender distribution (Figs. 7.3, 7.4), although difficulties in identifying gender of the deceased limits the value of this sample. In Area A, the gender of only five deceased was identified: a woman in Tomb 501 and four men in Tombs 552, 569, 575 and 583, located somewhat distant from Tomb 501. In Area C, three tombs (T715, T772 and T728) contained females and nine (T712, T725, T728, T734, T735, T747, T764, T767 and T768) contained males. The three tombs with females were dispersed amongst the tombs with males. The above data concerning age and gender indicate that there was no segregation on these bases in the cemetery—males and females of various ages were buried together with no discernible spatial distribution.

Age and Gender Distributions The wide extent of the excavated area and the large number of tombs that were completely excavated allow us to attempt a spatial analysis of the cemetery. Distribution of the tombs based on the age of the interred (Figs. 7.1, 7.2)—divided into age categories of infants/children, adolescents, adults and the elderly (see Chapter 6)—demonstrates that there was no age segregation in the burials in the Bet Dagan cemetery. Although no infants (under the age of 3) were found, it is possible that those tombs in which no bones were found might have contained such burials (the tiny fragile bones would not have been preserved). Since children’s burials are distributed throughout the entire cemetery, it is possible that infants also were not separated from the adults. However, there is an indication that possibly infant burials were grouped together: two or three infants were buried alongside each other in Tombs 577 and 587 and perhaps the empty Tomb 585; a similar picture may perhaps be Infant/child Adolescent Adult Elder

Infant/child Adolescent Adult Elder Not identified

596 586

Not identified 584

595

705(?)

577

591

565

552

568

590

579

711

555 551 583

4

558 574

m

556

510

518 570

507

710 748

504

501

571

Fig. 7.1. Area A. Tomb locations by age.

Bet-Dagan-chap-7.indd 203

745 716

502

505 506 503

737 726

707 704

738 731 758

735

752

765 766

761 771

760

768

759

767

763 774 777

764

762

770 772

734

722

779 755

753

739

733 746 757 756

712

720 714 713 717 721 719 718

554

580

582

0

567

569

597 581

566

729 736

744

754 750

730

715

598

575 589 572

751

724

592

578

740

728

725

593 588

573

727

594

587 509

741 749

747

732

585

576

743

775

780

769 773

776 781

778

706 703 0

742

4

m

Fig. 7.2. Area C. Tomb locations by age.

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204

Eli Yannai

Male Female Undetermined

Male Female Undetermined

596 586 584

594

509 578

589 572

552

568

590 565

579 591

719

518 570

501

574

m

748 507

558

571

716

504 502

505

737 726

753

739 738 731 758

735

768

767

770 772

759

763 774 777

764

762

734

733 746 757 756

765 766

761 771

760

779

755

775 780

769 773

776 781

722 778

752 721

718

710

556

510

712

720 714 713 717

555 551 583

4

567 554

580

582

0

711

569

597 581

566

745

715 598

573

736

744

577

575

754 750

730

705(?) 592

732

729

724

587 576

740 751

728

725

593 588

747

727

595

585

741 749

743

707 704

706 703 0

742

4

m

506 503

Fig. 7.3. Area A. Tomb locations by gender.

Order of Burial and Spacial Distribution The deceased were placed in the burial chambers according to various orientations. Aside from one tomb, the deceased was always placed with its back to the wall; the location of the skull was the result of this placement (Figs. 7.5, 7.6) Aside from a few tombs, the skeleton was always found between the wall against which it was laid and

Fig. 7.4. Area C. Tomb locations by gender.

the burial offerings (see Chapter 2). This indicates that the order in which the body and the offerings were placed in the tombs was consistent: the body was placed against the chosen wall and then the burial offerings were deposited in the space left between the body and the entrance to the chamber. The fact that most of the skeletons have their head nearer to the entrance and their legs on the far side from the entrance indicates that the body was carried legs first into the

6%

46%

33%

23%

35%

5% 16% 36%

South

South

West

West

North

North

East

East

Fig. 7.5. Head direction.

Bet-Dagan-chap-7.indd 204

Fig. 7.6. Back direction.

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Chapter 7: Burial Customs and Practices

tomb. Most of the burial positions were slightly bent, while several were tightly flexed. Aside from one, all the deceased were laid on their side and, as noted above, with their head near the entrance. While it is possible that the reason for this position is a religious belief (Ilan 1996:255–256), it is more likely that the reason was practical, the result of the dimensions of the burial chamber and the carrying of the body feet first into the tomb, with the head consequently being near the entrance. It seems that the location of the head in the east was therefore the result of the location of the entrance, although we cannot rule out its possibly having been due to religious reasons. As postulated in Chapter 2, the choice of the eastern slope of the hill for the cemetery might have been dictated by geoengineering requirements. The burial position was dictated by the size of the tomb. In a small chamber, the burial was more flexed than in a large one. Only a single skeleton was laid flat; such a burial position has been found in other cemeteries. Since there was no technical reason for not digging a larger burial chamber that would have allowed for the skeleton to have been laid flat, it seems that the choice of a bent or flexed position was deliberate and meaningful, although the degree of flexion of the body does not appear to have been a significant factor. Thus, it is probable that, since almost all of the bodies were laid on their side, this placement was not random; we cannot know its meaning. The sole body placed on its back seems to imply that the placement of the body on the side was more of a custom than a strict religious edict. It is difficult to determine whether the placement of the burial offerings was random. In most of the tombs, the vessels stood on their bases, indicating that they had been carefully placed and had not been disturbed since being deposited. The vessels were apparently meant to remain in place near the deceased. Many of the vessels looked brand new and lacked use-wear traces. Only lamps, found near the skull in some tombs, carried traces of soot, indicating that they may have been brought into the tomb while alight for the use of the burial party and extinguished shortly afterward when the tomb was closed. We hypothesize that the animal bones were deliberately placed directly on the tomb floor near the deceased’s head. The blockage of the tomb entrance with bricks indicates that the goal was to keep the tomb from filling up. As exhibited by the upright stance of the vessels in the burial chamber,

Bet-Dagan-chap-7.indd 205

205

the tombs filled with earth slowly and the process did not disturb the position of the vessels. The composition of vessels in the tombs is not random. In almost every tomb there is an open or closed vessel. These two vessel categories were the main burial offerings found in each grave. It seems that this comprises an accepted and set burial kit, a phenomenon noted in other periods (Baker 2006). It stands to reason that the drinking vessels (goblets) and storage vessels (storage jars or amphoriskoi) played a role in serving and storage of liquids in the tomb. Some tombs contained small numbers of other vessel types, including bowls, mugs and teapots. Six tombs (T504, T593, T739, T768, T769 and T774) contained storage jars placed at the bottom of the entrance shaft. One tomb (T759) contained a complete storage jar near the ceiling of the burial chamber. It had probably rolled into the tomb from the entrance shaft, following the collapse of the brick blockage of the entrance. Aside from this jar, those found in the bottom of the entrance shaft were smashed, although it is probable that they too had been complete when deposited and broke at a later stage. We cannot definitively determine whether the entrance shaft was left unfilled after the burial and at which stage the storage jars were placed at its bottom— immediately following the burial or somewhat later. If the shafts were left unfilled, even for a short time, were special rites conducted when the storage jar was placed in them? Alternatively, were the storage jars placed at the bottom of the entrance shaft immediately after burial and the closure of the tomb, as part of the funerary rite? The storage jar found in Tomb 759 was intact, suggesting that the other storage jars which remained at the bottom of the entrance shaft had been originally complete but had broken over the years. If so, then it seems likely that the storage jars were deliberately covered with earth immediately after burial. Evidence from the cemetery at Azor (Yannai 2007) supports this supposition; in light of the geographic proximity and typological similarity between the assemblages in this and the Bet Dagan cemetery, it is most likely that the entrance shafts at Bet Dagan were similarly filled in immediately after burial (see Chapter 2). As noted above, the only entrance shaft that was preserved almost in its entirety belongs to Tomb 780. The section of this shaft did not reveal any traces of erosion or gradual buildup. Other tombs in which the bottom of the entrance shaft has been preserved also

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Eli Yannai

do not demonstrate any accumulation of erosion. It thus seems that the shafts were intentionally filled with earth immediately or soon after the burial rites.

The Standard Funerary K it at Bet Dagan The funerary kit is an assemblage of items (pottery and other) that constitute the funerary offerings buried with the deceased (Ben-Ari 2010:81). The kit can contain objects of varying significance that can point to the deceased’s status or can signify his role in society, as well as fulfilling a role in serving the deceased’s needs after his death. In multiple burials dating to the Early Bronze Age, it is almost impossible to define a funerary kit for each individual, if one did exist; for an attempt, see Ben-Ari (2010:83), where he divided the objects in the funerary kit into general offerings and vessels that were used for the funerary rituals. Despite the difficulty in counting the number of interred individuals and the accompanying finds, as well as examining the relationship between them, various proposals have been made concerning the role and significance of these finds (Louhivuori 1988:141– 188; Schaub and Rast 1989:248; Goren and Zuckerman 2000:176). As opposed to the multiple burials in large caves of the Early Bronze Age, the single burials and their accompanying goods of the Intermediate Bronze Age allow us to define an individual’s funerary kit, including analysis of what was part of the kit and what were the ‘impure’ items that were found in the tombs but were not part of the funerary kit. In the Bet Dagan cemetery, of the 128 tombs that were excavated, only four (Tombs 510, 565, 585 and 705) were found devoid of finds. Thus, 97% of the tombs contained burial goods in the form of pottery, which we have grouped into three categories: those containing paired open and closed vessels, which constitutes the majority of the tombs; and only six tombs that contained only one vessel each, whether open or closed (Tombs 703, 704 and 717—an amphoriskos; Tomb 740—a goblet, Tomb 746—a teapot; Tomb 730—a jug). 1. Paired Open and Closed Vessels Group A—Goblet, bowl and storage jar (32 tombs; 25%). Group B—Goblet and amphoriskos (48 tombs; 37.5%)

Bet-Dagan-chap-7.indd 206

Group C—Goblet, amphoriskoi and storage jars (18 tombs; 14.1%) Group D—Bowl/goblet and amphoriskos (4 tombs; 3.1%) Group E—Mug and amphoriskos (4 tombs; 3.1%) Group F—Mug and storage jar (3 tombs; 2.3%) Group G—Goblet and teapot (2 tombs; 1.6%) 111 tombs 2. Solely Closed Vessels Group K—One teapot (1 tomb; 5

-

633

Oriented east–west, on right side, head in the west facing south

25–35

-

636

Oriented east–west, head in the west

12–15

-

638

-

30–40

-

639

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

17–25

-

640

Oriented east–west, head in the west

>5

-

643

Oriented east–west, head in the west

30–40

-

645

Oriented east–west, head in the west

3–4

-

646

-

-

-

647

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

15–20

Male

648

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

3–4

-

650

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

13–20

-

654

Oriented east–west, on right side, head in the west facing south

>18

-

655

-

20–40

-

658

Oriented east–west, head in the west

-

-

659

-

25–40

-

661

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

5–7

-

662

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

18–25

-

664

-

4–6

-

665

-

-

-

666

-

-

-

667

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

18–25

-

668

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

>20

-

669

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

-

-

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239

Chapter 9: THE Anthropological Remains

Table 9.1 (cont.)

Bet-Dagan-chap-9.indd 239

Burial

Burial Posture

Age Estimation (Years)

Sex Estimation

670

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

671

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

20–50

-

672

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

6–8

-

673

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

2–3

-

674

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

675

-

-

-

676

-

-

-

677

-

-

-

678

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

30–40

-

679

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

680

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

681

-

-

-

682

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

20–40

-

683

-

-

-

684

-

-

-

685

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

686

-

35–50

-

687

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

15–20

-

688

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

10–15

-

689

-

13–18

-

690

-

-

-

691

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

18–25

-

692

-

2–3

-

693

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

694

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

695

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

30­–40

Male

696

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

20–35

-

697

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

20–30

-

698

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

15–20

-

699

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

699a

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

699b

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

699c

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

699d

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

699e

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

2–6

-

699f

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

4–7

-

699g

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

15­–25

-

699h

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

800

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

30–50

-

801

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

802

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

803

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

804

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

805

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

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240

Yossi Nagar

Table 9.1 (cont.) Burial

Burial Posture

Age Estimation (Years)

Sex Estimation

806

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

>30

-

807

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

808

-

-

-

809

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

15–20

-

810

-

-

-

811

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

812

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

9–15

-

813

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

-

-

-

Oriented east–west, head in the west facing south

2–3

-

-

-

6–8

-

Table 9.2. Age and sex estimations of the examined anthropological remains Sex Estimation Number of individuals

Age Estimation (Years)

Males

Females

NB–4

5–17

18–24

25–40

>40

Unknown Age

3

-

8

15

12

18

3

15*

* At least 2 adults

Summary The dead buried at Bet Dagan represent a Muslim population. The age and sex distribution of these individuals, summarized in Table 9.2, is indicative of a regular cemetery population. Despite the very fragmentary nature of the bones in the Bet Dagan burials and the paucity of anthropological information

recovered, the data are significant in light of the numerous Muslim graves that have been excavated and studied in recent years (e.g., Ramla, Lod, Kefar Sava, Jaffa; see Chapter 8). The Bet Dagan data, combined with the finds from these other cemeteries, allow us to better reconstruct a reliable anthropological profile of the main population of Israel during the past seven centuries.

Notes 1 See Nagar 2004 for methodological details of reports on anthropological remains.

2

IAA Permit No. A-6363.

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31/12/2014 12:34:42

Adult

Elder

571

572

Adult

Adult

570

575

Elder

569

Adult

Adult

568

Adult

Adult

567

573

Adult

566

574

0

Adolescent

565

M

?

?

?

?

?

M

?

?

+

+

+

0

0

0

0

+

+

0

0

558 ?

0 ?

+

556

0

555

?

0

Child

M

Adult

0

0

554

?

?

?

552

Adolescent

507

0

+

Adolescent

506

?

0

0

Adult

Adult

505

?

?

551

Adult

504

0

0

Adult

503

?

0

0

Adult

502

F

Animal bones

518

Elder

501

Sex

510

Age

Tomb

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

Bowl

2

1

2

2

1

1

2

1

1

1

0

1

2

1

2

1

1

1

0

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

Goblet

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Mug

1

0

1

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

0

1

2

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

1

0

Tomb

1

shaft

Storage Jar

1

2

0

0

1

2

2

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

Amphoriskos

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Jug

Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Teapot

0

1

1

0

1

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

1

0

0

1

1

0

1

1

1

1

4-Spouted Lamp

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1-Spouted Lamp

List of the I ntermediate Bronze Age Tombs and their Contents

Appendix

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

Metal objects

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

4

0

0

0

0

0

Beads

4

4

4

4

4

4

5

2

3

3

0

3

4

3

4

3

4

3

0

3

2

2

5

3

3

2

Total Pottery

Bet-Dagan-appendix-1.indd 248

Adult

Adult

Adult

Adult

Child

Adult

Adult

Adult

Adult

Adult

591

592

593

594

595

596

597

598

701

0

? M

Elder

Adult

Adult

705

706

707

709

710

0

704

? 0

0

0

0

0

703

?

0

0

+

+

+

+

0

+

+

+

+

0

+

702

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

0

590

0

+

Adult

?

?

?

M

Adult

Adult

584

0

0

589

Elder

583

?

?

588

Adolescent

582

0

0

Adolescent

581

?

0

0

Infant

Adult

580

?

?

Adult

Adult

579

+

0

587

Adult

578

?

?

586

Infant

577

Animal bones

0

Adult

576

Sex

585

Age

Tomb

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

Bowl

0

0

1

2

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

Goblet

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Mug

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

Tomb

1

shaft

Storage Jar

2

0

2

1

0

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

2

0

1

1

1

1

0

1

2

1

0

1

0

0

1

1

Amphoriskos

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Jug

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

Teapot

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

1

1

0

4-Spouted Lamp

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1-Spouted Lamp

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Metal objects

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Beads

3

0

4

6

0

1

1

5

2

3

3

3

3

4

4

3

4

3

2

3

2

3

0

4

4

3

3

4

2

3

3

4

Total Pottery

248 Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

31/12/2014 12:34:43

Bet-Dagan-appendix-1.indd 249

Adult

Adult

Adolescent

Adult

729

730

731

732

Elder

Adult

735

736

0 +

742

?

741

Adult

Adult

740

0

+

?

+

739

?

Adult

738

0

0

737

?

0

0

M

0 M

Adult

734

+

0

0

+

733

?

?

?

?

0

Adult

728

F

0

Adult

727

?

0

0

726

?

Adolescent

725

0

0

?

?

0

0

Adult

Elder

719

?

?

724

Adult

718

0

0

0

Adolescent

717

?

F?

0

Adult

716

0

723

Adult

715

?

0

+

722

Child

714

?

M

0

Adult

713

0

0

Adult

712

?

Animal bones

721

Adult

711

Sex

720

Age

Tomb

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

1

Bowl

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

1

0

2

1

1

1

0

1

0

1

1

1

1

Goblet

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Mug

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

1

1

0

0

1

0

2

0

0

0

1

0

Tomb

1

shaft

Storage Jar

0

2

0

1

1

0

1

2

2

1

0

1

0

1

1

1

2

1

0

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

2

0

1

0

1

Amphoriskos

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Jug

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

Teapot

1

1

0

1

1

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

1

1

0

0

1

1

4-Spouted Lamp

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1-Spouted Lamp

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Metal objects

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

12

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Beads

3

4

1

4

3

3

3

4

4

3

5

2

1

2

3

2

4

2

3

2

3

4

3

3

4

1

5

4

3

3

3

4

Total Pottery

Appendix: List of the Intermediate Bronze Age Tombs and their contents

249

31/12/2014 12:34:43

Bet-Dagan-appendix-1.indd 250

Adult

Adult

Adult

Adult

763

764

765

766

+

Adult

775

M

+

?

Adult

774

0

+

0

+

+

+

0

+

0

0

0

0

+

+

+

+

0

+

0

+

0

0

0

F

?

?

?

M

M

?

?

M

?

F

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

0

773

Adult

Adult

762

772

Adult

761

Adult

Adult

760

771

Elder

759

Adult

Adult

758

Adult

Child

757

770

Adult

756

769

Adult

755

Adult

Adult

754

Adult

Adult

753

767

Adult

752

768

Child

751

?

0

Adult

750

?

Child

749

+ 0

M

?

0

0

Adult

Adult

745

?

?

747

Adult

744

Animal bones

0

Adult

743

Sex

746

Age

Tomb

0

1

1

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

Bowl

1

1

0

1

2

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

1

1

0

1

1

2

2

0

1

0

1

0

1

1

0

Goblet

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

Mug

2

1

1

0

1

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

1

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

2

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

Tomb

1

1

1

shaft

Storage Jar

0

1 (shaft)

0

1

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

2

1

0

1

1

2

0

1

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

Amphoriskos

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Jug

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

Teapot

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

1

1

0

0

1

1

1

4-Spouted Lamp

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1-Spouted Lamp

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

1

1

0

Metal objects

0

16

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

Beads

4

5

4

4

4

4

5

4

3

2

3

2

3

3

3

4

4

2

2

4

4

5

3

6

1

3

3

2

1

3

5

3

Total Pottery

250 Eli Yannai and Yossi Nagar

31/12/2014 12:34:43

Bet-Dagan-appendix-1.indd 251

Adult

Infant

Adult

Adolescent

Adult

Elder

776

777

778

779

780

781

+ Present

Total

Age

Tomb

?

?

?

M

?

?

Sex

0

+

0

0

0

+

Animal bones

0

0

0

0

31

0

0

Bowl

114

1

1

2

1

1

1

Goblet

10

0

0

0

0

0

0

Mug

60

0

1

1

0

0

1

Tomb

7

shaft

Storage Jar

2

1

1

1

95

0

0

Amphoriskos

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

Jug

6

0

0

0

0

2

0

Teapot

65

1

1

0

0

0

0

4-Spouted Lamp

9

0

0

0

0

0

0

1-Spouted Lamp

15

0

0

0

1

0

0

Metal objects

35

0

0

0

0

0

0

Beads

398

4

4

4

2

3

2

Total Pottery

Appendix: List of the Intermediate Bronze Age Tombs and their contents

251

31/12/2014 12:34:43

IAA R eports

No. 1 G. Avni and Z. Greenhut, The Akeldama Tombs: Three Burial Caves in the Kidron Valley, Jerusalem, 1996, 129 pp.

No. 16 Y. Goren and P. Fabian, Kissufim Road: A Chalcolithic Mortuary Site, 2002, 97 pp.

No. 2 E. Braun, Yiftah’el: Salvage and Rescue Excavations at a Prehistoric Village in Lower Galilee, Israel, 1997, 249 pp.

No. 17 A. Kloner, Maresha Excavations Final Subterranean Complexes 21, 44, 70, 2003, 183 pp.

No. 3 G. Edelstein, I. Milevski and S. Aurant, Villages, Terraces and Stone Mounds: Excavations at Manahat, Jerusalem, 1987– 1989, 1998, 149 pp. No. 4 C. Epstein, The Chalcolithic Culture of the Golan, 1998, 352 pp. + plans. hardcover. No. 5 T. Schick, The Cave of the Warrior: A Fourth Millennium Burial in the Judean Desert, 1998, 137 pp. No. 6 R. Cohen, Ancient Settlement of the Central Negev I: The Chalcolithic Period, the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age I (Hebrew, English Summary), 1999, 396 pp. No. 7 R. Hachlili and A. Killebrew, Jericho: The Jewish Cemetery of the Second Temple Period, 1999, 202 pp. No. 8 Z. Gal and Y. Alexandre, Horbat Rosh Zayit: An Iron Age Storage Fort and Village, 2000, 247 pp. No. 9 U. Dahari, Monastic Settlements in South Sinai in the Byzantine Period: The Archaeological Remains, 2000, 250 pp. No. 10 Z. Yeivin, The Synagogue at Korazim: The 1962–1964, 1980–1987 Excavations (Hebrew, English Summary), 2000, 216 pp. No. 11 M. Hartal, The al-Subayba (Nimrod) Fortress: Towers 11 and 9, 2001, 129 pp. No. 12 R. Gonen, Excavations at Efrata: A Burial Ground from the Intermediate and Middle Bronze Ages, 2001, 153 pp.

Report

I:

No. 18 A. Golani, Salvage Excavations at the Early Bronze Age Site of Qiryat ‘Ata, 2003, 261 pp. No. 19 H. Khalaily and O. Marder, The Neolithic Site of Abu Ghosh: The 1995 Excavations, 2003, 146 pp. No. 20 R. Cohen and R. Cohen-Amin, Ancient Settlement of the Negev Highlands II: The Iron Age and Persian Period (Hebrew, English Summary), 2004, 258 pp. No. 21 D. Stacey, Exavations at Tiberias, 1973–1974: The Early Islamic Periods, 2004, 259 pp. No. 22 Y. Hirschfeld, Excavations at Tiberias, 1989–1994, 2004, 234 pp. No. 23 S. Ben-Arieh, Bronze and Iron Age Tombs at Tell Beit Mirsim, 2004, 212 pp. No. 24 M. Dothan and D. Ben-Shlomo, Ashdod VI: The Excavations of Areas H and K (1968–1969), 2005, 320 pp. No. 25 M. Avissar, Tel Yoqne‘am: Excavations on the Acropolis, 2005, 142 pp. No. 26 M. Avissar and E.J. Stern, Pottery of the Crusader, Ayyubid, and Mamluk Periods in Israel, 2005, 187 pp. No. 27 E.C.M. van den Brink and Ram Gophna, Shoham (North), Late Chalcolithic Burial Caves in the Lod Valley, Israel, 2005, 214 pp. No. 28 N. Getzov, The Tel Bet Yerah Excavations, 1994–1995, 2006, 204 pp.

No. 13 E. Eisenberg, A. Gopher and R. Greenberg, Tel Te’o: A Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Site in the Hula Valley, 2001, 227 pp.

No. 29 A.M. Berlin, Gamla I: The Pottery of the Second Temple Period, the Shmarya Gutmann Excavations, 1976–1989, 2006, 181 pp.

No. 14 R. Frankel, N. Getzov, M. Aviam and A. Degani, Settlement Dynamics and Regional Diversity in Ancient Upper Galilee: Archaeological Survey of Upper Galilee, 2001, 175 pp.

No. 30 R. Greenberg, E. Eisenberg, S. Paz and Y. Paz, Bet Yerah: The Early Bronze Age Mound I: Excavation Reports, 1933–1986, 2006, 500 pp.

No. 15 M. Dayagi-Mendels, The Akhziv Cemeteries: The Ben-dor Excavations, 1941–1944, 2002, 176 pp.

No. 31 E. Yannai, ‘En Esur (‘Ein Asawir) I: Excavations at a Protohistoric Site in the Coastal Plain of Israel, 2006, 308 pp.

Bet-Dagan-appendix-1.indd 253

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No. 32 T.J. Barako, Tel Mor: The Moshe Dothan Excavations, 1959–1960, 2007, 276 pp.

No. 44 D. Syon and Z. Yavor, Gamla II: The Architecture, the Shmarya Gutmann Excavations, 1976–1989, 2010, 216 pp.

No. 33 g. mazor and a. najjar, Bet She’an I: nysa-scythopolis: the caesareum and the odeum, 2007, 316 pp.

No. 45 A. Kloner, E. Eshel, H.B. Korzakova and G. Finkielsztejn, Maresha Excavations Final Report III: Epigraphic Finds from the 1989–2000 Seasons, 2010, 247 pp.

No. 34 R. Cohen and H. Bernick-Greenberg, Kadesh Barnea (Tell el-Qudeirat) 1976–1982, 2007. In 2 parts. Part 1: Text, 410 pp.; Part 2: Plates, Plans and Sections, 332 pp.

No. 46 Y. Dagan, The Ramat Bet Shemesh Regional Project: The Gazetteer, 2010, 360 pp.

No. 35 A. Erlich and A. Kloner, Maresha Excavations Final Report II: Hellenistic Terracotta Figurines from the 1989–1996 Seasons, 2008, 208 pp.

No. 47 Y. Dagan, The Ramat Bet Shemesh Regional Project: Landscape of Settlement: From the Paleolithic to the Ottoman Periods, 2011, 356 pp.

No. 36 G. Avni, U. Dahari and A. Kloner, The Necropolis of Bet Guvrin—Eleutheropolis, 2008, 238 pp.

No. 48 R. Bar-Nathan and W. Atrash, Bet She’an II: Baysān: The Theater Pottery Workshop, 2011, 411 pp.

No. 37 V. Tzaferis and S. Israeli, Paneas I: The Roman to Early Islamic Periods: Excavations in Areas A, B, E, F, G and H, 2008, 196 pp.

No. 49 Y. Alexandre, Mary’s Well, Nazareth: The Late Hellenistic to the Ottoman Periods, 2012, 180 pp.

No. 38 V. Tzaferis and S. Israeli, Paneas II: Small Finds and Other Studies, 2008, 256 pp. No. 39 Z. Greenhut and A. De Groot, Salvage Excavations at Tel Moza: The Bronze and Iron Age Settlements and Later Occupations, 2009, 363 pp. No. 40 M. Hartal, Paneas IV: The Aqueduct and the Northern Suburbs, 2009, 212 pp. No. 41 N. Getzov, R. Lieberman-Wander, H. Smithline, and D. Syon, Horbat ‘Uza, the 1991 Excavations I: The Early Periods, 2009, 168 pp. No. 42 N. Getzov, D. Avshalom-Gorni, Y. Gorin-Rosen, E.J. Stern, D. Syon, and A. Tatcher, Horbat ‘Uza, the 1991 Excavations II: The Late Periods, 2009, 232 pp. No. 43 J. Seligman, Nahal Haggit: A Roman and Mamluk Farmstead in the Southern Carmel, 2010, 277 pp.

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No. 50 D. Ben-Shlomo, the azor cemetery: moshe dothan’s excavations, 1958 and 1960, 2012, 238 pp. No. 51/1 E.J. Stern, ‘akko i: the 1991–1998 excavations, the crusader-period pottery, part 1: Text, 2012, 192 pp. No. 51/2 E.J. Stern, ‘akko i: the 1991–1998 excavations, the crusader-period pottery, part 2: plates, 2012, 172 pp. No. 52 D. Ben-Ami, Jerusalem, Excavations in the Tyropoeon Valley (Giv‘ati Parking Lot) I, 2013, 396 pp. No. 53 Y. Porath, Caesarea Maritima Volume I: Herod’s Circus and Related Buildings Part I: Architecture and Stratigraphy, 2013, 244 pp. No. 54 R. Greenberg, Bet Yerah, The Early Bronze Age Mound II: Urban Structure and Material Culture, 1933–1986 Excavations, 2014, 316 pp. No. 55 E. Yannai and Y. Nagar, Bet Dagan, Intermediate Bronze Age and Mamluk-Period Cemeteries, 2004–2005 Excavations, 2014, 260 pp.

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