How To Fly IFR - 2024 Edition [2 ed.] 9788409574216

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How to fly IFR

In cooperation with: Andrés del Val José Luis Pérez-Íñigo Martens Third edition (December 2023) www.howto yairplanes.com www.howto yifr.com info@howto yifr.com There are discounts for purchases in large quantities or for purchases enhancing commercial use. It is understood that each ight center has different procedures, therefore, it is possible to create special editions, including personalized covers and the operations manual of each center. Such editions can be created on a large scale if necessary. For more information, contact via e-mail at info@howto yifr.com. ISBN: 978-84-09-57421-6 All rights reserved. Any form of reproduction, distribution, public communication or transformation of this work is strictly prohibited without the author's written authorization, which will be subject to the sanctions established by law. DISCLAIMER





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Aviation is a form of transport that carries a very high risk, neither the author nor the company will be responsible for death or bodily injury, property damage or any other direct, indirect or incidental damage or other loss suffered by third parties that may arise as a result of the use of the book by the reader, nor for the damages inflicted with respect to any property of the client or any other loss suffered by said reader. Neither the author nor the company will be responsible for the accuracy or validity of the data entered in the book. All references used are examples for illustrative and educational purposes, without operational validity. The client will be responsible for the validation and verification of the actions carried out, in order to guarantee compliance with the appropriate norms and standards. Please consider this as a disclaimer.

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Copyright © 2023 
 Original title: How To Fly: Una completa gu a para vuelos IFR. Author: Ales Aranburu Juaristi



to my fellow pilots.

TABLE OF CONTENTS WHAT IS IFR

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EQUIPMENT

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NON-DIRECTIONAL BEACON (NDB) VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR) DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME) GLIDE SLOPE FMS

11 15 21 23 26

FLIGHT PLANNING

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FLIGHT PLANNING CHECKLIST OPERABILITY PLANNING MINIMAS AIP ROUTE AND CHARTS DESCENT CALCULATION ALTERNATE ROUTE FUEL CALCULATION PERFORMANCE MASS AND BALANCE OPERATIONAL FLIGHT PLAN FLIGHT PLAN

35 37 40 48 49 64 66 66 77 79 80 81

ON THE GROUND

105







































































106 107 107 108 108 113 113 117 120 120 121



































































REQUIRED DOCUMENTS COCKPIT INSPECTION EXTERIOR WALK AROUND COCKPIT PREPARATION TAKEOFF BRIEFING ATC CLEARANCE CONTROLLED AIRPORT UNCONTROLLED AERDROME BEFORE START OR PUSHBACK ENGINE START TAXI

DEPARTURE

127

AIRPLANE CONFIGURATION TAKEOFF DEPARTURE ROUTE INITIAL CLIMB ALTIMETER CHECK FL100 PBN DEPARTURE OMNIDIRECTIONAL DEPARTURE IFR JOINING DEPARTURE REGULATIONS

127 132 134 135 137 137 137 140 140 141

CRUISE

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CRUISE POWER SETTING AIRSPACES REGIONS AIRSPACE CLASSIFICATION COMMUNICATIONS NAVAID CHANGE FILLING IN THE OFP MINIMUM ALTITUDES MINIMUM EN-ROUTE ALTITUDE (MEA)

PBN

165

RNP FD / FDE LATERAL ERRORS AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS OPERATIONAL DIFFERENCES

165 166 167 168 172

MANEUVERS

175

FLIGHT TECHNIQUES POINT TO POINT DME ARC ARC ANTICIPATION RADIAL INTERCEPTION CDI PUSH CLEARANCES VECTORING

175 176 179 183 183 190 192 194

ARRIVAL

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197













































































BEFORE DESCENT



145 147 148 153 155 157 159 161 162

METEOROLOGY APPROACH BRIEFING DESCENT COMMUNICATIONS IFR CANCELLATION MINIMUM VFR CONDITIONS SPECIAL VFR (SVFR) HOLDING ENTRY IN HOLDING HOLD ENTRIES OFFSET ENTRY, SECTOR 1 OFFSET ENTRY TIPS TEARDROP ENTRY, SECTOR 2 DIRECT ENTRY, SECTOR 3 WIND CORRECTION ABEAM INBOUND TURN TIME CORRECTION REFERENCE TIME ADJUSTING THE WIND CORRECTION IN OUTBOUND

APPROACH

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APPROACH TYPES AIRCRAFT CATEGORIZATION TURNS SPEEDS REVERSAL PROCEDURES RNAV T/Y ARRIVAL DEAD RECKONING (DR) SEGMENT RADAR GUIDANCE TO IAF MINIMUM CONDITIONS APPROACH SEGMENTS CONFIGURATION STABILIZED APPROACH VISUAL REFERENCES TO LAND LANDING MISSED APPROACH DESCENT CALCULATIONS WIND CORRECTION ON APPROACHES EXAMPLES PBN APPROACHES OVERLAY METHOD MISSED APPROACH

235 242 242 242 243 244 245 246 247 249 258 260 261 262 262 264 268 273 283 292 292































































































297







































































FINAL TAXI



198 199 205 207 207 208 209 211 212 213 216 218 219 222 222 223 229 232 233

WHAT IS IFR In the early days of aviation, pilots only flew during the day in good weather conditions. They had to use what we today call visual flight, navigating by following visual references on the ground, such as roads, rivers, towns, coastlines, or other landmarks.

Figure 1.1.1. Representation of a visual flight. A line drawn on the map showed the pilot the route to follow; taking into account the speed, distance, and wind, the pilot calculated the time and course between sections. During the flight, the pilot checked the plane’s position with the references. This type of navigation was accurate for short distances, but as airplanes evolved to fly faster, higher, and for longer, the need to navigate through clouds or during the night, in situations where maintaining a visual reference with the terrain was impossible, required a new way of navigating. Radio stations (also known as radio aids) replaced visual landmarks. The pilot receives the location of these stations through systems in the aircraft which allows the pilot to orient themselves in much the same way as landmarks. In this way, instrumental flight was born, and from that moment on, pilots flew directly from one radio aid to the















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next. As it was no longer necessary to have visual references, flights during the night and/or in bad weather conditions became possible.

Figure 1.1.2. Radio Station.

Figure 1.1.3. Representation of an instrumental flight. Conventional navigation systems such as LORAN, ADF, VOR, ILS, and associated procedures are based on direct signals from ground-based radio aids. The biggest disadvantage of this type of radio station is that all routes depend on the location of the radio aid itself. Pilots have to navigate to or from the station, which results in longer than optimal routes and often the inability to navigate areas with high ground. This type of navigation is impractical and limits resources to maintain an adequate level of safety. Because the obstacle protection areas are also relatively large, the possibility of navigation errors increases with the distance

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of a station. To solve this problem, area navigation, or random navigation (RNAV) was introduced.

Figure 1.1.4. Route of a conventional instrument flight.

Random navigation (RNAV), commonly called area navigation, allows for more direct flying routes, thus saving time and fuel. To fly RNAV routes, airplanes must be equipped with more precise navigational systems, which also allow them to fly closer to each other, increasing airspace capacity.

Figure 1.1.5. Route of a RNAV flight. Area navigation was first launched using sensors such as the inertial reference system (IRS) and distance measuring equipment (DME) / DME coupled to a flight management system (FMS) under specific design criteria.









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Figure 1.1.6. Satellite. The biggest advance in area navigation came with the creation of fixes defined by name and coordinates, instead of radio aids on the ground, along with position updating via satellite. This allowed for a new area navigation system and the creation of routes that were independent of the location of the navigators. In modern aircrafts, all conventional procedures such as very high frequency omnidirectional radio (VOR) or instrumental landing system (ILS), as well as unconventional procedures such as RNAV/RNP, are encoded in the flight management and guidance system (FMGS) onboard navigation database and flown with the autopilot or manually. Flying a conventional procedure does not require an onboard database, but unconventional procedures do because the aircraft follows the waypoints programmed into the FMS. The FMS must be able to follow the path indicated by the designer of the procedure. Required navigation performance (RNP) is a series of precision, functionality, integrity, and continuity parameters that the aircraft's navigation equipment must meet to fly in RNAV zones. You can think of it as a series of parameters that define a cube around the aircraft from which it cannot escape, and a series of virtual windows along its route that

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the plane must cross. In RNAV navigation, these “windows” do not appear on any screen. They are only points and parameters that the system handles internally for selfdiagnosis and error checking. Future developments will likely include 4D navigation, which will include adding time as a parameter: the on-board navigation computer will guide the aircraft laterally and vertically, allowing it to reach certain time constraints with high precision along the route, including approach. If done well in advance, this will minimize the need for additional holdings and separation, saving time and fuel.

Figure 1.1.7. Flight management system. Instrumental flights are divided into phases: departure, airway, arrival, and approach. During departure, we will complete the published instrumental departure that will take us from the airport to the entry point on the airway. In the same way, we will have an exit point to leave the airway. We will then follow the published instrumental arrivals to where the approach begins and complete the approach to the arrival airport until the final landing. Figure 1.1.8. shows the planning of a flight from Madrid to Paris, which is the example flight we will use throughout this book.





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Figure 1.1.8. Flight from Madrid to Paris.

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There are several types of radio stations. Each one has its own characteristics and is linked to a specific instrument in the cockpit. This section explains the instruments and stations we will use in flight. The cockpit of a conventional instrument aircraft will look like Figure 2.1.1. You can see the instruments on the left side and the equipment on the right side, where you can select the radio aid frequencies.

Figure 2.1.1. Cockpit of a conventional instrumental aircraft.

Figure 2.1.2 illustrates a cockpit with electronic flight instrument display (EFIS) instruments, where conventional instruments have been replaced by two screens: the screen on the left is the primary flight display (PFD), were we will find the parameters regarding the flight. The most important elements are the airspeed indicator (left), altimeter (right), vertical speed indicator (extreme right), heading indicator (down), artificial horizon (center), and selected modes (above). The screen on the right is the electronic horizontal situation









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EQUIPMENT

Figure 2.1.2. PFD (left) and EHSI/ND (right).

As in Figure 2.1.1, we will have a space to select the c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f r e q u e n c i e s , A D F, N A V, a n d a communications box to chose the frequencies we want to hear. You can most often find them somewhere in the cockpit as a separate display or on an EFIS screen. All airplanes are different, and each manufacturer organizes the instruments differently, but they all have what is described here. We just have to locate them.

Figure 2.1.3. Flight management system.

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indicator (EHSI), also known as the navigation display (ND). On this screen we will have the information regarding navigation, such as the flight plan, wind, the projection of the meteorological radar or the terrain (if equipped), and the position of the radio aids. Many aircraft models integrate the information from both screens into one.

Here we will insert the route we are going to fly, entering the points already defined or inserting new points with the coordinate information. The selected route will then appear in the navigation display, and we will be able to tell the autopilot to follow the route. Inside the FMS, we can insert many parameters that we will use later during the flight, such as takeoff speeds, secondary flight plans, weight of the plane, and so on. The main characteristics of the navigation display are that it can show the flight path, the weather, the wind, our ground speed, the position of radio aids in the form of a horizontal situation indicator (HSI), and the needles as if it were a relative magnetic indicator (RMI). It can also warn us of the position of other traffic (TCAS) and airports.

NON-DIRECTIONAL BEACON (NDB) An NDB radio station sends radio signals in all directions. The antenna of the automatic direction finding (ADF) equipment receives these signals and transmits them to the instruments, which indicate the position of the station. The charts illustrate an NDB station as in Figure 2.2.1.

Figure 2.2.1. Illustration of a NDB on the charts.















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If the aircraft we are flying is authorized to complete RNAV/ RNP procedures, it will be equipped with a flight management system. There are many presentations of FMS. Most modern aircraft integrate it into the EFIS screens. In other models of commercial aircraft, it will resemble Figure 2.1.3.

To receive the indication from the ground station, we will tune the designated frequency in the ADF, illustrated in Figure 2.2.2.

Figure 2.2.2. ADF.

When the frequency is active and identified, we will see the information in the RMI or the relative bearing indicator (RBI) instruments, illustrated in Figure 2.2.3.

Figure 2.2.3. RBI (left) and RMI (right).

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Normally, the NDBs used operate between the frequencies 190 and 535 kHz. For practical purposes, this manual will illustrate the RMI with one needle. In Figure 2.2.4, you can see the operation of the RMI on the map compared to the indication in the cabin.

Figure 2.2.4. Operation of a RMI.

As we can see in the first image, the aircraft is on heading 150º and has the station to the northeast of its position, to be more precise, on the course 038º. The image on the right will be the only thing we see in the cockpit. Here, the 150º course is at the top of the RMI. That is our heading. The arrow indicates that the station is on the left and behind our position, exactly on the course 038º. The RMI indications are relatively easy to decipher. If we only look at the arrow, we will know the relative position of the station. That is, if it is in front, behind, to the right, or to the left of us. If we look at the heading chart, we will know in what direction, referenced to the north, the station is located. Although it seems simple, analyze this image in depth. Understanding the operation of the equipment on a



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Radio signals from NDB equipment operate between the 190 and 1750 kHz frequencies.2.1

map will save you a lot of confusion. In Figure 2.2.5, the five upper representations express how the situation will look on a map, with the instrument referenced to the north. The five lower representations show what we will see in the cockpit, with the instrument referenced to our heading.

Figure 2.2.5. Operation of a RMI on a map.

In the vertical direction to the NDB there is the so-called “cone of silence”. When we pass through here, the antenna will lose the signal, and we will have no indication. The diameter of the cone increases with our altitude. When we lose the signal, the only warning will be the course indicators going to 90º. For this reason, when we navigate following an NDB, we should listen to the Morse code at all times; if the callsign stops ringing, we have lost the signal. The ADF mode is used to monitor conventional NDBs. Stations that require the use of BFO mode transmit a signal

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Figure 2.2.6. Cone of silence.

The range of route NDBs, which are the most powerful NDBs, is from 25 NM to 150 NM or higher.2.2 NDB locators, used for procedures near airports, have a range between 10 and 25 NM.2.3

VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR) A VOR station sends out radio signals that aircrafts receive by NAV equipment antenna. Unlike an NDB station, a VOR produces 360 radials/courses with 1° difference, aligned to magnetic north at the position of the VOR. This information is transmitted directly to the instruments. VOR stations operate in a frequency range between 108 to 117.975 MHz (VHF), but frequencies are normally reserved between 108 and 111.975 MHz for ILS and between 111.975 and 117.975 MHz for VORs. 2.4 Most of the radio aids used to define airways and





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that does not contain audio. To identify it, the receiver must add an audio component to the received signal. Finally, the ANT mode improves the clarity of the audio reception. You cannot use this mode for navigation because it eliminates the indication on the instruments.

When the frequency is active in the NAV equipment (Figure 2.3.1), the indication will be displayed in the HSI, omnibearing indicator (OBI) (Figure 2.3.3), and RMI equipment.

Figure 2.3.1. NAV equipment.

Not all aircraft are equipped with the instruments described in this book, but most of them follow the principles of operation of the HSI and RMI instruments. For aircrafts equipped with an EFIS instrument system, we can make the HSI and/or RMI indications appear by selecting them in the EFIS control panel (ECP). Each aircraft model has a different ECP, but all follow similar operating principles.

Figure 2.3.2. Illustration of a VOR station on the charts.

As with NDB stations, the frequency is identified when it is selected, but HSI and OBI devices are equipped with flags

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approaches are based on stations of this type. Although the NDBs were elements of great importance in the early days of instrument flight, they gave way to VOR stations and are no longer in use today. Soon the VOR stations will also give way to a navigation based entirely on satellite systems.

that appear if they lose the signal. Thanks to this, it will not be necessary to listen to the Morse code at all times.

Figure 2.3.3. HSI (left) and OBI (right).

The HSI has a variable heading chart, which means the heading chart will rotate so that our heading is always at the top of the instrument, marked by the lubber line. In the HSI of Figure 2.3.3, the plane is heading north. The fixed heading chart of an OBI means that we will have to turn the heading chart manually to select the course.

Figure 2.3.4. Differentiation of Radial, Course and Heading.

There are three concepts used when flying following directions from a station: radial, course, and heading. A line drawn from the VOR to the aircraft is called a radial or





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outbound course. A line from the plane to the station is called an inbound course. The radial and course are referenced north at the station position, and heading is the direction the aircraft is facing in reference to north. Figure 2.3.4 and Figure 2.3.5. Figure 2.3.5 represents the relationship between inbound courses and radials of a VOR station. Each radial has an associated inbound course. For example, the 270º radial is at the same time the 090º inbound course.

Figure 2.3.5. Relationship between inbound courses and radials.

Figure 2.3.6. HSI operation.

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Figure 2.3.7. HSI operation.

Although the HSI may seem complicated to understand, it is an extremely useful instrument. To use it, we have to select the course/radial we want to follow with the course selection arrow. The instrument will act as if there are two lines drawn: one parallel to the course selection arrow and another perpendicular to it. The CDI and TO/FROM indicators will tell us the quadrant where the station is located in reference to these lines. In Figure 2.3.7, we have selected the 030º course, and in Figure 2.3.8, the 070º course (250º radial). If the station is ±10º from the course we have selected, the CDI will move within the scale, indicating our deviation from the selected course.

Figure 2.3.8. HSI operation.

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In Figures 2.3.6 and 2.3.7, we can see how the CDI and TO/ FROM indicators show the quadrant where the station is.

The HSI indication is affected by course selection, position, and the station position, which tells us quadrant where the station is located according to course we have selected. Our heading does not affect indication at all.

our the the the

Figure 2.3.9 shows the image of the HSI that we will see in the cockpit. Take time to understand the indications of the instrument. It will avoid many misunderstandings. In Figure 2.3.9, the first four images are referenced to the course selector where we can clearly see the station’s quadrant.

Figure 2.3.9. HSI operation.

The following four images are the same case, referenced to the heading of the plane, which is the image we will see in the cabin. There will also be a “cone of confusion” or “cone of silence”, where the received indications will change rapidly and will

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If we navigate through an airway based on the 070º approach course with the course selected, and we fly with the CDI centered, we will be exactly on the airway. If we go off route, the CDI will move, indicating the degrees we have deviated and if the route to follow is to the right or left. Figure 2.3.8.

VHF waves travel in a straight line, and there are no significant effects of rebound or diffraction. For this reason, the range of a VOR station depends on the curvature of the earth and the height of the emitter and receiver. The following formula calculates the range: Range (NM) = 1.25 × ( h Air cr a f t ( f t) +

h St a t i on ( f t) )

The actual formula uses a multiplication factor of 1.33, which results in a theoretical range of the VHF signal. In practice, the actual range is less because of the power of the transmitter, the sensitivity of the receiver, the losses caused by the cables, or the efficiency of the antennas. For example, an aircraft at FL100 will receive a signal from a VOR station at sea level at approximately 125 NM, and an aircraft at FL300 will receive a signal from a VOR station at sea level at approximately 215 NM.

DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME) A DME equipment indicates the oblique distance between the station and the aircraft. They are linked to VOR or ILS frequencies, and although they are different nav aids, they are in the same position and usually have the same range.2.5

Figure 2.5.1. DME distance.









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not be reliable. Once the aircraft passes through this area, the readings will stabilize.

The chart depict that a VOR frequency has an associated DME as follows:

Figure 2.5.2. Illustration of a DME in the charts.

What we see in the cockpit resembles Figure 2.5.3. By selecting the frequency in the NAV equipment, we will obtain the distance indication in the DME instrument.

Figure 2.5.3. DME equipment.

If we choose to select the distance to the station in the NAV1 or NAV2 equipment, we will do it through the fourposition switch:

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DMEs operate between the 960 and 1215 MHz frequencies.2.6

As a secondary function, there are DME devices that indicate the speed to/from the station and the time it will take to reach the station at the current speed.

Figure 2.5.4. DME indication in the ND.

On an aircraft equipped with instruments in the form of EFIS, we will see the nav aid distance information at the bottom of the navigation display, as shown in Figure 2.5.4.

GLIDE SLOPE The aircraft we are going to fly will be equipped with a system that allows the pilot to view instructions in the cockpit to fly a predetermined final descent path.

Figure 2.6.1. Final vertical path.















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If after selecting N1 we move the switch to HOLD and change the frequency of the NAV1 unit, we will continue to see the previous indication. The same will happen if we change the frequency of the NAV2 after turning the switch from N2 to HOLD.





We will use N1 to choose the frequency of the NAV1. N2 will serve to choose the frequency of the NAV2 and HOLD to keep the indication of the last monitored frequency.

Today the most used approaches with a predetermined nal descent path are the ILS, although they are rapidly being replaced by RNAV approaches (you will nd a detailed explanation in the Approach section). There are two types of nal descents: those with a nal descent path that the aircra can detect, known as 3D approaches, and nal descents without a predetermined nal descent path, known as 2D.

For the ILS, the frequency is selected in the NAV equipment. Frequencies between 108 MHz and 111.975 MHz are normally reserved for ILS instrument landing systems. 2.7 We will have both the indication of the descent path and the horizontal guide. The indications will follow the same principles as a VOR’s. The horizontals will be the same, but the maximum deflection of the CDI will indicate a deviation of 2.5º instead of 10º. On the vertical scale, the arrow will represent the position of the path and the center of scale will represent our position. If the arrow is above the scale, it means we are below the path of descent, and vice versa.

Figure 2.6.2. Vertical indication.

The closer we get to the station, the more sensitive the directions will be. The corrections we make will also have to be less. An ILS is depicted on the charts as follows:

The localizer will have a range of 25 NM if we are at a

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We are going to descend following the indications received until the decision altitude/height (DA/H). Upon reaching this altitude, the pilot will look outside in search of the runway and decide whether to land or abort the landing.

Figure 2.6.3. Horizontal profile (up) and vertical profile (down) of an ILS.

In addition to having the indication of glide slope (GS) and localizer, there will be beacons to determine the distance to the field: the outer, middle, and inner markers. As we pass over these beacons, we will hear them announced in Morse code.

Figure 2.6.4. Markers.

The outer marker will normally be 3.9 NM from the runway threshold, the middle marker at approximately 3,500 ft (±500 ft), and the inner marker at a distance between 250 ft and 1,500 ft. 2.9

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deflection less than 10º from the center of the course. 2.8

These beacons were essential in the early days of aviation, but they are no longer in use today, having been replaced with ILS approaches with DME indication. The operating principle for RNAV/RNP-based approaches with a predetermined final descent path will be the same: we will follow the instructions of the instruments, which will direct us in the horizontal and vertical planes. The biggest difference is that our position will be indicated through satellite readings (in some cases, the altitude will be provided by barometric readings from the plane), and we will select the approach in the FMS. If we are operating a cockpit equipped with EFIS, we will have the indication of the glide slope and locator in the primary ight display. We can also see the indication in the navigation display if we select HSI mode.

FMS A Flight Management System (FMS) is a sophisticated avionics system installed in aircraft to assist in flight planning, navigation, and performance management. It integrates with various onboard systems and databases, using information from global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), waypoints, and airways to calculate and optimise the aircraft's route, fuel efficiency, and overall flight performance. The FMS aids pilots in executing precise navigation, managing autopilot functions, and adhering to established flight plans. It plays a crucial role in enhancing operational efficiency, safety, and overall control throughout different phases of flight. The hardware architecture of a Flight Management System (FMS) typically involves several components working together to ensure the system's functionality. While specific implementations may vary, a general overview of the hardware architecture includes the following key components:

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Flight Management Computer (FMC) The central processing unit of the FMS is the Flight Management Computer, often referred to as the FMC. It is a specialized computer responsible for executing navigation computations, flight planning algorithms, and managing communication with other avionics systems. It will send data to our Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) about our navigation and inputs to our autopilot and autothrottle.

Control Display Unit (CDU) The CDU is the interface through which the flight crew interacts with the FMS. It consists of a keyboard and display screen, allowing pilots to input data such as waypoints, routes, and performance parameters. The CDU displays information generated by the FMC and provides a means for the crew to monitor and control the system. The Flight Management System (FMS) draws information from the following sources: Navigation Sensors: The FMS relies on various navigation sensors to gather essential data for navigation and position determination. These sensors may include Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receivers, VOR/DME (VHF Omnidirectional Range/Distance Measuring Equipment), and inertial reference systems (IRS). Air Data Computers (ADC): Air Data Computers provide information related to the aircraft's airspeed, altitude, and other crucial parameters. This data is used by the FMS for performance calculations and to adjust the flight plan based on real-time conditions. Engine Control Unit (ECU): ECU provides information regarding our performance, fuel storage and consumption and our engines. Autopilot and Autothrottle Interface: The FMS interfaces with the aircraft's autopilot and autothrottle systems. It provides guidance commands to these systems to ensure





















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the aircraft follows the planned trajectory, maintaining the desired altitude, heading, and speed. Communication Interfaces: To enhance communication capabilities, the FMS may include interfaces for data link communication, allowing for the exchange of information between the aircraft and ground-based systems. This is particularly important for receiving updates to the flight plan or other relevant data. Data Storage: FMS systems include databases about performance and navigation. These databases are regularly updated to ensure the FMS has the latest information for navigation and performance calculations. Before each flight, you must always check that your navigation database is up to date.

FUNCTIONS Functions provided by the Flight Management System (FMS) include: Flight Planning: FMS allows pilots to input and optimise the flight route, considering factors such as airways, waypoints, and alternate routes. Navigation: FMS continuously calculates the aircraft's position using inputs from multiple sensors, including GPS and inertial navigation systems. Auto-Thrust Control: FMS automates thrust control, optimising engine performance based on the aircraft's position, speed, and phase of flight. Autopilot Interface: Coordinates with the autopilot system to manage various flight phases, including take-off, climb, cruise, descent, and landing. Per formance Monitoring: Monitors the aircraft's performance, including fuel efficiency, airspeed, altitude, and other parameters, optimising for efficiency.

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Vertical Navigation: Manages the aircraft's vertical profile, including altitude constraints, climb, descent, and compliance with approach procedures. Database Management: Stores and updates a comprehensive aviation database, including airports, airways, waypoints, and navigation procedures. Communication Interface: Interfaces with communication systems for data exchange, including air traffic control communications and data link capabilities. Terrain Awareness: Incorporates terrain databases to provide terrain awareness and terrain avoidance warnings to enhance safety. Weather Integration: Integrates weather data to help pilots make informed decisions based on real-time weather conditions and forecasts. Precision and integrity monitoring: Provides vital information for PBN regarding integrity and precision. Weight and Balance Calculations: Assists with weight and balance calculations, optimising the distribution of payload for safe and efficient flight. Approach and Landing: Manages precision approaches, including Instrument Landing System (ILS) and RNAV approaches, ensuring accurate and safe landings. Conflict Resolution: Provides alerts and suggestions for conflict resolution in case of potential airspace conflicts or deviations from the planned route. Emergency Procedures: Offers guidance and assistance in emergency scenarios, facilitating safe decision-making during critical situations.









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CDU The control display unit will be our interface with the FMS. From there, we will enter and check all the data regarding performance and navigation, activate flight plans and routes and manage our navigation. It consists of a keyboard and a display. CDU will have several pages that may change depending on our aeroplane. The following guide is based on the CDU found on an A320: DIR: Used to enter or erase waypoints, intercept radials and configure direct navigation to a waypoint. PROG: Progress page is used to change cruise flight level, check accuracy, update FMS position, and monitor the descent. We will also find the following information and subpages: • OPT: Displayed in green, it shows our computed optimum flight level. • REC MAX: Maximum altitude, displayed in magenta. • REPORT: Report subpage will show us FROM, TO and Destination waypoints and also information regarding temperature, wind, distance and time to our next waypoint. • Position update: Allows to update our current FMS position. • Predictive GPS: Subpage that displays information relative to predictive availability of GPS PRIMARY at any point in our route. • GPS Source: Displays our current source of navigation. • GPS Accuracy. Displays our required accuracy, our current GPS accuracy and our actual navigation performance (ESTIMATED). GPS accuracy can be either HIGH or LOW. PERF: Includes subpages for preflight, take-off, cruise (CRZ), climb, (CLB), cruise (CRZ), descent (DES), approach (APPR), go-around, CLB-APPR (Available only when goaround phase is active) and DONE. Here you will enter your performance data and you will activate the approach phase.

























 













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Information displayed in green means it’s active, while information displayed in white means inactive. Information displayed in amber, means that it is mandatory to insert a value. • Take off: In this subpage you will find take-off speeds (V1, VR and V2), transition altitude, flaps setting, flex take off temperature, acceleration altitude and engine-out acceleration altitude, among other data. • • Climb: Displays current speed mode (SELECTED or MANAGED), cost index, target altitude, time and distance predictions, among other information. • • Cruise: Displays current speed mode, cost index, distance and time predictions, among other information. • • Descent: Displays information on cost index, speed mode and time predictions. • • Approach: Here we will insert temperature and QNH. We will also find our wind, temperature at our destination, transition altitude, speeds (Vapp, Vls), approach, and landing configuration, among other information. • • Go-around: Shows thrust reduction altitude, acceleration altitude and engine-out acceleration altitude. INIT: Here you will enter your flight plan with information about your route and alternates. You will also find your flight number, cost index, tropopause, departure and arrival aerodrome and cruise temperature. Here you can also align your IRS, by pressing the IRS INIT button. Information displayed in amber means it is mandatory to insert a value. • INIT B: This page is used to enter and find information on weight, centre of gravity and fuel. DATA: Provides information from navigational sources on board. Consists of 2 pages:





 



 

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PAGE 1: • Position Monitor: Here we will find our current computed position coordinates provided by each of our FMS, GPS and IRS and the deviation of each source. Press FREEZE to freeze the information displayed. • IRS Monitor: Displays parameters for our IRS. • GPS Monitor: Displays parameters for our GPS. • A/C STATUS: Information about our aircraft type, engine, and our current navigation database. • Closest airports: Displays or closest airports, bearing, distance and predicted time to airport. PAGE 2: Here you will find access to the navigation database to see details about waypoints, radio aids, runways, and routes. • F-PLN: Standing for flight plan, here we will find our current waypoints of our active flight plan, with information on time, speed, and altitude. You can find here the Lateral revision page, where you will be able to select your departure aerodrome, change your current flight plan, select arrival runways and procedures, enter an offset between 2 waypoints, set up a holding pattern, enable alternate flight plan, enter new destination, display our alternates, and select airways, among other functions. • RAD NAV: Used to select radio aids and display information on them. • FUEL PRED: Displays information on weight, time and fuel prediction and fuel management. • SEC F-PLN: Here we will insert our secondary flight plan. Be aware that FMS includes many more functions, and this is intended only to be an introduction on its functionality.

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Before any flight, a complete flight plan must be prepared. Doing it manually takes a long time, so this section outlines the steps to follow during planning to do everything needed as quickly and efficiently as possible. There are web pages and applications that will help us plan a flight. Previous knowledge of airports will help a lot when planning and later flying. If you are not familiar with airports and their procedures, it will help enormously to either call the airport o to ask people who have already been to those airports and know their peculiarities. We will also have to look at the Notice Air Missions (NOTAM) that affect us, check the weather for each airport and route, do a mass and balance sheet, and send a flight plan. These steps will be necessary for any type of flight you plan, be it a commercial flight, a local training flight, or a recreational flight. Following, a small checklist to perform your flight planning as quick, complete and safe as possible.

FLIGHT PLANNING CHECKLIST 1. Choose your destination aerodrome and your destination and take off alternate. • Verify the meteorological conditions. Check the latest METAR and TAFOR available for each aerodrome. • Determine the runway in use. • Check NOTAM for aerodromes. • Check AIP for the following information: - Operational hours. - Handling services and facilities. Here you will find info about refueling capacity, maintenance and de-icing.





























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FLIGHT PLANNING

- Aerodrome and Airway charts. Determine your expected departure, cruise, arrival and approach for each aerodrome. Check the taxi routes from your stand to the expected runway in use. Any other requirement. Use the charts and meteorology to find out if we satisfy the planning minima.

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2. Determine your route in accordance with AIP. • Still with the charts, find out the vertical limits to determine your altitude for each part of the route. • Look for meteorological conditions in our route. Verify SIGWX charts and find the wind for your route at your expected altitude in accordance to your aircraft’s performance. • Check NOTAM for each airway. • Determine the ground speed for each part of the route and your TOC and TOP, considering the expected wind and your aircraft’s performance. 3. Calculate the fuel we need. It will be the sum of: Taxi + Trip + Contingency + Alternate + Final + Additional + Extra + Discretionary 5. Fill your mass and balance sheet. 6. Calculate the speed for each part of the route and your TOC and TOP, considering the expected wind. 7. Verify whether your plane complies with performance requirements for • Take off and landing distance. • Climb gradients. 8. Fill your operational flight plan in accordance with your operator requirements. 9. Send your flight plan.

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OPERABILITY Choose the departure aerodrome, destination aerodrome, arrival alternate, and departure alternate airports. Take a quick look at the weather and notifications for each airport before selecting them. We are interested in the following airports:

Figure 3.2.1. Airport selection.

The takeoff alternate is where we will go if we have a problem as soon as we take off and cannot return to the departure airport. In the case of a two-engine aircraft, it will need to be within one hour of cruising speed with an inoperative engine. 3.1 We will go to the alternate destination airport if the meteorological or operational conditions at the arrival airport make it impossible for us to land. We will select one, or two if needed. The alternate airport must be far enough away from the destination airport because if we cannot land due to weather conditions, and the alternate is only a few miles away, it is likely that we will not be able to land there either.











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Figure 3.2.2. METAR and TAF.

We are going to note the direction and intensity of the wind at each airport to figure out the runway we will use. We can also listen to the Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) to determine the runway in use at each airport or use applications that give us the information. Other than takeoff, we need to know the wind information for the arrival time at said airport, so we will make an approximate calculation of the time en route, and we will use the weather forecast (TAF) to look up the wind.

Figure 3.2.3. Planning.

We will read the notifications of the airport and route through the NOTAMs, which are essential to read and understand. Here we will read any information that differs from normal operation or any other data that affects us.

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Figure 3.2.4. NOTAM . Source: (notampib.enaire.es, 2019) 3.2

Figure 3.2.5. SUP 149/18. Source: (ais.enaire.es, 2019) 3.3

We will read the notice, and if we can operate at the airport, we will continue with the planning.

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PLANNING MINIMAS There are minimum meteorological conditions that will have to be met for us to select an airport. Depending on the conditions of the day, we will need alternate airports to make sure we can land somewhere. This manual incorporates documents from the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the AIR OPS document written by EASA. Both documents outline planning minima, detailed in the following paragraphs. Information from both sources is included to enhance the reader's understanding. It's crucial to note that EASA serves as a regulatory body, while ICAO provides recommendations. In Europe, the AIR OPS regulations, more restrictive than ICAO recommendations, are the primary governing rules. Readers should also compare the content of this book with the regulations of their respective countries. To find out if weather conditions allow us to select an airport, we will go to the approach charts: each airport usually has more than one approach, and each approach is defined in these charts, where the minimum visibility or cloud ceiling necessary to complete each approach are indicated. Each operator has its own charts, approved by the competent authority, or hires a chart service. What we want to know at this point, the minimum visibility or cloud ceiling, will be indicated in the approach charts as in the Figures 3.3.1 and 3.3.2. Depending on the aircraft category, the minimums vary. Let us assume we are flying a category B twin-engine piston aircraft.

Figure 3.3.1. Chart minima. Precision approach.

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Figure 3.3.2. Chart minima. Non-precision approach.

As for the minimums, we will have the following: • • • • •

Takeoff minima Takeoff alternate minima Arrival minima Airport operating minima Arrival alternate minima

TAKEOFF MINIMA For single engine airplanes, visibility should not be less than 800 m. For multi-engine airplanes, the minima will be the following. Always check the visibility at your aerodrome charts. 3.4

Figure 3.3.3. Takeoff minima for multi engine airplanes.3.4







 



 

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Multi-engine airplanes unable to attain an altitude of 1500 feet above ground level (AGL) and ensure obstacle clearance in the event of an engine failure will follow a different criteria. These airplanes may be operated under the following take-off conditions, provided they can adhere to the relevant obstacle clearance criteria, assuming an engine failure occurs at the specified altitude. The operatordetermined take-off requirements should be established based on the height at which the one-engine-inoperative (OEI) net take-off flight path can be formulated. The minimum Runway Visual Range (RVR) used should not fall below the values outlined in Table below:

Figure 3.3.4.

These values apply for operations that are not approved for low visibility takeoff (LVTO). Low visibility conditions means meteorological conditions with a runway visual range (RVR) of less than 550 m. 3.5 In case the visibility falls below 400m we will require specific approval and the following conditions. 3.5

Figure 3.3.5.

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It is possible to perform a take off if the visibility is lower than 125 m but not less than 75 m. The requirements for this are having runway centre line lights spaced 15 m or less and having an approach with at least Cat III requirements. If we do not have the runway visual range (RVR) value but we have the visibility, we can apply the following table to convert the visibility into RVR.

Figure 3.3.6. Conversion of visibility to RVR.

A visibility conversion to RVR/CMV should not be used to calculate the takeoff minima, for CAT II/III approaches, when there is a reported RVR or for RVR less than 800 m. According to ICAO Annex 6, Part I, we should not take off from an airport unless the weather is above the minimum required by the operator, and we should not take off or continue through the in-flight re-planning point unless the weather forecasts indicate that at the destination airport or at the alternate airport the weather conditions will be above the minimum established by the operator at the time we expect to operate at the airport..3.6

TAKEOFF ALTERNATE MINIMA According to EASA AIR OPS we will need to select a takeoff alternate, if the meteorological conditions at the aerodrome of departure are below the operator’s established







 

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The operator will only select an aerodrome as an alternate takeoff aerodrome when the meteorological forecasts indicate that, from between one hour before to one hour after the estimated time of arrival (ETA) at the aerodrome, the meteorological conditions will be equal to or greater than the RVR or VIS specified in accordance with Aerodrome Operating Minima and for type A or a circling operation, ceiling at or above MDH. 3.8 According to Annex 6, Part I of ICAO, the available information must indicate that, in the estimated time of use, the meteorological conditions will be above the minimums required by the operator. 3.6 For aircraft with two engines, the takeoff alternate should be at a maximum distance of one hour with one engine inoperative cruising speed according to the AFM, ISA still air conditions and actual TOM, or the extended-range twin operations (ETOPS) diversion time up to a maximum of 2 hour flight time at OEI cruising speed according to the AFM, ISA and still air conditions using actual TOM. 3.8

ARRIVAL MINIMA In order to select the destination airport, the weather forecasts will have to indicate that the RVR or visibility is above that indicated on the approach charts from one hour before to one hour after our ETA. If we expect to make a type A approach, the ceiling will have to be above the minimum descent altitude/height (MDA/H). 3.8 If these conditions are not met or if no meteorological information is available, we can still select the destination airport as long as we select two alternate airports. 3.9

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aerodrome landing minima for that operation or if it would be impossible to return to the aerodrome of departure for other reasons. 3.7

AERODROME OPERATING MINIMA Depending on the types of approach of each airport, there will be a minimum DA/H or MDA/H that will have to be met, described in the following table.

Figure 3.3.7. Arrival minima.

The final altitude DA/H or MDA/H that is established may be higher than indicated in the table. Each DA/H or MDA/H final altitude will require visibility to complete the approach. We can find a table that indicates the visibility required for each final altitude and type of airport lighting system in the AMC 5 CAT.OP.MPA.110 on page 885, ANNEX IV of the AIR OPS. 3.10 In the case of ILS approaches, there are several types of approaches that allow us to achieve minimums below 200 feet. ILS

DA/MDH (ft)

RVR (m)

CAT I

≥ 200

≥ 550

CAT II

100-200

≥ 300

CAT III

50-99

≥ 175

0-49 or no DA

≥ 125 (Fail Passive) ≥ 75 (Fail Operational) Figure 3.3.8. CAT. 3.11







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It is important to note that CAT II and CAT III are LVP (Low Visibility Procedure) and that there are additional training and technical requirements. More information can be found on this on AIR OPS Annex V Part-SPA Subpart E. In some AFM you may see CAT III referred as CAT III A, CAT III B and CAT III C. This is just the old ICAO designation. CAT IIIA: a DH lower than 30 m (100 ft) or no DH and an RVR not less than 175 m; CAT IIIB: a DH lower than 15 m (50 ft) or no DH and an RVR less than 175 m but not less than 50 m; and CAT IIIC: no DH and no RVR limitations. This is not used in Europe as the minimum visibility required is 75 m. If we plan to complete a circling approach, the following table shows us the minimum visibility/cloud ceiling required for each category of aircraft.

Figure 3.3.9. Circling minima. 3.12

ARRIVAL ALTERNATE MINIMA According to Air OPS, all IFR flights should have an alternate aerodrome selected unless the flight time is less

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than 6 hours (Or in the event of replanning the remaining time does not exceed 4 hours), two separate runways are usable at our destination and the appropriate weather reports and/or weather forecasts indicate that for the period from 1 hour before to 1 hour after the expected time of arrival, the ceiling is at least 2 000 ft (600 m) or circling height + 500 ft (150 m), whichever is greater, and ground visibility is at least 5 km. 3.13 As a rule, we will have to make sure that the weather conditions outlined at the table below will be satisfied from 1 hour prior to 1 hour after our ETA.

Figure 3.3.10. Alternate airport minimas.3.14

In 2023, EASA introduced in the AIR OPS certain conditions that when met, can reduce the meteorological margins needed. For the first scenario, the operator should utilize a suitable computerized flight-planning system and establish an operational control system that includes ongoing flight monitoring. Additionally, for flights, the duration from takeoff to landing should not exceed 6 hours, or in the case of in-flight re-planning, the remaining flying time to the destination should not exceed 4 hours. Furthermore, a minimum flight crew of two pilots is required. 3.15

Figure 3.3.11. Circling minima. 3.14

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If additionally we hold an approval for low-visibility approach operations, the conditions will be the following:

Figure 3.3.12. Circling minima. 3.14

AIP Each state part of the ICAO publishes the AIP, which contains the aeronautical information necessary to operate in the country. It contains permanent information, and its use is essential for air navigation. Here we will find the available services, the procedures, and the approach charts to each airport. There will also be manuals and operating procedures that guide you to comply with all the laws of each state. All information is kept up to date by regular amendments, AIRAC amendments, supplements, and NOTAM. You should also read the GEN and ENR sections of the AIP to familiarize yourself with the country procedures. When you have chosen the airports and the minimums are met, enter the AIP of each airport. Read the aerodrome data document with special attention to the local regulations section. If possible, look at the entire AIP for each airport where you are going to operate. Look at the supplements of each airport in case there is something that affects us. In Figure 3.4.1 we can find a part of the aerodrome data document for Adolfo Suárez Madrid-Barajas airport.



















 













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Look up information about fuel services if you need them.

Figure 3.4.1. AIP. 3.16

ROUTE AND CHARTS You will have to plan your route from the departure airport to the destination airport, and then you will have to plan









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the route from the destination airport to the first alternate and from the destination airport to the second alternate. Read the NOTAMs of each airport and route to find out about the restrictions that affect you. We are going to use an airway map and four types of flight charts. The charts will be for taxiing, standard instrumental departure (SID), standard terminal arrival route (STAR), and finally the approach charts. In Figure 3.5.1 we will find the route we will take through the airways. Airways are defined between two radio stations/waypoints, and each one has its own callsign. Along each airway, there will be reporting points. These reporting points will be defined by coordinates or by a radial and distance from a station. We are going to enter or leave an airway through these reporting points or from the beginning of the airway itself. The airways, defined between two radio stations or by waypoints, follow the course that joins both points/ stations. We will have to fly following this course while offsetting the effect of the wind. Each section of the airway, defined between two reporting points, has minimum and maximum altitudes that we will have to meet. In bidirectional airways, we will have to maintain an even altitude flying in one direction (e.g. FL120, FL140, FL160, etc.) and an odd altitude in the other direction (e.g. FL130, FL150, FL170, etc.). While it is also possible to fly between points that we choose ourselves, we should fly through the airways. This manual explains a flight on an ATS route (airway flight) because this is what we will do in most cases. You will have to open the airways chart and select a route from the departure airport (LEMD) to the arrival airport (LFPG). To do it faster, you can also log the parameters in an online application or web page that gives us a route according to our flight. We can select the route we want and change from one airway to another if necessary. In our case, we will fly

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through airways defined in the lower airway charts. You can find detailed information about the restrictions of each airway in the AIP of each country you fly over. In the case of our flight, which goes from Madrid to Paris, we will fly through the airways detailed in Figures 3.5.1 and 3.5.2. Later, we are going to write down all the points of our route. It is also important to note a way to define each point of the airway. Normally they will be defined based on a course/distance from a radio station or by coordinates. In this way we can check our position with respect to them. Also, we should write down the name of each airway, as well as the distances and course between each section.

Figure 3.5.1. Airway chart.

Once our route is defined, we will write it down as shown in Figure 3.5.2. Besides the points of the route, we will have to write down the points of the instrumental departure, top of climb (TOC), top of descent (TOD), arrival, and approach, so the notes in Figure 3.5.2 will not be final.





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Figure 3.5.2. Provisional operational flight plan.

Afterwards, we will open all the SID charts to see where the different instrumental departures finish. Adolfo Suárez Madrid-Barajas airport has more than forty departure charts. As you can imagine, making the flight planning by hand is an extremely time-consuming job. We can find the RBO2N exit, which takes us from runway 36L to the RBO point.

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Figure 3.5.3. SID chart.

We will find a lot of information in the standard instrumental departures charts. This chart is explained in the Departure section, where you can find out what each 53



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piece of data of the chart means. The information that most matters to us at this time is the departure route (lower end), the minimum ascent gradients (bottom), the radio aids used on the route, and other information such as the initial ATC clearance. If within the instrumental departure we had route points, we would write them to put them on the route. In the same way, if those points were affected by restrictions of some kind, we would also write them down, but since that is not the case here, we will only write down what you see in Figure 3.5.4. A big part of the information we find in this chart will be needed during planning: we will sum the approximate distance of the departure to later calculate the necessary fuel and the required initial ascent gradients, and then we will compare them to the maximum ascent gradient that we can maintain. Finally, we are going to note the radio aids used at the departure.

Figure 3.5.4. Planning.

Once we have written down everything we need, the next thing to do is open the STAR charts. We will search to see if any arrival route starts from any of the last points of the route that we have chosen.

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Figure 3.5.5. STAR chart.

We have the chart with the code 20-2B (Figure 3.5.5) that takes us from KOVAK to BANOX. The approach to one of the four runways of the Charles de Gaulle Airport in Paris will

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begin at BANOX. This STAR chart is an RNAV arrival, because of this, the points will not be defined through the course/distance of a radio aid but will be defined by coordinates and inserted in our flight management computer (FMC). The aircraft and the crew will have to be qualified to operate a RNAV procedure. In a RNAV procedure, it will not be necessary to search for our location using radio aids. It will appear directly on the EHSI/ ND screen. As we can see in the STAR chart (Figure 3.5.5), the arrival we are going to follow is called KOVAK 7E. We will write down the route and altitude or speed restrictions, arrival distance, the name of the STAR, and the radio aids we will use during the arrival. We should pay attention to the minimum sector altitude (MSA), explained in the Minimum Altitudes section.

Figure 3.5.6. Planning.

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Figure 3.5.7. Initial approach chart.

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Figure 3.5.8. Approach chart.

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Once we have all the arrival information, it is time to open the approach charts (Figure 3.5.8), which will be the final part of the flight. At Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport, due to its large size, the initial approach is on a separate chart, known as STAR + transition, when in smaller airports the entire approach is on the same chart. There are many types of final approaches, and we will find the necessary information about all approaches on each airport’s charts. The most common types of approaches are explained in the Approach section. In this case, as can be seen in Figure 3.5.8, we want to complete the ILS-type approach to runway 08L. You will have to calculate the distance you will travel during the approach (in this case, adding the distances from two charts). Write down the frequencies of the radio aids, the altitude at which the approach begins (glide slope capture altitude), and get an idea of how to fly each approach. Each airport will have its own peculiarities in the approach route. It is important to familiarize ourselves with local procedures by reading all the available information (AIP, NOTAMs, etc.), and if possible, consult with someone who is already familiar with the airport.

Figure 3.5.9. Planning.

As you can see, all these charts contain a great deal of information, but in planning you should pay special attention to the route you are going to fly and the altitude/ speed restrictions, if any. If you know an approach is out of



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service at the destination airport, prepare alternative approaches. In the following figure, we have a table taken from the AIP Spain ENR 3.1, where we find the information for the lower ATS routes (airways), that is, the airways lower than FL180. Here we can find all the airways that fly over the country. In the R10 airway, we can read the vertical limits at each point, and if the altitude at which we have to fly in the airway is even or odd. We will check the same information for all the airways through which we fly.

Figure 3.5.10. ATS Routes. Source: (ais.enaire.es, 2020)

Finally, it is important to study the departure and arrival airport taxi charts. These charts are a map of the airport taxi area.

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Figure 3.5.11. LEMD chart.



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Figure 3.5.12. LFPG chart.

With the route defined, look at the significant weather chart and the wind map. Note the wind along the route and if there are any meteorological phenomena that affect us, such as storms or major icing effects. Fortunately, there is no meteorological phenomenon that affects us on our route. In northern Europe, however, we can see there are a lot of clouds, icing, turbulence, and storms. If there were unfavorable weather conditions or a storm along our route, we would consider changing the route or altitude. We should not operate in icing conditions unless

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the aircraft is equipped and certified to fly in such conditions. 3.17

Figure 3.5.13. Significant weather chart.3.16

Figure 3.5.14. Wind map. 3.16

Figure 3.5.13, called the significant weather chart (SIGWX), represents the meteorological conditions over the European continent between flight levels FL100 and FL450. It is



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vitally important to check the meteorology en route to anticipate what may happen in flight and to prepare in case we have to go to the alternate airport. In Figure 3.5.14, we can see the wind we will have at FL100 at 12 UTC. To calculate the wind at other altitudes, remember the wind veers and increases in intensity with altitude. Depending on the wind and weather conditions, we will choose the most favorable cruising altitude. In this case, we will ascend to FL140 on the way to RBO (even heading), and we will maintain that altitude throughout the route. If when changing airways, the altitude to stay in the new airway is odd, we will simply go up or down 1,000 ft.

DESCENT CALCULATION When arriving at the destination, we will have to descend from the cruising altitude to the glide slope capture altitude, following all altitude restrictions. Calculate how far you will have to start the descent to reach the appropriate altitude at the glide slope capture point, in our case 5,000 ft. The descent starting point will be our TOC. The goal is to stay as high as possible throughout the entire route, as turbine engines are much more efficient at higher altitudes. To calculate the distance of descent, we will divide the vertical distance we have to go down by the vertical speed we expect to have, and we will multiply it by our horizontal speed on the ground (ground speed equals speed over the air plus or minus the effect of the wind). We expect to have a GS of 165 kt, which results in 2.75 NM/min. Thanks to our arrival chart, we noted our altitude restrictions.

























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Figure 3.6.15. Planning. Descent calculation.

The first restriction is that we have to be below FL150 at point FF501. As we are going to be flying at FL140, we already comply with that restriction. The second restriction says we have to be below FL120 over NERKI. For this, we will calculate to descend 2,000 ft in two minutes, starting the descent 6 NM before NERKI. The third restriction is that we have to be below FL110 and above FL090 on BANOX. Because we are at FL120, we calculate descending to FL110 in one minute, starting the descent at 3 NM before BANOX. Finally, we will have to descend to 5,000 ft to capture the glide path at 14.6 NM GLE. To have a safety margin, we will try to reach that point 5 NM earlier. We will descend 6,000 ft in six minutes, which means we will begin the descent at 18 NM before the point where we want to be at 5,000 ft, that is, 37.6 NM from GLE. The vertical speed of 1,000 ft/min is an orientative vertical speed.





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When we are done with the destination route, we will have to do exactly the same from the arrival airport to the two alternates. It is important to check all the charts for all the airports. You will have to be familiar with all the taxiways, departures, arrivals, and approaches.

FUEL CALCULATION After the route, you must calculate the required fuel and the distances and the times between points. The fuel we are going to carry is the sum of the following fuel quantity: Total fuel = Taxi + Trip + Contingency + Alternate + Final + Additional + Extra + Discretionary Fuel calculation can change slightly depending on the nature of our flight, as it may be ruled under different annexes of the Air ops: •

Annex IV CAT: For commercial air transport.

•

Annex VI NCC: For non-commercial operations using complex aircrafts.

•

Annex VII NCO: For non-commercial operations with non-complex aircrafts, this means having a MTOM of less than 5,700 kgs and less than 19 seats.

•

Annex VIII SPO: For aerial works.

This will guide you through the necessary calculations for fuel in accordance with all the different regulations provided in Air OPS:



































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ALTERNATE ROUTE

Taxi fuel This is the fuel we will consume prior to takeoff, and we will consider local conditions at the departure airport and APU (Auxiliary Power Unit) consumption. 3.18

Trip fuel This is the fuel we will need from takeoff to landing at the destination airport.3.19 Trip fuel is made up of climb fuel, cruise altitude fuel, and descent fuel. 3.19

Contingency fuel It will be 5% of the route fuel or the fuel necessary to hold for 5 minutes at 1,500 feet above the destination airport under standard conditions, whichever is higher. In the event of a commercial operation using an enroute aerodrome, in accordance with Air Ops AMC7 CAT.OP.MPA.181, we can make this calculation using 3% of the fuel, instead of 5%. There are more procedures allowing for reduced contingency fuel. For convenience, it will be mentioned in the next page.3.20

Alternate fuel Is the fuel we need to perform a missed approach from the DA/DH of our destination aerodrome to our alternate aerodrome, using the expected route, cruise altitude and approach. If we have 2 alternate aerodromes, we will calculate both amounts and use the highest one. When a flight is operated without a destination alternate, we will add sufficient fuel to fly for 15 minutes at holding speed at 1500 ft above our destination aerodrome in standard conditions for commercial operations or any amount considered needed for holding in the case of noncommercial operations.3.21

Final reserve This will be the amount of fuel needed to fly at 1500 ft above aerodrome elevation at ISA conditions for:

















































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• 45 minutes in the case of piston engines on VFR by night and IFR. • 30 minutes in the case of turbine engines • 30 minutes for piston engines only under VFR flight during the day performing under SPO, NCO, and NCC. For operations under NCO, we will also calculate the fuel needed for 10 minutes at maximum continuous cruise power at 1 500 ft (450 m) above the destination under VFR by day, taking off and landing at the same aerodrome/landing site, and always remaining within sight of that aerodrome. If the amount needed is higher than the one previously calculated, we will use this amount. For operations under SPO, we will also calculate the amount needed to fly 10 minutes at cruising altitude and performing take offs and landings, always remaining within VFR and within sight of the aerodrome. Same as before, we will use the highest amount.3.20

Additional fuel This is the fuel needed in case of an engine or pressurization failure at the most critical point of the route and shall be enough to get you from that point to the alternate airport, fly 15 minutes at holding speed at 1,500 ft above the alternate airport, make an approach, and land. If the fuel we carry on-board covers these circumstances, we will not need to add additional fuel3.20

Extra fuel It will account for any amount of fuel needed for anticipated delays and operational constraints.3.20

Discretionary fuel It will include any fuel that the commander may consider necessary. In case our destination is an isolated aerodrome, we will use this amount of fuel instead of the alternate fuel and we





























































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FUEL FOR ISOLATED AERODROMES • For piston engines, it will be the fuel required to fly for 45 minutes plus 15% of the cruise fuel, including final reserve fuel, or 2 hours, whichever is less. • For turbine engines, it will be the amount required to fly for 2 hours at normal cruise consumption, including final reserve fuel.3.20

In commercial operations, we have several additional fuel schemes that allow for reduced contingency fuel. The operator will need for this specific approval in accordance to requirements provided in EASA AIR OPS CAT.OP.MPA.180: •

Individual fuel scheme: Contingency fuel will be reduced to the amount considered needed for any unforeseen factors. 3.20

•

Basic fuel scheme with variations: There are 2 possible variations. Contingency fuel will be reduced to the highest of the following calculations: •

3% of the planned fuel trip.

•

20 minutes of fuel consumption based on the planned trip fuel consumption.

•

A statistical amount that ensures an appropriate statistical coverage.

•

5 minutes of fuel consumption at holding speed, 1500 ft above the destination aerodrome in ISA conditions.

The operator will need for this specific approval in

















 







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will make use of a PNR (Point of No Return) procedure3.20

•

Trip fuel to our destination aerodrome via the decision point, plus;

•

5% of contingency fuel from our decision point to our destination aerodrome.

•

Trip fuel to our alternate aerodrome via the decision point, plus;

•

Contingency fuel calculated with the basic fuel scheme with variations mentioned above.

Or

In the airplane flight manual (AFM) or the pilot operating handbook (POH) of your plane, look for the power setting chart where you will see the consumption and speed for each power and altitude. We are going to simulate flying a category B twin-engine airplane. We will maintain a power of 24.0 inHg and 2 450 RPM. With the power information and the temperature for that day, we will select the power setting chart illustrated in Figure 3.7.1, and we will find the data for our cruising altitude of 14,000 ft.

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accordance with requirements provided in EASA AIR OPS CAT.OP.MPA.180. In the event of including flight planning to our destination aerodrome and an alternate aerodrome via a decision point, there will be slight changes to the way we calculate trip fuel and contingency fuel. We will use the highest of the following calculations:

Figure 3.7.1. Power setting chart.

Taxi fuel is the fuel we will consume prior to takeoff. We will take into account local conditions at the departure airport, or use a standard, depending on the operator ICAO. Annex 6. p.4-10 (4.3.6.3). Trip fuel is the fuel we will need from takeoff to landing at the destination airport ICAO. Annex 6. p. 4-11 (4.3.6.3). Route fuel is made up of climb fuel, cruise altitude fuel, and descent fuel. To calculate the climb fuel, we have to know the approximate weight of the plane at takeoff. That is, we have to know how much fuel we will take. For this reason, we will first make an approximate calculation of the total fuel of the flight, and the actual calculation will be made last. For the approximate calculation, let’s imagine we will fly the departure and arrival at cruising altitude. We will make the sum of the total distance of the route, considering the effects of an average wind, and dividing the distance by the speed. As we can see in Figure 3.7.1, at 14,000 ft we are going to consume 9.7 US gal/h per engine (x2 engine = 19.4 US gal/ h), our GS will be 160 kt. Convert the fuel to pounds to 71  

 

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calculate the fuel weight. We will use a fuel density of 6 lb/ US gal for the calculations (AVGAS 100LL).

Figure 3.7.2. Planning. Approximate route fuel calculation.

This will be our approximate route fuel. Do exactly the same from the destination airport to the farthest alternate to calculate our alternate fuel. The alternate fuel is the fuel required to complete a missed approach at the destination airport, climb to cruising altitude, fly the expected route, descend to the calculated approach start point, and complete another approach. If we do not have an alternate destination airport, we will need enough fuel to be at holding speed at 1,500 ft above the destination airport for 15 minutes. 3.21 Calculate the contingency fuel. This fuel is used to compensate for unpredictable factors. Normally it should be 5% of the route fuel or the fuel necessary to hold for five minutes at 1,500 feet above the destination airport under standard conditions, whichever is higher. In our case, the flight will be approximately 240 minutes, so we will calculate 5% of the route fuel. Next, add the final reserve fuel. We will perform under IFR with a piston engine, so the amount we need will be the amount required to fly 45 minutes, or to fly for 10 minutes at maximum continuous cruise power at 1500 ft above our aerodrome in VFR conditions. In our case, we will use the first option. We should add additional fuel in case of an engine or pressurization failure at the most critical point of the route, enough to get to the alternate airport, fly 15 minutes at holding speed at 1,500 ft above the alternate airport, make an approach, and land. If the fuel we carry on-board covers these circumstances, we will not need to add additional fuel.3.21

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For extra fuel, we are not anticipating any delay, so we will skip this part. We can add any discretionary fuel that we deem necessary. 3.21

We will add 160 lb to have approximately an extra hour of flight.

Figure 3.7.3. Planning. Fuel calculation.

To simplify the alternate calculations, you can divide the total distance of the route by the cruising speed (GS) and multiply the time by the consumption at cruising altitude. Always add a margin of safety. Now that we know the fuel required for the flight, we can do the climb fuel calculations using the AFM graphs. After that, we will do the route fuel calculations, calculating each section separately.

Figure 3.7.4. Climb time, distance, and fuel.

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Following the instructions in your climb graph, calculate the time, distance, and fuel needed for the cruise altitude. In this case, 9 minutes, 24 NM and 41.7 lb. With this information, calculate the fuel for the instrumental departure. We will divide the instrumental departure into two sections: the initial ascent we already calculated (LEMD-TOC), and from when we reach the cruising altitude to the next waypoint (TOC-RBO).

Figure 3.7.5. Operational flight plan.

The TOC is included in the operational flight plan as if it were another point on the route. In this case, we will arrive at the cruising altitude before any other point on the route, but if it were the opposite, we would first put the row of the point with its data, and after this row, we would add the TOC row where it corresponds with the distance, we have left to reach the cruise altitude. Next, we will calculate the time and fuel we will consume on all the sections of the route. To calculate the time and consumption in each section of the route, we need to know our airspeed and hourly consumption; we will obtain this information in Figure 3.7.1. Next, we will add the wind component to our airspeed. At this point, we know the speed over the ground. Dividing the distance by the speed, we will have the time for each section, and multiplying the consumption by this (19.4 US gal/h), we will know the consumption in each section. Use Figure 3.7.1 to log the fuel consumption for each leg. The figure is called an operational flight plan, and we will need one for every flight. We will have to add up all the fuel consumption on the route. The final sum is noted in Figure 3.7.6. We will complete the calculations for the entire route as described. To calculate our consumption in descent, we

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should calculate the approximate weight we will have at the starting point of the descent and use the graphs to calculate the consumption from the cruising altitude to the altitude of the airport. In this manual, descent is calculated as if we were at cruising altitude to simplify planning. If we calculate the descent to cruising altitude and power, we will add a safety margin, and we will take off with a little more fuel than necessary. If we think we will spend some time holding, we will have to find the consumption at the holding altitude at the required power and multiply it by the time we expect to be holding the position. This will be the actual fuel we will have at takeoff.

Figure 3.7.6. Planning. Corrected fuel calculation.

You can see there is only a 30 lb difference between the approximate fuel we have calculated and the actual calculation, but the latter is more accurate. Then check that the ascent gradients with one and two engines meet the requirements described in the SID chart. If your ascent gradients do not meet the requirements in the departure, you will not be able to complete the departure unless you have a procedure for engine failure. Also calculate the route with an inoperative engine. Make sure the takeoff and landing distances allow us room for the operation. LEMD's RBO2N SID restriction tells us we need to have a 6.6% climb up to 8,000 ft. The first thing we will do is see if at 8,000 ft we can maintain more than 6.6%.

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We understand that after 8,000 ft the required climb gradient will be 3.3%, so we are also going to calculate until what altitude we can maintain the 3.3% climb with one and two engines operating.

Figure 3.7.7. Climb with both engines operative.

In the climb graph with both engines operative, we can see that we meet the departure restriction and that we can maintain a 3.3% climb until past 16,000 ft.

Figure 3.7.8. Climb with one engine inoperative.

As for the climb graph with one engine inoperative, we will

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It is assumed that, if not indicated otherwise, departures require a climb gradient of 3.3%. 3.22

not be able to maintain the 6.6% of climb required, which means that we need a contingency procedure in case we have an engine failure during the climb.

Figure 3.7.9. Service ceiling with one engine inoperative.

Based on the service ceiling graph with one inoperative engine, we will be able to maintain an altitude of almost 6,000 ft. If we have an engine failure during the route, we will not be able to maintain more than that altitude, so we will have to go to an area where the minimum altitude to maintain is less than 6,000 ft. As fuel is consumed during the flight, the resulting drop in weight will raise the maximum altitude with an inoperative engine.

PERFORMANCE We will have to ensure that the performance of the aircraft allows us to take off and land from/in the airports where we are going to operate, taking into account the declared distances and applying the necessary safety corrections for each situation.

TAKEOFF In Figure 4.8.1, we can see the maximum takeoff distance that we are allowed.









 







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Figure 3.8.1. Takeoff distance.

Figure 3.8.2. Takeoff distance.

We will calculate the needed takeoff distance, taking into account the conditions of the day, the elevation of the takeoff airport, and the weight of the plane. We will compare the takeoff distance we will need and the distance from the airport takeoff runway. The required takeoff distance should not exceed that described in Figure 3.8.1. 3.23

LANDING We are going to calculate the landing distance we need and compare it with the distances available at all the airfields where we might land. The required landing distance should comply with that described in Figure 3.8.3 at all airports. 3.24

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Figure 3.8.3. Landing distances.

As with the takeoff distance, we will have to use the wind information at the arrival time, so we will add the route time to the takeoff time to figure out our arrival time and thus use the correct wind. As for the weight of the plane, we are going to subtract the route fuel from our takeoff weight to get the landing weight.

Figure 3.8.4. Landing distance.

MASS AND BALANCE We will do the mass and balance sheet of the plane when we know the fuel we are going to carry for the day's flight. We will have to know the number of people who are on board the plane. Ideally, we should also know how much each person weighs and the seat where they will sit. The effect that each person will have on the center of gravity will vary according to their position and weight. We also need to know the load we are going to carry. If we do not









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know the weight of the passengers, we will add a standard weight. We will find all the information on how each passenger or cargo will affect the plane’s center of gravity in the AFM. We will have to ensure that the center of gravity remains within limits throughout the flight. As can be seen in Figure 3.9.1, we will write down the weight in pounds of each item in the column indicated as “Weight”. With the AFM information, we will multiply the effect of each element on the center of gravity, and we will pass it to the graph.

Figure 3.9.1. Mass and balance.

OPERATIONAL FLIGHT PLAN In the operational flight plan, we will put the points where we pass, starting with the departure airport, including the TOC (the point where we reach the cruising altitude), and the TOD (the point where we will start the descent). We will find the wind aloft in the wind maps (Figure 3.5.14). With this wind and our speed over the air, we will calculate the speed over the surface and the wind correction angle. With the distance and our ground speed, we will know the time and consumption in each section. The rest of the data, such as airways, altitudes, and details can be found in the information we have used during planning.























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During the flight, we will have to fill in the empty cells. The Airway section describes how to fill them in.

Figure 3.10.1. Operational flight plan.

FLIGHT PLAN For all IFR flights, it will be necessary to send a flight plan with the required information.3.25 The flight plan will be submitted to the air traffic notification office. It will be presented at the departure

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aerodrome in person, by telephone, or by other means prescribed by the ATS authority. Depending on the services we request and the aerodrome from which we are going to depart, it may be necessary to send the flight plan in advance. The minimum notice time will be 60 minutes, unless the appropriate ATS authority indicates otherwise. 3.26 The maximum notice time will be 120 hours. 3.27 The flight plan is sent so that the airports are prepared for our departure or arrival. In the event of an accident or disappearance, the emergency services will start looking for us on the route we have indicated. In a controlled airport, there is a tolerance of -15/+30 minutes to initiate the flight plan. If the flight plan does not start until 30 minutes after the indicated time, it will be necessary to cancel the flight plan and send a new one. The maximum delay will be one hour for non-controlled aerodromes. 3.28 All information regarding flight plans can be found in the ENR section of the AIP. To regulate the flow of air traffic through route sectors or airports, the concept of calculated takeoff time (CTOT), commonly known as slot, was created by the European Air Traffic Flow and Capacity Management (ATFCM). Each airport and area control sector in Europe has a declared capacity, expressed as a maximum number of flights per hour. Within Europe, each IFR flight must submit a flight plan to the Integrated Initial Flight Plan Processing System (IFPS), based in Brussels and Paris. The system will verify that the flight plan is in the correct format and that it complies with the restrictions that have been published. If the number of planned flights (demand) exceeds the declared capacity en route or at an airport, IFPS will start issuing CTOT.

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A CTOT is a precise -5/+10-minute departure window in which the affected flight must take off to ensure that when the flight arrives at a sector or airport, demand does not exceed capacity. The advantage of this is that flights will spend the inevitable delay time on the ground at the departure airport, rather than in the air. IFPS will distribute the delay fairly between the flights. If an airport can handle forty-four flights per hour, and there are forty-six flights planned for one hour, the system will issue small delays to many flights, instead of giving large delays to two flights. In the event that CTOTs are issued to flights as a result of an overload during a single one-hour period, CTOTs will also be issued to flights scheduled one hour before and one hour after that time to avoid delaying the issue by one hour. When submitting a flight plan, the aircraft operator includes an estimated off-block time (EOBT), which is the time the aircraft is planned to start moving at the departure airport. If a flight is ready to leave its boarding gate more than 15 minutes before the original EOBT, or is delayed more than 30 minutes, the airline must send a new EOBT to the system, as the new departure time could cause an overload somewhere along the route. Similarly, if a flight has received a CTOT, but cannot take off within the CTOT tolerance (-5/+10 minutes), the operator or air traffic control must send a delay message to IFPS, and a new CTOT will be issued. Taxi time is the time it takes for the aircraft to leave the gate (EOBT) and be ready for takeoff. This time is calculated by ATC. The IFPS must know the taxi time to calculate the CTOT, because it only knows the EOBT time from the flight plans it receives. If a flight is ready to depart before its CTOT, ATC must make the aircraft wait. If a flight misses its CTOT, ATC cannot issue a takeoff clearance. A new CTOT must be requested through IFPS, and the flight will potentially be delayed. A CTOT is not permanent or immovable. IFPS can send a review message. Flights that are ready to depart but are subject to a CTOT delay, can ask ATC to send a ready message, indicating to IFPS that if a previous CTOT is



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available, the flight would be ready for it. Finally, some flights are exempt from ATFCM restrictions, which means that CTOT delays will not be issued. Examples of such flights are ambulances, firefighting flights, search and rescue flights, and flights with heads of state. Flights leaving outside of Europe will also not receive CTOT, because there is no global ATFM system yet, but IFPS will have these flights’ information, and they will be included in the calculations. Figure 3.11.1 illustrates the flight plan that we would complete for our flight from Madrid to Paris. What should be included in each box is detailed below.

Figure 3.11.1. Filled flight plan. Source: (ais.enaire.es, 2019)

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Insert one of the following aircraft identifications, not exceeding seven alphanumeric characters, and without hyphens or symbols: a) The ICAO designator for the aircraft operating agency followed by the flight identification (e.g. KLM511, NGA213, JTR25). When in radiotelephony, the call sign to be used by the aircraft will consist of the ICAO telephony designator for the operating agency followed by the flight identification (e.g. KLM511, NIGERIA 213, JESTER 25). b) Or the nationality or common mark and registration mark of the aircraft (e.g. EIAK O, 4XBCD, N2567GA) when either of the following factors are true: 1) In radiotelephony the call sign to be used by the aircraft will consist of this identification alone (e.g. CGAJS) or be preceded by the ICAO telephony designator for the aircraft operating agency (e.g. BLIZZARD CGAJS). 2) The aircraft is not equipped with radio.

ITEM 8 3.29 Flight Rules Insert one of the following letters to denote the category of flight rules with which the pilot intends to comply: I The entire flight will be operated under the IFR. V The entire flight will be operated under the visual flight rules (VFR). Y The flight initially will be operated under the IFR, followed by one or more subsequent changes of flight rules. Z The flight initially will be operated under the VFR, followed by one or more subsequent changes of flight rules. For the last two options, specify in Item 15 the





























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Aircraft Identification





ITEM 7 3.29

Type of Flight Insert one of the following letters to denote the type of flight when so required by the appropriate ATS authority: S N G M X

Scheduled air service Non-scheduled air transport operation General aviation Military A type of flight not listed above

Specify status of a flight following the indicator STS in Item 18, or when necessary to denote other reasons for specific handling by ATS, state the reason following the indicator RMK in Item 18.

ITEM 9 3.29 Number of Aircraft (One or Two Characters)

The number of aircraft affected by that flight plan. In formation flights, only the squadron leader would send the flight plan. Type of Aircraft (Two to Four Characters) Insert the appropriate designator as specified in ICAO Doc 8643, aircraft type designators. If no such designator has been assigned, or in case of formation flights comprising more than one type, insert “ZZZZ”, and specify in Item 18 the numbers and type(s) of aircraft preceded by “TYPE/”. Wake Turbulence Category (One Character) Insert an oblique stroke followed by one of the following letters to indicate the wake turbulence category of the aircraft:



















































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point or points at which a change of flight rules is planned.

The wake turbulence for each aircraft is also defined in ICAO Doc. 8643.

ITEM 10 3.29 Capabilities comprise the following elements: a) Presence of relevant serviceable equipment on board the aircraft b) Equipment and capabilities commensurate with flight crew qualifications c) Where applicable, authorization from the appropriate authority Radiocommunication, Navigation, Approach Aid Equipment, and Capabilities Insert one letter as follows: N No COM/NAV/approach aid equipment for the route to be flown is carried, or the equipment is unserviceable. S Standard COM/NAV/approach aid equipment for the route to be flown is carried and serviceable. Standard equipment is considered to be VHF RTF, VOR, and ILS, unless another combination is prescribed by the appropriate ATS authority. And/or insert one or more of the following letters to indicate the serviceable COM/NAV/approach aid equipment and capabilities available: A GBAS landing system B LPV (APV with SBAS) C LORAN-C D DME













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H HEAVY, to indicate an aircraft type with a certified takeoff mass of 136,000 kg or more M MEDIUM, to indicate an aircraft type with a certified takeoff mass of less than 136,000 kg but more than 7,000 kg L LIGHT, to indicate an aircraft type with a certified takeoff mass of 7,000 kg or less

E1 E2 E3 F G H I J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6 J7 K L M1 M2 M3 O P1 P2 P3 P4-P9 R T U V W X Y Z Note 4)

FMC WPR ACARS D-FIS ACARS PDC ACARS ADF GNSS (see Note 1) HF RTF Inertial Navigation CPDLC ATN VDL Mode 2 (see Note 2) CPDLC FANS 1/A CPDLC FANS 1/A VDL Mode A CPDLC FANS 1/A VDL Mode 2 CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (INMARSAT) CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (MSTAT) CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (Iridium) MLS ILS ATC SATVOICE (INMARSAT) ATC SATVOICE (MTSAT) ATC SATVOICE (IRIDIUM) VOR CPDLC RCP 400 (see Note 6) CPDLC RCP 240 (see Note 6) SATVOICE RCP 400 (see Note 6) Reserved for RCP PBN approved (see Note 3) TACAN UHF RTF VHF RTF RVSM approved MNPS approved VHF with 8.33 kHz cannel spacing Other equipment carried or other capabilities (see

Note 1. If you plan to conduct any portion of the flight under IFR, it refers to GNSS receivers that comply with the requirements of Annex 10, Volume I. If the letter G is used, the types of external GNSS augmentation, if any, are specified in Item 18 following the indicator NAV/ and separated by a space. Note 2. See RTCA/EUROCAE Interoperability Requirements Standard for ATN Baseline 1 (ATN B1 INTEROP Standard –

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Note 3. If the letter R is used, the performance-based navigation levels that can be met are specified in Item 18 following the indicator PBN/. You can find guidance on the application of performance-based navigation to a specific route segment, route, or area in the Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) Manual (Doc 9613). Note 4. If the letter Z is used, specify in Item 18 the other equipment carried or other capabilities preceded by COM/, NAV/, and/or DAT as appropriate. Note 5. Information on navigation capability is provided to ATC for clearance and routing purposes. Note 6. G u i d a n c e m a t e r i a l o n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f performance-based communication, which prescribes RCP to an air traffic service in a specific area, is contained in the Performance-based Communication and Surveillance (PBCS) Manual (Doc 9869). Surveillance Equipment and Capabilities Insert “N” if no surveillance equipment for the route to be flown is carried, or the equipment is unserviceable. Or insert one or more of the following descriptors, with a maximum of twenty characters, to describe the serviceable surveillance equipment and/or capabilities on board: SSR mode A and C A Transponder Mode A (4 digits – 4096 codes) C Transponder Mode A (4 digits – 4096 codes) and mode C SSR mode S







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DO-280B/ED-110B) for data link services, air traffic control clearance, and information/air traffic control communications management/air traffic control microphone check.

ADS-B B1 ADS-B with dedicated 1 090 MHz ADS-B “out” capability B2 ADS-B with dedicated 1 090 MHz ADS-B “out” and “in” capability U1 ADS-B “out” capability using UAT U2 ADS-B “out” and “in” capability using UAT V1 ADS-B “out” capability using VDL Mode 4 V2 ADS-B “out” and “in” capability using VDL Mode 4 ADS-C D1 G1

ADS-B with FANS 1/A Capabilities ADS-C with ATN capabilities

ITEM 13 3.29 Departure Aerodrome Insert the ICAO four-letter location indicator of the departure aerodrome as specified in Doc 7910, Location Indicators. Or if no location indicator has been assigned, insert “ZZZZ”, and specify in Item 18 the name and location of the



















































































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E Transponder Mode S, including aircraft identification, pressure-altitude, and extended squitter (ADS-B) capability H Transponder Mode S, including aircraft identification, pressure-altitude, and enhanced surveillance capability I Transponder Mode S, including aircraft identification but no pressure-altitude capability L Transponder Mode S, including aircraft identification, pressure-altitude, extended squitter (ADS-B), and enhanced surveillance capability P Transponder Mode S, including pressure-altitude but no aircraft identification capability S Transponder Mode S, including both pressure-altitude and aircraft identification capability X Transponder Mode S with neither aircraft identification nor pressure-altitude capability

Or insert the first point of the route or the marker radio beacon preceded by “DEP/...” if the aircraft has not taken off from the aerodrome. Or if the flight plan is received from an aircraft in flight, insert “AFIL”, and specify in Item 18 the ICAO fourletter location indicator of the location of the ATS unit from which supplementary flight plan data can be obtained, preceded by “DEP/”. Departure Time Then, without a space, insert for a flight plan submitted before departure and the EOBT. Or for a flight plan received from an aircraft in flight, insert the actual or estimated time over the first point of the route to which the flight plan applies.

ITEM 15 3.29 Route Insert the first cruising speed as in (a) and the first cruising level as in (b), without a space between them. Then, following the arrow, insert the route description as in (c). (a) Cruising speed Insert the true airspeed for the first or the whole cruising portion of the flight, in terms of one of the following: Kilometers per hour: Expressed as “K” followed by four characters (e.g. K0830) Knots: Expressed as “N” followed by four characters (e.g. N0485) True Mach number: When so prescribed by the appropriate ATS authority, to the nearest hundredth of unit











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aerodrome preceded by “DEP/”.

(b) Cruising level Insert the planned cruising level for the first or the whole portion of the route to be flown, in terms of one of the following: Flight level Expressed as “F” followed by three characters (e.g. F085; F330). Metric level Expressed as “S” followed by four characters (e.g. S1130). Altitude in feet Expressed as “A” followed by three characters (e.g. A045; A100), in hundreds of feet. Altitude in meters Expressed as “M” followed by four characters (e.g. M0840). For uncontrolled VFR flights, use the letters “VFR”. c) Route (including changes of speed, level, and/or flight rules) Flights along designated ATS routes Insert, if the departure aerodrome is located on or connected to the ATS route, the designator of the first ATS route. Or if the departure aerodrome is not on or connected to the ATS route, insert the letters “DCT” followed by the point of joining the first ATS route, followed by the designator of the ATS route. Then insert each point at which either a change of speed, level, ATS route, and/or flight rules is planned. Note – When a transition is planned between a lower and upper ATS route, and the routes are oriented in the same direction, you do not need to insert the point of transition. Follow each point by the designator of the next ATS route segment, even if it is the same as the previous entry.

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Mach, expressed as “M” followed by three characters (e.g. M082).

Flights outside designated ATS routes Insert points, normally not more than 30 minutes flying time, or 370 km (200 NM) apart, including each point at which a change of speed, level, track, or flight rules is planned. Or when required by appropriate ATS authority(ies), define the track of flights operating predominantly in an east-west direction between 70°N and 70°S by referencing significant intersection points of half or whole degrees of latitude with meridians spaced at intervals of 10° of longitude. For flights operating outside those latitudes, define the tracks by significant intersection points of parallels of latitude with meridians spaced at 20° of longitude. The distance between significant points, if possible, should not exceed one hour’s flight time. Additional significant points should be included as necessary. For flights operating predominantly in a northsouth direction, define tracks by referencing significant intersecting points formed of whole degrees of longitude with specified parallels of latitude which are spaced at 5°. Insert DCT between successive points unless both points are defined by geographical coordinates or by bearing and distance. Use only the conventions in (1) to (5) below and separate each sub-item by a space. (1) ATS route (two to seven characters) The coded designator assigned to the route or route segment including, where appropriate, the coded designator assigned to the standard departure or arrival route (e.g. BCN1, Bl, R14, UB10, KODAP2A). (2) Significant point (two to eleven characters)







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Or by DCT, if the flight to the next point will be outside a designated route, unless both points are defined by geographical coordinates.

Degrees only (seven characters): For describing latitude in degrees, use two characters followed by “N” (North) or “S” (South), followed by three characters describing longitude in degrees, followed by “E” (East) or “W” (West). Fill in the correct number of characters, where necessary, by inserting zeros, e.g. 46N078W. Degrees and minutes (eleven characters): For describing latitude in degrees and tens and units of minutes, use four characters followed by “N” (North) or “S” (South), followed by five characters describing longitude in degrees and tens and units of minutes, followed by “E” (East) or “W” (West). Fill in the correct number of characters, where necessary, by insertion of zeros, e.g. 4620N07805W. Bearing and distance from a reference point: Identify the reference point, followed by the bearing from the point in the form of three characters giving magnetic degrees, followed by the distance from the point in the form of three characters expressing nautical miles. In areas of high latitude where it is determined by the appropriate authority that reference to degrees magnetic is impractical, degrees true may be used. Fill in the correct number of characters, where necessary, by inserting zeros – e.g. a point 180° magnetic at a distance of 40 nautical miles from VOR “DUB” should be expressed as DUB180040. (3) Change of speed or level (maximum twenty-one characters) At the point a change of speed (5% TAS or 0.01 Mach or more) or a change of level is planned, express the information exactly as in (2) above, followed by an oblique stroke and both the cruising speed and the cruising level,

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The coded designator (two to five characters) assigned to the point (e.g. LN, MAY, HADDY), or, if no coded designator has been assigned, one of the following:

Examples: LN/N0284A045 MAY/N0305Fl80 HADDY/N0420F330 4602N07805W/N0500F350 46N078W/M082F330 DUB180040/N0350M0840 (4) Change of flight rules (maximum three characters) At the point a change of flight rules is planned, express it exactly as in (2) or (3) above as appropriate, followed by a space and one of the following: VFR if from IFR to VFR IFR if from VFR to IFR Examples: LN VFR LN / N0284A050 IFR (5) Cruise climb (maximum twenty-eight characters) Insert the letter C followed by an oblique stroke; then the point where cruise climb is planned to start, expressed exactly as in (2) above, followed by an oblique stroke; then the speed to be maintained during cruise climb, expressed exactly as in (a) above, followed by the two levels defining the layer to be occupied during cruise climb, each level expressed exactly as in (b) above, or the level above the planned cruise climb followed by the letters plus without a space between them. Examples: C / 48N050W / M082F290F350 C / 48N050W / M082F290PLUS C / 52N050W / M220F580F620.



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expressed exactly as in (a) and (b) above, without a space between them, even when only one of these quantities will be changed.

Destination Aerodrome and Total Estimated Elapsed Time (Eight Characters) Insert the ICAO four-letter location indicator of the destination aerodrome as specified in Doc 7910, Location Indicators. Or if no location indicator has been assigned, insert “ZZZZ” and specify in Item 18 the name and location of the aerodrome, preceded by “DEST/”. Then, without a space, insert the total estimated elapsed time. Note – For a flight plan received from an aircraft in flight, the total estimated elapsed time is the estimated time from the first point of the applicable route to the termination point of the flight plan. Destination Alternate Aerodrome(s) Insert the ICAO four-letter location indicator(s) of not more than two destination alternate aerodromes, as specified in Doc 7910, Location Indicators, separated by a space. Or if no location indicator has been assigned to the destination alternate aerodrome(s), insert “ZZZZ”, and specify in Item 18 the name and location of the destination alternate aerodrome(s) preceded by “ALTN/”.

ITEM 18 3.29 Note.– Use of indicators not included under this item may result in data being rejected, processed incorrectly, or lost. Hyphens or oblique strokes should only be used as prescribed below. Insert “0” (zero) if no other information is available.















































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ITEM 16 3.29

STS/ Reason for special handling by ATS, e.g. a search and rescue mission, as follows: ALTRV For a flight operated in accordance with an altitude reservation ATFMX For a flight approved for exemption from ATFM measures by the appropriate ATS authority FFR Fire fighting FLTCK Flight check for calibration of navaids HAZMAT For a flight carrying hazardous material HEAD A flight with head-of-state status HOSP For a medical flight declared by medical authorities HUM For a flight operating on a humanitarian mission MARSA A flight for which a military entity assumes responsibility for separation of military aircraft MEDEVAC For a life critical medical emergency evacuation NONRVSM For a non-RVSM capable flight intending to operate in RVSM airspace SAR For a flight engaged in a search and rescue mission STATE For a flight engaged in military, customs, or police services. Other reasons for special handling by ATS shall be denoted under the designator RMK/. PBN/ Indication of RNAV and/or RNP capabilities. Include as many of the descriptors below, as apply to the flight, up to a maximum of eight entries, i.e. a total of not more than sixteen characters. RNAV SPECIFICATIONS A1

RNAV 10 (RNP 10)

B1 B2

RNAV 5 all permitted sensors RNAV 5 GNSS



















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Or insert any necessary information in the sequence shown hereunder in the form of the appropriate indicator selected followed by an oblique stroke and the information to be recorded:

RNAV 5 DME/DME RNAV 5 VOR/DME RNAV 5 INS o IRS RNAV 5 LORAN-C

C1 C2 C3 C4

RNAV 2 all permitted sensors RNAV 2 GNSS RNAV 2 DME/DME RNAV 2 DME/DME/IRU

D1 D2 D3 D4

RNAV 1 all permitted sensors RNAV 1 GNSS RNAV 1 DME/DME RNAV 1 DME/DME/IRU

RNP SPECIFICATIONS L1

RNP 4

O1 O2 O3 O4

Basic RNP1, all permitted sensors Basic RNP1, GNSS Basic RNP1, DME/DME Basic RNP1, DME/DME/IRU

S1 S2

RNP APCH RNP APCH with BARO-VNAV

T1 T2

RNP AR APCH with RF (special authorization required) RNP AR APCH without RF (special authorization

required)

Combinations of alphanumeric characters not indicated above are reserved. NAV/ Significant data related to navigation equipment, other than specified in PBN/, as required by the appropriate ATS authority. Shows GNSS augmentation under this indicator, with a space between two or more methods of augmentation, e.g. NAV/GBAS SBAS. COM/ Indicate communication equipment and capabilities not specified in Item 10 a).

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B3 B4 B5 B6

DAT/ Indicate data communication equipment and capabilities not specified in 10 a). SUR/ Indicate surveillance equipment and capabilities not specified in Item 10 b). Indicate as many RSP specification(s) as apply to the flight, using designator(s) with no space. Multiple RSP specifications are separated by a space. Example: RSP180 RSP400. DEP/ Name and location of departure aerodrome if “ZZZZ” is inserted in Item 13, or the ATS unit from which supplementary flight plan data can be obtained if “AFIL” is inserted in Item 13. For aerodromes not listed in the relevant Aeronautical Information Publication, indicate the location as follows: With four characters describing latitude in degrees and tens and units of minutes followed by “N” (North) or “S” (South), followed by five characters describing longitude in degrees and tens and units of minutes, followed by “E” (East) or “W” (West). Fill in the correct number of figures, where necessary, by insertion of zeros, e.g. 4620N07805W (eleven characters). Or bearing and distance from the nearest significant point, as follows: Identify the significant point followed by the bearing from the point in the form of three figures giving degrees magnetic, followed by the distance from the point in the form of three figures expressing nautical miles. In areas of high latitude where it is determined by the appropriate authority that reference to degrees magnetic is impractical, degrees true may be used. Fill in the correct number of figures where necessary by inserting zeros, e.g. a point of 180° magnetic at a distance of 40 nautical miles from VOR “DUB” should be expressed as “DUB180040”. Or the first point of the route (name or LAT/LONG), or the marker radio beacon if the aircraft has not taken off from an aerodrome. DEST/ Name and location of destination aerodrome, if

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“ZZZZ” is inserted in Item 16. For aerodromes not listed in the relevant Aeronautical Information Publication, indicate location in LAT/LONG or bearing and distance from the nearest significant point, as described under DEP/ above. DOF/ The date of flight departure in a six-figure format (YYMMDD, where YY equals the year, MM equals the month and DD equals the day). REG/ The nationality or common mark and registration mark of the aircraft, if different from the aircraft identification in Item 7. EET/ Significant points or flight information region (FIR) boundary designators and total estimated time from takeoff to such points or FIR boundaries, when required by regional air navigation agreements, or by the appropriate ATS authority. Examples:

EET / CAP0745 XYZ0830

EET / EINN0204 SEL/

SELCAL Code, for aircraft so equipped.

TYP/ Type(s) of aircraft, preceded if necessary, without a space by number(s) of aircraft and separated by one space if “ZZZZ” is inserted in Item 9. Example: TYP / 2F15 5F5 3B2 CODE/ Aircraft address (expressed in the form of an alphanumerical code of six hexadecimal characters) when required by the appropriate ATS authority. Example: “F00001” is the lowest aircraft address contained in the specific block administered by ICAO. DLE/ For an en-route delay or holding, insert the significant point(s) on the route where a delay is planned to occur, followed by the length of delay using four-figure time in hours and minutes (hhmm). Example: DLE / MDG0030

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OPR/ ICAO designator or name of the aircraft operating agency, if different from the aircraft identification in Item 7. ORGN/ The originator’s eight-letter AFTN address or other appropriate contact details, in cases where the originator of the flight plan may not be readily identified, as required by the appropriate ATS authority. Note – In some areas, flight plan reception centers may insert the ORGN/ identifier and originator’s AFTN address automatically. PER/ Aircraft performance data, indicated by a single letter as specified in the Procedures for Air Navigation Services — Aircraft Operations (PANS-OPS, Doc 8168), Volume I — Flight Procedures, if required by the appropriate ATS authority. ALTN/ Name of destination alternate aerodrome(s), if “ZZZZ” is inserted in Item 16. For aerodromes not listed in the relevant Aeronautical Information Publication, indicate location in LAT/LONG or bearing and distance from the nearest significant point, as described in DEP/ above. RALT/ I C A O fo u r- l e t t e r i n d i c a t o r ( s ) fo r e n - r o u t e alternate(s), as specified in Doc 7910, Location Indicators, or name(s) of en-route alternate aerodrome(s) if no indicator is allocated. For aerodromes not listed in the relevant Aeronautical Information Publication, indicate location in LAT/LONG or bearing and distance from the nearest significant point, as described in DEP/ above. TALT/ ICAO four-letter indicator(s) for takeoff alternate, as specified in Doc 7910, Location Indicators, or name of takeoff alternate aerodrome if no indicator is allocated. For aerodromes not listed in the relevant Aeronautical Information Publication, indicate location in LAT/LONG or bearing and distance from the nearest significant point, as described in DEP/ above. RIF/ The route details to the revised destination aerodrome, followed by the ICAO four-letter location





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indicator of the aerodrome. The revised route is subject to reclearance in flight. Examples: RIF / DTA HEC KLAX RIF / ESP G94 CLA YPPH RMK/ Any other plain-language remarks when required by the appropriate ATS authority or deemed necessary.

ITEM 19 3.29 Endurance E/ Insert a four-character group, giving the fuel endurance in hours and minutes. Persons on Board P/ Insert the total number of persons (passengers and crew) on board when required by the appropriate ATS authority. Insert “TBN” (to be notified) if the total number of persons is not known at the time of filing. Emergency and Survival Equipment R/ (radio) Cross out “U” if UHF on frequency 243.0 MHz is not available. Cross out “V” if VHF on frequency 121.5 MHz is not available. Cross out “E” if emergency locator transmitter (ELT) is not available. S/ (survival eq.) Cross out all indicators if survival equipment is not carried. Cross out “P” if polar survival equipment is not carried. Cross out “D” if desert survival equipment is not carried. Cross out “M” if maritime survival equipment is not carried. Cross out “J” if jungle survival equipment is not carried. J/ (jackets) Cross out all indicators if life jackets are not carried. Cross out “L” if life jackets are not equipped with lights. Cross out “F” if life jackets are not equipped with fluorescein.




























































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Cross out “U”, “V”, or both, as in R/ above to indicate radio capability of jackets, if any. D/ (dinghies) Cross out indicators “D” and “C” if no dinghies are carried, or insert number of dinghies carried. (capacity) Insert total capacity, in persons, of all dinghies carried. (cover) Cross out indicator “C” if dinghies are not covered. (colour) Insert colour of dinghies if carried. A/ (colour) markings.

Insert colour of aircraft and significant

N/ (remarks) Cross out indicator “N” if no remarks, or indicate any other survival equipment carried and any other remarks regarding survival equipment. C/ (pilot)

Insert name of pilot-in-command.









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ON THE GROUND This section details the steps to follow from getting to the plane until lining up on the runway. This phase is susceptible to incidents or accidents such as collisions with other traffic, collisions with obstacles, disorientation, or exits from taxiways. Disorientation could lead us to cross taxiways or runways without authorization, putting ourselves and other traffic in serious danger. In commercial operations, there will always be two pilots in the cockpit who will divide the work for greater efficiency, but in other types of operations, you may find yourself alone in the cockpit and having to do the work of two pilots. This book covers both scenarios. In multi-pilot operations, there are two roles: the pilot flying (PF), who is going to be in charge of flying the plane, and the pilot monitoring (PM), who will be in charge of taking assistive actions, such as taking care of communication, navigating, or reading the checklists. As soon as you get to the plane, you will have to enter the cockpit to do a cockpit inspection and then do the preflight or exterior inspection. If we need to refuel, we will follow the airport instructions and our operations manual to carry it out. We will have to follow the procedures of each aircraft, detailed in the POH. Although each aircraft is different, the general idea at this point will be to do the following: a preliminary cockpit preparation, an exterior inspection, a cockpit preparation, a pre-start procedure, and the engine(s) starting. But first of all, we must check that we carry to the air all the documents and information required.

















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REQUIRED DOCUMENTS Aircraft documentation • • • • • • • • • •

Aircraft Manual. Certificate of Registration. Certificate of Airworthiness. Noise Certificate (with English translation if needed). Air Operator Certificate (with English translation if in another language). Operations Specifications (with English translation if in another language). Aircraft Radio License (if applicable). Third-Party Liability Insurance Certificate(s). Journey Log. Aircraft Technical Log.

Flight Information • Filed ATS Flight Plan (if applicable). • Aeronautical Charts for the route and possible diversion routes. • Procedures for intercepting and intercepted aircraft. • Information on search and rescue services. • Relevant parts of the Operations Manual. • Minimum Equipment List (MEL). • Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) and weather information.

Passenger and Cargo Details • • • •

Passenger and/or Cargo manifests (if applicable). Mass and balance documentation. Operational flight plan (if applicable). Notification of Special Categories of Passengers (SCPs) and special loads (if applicable).

Additional Items • Any other documents required by the concerned states.











































































































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COCKPIT INSPECTION Preliminary cockpit preparation is done to ensure all systems and selectors are in the indicated position before energizing the aircraft. We will complete this procedure as described in our AFM. The most common elements in these procedures are checking the position of the landing gear selector, the selection of brakes, flaps, ventilation, and checking the position of the oxygen selector. We need to do this in case some selectors are in an unwanted position. When the aircraft is powered up, control surfaces such as the flaps, or even the landing gear, could begin to move without us wanting them to. You will also have to check the documentation of the plane, including the technical logbook, which will have to be filled in and checked when the next revisions are due.

EXTERIOR WALK AROUND After the cockpit inspection, we will complete the preflight inspection or exterior walk around. In multi-pilot operations, it is the PM who will be in charge of this procedure. First, we need to untie tie-downs, chocks, or sensor covers, if any. Then, if it is physically possible, we will have to make sure that everything is in good condition and works correctly: the wings, the ailerons, horizontal and vertical stabilizers with the elevators and tail rudder respectively, the lights, the stall indicator, the landing gear, and wheels. In planes of a considerable size, we cannot inspect all the elements because they are out of reach. The manufacturer of the plane will have proposed solutions for these cases. The most important thing is to check that the engine oil is within the required limits and that we have enough fuel to



























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complete the flight. If we do not have a visual fuel indicator, we will have to check it in the cockpit.

COCKPIT PREPARATION While the PM is doing the exterior inspection, the PF will be doing this procedure up to a point and will finish the procedure with the PM when he/she returns to the cockpit. We will power up the aircraft to check most of the aircraft's systems and ensure they are configured correctly. We are going to configure the FMS with the route we sent in the flight plan and the speeds we calculated. Then we will check alarm systems, electrical panels, and the rest of the elements indicated by the aircraft manufacturer. If control informs us the route we need to follow is different from what was planned, we will change the route of the FMS.

TAKEOFF BRIEFING We should give a briefing for the taxi, takeoff, departure, and arrival phases. In this manual, we will give two briefings, one including taxiing, takeoff, and departure and another for the arrival 4.1 The objective of the briefing is to review what we will do so that there are no surprises during the flight. You will have to be clear about the important parts of the briefing to be able to present them concisely. The takeoff briefing should be given before starting the engine. Although there will be situations in which, due to lack of time, we will need to do it afterwards. In the preflight briefing, we will highlight the information necessary for the flight, including threats, mitications,







































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operational plan, differences from standard operation and a summary of key points. 4.2 You will need to have the taxi and departure charts handy. Here are the points we should touch in a good takeoff briefing.

Taxi Our position, what runway are we going to, and the taxi route, highlighting the hot spots.

Takeoff How we're going to take off, including configuration, steps, speeds, and callouts.

Departure The departure route we are going to fly, including turns, when we are going to raise the flaps and the gear, the rate of climb, the initial climb altitude, and restrictions.

Emergencies Procedure in case of emergency during takeoff.

Extras If we have any anomaly, such as equipment out of service, NOTAM that affect us, the weather if there is something out of the ordinary, and fuel. It is critical to be able to do this briefing concisely. There is a lot of information we could give at this point, and although it may valuable information, it can take a long time. It is also important not to ignore too much information and give too short a briefing. Over time the briefings become boring and repetitive, but they are given for safety reasons so both cabin crew members are aware of what is to come. Below is an example of the briefing we would give on the



























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flight from Madrid to Paris.

Figure 4.5.1. Aerodrome chart of Madrid.

Taxi We are at stand T5, first right turn to take the M7 taxiway, later left turn to continue on M8, until M17. Left turn on R6, then right turn on R8 until waiting point Z2 of runway 36L. We will be especially careful at intersections marked on the chart as “hot spot”.

Takeoff We are going to take off with a 15º flap configuration. The steps to follow will be: Takeoff power, V1 at 60 kt, VR at 80 kt, V2 at 90 kt. With positive climb landing gear up, at 400 ft, accelerate to 100 kt, flaps up, reduce power and accelerate to 120 kt.

Departure We will complete the RBO2N departure, chart 10-3T5, June 7, 19, effective June 20. Runway heading to SSY, then 017º to D10.0 BRA / D5.6 SSY, intercept course 005º of BRA, until D12.0 BRA. Turn right to intercept RBO R237. Initial ascent to 13,000 ft. We have to be above 12,000 ft at RBO, max 250 kt below 10,000 ft. MSA 10,000 ft. BRA116.45 and SSY117.85 selected.





























































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Emergencies If there is an emergency before rotation, idle power, brakes, and reverse if possible. If we cannot stop before the end of the runway, we will cut fuel lines, call for an emergency, and turn everything off. In case of emergency after takeoff, we will try to land on the runway. If this is not possible, we will make an emergency landing as slowly as possible with full flap, landing gear as required. If we are above 1,000 ft, we are going to do a 180º to land on the runway again.

Extras Meteorology OK. There is no NOTAM that affects us or systems out of service. We have 1,230 lb of fuel on board. We will land with 3:30 h of fuel.

















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Figure 4.5.2. SID chart.

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ATC CLEARANCE In every IFR flight we will need an ATC clearance to fly the route, this clearance will be received through voice communication with ATC. The ATC clearance will detail the steps to follow during the flight. Normally they will inform us that we are cleared for the destination via flight plan, which means that initially we will follow the route that we have planned and inserted in the flight plan. 4.3 In the same authorization, they will tell us how to complete the departure. We will probably receive the authorization to fly a published instrument departure. If an initial ATC authorization at an altitude is written in the chart, we will be authorized at that altitude without the need for control to say it. If there is no published instrumental departure, we will be directed to follow a route and ascend to an altitude. Still, we may request changes to the authorization if we require them for any reason, and they will grant them to us if possible.

CONTROLLED AIRPORT For IFR flights, we will usually take off from a controlled airport where the controller will direct us at all times. However, it is possible that we take off from an uncontrolled airport, and for that reason, this manual covers both cases. In controlled airports, there will normally be the ATIS, which is a recording on a specific frequency, that can be found in the aerodrome chart, that gives meteorological information and airport notifications, if any, an example from the LEMD airport below: “This is Madrid Barajas status information departure S, at time 1030. Runway in use for

















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departure 36L and 36R. Runway in use for arrival 32L and 32R. Transition level 140, wind 030º 6 kt, maximum 10 kt, minimum 4 kt, variable between 350º and 080º, visibility CAVOK, temperature 22, dew point 07, QNH 1023, NOSIG. This was Madrid Barajas status information departure S.” As you can see, at the beginning the transmission an indicator is reported. When communicating with the controller, we will report the ATIS indicator that we have received so that they know that we have updated information. If there is no ATIS service, when communicating with the tower we will request information from the airport by saying, “We request information from the field”. In a controlled airport, we will need authorization to start the engine and to taxi. Similarly, if we are parked in a position that requires pushback, we will need authorization to do so. As with all IFR flights, we need ATC clearance. At first, we will only request the authorization for start-up, which is really the only thing we need at that moment. They may give us the ATC clearance directly along with the start-up authorization, but there will be airports where the controller usually gives the ATC clearance during the taxi. We do not need to request ATC clearance at this point; control is fully aware that we need authorization to take off. They may not give it to us at the beginning for various reasons, but they will give it to us before takeoff clearance. We can request it if we are in a hurry to know our route, but to avoid saturating the frequency, generally we will wait for them to give it to us. If we require pushback, we will contact the platform. We will find the platform frequency on the aerodrome chart. In Figure 4.7.1 we have the procedures for requesting startup in LEMD. Normally, we will find the frequencies in the aerodrome charts. Look for the frequency responsible for the clearances. It will probably be Ground in most airports, but in extremely busy airports have a specific frequency for

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departure clearances, called Departure or Delivery.

Figure 4.7.1. Airport briefing LEMD.

As you can see in Figure 4.7.1, they indicate the procedure for requesting authorizations. We are heading towards RBO, so we will contact Clearance Delivery East. Looking at the aerodrome chart, we find that it is frequency 130.080. They also tell us what notifications we have to give and when / how we should make the initial call. As a general rule, the initial communication should include the designation of the station we are calling, our identifier, for aircraft super or heavy, the word super or heavy, our position, and any other information required by the appropriate ATS authority. 4.4 The route of flight shall be detailed in each clearance when deemed necessary. The phrase "*cleared flight planned route" may be used to describe any route or portion thereof, provided the route or portion thereof is identical to that filed in the flight plan and sufficient routing details are given to definitely establish the aircraft on its route. The phrases "cleared (designation) departure" or *cleared (designation) arrival" may be used when standard departure

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or arrival routes have been established by the appropriate ATS authority and published in Aeronautical Information Publications (AIPs). 4.5 If we are subject to CDM regulations, we will have to request the start-up in a range of -5/+5 min of our target off-block time (TOBT).



“Barajas Clearance Delivery East. HTF22. Good morning, Beechcraft Baron 55. At T5 with information S received. Request start-up.”

“HTF22, good morning in T5. Cleared to Paris Charles de Gaulle via ight plan, standard instrumental departure RBO2N, FL130 squawk 5266. Start-up approved. Contact platform on 121.705 for pushback.”



“Cleared to Paris Charles de Gaulle via ight plan, standard instrument departure RBO2N, FL130, squawk 5266. Start-up approved and with platform for pushback on 121.705. HTF22.”



“Platform, HTF22 on sand T5. Ready for pushback.”

“HTF22, starting pushback.”

If the ATC clearance was not passed to us during the startup call, it will be passed to us later as follows: “HTF22, ready to copy?”

“Af rmative. HTF22.” “HTF22, cleared to Paris Charles de Gaulle via ight plan, standard instrumental departure RBO2N, FL130, squawk 5266.”



“Cleared to Paris Charles de Gaulle via ight plan, standard instrumental departure RBO2N, FL130, squawk 5266. HTF22.”

Although many aspects will remain the same, each flight will be different, and we have to be prepared.

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fl

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The pilots should have received the following information prior to taxing for takeoff: a) the runway to be used; b) The surface wind direction and speed, including all significant variations; c) The QNH altimeter setting and, either on a regular basis in accordance with local regulations if so requested by the aircraft, the QFE altimeter setting; d) The air temperature for the runway to be used, in the case of turbine-engined aircraft; e) The visibility representative of the direction of take-off and initial climb, if less than 10 km, or, when applicable, the RVR value (s) for the runway to be used; f) The correct time. 4.6 The ATC clearance authorizes us to fly the route, but that does not mean we are authorized to taxi or take off yet. For this, we need an authorization that clearly details it. The following data that we receive has to be transmitted back to the controller to ensure we have received the information correctly. a) ATC route authorizations; b) clearances and instructions to enter, land, take off, hold, cross, or taxi on a runway; c) Runway in use, altimeter selection, transponder code, flight level instructions, heading, speed, meteorology, and transition levels. 4.7 Whenever you communicate with controllers, be prepared to write down the instructions you receive.

UNCONTROLLED AERDROME An uncontrolled airport means there will be no control tower and therefore no instrumental departure. In those cases, we will have to take off with visual flight rules and













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change to IFR rules in flight by doing an IFR joining. Fortunately, these airports are usually aware of the situation, and we may find details of the actions to be taken in the AIP or in the airport documents. To illustrate this, we will use the example of the airport of Annemasse (LFLI).

Figure 4.8.1. Aerodrome chart LFLI.

Like all IFR flights, we need an ATC clearance to enter controlled airspace. We will have to communicate with the airspace’s control. In the Annemasse airport information, we see that we can join the IFR routes in the VOR CBY or at the MOLUS reporting point. It also details that Geneva Departure controls IFR joining flights departing from Annemasse. We will contact Geneva Departure to receive the ATC clearance while we are still on the ground. The first point on our route will be the VOR CBY. The idea is to take off in visual flight rules, and when we get to the VOR CBY (entry point in airway), transition to IFR rules and continue with the flight through the airway.

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Figure 4.8.2. IFR joining.

Communications with Geneva will resemble the following, where we are going to tell them where we are, our flight plan, and when we plan to join the IFR route.



“Geneva Departure, HTF22. Good morning, Beechcraft Baron 55. On ground at LFLI (Annemasse), with ight plan to Paris. We expect to be airborne in 10 minutes for IFR joining.”

"HTF22, Geneva Departure. Good morning. Climb 7,000 ft on course to CBY. In the air, contact Geneva Departure at 119.53.”



“Climb to 7,000 ft on course to CBY, airborne with 119.53.”

As it is an uncontrolled airport, we do not need authorization to start the engine or to taxi, but we must communicate everything we do on the airport's air-to-air frequency so the rest of the traffics are notified. In principle we will not receive answers because there is no control tower, but it is possible that other traffic will answer us for coordination. We will communicate when we start the engine, start the taxi, enter the runway, and go for take off.



“HTF22 in stand 12, starting up.” “HTF22 taxiing to holding point 12.” “HTF22 entering runway 12 for takeoff.”











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When departing from an uncontrolled airport, we are unlikely to have a transponder code when taking off. We will select the 7000 code as the standard code until we are assigned a code. For VFR flights in most of Europe, code 7000 is selected when none have been assigned to us. In North America, the code that is selected in these cases is 1200.

BEFORE START OR PUSHBACK Once we are authorized to start, we will prepare everything for starting the engine. If due to our stand we need pushback, we will do it with the engine off, and once they have placed us in position, we will start the engine. It will be important to know the procedures by heart in order to operate smoothly. Focus on memorizing the important steps. There are critical steps, such as opening the fuel lines when starting the engine, and there are less critical steps, such as checking the ventilation selection. If you are aware of the critical points, you will not forget them, and you will be able to quickly go over some other steps on the days you need to speed up the procedures. In the procedure prior to starting the engine, in general, the most important points will be to turn on the batteries if they were off, turn on the external lights, check that the fuel lines are open, make sure the parking brake is on, and check that power is set to idle.

ENGINE START We will ask for authorization, if we do not have it, and start the engine(s) following the AFM procedure. After starting the engines, we will check that all the engine indications are correct. The generators, from this point on, will have to be in line to

































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feed the batteries with charge. We will check that all the anti-icing systems, instruments, and equipment are working correctly. We will select the takeoff flaps configuration and configure the navigation systems by selecting the frequencies of the radio aids we are going to need. If we have a weather radar, we will leave it in standby mode. Usually we will have to do what is described in this section, but this information is only orientative. While each plane will have its own peculiarities, the general idea is that we configure the plane with almost everything necessary to fly. For airplanes equipped with EFIS instrument systems, we will have to configure the navigation display to show us the flight plan. We will select a range according to the departure we are going to complete.

TAXI Taxiing will be similar in all airports. Small airports will have simple taxi routes, and busier airports will have longer, and consequently, more complicated taxi routes. The biggest difference we are going to find is in uncontrolled airports where there are no taxi clearances, and therefore, we are going to start taxiing when we see fit, communicating our actions to the rest of the traffic. In busy airports, it is likely we will find the taxi routes already defined in the airport information chart, but it does not hurt to look at the taxi charts and get an idea of how the taxi will be. You can see which will be our taxi route from Adolfo Suárez Madrid-Barajas airport in Figure 4.11.1. We are at R-3. When we are ready to taxi, we will request authorization to do so. The controller will give us the taxi route if we don't already have it. It is likely that the controller will give us a partial route that does not reach the holding point of the runway. In that case, we will simply complete the authorized taxi route. We will contact the controller when

















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we reach that point, and they will authorize us to continue, or they will ask us to hold the position.

Figure 4.11.1. Airport briefing chart.

In the takeoff briefing we will have described a taxi route. If the route changes upon receipt of clearance, we will give a confirmation briefing with the new taxi route, basically highlighting the new taxi route. We will contact Ground directly to let them know we are ready to move. In Madrid, due to the large size of the airport, each section of the taxi is controlled by a different frequency. We will call the one that corresponds to us.



“HTF22. Ready to taxi.”

“HTF22, cleared to taxi via M7 until M17, later R6 and R8, until holding point Z2, runway 36L.”



“Taxi via M7 until M17, later R6, R8 to hold Z2 of runway 36L. HTF22.”

During the taxi, we will need to have the taxi chart in view. If we are in a multi-pilot cabin, the PF will taxi, and the PM will guide the PF in navigation. Before moving, we will make sure that the platform is free of people or traffic. We will not do any checklists, and we will not look inside the cockpit because most accidents occur during taxi. If we have to look inside the cockpit, we will ask the PM to take the taxi controls. In the POH, you will have indicated the taxi power, the

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cylinder temperature, and the oil temperature required prior to the taxi. At the beginning of the taxi, we will check that the brakes and the flight controls are working correctly, deflecting them to the maximum. We will need authorization from the controller to cross a runway intersection. Whenever you are unsure whether you can cross a runway intersection, call the controller again, indicating your position:



“Reaching runway intersection A. HTF22.”

“HTF22, cleared to cross the runway 08-26.”

“Cleared to cross the runway 08-26. HTF22.” If you have doubts whether you are authorized to complete any action, do not hesitate to ask. If you ask, the worst that will happen is the controller will repeat the authorization. If you don't ask and complete the action anyway, you could cause an accident and put many lives in serious danger. Before reaching the holding point, they will have probably told us what actions to take later. If we had not received a similar communication, we would report our position while waiting for authorization to enter the runway and take off.



“Holding point Z2, runway 36L. HTF22.”

“HTF22, hold position. You are number 3 for departure.”



“Holding position, number 3. HTF22.”

If we fly in an airplane with a piston engine, at the holding point, or at the point established for it in the aerodrome data, we will do the engine run up according to the procedure. We will check the altimeter error at the holding point, comparing our indication with that of the runway













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threshold’s altitude, shown on the taxi chart. The maximum allowed error is ±60 ft if our altimeter is designed to indicate up to 30,000 ft, and a maximum error of ±80 ft if our altimeter is designed to indicate up to 50,000 ft. 4.8

Figure 4.11.2. Explained aerodrome chart.

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“HTF22, reaching holding point Z2. Hold your position. You are number 3 for departure.”



“Holding position, number 3. HTF22.”

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DEPARTURE This section describes the steps to follow from when we are authorized to take off and apply takeoff power until we enter the airway. During the instrumental departure, we will follow the route defined in the SID chart. Complying with the altitude and speed restrictions, it will take us from the takeoff runway to the entry point on the airway. It is possible that we will reach the cruising altitude during the departure, before entering the airway where we will do the cruise procedure. This procedure is included in the Airway section.

AIRPLANE CONFIGURATION To be clear about the departure, we will look at the chart (Figure 5.1.1), and we will get an idea of what we are going to do. We will complete the RBO2N departure, taking off from runway 36L. We will climb on the runway heading and turn right on VOR SSY to continue on heading 017º until we intercept the BRA 005º radial. When we have intercepted the 005º radial, we are going to stay on it and monitor the VOR RBO. When we are approaching the 237º radial of RBO (approach course 057º), we will begin the turn towards RBO to keep the 237º radial inbound. At the holding point, we will wait to be cleared to enter the runway and take off. Until we receive a clear call saying, “Cleared to enter the runway” or “Cleared to take off”, we will not have authorization to do so. It is important to emphasize that the ATC authorization for the route does not allow us to enter the runway or take off. It is only an authorization for the route. Being clear about what we are going to do during departure, we will check that the plane is configured for takeoff and

















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that we have the radio aids selected correctly. The most important thing in the aircraft configuration will be to check the following points:

Flaps According to performance calculations

Navigation Selected radio aids and OK

Flight control panel Flight directors, selected altitude, EHSI mode and range, and autopilot mode

Electric systems Especially the battery and generators

Anti-ice systems Depending on the weather

Lights Beacon, navigation; strobe when entering the runway; and landing when starting takeoff

Transponder Code and mode selected

Ventilation As required

Other systems Peculiarities of each airplane.



















































































































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Figure 5.1.1. Explained SID chart.

The selection of radio aids will be as follows, VOR SSY selected in the NAV1 equipment with BRA in standby. VOR BRA selected in the NAV2 equipment with RBO in standby. There is no NDB in this chart, but we are going to select the NDB BJ (Barajas) to have it just in case. In a conventional cockpit, the NAV1 equipment will be connected with the RMI single needle and with the HSI. The



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NAV2 equipment will be connected with the RMI double needle and with the OBI, and the DME equipment will have a switch to flip between NAV1, HOLD, and NAV2. If we have a conventional cockpit, it will look like Figure 5.1.2. With the track course selected in the HSI, receiving the SSY indication, in the OBI we will have the course 005º and the indication of BRA. The DME will be with BRA, the RMI single needle with the NAV1, and the double needle with ADF. The reasons for this selection are as follows:

NAV1 We will have SSY active because it is the first radio aid we are going to use. BRA will be in standby because it is the next radio aid we will use.

NAV2 We will have BRA active at all times to monitor the 005º distance course. We will not have SSY here because we already have the NAV1 indication, so we will select RBO in standby to have it prepared, this being the third radio aid.

DME As you can see on the chart, we should get to point D5.6 SSY / D10.0 BRA, and then to D12.0 BRA. At first we won’t care if we have the indication of SSY or BRA, but then we need the indication of BRA, so we will have the BRA indication from the beginning to avoid having to change the frequency.

ADF Although in this departure there is no procedure that uses the NDB, we are going to select a nearby NDB to have its indication in case the rest of the systems fail.

































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Figure 5.1.2. Cockpit prepared for the RBO2N departure.

If we had a cockpit with the instruments in the form of the EFIS, the selection of radio aids would be identical, but instead of selecting specific courses on the instruments, we will have the route points projected in the ND. In the ND, we will select a mode that allows us to see at least the next point on the route.

Figure 5.1.3. Cockpit prepared for the departure RBO2N (EFIS).

When we are ready to take off, we will call on the frequency we are using to communicate. If we were taxiing, we would probably contact the tower. It is helpful to select the next frequency you have to communicate with as a standby frequency. The tower will give us the ATC clearance or







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transponder code, if it has not already been given, and it will give us the takeoff clearance. As with taxiing, we may be asked to fly a different departure or unpublished procedure for various reasons. If the departure authorization differs from what was said during the departure briefing, we will make a confirmation briefing highlighting it. We will not be able to take off until we have clearance to take off, clearance for the departure, and a transponder code. When we get to the holding point, they will call us, saying we are authorized to enter the runway and take off, or that we are authorized to line up on the runway and maintain position. Airports usually have a frequency that deals with approaches or departures they will tell us in the takeoff clearance if we have to contact any other frequency while in the air. “HTF22, cleared to enter and take off runway 36L. In the air contact departure on 118.08.”

“HTF22 cleared to enter and take off runway 36L. In the air with departure at 118.08.” When entering the runway, we are going to check that there is nobody in it and that no traffic is coming to land. Turn on the strobe lights and landing lights, and check that all the heading indicators show the runway heading with a maximum error ±10º. If we have an error of more than 10º, we should cancel the takeoff.

TAKEOFF The first phase of takeoff is completed visually, following the center line of the runway until you start to fly, have a positive climb, and raise the landing gear. Afterwards, we will follow the route of the instrument departure. We will not make any turn until we are 400 ft above the elevation of































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the aerodrome and are 600 m from the start of the runway. During takeoff, we will do callouts to check that everything is going according to expectations. Callouts vary from operator to operator, but they will maintain a similar structure. When we are ready to take off, we will say, “Takeoff power”, and we will apply power. We will look at the engine instruments. When we have confirmation that the motor is giving the required power, we will say, “Set” to confirm that the motor operates correctly. As soon as the plane starts to accelerate, we will check that the speed indicator gives us an incremental speed, reaching our V 1. We will check the engine and oil parameters, if everything is correct, we will say the speed: “60 kt, V1”. Reaching our VR, we will say the speed, “VR, rotate”, and we will gently pull the controls to make the plane takeoff. With positive climb, we will say, “Positive climb, landing gear up”. We will raise the landing gear, and we will turn off the landing lights. When we reach 400 ft, we will let the plane accelerate and say, “Flaps 0”. We will raise the flaps, and we will accelerate to our rate of climb. We will surely also have to reduce the power at this point. Now we can do the climb checklist.

Figure 5.2.1. Takeoff profile.



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When the workload allows, we should follow the instructions to contact the approach frequency and report our intentions. That is, the previous authorization we have received. This frequency deals with departures and approaches. It will direct us to our next point. Sometimes they will allow us to continue with the published instrumental departure. Other times they will direct us to other points on our route or will ask us to make changes to the route.



“Madrid Approach, HTF22. Good morning. RBO2N climbing to 13,000 ft.”

“HTF22, continue with RBO2N departure.”



“Continue with RBO2N departure. HTF22.”

If during the start you suffer an engine failure and your operator has an engine failure procedure, you will have to communicate it to the controller and detail the procedure that you are going to follow, because he will not know your company’s engine failure procedure.

DEPARTURE ROUTE Navigation in instrument flights is carried out by understanding the position of the station through the information provided by the instruments. If we have three instruments, we can monitor the position of three radio stations at the same time. In this departure, at first we monitor SSY in the RMI, when the station goes from being right in front of us to being exactly behind, it means that we have just passed precisely above the station. At that moment, we will set the heading 017º, and we will monitor the OBI with the BAR frequency and the selected 005º radial. When the course deviation indicator moves into the center, we will be exactly on the 005º radial of BRA. We





























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are going to turn to heading 005º, and compensating for the wind, we will stay with the OBI indication centered.

Figure 5.2.2. Departure route.

At the same time, we will have changed the frequency of the NAV1, and we will have selected the one of RBO. We will also have selected the 057º approach course. When the course deviation indicator centers in the HSI, that means we are exactly on the 057º approach course. In that moment, we will turn to keep the approach course to the VOR RBO, and we will look for the following frequencies to select them.

INITIAL CLIMB VX will be the speed to reach the MSA in the shortest horizontal distance possible (best angle of climb). When we are above MSA, we will accelerate to our speed VY, the best rate of climb speed (ft/min).



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Figure 5.3.1. Power setting chart.

During the climb, we will continue to maintain climb power. If we fly in a piston plane, we will have to gradually increase the position of the levers. At higher altitude, the density of the air decreases and the power that a lever position gives us will also decrease. You will also have to reduce the mixture gradually. If the density of the air decreases and we continue to feed the engine with the same amount of fuel, the fuel/air ratio will be enriched. The fuel pressure required at each altitude will be indicated in the AFM power charts. See Figure 5.3.1. The mixture should be reduced progressively, according to our current level. If we go from FL050 to FL140, at FL100 we should have around 6.2 PSI of fuel flow. If at the beginning of the climb we put the mixture that we should have at FL140, it may not be enough for combustion, and the engine will turn off. The opposite will happen if we keep the configuration we had at FL050. Too much fuel will enter for combustion, and the engine may stall. As you climb, keep checking the engine gauges and act accordingly. Each aircraft will have its own actions to manage the systems. We will have them detailed in the AFM.

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ALTIMETER CHECK As we go through the transition altitude, we will switch to flight levels and do an altimeter check; change the altimeter pressure sub-scale to 1013 hPa to have the indication of flight levels. To do the altimeter check, choose a level that we will reach relatively soon; for example, for FL063, say, “Altimeter check, FL063”. When your altimeter passes through FL063, say, “Now”. The CM2 will check its altimeter, comparing the indication of its altimeter and yours. Calculate and state the difference between altimeters. For example, if when you said “now” his altimeter was passing FL064, that is 100 ft above, so say, “Plus 100 ft”. After doing the altimeter check, proceed to do the climb checklist if you didn’t do it before. When you are at 1,000 ft from your cruising altitude, say, “1,000 ft to level” and begin leveling 10% in advance of your climb rate. For example, if you are going at 500 ft/min, begin leveling when 50 ft remain to level.

FL100 When passing through FL100, we will check several elements before reaching cruising altitude. If we are carrying passengers, we would turn off the seatbelt lights now. It will also be the end of the sterile cockpit.

PBN DEPARTURE With the creation of area navigation, RNAV charts were created where the points we are going are not defined by course/distance from a station.



























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In area navigation, the points are inserted in our FMS via coordinates, and we can go to them directly because the aircraft is able to locate its own position. On the navigation display screen we will have an indication similar to conventional mobile GPS, where our route will appear drawn as a line and will move, keeping our position fixed on the screen. In Figure 5.6.1, we can see the chart of two RNAV departures with an endpoint at RBO, the RBO2R departure has only one point on the route, called MD047. When we are at this point, we will have to turn to the course indicated by the ND. This is how RNAV navigations are completed. The communications will be identical to the conventional procedures where they will authorize us to an RNAV departure by its callsign.







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Figure 5.6.1. RNAV SID.



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If we want to take off from an airport to enter an airway through point ZZZ, but that airport does not have any published instrumental exit that connects point ZZZ and the airport, we could make an omnidirectional exit, which is about making a route from the point of takeoff to point ZZZ, following the controller's heading and altitude indications. In the following example, we would be taking off from an airport with no instrumental exit, bound for Paris Charles de Gaulle, and the first point on the route would be ZMR. The ATC authorization would be similar to the following: “HTF22, cleared to Paris Charles de Gaulle via ight plan. Maintain runway heading up to 4,500 ft then right turn to ZMR”



“Cleared to Paris Charles de Gaulle via ight plan, runway heading up to 4 500ft, then left turn to ZMR. HTF22.”

IFR JOINING For a IFR joining, the takeoff profile will be identical, but we will navigate following visual flight rules on course to the first point of our route, where IFR will start. The communications that we will have on the ground are detailed in the uncontrolled aerodrome section. The change of flight rules will be done verbally on the frequency, where they will confirm that we are under IFR rules as follows. “HTF22, contact reaching CBY. IFR starts passing CBY.”



“We will report reaching CBY. HTF22.”

When we get to CBY, we'll report it.











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OMNIDIRECTIONAL DEPARTURE



“Reaching CBY. HTF22.”

“HTF22, at 13:03Z, IFR starts now.”



“IFR starts now. HTF22.”

They might also tell us that we start IFR when crossing an altitude.

Figure 5.8.1. IFR joining.

DEPARTURE REGULATIONS Unless otherwise specified, the instrument departure is assumed to require a minimum climb gradient of 3.3% ICAO.5.2 When we have to make a course change of more than 15º during departure, it is considered a turn departure. 5.1 In turn departures and omnidirectional departures, it is assumed that after takeoff the runway heading is maintained, and no turn is completed until over 400 ft from the field elevation and 600 m from the start of the runway 5.3













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Figure 5.9.1. Maximum speeds for turning departures.

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Figure 6.9.1 details the maximum speeds in a turning departure for aircraft of different categories. 5.4

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CRUISE This section covers the actions we will complete from the moment we enter the airway until we arrive at the exit point and the approach to the airport begins. The airway portion of flights is the phase with the lightest workload. We will have to follow our route and record the times and fuel consumption. Each region is controlled by a control center where they radar monitor our position. We will change frequencies when flying over each region. We will communicate with the controller of the region, and if we get disoriented and go off the route for any reason, the controller will call us asking us to return to the route. During the cruise, you will need to continue checking the engine gauges and the remaining fuel. At the same time, you can compare your speed on the ground (ground speed) with your indicated speed to know if you have headwind or tailwind. Note that to calculate the true air speed (TAS), your indicated air speed (IAS) increases by 2% for every 1,000 ft. You can determine the crosswind by keeping the heading of a radial and seeing if you are being pushed to the right or left. If our aircraft is equipped with systems capable of calculating the wind speed/heading, it will not be necessary for us to calculate it.

CRUISE POWER SETTING When you level at the cruise altitude, do the cruise procedure. It is possible that you will reach that altitude during the SID. You will have to select the engine configuration, which will consist of cruising power, engine revolutions, and the fuel mixture in a piston plane; this info will be in the AFM power tables. When flying turbine engines, we are going to select only the engine power.





















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Depending on the temperature of the cylinders, you will need to operate the engine cooling/ventilation systems. One way to control the temperature of the cylinders on a piston engine is to regulate the fuel/air mixture: the fuel is cold, so more fuel per revolution will cool the cylinders, and vice versa. It is likely the cruise procedure will say we have to close the engine vents to keep it warm, but there is no point in doing so if the engine is still too hot. In that case, we will let the engine cool down and then we will close the ventilation. It is critical that the actions you take are for a reason, and not just because it is said in the procedures.

Figure 6.2.1. Max cruise.

The power that we will put in cruise varies from operator to operator, in the AFM we will have tables for different cruise speeds, among them the max cruise, max endurance, or long range. Depending on which one we want to fly, we will face our weight, the temperature, and the altitude at which we are to find the power and speed to fly. In some aircraft, especially ones with a piston engine, the manufacturer may not have published charts with so many configurations, and may have published charts that indicate only the different speeds and consumptions for each cruise configuration.

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Figure 6.2.2. Power setting chart.

AIRSPACES The world's airspace is divided by regions. Depending on the kind of airspace we are in, the characteristics will change. Within controlled airspace, ATC service is provided in accordance with the airspace classification. We will need authorization to enter the controlled airspaces, for which we will have to communicate with the frequency of the airspace we are going to enter. In uncontrolled airspace, air traffic control does not exercise any authority, although it can act in an advisory manner by providing information. As the routes that we fly in the air are three-dimensional, the airspaces will also be three-dimensional. That is, they will be cubes defined by coordinates positioned on top of each other. Each airspace will be located in relation to the requirements of the area. Each airspace will have a designation and dimensions in relation to the flight phases it deals with.













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REGIONS AERODROME TRAFFIC ZONE (ATZ)

The ATZ is a controlled airspace associated with an aerodrome that is established so that the control tower (TWR) can control aerodrome traffic and protect VFR flights. When there is also IFR traffic and a controlled traffic region (CTR) has been established, this usually encompasses the ATZ.

Figure 6.3.1. Aerodrome traffic zone.

Figure 6.3.2. Aerodrome traffic zone.

































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CONTROLLED TRAFFIC REGION (CTR) A control zone (CTR or controlled traffic region) is a controlled airspace, usually around an airport, that extends from the surface to a specific upper limit and is established to protect the air traffic operating to and from that airport. In an area where there is more than one airport, the CTR will likely cover all of them. This airspace is usually dedicated to a tower controller.

Figure 6.3.3. Controlled traffic region.

Figure 6.3.4. Controlled traffic region.









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CONTROL AREA (CTA) A control area called CTA is a controlled airspace that exists in the vicinity of an airport, extending from a lower level to a specified upper level. The lower level will not be the floor. It is usually located on top of a CTR and provides protection for aircraft leaving the airport. It differs from a terminal maneuvering area (TMA) in that the CTA is smaller and controls the smaller airport(s).

Figure 6.3.5. Controlled area (CTA).

TERMINAL CONTROL AREA (TMA) A TMA is a controlled airspace surrounding a large airport with a high traffic volume. It is where the approach and departure control service is provided. TMA airspace is normally located at the main airport. It differs from a control area, or CTA, in that it is divided into several levels of larger areas.



































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Figure 6.3.6. Terminal control area (TMA).

Figure 6.3.7. Terminal control area (TMA).

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A flight information region is an uncontrolled airspace of defined dimensions within which the flight information service and the alert service are provided. The size of FIRs is a matter of administrative convenience for the countries concerned:A FIR for the airspace of a medium size country, Multiple FIRs for the airspace of a large country, One FIR for the airspace of several small countries In some cases there is a vertical split of the FIR where the lower part remains called the FIR, usually from ground level to FL245, while the above airspace is called the upper information region (UIR), usually from FL245 to FL410.

Figure 6.3.8. Flight information region.

Figure 6.3.9. Flight information region.

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FLIGHT INFORMATION REGION (FIR)

An area control center, known as a radar center, monitors IFR traffic in its flight information region. In this airspace the en-route control service is provided to IFR flights. It extends from a lower level to a specific upper level, both levels at high altitude. It differs from a FIR in that the ACC provides control service and the FIR does not. The name of an ACC will be identical to that of the FIR that encompasses it.

ATS ROUTE An ATS route is a speci ed route designed to channel traf c ow as necessary for the provision of air traf c services. The term “ATS route” has several meanings: airway, advisory route, controlled or uncontrolled route, arrival or departure route, and so on. An ATS route is de ned by route speci cations that include an ATS route designator, the route to or from signi cant points (waypoints), the distance between signi cant points, the noti cation requirements, and, as determined by the appropriate ATS authority, the lowest safe altitude. Speci cations for ATS routes are published in national AIPs.

AIRSPACE CLASSIFICATION Each airspace will be different because the regulations within that airspace will change. Seven classes of airspace are identified with callsigns from A to G.









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AREA CONTROL CENTER (ACC)

Figure 6.3.10. Airspace classification.

Figure 6.3.11. Example of airspace class distribution.

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Figure 6.3.12. Illustration of airspace class of Salamanca.

Figure 6.3.11 illustrates how the different regions of airspace are usually assigned according to the size of the airport they encompass. It also illustrates the class that each airspace usually has. Figure 6.3.12 shows how we would see the class of each airspace in the charts. In the case of Salamanca (LESA), it would be class D.

COMMUNICATIONS When you enter the airway, the controller of the takeoff airport will pass you to the area control center responsible for the FIR where you are. When we change from one FIR to another, it is the controller who will ask us to communicate with the next region. The communications will resemble the following: “HTF22, contact Madrid Control in 136.525.”











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“With Madrid Control 136.525. HTF22.”

In the initial call with a frequency, we should include the following elements ICAO. Doc 4444. p. 4-15 (4.11.2): a) b) c) d)

Identification of who we are calling Identification of the aircraft Flight level or altitude Additional elements required by the ATS authority, such as the next point where we are going



“Madrid Control, HTF22. Good morning. Passing FL100 to FL140, on course to RBO.”

“HTF22, Madrid Control, radar contact. Continue climb.”



“Radar contact. Continue climb to FL140. HTF22.”



Radar contact means that we appear on their screen. We will continue with the route of our flight plan and report at the reporting points. It is possible that at this point we still do not have authorization to climb to our cruising flight level. When we contact the control center, they will surely grant us an authorization to climb.



“Madrid Control, HTF22. Good morning. Passing FL100 to FL140, on course to RBO.”

“HTF22, good morning. Continue climb. What nal level do you request?”



“Continue climb. We request nal level FL240.”

“HTF22, cleared to climb to FL240.”



“Cleared to FL240. HTF22.”

If we notice we are reaching the authorization limit, and they do not call us to grant us a higher altitude, we will communicate our altitude to them.

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“HTF22 reaching FL140. Request higher level.” The controller may change our route or send us directly to some point within our route. It is therefore important to know our position at all times and to know how the rest of the points of the route are defined. We can request direct routes to points to cut time. It is also possible that they will ask us to maintain course, change altitude, or change speed. Communications will resemble the following: “HTF22, continue direct to BAN.” “HTF22, maintain present heading.” “HTF22, descend to FL220.” “HTF22, decelerate to 150 kt.” “HTF22, turn right to heading 040º.”

When we receive authorizations, we will have to repeat them to the controller to ensure we have received the information correctly. The data to be called back will be the following: ATC route authorizations; authorizations to land, take off, cross and taxi the runway; information on the runway in use, altimeter setting, transponder code, level, heading and speed instructions, transition levels, and ATIS information. 6.1 If we leave the airway we will have to comply with the minimum off-route altitude (MORA), detailed in the Minimum Altitudes section.

NAVAID CHANGE During conventional instrument flights, we will fly following the indications of a radio aid. We will have NAV1 and the HSI/RMI as our main instruments. If we have to monitor a second radio aid, we will select it in the NAV2 to see its position in the OBI/RMI. Figure 6.5.1 shows us the case of a radio aid and course change. At the beginning we will go through the 360º radial

















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of XYZ, with XYZ on NAV1 and the next radio aid, which is CBA on NAV2. Once we are on the CBA 075º inbound course (we will see it on the RMI, double needle), we will turn to the 075º course to stay on course. We are going to tune the CBA frequency on the NAV1 and keep the 075º course using the HSI. If the frequency and the equipment work correctly, we will select the next frequency in the NAV2, which in this case will be BBI.

Figure 6.5.1. Radio aid change.

In general, the NAV1 equipment will be connected to the RMI single needle and the HSI. The NAV2 equipment will be connected to the RMI double needle and the OBI, and the DME equipment will have a switch to change between NAV1, HOLD, and NAV2. The ADF equipment will be connected to both needles of the RMI, which we can select if we want to have the NAV or ADF information on each needle.

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Figure 6.5.2. Communication box.

To identify each station by listening to the Morse code, we are going to press the pads marked with each device in the communications box. To hear it through the speakers, we will press the upper pad, and to hear it through the headphones, we will press the lower pad. Before following the indications of a new frequency, check as well that you are receiving the correct distance indication in the DME. In the departure chart we have indicated the frequencies and equipment (DME, VOR, ADF) that we will need during the departure. We cannot stop receiving this information at any time during the departure.

FILLING IN THE OFP During the flight, we will have to fill in the operational flight plan that we made during planning. The idea of the operational flight plan is to check how we are doing on the route and whether the calculated time and fuel are being met. It also helps to take notes of the authorizations received and to record the different sections of the flight. At each point, we will write down the time, the duration of the leg, and the current fuel. Later, we will compare with what we had calculated. Initially, we are going to write down the takeoff time in the actual time of arrival (ATA) box and the fuel that we have in the REM box (remaining).











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Figure 6.6.1. Operational flight plan.

When we have the takeoff time, we will add the calculated time to the next point and write it down in the ETA box, in the row of the next point.

Figure 6.6.2. Operational flight plan.

Then we are going to add the time to the next point and write it down in the same way, repeating the action until all the points of the route are covered. When we get to the next point, we will write down the time in the ATA box. We will also write the time it took from the previous point in the ATE box and the remaining fuel under the REM box.

Figure 6.6.3. Operational flight plan.

That is how we will fill out the operational flight plan. In Figure 6.6.4, you can see the operational flight plan filled in until ALEPO. According to this image, we would find

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ourselves between ALEPO and NOLSA.

Figure 6.6.4. Operational flight plan.

MINIMUM ALTITUDES During the route, we will nd altitude limitations. We should not y below these altitudes, but if we do, it will be our responsibility, and we should have visual contact with the ground.

MINIMUM SECTOR ALTITUDE (MSA) MSA is the safe altitude that protects us from obstacles within a 25 NM radius of a radio station. It will appear on approach, SID and STAR charts. Pay close attention to the station it is based on, in this case, BBI. It's going to give us a minimum clearance of 1,000 ft from the highest obstacle in that sector.

Figure 6.7.1. MSA.





















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Flying between the 075º and 002º inbound courses, we should not go below 5,800 ft. Between the 075º and 284º inbound courses, we should not go below 4,500 ft, and between the 284º and 002º inbound courses, we should not go down below 7,000 ft in a range of 25 NM from the VOR BBI. We can go down below these altitudes, but we will have to communicate to the tower that we have visual contact with the ground. When flying below these altitudes, we will be responsible for maintaining the minimum altitude, and if an event occurs, we will be held responsible.

MINIMUM EN-ROUTE ALTITUDE (MEA) We can find the MEA on the airway charts, indicated as Figure 6.7.2. If we stay between the minimum and maximum altitudes, we will have guaranteed reception of the radio aid signal and communication in both directions with ATC, while protecting us from the obstacles that will be encountered along the route. According to Figure 6.7.2, in the section between ELTEP and FORNO, we will have to go between 5,500 ft and FL245. If we fill a flight plan through airways, we should select altitudes that comply with the MEA. Figure 6.7.2. MEA.

MINIMUM OBSTACLE CLEARANCE ALTITUDE (MOCA) The MOCA is the minimum altitude that provides us with the necessary vertical separation from the highest obstacle in

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the section of the route. This minimum altitude does not ensure that we will have ATC radar reception or radio aid reception. It will give us a vertical separation of 1,000 ft when the maximum elevation of the obstacles is less than 3,000 ft, a vertical separation of 1,500 ft when the elevation of the obstacles is between 3,000 ft and 5,000 ft, and a separation of 2,000 ft when the elevation of obstacles is greater than 5,000 ft.

Figure 6.7.3. MOCA.

MINIMUM OFF-ROUTE ALTITUDE (MORA) There are two types of MORA: MORA and GRID MORA. The MORA protects us when we leave the route for less than 10 NM laterally. It ensures 1,000 ft of vertical separation in non-mountainous areas and 2,000 ft in mountainous areas. The GRID MORA will protect us within a quadrant limited by latitude and longitude. It will protect us with 1,000 ft where the highest elevations are 5,000 ft MSL, and 2,000 ft where the highest elevations are 5,001 ft or more.









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MINIMUM HOLDING ALTITUDE (MHA) The minimum holding altitude is the minimum altitude that we can maintain during the hold.

Figure 6.7.5. MHA.













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PBN PBN, or Per formance-Based Navigation, marks a groundbreaking transformation in air navigation, redefining the manner in which aircraft navigate the airspace. Unlike traditional Area Navigation (RNAV), PBN equips aircraft with advanced navigational capabilities, offering a more accurate and dynamic approach to planning and executing routes. PBN isn't a specific technology but rather a framework that utilises Area Navigation (RNAV), navaid infrastructure and Required Navigation Performance (RNP) specifications. While RNAV enables navigation within defined airspace using onboard systems, RNP adds an extra layer of precision by specifying the required level of accuracy, ensuring aircraft remain within a defined containment area. This advancement in navigation technology promotes more efficient and flexible air travel, optimising routes and enhancing safety across the aviation landscape. PBN = RNAV + Navaid infrastructure + RNP PBN can be envisioned as a set of parameters delineating a cube around the aircraft, within which it must remain, and a series of virtual checkpoints along its route that it must traverse. These "windows" are not visibly displayed on any screen in RNAV navigation. Instead, they are internal points and parameters managed by the system for self-diagnosis and error checking.

RNP Required Navigation Performance (RNP) is a navigational concept in aviation that establishes precise standards for aircraft navigation. It defines specific accuracy requirements, ensuring aircraft adhere to predetermined









 





 









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paths with minimal deviation. RNP enhances safety and efficiency by demanding a higher level of precision, actively managing deviations from intended flight paths. Four key aspects govern RNP: functionality, integrity, continuity, and accuracy.

Functionality It involves the range of functions and tools available to enhance and optimise aircraft navigation.

Integrity Is the measure of the trustworthiness and reliability of the navigation system. It involves the ability of the system to detect errors and provide alerts or corrective actions if deviations from the intended path occur.

Accuracy Relates to the level of accuracy required and maintained by the navigation system. Precision required will change depending on the RNP requirement for each part of the flight.

Continuity is the assurance that the navigation system maintains its required level of performance without interruption. The requirement is that the performance level shall be maintained for 95% of the flight. In plain language, this means that the aircraft must comply with several equipment requirements and has to be able to navigate without deviating beyond the legal limits for 95% of the flight and also monitor and provide an alert in case of malfunction or loss of precision.

FD / FDE Fault Detection’s (FD) purpose is to pinpoint any irregularities or failures within the system, utilising



























































































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algorithms and monitoring mechanisms. These irregularities might include issues like sensor failures, data inconsistencies, or faults in the navigation equipment. When a fault is identified, the system can take corrective actions. These actions may involve isolating the faulty part or switching to backup systems to maintain the accuracy of navigation information. Fault Detection and Exclusion (FDE) not only recognizes when a fault occurs but takes proactive steps to mitigate its impact, such as isolating the faulty sensor or system and relying on redundant components. The key distinction from Fault Detection (FD) lies in this additional action, contributing to a higher level of system robustness and reliability. There are different RNP specifications that will require you to have FDE.

LATERAL ERRORS In the context of on-board performance monitoring and alerting, there are three primary independent lateral errors contributing to the Total System Error (TSE). The TSE serves as the foundation for performance estimation and monitoring. These errors include: Path Definition Error (PDE): This occurs when the path defined in the RNAV system (database) does not align with the intended path expected to be flown over the ground. For practical purposes, it is considered cero. Flight Technical Error (FTE): This error is associated with the aircrew or autopilot's ability to follow the prescribed path or track, encompassing any display error like CDI centering error, sometimes referred to as Path Steering Error (PSE). Navigation System Error (NSE): NSE refers to the variance between the aircraft's estimated position and its actual position. The accuracy of a navigation system may also be denoted as NSE or Estimated Position Error (EPE). Multiple







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sensors and systems like INS are used to calculate this error. The aircraft desired path will be represented in your navigation display as DTK (RNAV-Computed desired path). TSE=PDE+FTE+NSE Lateral errors should be monitored for the duration of the flight and can be found on FMS and EFIS. Common terms used for this are ANP (Actual Navigation Performance), EPU (Estimated Position Uncertainty), ACTUAL or ESTIMATED.

AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Augmentation systems stand as a transformative leap in aviation technology, reshaping navigational capabilities by synergizing with global navigation satellite systems (GNSS). Despite the impressive reach of GNSS, the inherent limitations, such as its precision and the historical presence of Selective Availability (SA), highlight the need for augmentation. GPS, on its own, may not provide the accuracy required for advanced navigational procedures like PBN (Performance-Based Navigation). In response, three key augmentation systems have emerged: SBAS (SatelliteBased Augmentation System), GBAS (Ground-Based Augmentation System), and ABAS (Aircraft-Based Augmentation System). Together, these systems address environmental challenges, ensuring unparalleled accuracy and reliability throughout an aircraft's trajectory while enhancing safety measures in modern air travel.

SATELLITE BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEM (SBAS)

Satellite based augmentation systems rely on a constellation of geostationary satellites and ground infrastructure. It significantly contributes to the accuracy, integrity, and reliability of signals. In addition to its primary role in improving satellite navigation, SBAS also plays a key

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role in enhancing Fault Detection and Exclusion (FDE) capabilities. The key components of SBAS include ground-based reference stations, a master control centre, and geostationary satellites. Ground-based reference stations strategically positioned receive signals from GNSS satellites, continuously monitoring and collecting data on errors by comparing their true position with the one deduced from GNSS. The master control centre processes this data, calculating correction messages that address various errors in GNSS signals, such as satellite clock errors, ionospheric error, and orbital variations, after that it will send it to a SBAS satellite, who will transmit the information to all receivers.. Additionally, SBAS will provide FAS Datablock during approach, providing vital information about aircraft's trajectory, position, and guidance parameters. One of the notable features of SBAS is its correction capability. It broadcasts correction messages to user receivers. These correction messages, including adjustments for satellite clock errors, orbit corrections, ionospheric corrections, and integrity information, enable user receivers to refine their GNSS measurements, significantly enhancing the accuracy of positioning information. Ionospheric error will decrease from 2 m to 0,3 m and clock error + orbital variation error from 1 m to 0,5 m. SBAS incorporates Fault Detection and Exclusion (FDE) within its framework. GNSS on its own are equipped with features that enable them to identify satellite malfunctions. However, this detection process may take up to 3 hours, creating a period during which the reliability of navigation integrity is in question, while SBAS will achieve this within 6 seconds. To fully leverage SBAS capabilities, users need SBASenabled receivers, which utilise correction messages from the SBAS system to enhance the accuracy of their GNSSderived positions to up to 1-2 m horizontally and 3-5 m vertically (EGNOS). SBAS is indispensable for precision approaches and









 

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landings. It facilitates procedures like LPV (Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance), offering accuracy comparable to instrument landing systems (ILS) without relying on ground-based infrastructure. Different regions worldwide have implemented their own SBAS systems, such as WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System) in North America, EGNOS (European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service) in Europe, MSAS (Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System) in Japan, and GAGAN (GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation) in India.

GROUND BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEM (GBAS) GBAS, or Ground-Based Augmentation System, stands as a sophisticated navigation technology dedicated to refining the precision of global navigation satellite system (GNSS) signals during aircraft approach and landing. Acting as a counterpart to satellite-based systems like GPS, GBAS employs a comprehensive ground facility that includes antennas, reference receivers, and data processing units. Communication between GBAS and aircraft occurs through a VHF Data Broadcast (VDB) link, ensuring real-time transmission of correction data and integrity information to participating aircraft. GBAS utilises a data link in the VHF band of ILS-VOR systems (108-118 MHz). This system supports various approach types, such as LPV (Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance) and the advanced GBAS Landing System (GLS), offering benefits like increased navigation accuracy, flexible approach paths, reduced reliance on ground infrastructure, and improved airport accessibility, especially in challenging weather conditions. During operation, a network of strategically positioned ground-based reference stations continuously monitors GNSS signals. Real-time data processing calculates correction factors, addressing errors such as satellite clock discrepancies and atmospheric conditions. Calculated corrections are then broadcast to aircraft through the VHF

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Data Broadcast link, actively refining the GNSS-derived position of the aircraft. As GBAS is not affected by atmospheric errors, it is especially good in mitigating the impact of atmospheric and ionospheric errors, ensuring accurate correction data even in the presence of these environmental variables. GBAS not only enhances precision but also provides guidance in the terminal area and three-dimensional guidance in the final approach segment (FAS) by transmitting the FAS data block. The minimum coverage area is 10° on either side of the final approach path to a distance between 15 and 20 NM, extending to 35° on either side of the final approach path up to 15 NM and reaches heights of 10,000 ft.

AIRCRAFT BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEM (ABAS) Aircraft-Based Augmentation System (ABAS) is an innovative aviation technology designed to enhance the precision, reliability, and safety of onboard navigation. It will monitor the integrity of our navigation, providing FD and FDE capabilities. FD requires data from at least five satellites, while FDE, offering enhanced reliability, needs information from at least six satellites. Remember that at least 4 satellites are needed to provide a 3D position. There are two primary systems that offer ABAS capabilities: Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM): RAIM relies solely on GNSS data for this function. Aircraft autonomous Integrity Monitoring (AAIM): AAIM employs sophisticated data fusion algorithms that integrate information from multiple sources. These algorithms analyse and cross-check data from GNSS, INS, air data systems, sensors and other on-board systems to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the navigation information.







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FAS DATABLOCK Final Approach Segment (FAS) Datablock refers to essential data transmitted or broadcast during the final approach phase of an aircraft's flight. This data block contains critical information related to the aircraft's trajectory, position, and guidance parameters, contributing to the precision and accuracy of navigation during the final stages of approach and landing. It is essential for LPV and LP approaches and it is provided by SBAS and GBAS.

OPERATIONAL DIFFERENCES In practical terms, conventional and Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) navigation share similarities and rely on similar flying techniques. However, subtle distinctions exist, primarily in the need to monitor both integrity and precision and many particularities during all phases of flight as stated in EASA AIR OPS CAT.MPA.OP.126.

BEFORE FLYING Always ensure your navigation database is up to date before initiating your flight, according to the current AIRAC cycle. Check the operability of your navigation equipment according to your operator's procedures. If any malfunctions occur, consider its impact on PBN capabilities, as certain parts of the flight may become inaccessible. It is mandatory to carry on board a list of equipment requirements for conducting PBN approaches. Verify that the displayed aircraft position matches the actual position before takeoff. After loading your flight plan, manually check with your FMS and ND the runway, departure, waypoints, track angles, distances, and any altitude and speed constraints.7.1

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DEPARTURE AND CRUISE Ensure GNSS signal availability before take-off. Confirm that the aircraft's displayed position in your navigation equipment is consistent at the start of the take-off roll. Check any changes made to waypoints after introducing them to your FMS. Verify that the GNSS sensor is used for position computation, instead of inertial navigation. Monitor integrity and confirm that vertical and lateral deviation comply with route segment requirements. Crosstrack error navigation should be limited to half of the accuracy required. Brief deviations are allowed during turns (in case of overshooting or undershooting) but should not exceed 1 time per flight. 7.2 Verify that the GNSS sensor is used for position computation, instead of inertial navigation. When possible, set your CDI scale to your current performance requirement.

ARRIVAL AND APPROACH Review approach procedures on your FMS and ND before starting the approach, comparing them with charts for accuracy. Check waypoints, altitude limits, and vertical path. Check that your Approach mode indicator is correctly indicating approach mode integrity and that it displays your current performance requirement. Monitor integrity and ensure vertical and lateral deviation align with approach requirements. Set the correct altimeter setting and ensure both altimeters show less than 100 ft of difference before the final approach fix (FAF). The aircraft should align with the final approach course and be established no later than the Final Approach Fix (FAF) before initiating the descent, ensuring clearance from terrain and obstacles. 7.3 It is possible to get a “Direct to” clearance to the IF, if it is







 







 



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clear that the aircraft will be established on final approach path at least 2 NM before reaching FAF. 7.4 For LNAV/VNAV approaches, avoid starting the approach unless the temperature is within approved limits, unless the aircraft is equipped with an approved temperature compensation system. Temperature corrections should be considered for initial and intermediate approach segments. 7.5

LNAV approaches are always corrected for temperature deviation. If vertical guidance is lost above 1000 ft, you can continue the approach using VNAV minimums.7.5 During RNP APCH, when employing Barometric VNAV for vertical path guidance in the final approach segment, deviations above and below the Barometric VNAV path should not surpass +100 ft/–50 ft, respectively. 7.5 For RNP AR approaches, vertical deviation should not exceed 75 ft. 7.6

MISSED APPROACH Initiate a missed approach in case of navigation equipment loss, loss of monitoring and alerting system, or if lateral and vertical deviation exceeds limits, unless the pilot has sufficient visual reference to land. 7.7 Note that most aircraft will disengage autopilot and flight directors when applying TOGA, switching to inertial navigation, so re-engage them promptly. Follow the missed approach indicated in your approach chart.

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MANEUVERS This section details the instrumental maneuvers such as point-to-point and DME arcs as well as flight techniques and some other miscellaneous information that covers the entire instrument flight, such as the points where we will receive authorizations.

FLIGHT TECHNIQUES It is assumed that the reader has acquired visual flight training and is able to fly an airplane safely. The biggest difference in handling the aircraft in instrument flight is the references we use. In a visual flight we look outside the cockpit, using the actual horizon as a reference to maintain a straight and level flight. Thanks to peripheral vision, we can look at other instruments or inside the cabin while we have a reference on the horizon. In visual flights, we are not allowed to get into clouds, so we will never lose the horizon information. In an instrument flight, on the other hand, we will go through clouds on countless occasions, losing sight of the real horizon. Due to the acceleration forces, we will not be able to trust our instincts to know the position of the aircraft, which can lead to confusion if we believe that the plane is in a straight and level flight, but in reality, we are entering into a turn or a climb/descent. For this reason, all aircraft certified for instrument flight have an artificial horizon. The artificial horizon will be the most important flight instrument for flights through clouds or flights with reduced visibility. Our eyes should be on the artificial horizon at all times. If we want to see the indications of any other instrument we will do so, we will return our eyes to the artificial horizon. An essential action in instrument flight is to trim the flight



















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controls, although we are flying manually, the plane should fly alone. There will be flight phases, such as takeoff or approach, where the workload will be enormous. If we dedicate most of our resources to flying the plane, we will not be able to do the rest. Think of the elevator trim as if it were a speed control. The plane will try to maintain the same speed all the time. If you reduce the power, the plane will lower the nose to accelerate or raise the nose to decelerate in the case of excess power. Once we have selected the speed, with the power control we will select if we want to descend, ascend, or maintain the altitude. It is important to emphasize that this method is indicated for airplanes that are relatively small. For big airplanes, we should control the speed with the power and the altitude with the nose.

POINT TO POINT During instrumental flights, we will need to go from one point based on a radial and distance from one station to another point on a different radial and distance, which is known as point to point. We will use the RMI as the main instrument. The best way to understand it is through examples, so we will follow the example in Figure 8.3.1.

Figure 8.3.1. Point to point on the map.

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Suppose we want to go from our position (P1: radial 190, 15 NM) to the radial 070º, 10 NM (P2). Using only the information from the RMI and the DME, we will set the course that takes us from where we are directly to the desired position. We will draw a circle with the center in the VOR that passes through our position and another circle with the center in the VOR up to the position we want to reach. See Figure 8.3.2. We will take this image to the RMI, with the larger circle being the outer ring of the RMI and the station the center of the instrument. P1 will be our position, indicated by the arrow tail. To find point P2, we will look for the 070º radial on the instrument, and we will calculate the distance according to the relationship between distances. In this case, 10 NM is two-thirds of 15 NM, so you will be at two-thirds of the center of the instrument, which is illustrated in Figure 8.3.3.

Figure 8.3.2. Point to point on the map.

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We will draw a line from our current point to our destination, and we will move the line to the center of the instrument.

Figure 8.3.3. Point to point on the RMI.

Our position is indicated by the arrow tail of the RMI. To avoid confusion, the arrow is not drawn in these images. Once we are on the heading, the final position will be just above our position, as can be seen in Figure 8.3.4. The needle will trace the displayed path. If you have crosswind, the image will resemble the second figure.

Figure 8.3.4. Point to point on the RMI.

Go on checking your position and recalculate the point-topoint a little every time. In this way, if the wind or any other factor makes you leave the route, you will correct it. With crosswind, you will have to set a wind correction angle to the required side.

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As can be seen in Figure 8.3.5, when the RMI needle is less than 90º, the station will be in front of us, and we will move closer until the RMI needle is 90º. When the needle is more than 90º, we will move away. In this case, there will be a point where we will be about 6 miles from the station, then we will move away to mile 10. See Figure 8.3.2.

Figure 8.3.5. Inbound and outbound in RMI.

When you have to do a point to point, they will usually ask you to fly closer to or away from the station on the selected course/radial. Select in the HSI the course you will have to set after the point to point. When the CDI needle starts to move, follow the advice to push it with the lubber line to get perfectly established in the course/radial (explained later).

DME ARC In a DME arc, we try to fly in circles around a station, maintaining the same distance at all times. We will use the RMI and the DME. If we fly with the RMI needle at 90º, we will be flying a course perpendicular to the VOR, making circles around it, as can be seen in Figure 8.4.1.











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Figure 8.4.1. DME arc.

To keep the RMI needle at exactly 90º all the time, we should constantly maintain a very tiny angle of bank. Given that this is not practical, we will instead put the RMI needle at 85º from our heading, wait for the needle to pass 95º, and turn to put it at 85º again. As described in the previous section, if the needle is above 90º, we are approaching the VOR, and if it is below, we are moving away, so at first we will get a little closer, and then we will move slightly away (maximum 0.5 NM). We will use the same technique to counteract the effect of the wind because sometimes it will bring us closer to the station and other times it will move us away. It is important to know which direction the wind is coming from before entering the arc. Look for it while on ground or determine the wind as described in the Cruise section.

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Figure 8.4.2. DME arc.

When the wind pushes you into the arc (i.e. pushing you closer to the station), you will have to counteract the effect by turning until the needle is approximately at 110º. When the wind pushes you out from the arc, you will have to put the needle at about 60º to return to the desired distance. When we are back at the correct distance, we will turn again at 85º.





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Figure 8.4.3. How to counteract the wind effect.

Keep in mind that the higher cutting heading you set, the faster you will get closer to the desired distance. Pay close attention to the DME in these cases. The ground speed that the DME shows us is the oblique speed to or from the station. If we want to maintain the distance, it should be zero. For example, let's say we're at mile 20, and we want to fly an arc at mile 15, counterclockwise. We head towards the station and turn right before reaching mile 15 to put the RMI needle at 85º. If we start this turn at mile 15, we will move and finish the turn at a different distance at 15 miles, so we will have to anticipate entering the arc. Then we will stay in the heading until the RMI needle is at 95º, where we will turn to the left to put the RMI needle at 85º again. To exit the arc, we will choose a radial and leave the arc on it. We will also enter an anticipation. Select the radial on the HSI and follow the CDI push advice to leave the arc or calculate the anticipation.

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Figure 8.4.4. Full DME arc.

ARC ANTICIPATION

Arc entry (NM): GS ÷ 10 ÷ 2 (NM) Arc exit (Radials):

G S  ×  3 (º) DME  ×  10

RADIAL INTERCEPTION During instrumental flights, we will fly following radials and courses constantly; it will be essential to know how to intercept any radial/course from our position. To do this, we

















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will have to know which radial/course we are on and set a course to intercept the next one. We will use the RMI as the main instrument, but we can also use the OBI or HSI.

Figure 8.6.1. Example of an interception.

Using the example in Figure 8.6.1, imagine that we are approaching a station on the 240º course, and the controller asks us to approach the station on a 270º course. As you can see, we will have to make a left turn, fly an interception course, and turn right when we are approaching the desired radial/course. It will be important to have a clear mental picture of where we are and where we are being directed. That is, whether the desired radial/course is to the left or right of our position. An image like Figure 8.6.1 should instantly pop into our minds. To see if the desired course/radial is to the left or right of our position, we need to identify the desired course/radial in the RMI and draw a line that passes through the center of the instrument. This is how the arrow will have to stay after we complete the interception. Imagine that the center of the RMI is the station, the tail of the arrow is the radial you are on, and the imaginary line is

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the radial/course you have to intercept; you will have to turn towards it.

Figure 8.6.2. Interception in RMI.

In any case, with the rules outlined below, it will not be necessary to have a mental image, but it will be helpful to confirm the established interception course. It is also important to know our distance from the station: if we are far from the station and the difference between the desired radial/course and ours is large, we can ignore the rules and set a higher interception course, and vice versa. One of the most important ideas is that in RMI the arrowhead tends to fall, and the arrow tail tends to rise. See Figure 8.6.3. If we intend to intercept an approach course, it will have to be below the arrowhead. If we intend to intercept a radial, it will have to be above the tail of the arrow.





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Figure 8.6.3. Arrowhead falls; arrow tail goes up.

INBOUND INTERCEPTIONS In the inbound interceptions, we will fly in the direction of the station. The first thing we will do is find our current course to the station, indicated by the RMI arrowhead. For the HSI and OBI, the course selector should be turned until the CDI needle is centered and the TO/FROM indicator shows “TO”. The following is about how to identify the approach course that we want to intercept. If we were asked to intercept a radial, we would have to add or subtract 180º to determine the desired inbound course. It is a common mistake to confuse radial with the inbound course to the station, not to add or subtract 180º, and to make a wrong interception. In the following example, we are on the 300º inbound course (radial 120º), and we want to approach on the 260º course.

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To figure out our interception course, we will put our eyes at the desired course (260º). We will continue in the direction of the arrowhead (300º), and we will add 30º in this direction. The result will be our interception course (330º).

Figure 8.7.1. Interception in the RMI.

If the difference between the desired course and the current one is small, ( 90º If the difference between the arrow tail and the desired radial is more than 90º, we will do a passed interception.









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Figure 8.10.1. Example of the passed interception on the map.

CDI PUSH During instrument flights, we should turn with a bank angle that gives us a turn of 3º/s, which is known as a standard turn. This angle will vary with our speed. The formula to calculate the angle will be as follows: Bank angle (º) =

TAS +7 10

That angle of turn will cause a lateral displacement from the point where we started the turn to the point where we are on the new heading.

Figure 8.11.1. Displacement in a turn.

As can be seen in the first image of Figure 8.11.1, if we start the turn at the moment we pass the desired radial, we will finish the turn on a different radial, which will force us to



























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In these cases, we will set the radial course and wait to pass abeam the station. We will then count one minute before turning 45º towards where the desired radial (arrowhead) is to intercept it.

continue with the turn until we are on the radial we wanted to intercept. Doing it that way is not going to be a big problem for us in most cases because we will end up on the radial we had in mind. But if we are doing that in every interception, it means we are not anticipating what is going to happen. There will be cases in which if we do so, we will enter another sector where the minimum altitude to maintain may be higher than the one we just left, putting the operation in danger. To prevent that, we will begin to turn in advance, as shown in the second image of Figure 8.11.1. One way to anticipate is to make it so that the HSI lubber line pushes the CDI. When the CDI starts to move, we will start the turn. If we follow this rule in the interceptions, we will come out perfectly on the radial.

Figure 8.11.2. CDI push.









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It is important to emphasize that this is a general technique, especially suitable for interceptions in the vicinity of the radio aid. It may not be suitable if we are too far from the station and there are many radials to cut through. Turns in instrumental flights must be 3º/s or 25º of maximum bank, this rule should prevail over what the CDI push technique indicates.

CLEARANCES During instrument flights, we will maintain contact with the tower at all times, and we will have to be authorized to complete any action. Generally, we will receive the same clearances at the same points along the route, regardless of the country or airport in which we are flying.

Figure 8.12.1. Clearances.

1 . Start-up It will be the first clearance that we will receive from the tower. They authorize us to start the engine (and pushback if necessary).

2 . Taxi This clearance allows us to taxi to the holding point and will come with a taxi route.

3 . ATC Clearance The ATC departure clearance authorizes us to fly the route to the destination. This authorization alone does not allow























































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us to take off, taxi, or line up on the runway.

4 . Line up / takeoff When we are ready to depart, they will give us clearance to enter the runway and take off.

5 . Climb It is unlikely that with the departure clearance they will authorize us directly to the cruising altitude that we will maintain. We will receive this authorization during the climb.

6 . Route changes During the route, it is possible that the points of our route change. They may direct us to climb/descend or to change the speed.

7 . Descent To descend, we will need clearance.

8 . Approach When we are approaching the destination airport, they will clear us to start the approach. This clearance does not allow us to land on the runway.

9 . Landing When we are on the final approach, they will clear us to land.

10 . Taxi After landing, we will vacate the runway, and we will be directed to our parking stand.

























































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VECTORING It is possible that the controller will direct us to follow headings for various reasons such as separation from other traffic or to position ourselves for the beginning of an approach. This technique is known as vectoring, and the phraseology to be use will be the following:

“Continue present heading” The pilot is directed to stay on present heading until further notice.

“Fly heading ___” The pilot is directed to turn to achieve the indicated heading, in the direction that takes the least time possible.

“Turn left/right, heading ___” Similar to the previous instruction, the pilot is informed with the required heading and direction of the turn.

“Turn left/right ___ degrees” Similar to the previous instruction, the pilot is directed to turn a number of degrees in the indicated direction.

“Resume own navigation” This instruction is used for the pilot to continue with his flight plan.





























































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ARRIVAL This section details the part of the instrument flight from when we leave the airway until we start the approach to the destination airport. If we cannot land at the destination airport due to weather conditions or any other irregularity, we will go to the alternate airport. Before starting the new route to the alternate, we will inform the controller of our situation and request a new route from our position to the alternate. Normally we will follow the standard terminal arrival (STAR), but if there is no STAR published, following the instructions of the controller, we will fly directly to the station where the approach begins.

BEFORE DESCENT Before starting the descent, you will have to find out about the weather at the destination. Do a briefing prior to the descent and tune into the frequencies that we will use in the descent and approach. We will also need the authorization of the controller. Procedures vary from airport to airport, but we will most likely follow the published STAR route. In any case, we will have to communicate with the controller of the destination airport, who will detail the route to follow and the altitudes to maintain during arrival.

















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METEOROLOGY When we are approaching the destination airport, we will tune the arrival ATIS frequency. You can find this frequency on the airport charts. See Figure 9.4.1. The Paris ATIS will resemble the following transcript. “This is Charles de Gaulle information T recorded at 1415UTC. Expect approach ILS landing runway 08L and 09R, takeoff runway 08R and 09L. Expect departure 1A, 1B, 1Y, transition level 050. Wind 120º 5 kt. Visibility 10 km or more. Clouds FEW 3,500 ft. Temperature 18. Dew point 07. QNH 1026. Inform in initial contact that you have received information T.” If the destination airport does not have an ATIS service, we will request the weather information from the controller. With the information received, and the meteorological minimums from the approach charts, we can determine whether we can land at the destination airport or if we have to go to the alternate airport. We will also take advantage of any information received by ATIS to anticipate what we have to do. In this case, the ATIS dictates that ILS approaches are expected to runways 08L and 09R, so we will look for the ILS approach charts to those runways and begin to review them. The most common approach is the ILS. It is the one we will prepare in the event that it is not specified in the ATIS. During planning we calculated the point of descent, but the beginning of the descent will depend on whether control decides to give us a lower level or keep us at an altitude. We can also request the descent if we really require it for any reason. Before starting the descent, we should give an approach briefing, where we will layout the actions we will take from the beginning of the descent until we complete the approach and taxi to the assigned parking stand.





























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In this briefing, as in the takeoff briefing, we will share the actions that we are going to take. Generally, we will give the information chronologically and detail any relevant information so everyone knows what is coming next. A good approach briefing should include these points:

Meteo + NOTAM The weather at the destination (by ATIS), and if there are NOTAMs that affect our operation. If we decide to go to the alternate, we will state that in the briefing.

STAR + restrictions + radio aids + holding + Descent The STAR or arrival that we plan to complete, the name and date of the chart, and route with restrictions, if any. Radio aids that we will use and where they are tuned. If we plan to enter a holding, we will say the type of entry and peculiarities (distance and radial on which the hold is based). We will indicate our planned descent start.

Approach + final course + DA/H + missed app + MSA The approach we will make and the name and date of the chart. Radio aids we will use and where they are tuned. The final course. The DA/H. Glide slope interception altitude and altitude restrictions, if any. We will read the missed approach procedure from the chart and the MSA.

Landing configuration + taxi route The configuration with which we intend to land (flap). And the taxiing route we will take from the runway to the parking stand, if known. It is good practice to aim for a exit point on a specific taxiway.












































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APPROACH BRIEFING

The fuel we will have upon landing and other relevant information (emergency situation, systems out of service, low visibility at destination, passenger in need of medical attention, etc.). We will use the STAR, approach and taxi charts to guide us in the briefing. Each chart will have the name of the procedure it illustrates and an identification or a plate number. It will also have a date from which that chart became effective. Both cockpit crew will have their chart, and it will be necessary to make sure that the chart is the same. This is why the identification of the chart is said aloud. We will emphasize what we can expect and any situation that is out of the ordinary because it is a good habit for both cabin crew members to be aware of the situation in detail and to know the actions that each should take. If this is an RNAV arrival, it differs from conventional procedures in that we do not need to use radio aids. In conventional arrivals, if possible, we will tune all the necessary radio aids before starting the briefing. The briefing on this flight would resemble the following:

Meteo + NOTAM The meteorology is OK at the destination airport, and there are no NOTAMs that prevent us from operating. We will continue to LFPG.

STAR + restrictions + radio aids + holding + descent We plan to complete the STAR RNAV KOVAK 7E. Chart 20-2B, NOV 30, 2018, effective DEC 6. Route: over KOVAK max 280 kt, BENAR, ROMGO, FF501 max FL150, NERKI max 250 kt max FL120, BANOX (IAF) between FL110 and FL090. In principle, without holding. STAR RNAV: we don't need to









































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Fuel + alternative

configure navaids. We plan to start the descent 6 NM before NERKI.

Approach + final course + DA/H + missed app + MSA We plan to complete the ILS 08L approach. Chart 21-0A1, 28 DEC 2018, effective 03 JAN, Route: BANOX, SUBOX and vectors to IF. Chart 21-1, 17 APR 2020, effective 23 APR. ILS GLE 108.7 frequency will go on NAV1, final course 085º, DA 538´ (200´). Glide slope capture at 5,000 ft. Missed approach, runway heading climb to PG415, max 5,000 ft, then PG416 ascending to FL070. Proceed to LORNI at FL070 to wait. MSA 3,500 ft.

Landing + taxi We plan to land on runway 08L. We will taxi as directed.

Fuel We expect to land with 520 lb of fuel. The minimum fuel for the alternative is 232.5 lbs, which gives us approximately 290 lbs of extra before proceeding to the alternate.

On the following pages you can find the approach charts. At the Paris Charles de Gaulle airport we encounter an unusual situation in aerodromes with less traffic, where the initial approach is on a separate chart, known as a transition, illustrated in Figure 9.4.2. In that chart we can see that after the BANOX point we will go to SUBOX, and we will be vectored to the beginning of the approach. We can also see the actions we will take if we have a communications failure and what we should say in the initial communication.





















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Figure 9.4.1. STAR chart explained.

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Figure 9.4.2. Initial approach chart.



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Figure 9.4.3. Approach chart with briefing flow.

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DESCENT COMMUNICATIONS During the airway, we will maintain communication with the controller of the area control center in charge. When we arrive at the airway exit point, we will be transferred to the arrival airport. If we are reaching the airway exit point and they have not yet transferred us to the approach frequency, we will call informing them of our position so that they can coordinate the arrival. When we communicate with the destination airport, we will have to report our altitude and position. We need them to give us meteorological information if we have not received it by ATIS, the authorization to continue with the instrumental arrival, and the clearance to descend. Before descending we have to know the local pressure (QNH) and the transition level. 9.1 They will probably authorize us to continue with the instrumental arrival if it exists. If there is no instrumental arrival, they will direct us to the station where the approach is based. Although we have calculated the descent in one point, they will probably direct us to descent in relation to the traffic in the vicinity. In any case, we should be aware at all times of the distance we have left to descend and the altitude to which we should descend. Whenever you communicate with controllers, have paper and a pen ready to write down what they tell you. “HTF22, contact De Gaulle Approach in 125.83.”



“With De Gaulle Approach in 125.83, goodbye.”



“De Gaulle Approach. HTF22 FL140, reaching KOVAK.”

“HTF22, bonne soirée. Continue KOVAK7E. Descend to FL120.”



“KOVAK6E and descend to FL120. HTF22.”

In this case, they tell us to continue with the STAR KOVAK7E and descend to FL120.













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To descend, we need an authorization, either from the ACC, in this case Paris Control, or from the airport approach frequency. When flying within the control area of busy airports, we should not request descents or route changes unless it is for an important reason. In small uncrowded airports, we could ask for the altitude that suits us best. For this, anticipate and start requesting the descent clearance before reaching your top of descent. It will take some time after you call to get authorization. If we really needed to descend, we would request it in the following way.



“HTF22 at 11 NM from NERKI, request descent.”

“HTF22, to what level do you want to descend?”



“We request FL120. HTF22.”

“HTF22, cleared to descend FL120.”



“Cleared FL120. HTF22.”

At airports as big as Paris Charles de Gaulle, they would probably deny us the clearance and let us descend when it suits them. If we had to start the descent on the airway, we would call the controller who is coordinating us, and we will tell her the same. Flying above the transition altitude, we will have 1013 hPa selected in our altimeter. If they authorize you to go below the transition level, enter the local pressure directly. We should enter the local pressure going below the transition, but we may forget due to the large workload. It is safer to enter the local pressure before passing the transition level than to forget to enter it. If you have two altimeters in the cockpit, select the local pressure in one and the standard pressure in the other.

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Our trip may end in an uncontrolled aerodrome that does not have IFR approaches. In those cases, we are going to cancel our IFR flight to land following visual flight rules. We will do so by contacting whoever is in control of our flight and transmitting the message. If our flight plan goes to an uncontrolled airport, control will be aware that we are going to cancel the instrument flight plan, and it is possible that they will call us to ask our intentions. In those cases, we will simply have to communicate our plan.



“HTF22, request to cancel IFR ight plan.”

“HTF22, con rm that you request to cancel your IFR ight plan?”



“Af rmative. HTF22.”

“HTF22, your IFR 14:07.”



ight plan has been canceled at

“IFR canceled. HTF22.”

MINIMUM VFR CONDITIONS To go from IFR rules to VFR rules, we will need the meteorological conditions (distance from clouds and minimum visibility) to be above the minimum indicated below.



















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fl

fi



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fl

IFR CANCELLATION

Figure 9.7.1. Minimum VFR conditions.

SPECIAL VFR (SVFR) It is also possible that when moving to VFR rules, the weather conditions are below what is established in Figure 9.7.1. In those cases, we will follow the special VFR rules. The special visual flight rules (SVFR) will be operated within a control zone when the conditions detailed below are met: (a) Unless otherwise permitted by the competent authority, such SVFR flights can be performed only during the day. (b) The flight will remain clear of clouds and with the surface in sight. (c)

Visibility shall not be less than 1,500.

(d) Speed will be 140 kts IAS or less to give adequate opportunity to observe other traffic and any obstacles in time to avoid a collision. (e) An air traffic control unit will not issue a special VFR clearance for the aircraft to take off or land at an aerodrome within a control zone, or enter the aerodrome traffic zone or circuit aerodrome traffic when weather





































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conditions in that aerodrome are lower than the following minimums: (1) Visibility on the ground is less than 1,500 m. (2) The cloud ceiling is less than 180 m (600 ft).

HOLDING Before any approach, there will be a defined space where we can hold position. The holding is a procedure to maintain position before starting the approach, either to wait until other traffic lands before us or to drop in altitude. The tower will tell us to enter the defined holding and to maintain the position at X altitude. If the lower level gets free, they will allow us to go down to the next level. We will continue like this until it is our turn to start the approach. Thanks to today's coordination, it is not usual to do holdings in real operation, but we have to be able to fly them correctly. The holdings will be based on a radio aid or a waypoint. There are two types of holdings, depending on the turn: standard hold, where the turns are to the right, and nonstandard hold, where the turns will be to the left.

Figure 9.9.1. Standard hold (left) and non-standard (right).

On the holding, the route illustrated in Figure 9.9.1 is traced, where the straight sections are limited by time or DME distance from a station and turns are of 180º, maintaining a maximum bank angle of 25º or the bank that gives us a turn of 3º/second (degree coordinated turn =

TA S + 7) 9.2. 10

















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The following table indicates the maximum speeds when flying different categories of aircraft. 9.3

Figure 9.9.2. The parts of holding.

All holdings will be based on a radial. The straight legs will be approximately one minute, and at 3º/s it will take a minute to complete the 180º turns. That is, it will take four minutes per lap. For holds higher than 14,000 ft, straight sections will be 1:30. 9.4 In the holds, it is essential to keep the speed constant at all

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times. It should not vary by more than ±5 kt. The time between sections is used to calculate the wind and apply a correction. If the speed is not constant, it will change all the calculations. The wind is going to push us during the hold. The idea is to correct for it so that we are established on the radial when we finish the inbound turn, and so that the approach segment lasts exactly one minute and one minute and a half in the respective altitudes. 9.4

ENTRY IN HOLDING The instruments we have on the plane tell us the position of a station. To enter the holding, we will go directly to the station. When the instruments indicate that the station goes from being in front of us to being behind, we will know that we are just above. In this moment, we will enter the holding. There are three types of entry, depending on the sector we are in: offset, teardrop, and direct.

Figure 9.9.3. Holding entry sectors.

Each entry has its characteristics, and they are flown in a different way. It is important to be clear about your entrance. To find out which entry you should make, the hand rule described below is of great help.









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HOLD ENTRIES There are entries that have higher priority than others for the security they provide. Depending on the entry you make, you may leave the 5 NM protection area ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-6-2-2. We can force one entry or the other if we are right on the edge of two entries, to a maximum of ±5º ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-6-1-2 (1.4.1). The order of priority will be as follows: Teardrop, direct, and offset. The offset entry being the least secure, where you proceed outside the holding area. To know the entry we must make, we will use the right hand in the standard holdings and the left in the non-standard ones. Place the index finger on the current heading and extend the thumb and middle fingers as illustrated. Then find the radial on which the hold is based (outbound course). We will assume that there is 70º between the index finger and the middle finger and that there is 110º between the index finger and the thumb.

Figure 9.9.4. Hand rule.

If the radial is between the index finger and the middle finger, it will be a teardrop entry. If it is between the index finger and the thumb, it will be an offset entry, and if it is between the thumb and the middle finger, it will be a direct entry. Practice with different entries and approach courses.

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Knowing the entry we must make has to be automatic.

Figure 9.9.5. Hand rule on a map.

OFFSET ENTRY, SECTOR 1 If you proceed through the offset sector, but you are within ±5º of the teardrop sector, inform in the cockpit that you are in the offset sector but that you will make an entry in teardrop in order of priority. The same if you are within ±5º of the direct sector. In this entry, when you go over the station, turn to the outbound course. After one minute, turn 180º as illustrated in Figure 9.9.6 and intercept the inbound radial towards the station.











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Figure 9.6.6. Offset entry.

When you pass through the station, the time will be taken depending on the heading you have maintained while proceeding towards the station.

Figure 9.9.7. Offset entry, timer start.

If once you fly over the station you have to turn between 0º and 30º to establish yourself on the outbound course, take the time over the station. If you have to turn more than 30º for the outbound heading, start the timer when you are on the outbound heading with the wings level. Before arriving at the station, be prepared to take time when you pass through the station or when you have the plane leveled. All turns will be made with a maximum bank angle of 25º or the bank angle that gives us a turn of 3º/s, whichever is less.

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After one minute on the outbound course, we will turn to re-intercept the inbound course.

Figure 9.9.8. Inbound turn.

When we have turned to intercept the inbound course, we will check the time. In this case, we will take time when we have passed the inbound course. If we have not intercepted the radial/approach course after thirty seconds, we will go straight to the station. In Figure 9.9.9, we will check the time once we have established ourselves on the intercept course. Figure 9.9.9 details the case of crosswind conditions. Holdings with wind will be explained later. As you can see in Figures 9.9.8 and 9.9.9, in both cases we will have to fly for a while to intercept the inbound course, which means we will travel a greater distance, and it will take longer to reach the station than it would to leave a perfectly established inbound course.



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OFFSET ENTRY TIPS The sector of this entry is quite wide. Depending on where you enter, you will have to do one thing or another to come out better established and have fewer problems. If you are approaching near the teardrop sector, as you can see in Figure 9.9.10, you will be almost set on the outbound heading, but when you turn to the inbound heading, you will be almost on the tear drop radial, which means you’re going to have to set a large cut-off heading if you want to intercept the approach radial before thirty seconds.

Figure 9.9.10. Offset entry advice.



















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Figure 9.9.9. Inbound turn offset entry.

Figure 9.9.11. Offset entry advice.

Remember that the holdings provide a protection of 5 NM. Be careful not to leave the area if you follow the previous advice. If you enter close from the direct sector, wait about five seconds to turn to the outbound heading. In this way it will cost you much less to intercept the inbound radial, and you will probably get it within thirty seconds. Do not take into account the approach time in this type of entry. For the time to be reliable, we have to be established in the inbound radial after the turn.

Figure 9.9.12. Offset entry advice.

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To avoid this situation, you can fly on a heading greater than the outbound heading, as Figure 9.9.11 shows.

If you know you have a lot of headwind before you enter the hold, fly away longer than a minute (01:15 or 01:30) before turning inbound.

TEARDROP ENTRY, SECTOR 2 This entrance is the highest priority because it proceeds inside the holding, and we follow a radial.

Figure 9.9.13. Teardrop entry.

Once we go over the station, we will follow the teardrop radial: 30º less than the outbound radial (standard) and 30º more than the outbound radial (non-standard). If nothing in the chart states the contrary, we will fly away for one minute on the teardrop radial, and we will turn to the indicated side. If the holding is more than a minute, or is defined by a distance, after one minute we will turn to the outbound course, and we will keep it until we reach the distance or until the time passes. After having flown one minute on the teardrop radial, we will be at the point where we should turn in a normal hold. We will assume that we are already flying the hold, and we will turn to the corresponding side to intercept the inbound course.

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Figure 9.9.14. Teardrop entry defined by time or distance.

In the case of entering a racetrack through this sector (explained in the Approach section), we will do a minute or a minute and a half in the drop radial, and then we will turn to the outbound course, and we will maintain the course until we reach the distance or until the outbound time has passed.

DIRECT ENTRY, SECTOR 3 The direct entry is the second highest in priority. If we could choose between this or the entry in teardrop, we would do the entry in teardrop. In this entry, when we fly over the station, we will turn to the side of the holding turns, and we will fly away on the outbound course. It is flown exactly as if we were already in a holding.

Figure 9.9.15. Direct entry.











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Figure 9.9.15. Direct entry.

If we enter through the center of the sector, there will be no problem because it will be as if we were already flying in the holding. The problems will arise when we enter at the edges of the sector.

DIRECT ENTRY TIPS There is a large sector through which we can enter. If we enter close to the teardrop sector, the situation detailed in Figure 9.9.16 will occur.

Figure 9.9.16. Direct entry advice.

























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Both in this entry and in the rest of the laps of the holding, you will have to take the time of the outbound leg, it will be done when you pass through the abeam radial (when you have leveled the wings before passing through this radial), or when you level the wings (if you have already gone through the abeam radial).

Figure 9.9.17. Direct entry advice.

To solve the problem detailed in Figure 9.9.16, lengthen the time to start the turn five to ten seconds later. We will enter the holding pattern, and we will be better established after the turn to inbound, as Figure 9.9.17 shows. Take into account the effect the wind will have on your course. If before entering the hold you have an idea of the direction and intensity of the wind, operate accordingly. If we enter close to the offset sector, the route we are going to trace will look like the one we can see in Figure 9.9.18.

Figure 9.9.18. Direct entry advice.

In these cases, there is no need to alter anything because our route will be similar to the one we will do in normal holdings. The most important factor in this type of entry is





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the beginning of the turn. We should start the turn just after we fly over the station to be well established in the inbound turn.

WIND CORRECTION The objective of the hold is to come out perfectly established on the inbound course after completing the turn and to take exactly one minute on the inbound leg. For this we will have to correct for the wind. We will divide the wind into two components: the headwind or tailwind and the crosswind. We will correct both components in the outbound section.

ABEAM The first wind indication will be the abeam radial.

Figure 9.9.19. Abeam indication.

On a day without wind, we will cross the abeam radial when we are set out on the outbound course, but a tailwind or headwind will alter the situation.









































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If, once we are on the outbound course, it takes us more than five seconds to intercept the abeam radial, it means we have a headwind. If we have passed the abeam radial more than five seconds ago, we will have a tailwind. This indication is highly reliable as long as we have started the turn over the station, and we have maintained a coordinated turn. The five seconds are a margin to make sure. We can always have made small mistakes that alter the moment of intercepting the radial. We should keep on the outbound course for one minute in the first lap after the entry, but if thanks to the abeam indication we clearly have a headwind or a tailwind, we will adjust the departure time accordingly. We will stay on course for a little over a minute if we have a headwind or for a little less than a minute if we have a tailwind. With experience, you'll learn to adjust the outbound time based on how long it takes to intercept the abeam, but for now, add or subtract about ten to twenty seconds. It is critical to be precise when taking the time. To take the outbound time, we are going to start the timer the moment we go through the radial of abeam. 9.7

INBOUND TURN When the outbound time elapses, we will turn to intercept the inbound course, making a right turn in a standard hold and a left turn in a non-standard hold. As you turn, monitor the turn. Before turning, you should be on the teardrop radial. That is, a radial 30º less than the outbound radial (standard).













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Figure 9.9.20. Inbound turn.

The arrowhead of your RMI should travel about 30º per minute. When you have made a half turn, look at the arrow to see if it is 15º from your inbound course. If not, adjust the turn. If it is less than 15º from your inbound course, accelerate the turn by setting more bank angle. If it is more than 15º from your inbound course, turn with less bank or stay on an intercept course. Remember that the HSI lubber line should push the CDI when it starts to move. There are three possible outcomes for the turn: that we stay inside the holding, that we stay out of the holding, or that we stay established on the radial. The latter is the situation we want to finally reach. The three situations described are shown in Figure 9.9.21.

Figure 9.9.21. Possible cases after the turn to inbound.

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Figure 9.9.22. Starting timer inbound.

After completing the turn to inbound, we will start the timer. Depending on whether you are inside or outside the holding, you will take time at one point or another. If you stay inside and have to set an intercept heading, take the time when setting the intercept heading. If you are out from the holding, take your time as you pass the inbound heading. Try to intercept the approach course within thirty seconds and proceed to the station. If you do not intercept it within thirty seconds, proceed directly to the station for the course you are on, and do not take into account the time of that leg. Try to intercept the approach course as soon as possible and maintain the necessary wind correction.

OUTBOUND CORRECTION If after the turn to inbound you were inside the holding, it means you have wind from outside the holding.









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If we are not settled on the radial after the turn, it means that we have a crosswind component pushing us. This will be the indication to find the crosswind component that is affecting us, adding the crosswind quadrant and the head/ tailwind quadrant, we will establish the correction.

Figure 9.9.23. Wind correction angle.

In these cases, you will have to turn towards the wind after the turn to outbound, keep in mind that to correct the wind of the turns in this section you will have to multiply the wind correction angle of the inbound leg by approximately three. If after the turn to inbound you were outside the holding, it means you have wind coming from inside the hold.

Figure 9.9.24. Wind correction angle.

As in the previous situation, you will have to turn towards the wind and multiply by approximately three the wind correction angle of the inbound leg. We multiply the wind correction by three because it is not practical to put a wind correction in the turns. This leaves us with only the outbound leg to make a wind correction. We will have to apply a correction approximately three times greater than what we used during the approach

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minute (one minute the first turn, approximately one minute outbound, and one minute the second turn). If you have not been able to determine a correction angle in the approach section, but you know you have a crosswind from one side, set an angle of 10º–15º towards the wind side during the outbound leg. You will refine it later. If we do not correct a strong crosswind, the effect it will have on our route will be similar to Figure 9.9.25, where we be established far from our desired point, and we will be forced to try to intercept the inbound course, probably without success.

Figure 9.9.25. Effect of a very strong crosswind.

TIPS FOR CROSSWIND CORRECTION In calm wind conditions, before turning to intercept the inbound radial, we will be exactly on the teardrop radial. That is, on a radial 30º less than the departure radial (standard) about three nautical miles from the station (flying at 2,000 ft above the station). If the time we calculated passes, and we are not in that position, it means the wind correction we have set is not correct. This RMI indication does not tell us if the headwind/tailwind

















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or the crosswind pushed us, but it can help us in a couple of situations, as illustrated in Figure 9.5.26.

Figure 9.9.26. Wind effect in a holding.

If the radial we are on is much closer to the outbound radial than the teardrop radial, it probably means we are flying inside the hold. We will have to turn a little more aggressively to intercept the inbound radial. If the radial we are on before turning is more than 30º from the outbound radial, we have likely had a lot of headwind, and we are still close to the station. It may also mean that we are flying far outside the hold. These situations do not present a big problem unless we have an extremely strong head wind during the outbound leg. We will have the headwind information when we make the first turn and do the abeam check. If you know you don't have a lot of headwind, after the turn you will have some time to try to intercept the inbound radial, even if you come out on the far inside or outside of the hold. If we have a lot of headwind, and we continue close to the

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station and decide to turn, it can lead to a difficult situation. We will have little time to intercept the course before passing through the station. The needle will be extremely sensitive, and the wind will push us towards the station, further cutting down the time we have. It is possible that instead of going over the station we will pass by one side, which will throw us off the next lap. See image 9.9.27.

Figure 9.9.27. Effect of a very strong wind.

It is crucial that it does not happen. If you are sure you have a lot of headwind, lengthen the first lap’s outbound leg without fear. If it does happen, stay calm and fly on the outbound heading for 1:30 or 1:45.

TIME CORRECTION To correct for the headwind or tailwind, we will use the inbound times as a reference. Our objective will be to take exactly one minute on the inbound section. For this, we will modify the outbound time to counteract the effect of the wind. It will be critical to come out perfectly established in the radial.











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The approach time will be taken when we set the interception course or are passing the approach course, whichever occurs first. See Figure 9.9.22. If you fly a minute outbound, and it takes less time inbound, it is because you have a headwind in the outbound and a tailwind in inbound. The correction rule that is used is the following: “Double of what I need. Half of what I have left.” It is a simple rule that means that if you have flown outbound one minute, and it took you 50 seconds to fly back, you have 10 seconds left before the minute is up. We add “double of what I need”. Double of 10 seconds is 20 seconds. We will do 1:20 minutes outbound on the next lap. See Figure 9.9.29.

Figure 9.9.29. Holding with headwind.

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Figure 9.9.28. Time correction.

If you take longer in the inbound than in the outbound leg, it is because you have a tailwind outbound and a headwind inbound.

Figure 9.9.30. Holding with tailwind.

If we fly one minute outbound, and the inbound takes 1:20 minutes. That means we have 20 seconds to spare. We will subtract “half of what I have left”. Half of 20 seconds is 10 seconds, so we will subtract 10 seconds per minute from the outbound. We will do 50 seconds in the outbound leg. We will continue correcting in this way until we take a minute in inbound. If with the correction, flying outbound takes 1:20 minutes, and it turns out that in inbound it takes 55 seconds, we have 5 seconds left to reach the minute. So we will add “double from what is missing”, 10 seconds, to what we were doing: 1:20 + 10s = 1:30. If in the approach turn you are not established and you fly a long time on an interception heading, you will fly with headwind and cover a greater distance. Don't take time into account in these cases.



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Figure 9.9.31. Inbound with an interception heading.

REFERENCE TIME The reference time is what you lack or have left of the minute in the inbound leg, in the case that you make an outbound leg of one minute. We will use this information to correct for the wind in approach. If you do one minute in outbound, and it takes 50 seconds in inbound, the 10 seconds remaining in the inbound is the reference time. You will get the reference time when you already know the wind correction. In this case, you would be doing 1:20 in outbound. Similarly, if after the correction you are doing 50 seconds in outbound, the reference time will be 20 seconds (in the case you had done a minute in outbound, it would take you 1:20 in inbound). To put it a different way, to find out the reference time, we will turn upside down the rule “Double what I need. Half of what I have left”.

























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ADJUSTING THE WIND CORRECTION IN OUTBOUND Once you know how long you are going to fly outbound, adjust the wind correction angle again. The more time you spend on this leg, the more impact the correction you put will have because you are correcting the outbound leg and the turns, and vice versa. In the outbound section, we will correct the two minutes of turning plus the one minute of departure. That is three times the approach correction. But if we fly outbound during 1:30, those extra 30 seconds with 15º correction will result in an excessive correction, and in the opposite case, if we fly away during 45 seconds, the 15º correction will not be enough. When the outbound time is different from the minute, the correction we give will also change. We will use less of a correction angle when the outbound leg is longer and more correction angle when the outbound leg is shorter.







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APPROACH The approach is the final part of the flight, where we descend until landing at the destination airport. There are two types of approaches: 3D approaches (precision), which have a vertical or glide slope indicator, and 2D approaches (non-precision), which do not have vertical guidance. Later, in the section Examples of Approaches, we look at all the step-by-step actions a pilot should take during the approach. As an overview, during the approach we will lower the landing gear and the flaps, and we will follow a horizontal flight profile and a vertical flight profile that will bring us to an altitude where we will look outside the cockpit. If we see the runway, we will land on it, and if we do not see it, we will abort the approach. Even if we do not see the complete runway, seeing parts of it will be enough to continue with the approach. Everything we need to know is written on the approach chart.

APPROACH TYPES Approaches can be divided in several categories, depending on the DH and the type of guidance provided. Icao Annex 6, classifies for planning purposes the approaches depending on their DH. 10.1 Type A: Any approach that has a DH at or above 250 ft. Type B: Any approach that has a DH below 250 ft. We can also classify the approaches based on the type of guidance provided:

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2D Non-precision approaches where only lateral guidance is provided and the pilot must assess altitude independently. They will always be Type A.

Conventional procedures Based on radio aids on ground. Facility LOC with or without DME VOR/DME SRA (terminating at ½ NM) VOR NDB/DME SRA (terminating at 1 NM) NDB SRA (terminating at 2NM or more) VDF

MDA/MDH (ft) 250 250 250 300 300 300 350 350 350

GNSS Here, the lateral guidance is provided by satellite navigation. There are 2 types, LNAV and LP (Localizer performance). The main difference is that LP require SBAS and the improved precision and sensitivity of the CDI.

Facility

MDA/MDH (ft)

GNSS (LNAV)

250

GNSS/SBAS (LP)

250

3D Approaches with both lateral and vertical guidance.











































































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Approaches with vertical guidance (APV) refers to RNAV approach procedures where lateral navigation is provided by GNSS and vertical navigation by either SBAS and/or baro-altimeter. In the same way as a LP approach, LPV (Localizer Performance with Vertical guidance) will require SBAS and will give us improved precision and sensitivity of the CDI. Facility

MDA/MDH (ft)

LNAV/VNAV and LNAV/Baro Nav

250

LPV

200*

*A decision height of 200 ft may only be used if the published FAS Datablock set a vertical alert limit of 35 m. Otherwise, the DA should not be lower than 250 ft.

Precision Approach The most precise types of approaches. Here we will find ILS cat I, LPV CAT I, MLS (Microwave Landing System) and GLS (GBAS Landing system). All these approaches can provide a DA as low as 200 ft. We also have additional categories of ILS providing lower DA and RVR requirements, but we will need special approval for them. If the visibility is lower than 550 m, it will be considered a Low Visibility Operation. It is important to note that CAT II and CAT III are LVP (Low Visibility Procedure) and that there are additional training and technical requirements. More information can be found on this on AIR OPS Annex V Part-SPA Subpart E. In some AFM you may see CAT III referred as CAT III A, CAT III B and CAT III C. This is just the old ICAO designation. CAT IIIA: a DH lower than 30 m (100 ft) or no DH and an RVR not less than 175 m; CAT IIIB: a DH lower than 15 m (50 ft) or no DH and an RVR less than 175 m but not less than 50 m; and

















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CAT IIIC: no DH and no RVR limitations. This is not used in Europe as the minimum visibility required is 75 m. Be aware that approaches like ILS CAT I or LPV CAT I can be both Type A and Type B, as DA may increase due to obstacle clearance height. 10.2

Figure 10.1.1. Approach chart.

On the approach chart, we will see the horizontal profile, which indicates the route we will take looked at from above. It shows the headings we will take in each leg. The last leg

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will be equipped with a lateral deviation indicator to keep us aligned with the runway. Below the horizontal profile, we will have the vertical profile. We will see the altitudes where we should be in each section. Glide slopes will be indicated on 3D approach charts. For 2D approaches, we will follow a calculated descent. Above in the chart we will have the steps to follow in the event that we proceed with a missed approach. Once the approach begins, we will descend at will, maintaining the minimum altitudes of each section, as indicated on the approach chart.

Figure 10.1.2. Altitudes for each distance in a non-precision approach.

We will also have a chart like the one indicated in Figure 10.1.2 that shows the altitude we should be at during each point of the final descent. The numbers above refer to the distance to the approach station/fix, and the numbers below refer to the altitude we should be at. If we did not have a glide slope, we would compare our altitude to the ones in the chart to ensure we were on the correct descent path. We should keep a calculated vertical speed and check/ correct our altitude during the descent with the chart. Before beginning the approach, there will be a defined space where we can do holdings. If we are going to hold, we will be notified / we will send a notification before reaching the point so that the tower can coordinate it. Holdings will be based on a radio aid or waypoint. That point will coincide with the initial approach fix (IAF), which is where the approach will begin. It is also the Clearance Limit after which we will not be able to start the approach without being authorized to it and we should continue/enter a holding. On the following pages are two instrument approach charts with a brief explanation of the information they contain.





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Figure 10.1.3. Non-precision chart explained.

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Figure 10.1.4. Precision chart explained.

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AIRCRAFT CATEGORIZATION The aircraft categorization system is based on the speed the aircraft flies at during the short final phase. Five categories are assigned from A to E.

Figure 10.2.1. Aircraft categorization.

TURNS Turns will be 25º of bank or the angle of bank that results in a rate of turn of 3º/s, whichever is less.

SPEEDS As a general rule, below FL100 we will maintain a speed lower than 250 kt. Procedures that require speed limitations will be indicated on the charts. Each plane is different, and the speeds change. The flaps and the landing gear will also have structural speed limits that we need to know by heart so that we never exceed them. Each flap setting will have a minimum speed below which we will stall. In short final we will decelerate to a speed close to the stall speed (VAT) and maintain it until we flare and land. VAT Speed that we will maintain in the short final, is obtained as follows: 1,3 x VS0 / 1,23 x VS1G VS0 Stall speed VS1G Stall speed in landing configuration with MTOM





























































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VLE VLO VFE VMO

Maximum speed with landing gear extended Maximum landing gear extension speed Maximum speed with flaps / slats extended Maximum operating speed

REVERSAL PROCEDURES It is probable that the approach will be done in the form of an outbound-inbound. These procedures will leave us, in most cases, facing the runway. We will follow predefined procedures that are used in approaches around the world: 45-180, 80-260, base turn, and racetrack. The profiles will be defined by time or by distance from the station that we will use during the approach. 10.3

Figure 10.6.1. 45-180.

Figure 10.6.2. 80-260.

Figure 10.6.3. Base turn.















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Figure 10.6.4. Racetrack.

RNAV T/Y ARRIVAL In RNAV approaches, the reversal procedure will not be necessary. In most airports it is the controller who will vectorize us until we are aligned with the runway, and we will be authorized for the approach later. Sometimes, RNAV approaches will be made following a “T” or “Y” profile. These approaches are known as omnidirectional, which means we will go to one IAF or another, depending on the course we are coming from.

Figure 10.7.1. RNAV “Y” and “T”.





















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Figure 10.7.2. “T” Procedure.

Using Figure 10.7.2 as a reference, we will go to IAF GJ4Ø1 when we arrive from the north. We will go to IAF GJ4Ø3 when we arrive between GJ4Ø1 and GJ4Ø2, and we will go to IAF GJ4Ø2 when we arrive from the south. The symbol “Ø” is used to avoid confusion between the number zero and the letter O.

DEAD RECKONING (DR) SEGMENT An approach may include a dead reckoning segment on the way to a localizer. The DR route will be flown following a course that will intercept the localizer. We will manually correct the effect of the wind. The point of interception of the locator will be the beginning of the intermediate approach segment.







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Figure 10.4.1. Dead reckoning.

RADAR GUIDANCE TO IAF Some procedures are published without any defined route after a fix or waypoint. These procedures are mostly linked to air traffic controllers who are responsible for providing radar vectors during the approach in busy areas.

Figure 10.5.1. Radar vectorized approach chart.

In Figure 10.5.1, we can see that after SUBOX we will be vectorized by the controller.



















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MINIMUM CONDITIONS COURSE When we do not need to do a holding, we will start the approach directly as long as we arrive with a maximum deviation of +/-30º of the initial approach segment. The starting point of the approach (IAF) will have a hold based on that same point. When we arrive with a deflection of more than +/- 30º from the initial segment of the approach, we will make an entry in the hold to face the segment of the initial approach and begin the procedure. See Figure 10.8.1. 10.4

Figure 10.8.1. ±30º.

The controller will assume that we will take the most appropriate actions in each case, which means if we proceed with less than a 30º difference, and we have the authorization, we will start the approximation directly. If for any reason we want to do holdings, we will have to notify them.

METEOROLOGY An instrument approach can be initiated regardless of the reported RVR/VIS. But if the reported RVR/VIS is less than the applicable minimum, we will not continue the approach:



























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Below 1,000 feet above the airfield Through the final approach segment in the event that the DA/H or MDA/H is more than 1,000 feet above the aerodrome

When RVR is not available, RVR values can be achieved by converting visibility. If, after passing 1,000 feet above the airfield, suddenly the reported RVR/VIS falls below the applicable minimum, the approach may be continued to DA/H or MDA/H. The approach can be continued below DA/H or MDA/H, and the landing can be completed as long as the appropriate visual reference for the type of approach operation and for the intended runway is achieved at or before DA/H or MDA/ H and maintained. 10. 6 If we do not have the runway visual range (RVR) value but we have the visibility, we can apply the following table to convert the visibility into RVR.

Figure 3.3.4. Conversion of visibility to RVR.

A visibility conversion to RVR/CMV should not be used to calculate the takeoff minima, for CAT II/III approaches, when there is a reported RVR or for RVR less than 800 m.

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The approaches are divided into segments, where each of them has certain limitations and safety margins. This section details the different segments and the actions that should be taken in each segment. The regulations that affect each one are also included. When we have authorization from the controller to begin the approach, we will follow the route indicated on the approach charts. You can descend at will while maintaining the minimum altitude dictated on the chart unless the controller directs you to do otherwise.

INITIAL APPROACH SEGMENT The initial approach segment is between the initial approach fix and the intermediate approach fix (IF). This segment provides an obstacle separation of at least 1,000 ft in the primary area. The point defined for the holding will use the IAF point as a station. In this way, we can start the approach directly at the end of the last turn of the holding. To follow a stabilized approach, the wind must be corrected for both heading and timing. An explanation for this is found later in this manual. An aircraft is considered to be on the outbound/inbound leg when it is at: Half scale deflection for ILS/VOR ±5º of deflection for NDB

-

During the approach we will descend through levels indicated on the charts. We can select the vertical speed we want, but we will be subject to a maximum and minimum vertical speed limitation, indicated in Figure 10.10.2.. These descent limitations will apply throughout the approach.





















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APPROACH SEGMENTS

Figure 10.10.2. Maximum/minimum descent.10.9

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Figure 10.10.1. Initial approach segment in LESO.

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INTERMEDIATE APPROACH SEGMENT

Figure 10.11.1. Intermediate approach segment in LESO.











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If the final approach fix (FAF) or final approach point (FAP) is specified, the intermediate approach segment will be from the start of the inbound segment to the FAF or FAP. If there is no FAF specified, the inbound segment will be directly the final approach segment. If we did not have an IF specified, the intermediate approximation segment does not exist. Obstacle separation is reduced from 1,000 ft to 500 ft in the intermediate segment.

FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT In the final approach segment, we will line up with the runway and complete the final descent to the landing or start the missed approach. This segment is between the FAF (non-precision approach) or FAP (precision approach) and the final landing, or missed approach point (MAPt). The start of the final segment will be indicated on the vertical profile with a Maltese cross, or on the horizontal profile with the FAF or FAP indicator. It is also possible that the FAF is not specified on the chart.

FAF A point specified in a non-precision approach that indicates the beginning of the final segment. FAP A point specified in a precision approach that indicates the beginning of the final segment.















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In this segment, the speed and configuration should be configured to prepare the aircraft for the final approach. For this reason, the descent gradient is kept as low as possible.

DA/H The decision altitude/height is an altitude/height in a precision approach where the approach should be aborted if the required visual references to continue the approach have not been obtained. MDA/H The minimum descent altitude/height is an altitude/height in a non-precision approach where one should not descend if the required visual references have not been obtained. MAPt Missed approach point is a predefined point, in both precision and non-precision approaches, where the missed approach should begin.



















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Figure 10.12.1. Final Approach Segment in LESO (non-precision).

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2D A 2D approach has lateral guidance but not vertical guidance. The descent must be configured manually by making descent calculations or by following the altitude indications described on the approach chart until the MDA/ H. The optimal descent gradient will be 3º (5.2%), the maximum gradient being 6.5% for category A and B aircraft, and 6.1% for category C, D, and E aircraft. Within these approaches, the most common will be the following: VOR, NDB, LOC, and LNAV.

3D A 3D approach has lateral and vertical guidance. The descent path is normally captured between 1,000 ft and 3,000 ft above ground and is followed to the DA/H point.

Figure 10.12.2. Glide slope indication in an HSI.

















































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We have several final approach options, depending on the guidance we have. The types of guidance are described below.

The optimal descent gradient for a non-precision descent is 3º. The minimum gradient is 2.5º, and the maximum is 3.5º. If the glide slope stops working, the procedure becomes a non-precision approximation. These procedures provide obstacle protection, assuming the pilot does not deviate more than half a deflection on the instrument scale. If the pilot deviates more than half a deflection, he/she should abort the approach. During the glide slope, there will be a glide slope check indicated on the chart. The glide slope check indicates the altitude at which we should be at while maintaining the glide slope. It is used to avoid interception of false glide slopes. As we go through that point, we will say, “Glide Slope check, 3927 ft.”

Figure 10.12.3. Glide slope check.

Within these approaches, the most common are the following: ILS, LNAV/VNAV, and LPV. Depending on the weather conditions, there is more than one category of precision final approaches for which the crew and aircraft must be certified.



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With the ILS frequency selected in the NAV1, we will have the indication of the descent path (vertical guidance) in the vertical scale (GS) of the HSI, and the indication of the horizontal profile in the CDI.

Figure 10.12.4. Different approach categories.

PERFORMANCE-BASED NAVIGATION PBN approaches fall within both 2D approaches (LNAV) and 3D approaches (LPV, LNAV/VNAV). Unlike conventional ground station approaches, these approaches are based on information received through GPS systems and ABAS, GBAS, or SBAS augmentation systems for horizontal navigation. Vertical navigation is achieved through baro-VNAV in the cases of LNAV/VNAV and through GPS (augmented by satellite: SBAS) in the cases of LPV.

CONFIGURATION Before landing, we will have to configure the plane by extending the landing gear and flaps. In order to standardize the operation as much as possible, we will always configure them at the same point. As a general rule, we are going to extend the flaps first, the landing gear second, and lastly the final flap configuration. The extension of the flaps will make the aircraft rise momentarily due to the increase in lift force. You will need to counteract the effect by lowering the nose of the aircraft. In normal operation, we will first do the flap extension approximately one minute (2–3 NM) before the start of the



































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final descent or about 8–10 NM from the runway threshold. We will set the landing gear approximately 5–6 NM from the landing point, and at 4 NM we are going to extend the flaps for landing.

Figure 10.14.1. Landing configuration.

We can also do it as follows: In a precision approximation, the glide slope indicator will move on the scale. When we have the glide slope 1½ points above on the HSI, we will extend the flaps and reduce our speed. When the glide slope is 1 point above, we will extend the landing gear, turn on the landing lights, and slow down again.

Figure 10.14.2. Landing configuration.

The authorities do not require a precise way of configuration of the aircraft. We just have to make sure that the aircraft has the final configuration before the stabilized approach check, which is explained in the next section.



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Depending on the operator and the plane, we will do the configuration at different points. It should be noted that the landing gear and the extended flaps create an increase in the plane’s resistance, increasing fuel consumption. For this reason, the later we configure the plane, the more fuel we will save. The flaps have a structural speed limit. Above that speed, the extension could cause structural damage. If at the moment we need to extend our flaps, our speed is above the limit, we could first extend the landing gear, which usually has a higher structural limit, to use the resistance to decelerate to a speed where flaps can safely be extended. The aircraft should be configured for landing at the latest 1,000 ft above the elevation of the touchdown point, which in a 3º descent would be approximately 3 NM from the touchdown point. If for any reason we have to speed up the process, we will delay the configuration, but we will have to be configured at 3 NM/1,000 ft from the touchdown point.

STABILIZED APPROACH During the final segment of the approach we will check that we are flying a stabilized approach, which means that the aircraft configuration is correct and that the engine and pitch / roll parameters are within limits. Each operator should establish the stabilized approach criteria as described in Document 8168. 10.5 As an example, in this manual the stabilized approach will be checked at 1,000 ft above aerodrome level (AAL). In our case, being stabilized will mean the following:

• • •

Landing gear down and locked with three green lights Final flaps configured Landing checklist completed Proper power, not idling

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• • • • •

Pitch between 0 and +5º Bank angle less than 10º Speed between Vref + 10 kt and Vref. Vertical Speed less than 1,000 ft/min Precision approach: LOC deviation < Half scale, GS deviation < half scale Non-precision approach: NDB deviation < +/-5º, VOR deviation < half scale

•

If below 1,000 ft any parameter is no longer within the limits, we will have to abort the approach. There are operators that make up the so-called “gates”, which require certain parameters or actions to be completed to continue. An example of this is having the flaps configured before 2,000 ft AAL. This means that no matter how much we want to speed up the process, we will not be able to go below 2,000 ft AAL if we don’t have the flaps configured.

VISUAL REFERENCES TO LAND To descend below MDA/H or DA/H, you need to have at least one of the following visual references: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i)

The runway Runway threshold Touchdown point markings VASI or PAPI system Approach lighting system Runway lights Threshold lights Touchdown point lights Other references accepted by the authority

















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LANDING Normally, the final approach will be made straight-in, where we will line up to the runway and land, or circling, where we will complete the full approach to the DA/H or MDA/H point and make a turn to complete visual traffic and land on the opposite runway. If we are going to do a circling, we will have to communicate it to the tower.

Figure 10.12.5. Straight-in and circling approaches.

In non-precision approaches, a final segment that deflects less than 30º to the runway is considered straight-in. In precision approaches, the runway must be centered with the final segment.

MISSED APPROACH Lastly, we have the missed approach profile. If for any reason the approach cannot be continued, we would follow this profile. We should start this procedure above DA/H or MDA/H, following what is dictated in the chart.





































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Figure 10.18.1. Missed approach profile.

In this phase, the pilot will apply the maximum power and raise the flaps and landing gear with the intention of starting a climb as quickly as possible. The missed approach begins at the missed approach point (MAPt). If we decide to miss the approach before this point, the approach must be continued until overflying the MAPt point before starting any turn. By default, the gradient of climb in a missed approach will be 2.5%. Due to the orography, it is possible for procedures with higher ascent gradients to be designed, but in those cases this information will be highlighted on the approach chart. The missed approach consists of three phases: initial, intermediate, and final. The initial phase begins at MAPt and ends at the beginning of the climb. There are no turns in this phase. The intermediate phase of a missed approach begins at the





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beginning of the climb. Normally, the ascent continues without turns. This phase extends to the first point where an obstacle-free space of 50 m (164 ft) is obtained. The maximum turn in this phase is 15º. The final phase begins at the point where an obstacle-free space of 50 m (164 ft) is obtained and extends to the point where a new approach, hold, or return to the route begins.

DESCENT CALCULATIONS When we are authorized to initiate an approach, we are directly authorized to descend to the altitude MDA/H or DA/ H, provided that we comply with the minimum altitudes of the approach. The descents will be made differently for precision approaches versus non-precision approaches. But we have to maintain the maximum and minimum vertical velocities of Figure 10.16.1 in all approaches.

Figure 10.16.1. Maximum/minimum descent.

PRECISION In precision approaches, we will have to descend from our current altitude to the glide slope capture altitude to intercept the glide slope from below.







































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In the case of Figure 10.16.2, we will assume we are going to descend from 5,500 ft to 4,500 ft. We will have to reach 4,500 ft a little before the glide slope interception point (5.8 IALR). We can select the vertical speed we want for this descent as long as we stay within the limits of Figure 10.16.1. In this case, we are going to calculate a descent at 500 ft/min. It will take us two minutes to descend 1,000 ft, and if our speed is 120 kt (2 NM/min), we will travel 4 NM on the descent. If we begin the descent just before the turn to inbound, we will reach the glide slope interception altitude at approximately 7.2 NM from IALR.

Figure 10.16.2. Precision approach.

If we started the descent from 7,500 ft, we would advance the beginning of the descent as required, in this case, 8 NM.

NON-PRECISION In non-precision approaches, we will have to descend from our altitude to the minimum descent altitude/height (MDA/











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H), complying with the minimums on the chart and with the maximum and minimum vertical speed regulations in Figure 10.16.1. In the beginnings of instrumental aviation, descents were made in steps, going from minimum to minimum, but this technique requires serious changes in power and pitch at each level of descent, which causes an increase in stress and use of resources. This technique has been the cause of many accidents into the ground (controlled flight into terrain), so the use of the continuous descent final approach (CDFA) technique is now recommended, where a continuous descent to MDA/H is calculated. Some countries require a safety margin to be added above the MDA/H in cases of a CDFA descent.

Figure 10.16.3. Step-by-step descent.

The stepped descent is a relatively easy technique to carry out. We will stay at the minimum altitude at all times. In the case of Figure 10.16.3, as soon as we pass through the VOR, we will descend to 3,300 ft. When we are at 5.0 NM of SSN, we will descend to 1,500 ft, and when we are in the inbound leg, at 8.0 NM of SSN we will begin the final descent. The vertical speed that we will maintain in the final descent will vary depending on our speed on the ground, which we can read in the lower left table (in ft/min). On the other hand, if we are going to make the approach following the continuous descent final approach technique, we will stay at 5,200 ft and descend at a constant vertical speed, starting the descent at a point that we will have to calculate.

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Figure 10.16.4. CDFA.

In this case, we have to descend from 5,200 ft to 50 ft, which is almost 5,200 ft. We are going to maintain a constant 500 ft/min descent, so we will need approximately 10:30 minutes to descend. Let's assume that we will maintain 120 kt of ground speed (GS) during the approach and 90 kt once we configure the landing gear and flaps. At 120 kt, we will travel 2 NM per minute, and at 90 kt, 1.5 NM per minute. With this information, we can calculate that we will have to start descending 3:30 minutes before the turn to approach, as can be seen in the upper part of Figure 10.16.4. After calculating the descent, we will have to check that we comply with the minimums. In this case, we have a minimum 267

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Remember that on the approach chart we will have the indication of the altitude at which we should be in reference to the DME distance to the station.

Figure 10.16.5. Final altitudes chart.

WIND CORRECTION ON APPROACHES Approaches are usually designed so we have a space to hold just before the approach. The inbound leg of the holding will have the initial heading of the approach (+/30º). During the holds the wind will push us during the approach. In an approximation by time, we will have to correct so that the approach time is the same as the one designed. For this, we will use the holding reference time. The reference time is explained in the descent section. In procedures 45–180, base turn, and 80–260, the inbound heading of the hold will be the outbound heading of the approach, and the the outbound heading in the hold will be the inbound heading in the approach. For this reason, we will put the opposite correction that we put on holding. If the approximation had more than one minute, we will multiply the time by the minutes of the approach. In racetrack procedures, the correction will be the same as in the holding.



















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of 1,500 ft until we are 8.0 NM from SSN and another minimum of 3,300 ft until we are 5.0 NM from SSN. We perfectly comply with those limitations. If we do not comply with the limitations, we would have to delay the descent and apply a higher vertical speed, always staying within the limits of Figure 10.16.1.

Figure 10.17.1. Outbound and inbound in holdings and approach.

To explain it in detail, we will use case 1 (tailwind during the inbound approach) and case 2 (headwind during the inbound approach).

Figure 10.17.2. Case 1, tailwind during the approach inbound.

If during the hold for case 1 we are flying outbound 1:20, the reference time will be -10 seconds. In the approach we will subtract 10 seconds from each minute of distance. In this way, the inbound of the approximation will last exactly as calculated. If, for example, the original outbound of the approach lasted 3 minutes, we will do 2:30 in outbound (0:50 x 3 = 2:30).





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Figure 10.17.3. Case 2, headwind during the approach inbound.

If in the holding for case 2, we are flying outbound for 0:50, the reference time will be +20 seconds, in the approach we will add 20 seconds to each minute. If, for example, the outbound of the approach lasted three minutes, we will multiply 1:20x3 and make a four-minute outbound. In this way, the inbound approach will last exactly as calculated. With regard to descent calculations, we will begin to descend in reference to the point where we have to be at the minimum altitude, i.e. the end of the approach. Let's imagine an approach where the outbound takes two minutes, plus the turn and the inbound. It will last five minutes in total. We have calculated that it will take us four minutes to descend to the missed approach point (MAPT). On a day without wind, the approach will resemble Figure 10.17.4.

Figure 10.17.4. Wind correction.

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With today's wind, in the holding we are flying outbound for1:15. The reference time is -7 seconds. Subtracting the 7 seconds from each minute, we decide to fly the approach outbound for 1:45.

Figure 10.17.5. Wind correction.

If we start the descent in reference to the beginning of the approach, for example, thinking, “I have to start the descent one minute after starting the approach”, we will make a correct descent on a day with calm wind, but as can be seen in Figure 10.17.7, we would fall short in the descent with today's wind.

Figure 10.17.6. Wind correction.









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Figure 10.17.7. Wind correction.

But if we start the descent in reference to the end of the approach, thinking, “I have to start the descent four minutes before the end of the approach”, the wind correction will leave the approach time intact, and we will reach the minimum at the calculated point. You can also think of the start of the descent as the time before the turn. In this case, you will begin the descent one minute before the turn begins, 45 seconds after the approach begins.

Figure 10.17.8. Wind correction.

Most approaches are limited by distance. In those cases the corrections described in this chapter do not apply; we must configure the vertical speed and establish a wind correction

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EXAMPLES The previous sections presented the theoretical part of an approach, taking into account the established limitations, the descent calculations, the segments of an approach, etc. This section will explain the actions we will take as pilots when completing an approach.

CONVENTIONAL 3D The most commonly used conventional 3D approaches are ILS. For each ILS approach, we will have a chart like the one in Figure 10.20.1. Let us assume that we come from the 230º course of the VOR BBI and proceed from an altitude of 6,500 ft. We assume that the approach briefing is completed. The first thing we will do is calculate the descent. In this approach, we estimate reaching 4,500 ft, which is the glide slope interception height, at approximately 7 nm from IALR. Flying at 120 kt and at a vertical speed of 500 ft/min. It will take us four minutes and 8 NM to descend 2,000 ft. From end to beginning, traveling the section between D7.0 IALR and D9.2 IALR will take one minute, in the 180º turn another minute, and in the outbound section approximately another two and a half minutes. We will start descending two minutes before the approach turn, 30 seconds after we establish ourselves on the outbound leg. With the descent calculated, we are going to configure the





















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angle. Although it is possible to make exact calculations, due to the complexity of the calculations, it will be sufficient to increase the vertical speed when we have a tailwind in the inbound leg of the approach and to reduce the vertical speed when we have a headwind in the inbound leg of the approach.

radio aids we will use. In the LESA ILS Z rwy 21 approach, two radio aids are used. BBI is used at the beginning of the approach, and once we are aligned with the approach course, IALR is used. This is an ILS frequency that has horizontal indication (locator) and vertical (glide scope). There are several ways to have the indication of the two stations in the cockpit, the first would be to have BBI on NAV1 and NAV2 at the beginning and tune IALR on NAV1 during the turn on approach. The advantage to choosing this mode is we can use the indications of the HSI at all times, which is the most accurate instrument and the one that is best located in our field of sight. The downside is that we will have to change the navaid during the turn to inbound, which will increase our already high workload. The other way to have the indication of the two stations is to select from beginning to end IALR on the NAV1 and BBI on the NAV2 equipment. The negative side is that we will have to use the equipment linked to the NAV2 at the beginning of the approach, but the advantage is that we will not have to change the radio aid during the approach. If there was wind, we would also need to know how to correct for it. In this example, we will assume that there is a calm wind. Once we have everything described above, and the approach checklist completed, we will communicate with the controller to inform them we are ready for the approach. The controller may also contact us to ask and thus authorize us to make the approximation.



“Salamanca A pproach, HTF22 ready for approach.”

“HTF22, cleared for ILS Z runway 21 approach.”



“Cleared ILS Z runway 21. HTF22.”

With this clearance they allow us to start the approach, but we still do not have authorization to land on the runway. For this, we need another authorization.

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Figure 10.20.1. Precision approach chart.

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Once we are cleared to complete the approach, we will go to the point where the approach begins, in this case BBI. The entry to the racetrack approaches will be identical to the holding entry. We suppose that we are approaching the 230º course of the VOR BBI, so we will make a direct entry, turning to the right to be on the 030º course. If we had wind, we would correct it by entering a wind correction angle. The steps we will follow during the approach are illustrated in the following figures and described in the following paragraphs. There are two ways to configure the flaps and landing gear on a precision approach: a configuration based on GS deflection and a configuration based on distance to landing point. In commercial aviation, it is usually configured according to the distance to the landing point. Each approach will have its peculiarities, but in the vast majority of ILS approaches we will follow the same steps.

Figure 10.20.2. Precision approach configured based on distance.

Figure 10.20.3. Precision approach based on glide slope

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deflection.

As we have calculated, we will begin the descent 30 seconds after we settle on the 030º course. We are going to monitor the distance to BBI, and when we get to mile 5.5, we will turn right to the 210º course. If we have BBI in NAV1, we will change the IALR frequency from standby to active during the turn. If we have IALR in NAV1, we will not change the frequency of NAV1, but we will have to change the DME reading to have IALR. The IALR frequency is an ILS frequency, so the maximum deflection on the instrument scale will be 2.5º. We are going to configure the final course (210º) in the HSI. During the turn, the locator will begin to move in the HSI instrument. At that moment, we will make the callout, “LOC ALIVE”. When we are established in the approach course, we will say, “LOC CAPTURED”. Being set on the approach course in an ILS means that the deflection of the localizer is less than half scale 10.7. Once we are established in the approach course, we can descend below the minimum, in this case 5,000 ft. It is critical to check that the DME reading we have is that of the IALR. If we configure according to distance, at 2 NM from the beginning of the descent, we will check the speed. If it is lower than the maximum speed of the first flap extension, we will extend them. We will say, “Speed check” to emphasize that we have checked speed. Before extending the flaps, we will say, “Flap 1”. When the glide slope indicator starts to move, we will say, “Glide slope alive”. Then when the descent path indicator is centered, we will say, “Glide slope captured” and begin the descent, keeping the path indicator centered. Upon reaching approximately 5–6 NM from the landing point, we will say, “Speed check” as we check that the









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speed is lower than the structural limit of the landing gear and then extend the landing gear. We will say, “Landing gear down” then check the light that indicates the landing gear is down and locked. Approximately 4 NM from the touchdown point, we are going to extend the final flaps, first checking the speed while saying, “Speed check” and highlighting the action by saying, “Flaps full”. If we configure according to glide slope, when the GS is at 1.5 points of deflection, we will extend the first flap configuration. Then, when the GS is at 1 point of deflection, we will extend the landing gear, and finally, when we are approximately 4 NM from the touchdown point, we will extend the final flap setting. Then, we will complete the landing checklist. On the landing checklist, the most important things will be to check that the landing gear is down, the flap settings are correct, and that the lights are set. It is usual that at some point during the approach we will be transferred from the approach controller to the tower controller, who will authorize our landing. “HTF22, contact Salamanca Tower in 118.1.”



“With Salamanca Tower in 118.1. HTF22.”



“Salamanca Tower, HTF22 short nal.”

“HTF22, cleared to land, runway 21.”



“Cleared to land runway 21. HTF22.”

The closer we get to the runway, the more sensitive the indications will become, which means that our corrections will have to be lower for an X deflection the closer we are to the ground. During the descent, there will be a point where, staying on the descent path, we should be at a predefined altitude on

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the chart. At that point, we will check that the altitude is correct, and we will say it out loud. In the case of the LESA approach, it will be checked at D4.0 IALR, and we will have to be at 3,927 ft. If that is correct, we will say it as follows, “Glide slope check, 3927 ft”. When we are 1,000 ft above the landing point, we will check that we are on a stabilized approach by calling out, “1000 ft, stabilized”. From this point on, if we stop being stabilized, we must abort the landing. When we are about 500 ft above the minimum, we will review the immediate actions in the case of an aborted landing. When we get to DA/H, we will say, “Minimum” and look outside. If we see the runway, we will continue the landing visually. Before descending below 1000ft from the runway elevation, we will slow down to be at VREF. When we are on the runway, we will flare to land.

CONVENTIONAL 2D The most common non-precision, or 2D approaches, are VOR, NDB, or LOC based approaches. As in precision a p p r o x i m a t i o n s , w e w i l l h a v e a c h a r t fo r e a c h approximation. In the case of the VOR rwy 22 approach, we will assume we are coming from the 010º inbound course and proceeding from an altitude of 5,200 ft. We assume that the approach briefing is completed. The first thing we will do is calculate the descent. Non-precision approximations are based on minimum MDA/ H. In some countries, the final descent based on MDA/H can be converted to continuous descent (CDFA), and among these regulations, part of them will require adding a margin

















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called add-on to ensure that there is no descent below MDA/H, generally +50ft.

Figure 10.21.1. Non-precision chart.



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In this case, we have to descend from 5,200 ft to 50 ft. That is a descent of almost 5,200 ft. We are going to maintain a constant 500 ft/min descent, so we will need approximately ten and a half minutes to descend. Let's assume that we will maintain 120 kt of ground speed (GS) during the approach and 90 kt once we configure the landing gear and the flaps. We will suppose that we will go at approximately 90 kt from 8 NM to the threshold of the track. At 120 kt, we will travel 2 NM per minute, and at 90 kt 1.5 NM per minute. Calculating from the end to beginning of the approach, it will take us 3 minutes from the threshold of the runway to be at 8 NM (at 90 kt). From mile 8 to the turn, it will take 2:30 minutes. Then it will take a minute to turn, and finally, the outbound leg will take 6:30 minutes. With this data, we can calculate that we will need to start descending four and a half minutes before the turn to approach. With the descent calculated, we are going to configure the radio aids that we will use during the approach. In this approach, we will only use the VOR SSN. We will have it configured in NAV1 and NAV2, and we will have BTZ in standby, which is the closest station that is not SSN. If there were wind, we would also need to know how to correct for it. In this example, we will assume that there is a calm wind. Once we have everything described above and the approach checklist completed, we will communicate with the controller to inform them we are ready for the approach. The controller may also contact us and thus authorize us to make the approach.



“San Sebastián Tower, HTF22 ready for approach.”

“HTF22, cleared for VOR runway 22 approach.”



“Cleared for VOR runway 22 approach. HTF22.”

With this clearance, they allow us to start the approach, but we still do not have clearance to land on the runway, for













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this we need another authorization. Once we are cleared to complete the approach, we will go to the point where the approach begins, in this case the VOR SSN.

Figure 10.21.2. Non-precision approach.

We are going to fly outbound on the 027º course, and we will begin the descent at the calculated point: 4:30 minutes before starting the turn. At mile 13 SSN, we will begin the turn to the right. During the turn, we will set the final course (214º) in the HSI. The CDI of the HSI will begin to move during the turn, and at that moment, we will say, “CDI alive”. When the CDI is at a deflection lower than half scale, we will say, “CDI captured”. We will continue with the descent until we are approximately at 8 NM from the touchdown point, where we will check our speed, and if it is less than the flap extension speed, we will extend them. We will say, “Speed check” and then “Flap 1” before extending them. When we arrive approximately 5–6 NM from the landing point, we will check that the speed is lower than the structural limit of the landing gear, saying, “Speed check”, and extend the landing gear as we say, “Landing gear down”. We will then check the light that indicates the landing gear is down and locked. During the approach, we will usually be transferred from the approach controller to the tower controller, who will authorize our landing. In the case of San Sebastián, the complete approach is carried out by San Sebastián Tower,

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so we will not transfer controllers. “HTF22, cleared to land, runway 21.”



“Cleared to land runway 22. HTF22.”

At approximately 4 NM from the touchdown point, we will extend the final flaps after checking the speed. We will say, “Speed check” and the selected flap configuration, “Full flaps” in this case, and complete the landing checklist. On the landing checklist, the most important things will be to check that the landing gear is down, the flap settings are correct, and that the lights are set. When we are 1,000 ft above the landing point, we will check that we are on a stabilzed approach by calling out, “1000 ft, stabilized”. From this point on, if we stop being stabilized, we must abort the landing. When we are about 500 ft above the minimum, we will review the immediate actions in the case of an aborted landing. When we get to MDA/H, we will say, “Minimum” and look outside. If we see the runway, we will continue the landing visually. Before descending below 1000ft from the runway elevation, we will slow down to be at VREF. When we are on the runway, we will flare to land.

PBN APPROACHES Flying PBN-type approaches is almost identical to flying conventional approaches, although there are several aspects that change depending on the approach. The crew, the aircraft, and the operator will have to be certified to fly PBN approaches. Capabilities will be indicated in the flight plan.















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Procedures of this type will have to be configured in the FMS, which vary greatly from system to system. PBN approaches are subject to enhanced RNAV: required navigation performance (RNP). It is assumed that GNSS will be the navigation sensor and, for greater precision, there will be some type of augmentation system: Satellite-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS) Aircraft-Based Augmentation System (ABAS) For aircraft-based augmentation (ABAS) approaches, such as LNAV and LNAV/VNAV, the satellite alert functionality, called RAIM (which requires at least five satellites), must be available. RAIM will verify integrity and signal. Before each approach of this type, we will have to check that RAIM will be available during the approach. Within the PBN approaches, we will have the following types of approaches: • • • • •

LNAV LNAV/VNAV LPV GLS RNP AR APCH

In Figure 10.22.1, we can see an RNP approach chart that brings together LNAV, LNAV/VNAV, and LPV approaches. The chart for PBN approaches is similar to conventional approach charts, but in the descent minima section, we can see the different minimas for each approach type.

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Figure 10.22.1. RNP approach chart.



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LNAV approaches are the first type of RNAV approach. It is a type of 2D approach, which means it gives us only lateral guidance, with a requirement of RNP 1 for the initial and intermediate segments, and a precision requirement that increases to 0.3 NM in the final segment. Instrument deviation is linear, which means that unlike conventional approaches, where accuracy increases as we approach a station, in LNAV approaches the instrument deviation will indicate a distance deviation from our ideal course, creating a kind of corridor.

Figure 10.22.2. LNAV.

As it is a non-precision approach, we will follow the steps of a conventional non-precision approach, configuring the aircraft at the points defined in the configuration section. For an LNAV approach with ABAS augmentation system, RAIM must be available during the entire approach, so we have to check before the approach that RAIM will be available. As it is a non-precision approach, the minima will be based on MDA/H, and we should do a calculated CDFA descent. Depending on the country's regulations, we will have to add a margin of safety to the MDA/H to make sure we don't go below it.

LNAV/VNAV LNAV/VNAV approaches are the second type of RNAV approach. It is a type of 3D approach, which means that we













































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LNAV

have both lateral guidance and vertical guidance. Lateral guidance has a requirement of RNP 1 for the initial and intermediate sections and an accuracy requirement that increases to 0.3 NM in the final section. Instrument deviation in the horizontal and vertical profile, as in an LNAV approach, is linear. The distance indicated by the instrument deviation remains constant during the approach.

Figure 10.22.3. LNAV/VNAV.

As it is a precision approach, the minimums will be based on DA/H and we will follow the steps of a conventional precision approach, configuring the aircraft at the points defined in the Configuration section. For an LNAV/VNAV approach with ABAS augmentation system, RAIM must be available during the entire approach, so we have to check before the approach that RAIM will be available. The baro-VNAV system receives the information through the airplane's barometric systems and will compute them with the on-board computers to provide vertical guidance. Due to the error of indication caused by low temperatures in the barometric system, the approaches that use the baro-VNAV system will have a temperature limitation, indicated on the





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chart. Below these temperatures, an approach using baroVNAV guidance is not allowed. Figure 10.22.4 is an example of an approach that does not allow the use of baro-VNAV below -20ºC.

Figure 10.22.4. LNAV/VNAV.

LPV LPV approaches are the third type of RNAV approach. It is a type of 3D approach, which means that we have both lateral and vertical guidance. Lateral guidance has a requirement of RNP 1 for the initial and intermediate sections and an accuracy requirement that increases to 0.3 NM in the final section. LPV was intentionally designed to be similar to ILS approaches, with an instrument indication that becomes increasingly sensitive as you approach the runway. It has angular deviation from both the localizer and the glide slope, while the deviation of instrument in an LNAV/VNAV is horizontal.

Figure 10.22.5. LNAV.

As it is a precision approach, the minimums will be based on DA/H, and we will follow the steps of a conventional precision approach, configuring the aircraft at the points defined in the configuration section.



































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Figure 10.22.6. LNAV.

The horizontal and vertical guidance is obtained thanks to the RNP system and the SBAS satellite augmentation system. For that reason, it is not necessary to do the RAIM check.

GLS GLS approaches are the fourth and final type of RNAV approach. It is a type of 3D approach, which means that we have both lateral guidance and vertical guidance. Lateral guidance has a requirement of RNP 1 for the initial and intermediate sections and an accuracy requirement that increases to 0.3 NM in the final section. The instrument deviation in the horizontal and vertical profile simulates an ILS, where the deviation of both the locator and the glide slope is angular. The indications of the instruments will become increasingly sensitive as we approach the landing point. As it is a precision approach, the minimums will be based on DA/H, and we will follow the steps of a conventional precision approach, configuring the aircraft at the points defined in the Configuration section. The horizontal and vertical guidance is obtained thanks to the RNP system and the GBAS ground augmentation system. For that reason, it is not necessary to do the RAIM check.











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RNP AR APCH RNP AR APCH operations are approaches used in demanding environments. They require a special authorization for the aircrew, the operator, and the aircraft. This restriction allows you to fly with a level of precision as low as 0.1NM. Figure 10.22.6 shows us an RNAV AR approach at the BISHOP airport.























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Figure 10.22.6. RNP AR approach chart.



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An aircraft is said to fly an overlay approach when it performs a conventional procedure, such as a nonprecision NDB approach, with the help of RNAV systems. In the FMS we can select the available airport approaches, whether they are conventional approaches or RNAV approaches. If we select a conventional approach, the RNAV system can guide us thanks to the flight directors. As it would be a conventional approach, it will also be necessary to configure the conventional instruments for the approach. Apart from the visualization of the reference points, we will have the possibility of transforming practically any final descent into a continuous final descent (CDFA) by means of RNAV system calculations. In some countries, converting a descent to MDA/H in the form of CDFA requires a margin of safety to be added to the MDA/H, which is generally of +50 ft.

MISSED APPROACH If the approach does not go according to plan, we will have to abort the approach. Depending on when we abort the approach, we will have to act more or less quickly, because it is much more dangerous to miss the approach at 50 ft from the ground, than it is to miss the approach at 500 ft. If we find ourselves in the most critical situation of aborting and approach near the ground, we need to return to a climb as quickly and safely as possible. For this, we need to do the following steps: Go to maximum power Pitch up







































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• •











OVERLAY METHOD

• •

Flaps 1 (if we have full flaps) Landing gear up (with positive climb)

If the flaps configuration was Flaps 1, which will be the next configuration to Flaps 0, we will keep that configuration, since removing the flaps will reduce the lift coefficient and cause an immediate slight loss of altitude. We're going to follow the normal takeoff procedures, accelerating to VX, raising the flaps, and reducing power at 400 ft AGL. If we abort above 400 ft AGL, we can do the described when it suits us best, which will be approximately 400 ft above the minimum descent / decision altitude. Once we are in a controlled climb, we will follow the route indicated in the chart and communicate with the same frequency, which will probably be the tower:



“San Sebastián Tower, HTF22 missed approach.”

“HTF22, continue with the published missed approach procedure.”

“Continue with the published procedure. HTF22.” If you have to make a turn, never do it before the point published in the chart. This is a common error that can lead us to fly-over areas of complicated orography while in clouds, which could cause an accident with the ground.













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Figure 10.22.7. Missed approach profile.

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FINAL TAXI After landing at the destination airport, you will be given instructions to taxi. You need to be familiar with the taxiways of the destination airport. In the case of Paris, the airport is so large the taxi areas are divided into several charts; you will have to have all the charts you are going to use at hand. In this case, we are going to land on runway 08L. When we land, we will leave the runway as soon as possible. If we don't already have any indication to follow, we will communicate with the frequency in which we are talking, saying we have cleared the runway. If we know where we have cleared the runway from, we will also communicate it.



“Paris Tower, HTF22. Runway vacated via T9.”

“HTF22, continue until GE10. Then left through TL6 to stand L71.”



“Continue until GE10. Then left through TL6 to stand L71.”

Taxi communications usually have many instructions that we will have to write down so as not to forget them, so be prepared with a paper and pen before making contact. If you do not understand the communication, do not hesitate to ask them to repeat the information. When you get to the parking lot assigned to you, stop the plane, and follow the engine and equipment shutdown procedure.















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Figure 11.1.1. Taxi route at LFPG.

Figure 11.1.2. Taxi route at LFPG.

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When you finish the flight, your flight plan should be closed. In controlled airports, the controller will close the flight plan for you without being prompted, but in most uncontrolled airports, you will have to communicate the finalization of the flight plan with the responsible unit. 11.1 We may have to call by phone or go in person to communicate it. This is very important if you don’t want search and rescue services to be deployed looking for you. With the engine off and the flight plan closed, we will exit the plane to complete the corresponding actions, such as covering the sensors or putting the chocks on. Finally, we will collect our belongings and leave the airport to celebrate the success of a well-executed flight. After years of flying, I found out that the best way to know the destination where you have landed is on a terrace of a local bar with a cold beer. If you want to learn more or confirm any of the information described in the book, you can go to the documents referenced throughout the chapters and read the information from official sources.





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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. INTRODUCTION 2. EQUIPMENT 2.1 ICAO. Annex 10 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Aeronautical Telecommunications. Volume I, Radio Navigational Aids. (Eighth, July 2023). pg. 3-34. (3.4.4.1). 2.2 ICAO. Annex 10 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Aeronautical Telecommunications. Volume I, Radio Navigational Aids. (Eighth, July 2023). pg. 3-34. (3.4.2.2). 2.3 ICAO. Annex 10 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Aeronautical Telecommunications. Volume I, Radio Navigational Aids. (Eighth, July 2023). pg. 3-33. (3.4.1). 2.4 ICAO. Annex 10 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Aeronautical Telecommunications. Volume I, Radio Navigational Aids. (Eighth, July 2023). pg. 3-29. (3.3.2). 2.5 ICAO. Annex 10 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Aeronautical Telecommunications. Volume I, Radio Navigational Aids. (Eighth, July 2023). pg. 3-40. (3.5.3.1.2). 2.6































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2.7 ICAO. Annex 10 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Aeronautical Telecommunications. Volume I, Radio Navigational Aids. (Eighth, July 2023). pg. 3-5. (3.1.3.2.1). 2.8 ICAO. Annex 10 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Aeronautical Telecommunications. Volume I, Radio Navigational Aids. (Eighth, July 2023). pg. 3-6 (3.1.3.3.1). 2.9 ICAO. Annex 10 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Aeronautical Telecommunications. Volume I, Radio Navigational Aids. (Eighth, July 2023). pg. 3-25. (3.1.7.6).

3. FLIGHT PLAN 3.1 ICAO. Annex 6 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Operation of Aircraft. Part I – International Commercial Air Transport – Aeroplanes. (Twelfth Edition, July 2022). pg. 4-9. (4.3.4.1.2). 3.2 notampib.enaire.es. (2019). Icaro XXI. [online] Available at: https://notampib.enaire.es/icaro [Accessed 6 Feb. 2019]. 3.3 https://ais.enaire.es/AIP/AIPS/AMDT_313_2019_AIRAC_03_









































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ICAO. Annex 10 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Aeronautical Telecommunications. Volume I, Radio Navigational Aids. (Eighth, July 2023). pg. 3-40. (3.5.3.1.2).

2019/AIP . html [Accessed 7 Apr. 2019]. 3.4 EASA. AIR OPS. (Revision 21, September 2023). Annex IV – Part-CAT pg.879. ( AMC 1 CAT.OP.MPA.110) 3.5 EASA. AIR OPS. (Revision 21, September 2023). Annex IV – Part-SPA pg.1399. (AMC1 SPA.LVO.100(a)) 3.6 ICAO. Annex 6 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Operation of Aircraft. Part I – International Commercial Air Transport – Aeroplanes. (Twelfth Edition, July 2022). pg. 4-11. (4.3.5.2) 3.7 EASA. AIR OPS. (Revision 21, September 2023). Annex IV – Part-CAT pg.954. (CAT.OP.MPA.182) 3.8 EASA. AIR OPS. (Revision 21, September 2023). Annex IV – Part-CAT pág.960. (AMC5 CA38 T.OP.MPA.182) 3.9 ICAO. Annex 6 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Operation of Aircraft. Part I – International Commercial Air Transport – Aeroplanes. (Twelfth Edition, July 2022). pg. 4-10. (4.3.4.3.1) 3.10 EASA. AIR OPS. (Revision 21, September 2023). Annex IV – Part-CAT pg.954. (AMC1 CAT.OP.MPA.182 )









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3.11 ICAO. Annex 6 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Operation of Aircraft. Part I – International Commercial Air Transport – Aeroplanes. (Twelfth Edition, July 2022). pg. 4-10. (4.3.4.3.2) 3.12 EASA. AIR OPS. (Revision 21, September 2023). Annex VI – Part-NCC pág.1754. (NCC.OP.112) 3.13 EASA. AIR OPS Annex IV. p. 956 (AMC2 CAT.OP.MPA.182) 3.14 EASA. AIR OPS. (Revision 21, September 2023). Annex IV – Part-CAT pg.961. (AMC6 CAT.OP.MPA.182) 3.15 EASA. AIR OPS. (Revision 21, September 2023). Annex IV – Part-CAT pg.964. (AMC9 CAT.OP.MPA.182) 3.16 https://ais.enaire.es/AIP/AIPS/AMDT_327_2020_AIRAC_04_ 2020/ AIP.html [Accessed 17 May. 2020]. 3.17 ICAO. Annex 6 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Operation of Aircraft. Part I – International Commercial Air Transport – Aeroplanes. (Twelfth Edition, July 2022). pg. 4-11. (4.3.5.5) 3.18 ICAO. Annex 6 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Operation of Aircraft. Part I – International Commercial Air Transport – Aeroplanes. (Twelfth Edition,

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July 2022). pg. 4-10. (4.3.6.3) 3.20 EASA. AIR OPS. (Revision 21, September 2023). CAT.OP.MPA.180 3.21 ICAO. Annex 6 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Operation of Aircraft. Part I – International Commercial Air Transport – Aeroplanes. (Twelfth Edition, July 2022). pg. 4-12 – 4-14. (4.3.6.3) 3.22 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-2-2-1 (2.4) 3.23 EASA. AIR OPS. (Revision 21, September 2023). Annex IV – Part-CAT pg.1053. (CAT.POL.A.305) 3.24 EASA. AIR OPS. (Revision 21, September 2023). Annex IV – Part-CAT pg.1094. (CAT.POL.A.330) 3.25 ICAO. Annex 2 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Rules of the Air. (Tenth Edition, July 2005). pg. 3-7. (3.3.1.3) 3.26 ICAO. Annex 2 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Rules of the Air. (Tenth Edition, July 2005). pg. 3-7. (3.3.1.4).



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3.27 ICAO. Doc 4444, Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Air Traffic Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pg. 4-4. (4.4.2.1.1). 3.28 ICAO. Doc 4444, Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Air Traffic Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pg. 4-4. (4.4.2.1.3). 3.29 ICAO. Doc 4444, Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Air Traffic Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pg. A2-3 – A2-16.

4. GROUND OPERATION 4.1 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. III, Flight Procedures. (First Edition, 2018). pg. 6-3-2. (3.4.2). 4.2 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. III, Flight Procedures. (First Edition, 2018). pg. 6-3-3. (3.6). 4.3 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. III, Flight Procedures. (First Edition, 2018). pg. III-5-3-3. (3.5.3). 4.4 ICAO. Doc 4444, Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Air Traffic Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pg. 7-3. (7.3).







 





 



 



























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4.5 ICAO. Doc 4444, Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Air Traffic Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pg. 4-7. (4.5.7.2). 4.6 ICAO. Doc 4444, Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Air Traffic Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pg. 7-4. (7.4.1.2). 4.7 ICAO. Doc 4444, Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Air Traffic Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pg. 4-8. (4.5.7.5). 4.8 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-3-2. (3.2).

5. DEPARTURE 5.1 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-2-2-1. (2.4) 5.2 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-2-2-1 (2.2.1) 5.3 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-2-2-1. (2.4.1)







 









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5.4 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg.II-2-2-2 (2.4.4)

6. AIRWAY 6.1 ICAO. Doc 4444. p. 4-8 (4.5.7.5).

7. PBN 7.1 EASA AIR OPS Page 904 (AMC2 CAT.OP.MPA.126) 7.2 7.2.1 ICAO DOC 9613 Page II-C-1-12 (1.3.4.3.4) 7.3 EASA AIR OPS Page 905 (AMC2 CAT.OP.MPA.126) 7.4 EASA AIR OPS AMC5 CAT.OP.MPA.126 7.5 ICAO DOC 9613 Page II-C-5-12 (5.3.4.4.7) 7.6 ICAO DOC 9613 Page II-C-6-17 (6.4.2.6.8)































































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7.7 EASA AIR OPS Page 908 (AMC6 CAT.OP.MPA.126)

8. MANEUVERS 8.1 ICAO. Doc 4444, Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Air Traffic Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pg. 4-16. (4.11.2) 8.2 ICAO. Doc 4444, Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Air Traffic Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pg. 4-8. (4.5.7.5).

9. DESCENT 9.1 ICAO. Doc 4444, Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Air Traffic Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pg. 4-14. (4.10.4) 9.2 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-6-2-1. (2.1.2). 9.3 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-6-2-6.





















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9.4 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-6-2-4. (2.2.9.1). 9.5 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg.II-6-2-6 . 9.6 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. I-6-2-2. 9.7 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-6-2-5 (2.3.2) 9.8 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-6-2-1. (2.1.4). 9.9 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-6-2-2.

10. APPROACH 10.1 ICAO ANNEX 6 Part I 4-6 (4.2.8.3.) 10.2 EASA AIR OPS Page 966 (GM3 CAT.OP.MPA.182 (C))















































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10.3 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-5-3-2 (3.2.2.) 10.4 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth edition, 2018). pg. II-5-1-1 (1.2.4.2) 10.5 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. III, Flight Procedures. (First Edition, 2018). pg. 5-3-1 (Section 5 Chapter 3.3) 10.6 EASA. AIR OPS. (Revision 21, September 2023). Annex IV – Part-CAT pg.1033. (CAT.OP.MPA.305). 10.7 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-5-3-4. (3.3.4 a). 10.9 ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-5-3-5 . (Table II-5-3-1)

11. FINAL TAXI 11.1 ICAO. Annex 2 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Rules of the Air. (Tenth Edition, July 2005). pg. 3-9. (3.3.5).















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