How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds [1 ed.] 9783954895069, 9783954890064

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Philipp Pachler

How collages reveal your deepest thoughts

Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

A guide to consumers' minds

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Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Philipp Pachler How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds Buch-ISBN: 978-3-95489-006-4 PDF-eBook-ISBN: 978-3-95489-506-9 Fabrication: Anchor Academic Publishing, an Imprint of Diplomica® Verlag GmbH, Hamburg, 2014

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Dieses Werk ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Die dadurch begründeten Rechte, insbesondere die der Übersetzung, des Nachdrucks, des Vortrags, der Entnahme von Abbildungen und Tabellen, der Funksendung, der Mikroverfilmung oder der Vervielfältigung auf anderen Wegen und der Speicherung in Datenverarbeitungsanlagen, bleiben, auch bei nur auszugsweiser Verwertung, vorbehalten. Eine Vervielfältigung dieses Werkes oder von Teilen dieses Werkes ist auch im Einzelfall nur in den Grenzen der gesetzlichen Bestimmungen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes der Bundesrepublik Deutschland in der jeweils geltenden Fassung zulässig. Sie ist grundsätzlich vergütungspflichtig. Zuwiderhandlungen unterliegen den Strafbestimmungen des Urheberrechtes. Die Wiedergabe von Gebrauchsnamen, Handelsnamen, Warenbezeichnungen usw. in diesem Werk berechtigt auch ohne besondere Kennzeichnung nicht zu der Annahme, dass solche Namen im Sinne der Warenzeichen- und Markenschutz-Gesetzgebung als frei zu betrachten wären und daher von jedermann benutzt werden dürften. Die Informationen in diesem Werk wurden mit Sorgfalt erarbeitet. Dennoch können Fehler nicht vollständig ausgeschlossen werden und der Verlag, die Autoren oder Übersetzer übernehmen keine juristische Verantwortung oder irgendeine Haftung für evtl. verbliebene fehlerhafte Angaben und deren Folgen. © Diplomica Verlag GmbH http://www.diplomica-verlag.de, Hamburg 2014

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Table of contents List of tables ............................................................................................................................... 9 List of figures ........................................................................................................................... 12 1

2

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 13 1.1

Problem statement .................................................................................................... 13

1.2

Aim of the book........................................................................................................ 14

1.3

Outlook ..................................................................................................................... 15

Accessing and retrieving brand knowledge ...................................................................... 18 2.1

2.1.1

It is all about representations. ............................................................................. 18

2.1.2

Consumer memory ............................................................................................. 18

2.1.3

Brand knowledge structures ............................................................................... 20

2.1.4

Consumers think visually ................................................................................... 21

2.2

Overview ............................................................................................................ 22

2.2.2

Heuristics and biases .......................................................................................... 23

Brand knowledge retrieval ....................................................................................... 24

2.3.1

Qualitative research ............................................................................................ 24

2.3.2

Projective techniques.......................................................................................... 24

2.4

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Challenges in retrieving brand knowledge ............................................................... 22

2.2.1 2.3

3

Assumptions on brand knowledge representation .................................................... 18

2.3.2.1

Verbal methods ........................................................................................... 25

2.3.2.2

Nonverbal methods ..................................................................................... 26

Characteristics and applications of collages in marketing ....................................... 27

2.4.1

History of collages ............................................................................................. 28

2.4.2

Characteristics, advantages and limitations of collages ..................................... 29

2.4.3

Collages applied in marketing ............................................................................ 30

Analyzing visually retrieved brand knowledge ................................................................ 33 3.1

Understanding the meaning of signs: semiotics and hermeneutics .......................... 33

3.1.1

Semiotics ............................................................................................................ 33

3.1.2

Hermeneutics ...................................................................................................... 35

3.2

Metaphor analysis in interpreting collages............................................................... 37

3.2.1

Metaphors as cognitive constructs ..................................................................... 37

3.2.2

Metaphors versus image schemata ..................................................................... 38

3.2.2.1

Types of image schemata ............................................................................ 40

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

3.2.3 3.3

4

Visual metaphors as sources of brand knowledge ............................................. 42

Color theory in interpreting collages ........................................................................ 43

3.3.1

What colors reveal about customers................................................................... 43

3.3.2

Same color, different meaning ........................................................................... 44

3.3.2.1

White – the “godlike” color ........................................................................ 46

3.3.2.2

Black – the “negative” color ....................................................................... 46

3.3.2.3

Red – the color of fire ................................................................................. 46

3.3.2.4

Blue – the color of infinite dimensions ....................................................... 47

3.3.2.5

Gray – the “boring” color ........................................................................... 47

3.3.2.6

Green – the color of life .............................................................................. 48

3.3.2.7

Yellow – the “sunny” color......................................................................... 48

3.4

A communication psychological view on collages .................................................. 48

3.5

Structural analysis of collages .................................................................................. 50

Empirical study ................................................................................................................. 51 4.1

Data collection and sample ...................................................................................... 51

4.2

Data analysis ............................................................................................................ 52

4.2.1

Empathy and mentalizing as justification for this work ..................................... 52

4.2.2

The multi-layered interpretation process............................................................ 54

4.2.2.1

Metaphor analysis – method and procedure ............................................... 54

4.2.2.2

Color theory – method and procedure ........................................................ 57

4.2.2.3

Communication model – method and procedure ........................................ 57

4.2.2.4

Structural analysis – method and procedure ............................................... 58

4.2.2.5

Cross validation procedure ......................................................................... 58

4.2.3

Findings and results ............................................................................................ 59

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4.2.3.1

Interpretation of collages and interviews by the researcher........................ 59

4.2.3.1.1

Collage 1bm0407h ................................................................................ 59

4.2.3.1.2

Collage 1bh0506f ................................................................................. 70

4.2.3.1.3

Collage 1bc0109m ................................................................................ 79

4.2.3.1.4

Collage 1bf1205i .................................................................................. 91

4.2.3.1.5

Collage 2bd0407r ............................................................................... 101

4.2.3.1.6

Collage 2bv0809r ............................................................................... 110

4.2.3.1.7

Collage 2ba0309e ............................................................................... 120

4.2.3.1.8

Collage 2bm1005n .............................................................................. 133

4.2.3.1.9

Collage 2bk0109n ............................................................................... 143

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

4.2.3.1.10 Collage 2bm0907r .............................................................................. 153 4.2.3.2

Information gained from metaphor analysis of collages........................... 161

4.2.3.3

Information gained from color theory in collages .................................... 166

4.2.3.4

Information gained from communication model ...................................... 170

4.2.3.5

Information gained from structural analysis ............................................. 173

4.2.3.6

Information gained from metaphor analysis of interviews ....................... 175

4.2.3.7

Differences in results between collages and interviews ........................... 179

Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 188

6

Managerial implications and future research .................................................................. 193

7

References ....................................................................................................................... 195

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5

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved. Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

List of tables Table 1: Image schemata by Johnson (1990, p. 126) ............................................................... 40 Table 2: Metaphor analysis (collage 1bm0407h) ..................................................................... 61 Table 3: Color theory (collage 1bm0407h) .............................................................................. 62 Table 4: Communication model (collage 1bm0407h).............................................................. 65 Table 5: Structural analysis (collage 1bm0407h) ..................................................................... 65 Table 6: Interview (collage 1bm0407h) ................................................................................... 68 Table 7: Aggregation of meanings (collage 1bm0407h) .......................................................... 70 Table 8: Metaphor analysis (collage 1bh0506f) ....................................................................... 71 Table 9: Color theory (collage 1bh0506f) ................................................................................ 73 Table 10: Communication model (collage 1bh0506f) ............................................................. 75 Table 11: Structural analysis (collage 1bh0506f) .................................................................... 75 Table 12: Interview (collage 1bh0506f) ................................................................................... 77 Table 13: Aggregation of meanings (collage 1bh0506f) ......................................................... 79 Table 14: Metaphor analysis (collage 1bc0109m) ................................................................... 81 Table 15: Color theory (collage 1bc0109m) ............................................................................ 83 Table 16: Communication model (collage 1bc0109m) ............................................................ 85 Table 17: Structural analysis (collage 1bc0109m) ................................................................... 85 Table 18: Interview (collage 1bc0109m) ................................................................................. 89 Table 19: Aggregation of meanings (collage 1bc0109m) ........................................................ 91 Table 20: Metaphor analysis (collage 1bf1205i)...................................................................... 92 Table 21: Color theory (collage 1bf1205i) ............................................................................... 94 Table 22: Communication model (collage 1bf1205i) .............................................................. 96 Table 23: Structural analysis (collage 1bf1205i) ..................................................................... 96

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Table 24: Interview (collage 1bf1205i) .................................................................................... 99 Table 25: Aggregation of meanings (collage 1bf1205i) ........................................................ 101 Table 26: Metaphor analysis (collage 2bd0407r) ................................................................... 102 Table 27: Color theory (collage 2bd0407r) ............................................................................ 103 Table 28: Communication model (collage 2bd0407r) ........................................................... 105 Table 29: Structural analysis (collage 2bd0407r) .................................................................. 105 Table 30: Interview (collage 2bd0407r) ................................................................................. 108 Table 31: Aggregation of meanings (collage 2bd0407r) ....................................................... 110

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

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Table 32: Metaphor analysis (collage 2bv0809r) ................................................................... 112 Table 33: Color theory (collage 2bv0809r) ............................................................................ 113 Table 34: Communication model (collage 2bv0809r) ........................................................... 115 Table 35: Structural analysis (collage 2bv0809r) .................................................................. 115 Table 36: Interview collage (2bv0809r) ................................................................................. 118 Table 37: Aggregation of meanings (collage 2bv0809r) ....................................................... 120 Table 38: Metaphor analysis (collage 2ba0309e) .................................................................. 122 Table 39: Color theory (collage 2ba0309e)............................................................................ 124 Table 40: Communication model (collage 2ba0309e) ........................................................... 126 Table 41: Structural analysis (collage 2ba0309e) .................................................................. 126 Table 42: Interview (collage 2ba0309e)................................................................................. 131 Table 43: Aggregation of meanings (collage 2ba0309e) ....................................................... 133 Table 44: Metaphor analysis (collage 2bm1005n) ................................................................. 135 Table 45: Color theory (collage 2bm1005n) .......................................................................... 136 Table 46: Communication model (collage 2bm1005n).......................................................... 138 Table 47: Structural analysis (collage 2bm1005n) ................................................................. 138 Table 48: Interview (collage 2bm1005n) ............................................................................... 141 Table 49: Aggregation of meanings (collage 2bm1005n) ...................................................... 143 Table 50: Metaphor analysis (collage 2bk0109n) .................................................................. 145 Table 51: Color theory (collage 2bk0109n) ........................................................................... 146 Table 52: Communication model (collage 2bk0109n) ........................................................... 148 Table 53: Structural analysis (collage 2bk0109n) .................................................................. 148 Table 54: Interview (collage 2bk0109n) ................................................................................ 151 Table 55: Aggregation of meanings (collage 2bk0109n) ....................................................... 152 Table 56: Metaphor analysis (collage 2bm0907r).................................................................. 154 Table 57: Color theory (collage 2bm0907r) ........................................................................... 155 Table 58: Communication model (collage 2bm0907r) .......................................................... 157 Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

Table 59: Structural analysis (collage 2bm0907r) ................................................................. 157 Table 60: Interview (collage 2bm0907r) ................................................................................ 160 Table 61: Aggregation of meanings (collage 2bm0907r) ...................................................... 161 Table 62: Most common image schemata (visual metaphor analysis)................................... 164 Table 63: Key brand meanings (visual metaphor analysis) ................................................... 166 Table 64: Most common colors (color theory)....................................................................... 169 Table 65: Key brand meanings (color theory) ....................................................................... 170 10

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Table 66: Key brand meanings (communication model) ....................................................... 173 Table 67: Structural characteristics (structural analysis) ....................................................... 174 Table 68: Most common image schemata (verbal metaphor analysis) .................................. 178 Table 69: Key brand meanings (verbal metaphor analysis) ................................................... 179 Table 70: Characteristics (collages & interviews) ................................................................. 180 Table 71: Most common image schemata (collages & interviews) ....................................... 182

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Table 72: Key brand meanings (collages & interviews) ........................................................ 187

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List of figures

Figure 1: Collage 1bm0407h .................................................................................................... 60 Figure 2: Collage 1bh0506f...................................................................................................... 70 Figure 3: Collage 1bc0109m .................................................................................................... 80 Figure 4: Collage 1bf1205i ...................................................................................................... 91 Figure 5: Collage 2bd0407r.................................................................................................... 101 Figure 6: Collage 2bv0809r.................................................................................................... 111 Figure 7: Collage 2ba0309e ................................................................................................... 120 Figure 8: Collage 2bm1005n .................................................................................................. 134 Figure 9: Collage 2bk0109n ................................................................................................... 144

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Figure 10: Collage 2bm0907r ................................................................................................ 153

12

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

1 Introduction 1.1 Problem statement A deeper understanding of how consumers think, feel and act is vital to the success of management and provides valuable information for managerial decision making in many areas of marketing (Christensen & Olson, 2002; Keller, 2003). One key to this understanding is brand knowledge. Keller (2003) stated that customer brand knowledge was the representation of a brand in consumers’ minds. A brand is more than a logo; it is a complex system of ideas, attributes and associations (Gardner & Levy, 1955). Mental representations are experiences and knowledge transformed and retained in mind for later retrieval (Tulving, 2007). All representations in the brain build up human memory (Dudai, 2007), which consists of multiple systems (Squire, 1987). In memory, experiences and knowledge can be represented verbally and nonverbally (Wyer & Radvansky, 1999; Woodside, 2004) and can function at a conscious and unconscious level (Paivio, 1986); consequently, different memory systems contain different forms of knowledge (Rolls, 2007). Most of the earlier research on brand knowledge (Anderson & Bower, 1973; Gutman, 1982; Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1993) assumed that mental representations were mainly verbal in nature (Costa, Schoolmester, Dekker & Jongen, 2003). However, recent research in psychology and neurobiology has found that images play a major role in consumers’ minds (Costa et al., 2003), as most thoughts originate from images (Damasio, 1994; Pinker, 1994; Zaltman & Coulter, 1995; Zaltman, 1997). Therefore this book focuses on a more visual-based view and takes Christensen and Olson’s (2002) perspective of brand knowledge into account, which stated that mental representations were so-called mental models and rather image-based as opposed to word-based. This book uses the term “image schema” coined by Johnson (1990) rather than mental models. An image schema is a chief mental structure in the human mind based on experiences (Johnson, 1990). Unfortunately, a substantial amount of relevant knowledge within consumers’ minds, including image schemaCopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

ta, is unconscious and cannot be retrieved, accessed and recalled by customers (Woodside, 2006). As a consequence, certain methods of retrieval are required (Woodside 2004, 2006), such as projective techniques. As a part of qualitative research, projective techniques attempt to circumvent this problem by disguising the true purpose of a study and using methods that do not necessarily require verbal communication (Donoghue, 2000; Steinman, 2009). Such techniques are able to uncover unconscious personal information about respondents by removing social and psychological barriers (Will, Eadie, & MacAskill, 1996; Donoghue, 2000).

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The method this book works with is the collage technique, an expressive projective method (Rook, 2006). The collage technique requires participants to cut out pictures from magazines and to assemble them on a piece of paper (Moisander & Valtonen, 2006). The collage gained popularity during the last century and became an important medium of expression (Davis & Butler-Kisber, 1999). It was first used as a therapeutic form of psychotherapy in the 70s (Buck & Provancher, 1972; Olson, 2000) and gained popularity from then on (Moritani, 1993; Beck, 1998; Takata, 2002; Johnson & Sullivan-Marx, 2006; Meguro, Ishizaki, & Meguro, 2009). However, it took the collage two decades to find its way into the field of marketing (Zaltman & Coulter, 1995; Havlena & Holak, 1996). One of the main benefits of collages is their ability to enable participants to communicate unconscious feelings, ideas and perceptions (Blümelhuber, 2004). Zaltman and Coulter (1995) and Havlena and Holak (1996) were the earliest to utilize the collage technique in marketing research (Costa et al., 2003; Moisander & Valtonen, 2006; Saunders, 2006). Zaltman & Coulter (1995) developed the Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET), a tool that assisted in the understanding of consumers’ mental models by creating collages and eliciting metaphors. Havlena and Holak (1996) explored nostalgia with the help of the collage technique. Although the collage technique is used as a popular marketing tool in several studies (Belk, Ger, & Askegaard, 1997, 2003; Costa et al., 2003; Chaplin & John, 2005; Saunders, 2009), two major shortcomings are encountered across the board. Firstly, most studies base their analysis and interpretation of collages on participants’ statements, focusing primarily on verbal data. Secondly, few studies provide a comprehensible guideline to assist in the interpretation of collages. Although visuals are central to meaning, understanding, and reasoning, none of the theories of meaning widely used today offer any serious theory of interpretation (Johnson, 1990). The problem is obvious; there is hardly any method for the analysis and interpretation of collages without the use of any additional information given by respondents.

1.2 Aim of the book Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

The aim of this book is to create a multi-layered approach that facilitates the interpretation of collages without the need of any additional information given by the participants, based on metaphor analysis (Johnson, 1990; Seitz, 1998; Niedermair, 2001; Schmitt, 1997, 2003; Schmieder, 2006; Lakoff & Johnson, 2008), color theory (Frieling & Auer, 1961; Itten, 1962; Riedel, 1986; Braem, 1998; Heller, 1998), a communication model (Schulz von Thun, 1992; Holzbrecher & Tell, 2006) and structural analysis. A standardized multi-layered approach to

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Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

collage interpretation independent from additional information could be a very valuable resource in marketing research.

This book attempts answer the following research questions: - Is it possible to interpret collages without any additional information from respondents? - What information can be gained from this interpretation? - Are there any differences between the results of visual and verbal analysis?

The research questions are answered by a three-step procedure consisting of: a visual interpretation of collages, a verbal interpretation of additional interviews given by participants, and a comparison of the results of both interpretations. Note that the researcher strictly followed this sequence in order to avoid any potential bias from interviews. Step three fulfills two purposes. Firstly, it functions as a cross-validation procedure in order to assure validity, which is the extent to which the results of the interpretation of collages coincide with the intended meaning of their creators. This book assumes that the intended meanings of participants are stated in the interviews. Beyond that, it determines the value of the multi-layered approach in direct comparison to other procedures. Secondly, valuable information can be gathered by the comparison of visual and verbal interpretation results, as the differences identified may provide interesting information on expressive capabilities of consumers. Differences could indicate that either customers are not able to express their intended meanings, or that visual and verbal analysis focuses on different kinds of information.

1.3 Outlook Following the preface, chapter 2 introduces the reader to brand knowledge and how it is accessed as well as retrieved. The first section explains how consumers’ minds work and demonstrates the decisive role of mental representations. Different forms of representations are stored in distinct systems of consumer memory forming diverse structures of brand Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

knowledge. The major distinctions are made between implicit/explicit (Schacter, 1987), declarative/procedural (Cohen & Squire, 1980) and semantic/episodic memory (Tulving 1972). The earlier perspectives of brand knowledge evolved from a verbal view-point, such as associative network theory (Anderson & Bower, 1973) and means-end chain theory (Gutman, 1982), to a more visual view, including mental models (Christensen & Olson, 2002). The following section discusses the challenges faced in the retrieval of brand knowledge and explains when and why they occur. Following on from this, techniques for brand knowledge

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retrieval, particularly verbal and nonverbal projective techniques are outlined. In the final section there is a thorough discussion of history, characteristics, advantages, limitations and applications of collages. From accessing and retrieving brand knowledge in chapter 2, the book continues with the analysis of brand knowledge in chapter 3. The chapter opens with an explanation of the meaning of signs based on semiotics and hermeneutics. Semiotics is the study of signs (Mick, 1986) and is largely influenced by the Saussurean (1983) and Peircean (1965-67) paradigms. Although semiotics is popular in investigating signs, the advantages are clearly outweighed by the disadvantages, making it a rather unsuitable approach for analyzing visuals (Mick, Burroughs, Hetzel, & Brannen, 2004; Rose, 2007). Hermeneutics, the theory of interpretation, offers more opportunities in terms of examining meaning of signs (Madison, 1990). An important part of hermeneutics is the hermeneutic circle, which relates part and whole in a circular way (Hoy, 1982) and analyzes signs on three levels; namely, semantics, the meaning of signs; pragmatics, the relationship of signs; and syntactics, the structure of signs (Niedermair, 2001). Through the application of certain approaches a three-level analysis of signs is possible. The first is a metaphor analysis in order to interpret semantics of collages. The dominant paradigm of metaphor analysis (el Refaie, 2003), the cognitive metaphor theory (Lakoff & Johnson, 2008) is introduced in this section. A metaphor is the expression of one kind of thing in terms of another (Lakoff & Johnson, 2008). The term “cognitive” stands for mental processes. Metaphor analysis builds upon the concept of image schemata, as metaphors provide vehicles for customers to express image schemata (Johnson, 1990). The aim of this procedure is to identify these underlying schemata and to gain brand knowledge by examining existing metaphors. Explaining the distinction between image schemata and metaphors is crucial and done so in the continuation of this section. Examples are provided, characteristics and relationships are discussed, and the most common types of image schemata are outlined. Finally a discussion on the singularities of visual metaphors concludes this section. The second apCopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

proach is color theory, which provides additional information on semantics. In this section the impacts of colors on customers and their behaviors are addressed (Riedel, 1986; Heller, 1998) in addition to color theory’s ability to reveal experiences, perceptions and meanings of brands (Aslam, 2006). The section concludes with an illustration of the various meanings of the colors white, black, red, blue, gray, green and yellow. The third approach is Schulz von Thun’s (1992) four sides model used to analyze the collage’s pragmatics. The model assumes that each piece of information possesses four different aspects of information: a matter, self16

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

revelation, relationship and appeal layer. The last approach in the interpretation of collages is the identification of syntactics, based on the analysis of structural characteristics of collages by the researcher. Chapter 4 covers the empirical element of this book. In this chapter the interpretation process is explained in greater detail and subsequently applied to ten collages created as part of an empirical study by Koll, von Wallpach and Kreuzer (2010). Firstly, the ten collages are interpreted visually by using the approaches outlined above and secondly, the interpretation process is applied to the ten interviews relating to the collages. Findings and results of the visual and verbal interpretations for each approach are subsequently illustrated. Beyond that, the results and meanings of visual and verbal analyses are compared in order to gain further information. Chapter 5 summarizes general results and findings and discusses limitations of the single approaches in the interpretation process, whereas chapter 6 outlines managerial impli-

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cations and future research.

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2 Accessing and retrieving brand knowledge 2.1 Assumptions on brand knowledge representation 2.1.1

It is all about representations. Accessing and retrieving brand knowledge provides valuable information for under-

standing consumer behavior in marketing (Christensen & Olson, 2002; Keller, 2003). To be able to access and retrieve brand knowledge, it is important to find out how consumers process and store information. When people experience their environment, neurons (nerve cells) in the brain change (Tulving, 2007). This change of neurons forms mental representations, which retain the experience and make it available for later retrieval (Tulving, 2007); this process of forming permanent representations is called encoding (Hasselmo, 2007). A representation is a type of code that determines how elements are expressed in a certain system (Kosslyn, 1994). Representations are unique to every situation and individual and structure people’s behaviors (Rose, 2007). Knowledge and experiences are encoded and stored as experience-dependent representations in human brains, constituting memory (Dudai, 2007). Memory is the representation of past experiences lasting over time (Schacter, 2007), or in a broader sense the capacity to encode, store and retrieve information (Tulving, 2000). Representations make sense of people’s everyday lives and are perceived as truth or fantasy, science or commonsense and conveyed via speech, art, television, dreams and so on (Rose, 2007). In short, mental representations display how brand knowledge is organized in memory (Hutchinson & Eisenstein, 2008). The question of how consumers represent information mentally and how behavior is affected is not completely solved yet and still considered a problem in neuroscience (Paivio, 1986; Kosslyn, 1994; Dudai, 2007). To provide a better understanding of representations and information processing, the next section elaborates on different forms of consumer memory.

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2.1.2

Consumer memory Memory is more than simply a record of our past; it is the controller of all human be-

havior, including speech, cognition and knowledge (Mantonakis, Whittlesea, & Yoon, 2008). Memory consists of multiple dissociable brain systems capable of changing behavior, emotion and thought based on experiences (Squire, 1987; Johnson, 2007). The human memory system can be distinguished in terms of conceptual structures, types of content, types of processes and brain structures (Johnson, 2007). The long-term memory is divided into declarative and procedural memory (Cohen & Squire, 1980). The declarative memory contains memories 18

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

consciously acquired and stores all that we have learned about the world. The procedural memory contains skills and abilities acquired unconsciously (Cohen & Squire, 1980). Declarative knowledge is reflected in information that is retrieved consciously, whereas procedural knowledge is reflected in cognitive acts, which are retrieved unconsciously (Wyer, 2008; Cohen & Squire, 1980). The explicit and implicit memory is similar to the declarative and procedural memory, and is about the role of consciousness in performance (Mantonakis, Whittlesea, & Yoon, 2008). Schacter (1987) explained that explicit memory was the conscious acquisition and recall of information in the past, while implicit memory referred to performing tasks based on past experiences not consciously recalled. The declarative memory is divided further into semantic and episodic memory (Tulving, 2002). Semantic memory receives and stores context-free and abstract knowledge such as words and verbal symbols, and their meanings and relations and does not require effort to recall (Tulving, 1972, 2002). Episodic memory contains context-related and event-related information about past experiences and their relations and requires conscious recollection (Tulving, 1972, 2002; Mantonakis et al., 2008). Representations in episodic memory are mainly stored in terms of interrelated stories (Wyer, 2008) that can be described by spatial and temporal attributes (Tulving, 1972). Individuals have the potential for unlimited storage of episodic memory that can additionally be easily retrieved, since everyday experiences are immediately and temporarily stored in the hippocampus and then transferred to a long-term storage in the neocortex (Swap, Leonard, Shields, & Abrams, 1991). Knowledge and experiences people possess are represented in different modalities in their minds; much knowledge is coded verbally, but a large portion is nonverbal (Wyer & Radvansky, 1999; Woodside, 2004). Beyond that, verbal representations, such as words, phrases, numbers and facts, as well as nonverbal representations, such as images, maps and feelings, both function at a conscious and unconscious level (Paivio, 1986). This is due to the fact that memory is based upon two different thinking styles: rational thinking including analytical, deliberate and verbal processes, and experiential thinking involving intuitive, narrative and nonverbal processes (Epstein, 1994). Experiential thinking forms imCopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

ages, metaphors and narratives, while rational thinking encodes reality in symbols, words and numbers (Epstein, 1994). The specific thinking styles lead to different information processing (Epstein, 1994), which results in different aspects of brand knowledge in each memory system (Rolls, 2007). Some contain more verbal and conscious information, such as semantic, explicit and declarative memory and others more nonverbal and unconscious data, such as episodic, implicit and procedural memory (Cohen & Squire, 1980; Schacter, 1987; Tulving, 2002). As a consequence, different methods for retrieval are required (Woodside, 2004, 2006)

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which are discussed in section 2.3. But first different theories of brand knowledge representations are outlined. 2.1.3

Brand knowledge structures A major theory of brand knowledge in consumer research is the associative network

theory also known as the associative memory model (Anderson & Bower, 1973). This model assumes that knowledge is organized in networks of nodes which create certain knowledge structures (Henderson, Iacobucci & Calder, 2002). Nodes are units of information that are activated by processing data or by activation of linked nodes (Keller, 1993) and can include verbal descriptions, visual representations, sensory or emotional impressions (Supphellen, 2000). This theory has especially been adopted by the semantic/episodic view of memory (Mantonakis et al., 2008). Keller (1993) based his model of brand knowledge on associative network theory and conceptualized brand knowledge as “a brand node in memory to which a variety of associations are linked” (Keller, 1993, p. 3). In general, Keller (2003) defined brand knowledge in terms of “the personal meaning about a brand stored in consumer memory, that is, all descriptive and evaluative brand-related information” (p. 596). Keller (1993) determined two major components of brand knowledge: brand awareness and brand image. Brand awareness is the ability “to identify a brand under different conditions” (Keller, 1993, p. 3) and consists of brand recognition and brand recall. Brand image is the “perception about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory” (Keller, 1993, p. 3). The types of brand associations (attributes, benefits or attitudes) differ along the dimensions of favorability, strength and uniqueness. The content and structure of brand knowledge influence what comes to mind when customers think about a brand, and therefore impacts the power of a brand and the effectiveness of marketing strategies (Keller, 1993, 2009). Aaker (1991) based his model of brand equity on the associative memory model. Brand knowledge forms the basis of brand equity (Keller, 2003) and is the value added or subtracted by assets and liabilities linked to a brand (Aaker, 1991). In other words, brand equity is “the differential Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand” (Keller, 1993, p. 8). Aaker (1991) determined brand awareness, brand associations, perceived quality, and brand loyalty as the dimensions of brand equity. Earlier research (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1993) focused more on verbal (as opposed to nonverbal) representations in associative networks and emphasized brand knowledge largely consisting of semantic memory. It neglects nonverbal and unconscious information found in other memory systems, such as episodic memory (Tulving, 1972). In recent years, there has been a shift from tangible and product-

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Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

related information to more abstract, intangible and product-unrelated aspects (Keller, 2009). It is no longer only about facts linked to a brand, but about thoughts, feelings, perceptions, images and experiences that form associative networks in consumer memory (Keller, 2009). Despite this shift, these models still rely on the associative network theory, which emphasizes information that is conscious and readily available, neglecting most unconscious information (Anderson & Bower, 1973). Moreover this model focuses on information in nodes per se and ignores structure and links between them (Christensen & Olson, 2002). A second theory of representation of brand knowledge is the means-end chain theory (Gutman, 1982). This model links attributes of products and brands to consequences which hold particular personal value. The consequences provide valuable benefits for consumers leading to a choice of products and brands based upon certain attributes (Gutman, 1982). Although this approach focuses more on structure, it does not provide much information on content, as structure only determines how the content is organized and not its implicit meaning (Christensen & Olson, 2002). 2.1.4

Consumers think visually A third perspective of brand knowledge is Christensen and Olson’s (2002) focus on

structure and content. Christensen and Olson (2002) shifted further towards nonverbal brand knowledge defining it as mental models, namely mental representations about brands and products in memory. Product perceptions, brand attitudes and attributes as well as brand personalities interrelate and form mental models defining the meanings of a brand. This in turn guides consumers’ thinking, reactions and behavior relating to that brand (Christensen & Olson, 2002). The advantage of this perspective is that mental models incorporate not only attitudes, symbols and attributes, but also emotions, feelings, values, images, events and sensory experiences (Christensen & Olson, 2002). Wyer and Radvansky (1999) supported this view and stated that nonverbal brand knowledge consisted of mental models involving visual and acoustic components. This definition of brand knowledge is consistent with recent developments in psychology and neurobiology, which find that the role of visuals in the context of Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

consumer behavior is more significant than first assumed (Costa et al., 2003). According to Blümelhuber (2004) we live in a visual age and most thoughts occur from images (Damasio, 1994; Pinker, 1994; Zaltman & Coulter, 1995; Zaltman, 1997). The various structures of language are often strongly linked to visual imagery (Davis & Butler-Kisber, 1999) and all kinds of visual objects and arrangements carry certain meanings (Moisander & Valtonen, 2006). Images can be sound and olfactory images, but more often they are visual (Damasio, 1994), as a major part of stimuli (two-thirds) reach the brain through the visual system (Kosslyn, Seger,

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Pani, & Hillger, 1990). Furthermore, humans primarily communicate nonverbally (Weiser, 1988). This is shown in studies that have found that only 7 to 30 per cent of meaning in messages is conveyed by verbal elements (Birdwhistell, 1970; Mehrabian, 1972). “Most thought, emotion, and learning occur without awareness… [and] most mental life is tacit” (Zaltman, 1997, p. 426). Christensen and Olson (2002) took these assumptions into account stating that the content of mental models is image-based as opposed to word-based. Mental models are also referred to as: mental images (Wyer & Radvansky, 1999), cognitive structures (Christensen & Olson, 2002), deep metaphors (Zaltman & Zaltman, 2008) or image schemata (Johnson, 1990). This book will use the term “image schema” to replace mental model henceforth. Image schemata are recurring, dynamic and mental patterns that give coherence and structure to experiences found in bodily movement, manipulation of objects and perceptual interactions, helping consumers to reason and make sense of their experiences and environment (Johnson, 1990). Image schemata are one key to brand knowledge, as they guide consumer behavior and include valuable information about brands (Johnson, 1990; Christensen & Olson, 2002). Unfortunately, image schemata and many other relevant forms of knowledge are unconscious (Woodside, 2006) and customers are not able or willing to interpret and report certain aspects of brand knowledge by words alone (Costa et al., 2003; Rook, 2006). The following section elaborates on challenges in retrieving brand knowledge and explains when and why they occur.

2.2 Challenges in retrieving brand knowledge 2.2.1

Overview The expression of thought is a critical element in retrieving brand knowledge and is

often restricted by various barriers (Barner, 2008). Only a limited amount of relevant knowledge and insight can be retrieved, reported and interpreted by customers, since individuals have limited access to the unconscious, where a substantial amount of relevant thinking

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processes occur (Woodside, 2006). Therefore customers can only retrieve and give reason for actions that are verbalizable, accessible und plausible (Woodside, 2004, 2006). Methods of direct questioning, which are techniques that do not disguise the true purpose of a study, only work if consumers have extraordinary memories, profound self-knowledge, the capacity for introspection, self-disclosure and excellent verbal skills (Rook, 2006). However consumers are not always able to accurately retrieve, access and recall memory, because they simply do not remember situations, are not aware of them or cannot access them (Rook, 2006). One major reason is the transience of memory that is an ongoing decrease in memories of an individ22

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

ual (Schacter, 2001). This effect is enhanced if information is not properly encoded or overlooked due to absent-mindedness. In contrast to forgetting information, traumata affect memory by being remembered constantly (Schacter, 2001). Moreover, consumers differ in their abilities to express and articulate answers, as individuals possess varying levels and abilities in regards to vocabulary and expressiveness (Rook, 2006). Sometimes relevant information is blocked by other memory systems, demonstrated by the tip of the tongue phenomenon (Schacter, 2001). Another issue is the misattribution of current information onto past events or vice versa, resulting in the déjà-vu phenomenon (Schacter, 2001). Finally consumers are often unwilling to provide truthful information. If topics are too sensitive or privacy is infringed, consumers feel uncomfortable providing answers and are inclined to lie, this is also known as the social desirability bias (Rook, 2006). Heuristics and biases can be common causes for memory errors; therefore the next section investigates these phenomena more closely. 2.2.2

Heuristics and biases Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts that generate judgments based on incomplete or

vague information and are the cause for many cognitive biases (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). A cognitive bias is an error in memory that leads to a distortion in perception, recall and judgment (Wilson, 2002). The collage technique can assist in reducing the influence of heuristics and biases (Rook, 2006). Tversky and Kahneman (1974) found three major heuristics. Firstly, the representativeness heuristic; if a new product is similar to an old one that performed very well, the consumer automatically believes that the new product will also perform well. Secondly, the availability heuristic, which is based on the ease with which information can be retrieved (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). If many high-quality products of the same brand can be recalled, the consumer automatically assumes that new products of this brand are also high-quality. The last is the anchoring heuristic, causing consumers to form an initial judgment about a product and later adjust the judgment from that point forward (Tversky & Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

Kahneman, 1974). Memory biases are one type of cognitive bias and influence memoryrelated processes such as the content and recall of memories (Schacter, 2001). Consistency and change biases are two of the most common biases and distort our view of past events, making the past seem more different or similar to present than it actually was. Hindsight biases are also common and cause the change of an early opinion once the actual outcome is known. Last but not least an egocentric bias makes people see their past actions in a more positive light than in reality, and stereotypical biases make people judge their environment

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based on prejudices (Schacter, 2001). Another group of cognitive biases are attributional biases, which influence people’s understanding of what was responsible for a certain event (Woodside, 2006). The fundamental attribution error for example, refers to underestimating external and situational influences and overestimating personal influences. The self-serving biases refer to attributing failures to situational influences and successes to personal factors. The overconfidence bias consists of the overestimating the validity of one’s own answers (Wilson, 2002). Finally, the confirmation bias influences an individual’s preference towards information that coincides with their beliefs (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). Most subjective data gathering techniques are susceptible to cognitive biases (Woodside, 2004), which lead to significant differences between explicit and implicit attitudes of consumers, since people are not able or willing to report certain information (Woodside, 2006). Rook (2006) suggested the use of projective techniques to eliminate or reduce cognitive biases and memory failures.

2.3 Brand knowledge retrieval 2.3.1

Qualitative research In contrast to quantitative research, which quantifies data, qualitative research ex-

plores, describes and interprets psychological and sociological contexts by providing insights and understanding of the problem setting (Malhotra & Peterson, 2006). What is distinctive about qualitative research methods is their unstructured and open method of data collection, which does not constrain customers in their answers and is appropriate for developing a richer understanding of a certain context when facing a situation of uncertainty or, a situation that is not yet fully exploited (Malhotra & Peterson, 2006). The procedures can be direct or indirect depending on whether or not respondents are aware of the true purpose of the project (Rook, 2006). Direct measures, such as focus groups and in-depth interviews, question the respondents straightforwardly on a topic, whereas indirect measures use disguised questions (Rook, 2006). Indirect research uses mainly projective approaches such as: association, completion,

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construction or expressive techniques (Malhotra & Peterson, 2006; Rook, 2006). 2.3.2

Projective techniques Projective techniques are types of qualitative research methods which are unstructured

and disguised. Vague, unstructured and ambiguous stimuli are used (Donoghue, 2000) to elicit unconscious personal information from consumers without their awareness (Donoghue, 2000; Steinman, 2009). Projection, is a defense mechanism and is regarded as the process of attributing characteristics to others in order to protect oneself from revealing unpleasant per24

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

sonal characteristics and experiences (McGrath, Sherry, & Levy, 1993; Donoghue, 2000). In Levy’s projective hypobook (1985) he stated that “all behavioral manifestations of the human being, including the least and the most significant, are revealing and expressive of his personality” (p. 68). Consequently, projective techniques are able to uncover feelings, beliefs, attitudes and motivations about respondents within a comfortable environment (Donoghue, 2000). Projective techniques assist in overcoming social and psychological barriers such as awareness, social desirability issues and irrationality (Will et al., 1996). They are especially useful in situations in which people are unable or unwilling to verbalize their feelings and experiences, particularly if the subject addressed is sensitive (Khoo-Lattimore, Thyne, & Robertson, 2009). Projective techniques are also used when consumers are unaware of their underlying motives and attitudes (Donoghue, 2000) or are not particularly involved in a brand or product (Rook, 2006). Originally, such techniques were used in clinical and developmental psychology in the 40s and 50s to assist in the understanding of patients’ underlying problems (Donoghue, 2000; Rook, 2006). After World War II marketers, inspired by these methods and convinced of their usefulness in marketing research, started adopting psychological practices, such as association tests, completion tasks and expressive techniques (Khoo-Lattimore at al., 2009). Within the field of projective techniques there are several methods of tapping different forms of brand knowledge. Levy (1985) employed projective techniques to elicit positive, negative, conscious and unconscious responses in order to get information about the perception of products and brands. Some of the most frequently used methods were: word association, sentence completion, cartoon tests, storytelling and collage construction (Rook, 2006). 2.3.2.1 Verbal methods In order to gain valuable brand knowledge, researchers must engage customers more actively in the research process by enabling them to represent fully their thinking (Zaltman, 1997). As written above, memory systems contain specific brand knowledge, which in turn requires specific retrieval methods (Woodside, 2004, 2006). Projective techniques can be difCopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

ferentiated based on the modality and quantity of the data elicited (Rook, 2006). Firstly, association tasks, such as word or picture association, require the respondent to answer immediately to a presented stimulus (Will et al., 1996). Though these methods elicit little information in terms of quantity, the information presented is indeed valuable in regards to brand image and product attributes (Donoghue, 2000; Rook, 2006). Participants provide oral or written responses, mainly conscious and verbal in nature (Schacter, 1987; Rook, 2006) and stored in semantic memory (Tulving, 1972). Next, completion tasks require the respondent to

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respond to a given stimulus, such as to a sentence or story (Will et al., 1996). The data from sentence completion is similar to the data from association tasks (Rook, 2006). Story completion elicits mainly feelings and attitudes (Donoghue, 2000) and goes deeper into episodic memory (Tulving, 1972). Thirdly, construction tasks include indirect questioning, such as asking respondents to project their thoughts into a fictitious situation, or storytelling, such as telling a story based on a visual stimulus (Will et al., 1996). It is assumed that respondents attribute their feelings, attitudes and opinions to other individuals or situations during those tasks (Donoghue, 2000). A considerable amount of data is provided and the brand knowledge retrieved is verbal as well as nonverbal, depending on whether the story is written or spoken (Rook, 2006). Storytelling is a useful method, as consumers organize and express much of their experiences, information and knowledge in the form of narratives (Bruner, 1991; Padgett & Allen, 1997; Adaval & Wyer, 1998). This is very effective, because listening to narratives impacts decision-making and judgment, as it connects to one’s own experiences (Swap et al., 1991). Moreover during purchase decisions consumers often imagine situations of usage and consequence, regarding the product in terms of stories or episodes (Adaval & Wyer, 1998). Special types of storytelling are the Thematic Apperception Test (Morgan & Murray, 1935), the photo-elicitation technique called autodriving (Heisley & Levy, 1991) and visual narratives (Moisander & Valtonen, 2006). The TAT is a powerful tool to assess customers’ attitudes towards products, brands or advertisements by asking the respondent to devise a story about a picture which usually shows a consumer in a usage situation (Schlackman, 1989). Autodriving involves respondents telling a story about photographs showing themselves in specific situations. This enables respondents to recall particular situations immediately (Blümelhuber, 2004). Visual narratives are similar to photo-elicitation techniques and require participants to take photos, to bring them in, and to offer an explanation of the given photographic scenario (Moisander & Valtonen, 2006). To summarize, much brand knowledge is stored in terms of narratives and storytelling and these methods can be a useful tool to retrieve those

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aspects of brand knowledge (Blümelhuber, 2004). 2.3.2.2 Nonverbal methods In marketing research most tools are verbocentric and for the most part rely on literal language to collect, synthesize, and report responses, ideas and other data (Zaltman, 1997). However, often consumers have thoughts, emotions and experiences they are unable to articulate because they are “too vague, too complex or too intense for ordinary speech” (Siegelmann, 1990, p. 7). Therefore methods that “engage people in ways that enable them to bring

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unconscious states to a level of awareness” are needed (Zaltman, 1997, p. 427). Thought is embedded in images, metaphors and emotions and research methods that align with those elements, such as storytelling, role playing and collage construction, facilitate elicitation (Rook, 2006). The value of a brand is determined by how that brand is perceived and by related knowledge based on stories and experiences mainly stored nonverbally in episodic memory (Blümelhuber, 2004). But as people are often unable to access and retrieve such knowledge without other means, images can be used as stimuli for retrieval and as vehicles for communication of emotional and intuitive aspects (Blümelhuber, 2004). This leads over to the last category of projective techniques, namely expressive tasks, such as role-playing, psycho-drawing, objects-drawing and collage construction. In role-playing the respondents are asked to adopt the role of a brand or product, where the content and performance are analyzed and provide information about how consumers see a certain brand or product (Steinman, 2009). Another visual projective technique is psycho-drawing, which is especially useful for expressing moods and feelings (Schlackman, 1989). Respondents are asked to draw a picture about a topic to express feelings and ideas (Schlackman, 1989). A similar drawing task is the simple objects drawing method, where respondents are asked to draw objects that are important to them in a specific situation or location. By doing so the respondent reveals important information about his or her preferences (Schlackman, 1989). The collage technique, which is the technique this book deals with, requires the respondents to construct a collage with images out of magazines on a piece of paper based on a certain topic (Moisander & Valtonen, 2006). The images used symbolize cultural meanings and narratives to represent customers’ views of a topic and can be used subsequently as a stimulus for further probing (Moisander & Valtonen, 2006). The collage became an essential innovation in the 20th century, when researchers started appreciating their value as a form of creative visualization and as an important medium of expression (Davis & Butler-Kisber, 1999). The collage technique is a valid alternative to the TAT, autodriving and psycho-drawing (Havlena & Holak, 1996).

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2.4 Characteristics and applications of collages in marketing A picture is worth a thousand words; there is far less linguistic information in pictures than verbal texts, but pictures contain much more of that information, which “is assimilatable to the kind of information present in the perceptual world” (Sonesson, 1989, p. 10). The main premise of visual research is “everything is text”, implying that images can be read like words and that meaning is derived from a medium by putting meaning into it (Blümelhuber, 2004).

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These statements indicate that the collage technique may be an effective method for retrieving brand knowledge. 2.4.1

History of collages Eisner (1991) described collage as a flexible composition of pictures assembled grad-

ually and additively until an overall pattern is achieved. The collage originated in arts at the beginning of the 20th century. It was first used by Pablo Picasso in 1912, and it soon became one of the most essential twentieth-century art forms (Leland & Williams, 1994). Today, collages are a unique form of modern art (Blümelhuber, 2004), although Davis (2008) described them as an organizing principle, conceptual strategy or method rather than an art form. When projective techniques became popular, psychologists became interested in the use of collages for diagnostic and therapeutic means (Ikemi, Yano, Miyake, & Matsuoka, 2007) in order to better understand patients (Will et al. 1996). The collage was first introduced by Buck and Provancher (1972) as a therapeutic technique in an occupational therapy journal in the USA (Takata, 2002). It eventually became known as the magazine picture collage technique and steadily gained in popularity from then on (Takata, 2002). Buck and Provancher (1972) employed collages as an evaluative technique in assessing symptoms of male and female adult psychiatric patients. They revealed that collages reflected the patient's psychodynamics, such as self-image and the patient's mental organization (Buck & Provancher, 1972). At about the same time Olson (2000) developed his “Collage Method”, a psychotherapeutic technique that helped creators to reconstruct the evolution of their psyche over time by enabling them to tell personal stories via images (Olson, 2000). In Japan, collage technique became known as collage therapy and was used as a method of psychological assessment (Moritani, 1993) and psychotherapy in order to eliminate mental health problems by reconstructing an image of the self (Takata, 2002). One of the major challenges was that patients often need help to perform the task (Meguro et al., 2009). It has also been applied in art therapy as a means to address emotional needs (Johnson & Sullivan-Marx, 2006) and in recreational activities for dementia Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

patients (Beck, 1998). Besides several fundamental researches and case studies on collages in psychology (Buck & Provancher, 1972; Moritani, 1993; Beck, 1998; Olson, 2000; Takata, 2002; Johnson & Sullivan-Marx, 2006; Ikemi et al., 2007; Meguro et al., 2009), collage technique has also become a well-known tool in marketing research. The remainder of this section illustrates features and applications of collages.

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2.4.2

Characteristics, advantages and limitations of collages As an essential innovation of the 20th century, researchers started appreciating collag-

es as a form of creative visualization and as an important medium of expression (Davis & Butler-Kisber, 1999). “Collage is a heterogeneous, multivalent, multidimensional medium… [that] readily produces effects of spontaneity, simultaneity, ephemerality, fantasy, and disorientation” (Davis & Butler-Kisber, 1999, p. 4). Collages are independent from articulateness as well as assertiveness and are multidimensional, as they incorporate plurality, diversity and richness (Blümelhuber, 2004). Collages promote creative, metaphorical thinking and trigger tacit content as well as unexpected new associations (Davis & Butler-Kisber, 1999). Collages are never complete and there is no right or wrong, although it is important to base them on an idea (Blümelhuber, 2004). The interaction of colors, shapes, internal visual rhythms and balances produce integrated responses (Davis & Butler-Kisber, 1999). Creating a collage involves a process of selection (Blümelhuber, 2004) and mechanisms of metaphor, analogy, and allusion that bring hidden relationships and patterns to a level of awareness (Davis & ButlerKisber, 1999). Collage has become an exciting strategy for the exploration of memory, imagination, and experiential reflection (Davis, 2008). As no artistic skills are needed collages are appropriate for all ages and mental states (Blümelhuber, 2004). Collages help to uncover thoughts people are not aware of, reduce the blocking of undesired thoughts, stimulate people to express different kinds of thoughts (Woodside, 2004) and are more immune from socialdesirability effects and conscious filtering (Barner, 2008). A major limitation of collages and visual research in general is that collage research cannot be standardized, as visuals are always subjective, interpretative and abstract (Sykes, 1990). Moreover, the difficulty and subjectivity of interpretation is enhanced, as collage construction can be open-ended and almost anything is allowed (Malhotra & Peterson, 2006). In order to control the construction process and facilitate subsequent analysis, a time limit should be set and instructions should be given; for example the use of text passages and writings or

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drawings on collages unnecessarily complicates them. However, if the respondents have insufficient visual materials or too little time, creativity is constrained and they are not able to express themselves as they would like to. The availability of enough pictures is especially important, as it determines the look and content of a collage. In terms of analysis, there is the risk of analysis bias (Malhotra & Peterson, 2006) due to differences in the conditions of the researcher, as well as situations in which the interpretation processes are performed. Differences may occur depending on the time of the day, physical condition of the researcher and external distractions. As a consequence the interpretation results can vary slightly for different

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data and samples (Sykes, 1990). In general, it is important to devise an interpretation procedure that is not too complicated and can easily be repeated for each collage, allowing interpretation based on specific criteria. This book follows a multi-layered interpretation process that is applied identically on each collage. 2.4.3

Collages applied in marketing Various studies (Costa et al., 2003; Moisander & Valtonen, 2006; Saunders, 2006) re-

ferred to Zaltman and Coulter (1995) and Havlena and Holak (1996) as the first to use the collage technique in marketing research. Zaltman and Coulter (1995) developed the Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET), a tool designed to produce insights into consumers’ mental models by using nonverbal channels and metaphors (Zaltman & Coulter, 1995; KhooLattimore at al., 2009) that represent thoughts and feelings about the personal relevance of a topic (Christensen & Olson, 2002). The first stage of the method starts with storytelling based on images collected beforehand by participants. In the second stage, missed images that people would have liked but could not find are discussed. Stage three divides the images into meaningful piles, whereas stage four elicits constructs based on the means-end chain theory (Gutman, 1982). Fifth, the most and least representative pictures are chosen and discussed. Sixth, a summary of the topic discussed is provided and the chosen pictures are assembled into a collage (Zaltman & Coulter, 1995; Zaltman, 1997). Next, key themes are identified and tangible and intangible data is categorized and coded (Zaltman & Coulter, 1995). Finally, a consensus map is constructed. The ZMET is useful for gathering information concerning product-purchase and product-usage as well as perceptions of brands, products and advertisements (Zaltman & Coulter, 1995). One of the major limitations of the ZMET is its labor and time-insensitivity and its need for special training in interviewing and data analysis (Catching-Castello, 2000). Moreover, Zaltman (1997) argued that four or five participants were enough to be representative, a rather doubtful assumption (Catching-Castello, 2000). Furthermore customers are forced to focus on a few images only, which can potentially reCopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

strict creativity and mislead findings. Participant fatigue could augment this effect (CatchingCastello, 2000). Beyond this the ZMET bases its interpretation completely on the statements given by participants and does not offer a guideline in regard to how the analysis of data is undertaken. Havlena and Holak (1996) applied collages to explore the nature and structure of nostalgia. Twenty graduate students were assigned to groups of four and asked to create a collage about nostalgia. The students had thirty minutes and were observed and videotaped. At the end of the thirty minutes the groups explained and presented their collages to a panel of

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researchers (Havlena & Holak, 1996). Certain types of images, such as black and white pictures, and different classes of nostalgia, such as personal and cultural nostalgia were found. Furthermore, persons, products and activities familiar from childhood were frequently related to nostalgia (Havlena & Holak, 1996). Rickard (1994) applied collages in combination with focus groups to obtain better qualitative data to improve car advertisements. The intention was that creating a collage would support the focus group participants’ discussion by providing a vehicle to talk through. The results showed that emotions were a major determinant in car purchases. This knowledge helped car producers to better adapt their advertisements to customers (Rickard, 1994). Costa et al. (2003) used the same approach and combined collages with focus groups to investigate feelings, emotions and experiences related to eating habits. The 29 Dutch respondents were assigned to groups of three and asked to construct a collage concerning the topic of either cooking a meal or having a ready meal. The respondents were asked to put the more important images in the centre. Cooking magazines were intentionally excluded to ensure that the participants did not only choose images from that particular resource (Costa et al., 2003). Between the collage task and the focus group, each group presented its collage briefly. Following that, the collages, presentations and discussions were content-analyzed and patterns were identified. The key findings were categorized based on their relative importance. The collages served as a stimulus for the discussion and complemented the focus groups very well. The collages enabled the expression of unconscious aspects and their value to product and advertising research was confirmed (Costa et al., 2003). Belk et al. (1997, 2003) used collages to investigate consumption desire among customers. The participants were students from three different countries: USA, Denmark and Turkey. The researchers came from the same three countries, consequently avoiding any issues with translation. The collage creation was one part of several projective techniques, including written storytelling, association tasks and drawing (Belk et al., 1997, 2003). The respondents were encouraged to create collages expressing feelings and dreams about desire and then subsequently record their interpretations. As a result consumer desire was identified as a powerful and Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

mainly positive emotion overshadowing other emotions. There were larger differences between men and women than between cultures and a cycle of desire was identified (Belk et al., 1997, 2003). Blümelhuber (2004) assumed that brand knowledge was represented in form of a collage in consumers’ minds and encouraged the creation of physical collages to recreate this knowledge of brands. Chaplin and John (2005) used collages in studies with children in order to find out whether self-brand connections (a brand/product used to represent oneself) developed over time. The method is especially useful in research with children, as creating a col-

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lage is a fun and easy task for a child. However, children are easily influenced by peers or parents, so it is important to ensure that they are able to fully focus on their task without any distractions. The general findings showed that the older the children the more self-brand connections existed and the more thorough they were (Chaplin & John, 2005). Saunders (2009) applied the collage technique to collect and evaluate scenario planning information. This was in order to overcome any potential communication, topic sensitivity, memory and qualitative richness problems. Saunders (2009) found out that collage construction was well suited to the objectives of scenario planning, as long as the participants were well informed and willing and able to perform the task. Kriechbaum-Vitellozzi and Kreuzbauer (2009) investigated consumption behavior of refugees in Western countries. The study was conducted in a refugee shelter in Austria. It showed that the collage technique was well suited for overcoming communication problems, as the refugees had different cultural and social backgrounds and were not all proficient in German. The most difficult tasks were getting access to the refugees and building trust in order to ensure their cooperation. The collage technique provided deep insights into the participants’ lives (Kriechbaum-Vitellozzi & Kreuzbauer, 2009). This section shows that several studies in various fields of marketing research use collage construction as a data collection tool. Nevertheless two major shortcomings are encountered regularly in those works. Firstly, almost every analysis depends for the most part on participants’ statements leading to a focus on verbal data. If there is an analysis of visuals, researchers have a large dependence on statements given by the participants in the form of interviews or written explanations. This focus on verbal data impedes the identification of nonverbal knowledge. It would be more interesting to find out whether it is possible to gather knowledge with an analysis of visuals only, which implies a larger shift from verbal to nonverbal data. Secondly, in most studies the interpretation criteria applied is vague, untransparent or even missing. Hardly any research actually shows how the analysis is done, or provides a detailed guideline for the interpretation of a collage. A standardized approach to collage interpretation could be very useful in marketing research and would facilitate interpretation Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

procedures.

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3 Analyzing visually retrieved brand knowledge After discussing how to access and retrieve brand knowledge, this chapter deals with the approaches used for the interpretation of brand knowledge retrieved via collages. It begins with an introduction to signs and their meanings and continues with a detailed theoretical explanation of the approaches applied.

3.1 Understanding the meaning of signs: semiotics and hermeneutics Since all knowledge is based on signs and semiotics is the study of signs (Mick, 1986), knowledge is exposed to semiotic interpretation (Rose, 2007). As such, this book attempts to deduce knowledge in terms of images in collages, and an elaboration on the concepts of signs and their meanings is provided at this point. 3.1.1

Semiotics Semiotics is one of the richest and oldest theories for understanding meaning and in-

vestigates the nature of meaning and how it is acquired by reality (Mick, 1986; Mick & Oswald, 2006). Mick (1986) stated that semiotics “analyzes the structures of meaning-producing events, both verbal and nonverbal” (p. 197). Generally speaking semiotics is the study of signs and their meanings (Chandler, 2006; Mick, 1986). At the beginning of the 20th century new developments in semiotics appeared. Saussure (1983) and Peirce (1965-67), two major contributors, found two dominant paradigms (Mick et al., 2004). The Saussurian paradigm (1983) was mostly used in structural and text-interpretive analyses (Mick et al., 2004), as it focused on the linguistic sign and privileged the spoken word (Mick, 1986). Saussure (1983) assumed that meaning was formed only through the relationships and interactions of words and not through words per se (Mick, 1986). Saussure’s paradigm (1983) was a two-part model consisting of the signifier, the form of the sign, such as a sound or image, and the signified, the concept or object referred to (Rose, 2007). The sign itself, which is conventional and arbi-

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trary, results from the relationship between signifier and signified (Chandler, 2006). A sign is a fundamental unit of meaning (Rose, 2007) and can be visual or textual and ranges from pictures and drawings to words and texts (Chandler, 2006). Saussure (1983) mainly emphasized the structure, symbolism and cultural impact of communication and meaning (Mick et al., 2004). Fields of application of this paradigm are brand strategy research and consumer behavior. In brand strategy, brands are seen as systems of signs relating brand attributes to consumer needs. In consumer behavior however, it is applied to diagnosing and developing communication strategies (Mick & Oswald, 2006). Unfortunately there are several drawbacks related

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to this paradigm. First of all, it is not clear whether this theory of language is even able to deal with visuals (Rose, 2007), as the relationships between signifier and signified differ between written/spoken and visual signs (Iversen, 1986). Secondly, Saussure’s (1983) theory provided a static notion of how signs work and neglected changes in meanings (Rose, 2007). Thirdly, while Saussure (1983) only explained how systems of arbitrary signs worked, Peirce (196567) provided a much richer typology of signs, explaining how different modes of signification worked (Iversen, 1986). Another advantage of Peirce’s paradigm (1965-67) is that it was more appropriate for conceptual treatises and qualitative and quantitative analyses (Mick et al., 2004). This leads to the second important paradigm, a three-part model, consisting of: the representamen, the form of the sign; the interpretant, the sense of the sign; and the object, the concept or object referred to (Mick & Oswald, 2006). Again the sign itself arises from the relationship between those three parts (Mick, 1986). Peirce (1965-67) identified three categories of signs in his analyses, namely: icon, index and symbol. These categories are distinguished by the different relations between the signifier and signified (Rose, 2007). Iconic signs imitate a concept or object, indexical signs are inherently related to a concept or object, and symbolic signs are related to a concept or object in a conventional and arbitrary manner (Chandler, 2006; Rose, 2007). Fields of application are product and logo design, advertising, and consumer behavior, where it is used to develop meanings and functions in design, to deduce meaning from ads and to help understanding consumption experiences (Mick & Oswald, 2006). This demonstrates that semiotics is a popular method that offers vocabulary and tools for decompounding images and exploring how they work (Moisander & Valtonen, 2006). However, although semiotics can be useful in investigating signs and their meanings in several fields of marketing, the disadvantages outweigh the advantages. Firstly, existing research is eclectic and fragmented due to the magnitude and complexity of works (Mick et al., 2004) which causes concerns about representativeness and replicability of analyses (Rose, 2007). Also, there is a density of terminology in semiotics that is confusing, unnecessary and difficult to understand, making the simple complex, due to the fact that most semiotic studies inCopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

vent their own analytical terms (Rose, 2007). Lastly, many descriptions and applications are cryptic and do not go beyond lexicographic or taxonomic stages of knowledge development (Mick et al., 2004). Moreover, semiotics neglects the social environment within which visual images are produced and interpreted (Rose, 2007) and many works are unknown, outdated, constrained in length, or focus on only one country or topic (Mick et al., 2004). Finally, research in semiotics has never produced systematic theorems and will remain only an “integra-

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tor of previously compartmentalized, incongruent, or unjuxtaposed theories, models, methods, concepts and so on” (Mick, 1986, p. 209). 3.1.2

Hermeneutics Semiotics is the basis for any interpretative work, as it deals with an analysis of signs

and their meanings; however the drawbacks make it hardly suitable for analyzing visuals. Hermeneutics, the “theory of understanding and interpretation of linguistic and non-linguistic expressions” (Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, 2005), is related to the science of semiotics and offers more opportunities (Madison, 1990). Hermeneutics concentrates only on certain aspects of semiotics, namely interpretation and understanding of signs, in order to grasp the creator’s intended meaning of a text or in this case of a collage (Madison, 1990). The interpretation procedure applied in this book follows the concept of the hermeneutic circle. The hermeneutic circle is a process by which understandings are formed and understood as a continuous part-to-whole and whole-to-part movement (Thompson, Pollio, & Locander, 1994). There are various definitions of the hermeneutic circle, depending on the use, purpose and perspective of this approach (Hoy, 1982; Thompson et al., 1994). “In order to understand the whole, it is necessary to understand the parts, while to understand the parts, it is necessary to have some comprehension of the whole” (Hoy, 1982, p. vii). In other words, single elements aid in tracing meaning of the overall context and meaning of the overall context helps to gain understanding of single elements (Holzbrecher & Tell, 2006). In general, part and whole are related in a circular way when it comes to the process of understanding and interpretation (Hoy, 1982). The circle developed from the principle of understanding a text, to the principle of understanding one’s own nature and situation (Hoy, 1982; Thompson et al., 1994). It can be applied to many fields of study dealing with various subjects (Holzbrecher & Tell, 2006). Two examples should make this concept clearer. In the hermeneutics of paintings or photo analysis the context refers to the total stock of paintings from a certain era, whereas the part is a single painting from this era. The aim is to establish the extent to which the single picture represents Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

the era and by what characteristics. As a consequence the understanding of this era and of each single picture itself is enhanced (Holzbrecher & Tell, 2006). In educational studies the context may refer to the work with children as a whole. The parts would be single processes within the context, such as group dynamics, learning processes and the usage of tools. The objective is to establish how the parts are related to the context and vice versa (Holzbrecher & Tell, 2006). Researchers are not able to interpret a collage by only looking at its single images in isolation; it is necessary to relate the images to each other as well as the overall context

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(Moisander & Valtonen, 2006). In this book parts refer to the single elements and objects in a collage, whereas the context refers to the collage in its entirety and the context within which it was created. An understanding of single pictures within a collage is crucial in the understading of the entire collage. By the same token, the whole collage and its context are important in the understanding of the single pictures chosen. The hermeneutic circle involves analyzing a text or picture on three levels and links the concrete to the overall context or situation. The three levels of language, developed by Morris (1972), are semantics, pragmatics, and syntactics and make up the structure and meaning of a text (Niedermair, 2001). Semantics is the meaning and signification of signs not related to the context; pragmatics is the meaning of signs based on context, sender, receiver and their relationships; and syntactics is the structure of signs (Niedermair, 2001). However, the concept of the hermeneutic circle is not undisputed. Firstly, it is difficult to “enter” the circle, as this is only possible with prior knowledge (Bardzell, 2009). “You can’t understand Shakespeare without being in a position to understand Shakespeare; how can you get in such a position without reading Shakespeare?” (Bardzell, 2009). Even more important is the fact that the circle interferes with objective knowledge, as reasoning is circular and does not allow for justification (Bardzell, 2009). Therefore, opponents encourage researchers to break out of the circle as it is only possible through the aid of empirical science, which requires going beyond personal interpretation and subjectivity (Taylor, 1971). But pure empiricism does not work, as it is not possible to break out of the circle at all (Bardzell, 2009). Personal understandings are always subjective and never free of individual assumptions (Thompson et al., 1994), as “a person’s understanding of a situation results from an interpretation that is based on cultural traditions of meaning” (Thompson et al., 1994, p. 434). However, proponents state that it is possible to achieve scientific progress even within the hermeneutic circle (Bardzell, 2009). The major benefits are that the circle enhances perception and makes scientific works susceptible to reflection and critique. It also allows participation in the development of a certain field of study; it enables researchers to use contributions Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

of others in their works, to produce knowledge, and to critique and to improve others’ works (Bardzell, 2009). In order to be able to apply the concepts of the hermeneutic circle and three-level analysis on collages, certain methods are required. Metaphor analysis and color theory are used to analyze semantics of the collage by identifying and interpreting image schemata and major colors used throughout. The communication model by Schulz von Thun (1992) analyzes the collage’s pragmatics by investigating the context and relationships of the collage and its 36

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

creator. To conclude, structural analysis identifies the syntactics of the collage. The remainder of this chapter explains the relevant concepts in detail.

3.2 Metaphor analysis in interpreting collages Collage creation, the technique this book examines, is a method that reproduces mental images and generates visual metaphors (Rook, 2006). Metaphors offer ways to penetrate consumers’ thoughts and serve as windows into people’s minds (Joy, Sherry, Venkatesh, & Deschenes, 2009). Beyond that, much brand knowledge is embedded in mental images, metaphors and emotions, as people mainly process information metaphorically (Zaltman, 1997). Metaphor analysis is the first concept used in the interpretation process of collages, as systematic elicitation and analysis of metaphors significantly augment the knowledge gained (Zaltman, 1997; Woodside, 2004; Rook, 2006). In general, metaphor analysis is an attempt to understand, to clarify, to unfold and to interpret metaphors (Niedermair, 2001). More specifically metaphor analysis is known as a qualitative research method based on the cognitive metaphor theory by Lakoff and Johnson (2008) (Niedermair, 2001). 3.2.1

Metaphors as cognitive constructs Metaphors play an essential role in human communication, as they reduce complexity

by facilitating expression and understanding (Schmieder, 2006). Metaphors highlight certain aspects and minimize others via projecting certain features of one object onto another (Barner, 2008; Schmieder, 2006). The novelty and abstractness of certain situations may not enable customers to express genuine feelings by words alone (Joy et al., 2009) and may require vehicles for expressing situations that are difficult to communicate (Barner, 2008). Metaphors possess such qualities (Barner, 2008) and provide a simple method to make sense of everyday experiences (Lakoff & Johnson, 2008). They enable people to convey a complex situation instantly with few words (Barner, 2008; Joy et al., 2009) by connecting a broad array of interrelated thoughts, feelings and beliefs (Barner, 2008). Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

Aristotle laid the foundation for today’s definitions of metaphors by stating that a metaphor was the transfer of one word to another word (Niedermair, 2001). In the 1980s researchers (Johnson, 1990; Lakoff and Johnson, 2008) started recognizing metaphors as cognitive phenomena and structures, which were part of thought rather than language (el Refaie, 2003). The cognitive metaphor theory by Lakoff and Johnson (2008) connected linguistics and social sciences and provided new opportunities for operationalizing metaphor analysis (Niedermair, 2001). Today, most approaches to metaphor analysis are based on this concept,

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including Schmitt’s (1997, 2003), which is applied in this book. In a cognitive sense, metaphor analysis describes the understanding and experiencing of a concept by transferring one concept for another (Seitz, 1998; Lakoff & Johnson, 2008). Lakoff and Johnson (2008) developed their metaphor theory by defining metaphors as a matter of concept, such as an event, activity, idea, or emotion. According to this, people understand the environment through experiences that are organized in terms of metaphorical concepts (Seitz, 1998). Those metaphorical concepts are expressed systematically and metaphorically by language making metaphors an inevitable part of human language, mind and communication (Lakoff and Johnson, 2008). In short, Lakoff and Johnson (2008) identified metaphorical concepts via language. This book applies this theory on collages and investigates visual elements on collages instead of spoken or written words. The example “argument is war” by Lakoff and Johnson (2008) should assist in the understanding of this rather complex construct. “Argument is war” is a metaphorical concept, in which the concept of argument is transferred to and structured by the concept of war. This means that people’s actions, behaviors and understandings during an argument are structured by the “argument is war” concept (Lakoff and Johnson, 2008). This is seen in expressions used in everyday life such as “attack the weak point in an argument”, “win an argument” or “shoot down arguments”. Note that it is not about the very words used, but about the concept behind these expressions (Zaltman & Zaltman, 2008). Other examples are “life is a journey”, “ideas are products” and “eyes are containers”. This shows that metaphors are “pervasive in everyday life, not just in language, but also in thought and action” (Lakoff & Johnson, 2008, p. 12) and that “the way we think, what we experience and what we do every day is very much a matter of metaphor” (Lakoff & Johnson, 2008, p. 11). 3.2.2

Metaphors versus image schemata This section explains the relationship between metaphorical concepts, image schemata

and metaphors. Broadly speaking metaphorical concepts are based on image schemata and expressed by metaphors. Image schemata are “a pervasive, irreducible, imaginative structure Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

of human understanding that influences the nature of meaning and constrains our rational inferences” (Johnson, 1990, p. xii). Put another way image schemata are unconscious and abstract structures of experiences, images or perceptions (Johnson, 1990) that emerge from interactions between brain, body, and society (Zaltman & Zaltman, 2008). A metaphor is “understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another” (Lakoff & Johnson, 2008, p. 13). Metaphors provide a vehicle for expressing experiences, images or perceptions, structured as image schemata in mind, by projecting attributes of one experience, image or percep-

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tion onto one of a different kind (Johnson, 1990). Metaphors give customers an opportunity to give voice to their mental representations (Johnson, 1990). The terms “image schema” and “metaphor” are used differently in literature. This book uses the term “image schema” to denote a chief cognitive structure in the human mind that is fundamental to our understanding of what and how we perceive (Zaltman, 1997), and the term “metaphor” to denote a verbal or visual expression of an image schema. Zaltman and Zaltman (2008) provided another definition by defining three levels of metaphorical thinking, namely: surface metaphors (metaphors), metaphor themes (metaphorical concepts) and deep metaphors (image schemata). Surface metaphors are used in everyday language and people are aware of using them, whereas deep metaphors underlie metaphor themes and are unconscious. “Money is a resource” is a deep metaphor, providing the basis for the metaphor theme “money is liquid”, which in turn offers the foundation for the surface metaphor “money runs through his fingers” (Zaltman & Zaltman, 2008). On this basis metaphors and image schemata are related phenomena that work on different levels within the human brain. As image schemata are found in memory systems which function at a more nonverbal and unconscious level, the conscious concept of metaphor is needed as a vehicle of expression (Johnson, 1990; Epstein, 1994). Therefore metaphors essentially represent our thinking processes and can be found in every form of communication (el Refaie, 2003), implying that metaphors are key to accessing image schemata, which in turn allows access to brand knowledge (Zaltman, 1997). To summarize, image schemata are the abstract concepts that make sense of our experiences, and metaphors are the instruments we use to express and react to those concepts (Johnson, 1990). Something unknown, unresolved or problematic is represented in terms of something familiar (el Refaie, 2003). The actual referent of a metaphor is an abstract concept, whereas the figurative term is related to basic human experience (Lakoff & Johnson, 2008). This book assumes that visual elements on collages are metaphors based on image schemata and that metaphors help to reveal image schemata and their meanings and therefore brand knowledge. The remainder of this section illustrates different types of image schemata and should assist in clarifying these Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

concepts.

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3.2.2.1 Types of image schemata Johnson (1990) provided the following list of image schemata: Container

Balance

Compulsion

Blockage

Counterforce

Restraint removal

Enablement

Attraction

Mass-Count

Path

Link

Center-Periphery

Cycle

Near-Far

Scale

Part-Whole

Merging

Splitting

Full-Empty

Matching

Superimposition

Iteration

Contact

Process

Surface

Object

Collection

Table 1: Image schemata by Johnson (1990, p. 126) To provide a better understanding of those concepts, the force schema is explained in greater detail. Force is one of the most common schemata and can be divided into several subcategories including: counterforce, blockage, enablement, compulsion, restraint removal, and attraction (Johnson, 1990). Each schema deals with certain experiences people encounter and structures them. Counterforce schemata refer to experiences related to forces that work against each other, such as a box fight, a car accident, or strong winds (Johnson, 1990). Blockage deals with obstacles resisting a force, such as a river, a wall, or a dead end. Enablement is the experience of being able to do something and to perform an action, such as driving a car, picking up a stone or writing a text. Compulsion is a schema referring to external forces, such as winds, water, or other crowds. Restraint removal is related to the blockage and enablement schemata and occurs when people are able to do something because a potential barrier is missing, such as entering a building, or crossing a street. Attraction represents a force that has attractive power, such as a magnet, or a vacuum cleaner (Johnson,

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1990). Force is the main image schema underlying the “argument is war” concept and can be expressed by various spoken or written metaphors. Therefore the expressions used allow for identifying the underlying image schemata. “He attacked every weak point in my argument” is based upon the counterforce schema. “I demolished his argument” has the restraint removal schema as its basis. “She had no chance to resist my arguments” is related to compulsion. “He defended his arguments strongly” builds up on the blockage schema. Different metaphorical concepts have different schemata underlying: “Life is a journey” (path schema), “ideas are

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products” (transformation schema, process schema) and “eyes are containers” (container schema). Another very common schema is balance and refers to experiences that involve keeping the balance and being in equilibrium (Johnson, 1990). This involves physical equilibria, such as standing straight or riding a bike; psychic equilibria, such as finding the balance between work and free time; and perceptual equilibria, such as looking at an asymmetrical picture. The third schema illustrated is the path schema structuring people’s spatial and temporal experiences (Johnson, 1990). The path schema consists of three parts: a starting point, an end point, and a route connecting those points. There are physical paths such as from your bed to your bathroom, from your apartment to your garage, or from your block to your work place; as well as imaginative ones such as from your balcony to the stars above, or from this moment to a moment in the future (Johnson, 1990). The container schema represents containment consisting of an inside, an outside, and boundaries such as a building or a purse (Raubal, Egenhofer, Pfoser, & Tryfona, 1997). In addition to this bodies and minds are containers as well (Johnson, 1990). The part-whole schema deals with the decomposability of entities, such as a tree consists of leafs, branches and roots, or a nation and its states (Rosa, 2001). The center-periphery schema is a space schema and defines distances, both physical and mental. People experience their world from an individual perspective and therefore some experiences and persons are more important or central than others (Johnson, 1990). The transformation schema is about changes. If a person changes in shape, time passes by, or a group of people alters their attitudes, the transformation schema is at work. The scale schema is best described by the “more is up” metaphor (Lakoff & Johnson, 2008). The schema is about increasing and decreasing substances, such as filling up a glass of water; or degrees of intensity, such as temperature (Johnson, 1990). The more water or temperature the larger the scale becomes. Furthermore the cycle schema represents all kinds of circles; temporal ones, such as time; natural ones, such as the tides; or conventional ones, such as politics and culture (Johnson, 1990). The link schema is omnipresent and a very dominant schema. Links repreCopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

sent various kinds of connections, including: temporal, causal, spatial or functional connections. Without links mankind would not exist (Johnson, 1990). The identity/matching schema consists of two single schemata found by Johnson (1990) that are combined for the purposes of this book. This schema is about the similarity and fit of two or more subjects (Johnson, 1990). For example, two persons are similar in their appearance/behavior or a man and a woman are well suited. Moreover, the splitting schema shows the divisibility of entities (Johnson, 1990). For example a crowd can be divided into men and women, or into brunette,

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blond, black and red haired. However, the list of image schemata by Johnson (1990) can be extended freely in order to better fit the working method or subject treated. Raubal et al. (1997) added a front-back and verticality schema, whereas Rosa (2001) modified the path schema and added the agency schema. Amant, Morrison, Chang, Cohen and Beal (2006) identified eight key-schemata, namely space, force, containment, locomotion, balance, identity, multiplicity, and existence. According to collages, it is assumed that participants use visual metaphors in the form of images as vehicles to express their underlying image schemata. For example, using a picture of sneakers in a collage can have various schemata underlying, from container to enablement to merging to transformation. The number and dominance of schemata related to a picture depends on the context, and as such the examination of an element in its appearance and context in order to identify the relevant image schemata is required. Sneakers have the form of containers that people can step in; beyond that, wearing sneakers may enable people to perform better by merging and being transformed. A detailed description of the application of metaphor analysis on collages is provided in chapter 4. 3.2.3

Visual metaphors as sources of brand knowledge There are two types of metaphors: verbal and nonverbal. However, visual (nonverbal)

metaphors have been neglected by researchers in the last two decades, although their use is significant in expressing feelings as well as experiences and new aspects of brand knowledge may be deduced (Barner, 2008). Methods that emphasize visual metaphors, such as the collage technique, may be an appropriate instrument. Richards (1936) was one of the pioneers in providing a definition of visual metaphors. Richards (1936) described them as thinking processes about one thing in terms of another. A building with a facial expression was one such example (Seitz, 1998). El Refaie (2003) explored the ways in which metaphors were expressed in the visual mode and found three major arguments. The first was that visual metaphors are based on metaphorical concepts (in line Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

with cognitive metaphor theory discussed earlier in this book). Although the number of works on visual metaphors has increased in recent history (Morris, 1993; Forceville, 1994; Carroll, 1996) there is still no consistent definition of visual metaphors (el Refaie, 2003). El Refaie (2003) suggested defining visual metaphors rather as visual expressions of metaphorical concepts, which was consistent with the current dominant paradigm in metaphor analysis, as opposed to a focus on formal qualities. The second of el Refaie’s (2003) arguments was that visual metaphors were less straightforward and much more susceptible to the socio-political

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Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

context than their verbal counterparts. The boundaries between the literal and metaphorical are blurred and visual metaphors are more ambiguous than verbal ones. However, rather than investigating whether a metaphor is literal or metaphorical, it makes more sense to determine whether a metaphorical concept has become the natural way of expressing experiences or not (el Refaie, 2003). Moreover, often the concepts of visual metaphors are not present visually and can only be implied by the context, which requires an understanding of the socio-political context in order to determine meaning (el Refaie, 2003). Thirdly, the specific forms of visual metaphors have a great influence on their meaning and impact. One of the major differences between verbal and visual metaphors is that the latter often refer to situations that have no verbal translation, implying that on occasion images are more effective in expressing meaning than words. This also means that visual metaphors are more implicit concepts and therefore more susceptible to different interpretations (el Refaie, 2003). The next section deals with color theory, the second approach of the interpretation procedure.

3.3 Color theory in interpreting collages Consumer’s personality, mind and behavior are determined by basic influences, of which colors are part (Braem, 1998). As a consequence, colors have an impact on humans, whether this impact is conscious or not. As an example, by wearing colorful clothes and preferring or rejecting certain colors customers are sending permanent signals (Riedel, 1986). Colors trigger automatic-unconscious reactions and associations based on past personal experiences (Heller, 1998) such as blue skies, green meadows, or a red fire (Riedel, 1986). Reactions may include feelings and a direct impact on bodily processes, such as: heart beat, breathing frequency or blood pressure (Braem, 1998). Associations may include preferences, images, and words. 3.3.1

What colors reveal about customers Before explaining the importance of colors in marketing and why color theory is help-

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ful for interpreting collages, the phenomenon of synesthesia is introduced. Synesthesia describes a process of perceiving a sensation by two different senses simultaneously (Cytowic, 2003). The experience of a sensation with one sense leads to an automatic experience of the same sensation with another sense (Cytowic, 2003). There are several relations between different senses in the field of synesthesia, including those between colors and emotions, colors and music, or line drawings and emotions (D’Andrade & Egan, 1974). The relation between colors and emotions suggests that colors have emotional value and that there are happy colors,

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sad colors, exciting colors and many more (D’Andrade & Egan, 1974; Singh, 2006). There are two major schools of thought explaining this phenomenon. The first takes culture as the basis of synesthesia, stating that culture contains metaphors, rituals and symbols that link colors to different emotions. According to this perspective, emotions of colors are learned from experiences (D’Andrade & Egan, 1974; Aslam, 2006). The second explanation uses stimuli as the basis for synesthesia and suggests that stimuli trigger distinct, innate and unconditioned responses which serve as connective links combining and eliciting different sensory experiences (D’Andrade & Egan, 1974; Aslam, 2006). Though this is the case, this book is particularly interested in meanings and brand knowledge deduced by colors rather than emotions. It is important to note that the emotional responses triggered by colors influence consumer perceptions and behaviors regarding products and brands (Aslam, 2006; Heath, 1997). Without words, colors are able to communicate emotions whilst also conveying characteristics of products and brands. Such characteristics can be as wide-ranging as: sexiness, fragility, durability, youth, and freshness (Heath, 1997). Colors create attention, convey messages, and generate feelings that influence emotional responses and behavioral intentions (Kotler, 1973). Firms and managers have become more keenly aware of the effects of colors and consequently use them knowingly in marketing related to product design, packaging, advertising, branding, corporate identity and consumer perceptions (Aslam, 2006). Colors have the power to reveal product attributes such as price, quality, or flavor. Colors also have the ability to evoke product associations. For example, in the United Kingdom white is associated with cheap and low-quality products, red is perceived as conceited and average priced and beige is seen as boring and expensive (Aslam, 2006). Furthermore, colors can be used to communicate corporate positions and are an effective method to differentiate from competition by launching a product with an atypical color in its category. In the United States for example, blue is associated with responsible financial services, whereas yellow stands for bright and exciting companies (Aslam, 2006). Finally, but importantly, colors reveal one’s own individual personality and self-image, as people buy colors that reflect themselves (Aslam, 2006). This means that Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

color theory helps to reveal experiences, perceptions and meanings of consumers in relation to brands, products and companies. Since this information is very useful in marketing, color theory is a part of the interpretation procedure in this book. 3.3.2

Same color, different meaning While some colors have universal meanings across countries, others represent and of-

fer different meanings and preferences based on culture, ethnicity, region and income (Aslam,

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2006; Heath, 1997). White for example symbolizes mourning and death in East Asia, but happiness and purity in North America. Blue represents death in Iran and purity in India, but coldness and masculinity in Western Europe (Aslam, 2006). There are numerous examples showing cultural differences of colors and consequently it is crucial that managers are aware of the different perceptions and interpretations of colors in various geographic areas (Aslam, 2006). This book focuses on color theories in Western Europe only. Interestingly however, there are not only differences based on culture, even people from the same culture associate different meanings with the same color and different colors with the same meaning (Heller, 1998). This is possible because the perception of colors is context-dependent, and same colors are associated with different experiences, personal or cultural. Beyond that, even small differences in the hue of a color can impart very different meanings (Heller, 1998). For example, whilst green is the color of youth and represents immaturity (as green tomatoes are unripe), green is also the color of nature representing health and freshness, as green leafs belong to healthy plants (Riedel, 1986). As a consequence, in terms of brands and products green is associated with healthy foods, but it can also represent young and thriving organizations (Aslam, 2006). This shows that colors have an impact on consumer behavior and their perceptions, influence purchase decisions and define brand identity (Heath, 1997). Color theory can reveal valuable information about brands, products and companies. The remainder of this section illustrates the major meanings of the seven most common colors based on Riedel (1986) and Heller (1998). Riedel (1986) developed a thorough psychological color theory based on findings and results by several researchers and 20th century studies (Stefanescu-Goanga, 1912; Frieling & Auer, 1961; Itten, 1962; Heiss, Halder, & Höger, 1975). Riedel (1986) utilized and illustrated those theories systematically and meaningfully. Nine different colors (red, blue, yellow, green, orange, purple, brown, black, and white) are discussed in terms of associations, psychological impact, symbolism and archetypes (Riedel, 1986). Heller (1998) complemented Riedel (1986) very well and conducted her own study of color theory. 1888 persons were asked to assign colors to forty different terms. Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

Heller (1998) used the findings and results to illustrate the meanings of thirteen colors (blue, red, green, black, pink, yellow, white, purple, gold, brown, gray, silver, and orange) in terms of psychological, symbolic, cultural, political, traditional and creative effects. Color theory of collages in this book is based upon the meanings outlined below.

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3.3.2.1 White – the “godlike” color The most common associations with the color white are: light, brightness, and snow. White also has an important status as a godlike color, as it stands for faith, belief, piety, sacrifice and innocence. It is the color of the beginning and resurrection as well as eternity (Heller, 1998). White clothes play a major role at rites of initiation and passage and are associated with bright days, cheerfulness and vitality (Riedel, 1986). White represents openness, innocence, purity, universality, perfection, ideal and the good (Riedel, 1986; Heller, 1998). White can be the color of cleanliness and quietness. It can also represent tenderness and relate to hygiene and hospitals or epitomize good virtues, such as honesty, intelligence, and precision. Moreover it is the color of science referring to dispassion, objectivity, functionality, modernity; and the color of the north referring to winter, cold, and snow (Heller, 1998). White also has a negative connotation as color of emptiness, loneliness, the unknown and a lacking in color (Riedel, 1986; Heller, 1998). 3.3.2.2 Black – the “negative” color Black has a strong impact on people, as it is based on the experiences of nightfall and the extinguishment of color. Black is associated mainly with death, night, darkness, deepness and also coal or lava (Riedel, 1986). It is the color of negative feelings: looking at the dark side, having a black heart, giving a black look and black humor are only a few examples. Black is the color of dirt and disgrace (blackening, blackmail, blackball or black guard) and the color of bad luck and misfortune (black day, black cat, and black ice). Black reverses meanings into the opposite, such as: red from love into hate, yellow from sociability to selfishness, and blue from harmony into harshness (Heller, 1998). Black is a melancholy color and is often connected to repression, blockage and dissociation. It is the absolute color and represents nothingness, lack of life and evil (Riedel, 1986). Black is the color of mourning, as it is a sign of mourning to ignore one’s personal appearance (Heller, 1998). Clerics also often

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wear black as it is an ascetic, conservative and plain color (Riedel, 1986). Also importantly, black can be the color of individuality and differentiation (Heller, 1998). 3.3.2.3 Red – the color of fire The most common associations with red are fire (inflammatory speech and enlightenment), heat and blood. Other nuances are associated with sexual desire, danger, closeness, or strength, power and love (Riedel, 1986). The emotional impacts of red are excitement, warmth, stimulation, and activity; red raises blood pressure, pulse and breathing frequency. It 46

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

is the urge to do something, to be active and to make an impact (Riedel, 1986). From love to sexuality, to hate, all feelings that make our blood boil are related to red, as blood is a vivid part of our body (Riedel, 1986). The more positive a passion, the lighter the red; the more negative a passion, the darker the red (Heller, 1998). Red is conspicuous in many flags and a political color, as it is related to Communism (Riedel, 1986). Red is also the color of the legally and morally forbidden (red-light district) or the color of warning and help (road traffic and the Red Cross) (Heller, 1998; Riedel, 1986). Red is the color of war as well as justice and red gives power, thus warriors and judges wore red (Heller, 1998). Red is the color of correction, as the red pencil is used for corrections in school, and the color of advertising, as red is active, dynamic and eye-catching (Heller, 1998). 3.3.2.4 Blue – the color of infinite dimensions The most common associations are sky/heaven, sea/ocean, cold/coolness, and ice (Riedel, 1986). Blue is a cold color and inappropriate for the interior (Heller, 1998). Blue evokes skies in different moods, the atmosphere of the earth and seas, ranging from light turquoise to dark blue ultramarine (Riedel, 1986). Colors have an impact on our perspective and blue is the color of infinite dimensions, as cold colors seem farther away than warm colors (Heller, 1998). Sky and sea refer to unlimited distance and depth, as well as infinity (Riedel, 1986). Blue is the color of faithfulness and desire, as both are connected to distance. Faithfulness can only be proved and desire can only occur, if somebody or something is far away (Heller, 1998). In general, the color blue triggers wishful, melancholic, calm, and dreamlike emotions. It is the color of introversion, sensibility, secureness and connectedness, in spite of the fact that dark blue often elicits depressing, serious and sad feelings (Riedel, 1986). Blue can also be the color of imagination, representing a utopian idea whose realization is far away. Finally, blue represents masculinity, as it stands for courage, performance, wisdom, intelligence and accuracy (Heller, 1998).

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3.3.2.5 Gray – the “boring” color Gray is the color of dull feelings such as loneliness, mourning, affliction and emptiness. It is the color of unfriendliness and rejection, and often associated with rain, fog, coldness, and daily routine (Riedel, 1986). It is the color of theory, and unloved virtues such as punctuality, thoughtfulness, objectivity, and functionality. It destroys vitality and is the color of deadness. Gray stands for indifference, insecurity and introversion and represents old age, as hair turns gray. Moreover gray is the color of poverty, modesty and simplicity (gray areas). Finally, it is the color of inferiority, cheapness and inedibility (Heller, 1998).

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3.3.2.6 Green – the color of life The main associations with this color are meadows/grassland, forests, blooming nature and green landscapes. Light green is associated with pullulation, humidity and recovery, whereas blue-green is associated with water, cold and ice (Riedel, 1986). Green symbolizes hope, as it is connected to desire and hope for the upcoming spring during winter (Riedel, 1986; Heller, 1998). It is the color of nature, culture and civilization (Heller, 1998) and the color of life, as it stands for herbal growth, spring, and thriving businesses (Riedel, 1986; Heller, 1998). Forests are related to growth, development, protection and closeness (Riedel, 1986). Green is a relaxing, gentle, pleasant, balancing, refreshing and peaceful color (Riedel, 1986). It is a fresh color and perfumes and beverages in green packaging represent that. Green is associated with health, immaturity and youth, since vegetables and fruits are healthy, but green when they are unripe. In negative terms it is the color of poison (bilious green) (Heller, 1998). While red is close, hot, dry, and active, and blue is far, cold, wet, and passive, green is in the middle of these two colors and as such is perceived as relaxing, calming, healing, pleasant and safe (Heller, 1998). 3.3.2.7 Yellow – the “sunny” color The most common associations with this color are sun, light, flowers and gold. Yellow stands for ripe fruits and vegetables, blooming flowers, and honey. Yellow is a bright, colorful and positive color. It is active, vivid, extroverted, cheerful and inspiring (Riedel, 1986). Yellow does however have two faces – positive and negative. Sunlight (associated with warming and illumination), stands for optimism, summer and fun (Riedel, 1986; Heller, 1998), whereas negative experiences of yellow refer to bitter taste and diseases, such as jaundice, kidney disease or poisoning. Moreover it is perceived negatively as a loud, intrusive and gaudy color and often used in road traffic and as a warning for poison (Riedel, 1986; Heller, 1998). Lastly, it is the color of gold in reference to luxury and prosperity or can symbolize

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envy, greed, selfishness, mendacity or unfaithfulness (Heller, 1998).

3.4 A communication psychological view on collages Communication is much more than just talking to one another. There are numerous ways to communicate, from words, to gestures, to texts, to pictures. This book takes a closer look at communication via collages and the meaning that can be deduced from it. Communication is any form of transmission of encoded information between (at least) a sender and a

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receiver (Watzlawick, Beavin, & Jackson, 1969). Humans communicate permanently without having control over these communications (Watzlawick et al., 1969). The model used in this book is the four sides model developed by Schulz von Thun (1992). This model should assist in investigating any potential problems in communication. The sender is a person that: says something, takes a photo, draws a picture, or creates a collage. The receiver is a person that: hears the words, sees the photo, looks at the painting, or interprets the collage. Schulz von Thun (1992) discovered that information consisted of four sides: the matter layer, the self-revelation layer, the relationship layer, and the appeal layer. Based on that theory Schulz von Thun (1992) identified three important characteristics of information. First, clarity of communication is four-dimensional and receiving the correct information requires an understanding each of the four layers. Second, information contains multiple messages occuring simultaneously, of which some can be accepted and others rejected. And third, all four messages are equivalent (Schulz von Thun, 1992). The matter layer states that the sender wishes to inform by conveying facts, data and the content of the message. The self-revelation layer contains information about the sender itself, such as the sender’s emotions, values and attitudes. The relationship layer is about the sender and receivers’ relationships. Finally, the appeal layer tells what the sender wants the receiver to do by a direct or indirect appeal (Schulz von Thun, 1992). Besides four layers on the sender’s side, there are also four “ears” on the receiver’s side, which are compatible with the layers of information. Only the “ears” make it possible to receive the right information. However, every person has a different ability to “hear” a message, and some people’s “ears” are better than others (Schulz von Thun, 1992). As a consequence, communication can easily lead to misunderstandings, as the receiver may hear and understand something different than the sender intended, which shows that interpersonal communication is vulnerable to dysfunction (Holzbrecher & Tell, 2006). Although Schulz von Thun (1992) emphasized explicit and spoken information, he did not neglect implicit and nonverbal information. He stated that nonverbal information posCopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

sessed the same four layers as verbal information. Holzbrecher and Tell (2006) used the four sides model for analyzing photography, as it provided a good fundament for examining visuals. In order to be able to interpret collages of others it is important to understand the creators’ personal realities. The four sides model allows for doing exactly that and can be useful in interpreting collages, as it looks at visual information from various perspectives. It allows for examining the collages from a communication psychological point of view by considering the sender and receiver’s perspectives (Holzbrecher & Tell, 2006). The model attempts to inves-

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tigate visuals on a more personal level as well as find out the intentions of the creator. It also helps in deducing meaning on a more pragmatic level by answering several personal questions concerning each layer of information. In conclusion it is to say that people continuously document and show something, express views, emphasize relationships, and appeal to something (Holzbrecher & Tell, 2006).

3.5 Structural analysis of collages The final step is an interpretation of the structural features of the collages in order to gain information on syntactics. Although the interpretations in this step are not based on any studies or literature, the aim of this part is to attempt to deduce some meaning from collages based on structural and spatial features. The first structural feature chosen for analysis is the number of objects and elements. One object is one snippet of paper, whereas one element is one separate picture/scene, or text phrase. One object can consist of more elements, for example a snippet of paper showing a pair of sneakers and the text phrase “impossible is nothing” (one object - two elements). This distinction is important, as two elements in the same object can represent a different meaning, even though usually one object equals one element. The next feature is the size of elements, which categorizes the elements into large, medium and small. The use of area purveys how much space the creators utilized. Distance between objects is about the free spaces between the elements, and composition shows how the elements are ordered and arranged. For example, pictures can be arranged centrally or peripherally, which may represent a center-periphery, left-right or bottom-top schema. Structure can clearly indicate schemata and metaphors, which may entail strong meanings not to be neglected in this work. There could have potentially been more structural features; however, this book focuses on those outlined above, as those seem to be sufficient to identify the most important

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patterns and singularities.

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4 Empirical study 4.1 Data collection and sample In an empirical study by Koll et al. (2010) three methods for assessing brand knowledge were tested, namely: free association technique, story-writing and collage building. The results of the three methods were compared, and recommendations for management were made. In the empirical study, 61 participants consisting of students from ages 20 to 26 were asked to complete the free association task, and story-writing online, and then complete the collage building task during a separate session one week later. The break of one week between the tasks was necessary to avoid bias from the free association and story-writing task. Before each task a picture of a product of the major sports brand Adidas served as stimulus for the participants. After seeing the stimulus the participants were asked to: write down associations that came to mind, to write a short story and thirdly, to build a collage related to the picture. For the collage building task 31 out of the 61 respondents were randomly assigned and created a collage based upon the shown stimulus, whilst the remaining 30 created a collage using another stimulus. The participants had one hour and approximately 100 magazines to use to create an A2-sized collage. Additionally, the respondents had to provide an explanation of their collages for better understanding afterwards. Those explanations were provided in terms of individual interviews after the collage building session was complete. The exact description of the collage building task was: “Please create a collage that expresses what you think about the brand XYZ by using the provided material” (Koll et al., 2010, p. 12). The study by Koll et al. (2010) evaluated the breadth and concentration of brand knowledge, whether the methods elicited similar knowledge elements, and the nature of brand knowledge. It was shown that the amount and nature of knowledge significantly differed between methods. It was also stated that understanding the respondent’s meaning of a collage is only possi-

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ble after probing the respondent (Koll et al., 2010). This book analyzes and interprets 10 out of the 31 collages from the study by Koll et al. (2010). A quantity of ten collages is sufficient for an extensive and profound interpretation of content, as knowledge is not the possession of the individual and is constructed socially (Zaltman, 1997). Based on that reasoning, a small sample can be representative of a larger population. In ZMET Zaltman and Coulter (1995) used a sample of only four or five respondents to analyze data and create consensus maps. In addition, an analysis of more collages would go beyond the scope of this book. The interviews given additionally to the collages

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play an important role and are interpreted verbally. The interviews are compared to the results from visual interpretation in order to determine differences between visual and verbal interpretation. Since the interviews vary in length, a minimum amount of words per interview was necessary to assure a certain amount of information that could be gathered from interviews. Therefore the richness of the interviews in terms of number of words was used as a criterion for choosing the collages. Interviews with at least 425 words seemed to be suitable for interpretation, as this length allowed for a profound content analysis. Consequently 13 out of 31 collages were eliminated due to that criterion. Out of the 18 remaining collages, 10 were drawn randomly.

4.2 Data analysis 4.2.1

Empathy and mentalizing as justification for this work In this book the researcher attempts to put himself in the collage creators’ shoes. The

book investigates what the participants wish to express with their collages, irrespective of whether they are aware of it or not. The researcher does not know any of the participants and has no additional information on them personally or their individual collages. Only after the interpretation of collages is complete, are the interviews interpreted. In interpreting the collages, the concepts of empathy and mentalizing play an important role. In order to make this approach more understandable the mechanisms of empathy and mentalizing are explained below. Empathy is the “capacity to share the feelings of others” (Singer & Fehr, 2005, p. 340) without direct emotional stimulation. Put another way, empathy is seeing, feeling and thinking like a customer. It “is a skill or quality close to emotional intelligence” (Sparrow, 2007, p. 16). Singer and Fehr (2005) showed that the same parts of the brain were activated when experiencing pain inflicted on oneself as when watching others experiencing pain. This suggests that people use their own emotional responses to understand the feelings of others. This effect

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is even known to intensify if the other person is likeable (Singer & Fehr, 2005). Empathy is a new trend in sales and referred to as the new soft skill. Relationships with customers, suppliers, and other stakeholders can be improved by empathy (Sparrow, 2007). For salespeople it is important to be able to react to customers’ minds, as they can change rapidly. By detecting subtle cues in communication and understanding the mind of customers, salespeople are able to establish what customers want and why they want it (Dietvorst et al., 2009). Mentalizing is the capacity to represent others’ mental states – intentions, beliefs, desires (Singer & Fehr, 2005). Dietvorst et al. (2009) used the term “interpersonal mentalizing” 52

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

to describe the ability to read customers’ minds. The exact definition is “the activity of inferring another person’s beliefs desires, risk preferences, intentions, and other mental states or events, as well as the ability to process subtle cues and adjust volitions accordingly” (Dietvorst et al., 2009, p. 654). A study by Singer and Fehr (2005) showed that this capability was used permanently. People are able to imitate others’ behaviors by simply observing them, as people automatically share their mental states. Both mechanisms are automatic and unconscious, as people are not aware of using these (Singer & Fehr, 2005). It is a fact that human beings are able to mentalize and empathize. Entire fields of study, such as economics and game theory, are based on the assumptions that people are able to predict others’ actions and take on others’ points of view (Singer & Fehr, 2005). “To predict how economic man will behave, we need to know not only that he is rational, but also how he perceives the world – what alternatives he sees and what consequences he attaches to them” (Simon, 1956, p. 271). Dietvorst et al. (2009) developed a theory-of-mind scale for measuring salespeople’s interpersonal-mentalizing skills. This scale is able to measure the people’s capability for interpersonal mentalizing and classifies salespeople according to their performance (Dietvorst et al., 2009). There are individual differences in empathic and mental abilities leading to differences in predicting others’ motives and actions (Singer & Fehr, 2005). Research in neuroscience suggests that people low in interpersonal mentalizing activate different parts of the brain than people with a higher capacity (Dietvorst et al., 2009). This indicates that persons incapable of interpersonal mentalizing are mainly driven by vague and abstract categories when making inferences. Such individuals have difficulties in taking initiative, noticing subtle hints, taking a holistic point of view or providing direction in conversations. The main results of the study by Dietvorst et al. (2009) showed that there are four different but related dimensions of interpersonal mentalizing, which are significantly related to performance. This means that people are able to read somebody’s mind and engage in interpersonal mentalizing – some better than others. Salespeople that scored higher closed more deals, as they were able to (more successfully) put themselves into customers’ shoes and consequently react more approCopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

priately in conversations (Dietvorst et al., 2009). It is important to understand the concepts of empathy and mentalizing, as they are a mental part of the interpretation process in this book. It assists the researcher in finding the “right” meaning by better understanding the intentions of the participants. This is the reason why it is valuable for the researcher to do the interpretation by himself only and not to rely on interpretations of others. Note that, the more knowledge of social, political and cultural backgrounds available, the more effective empathizing and mentalizing will be.

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4.2.2

The multi-layered interpretation process “Ja, man kann Collagen interpretieren. Aber es ist kein leichtes Unterfangen. Wenn Sie 4 verschiedene Theoretiker bitten - nehmen Sie ruhig verschiedene Kulturkreise - eine Collage zu interpretieren, werden Sie vermutlich vier sehr fundierte Abhandlungen erhalten, die sich nur wenig decken werden. Ist es mit der Interpretation unter Umständen so wie mit der Schönheit? Die eine liegt im Auge des Betrachters, die andere im Wissen um das Bezugssystem in dem eine Collage hergestellt wurde“ (Frank, 2009).

Collages are constructed by participants with a specific meaning in mind. They are created by particular individuals in specific times and places, and therefore accessible to multiple truths. Every researcher will read a collage differently and therefore there will never be a single truth (Riessman, 2008). As visuals and collages cannot speak for themselves, this book tries to provide an interpretation approach that offers a framework for interpreting collages, in order to get closer to the intended meaning of the creators. The main goal of this book is the development of a multi-layered analysis procedure that allows identifying the meaning of a collage without any additional information given by the respondent. The second goal is the interpretation of interviews allow for determining differences in information provided by respondents verbally and nonverbally. The interpretation process applied in this book includes metaphor analysis (Johnson, 1990; Seitz, 1998; Niedermair, 2001; Schmitt, 1997, 2003; Schmieder, 2006; Lakoff & Johnson, 2008), color theory (Frieling & Auer, 1961; Itten, 1962; Riedel, 1986; Braem, 1998; Heller, 1998), a communication model (Schulz von Thun, 1992; Holzbrecher & Tell, 2006) and structural analysis. 4.2.2.1 Metaphor analysis – method and procedure The basis of the empirical study is a multi-layered interpretation process consisting of

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six steps. The first three steps are part of the metaphor analysis, which is based on a compact version of Schmitt’s (1997, 2003) procedure of metaphor analysis explained in Schmieder (2006). The aim is to deduce semantic meaning from collages. The main challenge was finding an appropriate procedure that can be applied on collages. Many techniques in literature (Buchholz, 1996; Schmitt, 1997, 2003; Schachtner, 1999) were developed for the analysis of written metaphors in texts. Therefore an adaption was needed to make the textual-based analysis applicable for a visual-based analysis. Schmitt’s (1997, 2003) metaphor analysis has been chosen as it is a reliable method, independent from individual interpretation preferences and 54

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

not based on any further theories (Schmitt, 2003). Moreover, Schmitt (2003) based his analysis upon cognitive metaphor theory by Lakoff and Johnson (2008), which provided a valuable opportunity to combine this approach with Johnson’s (1990) categorization of metaphors based on image schemata. Schmitt (1997, 2003) added certain steps to the procedure, as Lakoff and Johnson (2008) did not provide a framework for interpretation (Schmitt, 2003). Schmitt (1997, 2003) provided simple and consistent steps that offered room for applying the analysis to visuals. The rules provided by Schmitt’s (1997, 2003) systematic metaphor analysis guides the researcher and assists in: finding metaphors, identifying image schemata, interpreting, and presenting image schemata in a reasonable manner (Schmitt, 2003). In terms of objectivity, Schmitt (1997) stated that the consensus in recognizing metaphors by experienced interpreters lay between 55 and 95 percent. Still, the reconstruction of those schemata cannot be automated, and must be learnt (Schmitt, 2003). However, once familiar with schemata and their meanings, this method allows for a simple, manageable and fast analysis of visual metaphors. As for every interpretative approach, the more similar the cultural and social background and the more distinct the mentalizing and empathetic skills, the easier and more accurate it is to find the “right” meaning. Although there are alternative methods (Morris, 1993; Forceville, 1994; Carroll, 1996) for visual metaphor analysis, Schmitt (1997, 2003) presented as the better choice. This was because most visual methods are rather inflexible and rigid, focusing mainly on single pictures, such as a cartoon or an advertisement as opposed to a pool of pictures and their relations. At the point of writing this book no literature was found that applied the categorization by Johnson’s (1990) image schemata and the procedure by Schmieder (2006) to visuals. It is the researcher’s responsibility to determine the number of image schemata used in each study. Some researchers may select and use only certain schemata, while other researchers do not restrict the selection at all, such as applied in this book. The more schemata available, the more time-consuming the procedure, and the more opportunities and freedom for interpretation offered. It is also possible to group schemata into categories, as Amant et al. Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

(2006) did by combining blockage, enablement, counterforce, compulsion, restraint removal, and attraction to a single force schema. This does facilitate interpretation, but also leads to less precise results. The interpretation of visuals will always be a subjective task, therefore it is advisable to use frameworks and guidelines that help the researchers to orientate themselves and provide more accurate and valid information. This metaphor analysis provides such a guideline for interpreting collages, by combining the procedure with the concept of metaphor analysis. This approach is especially useful for the interpretation of collages, as it

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

55

allows for the interpretation of many elements in a relatively short time. Furthermore even a novice is able to apply this approach after becoming familiar with the procedure. The first step in metaphor analysis is the collection of metaphors. This book assumes that each visual element in a collage represents a visual metaphor. Note that the terms “element” and “metaphor” are used as synonyms in the rest of this book. An element is a separate picture/scene or text phrase found on the collage. Written words and drawings are not regarded, as this would require other approaches enabling interpretations of drawings and word associations. By moving clockwise through the collage all elements are collected and described. The metaphors identified are categorized content-wise, semantically, and logically based on Johnson’s (1990) image schemata in the second step. The third and last step of metaphor analysis is the abstraction and completion of image schemata by identifying and explaining implications. This step tries to establish what the metaphors do not reveal right away but what they imply (Schmieder, 2006). This is achieved through the interpretation and the deduction of meaning from underlying image schemata. As explained in chapter 3, metaphors are communication tools for expressing image schemata and therefore help identifying the underlying schemata. The identified image schemata in turn help to better understand experiences, thoughts and actions of consumers (Schmitt, 2003), which provides information on brand knowledge. Schmitt (1997, 2003) combined cognitive metaphor analysis (Lakoff & Johnson, 2008) with qualitative content analysis (Mayring, 2008), two theories that complement each other (Niedermayr, 2001). Qualitative content analysis is a deductive-inductive approach that allows for the extension of existing concepts in literature (Mayring, 2008). Firstly, the theoretical background is identified in order to derive the available categories, and secondly, the data is assigned to the existing categories. If necessary new categories are created and existing theories are extended (Mayring, 2008). This book deals with cognitive metaphor theory (Lakoff & Johnson, 2008) and identifies metaphors based upon categories of image schemata (Johnson, 1990). Therefore the list of image schemata by Johnson (1990) can be extended freely in order to better fit the working method or subject treated. The meanings of the most Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

important types of image schemata are outlined in chapter 3 from pages 35 to 38. The findings are illustrated in tables as follows; the first column outlines a short description of each visual metaphor, the second column shows the identified image schemata, while the third column states the meanings of image schemata in a condensed form. Below each table a detailed explanation is provided.

56

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4.2.2.2 Color theory – method and procedure The meanings of the most important colors are outlined in chapter 3 from pages 42 to 44. In this step the collages are interpreted based on color theories described by Riedel (1986) and Heller (1998). The aim is to gain further information on semantics of collages. Similar to metaphor analysis, colors were collected initially, meaning that each element of a collage was examined for the colors it included. Secondly, the elements in a collage incorporating the same color were counted and ranked. The more elements included in a collage featuring the same color, the higher the color’s rank. This provided a good overview of the most prevalent colors in the collages and constituted a good starting point for interpretation. The findings are illustrated in tables as follows; the first column shows the relevant color, the second column illustrates the number of elements that include that color, while the third column provides the core meanings of each color. Below the table an explanation is provided. 4.2.2.3 Communication model – method and procedure The fifth step uses a concept by Holzbrecher and Tell (2006) (based on Schulz von Thun’s (1992) four sides model) to gain further information on pragmatics. This concept was selected as it was used for analyzing visuals, namely photography, and allowed to look at both the sender’s as well as the receiver’s perspective. Holzbrecher and Tell (2006) chose the four sides model by Schulz von Thun (1992) as their basis as it provided a good framework to investigate not only texts but also visuals. Referring to the four sides model, certain questions were identified and answered by the researcher in order to investigate the four layers of information and shed some light on brand knowledge. Similar to metaphor analysis this procedure needed adaption before being applied to collages. Originally it was developed for the analysis of photos (which is a decidedly different approach), Holzbrecher and Tell (2006) posing their questions for the evaluation of photos. In order to be able to evaluate collages the questions concerning the four layers were partially revised. The questions were taken from

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Holzbrecher and Tell (2006, p. 109) and adopted if necessary to better fit the purpose. For evaluation of the matter layer, the questions “What are the dominant scenes?”, “What is the context?” and “What do the pictures represent?” have been chosen. Information on selfrevelation can be deduced by answering the question “What do the chosen pictures tell about the sender (attitudes, emotions, feelings)?”. The relationship layer is investigated by asking “What is the relationship between the brand and the creator of the collage?” and “How does the researcher perceive the collage (feelings, emotions, experiences)?”. Finally, the appeal layer is evaluated with the questions “What does the collage ask you to do?” and “What mes-

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57

sage is conveyed?”. Neither Schulz von Thun (1992) nor Holzbrecher and Tell (2006) provided a guideline or framework on how to answer or elaborate on these questions. The procedure applied is as follows: The researcher starts with the first question regarding the matter layer and answers according to his assessment. Some questions are more objective than others and the capability for empathy and mentalizing plays a greater role in this step. Note that some answers only reflect the subjective opinion of the researcher. The answers provide the basis for the evaluation of the collages. The findings are also illustrated in tables; the first column outlines the relevant question, the second column illustrates the answer to each question, while the third column provides the meanings deduced from each answer. 4.2.2.4 Structural analysis – method and procedure The sixth step in the process is a description of the collage’s structural and spatial characteristics by the researcher. The identification, description and interpretation of certain structural patterns and singularities could prove useful in gathering valuable information on syntactics (although this part is not based on a certain model in literature). Firstly, the researcher examines the collage based on the five structural features: number of objects and elements, size of elements, use of area, distance of objects and composition. Secondly, the patterns that emerge from the interaction of those features are identified, described and interpreted. The findings are illustrated in tables; the first column shows the characteristic in question, the second column illustrates a short description and image schemata, if available, while the third column provides the core meanings of the relevant characteristic. A detailed explanation is provided below the table. 4.2.2.5 Cross validation procedure In the first stages the collages are interpreted based on the multi-layered approach described above. In a second stage, the interviews (which have been given in addition to the collages by the participants), are interpreted. The results of both interpretations are subseCopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

quently compared. It is important to mention that the researcher always stuck strictly to this sequence in order to avoid bias from interviews. It cannot be stressed enough that the researcher gained additional information on respondents and collages only after the collage interpretation was complete. This cross validation procedure pursues two main goals. First, validity of the interpretation approach should be assured, and second, valuable information can be gained by comparing the results. The differences may provide interesting information about the ability of people to express their feelings, emotions and thoughts, as it is assumed that consumers are unable to adequately convey their feelings and expectations by words 58

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

alone (Costa et al., 2003). Validity measures the extent to which a technique measures that which it is supposed to measure (Donoghue, 2000). In this case validity is the extent to which the results of the interpretation of collages coincide with the intended meaning of the creators (when they created the collages). The intended meaning is explicitly stated by the creators in interviews explaining their collages. The interpretation of the interviews (in this instance applied on verbal metaphors) uses the same levels of analysis as the interpretation of visuals. First, the interviews are searched for metaphors. Next, the metaphors are collected and categorized in the same way as a visual metaphor analysis, namely based on Johnson’s (1990) theory of image schemata. To concude, the image schemata underlying the metaphors are explained in order to deduce brand knowledge and the intended meaning. The findings are illustrated in tables and show the following information: the first column outlines the original text phrases in German and English with the metaphors underlined, the second shows the identified image schemata on which the metaphors are based, and the third column illustrates the condensed meaning deduced from the image schemata in the previous column. Following this, a detailed comparison of meanings of the different analytic approaches is provided. At the end of each chapter the key brand meanings conveyed by collages are compared to the key brand meanings conveyed by interviews. This comparison is illustrated in tabular form. The left column shows all aggregated meanings from the four visual analyses; the right column shows all aggregated meanings from the verbal analysis. The key brand meanings are underlined and are based upon the single brand meanings written below, which are arranged according to frequency. The percentages in brackets show how often the key brand meaning occurred during an analysis. These tables of comparison serve as basis for detailed discussions about actual brand meanings in the latter parts of the findings and results chapter.

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4.2.3

Findings and results

4.2.3.1 Interpretation of collages and interviews by the researcher 4.2.3.1.1 Collage 1bm0407h I. Meaning conveyed by collage Figure 1 shows collage 1bm0407h, which offers the basis for interpretation in this chapter; table 2 outlines the main findings derived from the first visual approach, visual metaphor analysis. The table is discussed in greater detail below.

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

59

6

1

7 5

4 3

2

12 13

11 8 10

9

Figure 1: Collage 1bbm0407h Steps 1--3: Metaphoor analysis Metaph hor

Image schemaata

Meanin ng

1) “Disttanz schafftt Nähe” – “D Dis-

Linnk, Blockage, Near-Farr

Connecctedness;

2) Globbe featuring images of vvari-

Conntainer, Parrt-Whole,

Varietyy, diversity, inter-

ous sports and boldd Adidas loggo;

Meerging, Centter-Peripherry nationaality;

3) Sporttsmen lyingg on floor

Bloockage, Couunterforce

oming, Enduraance, overco

(crossedd out);

(croossed out), E Enablementt,

reinforccement;

tance crreates closenness”;

Resstraint remooval

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4) Younng man (O. Pocher) loooking

Conntainer, Apppearance

Young,, dynamic, cool; c

Bloockage, Scale, Path,

Take onn challenges;

at cam and a wearingg Adidas shhirt; 5) Rockky landscapee;

Surrface 6) “For people whoo just won’tt

Enaablement, R Restraint re--

stop”;

moval

7) Coupple (A. Agasssi & S. Graaf)

Linnk, Matching, Contai-

Overcoome obstaclees;

Happinness, calmneess;

60

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

smiling at cam;

ner, Appearance

8) “In weiter Ferne – so nah” –

Link, Blockage, Near-Far

Connectedness;

Container, Enablement,

Associate, reinforcement;

“Far away, but still close”; 9) Colorful sneakers;

Merging, Part-Whole, Transformation 10) Celebrate (marked) originality

Miss-Exist

(crossed out);

Celebration, happiness, fun;

11) Glove-watch;

Enablement, Merging,

Associate, reinforcement,

Part-Whole, Transfor-

technology;

mation 12) Laughing face wearing sun-

Appearance

Happiness, fun;

Path, Cycle, Link

Achievement;

glasses; 13) Running and cheering athletes;

Table 2: Metaphor analysis (collage 1bm0407h) The participant used two German expressions, which described the feeling of longdistance relationships, saying long distances would lead to closeness (1, 8) to symbolize the underlying image schemata: link, blockage and near-far. The use of those expressions may illustrate that the actual brand is far away (blockage, near-far), but that there is still a connection between the participant and the brand (link). This could mean the brand Adidas is something that is far away but still close; it is a huge international brand, but still can be found at home in the closet as it is worn by a lot of people. The globe (2) is a very important metaphor and represents: container, part-whole, merging and center-periphery schemata. The globe could be a container for various sports and activities with Adidas central to it (centerperiphery). Beyond that, Adidas may be designed for various sports and combines them in

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one brand (part-whole, merging). Therefore this collage may also express diversity and internationality. Adidas is a company that operates worldwide and is present in almost every country (2, 7). It is a very versatile company that manufactures equipment and clothes for numerous sports and activities (2). The third theme is reflected by sneakers (9), a watch (10), a rock and a phrase (5, 6). The image schemata found are: container, enablement, merging, part-whole and transformation; in addition to: blockage and restraint removal. Clothing itself can be regarded as a container as one can step into and wear it. It merges with the person and becomes a part of them. This in turn could enable the person wearing it, as an obstacle is no

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61

longer an obstacle (blockage, restraint removal). Adidas helps overcoming obstacles and accepting new and more difficult challenges (5, 6) with their sports equipment, which potentially becomes an associate for athletes (9, 11). The lying and cheering men (3, 13) reflect enablement and path schemata, as Adidas enables athletes and accompanies them on their bumpy road to success. This could also mean that Adidas is a brand for winners – there is no perceived weakness or defeating them (3, 13) as Adidas helps them to achieve. Furthermore, several metaphors (4, 7, 12) represent: link, matching, container and appearance schemata. The appearance schema is a newly introduced schema by the researcher and represents connections between the shown faces and Adidas, as the persons and the brand are similar – they match in a certain way. The faces represent happiness and satisfaction and make the brand Adidas appear in a positive light. This could signify that Adidas represents youth, coolness, happiness, love, fun and celebration (4, 7,12). However, Adidas lacks originality of ideas (10), which is symbolized by a second newly introduced image schema, the miss-exist schema. This schema points out what certain features the brand possesses or is lacking in, such as shown by celebration and originality. The third new schema is the more-less schema and is similar to the miss-exist schema. Respondents use this schema to define how distinct certain features and meanings of the brand are. The creator of this collage for example used the moreless schema to represent Adidas as a fun brand rather than a high-performance sports brand. A discussion about the newly introduced schemata is provided in the latter part of this book.

Step 4: Color theory Color

Number of elements

Meaning

Black

8 (2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 12, 13)

Mystery, secret, conservativeness;

Gray

7 (1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12)

Commonness, mediocrity, simplicity, boredom, conservativeness, lack of uniqueness;

Blue

7 (2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, 13)

Infinity, no limits, distance, utopia, mystery, activities outside, unemotional virtues;

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White

6 (2, 3, 5, 9, 10, 12)

Intelligence, honesty, true associate, support, aid;

Red

5 (2, 3, 8, 9, 13)

Closeness, power, activity;

Yellow

3 (3, 9, 13)

Fun, happiness, profit-making;

Green

2 (3, 13)

Relaxation, back to the roots; Table 3: Color theory (collage 1bm0407h)

62

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Table 3 illustrates the main findings conveyed by color theory: In this collage several black and white pictures are found (mostly gray with some black elements). The color gray is associated with dull feelings, it is an unfriendly color and stands for indifference and simplicity. These meanings associated with the color gray may show that people see Adidas as an ordinary, mediocre and simple brand. Furthermore “originality” is crossed out (11) in the collage, which could indicate a lack of uniqueness. As gray is seen as a conservative and boring color, it could mean that Adidas is for ordinary and conservative people. Although most dark pieces are rather gray, the color black is also dominant. Black is the color of the night and evil, but it is hard to deduce any bad meanings from this collage. Black possesses similar meanings to gray, including conservativeness, as clerics often wear black, (and is in line with the meanings deduced from the color gray). Beyond that black also means mystery and secrecy, which could indicate that the brand is mysterious and people do not know everything about it (1, 8, 12). Blue is also represented strongly in this collage. Blue is the color of infinite dimensions, which could imply that the brand is seen as something infinite and unlimited (2). This meaning is supported by the “distance” phrases (1, 8) and could be a main theme in this collage. Blue is the color of faithfulness and desire, which is also related to distance. Therefore people may see the brand as a partner, who is far away (1, 8). Blue is also the color of imagination and therefore Adidas could stand for something mysterious and utopian (12). Blue is also an exterior color, as it is a cold color, which could be related to playing or participating in sports outside and in nature. Moreover blue is the color of masculinity and unemotional virtues such as braveness, performance, sportsmanship, and intelligence; virtues that can be connected to a sports brand. White is a positive color and people associate it with many good virtues. The participant may see Adidas positively and therefore relate good experiences to the brand. White stands for honesty, intelligence and innocence, indicating that Adidas may be a true associate that supports the participant and helps to overcome obstacles. Red is present in four elements and is often the opposite of blue. However, it can also complement the color blue. Red means closeness, which complements the “distance” phrases (1, 8). The major meanings Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

of red are activity and power. Red is the urge to do something, to be active, and to make an impact. Those are once again attributes that can be perfectly assigned to a sports brand. This participant may see Adidas as a classic sports brand that encourages activity and gives power (9, 13). Yellow, present in three elements, is the color of optimism and extroversion, but could also mean envy and greed. This may indicate that the brand represents fun and happiness, but also profit-making as a company. Green is found in two elements and is the color of

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

63

nature and relaxation. Adidas may be seen as a brand that is fun and relaxing and that is reconnecting people to nature.

Step 5: Communication model Table 4 outlines the main findings from the four sides model: Question

Description

Meaning Matter layer

What are the dominant

The dominant motifs are people in various

scenes?

situations (6 pictures) as well as text phrases

People brand;

(4). Moreover there are two sports fashion pictures. What is the context?

The faces are happy, as they are laughing or

Happiness, joy,

What do the pictures

cheering. Two phrases are about the theme

celebration, con-

represent?

distant but still close, one is about celebra-

nectedness, sports

tion. Two pictures have a sports context and

brand, casual brand;

three are in an informal setting. Self-revelation What do the chosen

The sender associates fun with the brand and Fun brand, sports

pictures tell about the

he/she probably uses the brand for sports

brand, positive,

sender (attitudes, emo-

that are fun, as the pictures are informal.

happiness, sport is

tions, feelings)?

One would assume collage creator has a

fun;

positive attitude towards the brand, as the pictures are positive and happy. I think he/she had a good time creating the collage.

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Relationship What is the relationship He/She thinks doing sport is fun, but not

Entertainment, lei-

between the brand and

every day, as the pictures do not represent

sure activities, just

the creator of the col-

obligations to play sport. For this Adidas is a for fun;

lage?

good fit.

How does the research-

It is a colorful collage with fun and happi-

Colorful, fun, hap-

er perceive the collage

ness as the major themes. I liked looking at

piness, positive

(feelings, emotions,

the collage, as the pictures make me happy.

effect, having fun

experiences)?

It reminds me of doing sports in free time

with friends;

and having fun with my friends. 64

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Appeal What does the collage

It encourages people to have fun, saying

Have fun, sport is

ask you to do? What

Adidas is sports and sports are fun and do

fun, Adidas is

message is conveyed?

not necessarily mean pain. If you want to

sport;

have fun playing sport, go with Adidas. Table 4: Communication model (collage 1bm0407h) Step 6: Structural analysis Characteristic

Description

Meaning

Number of ob-

11/13 - few different meanings;

Not versatile;

1 large, 8 medium, 4 small - emphasize

Very popular in certain

meanings;

fields;

Use of area/distance

Overlapping, no free spaces; - Image

Adidas’ activities merge,

of objects

schemata: contact, merging, full-empty,

rich brand, many aspects,

link, near-far;

customers are close;

Large picture central, others ordered

Important in middle, path

around; - Image schemata: cycle, path,

or cycle around, middle is

center-periphery;

overall perception;

jects/elements Size of elements

Composition

Table 5: Structural analysis (collage 1bm0407h) Table 5 represents the main structural features and their implications: This collage consists only of 11 objects, which could indicate that the participant sees the brand as not particularly versatile and a brand that focuses only on certain fields, such as specific kinds of sports. The elements are rather large, as there is one large, there are eight medium and only four small elements. This means that the participant focuses on the few meanings with great

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emphasis. Therefore Adidas is seen as a brand that is represented only in certain fields, but within those fields it is very popular. There are no free spaces in this collage and some objects are overlapping. Image schemata, such as: contact, merging, full-empty, link, and nearfar may play a role here. The participant may want to show that the fields of Adidas (such as different kinds of sports), almost merge into, or are at least connected to one another. The lack of free spaces could stand for a full-empty schema, which could mean that Adidas is a rich brand, full of different aspects. Beyond that, near-far, link, and contact schemata are also reflected and may show that customers are close to the brand and that there are several touching

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65

points between the brand and its customers. As the large picture is in the middle, it seems to be a center-periphery schema, with the most important object in the middle and all others circling around. The smaller surrounding objects seem like a path or cycle with several different aspects leading toward the middle. The object in the middle could represent the creator’s overall perception of the brand. In this case it is a smiling face. II. Meaning conveyed by interview Table 6 presents the main findings conveyed by verbal metaphor analysis: Text & metaphors

Image schemata

Meaning

Adidas macht Sport eine Leichtigkeit – Adidas makes sports easy Hin zu der Leichtigkeit vom Sport; - Toward

Path, Near-Far

Easiness, lightness;

Appearance

Easygoing;

Appearance, Enab-

Fun, enjoyment;

the lightness of sports; Locker…für das steht die Marke Adidas; Easy…that’s what the brand Adidas represents; Adidas steht für Genusssport und die Leichtig-

keit; - Adidas represents delightful sports and its lement easiness; Generell die Leichtigkeit vom Sport; – General-

Balance, Enable-

Easiness, lightness;

ly the easiness of sports;

ment

Leichtigkeit vom Sport, die sie darstellen; - Ea-

Appearance

Easiness, lightness;

Leute im Sport nicht unbedingt quälen wollen

Restraint removal,

Support, associate,

und Adidas unterstützt die Leute sehr stark; -

Enablement

painlessness,

Enablement

Improvement,

siness of sports, which it represents;

Does not torture people during sports and supports them strongly; Dass sie locker ihre Laufrunde schaffen; - That

achievement;

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they are able to do the lap easily; Nicht…an ihre Grenzen kommen; -

Path, Restraint re-

Not…hitting the wall;

moval

Das Freizeitvergnügen genießen können; - Able

Enablement

Protection, support;

Fun, enjoyment;

to enjoy leisure activities; Adidas ist nicht Leistungssport – Adidas is not high-performance sports

Original interviews are in German language; this table includes literal translations of interview exerpts containing significant image schemata;

66

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Weg vom Hochleistungssport und von dem,

Path, Near-Far

Painlessness, less performance;

dass Sport weh tun kann; - Away from highperformance sports and that sports can hurt; Aus dem Leistungssport heraus; - Out of the

Container

high-performance sports;

Not for highperformance

Auf dem Boden liegenden…was Adidas norma-

Appearance, Blo-

Strength, no ex-

lerweise nicht zeigt; - Lying on the floor…not

ckage, Miss-Exist

haustion;

In der Höchstleistung ist Adidas nicht so vertre-

Container, More-

Not for high-

ten; - Adidas is not that popular in high-

Less

performance

shown by Adidas usually;

performance sports; Adidas ist Durchschnitt – Adidas is ordinary Weniger wichtig, dass da Adidas oben steht; -

More-Less, Bottom-

Not that important that Adidas is on it;

Top

Originalität würde mir bei Adidas etwas fehlen;

Miss-Exist

No poser;

Lack of originality;

– Adidas is lacking originality; Adidas in weiter Ferne und doch so nah – Adidas is far away, but still close Distanz schafft Nähe; - Distance creates close-

Link, Blockage,

ness;

Near-Far

In weiter Ferne so nah; - Far away but still

Link, Blockage,

close;

Near-Far

Unternehmen an und für sich eigentlich relativ

Near-Far

Distance;

Präsentieren sich weltweit; - Present themselves

Appearance, Balan-

Internationality,

worldwide;

ce, More-Less

global;

Die Marke dennoch sehr nahe am Menschen; -

Near-Far, Contact

Customer

Connectedness;

Connectedness;

weit weg; - Company relatively far away actual-

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ly; (2x)

The brand close to people yet;

contact/relationship;

Schaffen es Marke nah an die Leute heranzu-

Path, Near-Far,

bringen; - Are able to bring the brand close to

Contact

Customer contact;

people; Adidas ist Mode – Adidas is fashion Typische Paar, die Adidas tragen; - The typical

Appearance, Mat-

couple that wears Adidas;

ching

Identification;

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

67

Sind Fashion; - Are fashion;

Part-Whole,

Fashion brand;

Appearance Bewegt sich doch sehr in den Fashionbereich

Path, Container

Fashion brand;

Schuhe sind…mehr Symbole; - Shoes

Matching, Link,

Shoes as symbol;

are…rather symbols;

More-Less

Weniger der Fashionschuh; - Less fashion shoe;

More-Less

Not fashion shoes;

Weiter zu entwickeln mit der Uhr; - Develop

Transformation

Improvement,

hinein; - Moves much into the fashion area;

further with the watch;

change;

Auf der Technikseite versucht man sehr viel;

Space, Transforma-

They try a lot on the technique side;

tion, Splitting

New technologies;

Adidas ist für alle da – Adidas is for anybody Adidas sowohl männlich als auch weiblich; -

Balance

Universality;

Zentrale Botschaft…Celebrate und der Agassi

Center-Periphery,

Enjoyment, fun,

und Graf; – Central message … celebrate as

Enablement

achievement;

Balance

Wide product ran-

Adidas male as well as female;

well as Agassi and Graf; Wie breit sie aufgestellt sind; – How broadly

ge;

they are positioned; Adidas auch unter dem Globus; - Adidas below

Space

Internationality;

the globe as well; Table 6: Interview (collage 1bm0407h) III. Comparison of meanings This comparison shows that the results of visual and verbal metaphor analysis are very similar. This is not very surprising, as both approaches are based upon the same theory. Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

Both analyses find that Adidas is an international and versatile brand offering different products for various activities. A certain connectedness is also found in both analyses; however verbal analysis explains this connection in greater detail and relates connectedness to internationality and an intense usage of products. Furthermore, both find that Adidas enables customers, but with different outcomes; visual analysis emphasizes mastering challenges and achieving goals, while verbal analysis focuses on the easiness and fun of sports. Visual analysis finds that fun and happiness are major meanings of Adidas in general, but it does not explain it further. It also represents Adidas as a reliable associate that supports athletes. Visual 68

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analysis on the contrary finds that Adidas is a fashion brand, as most Adidas products are clothes, and shows that Adidas is not suitable for high-performance sports and does not force people into something. Color theory confirms some core meanings of verbal metaphor analysis such as: reliable associate, enabling customers, fun and happiness and simplicity – although color theory uses a different approach. Simplicity shows that Adidas focuses on the essentials and that there is a lack of originality. The fun meaning is shown by yellow, as Adidas attempts to combine the aspects of sports and fun. White indicates that Adidas may be a true associate that supports and enables athletes. Beyond that, the connectedness meaning is represented by the colors blue (distance) and red (closeness). Color theory however also adds some new meanings to the analysis. Blue for example weakens the aspect of connectedness and introduces the meanings of infinity and distance, while black adds the mystery meaning, which indicates that people do not know everything about it. Red presents Adidas as a typical sports brand that encourages people to be active, whereas gray symbolizes nostalgia. The happiness and fun meaning is very present in the communication model and symbolizes Adidas as a fun brand that entertains people. This analysis provides more details about the fun and happiness meanings than the previous analyses. The main statement is that sports are fun and Adidas is sport. Besides the fun and sports meanings the connectedness meaning is also identified. All three meanings are also found in the verbal analysis. A completely different approach is structural analysis. It shows Adidas as a brand that is popular in a few areas only. However, those fields are connected with each other, which represents the connectedness meaning. The versatility meaning is not particularly present, although Adidas is shown as a rich brand. Finally, structural analysis indicates that there is one major meaning, namely that Adidas is fun, as the largest object is centralized with all other images in its orbit. Table 7 compares the aggregated key brand meanings of the four visual analyses to the aggregated key brand meanings of verbal analysis.

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Brand meanings conveyed by collage

Brand meanings conveyed by interview

Adidas represents good times (30.1%):

Adidas makes sports easy (33.3%):

Fun, happiness, celebration, positivity

Easiness, painlessness, no high-performance

Adidas is simple (12.3%):

Adidas supports customers (17.9%):

Mediocrity, simplicity, conservativeness

Improvement, achievement, support

Adidas makes customers succeed (12.3%):

Adidas is fun (15.4%):

Master/take on challenges, unemotional vir-

Fun, enjoyment

tues, achievement, power

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

69

ustomers (111%): Adidas supports cu

Adiddas is close to customerrs (12.8%):

Associaate, reinforccement, supp port

Connnectedness, customer contact, c inteense relattionship

Adidas is sports (11%):

Adiddas as fashioon brand (10.3%):

Sports, leisure activ vities, recreeation, activ vity

Fashhion, shoes aas symbol

Adidas is close to customers c (8.2%):

Adiddas as globaal player (10 0.3%):

Connectedness, inttense relatio onship

Interrnationality,, global, disstance

Adidas without lim mits (5.5%), internation nality (4.1%), mystery (4 4.1%) Table 7: Aggregation A of meaninggs (collage 1bm0407h) 4.2.3.1.2 2 Collage 1bh0506f I. Meanning conveyed by collag ge F Figure 2 sho ows collagee 1bh0506f,, which offeers the basiss for interpretation in thhis chapter; tablle 8 outliness the main findings f derrived from the first vissual approacch, visual metaphor m analysiss. The table is discussed in greaterr detail below. 1

4 5

3 2

155

14

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11 13 6 10 12

9

8

7

Figure 2: 2 Collage 11bh0506f

70

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Steps 1-3: Metaphor analysis Metaphor

Image schemata

Meaning

1) Face of an older man wearing

Container, Appearance

Sporty impression;

Balance, Force, Object

Concentration, balance,

cap and glasses; 2) Person doing tricks with a football;

force;

3) Sportsman heading a football;

Balance, Force, Object

Concentration, balance, force;

4) Three women laughing at cam;

Link, Appearance

Happiness, fun, being together;

5) Picture of two beach volleyball

Object, Attraction, Link,

Team spirit, determinati-

players wearing shorts, caps, sun-

Appearance

on, strength;

Balance, Container,

Concentration, balance,

Appearance

relaxation;

7) Evil looking person with long

Blockage, Counterforce,

Defense, protection,

black hair holding a cross with

Appearance

glasses and a beach volleyball; 6) Person doing yoga;

both hands; 8) Two pictures of a running shoe;

Container, Enablement,

Associate, reinforcement,

Merging, Part-Whole,

force;

Transformation 9) Two male persons hiding behind

Blockage, Attraction,

Hideout, protection, ta-

something;

Compulsion

king shelter;

10) A sitting dog;

Attraction, Container,

Relaxation;

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Appearance 11) Face of a man wearing a cap;

Container, Appearance

Sporty impression;

12) A man playing a small guitar;

Container, Appearance

Surprise, astonishment;

13) James Brown singing;

Container, Appearance

Happiness, fun;

14) Scared woman swinging an ax;

Restraint removal, Enab-

Force, defense, destruc-

lement

tion;

15) Jumping young man dressed in

Balance, Force, Container,

Satisfaction, keep the

gray and wearing white sneakers;

Appearance

balance, easiness;

Table 8: Metaphor analysis (collage 1bh0506f)

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71

The creator of this collage used an array of pictures showing persons and faces with varying expressions (1, 11, 12, 13). Faces and persons often reflect container and appearance schemata, as faces always have a certain expression (appearance) and include feelings, emotions and experiences (container). Evaluating the exact expression is sometimes difficult, especially if the pictures are particularly small. In this case the faces show a sporty impression (1, 11), happiness (13) and astonishment (12), which can be projected onto the brand Adidas. The two footballers (2, 3) may reflect a balance, force, and object schema. It is necessary to use force sensitively and specifically to play the ball in such a way. Furthermore, concentration is required in maintaining balance. The creator may want to show that Adidas helps to concentrate, keep the balance, and use the force in a certain way. Pictures 4 and 5 also feature people; and again there is the appearance schema, and in addition to this, a link schema. The link may symbolize a connection between the persons in the pictures. The three women could be friends that have fun together, whereas the beach volleyball players are a sports team. The women may represent fun and being together, whereas the men could show team spirit, determination and strength. These are all attributes the creator may want to assign to the Adidas brand. A special theme seems to be reflected by pictures 7, 9 and 14. The image schemata involved are blockage, counterforce, compulsion, restraint removal and enablement. In each of the pictures there seems to be kind of a blockage or threat that should be destroyed or repelled. The meaning of those pictures may be that Adidas itself is such a force that aids in overcoming obstacles and providing protection. Otherwise, there is the possibility that the creator may want to show that Adidas is kind of a threat and should be scrutinized. Does Adidas represent protection, or is it necessary to protect against Adidas? The final pictures 6, 10 and 15 display the dominant schemata: balance, force and appearance. Yoga exercises bring the body and soul into line and assist in strengthening balance, the sitting dog and jumping man also seem to be balanced. Different kinds of forces play a role when it comes to both yoga and jumping, and certainly each process expresses something unique. The schemata may indicate that Adidas is relaxing and helps to center oneself as well as maintain the balance. Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

In general this collage strongly represents the impression of Adidas as a people brand. The brand Adidas is related to people in various situations and scenarios and appears to support those people.

Step 4: Color theory Color

Number of elements

Meaning

White

10 (2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,

Divinity, perfection, emptiness;

72

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13, 15) / uncolored parts Black

10 (2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11,

Misfortune, bad experiences, secret, conserva-

12, 13)

tive, differentiation;

Red

6 (3, 5, 8, 10, 12, 14)

Encouragement, passion, warning;

Blue

4 (1, 2, 4, 5)

Desperation, no limits, untouchable;

Gray

4 (2, 8, 10, 15)

Indifference, ordinariness;

Table 9: Color theory (collage 1bh0506f) Table 9 illustrates the main findings conveyed by color theory: This collage includes several Black and White colors, which may indicate nostalgia (Havlena & Holak, 1996). Black is the color of negative feelings and misfortune. It is a gloomy color often associated with evil and death, as its main associations are night, darkness and shadow. Perhaps the creator had negative experiences with the brand, as the use of numerous black and dark elements stands out (7, 14). It is interesting to note that even the more positive elements contain black spots (2, 3, 4, 5, 12, 13). Black could also mean something mysterious, a kind of secret where the creator may not know a great deal about the brand. Beyond that, black is the color of conservativeness and differentiation and this impression is supported numerous pictures showing individual persons (1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15). The color white is the polar opposite of black and found in ten elements. White is the color of light and represents openness and innocence. It is a color connected to divinity and perfection, as it is a pure and clean color. The creator may want to show that Adidas seems to be a perfect and innocent brand, but also has a dark side (as evidenced by the black spots and the fact that the color white may also posess negative connotations such as emptiness). This could mean that on the surface Adidas is perfect and rich, but internally it is empty. There are also some red areas in the picture. Red is the color of heat, fire and blood. Red is exciting, it encourages action and is the color of intense feelings. In this collage red could symbolize warning, associating strong feelings such as pas-

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sion and force with the brand (3, 5, 12). Finally the colors gray and blue are to be found in several elements. Gray could be the light version of the color black in this collage, and as such its presence confirms the dark and nostalgic impressions. It is an unfriendly, indifferent, and ordinary color. The male in the middle (15) confirms the deadness of this color, as he shows little emotion. There are also several dark blue spots in this collage, standing for depressing feelings. However, the dark blue could also be related to unemotional virtues and may symbolize the performance and power of the brand. Beyond that, blue could represent the vastness of the brand and show Adidas as untouchable – blue being the color of infinity.

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73

Step 5: Communication model Table 10 outlines the main findings from the four sides model: Question

Description

Meaning Matter layer

What are the dominant

In this collage the dominant motifs are peo-

Strong people

scenes?

ple. All pictures (bar three), show people.

brand;

What is the context?

The people are in very different situations

Diversity, versatili-

What do the pictures

and moods. The pictures range from sports

ty, brand applicable

represent?

scenes to pictures from movies. Feelings

in many contexts;

range from happiness, to indifference, to fear. It is difficult to find a general context. There are women and men, athletes and ordinary people. Self-revelation What do the chosen

The sender may be skeptical about the brand

Healthy suspicion,

pictures tell about the

or he/she does not know what to think about

Adidas not what it

sender (attitudes, emo-

it. Considering the dark colors and gloomy

seems, Adidas’

tions, feelings)?

pictures, the person may have a negative or

negative aspects;

at the very least indifferent attitude towards the brand Adidas. However, the motives can be manifold.

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Relationship What is the relationship Although he/she could be a sports fan,

Not for everybody,

between the brand and

he/she may not have the best experiences

bad image, bad

the creator of the col-

with sports or the brand Adidas, as several

reputation;

lage?

pictures convey the feeling of mistrust and suspicion. Therefore it is assumed that the creator does not wear Adidas a lot.

How does the research-

It is a clean and tidy collage, but the feelings

Negative effect,

er perceive the collage

triggered are not particularly positive. It

surprising, boring,

(feelings, emotions,

makes one slightly melancholy when look-

ordinary;

experiences)?

ing at the collage and some pictures are surprising. It is tidy and clean and there is little

74

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

chaos. It does not immediately remind me of a sports brand. Appeal What does the collage

I think the collage says: don’t take every-

ask you to do? What

thing as it seems, be skeptical about things.

message is conveyed?

There are always two sides of a coin.

Scrutinize Adidas;

Table 10: Communication model (collage 1bh0506f) Step 6: Structural analysis Characteristic

Description

Meaning

Number of ob-

16/16 – medium amount of different

Average versatility;

jects/elements

meanings;

Size of elements

2 large, 3 medium, 11 small – rather

Rather unpopular in most

small focus on meanings;

fields;

Use of area/distance

Many free spaces, not overlapping, clear-

Clear meanings separated

of objects

ly organized; - Image schemata: block-

and parted, few aspects,

age, near-far, full-empty, part-whole;

simple brand;

Large objects central and right, others at

Two major meanings,

bottom and left; - Image schemata: cen-

two faces;

Composition

ter-periphery, splitting; Table 11: Structural analysis (collage 1bh0506f) Table 11 represents the main structural features and their implications: There are 16 elements in this collage, which is an average number and therefore the brand may be not seen as especially versatile. More interesting is the fact that most elements are small, namely almost 75 percent. This could indicate that Adidas is a brand popular only in a few areas, and unpopular

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in remaining areas. Moreover it could mean that it is so much more popular in specific areas that by comparison all others seem very small. The collage is organized clearly and there are no overlapping pictures. In addition to this, there is a significant amount of empty space between objects, which makes the collage appear brighter than it actually is. This could be based upon a blockage, near-far and full-empty schema. There is no obvious physical connection between the objects, which means that they are separated by a blockage. Also, the single elements are rather distant, making the collage look empty. This may mean that Adidas is applicable in various fields, but those fields are clearly separated. Beyond that it seems that

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

75

Adidas has few aspects and is a rather simple brand. Finally there are two large objects in the middle and to the right side. The remaining images are mainly small, especially toward the bottom and left side. Again there is a center-periphery schema, meaning that this collage represents two major meanings. This double meaning represents the splitting schema, meaning that Adidas is a brand with two faces. II. Meaning conveyed by interview Table 12 presents the main findings conveyed by verbal metaphor analysis: Text & metaphors

Image schemata

Meaning

Adidas hat zwei Seiten – Adidas has two faces Das Positive und Negative, das man nebeneinan-

Splitting

der darstellen kann; – The positive and negative

Good and bad closely together;

that can be presented side by side; Adidas hat eine positive Seite – Adidas has a positive side Dieser Teil soll das positive Bild zeigen; - This

Splitting

Positive aspects;

Attraction, Path

Excitement;

Appearance

Enjoyment, fun,

part should show the positive picture; Trainer, der mitverfolgt, wie toll die Leute sind; Coach, who sees, how great the people are; Die Freude und die Bewegung soll hier zum Aus-

movement;

druck gebracht werden; – The joy and movement should be represented here; Das Positive das ich dargestellt habe; - The posi-

Appearance

Positive aspects;

Space

Positive aspects;

tive I’ve presented; Außen herum das Positive, die Freude; - Outside the positive, the joy; Die Lebensfreude, wenn man den Schuh hat, dann Matching

Enjoyment, fun;

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passt es; – The joy of life, if you wear the shoe, it fits; Adidas hat eine negative Seite - Adidas has a negative side Der ist schon ganz mies drauf; - He is already

Blockage, More-

Negative emoti-

pretty crabby;

Less

ons;

Er beschwört die Schuhe; - He charms the shoes;

Transformation,

Change;

Original interviews are in German language; this table includes literal translations of interview exerpts containing significant image schemata;

76

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Counterforce Es wirkt sogar auf die Tiere; – It even affects

Force, Transformati-

animals;

on

Wenn man sie nicht hat, dann fehlt einem was; –

Miss-Exist, Part-

If you do not have them [shoes], something is

Whole

Influence;

Magic cure;

missing; Schuhe im Zentrum – Shoes in the middle Die Schuhe…mit denen man viel anfangen kann;

Enablement

Usefulness;

- The shoes…which are of great use; So gut drauf sind, weil sie eben die Schuhe haben; Enablement

Encouragement;

- In a good mood, because they have the shoes; Nicht mehr die Religion im Mittelpunkt, sondern

Center-Periphery

Divinity;

Center-Periphery

Centrality;

Center-Periphery

Center of attrac-

die Schuhe; - Religion is not in the middle anymore, but the shoes; Wichtiges ist im Zentrum; - Important in the center; Die Schuhe…der Mittelpunkt; – The shoes…the focus; (2x)

tion; Schuhe als Anziehungspunkt – Shoes as center of attraction

Schauen zu den Schuhen her; - Look at the shoes;

Attraction, Path

Excitement;

Dreht sich um die Schuhe; - The feel-

Path, Attraction,

Necessity;

ings…revolve around the shoes; (2x)

Center-Periphery

In das Zentrum gelenkt; - Direct towards the cen-

Attraction, Center-

ter;

Periphery, Path

Auf Adidas hinzulenken; - Direct towards Adidas; Attraction, Path

Centrality;

Appeal, attraction;

Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

Da wo die Schuhe dargestellt sind; - There where

Appearance

Shoes;

Ich habe überall Schuhe abgebildet; - I’ve shown

Surface, Part-Whole,

Shoes;

shoes everywhere;

More-Less

the shoes are represented;

Table 12: Interview (collage 1bh0506f)

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77

III. Comparison of meanings The enablement meaning is present in both metaphor analyses. Visual analysis focuses on concentration, balance and force, whilst verbal analysis emphasizes enablement in general. Though the verbal analysis revealed that shoes are seen as the major object of enablement (for people) within the collage, it is interesting to note that this was not clearly deduced from the visual analysis. A major difference between the analyses is that visual analysis highlights people strongly (people brand), whereas verbal analysis focuses largely on shoes (fashion, sports brand). Verbal analysis distinguishes strongly between positive and negative aspects associated with Adidas; positive equals enjoyment and fun, negative equals bad influences and feelings. Visual analysis confirms these impressions only partially; fun, team spirit and protection is evidenced, and conversely – mistrust towards the brand. Color theory confirms the double meaning of Adidas, which seems to be a perfect and innocent brand, but also has a dark side; Adidas is superficially rich, but inwardly empty. The use of the color black enhances that impression by adding suspicious and mysterious aspects to the collage. Red also has a warning effect in this collage and supports the suspicion by encouraging people to scrutinize the brand. Color theory also supports the meaning of a people brand, as black means differentiation as well as individualization and various individuals (persons) appear throughout. Indifference of the brand Adidas showing a lack of emotion is identified by the color gray, which also represents nostalgia. Also, blue here represents a certain vastness, which makes the brand untouchable. The communication model conveys the impression that Adidas has a negative side. It encourages people to think about Adidas and to not take everything at face value. Adidas is also represented as a boring, ordinary brand with a bad reputation. The communication model however, also conveys meanings not shown in the verbal analysis. Adidas is clearly seen as a people brand, it is also diverse, versatile and applicable in many contexts. Structural analysis sees Adidas as a brand with very little popularity in most areas. Versatility is average and the meanings are separated, implying that Adidas’ aspects are also

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clearly separated. Furthermore Adidas has only a few aspects, making it a rather simple brand. These meanings are similar to the meanings accrued from verbal analysis, as no connectedness was found and Adidas was only seemingly popular in the shoes segment. The two meanings of Adidas are also reflected by the collage’s structure, as there are two very large objects on the collage which dominate over other comparatively smaller objects. Table 13 compares the aggregated key brand meanings of the four visual analyses to the aggregated key brand meanings of verbal analysis.

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Brand meanings conveyed by collage

Brand meanings conveyed by interview

Adidas strengthens customers (19.3%):

Shoes are central (47.8%):

Concentration, balance, determination,

Center of attraction, shoes, necessity, ex-

strength, encouragement, passion

citement

Scrutinize Adidas (14%):

Adidas is fun (30.4%):

Surprise, suspicion, warning, secret

Positive aspects III , enjoyment, fun

Adidas is fun (14%):

Adidas is influential (21.7%):

Sports, happiness, fun, satisfaction

Change, influence, encouragement, divinity

Adidas is powerful (12.3%): Force, destruction, divine Adidas is ordinary (10.5%): Ordinariness, boring Adidas gives shelter (10.5%): Protection, defense, hideout Adidas has a bad image (10.5%): Bad image, negative, misfortune Adidas is versatile (8.8%): Versatility, universality, diversity Table 13: Aggregation of meanings (collage 1bh0506f) 4.2.3.1.3 Collage 1bc0109m I. Meaning conveyed by collage Figure 3 shows collage 1bc0109m, which offers the basis for interpretation in this chapter; table 14 outlines the main findings derived from the first visual approach, visual met-

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aphor analysis. The table is discussed in greater detail below.

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79

1

2

3 4

7

5

8 6

20

18 19 12 166 17 7

11 9

15 144

13 10

Figure 3: Collage 1bbc0109m Steps 1--3: Metapho or analysis Metaph hor

Image schemaata

Meanin ng

1) Two laughing Asian A men in n uni-

Patth, Contact, Link

Team, associates, a c coope-

forms; 2) Man doing exerccises;

ration; Ballance, Forcee, Containerr,

Power, strength, cooncent-

App pearance

ration;

3) G. Prrohaska look king at cam m be-

Lin nk, Containeer,

Connecction to

side red d jersey;

App pearance

sports/ffootball;

4) Runnning young man (P. Lah hm)

Forrce, Path, A Attraction

Power, determination, will;

in jersey y; Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

5) Illum minated stad dium;

Conntainer, Fulll-Empty,

Togetherness, big events,

Parrt-Whole

sponsorring;

6) Not identified; i

-

-

7) DJ deesk with people partyin ng in

Conntainer, Fulll-Empty,

Togetherness, com mmuni-

front;

Parrt-Whole

ty, good d times;

8) Youn ng man in frront of graff ffiti

Cen nter-Peripheery, Contai--

Stands apart, colorrful; art;

wall;

nerr, Appearancce

80

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9) Smiling man beside graffiti wall; Surface, Link, Container,

Happiness, creativity, art;

Appearance 10) FC Bayern Munich emblem;

Container

Team spirit, competition, football;

11) Man (G. Koch) in jersey hold-

Contact, Container,

Connection to football;

ing a football;

Appearance

12) Part of sneakers;

Container, Enablement,

Associate, reinforcement,

Merging, Part-Whole,

support;

Transformation 13) Legs in black leggings;

Surface, Merging, Enab-

Reinforcement, support;

lement, Transformation 14) Bicycle;

Enablement, Path, Balance

Associate, reinforcement, support;

15) Surf board;

Balance, Surface

Keep the balance, support, associate;

16) Motocross;

Path, Enablement, Balance

Associate, reinforcement, support, power;

17) Man climbing a tree;

Force, Path

Power, freedom;

18) Jeans;

Surface, Merging, Enab-

Reinforcement, support,

lement, Transformation

freedom;

19) Cosmetics article;

Container, Appearance

Beauty, look, fashion;

20) Football with partial leg;

Force, Attraction

Sports, skill, strength;

Table 14: Metaphor analysis (collage 1bc0109m) Metaphors 2 and 4 represent the schemata: force, path and balance. They are concentrated and determined and use force to achieve their goals, one running, the other keeping the

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balance. The creator may show that Adidas supports them and assists in concentration by giving them power. Metaphors 5 and 7 represent a: container, full-empty and part-whole schema. The stadium and the club are both containers that can accommodate people. Beyond that, the containers may be full or empty; the more people the greater the feeling of togetherness and of being part of a community. Furthermore a multitude of people implies big events, of which Adidas may be a part. This may carry the meaning that Adidas brings people together and is part of the community, which leads to good times. This collage also represents a certain connection to sports, particularly football (3, 10, 11, 20). The schemata are:

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force, attraction, contact, container, appearance and link. There is a link between the man, the jersey and football. Both men (3, 11) appear proud and are sports identities. The football club emblem (10) represents a container, as it involves more than a simple logo; it includes the players, the stadium, the fans, the sport, competition and is full of many different aspects. The football (20) represents force and attraction, as it is the object of focus in a game, with every player attempting to force the ball into the goal. This means Adidas is obviously connected to sports, and team spirit, skills and strength are represented. There are several fashion articles (12, 13, 18) in the collage, as well as a cosmetics article (19) and individuals wearing bold clothes (8, 9). Clothing in general stands for enabling somebody, as it becomes a part of a person and transforms them. The cosmetics article (19) is a container and attracts people. This means Adidas has the ability to change somebody’s look and as a brand is interested in fashion and beauty – also potentially supported by metaphors 8 and 9. In addition to this, the graffiti (8, 9) may reflect an appearance schema (representing creativity and art), meaning Adidas may be a creative and innovative brand. The bicycle, surfboard and motocross images (14, 15, 16) represent a: path, enablement and balance schema. All three objects support and enable a person to better master a bumpy road full of obstacles, given that the person effectively keeps the balance. Adidas is embodied in these three vehicles, meaning Adidas assists in reaching goals faster and with greater ease. Finally, freedom is another theme in this collage; metaphors 17 and 18 reflect a force and enablement schema. The man (17) climbs a tree and seemingly nothing can stop him. The blue jeans (18) also feature and are themselves a symbol of freedom (Riedel, 1986). Based on these images Adidas may also stand for freedom and free will.

Step 4: Color theory Color

Number of elements

Meaning

White

10 (1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12,

Purity, freedom, perfection, belief, emptiness,

16, 20) / uncolored parts

loneliness;

10 (3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 16,

Melancholy, blockage, fashion, elegance, fash-

19, 20)

ion brand;

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Black

Red

9 (1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15) Emotions, passion in sports, activity, prohibitions, gentleness;

Blue

8 (1, 6, 8, 9, 19, 15, 18, 20)

Infinity, connectedness, internationality, diversity, outside activities, freedom;

Orange

5 (1, 5, 7, 9, 17)

Signal color, cheap fashion, pleasure, sociabil-

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Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

ity; Green

4 (1, 8, 9, 20)

Civilization, fresh, healthy, immaturity, youth;

Table 15: Color theory (collage 1bc0109m) Table 15 illustrates the main findings conveyed by color theory: The color white is a light and positive color. In this collage it could stand for the purity of Adidas, as seen in the picture of the man doing exercises (2). The use of white could also stand for openness and freedom, as some pictures show (12, 14, 16, 17). Beyond that white may stand for perfection and belief in Adidas, as shown in the picture of the footballer (4). The negative aspects of emptiness and loneliness may also be involved (8). The color black often represents negative feelings such as melancholy or blockage, and the many black spots indicate that the creator does not perceive Adidas as an entirely positive brand. On another note, black may also represent fashion and elegance. This is supported here by several fashion and beauty articles (18, 19) carrying the meaning that Adidas is also seen as a fashion brand. The color red is a powerful and intense color; red is connected to strong feelings and emotions. As there are many sporting motifs, it could stand for the passion and activity in sports. Red also has some negative associations as it is associated with Communism (Riedel, 1986) and related to prohibitions. The Chinese men, the stadium, and the graffiti walls could be symbols of this (1, 5, 8, 9). There are also some light red spots (8, 9) in this collage, namely pink. Pink stands for: gentleness, softness and tenderness. Its presence weakens the strength of the darker red slightly, and represents Adidas as a more relaxing and calmer brand. There are several blue elements in this collage and blue is the color of infinite dimensions and connectedness. As there are people from different cultures and locations (1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9) in the collage it could be said that blue stands for the internationality and diversity of Adidas. Blue is also a cool and exterior color and therefore connected to activities outside, also evidenced in several pictures (1, 4, 9, 17). The blue jeans (18) are a symbol for freedom (Riedel, 1986). Orange is an intrusive and loud

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signal color. As a color it often stands for cheap fashion, which could be a point in this collage, as there are several fashion pictures (7, 8, 9 17). Orange can also stand for pleasure and sociability, which could be confirmed by the club and stadium pictures (5, 7). Green is the color of nature. Though there is a lack of nature in this collage, people do associate green spaces with civilization, as green is the color of life and civilization (in the form of cities) is a symbol for growth and life. This impression is also supported by images of urbanity (5, 8, 9). Green is also the color of immaturity and youth, freshness and health – attributes that could be related to sports.

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83

Step 5: Communication model Table 16 outlines the main findings from the four sides model: Question

Description

Meaning Matter layer

What are the dominant

There are several pictures showing people in

People brand,

scenes?

various situations. There are also several

sportswear brand,

fashion articles and sports equipment. There

diversity;

is a large variety of pictures. What is the context?

Most pictures have sporting contexts, show-

Sports brand,

What do the pictures

ing that Adidas is a major sports brand. But

fashion brand;

represent?

there are also fashion pictures, meaning that Adidas may also be a fashion brand. Self-revelation

What do the chosen

The sender is concentrating a lot on the fash- Fashion brand,

pictures tell about the

ion aspect of the brand. He/She may be an

wear Adidas in sev-

sender (attitudes, emo-

open person, as many different kinds of pic-

eral situations, neu-

tions, feelings)?

tures have been chosen. The person seems to trality, inconspicuhave a neutral opinion about the brand, as

ousness;

the pictures give a neutral impression. Relationship What is the relationship The creator sees Adidas as a brand that is

Rather fashion than

between the brand and

used more often in fashion than in sport.

sports brand, crea-

the creator of the col-

There is also an art and design aspect (graf-

tivity, art, design;

lage?

fiti). The creator may wear Adidas for sev-

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eral different occasions. How does the research-

I like the collage, because it is very colorful.

Versatility, rather

er perceive the collage

The lower left part is noticeably messier

positive effect, in-

(feelings, emotions,

than other areas of the collage, meaning that

ternationality, retro

experiences)?

Adidas combines several aspects. The young style; man and Chinese men trigger mixed feelings and distort the positive impression. It reminds me a little of the eighties with communism and strange fashion.

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Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Appeal What does the collage

Adidas is a fashion brand. It can be worn in

Wear Adidas

ask you to do? What

many situations. It is ordinary clothing and

whenever and

message is conveyed?

can be worn by anybody.

wherever you want;

Table 16: Communication model (collage 1bc0109m) Step 6: Structural analysis Characteristic

Description

Meaning

Number of ob-

20/20 – above average meanings;

Versatility, diversity;

3 large, 5 medium, 12 small – 60 percent

Emphasis on and popular

small elements;

in several fields;

Use of area/distance

Almost whole space used. Some free

Connectedness, various

of objects

space centrally and on the lower left,

sides and features, cus-

some overlaps at bottom and left; - link,

tomer contact;

jects/elements Size of elements

contact, full-empty, near-far; Composition

Large objects at right, medium at upper

Focus on niche markets,

left, small at lower left; - center-

two directions with sev-

periphery, splitting;

eral smaller fields;

Table 17: Structural analysis (collage 1bc0109m) Table 17 represents the main structural features and their implications: The number of 20 elements in this collage is above average and means that Adidas is seen as a rather versatile and diverse brand. However, once again most elements are small – in this case 60 percent. Nevertheless, eight large and medium pictures symbolize a large number of fields where Adidas is popular. Overall the collage is ordered, and most of the pictures can be recognized very well.

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However, the bottom left is slightly chaotic and some objects do get lost. The entire page is utilized, excepting a few free spaces toward the center and lower left. Also, although many objects are overlapping, they can be clearly recognized. The elements are connected, but do not seem to merge; there is still a certain amount of distance. Nevertheless it is a rich collage indicative of a rich brand with various features and intense customer contact. The three largest objects are on the right side, five are central, and twelve smaller objects are toward the bottom and left. The composition of this collage is reminiscent of the center-periphery and splitting schema. As on this occasion the smaller objects are in the middle and the larger are

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85

outside, meaning that the smaller elements (niche markets) may be more important than their larger counterparts. Beyond that the three large pictures towards the right split the collage, which conveys two overall directions consisting of several smaller meanings. II. Meaning conveyed by interview Table 18 presents the main findings conveyed by verbal metaphor analysis: Text & metaphors

Image schemata

Meaning

Adidas hat zwei Seiten – Adidas has two faces Zweigeteilt sein zwischen Lifestyle und Sport; –

Splitting

Torn between lifestyle and sports;

Partly lifestyle, partly sports;

Adidas ist Stadt – Adidas is urban Der typische, urbane Adidas Konsument; – The

Appearance, Mat-

Cosmopolitan,

typical urban Adidas consumer;

ching

metropolitan;

Er ist in der Stadt, Graffiti im Hintergrund; - He is Space, Center-

Metropolitan,

in the city, Graffiti in the background;

Periphery

Art, creativity;

Adidas in Verbindung mit der Stadt, mit Hip-Hop

Link

Trendy, modern, lifestyle;

und Lifestyle eigentlich; – Adidas connected with the city, hip-hop and lifestyle; Städtischen, urbanen Bereich konzentriert und

Miss-Exist

Lack of nature,

versucht, so Natursachen wegzulassen; – Focused

urban environ-

on the urban area and tried to omit natural things;

ment;

Zwischen Stadt und Outdoorsport ist für mich

Appearance, More-

Less nature, mo-

Adidas ganz klar Stadt; – Adidas is definitely city, Less

re city;

between city and outdoor sports; Adidas ist Fashion/Lifestyle – Adidas is fashion/lifestyle Präsentiert sich modisch, zeigt halt gern, dass er

Appearance

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Adidas trägt; - Presents oneself as fancy, likes to

Fashionable, trendy;

show that he’s wearing Adidas; Nicht im Modebereich, sondern junge Leute, Par-

More-Less

Less fashion,

ty, Spaß haben; - Not in fashion, but young peo-

youth, fun en-

ple, party having fun;

joyment;

Adidas…keineswegs nur im Sport vertreten; -

Link, Miss-Exist

More than

Original interviews are in German language; this table includes literal translations of interview exerpts containing significant image schemata;

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sports, versatile;

Adidas…not only popular in sports; Adidas…genauso ein Lifestyle Objekt wie Sport-

Splitting, Part-

Lifestyle brand,

gerät; - Adidas…is lifestyle as well as sports;

Whole

sports brand;

Gepflegtes äußeres Erscheinungsbild verbinde; -

Link, Appearance

Look, beauty;

Zentral ist Lifestyle; - Central is lifestyle;

Center-Periphery

Lifestyle brand;

Nicht so wichtig ist…das Körperbild; – Not that

More-Less

Lack of look,

Associate a sleek appearance;

important is…the body image; Auf die Marke Adidas geht auf jeden Fall der

beauty; Path, Space

Lifestyle brand;

Center-Periphery

Look unim-

Lifestyle; - The brand Adidas is definitely lifestyle; Körperformung steht eher außerhalb; – Body shape is rather outlying;

portant;

Von oben bis unten mit Adidas eingekleidet; -

Scale, More-Less

Fashion brand;

From top to bottom clothed in Adidas; Fußball in der Mitte – Football in the middle Fußball hier in der Mitte; - Football in the middle;

Center-Periphery

Focus on football;

Den typischen Adidasathleten, einen Torhüter; -

Matching

The typical Adidas athlete, a goalkeeper; Vereine, die ich im Fußball mit Adidas verbinde;

movement; Link

Focus on foot-

– Clubs in football that I associate with Adidas;

ball;

Adidas hat Geschichte im Fußball, hat Tradition; - Cycle, Link

Tradition, foot-

Adidas has history in football, has tradition;

ball;

Zentral ist Fußball und große Sportveranstaltun-

Center-Periphery

Mittelmäßig sind eigentlich die Vereine; - The

Event sponsoring, football;

gen; - Central is football and big sports events;

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Concentration,

Center-Periphery

clubs are average;

Clubs peripheral;

Die konkreten Produkte, hier ganz klar der Fuß-

More-Less, Part-

Focus on foot-

ball; - The specific products, clearly football;

Whole

ball;

Adidas ist Vielfalt – Adidas is diversity Adidas für mich immer auch in Verbindung mit

Link, Transformati-

Sponsoring, he-

Heldenkreierung; - For me Adidas is always

on

roism, divinity;

connected with hero creation;

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87

Stadionerlebnis, Gemeinschaft, große Sportevents

Link, Container,

Community,

und da ist Adidas für mich immer dabei; - For me

Part-Whole

connectedness, events;

Adidas is always part of a stadium, community, big sports events; Die Vielfalt, die Adidas im Sport repräsentiert; -

Appearance, Part-

Versatility,

The diversity Adidas represents in sports; (3x)

Whole, Matching

diversity;

Fußball, aber…auch in vielen anderen Sportarten

Part-Whole, Miss-

Versatility, foot-

vertreten; – Football…but also represented in

Exist

ball, diversity;

Part-Whole, Space

Football, athle-

many other sports; Neben Fußball noch die Leichtathletik; - Besides

tics;

football, athletics as well; Vielfalt steht eher außerhalb; - Diversity is rather

Center-Periphery

Lack of diversi-

outside; (2x)

ty;

Schwierig da mit Emotionen zu verbinden, weil es Part-Whole, Link

Versatility,

einfach so vielfältig ist; - Difficult to relate emoti-

diversity;

ons, as it is that diverse; Adidas ist international – Adidas is international Adidas überall vertreten; – Adidas is represented

Balance

Internationality, global;

everywhere; An keine bestimmte Nationalität gebunden; - Not

Link, Part-Whole,

Internationality,

bound to any nationality;

Identity

global, for anybody;

Adidas ist…großen Events und Internationalität; -

Matching, Part-

Internationality,

Adidas is…big events and internationality; (2x)

Whole

global, events;

Adidas ist Wettkampf – Adidas is competition

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Austrainiert sein, Disziplin, Wettkampf, Leistung

Force

Performance,

und Körperformung; - Being trained, discipline,

competition,

competition, performance and body shape;

effort;

Der sportliche Gedanke wird getrieben bis zur

Scale, Force, Enab-

Encouragement,

Perfektion; - The sporting thought is driven to

lement

achievement, competition;

perfection; Hochleistungssport in Verbindung mit Adidas; High-performance sports in connection with Adi-

Link

Maximum performance;

das; 88

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Technisierung von Sport; - Technologizing sports; Transformation

New technologies;

Wettkampf, Leistung und Ausreizung von Mög-

Center-Periphery,

Seize opportuni-

lichkeiten im Vordergrund – Competition, per-

Enablement

ties, perfor-

formance and seizing opportunities have priority;

mance, competition;

Im Konkurrenzverhältnis steht zu Nike und Puma; Link, Counterforce

Strong compe-

- In competition with Nike and Puma;

titors;

Table 18: Interview (collage 1bc0109m)

III. Comparison of meanings The verbal analysis begins again with a distinction between two major meanings: lifestyle and sport. To be more precise, verbal analysis found several aspects concerning fashion and beauty as well as football. Visual analysis confirms those meanings. The objects throughout the collage certainly show a connection between Adidas and football and there are also notably several fashion and cosmetics articles. Visual analysis however focuses more on fashion to improve performance, whilst verbal analysis sees fashion as beauty accessories, complementing the next main meaning deduced from verbal analysis – namely that Adidas is urban. Trendiness, cosmopolitanism and lack of nature are the main aspects of this particular meaning. Visual analysis shows community and togetherness meanings which do not exist in verbal analysis in this form. Verbal analysis rather focuses on internationality, versatility and diversity of Adidas by showing that Adidas is for anybody and is well-known worldwide. Adidas as a part of big events is shown in both analyses. Another major theme is competition, however the analyses relate to different aspects of this. While visual analysis focuses on Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

Adidas as a supporter enabling athletes to better master challenges, verbal analysis emphasizes maximum performance, encouragement and achievement. The freedom aspect is conveyed by visual analysis only. Color theory confirms the lifestyle and fashion meanings of the verbal analysis. Red symbolizes passion and activity in sports, while blue stands for outdoor sports. The fashion aspect is conveyed by the color black, which stands for elegance and differentiation, and orange standing for cheap fashion. White represents openness and supports the freedom meaning deduced from the visual analysis. In addition to this white stands for

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

89

perfection and belief in Adidas and may be related to the competition meaning. Black represents obstacles and challenges found in competitions. The internationality and diversity meanings are very well reflected by the color theory. The color blue is the color of infinite dimensions and connectedness and symbolizes the internationality and diversity of Adidas. A loneliness (black, white) meaning is not found in the verbal analysis. The communication model confirms the meanings of Adidas as a sports and fashion brand. In addition to this aspects of a people brand are also found. The main meaning conveyed however is the fashion theme, conveying that Adidas can be worn in various settings. Moreover, aspects of creativity, art and design are found, which can also be related to fashion. A second main meaning is: versatility, diversity and internationality; Adidas is presented as a brand that can be worn whenever and wherever. The other meanings (as evidenced elsewhere), are not identified by the communication model. The structural analysis conveys the meanings of versatility and diversity, also found in verbal analysis. There is an emphasis on several fields, meaning that Adidas is popular in many areas. Once again a split structure shows two major meanings in this collage, which is consistent with the verbal analysis. Beyond that it is a rich collage representing versatility and customer contact, even though a certain connectedness within those major fields is missing in the verbal analysis. Table 19 compares the aggregated key brand meanings of the four visual analyses to the aggregated key brand meanings of verbal analysis.

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Brand meanings conveyed by collage

Brand meanings conveyed by interview

Adidas supports customers (21.6%):

Adidas is divers (21%):

Associate, support, reinforcement, belief

Internationality, global, versatility, diversity

Adidas is sports (15.9%):

Adidas is fashion (17.7%):

Sports, football, happiness, emotion

Lifestyle, fashion, trendy, creativity

Adidas is innovative (13.6%):

Adidas is football (16.1%):

Freedom, creativity, art, colorful

Football, sports, fun

Adidas fosters team spirit (12.5%):

Adidas is urban (14.5%):

Togetherness III, unity III, team spirit, peo-

Lack of nature II, urban II, cosmopolitan,

ple brand II, connectedness II

metropolitan II, modern, youth

Adidas is divers (11.4%):

Adidas has to prevail (14.5%):

Universality, diversity, internationality

Competition, performance, divinity

Adidas is fashion (11.4%):

Adidas as sponsor (8.1%):

Fashion, beauty, look, retro

Sponsoring, events

Adidas is powerful (9.1%):

Adidas encourages (8.1%):

90

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Power, strength, deeterminationn, will

Encoouragementt, achievemeent, effort

Society based on cllasses (4.5% %): Exclusion, blockag ge Table 19: A Aggregation n of meaninngs (collage 1bc0109m)) 4.2.3.1.4 4 Collage 1bf1205i I. Meanning conveyed by collag ge F Figure 4 shows collagee 1bf1205i, which offeers the basiss for interpreetation in th his chapter; tablle 20 outlinees the main findings deerived from m the first vissual approaach, visual metaphor m analysiss. The table is discussed in greaterr detail below.

2

1

3 6 4 5

7 8 11

15 12

10

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144

9

13

Figure 4: 4 Collage 11bf1205i or analysis Steps 1--3: Metapho Metaph hor

Image schemaata

Meanin ng

1) “Perffekt” - “Perffect”;

Fulll-Empty, M Matching,

Perfectiion;

Parrt-Whole

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

91

2) Olympic rings;

3) Punching boxer;

Part-Whole, Container,

Connectedness, unity, big

Link

event;

Force, Counterforce,

Strength, power;

Blockage, Restraint removal 4) Small football on nose of boxer;

Force

Strength, power;

5) Adidas ad showing a man jump-

Balance, Enablement,

Overcoming obstacles,

ing through water;

Force, Restraint removal

keeping balance;

6) “Wie hoch ist Ihr IQ?” - “What

Scale

The sky is the limit;

7) “Gegen den Strom” – “Against

Counterforce, Force, Path,

Not mainstream, counter-

the stream“;

Balance

force;

8) Man balancing on a rope over

Balance, Path

Mastering challenge,

is your IQ?”;

water;

keep on track;

9) Adidas shorts;

Enablement, Merging,

Reinforcement, support;

Part-Whole, Transformation 10) Leg with soccer socks and

Enablement, Merging,

shoes;

Part-Whole, Transfor-

Reinforcement, support;

mation 11) White goat with “Free Tibet”

Force, Attraction

Free Tibet;

12) “Mann” – “Man”

Matching

Adidas is male;

13) “Warum ist die Banane

-

-

Balance, Force, Scale

Might, infallibility, was-

written on;

krumm?” – “How long is a piece of string?“;

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14) “Heiliger auf großem Fuß” – “Big-footed saint”; 15) Decorated toes;

te; Part-Whole, Attraction,

Attraction, decoration;

Scale Table 20: Metaphor analysis (collage 1bf1205i) There are three powerful metaphors illustrated in this collage (3, 5, 8). The main image schemata found are: force, counterforce, restraint removal, blockage and balance. The boxer (3) is 92

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

bursting with strength, and in order to win a fight an opponent (counterforce) must be defeated (restraint removal). Picture 5 shows a man jumping through water. The water may symbolize a challenge (blockage), which must to be mastered (enablement). Another challenge is shown in picture 8, where a man is crossing water on a rope. In order to master this challenge balance is crucial. This shows that Adidas is a powerful and strong brand and perceived as very masculine (12). It gives power and strength, helps to keep balance and leads the way in achieving goals by breaking through obstacles. Overall there are several metaphors with different meanings. The word perfect at the beginning can relate to many things, including: perfect performance (full-empty), perfect match (matching) or perfectly complete (part-whole). Furthermore “What is your IQ?” (6) is based upon the scale schema and shows that there are no limits for Adidas; can other brands compare with Adidas? The next image, the Olympic rings (2), may represent part-whole, container or link schemata. The rings are connected, intertwined, and stand for the Olympic Games; each of the individual rings is part of a whole. The Olympic games themselves of course unite various sports, athletes and countries. Based on this Adidas is seen as connecting the world and bringing various cultures and peoples together. Clothing (9, 10) may indicate that Adidas can improve people by becoming part of them. Moreover metaphor 7 is based upon a: counterforce, force, path and balance schema. Against the stream indicates a distinct direction and an association with an opposing force (counterforce), which requires strength and balance to withstand. There may be two meanings: either the creator sees Adidas as mainstream or the opposite is true. As Adidas is regarded as mainstream by most people, it probably indicates that people should strive against Adidas. Finally, there is a sainthood theme reflected in metaphors 14 and 15 which are based upon: balance, force, scale and part-whole. A big-footed saint (14) is mighty and adored, and does not fall. Toes (15) are an important part of the body and assist in movement and maintaining balance. In addition to this the toes attract attention, as they are decorated. The creator may want to show that Adidas is like a saint or an untouchable entity, high above

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the other brands, playing an important role in the minds of consumers.

Step 4: Color theory Color

Number of elements

Meaning

White

10 (1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12,

Perfection, high-performance, innocence, divin-

13, 14, 15)

ity, godlike, powerful;

Black

9 (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 13) Repression, blockage, superior, oppressor, individuality;

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93

Blue

5 (1, 8, 10, 7, 15)

Eternity, utopia, unreachable, water as obstacle, connectedness;

Red/Orange 3 (10, 14, 15) /3 (9, 11, 15)

Oppressor, danger, virility, desire, masculinity, intense feelings;

Gray

3 (1, 2, 5)

Inferiority, insecurity;

Gold

2 (10, 13)

Wealth, pride, wastefulness; Table 21: Color theory (collage 1bf1205i)

Table 21 illustrates the main findings conveyed by color theory: White is the color of purity, perfection and universality. Within the collage the word perfect and the Olympic rings are white (1, 2) and as such the meaning of perfection and high-performance sports could be derived. The white goat (11) is a symbol for innocence and divinity, as white is a godlike color and stands for faith. Taking these points into consideration it may be that Adidas is seen as something powerful and godlike, yet innocent; no other brand can compare with Adidas. This is also supported by the toes and saints elements (14, 15). Black is often connected to repression, blockage and evil, therefore Adidas could be seen as superior and oppressive. Force can certainly be used in a negative or brutal way. In another aspect the boxer (3), the jumper (5), and the balancer (8) may represent individuality, as they are on their own. Blue is not particularly present in this collage, but it is also a godlike color and represents eternity and utopia (1). Blue is also associated with water, which shows obstacles in this collage (5, 8). Moreover, blue is the color of infinite dimensions and represents connectedness, shown by the Olympic rings (2). Red is the color of strength, power, and blood, and this is supported by pictures 3, 5, 8 and 15 in conjunction with findings from the metaphor analysis. Red is connected to Communism (Riedel, 1986) which adds weight to the associations with Adidas being a kind of an oppressor (child labor). Though red signalizes danger, it is also the color of virility and desire, indicating that Adidas may be seen as a male (12). In general red is the color of intense feel-

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ings and emotions, which is well reflected by the chosen pictures (3, 5, 10). In addition to that the meanings of the color orange complement the meanings of red. Cromatically, gray is overshadowed by other colors; it is the color of inferiority and insecurity and could symbolize the “victims” of Adidas. Although gold is present in only two elements (1, 2) its presence is certainly eye-catching. Gold is the color of wealth, pride and abundance and this is seen in the saint pictures (14, 15); Adidas is like a rich but wasteful king.

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Step 5: Communication model Table 22 outlines the main findings from the four sides model:

Question

Description

Meaning Matter layer

What are the dominant

There are six text phrases and six pictures

Exceptional, spe-

scenes?

showing people. Beyond that, there are pic-

cial, smaller focus

tures that are rather untypical for a sports

on people;

brand, such as a goat or a statue’s toes. What is the context?

Most pictures and phrases are in a sports

Diversity, versatili-

What do the pictures

setting and represent power and strength.

ty, various applica-

represent?

The large variety of different contexts and

tions;

motifs indicates that there are different themes connected to the brand. Self-revelation What do the chosen

The sender sees the brand as something su-

Powerful brand,

pictures tell about the

perior. He/She may be fascinated by the

strength, hard and

sender (attitudes, emo-

power of the brand, but also connect pain

sincere image;

tions, feelings)?

and exhaustion with it. The sender could also be slightly skeptical about the power of the brand according to the cry for help (Free Tibet).

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Relationship What is the relationship The creator wears Adidas, as it may help to

Improves skills,

between the brand and

become a little bit superior. Nevertheless

supporter, painful,

the creator of the col-

he/she may also question the brand and

mainstream brand;

lage?

sometimes does not wear it, as it is rather mainstream.

How does the research-

The themes power and strength are omni-

Sports are pain,

er perceive the collage

present and do not reflect fun. It is work,

fight to be good,

(feelings, emotions,

fighting and pain. I did not enjoy looking at

brutality, suppres-

experiences)?

this collage, as some chosen pictures are

sor;

odd. It reminds me of pain and brutality and suppressing others.

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95

Appeal What does the collage

Adidas is power, however power can also be

Adidas is powerful,

ask you to do? What

used negatively and against others. Free

can be brutal;

message is conveyed?

Tibet may be an appeal to make people aware of this situation.

Table 22: Communication model (collage 1bf1205i) Step 6: Structural analysis Characteristic

Description

Meaning

Number of ob-

16/14 – few different meanings;

Not that versatile;

2 large, 3 medium, 9 small – emphasize

Popular as well as un-

few meanings;

popular in certain fields;

Use of area/distance

Overlapping, no free spaces; - Image

Combine meanings and

of objects

schemata: contact, merging, full-empty,

fields, several touching

link, near-far, superimposition;

points, many aspects;

Large pictures central and upper right,

No favorite areas, equally

middle ones at left, small ones at lower

important in several

right; - Image schema: merging;

fields;

jects/elements Size of elements

Composition

Table 23: Structural analysis (collage 1bf1205i) Table 23 represents the main structural features and their implications: 14 elements are below average and it can be assumed that the number of meanings shown in this collage is also below average. There are several small elements in this collage and five large and medium elements. Adidas is depicted as a brand that is popular only in a few areas. It is a rather messy collage, as many objects are placed directly over others. Moreover, some objects

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form one element and this is not immediately clear at first sight. The entire paper is used and there are no free spaces. As some pictures are completely covering others, the merging schema is very present. This in turn indicates that certain meanings and fields associated with Adidas (for example – power and achievement) can be combined. Once again near-far, contact and link schemata are very present, showing Adidas as a brand with several touching points between customers, products and activities. As the entire space is utilized, the creator shows that Adidas is a brand with many aspects. The two large pictures occupy a lot of space and seem to be important. However, as there are several elements placed upon those pictures, 96

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

their importance is diminished. As such, the impression of a center and periphery is not particularly dominant here. The impression is more towards several meanings possessing equal importance. II. Meaning conveyed by interview Table 24 presents the main findings conveyed by verbal metaphor analysis: Text & metaphors

Image schemata

Meaning

Adidas hinterfragen – Scrutinize Adidas Adidas ist mit Skepsis zu betrachten; - Be

More-Less, Link

skeptical about Adidas; Das sollte man auch wissen und nicht nur die

Skepticism, see behind the curtain;

Part-Whole

Werbung kennen; - This should also be

Unknown, see behind the curtain;

known as well and not only its ads; Darüber nachdenken; - Think about it; (2x)

Enablement

Scrutinize;

[Slackliner] soll dem Bild einen Ruhepol ge-

Balance

Think about it;

Force, Enablement

Encouragement,

ben, eine Nachdenklichkeit; – Provides a calming influence and thoughtfulness; Zum Nachdenken anregen; - Encourage to think about it;

don’t take anything for granted;

Zu kritisch sollte man auch nicht sein, das ist

Balance

Not their fault;

auch nur eine Firma; - Don’t be too critical, it is just a company;

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Scheinheiliges Adidas – Hypocritical Adidas „Heilig auf großem Fuß“; - „Big-footed

Balance, Force, Sca-

Wastefulness, divini-

saint“;

le

ty;

Scheinheilig, aber tot; - Hypocritical, but

Full-Empty, Scale

Bad image;

More-Less

Bad image, exploita-

dead; Viel Kinderarbeit bei der Fertigung; - Much child labor in production;

tion;

Die Scheinheiligkeit; - The hypocrisy;

Scale

Bad image;

Widder ist auch eine heilige Figur; - Ram is

Scale, Container

Strength, divinity;

Original interviews are in German language; this table includes literal translations of interview exerpts containing significant image schemata;

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97

also a divine creature; Nicht blind der Masse folgen – Don’t follow the mass blindly Ein bisschen gegen den Strom wirken; -

Counterforce, Blo-

Work against the stream;

ckage, Path

Man kann es auch auf andere Weise machen;

Counterforce, Enab-

- You can do it otherwise;

lement

Die Stirn zu zeigen; - To confront;

Counterforce

Power, mainstream;

What’s the best way?

Power, strength, confrontation;

Adidas ist Fußball – Adidas is football Weil Fußball genauso von Adidas gepusht

Force, Path

wird; – As football is pushed by Adidas the

Encouragement, cooperation;

same way; Da habe ich auch noch einen Fußballer; - I’ve

More-Less

Football;

Link, Miss-Exist

Event sponsoring;

Miss-Exist

Football;

a footballer here as well; EM…nichts mehr hinauf bekommen, auch noch damit verbunden; - EC…got nothing on it anymore, connected as well; Fehlt: Fußball, der keinen Platz mehr hatte; Misses: Football, there was no more space; Adidas ist Statussymbol – Adidas is status symbol Ein paar Girls; - Some girls;

Attraction, Balance

Appeal, attractiveness;

Ein Statussymbol, Adidas und Marken im

Matching, Link,

Allgemeinen; - A status symbol, Adidas and

Enablement

High-class, luxury;

brands in general; Ein weiblicher Körper hätte das noch mehr

Attraction

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unterstrichen; - A female body would have

Appeal, attractiveness;

emphasized it even more; Werbung von Adidas gut ist; - Ads by Adidas

Attraction

is good;

Influence, sponsoring, public image;

Adidas ist Olympia – Adidas is Olympic Games In Zusammenhang zu setzen mit den Olympi-

Link

schen Spielen; - Related to Olympic Games; Olympische Ringe; - Olympic rings;

Event sponsoring, world-famous;

Part-Whole, Contai-

Community, sporting

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ner, Link

excellence;

Der Perfektionismus – The perfectionism;

Full-Empty, Match-

Maximum perfor-

(2x)

ing, Part-Whole

mance, excellence;

Adidas ist (Wett)Kampf – Adidas is competition Boxer boxt den Widder; – Boxer punches the

Force, Counterforce

ram;

Power, strength, defense, defeat;

Kampf; - Fight;

Force, Counterforce

Power, strength;

Das Verbissene, Aggression, Aufstand; - ea-

Force

Power, aggression;

ger fight, aggression, riot; (3x) Kraftverbunden mit einem Schlag in den Hin- Link, Force

Power, defeat;

terkopf; - A forceful punch in the back of the head; Table 24: Interview (collage 1bf1205i) III. Comparison of meanings Two meanings deduced from verbal analysis are that Adidas may not be what it seems and that people should scrutinize it. Those meanings are reflected only partially and indirectly by visual analysis, which defines Adidas as mainstream and suggests that people should strive against it. Next, verbal analysis finds that Adidas is hypocritical and has a bad image. In visual analysis this is once again reflected partially by the assertion that Adidas is like a saint or something untouchable and that there are no limits for Adidas. Obviously negative aspects are missing in visual analysis. Adidas as a status symbol is related to the saints meaning from visual analysis, as both mean to be on top and better than the rest. Visual analysis even reinforces that meaning by saying that Adidas makes people better than the rest. Verbal analysis shows a strong connection between Adidas and football (not deduced from visual analysis). Next, there is a relation between Adidas, the Olympic Games and competi-

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tion, as shown by aspects such as: community, sports events and performance. Visual analysis supports this relationship and shows Adidas as a brand that empowers and helps in achieving goals. In addition to this Adidas is seen as connecting the world and bringing people together. Color theory supports the meaning of Adidas as a saint-like entity. White represents Adidas as something innocent, and yet powerful and godlike – as nothing can reach Adidas. The colour blue confirms this by affirming that Adidas is unreachable. A negative influence is implied by black, representing Adidas as a dark and powerful oppressor. This is supported by the warning red, implying that Adidas may be related to child labor. Gray as an inferior and

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99

insecure color and may represent the “victims” of Adidas. Those negative aspects reflect the hypocrisy meaning, as Adidas seems to be perfect, but is actually not. Those meanings are also connected to the mainstream meaning and that in which Adidas should be scrutinized. Beyond that blue stands for infinite dimensions and represents connectedness, which in turn is related to the Olympic Games theme. Red is the color of strength and power, and this coincides with the Adidas is competition finding from the verbal analysis. Additionally, red symbolizes that Adidas is masculine (not deduced from verbal analysis). Furthermore, color theory also coincides with the status symbol meaning through the color yellow, representing wealth and abundance. The connection between Adidas and football is not shown by color theory. The communication model conveys the impression of Adidas as a specialized brand that focuses only on a few fields, however within those fields the brand is diverse and versatile. Power and strength is also conveyed, which is consistent with verbal analysis. Furthermore Adidas has a resilient and sincere image, which is related to the hypocrisy theme. However, the communication model also finds that Adidas improves skills and supports people, and this is not found in verbal analysis. Another meaning is that Adidas is sports and sports are pain and can be brutal. Other meanings were not found. Structural analysis shows Adidas as a brand that combines professional activities and fields of expertise such as the Olympic Games. There are several touching points between customers, products and activities, which is in line with verbal analysis, as some meanings are related. No important meanings are identified, coinciding with verbal analysis, as it does not focus on certain meanings strongly. Table 25 compares the aggregated key brand meanings of the four visual analyses to the aggregated key brand meanings of verbal analysis.

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Brand meanings conveyed by collage

Brand meanings conveyed by interview

Adidas is powerful (13.6%):

Adidas is powerful (33.3%):

Strength, power, counterforce

Strength, Power, divinity, confrontation

Adidas as a ruler (33.9%):

Scrutinize Adidas (24.4%):

Superior, oppressor, divinity, wealth

Skepticism, bad image, aggression

Sports is pain (13.6%):

Adidas as advertiser (15.6%):

Painfulness, brutality, danger, passion

Sponsoring, renowned, football

Adidas strengthens customers (20.3%)

Adidas makes people look good (13.3%):

Master challenge, reinforcement, support

Appeal, attractiveness, encouragement

Adidas is exceptional (13.6%):

Adidas is high-class (13.3%):

Exceptional, diversity, versatility, attraction

Sporting excellence, high-class, luxury

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Adidas fosters team m spirit (5.1%): Connectedness, unity Table 25: Aggregatio on of meaninngs (collagee 1bf1205i) 4.2.3.1.5 Collage 2bd0407r I. Meanning conveyed by collag ge F Figure 5 sho ows collagee 2bd0407r,, which offeers the basiss for interpretation in thhis chapter; tablle 26 outlinees the main findings deerived from m the first vissual approaach, visual metaphor m analysiss. The table is discussed in greaterr detail below.

1 4 3 5 2 14 13

9 6 12

7 110 8

11

Figure 5: 5 Collage 22bd0407r

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Steps 1--3: Metapho or analysis Metaph hor

Image schemaata

Meanin ng

1) Femaale tennis pllayer;

Forrce, Containner, Attrac-

Sports, tennis, forcce;

tion n 2) Two male tenniss players;

Lin nk, Contact, Balance

Tennis,, competitio on;

3) Italiaan football player; p

Enaablement, P Path

Footballl, emotionss, passion;

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101

4) Skyscraper;

Container, Scale

Height, mighty;

5) Perfume;

Container, Attraction

Beauty, look, fashion;

6) “Erstklassig” – “High-class”;

Scale

High-class, high-quality;

7) Green sneakers;

Container, Enablement,

Associate, support, rein-

Merging, Part-Whole,

forcement;

Transformation 8) Golden sneakers;

Container, Enablement,

Associate, support, rein-

Merging, Part-Whole,

forcement;

Transformation 9) Running shoe;

Container, Enablement,

Associate, support, rein-

Merging, Part-Whole,

forcement;

Transformation 10) Pair of football shoes;

Container, Enablement,

Associate, support, rein-

Merging, Part-Whole,

forcement;

Transformation 11) Black football shoe;

Container, Enablement,

Associate, support, rein-

Merging, Part-whole,

forcement;

Transformation 12) “Ohne Sport wäre ich tot!” –

Full-Empty, Balance, Part-

“Without sports I would be dead!”;

Whole, Miss-Exist

13) Adidas shirt;

Enablement, Merging,

Sports is essential;

Support, reinforcement;

Part-Whole, Transformation, Appearance 14) Globe = Adidas;

Container, Near-Far

Internationality, diversity, global, uniting;

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Table 26: Metaphor analysis (collage 2bd0407r) Metaphors 1, 2 and 3 show three tennis and one football player in different situations. The schemata involved are: force, container, link, contact and enablement. Again, persons always express certain emotions and feelings. The female tennis player (1) represents force and concentration, the male tennis players (2) are connected, as they are competitors, and the football player (3) embodies passion. This collage shows Adidas as a supporter in sports including tennis, football or other such sports. Adidas leads the way and assists in achieving goals. Metaphors 4 and 6 are based upon a scale metaphor. Skyscrapers (4) are very high, and 102

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additionally there is literally the word high-class (6) and the scale schema may represent Adidas as a high-class, high-quality, high-value brand. It seems that Adidas is on top and can reach the sky. However, the skyscraper (4) could also stand for a diverse, sophisticated and urban Adidas brand. This impression is supported by the perfume (5), which is based upon a container and attraction schema. It indicates that Adidas represents beauty and looks and that Adidas also plays a role in cosmetics; besides supporting customers in sports it also helps people to look their best. This collage possesses a large number of shoe metaphors (711), and these range from sneakers to casual sports shoes. The main schemata are: container, enablement, merging, part-whole and transformation. As already outlined in the above collages, shoes support and enable people. Individuals are reinforced psychologically when wearing them and achieve goals more easily. Shoes are associates in sports and people can rely on them and their features. Based on this, Adidas in the form of shoes accompanies and supports the athlete. The last two metaphors (12, 14) have different meanings. The phrase means that sports are very important in life. Sport is healthy and keeps people balanced (balance), it should be part of the day (part-whole) and should never be missed (miss-exist). If the creator means that Adidas is sports, this implies that Adidas can play an important role in lives. The last metaphor (14) indicates that Adidas is global; as a container Adidas involves the entire world and consequently unifies. Based on this assessment Adidas is: international, diverse, far away. It can also be said that Adidas is represented worldwide through its different products.

Step 4: Color theory Color

Number of elements

Meaning

Black

9 (1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12,

Exhaustion, pain, fashion, elegance, hate;

14) White

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Red

8 (2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12,

Openness, perfection, high-quality, gentleness,

14) / uncolored parts

neutrality;

4 (5, 9, 10, 13)

Activity, excitement, intense feelings, power, effort, desire, attraction;

Gray

3 (1, 2, 4)

Mediocrity, lack of innovation, urban brand, nostalgia;

Green

2 (7, 11)

Color of life, balancing, relaxing, nature, civilization, urban brand; Table 27: Color theory (collage 2bd0407r)

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103

Table 27 illustrates the main findings conveyed by color theory: Black is present in nine elements and is the color of blockage, and this may be associated with exhaustion and pain in sports (1, 2, 3). Black also represents fashion and elegance, which is one main finding in this collage and shows Adidas as a fashion brand. Two pictures (9, 10) show the colors red and black, and these colors sometimes express hate. White is a positive color and represents the collage more successfully than black. White stands for openness and perfection and both of these meanings seem to be present in this collage (4, 6). It is also the color of gentleness and neutrality, and this can be evidenced in the picture of the two tennis players (2). Red is also very present in the collage. It stands for activity and excitement and represents intense feelings, such as the power of Adidas. Adidas assists in achieving goals, and this is related to effort. Red is also the color of desire and shown by the perfume – which has attractive effects (5). The color gray symbolizes Adidas is a rather mediocre and boring brand, lacking in innovation. Moreover gray represents cities (4) and may show Adidas as an urban brand. In addition to this the gray pictures recall nostalgic thoughts (1, 2). There are also two small pictures (7, 11) with the color green featured. It is the color of life and is balancing and relaxing. Green stands for nature and civilization, which is shown by the skyscraper (4) and indicates that Adidas is an urban brand.

Step 5: Communication model Table 28 outlines the main findings from the four sides model: Question

Description

Meaning Matter layer

What are the dominant

Most pictures show either people or fashion

scenes?

articles. There are three pictures featuring

Fashion brand;

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people and seven that show fashion articles. What is the context?

The pictures show people in sports contexts

Sports brand, neut-

What do the pictures

(tennis, football), with different emotions.

rality;

represent?

The fashion articles are neutral and it is difficult to attribute a particular context to them. Self-revelation

What do the chosen

The sender has a positive attitude towards

High-class brand,

pictures tell about the

Adidas, as the pictures are positive. It is a

high-quality, exclu-

sender (attitudes, emo-

sophisticated high-class brand to him/her,

sive sports brand;

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tions, feelings)?

due to tennis, city and perfume. The sender likes wearing it during sports as well as free time. He/She connects sports and passion. Relationship

What is the relationship The creator wears Adidas during sports and

Internationality,

between the brand and

free time. He/She sees it as an international

rather fun sports

the creator of the col-

high-class sports fashion brand.

than high-

lage?

performance;

How does the research-

Overall I enjoyed looking at the collage. The Sports are passion,

er perceive the collage

elements make the points clear and there is

(feelings, emotions,

no overstimulation. It appears slightly messy

experiences)?

at first sight, but there is definitely structure.

high-class brand;

It reminds me of sports and emotions. The football player is especially eye-catching. High-class, as tennis is the sport of the rich. Appeal What does the collage

Adidas is a modern exclusive brand, assist-

High-class sports

ask you to do? What

ing customers in achieving goals; however,

brand;

message is conveyed?

people can wear it in various situations.

Table 28: Communication model (collage 2bd0407r) Step 6: Structural analysis Characteristic

Description

Meaning

Number of ob-

15/14 – average number of meanings;

Average versatility;

2 large, 3 medium, 10 small – emphasize

Several meanings not

only certain meanings;

important;

Use of area/distance

Only parts of paper used, significant

Strictly separated aspects,

of objects

amount of free space between objects; -

no combinations, superfi-

blockage, part-whole, near-far, full-

cial brand;

jects/elements

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Size of elements

empty; Composition

Larger pictures on top, smaller pictures at

Distinct features, equally

bottom; - splitting, blockage;

important;

Table 29: Structural analysis (collage 2bd0407r)

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105

Table 29 represents the main structural features and their implications: The number of elements and their sizes demonstrate that the creator does not see Adidas as a particularly versatile brand; the fact that there is much free space in the collage confirms this. There are however five pictures that are medium or large and ten that are small, showing that several meanings may not be particularly important. Beyond that this shows that the creator did not use small elements due to lack of space, as there is plenty of free space. The significant amount of free space is remarkable in this collage; it seems as if objects are not allowed to touch each other. The different aspects of the brand are separated strictly by invisible blockages. This may mean that Adidas’ aspects are very different and cannot be combined; Adidas consists of strictly separated parts. The paper seems rather empty, conveying the feeling that the brand is empty and superficial. No real pattern can be identified based on the composition, excepting that larger objects are toward the top and smaller objects toward the bottom. The collage appears to be split, as if the creator wanted to show certain aspects, not allowing them to be mixed with others. To avoid a mix the composition needs frontiers to keep the objects apart. This could mean that Adidas has certain and distinct features, and that it is difficult to assign importance to one particular feature. II. Meaning conveyed by interview Table 30 presents the main findings conveyed by verbal metaphor analysis: Text & metaphors

Image schemata

Meaning

Adidas ist Sport – Adidas is sports Waren die ersten Assoziationen Sport und

Link, Part-Whole

Sports brand;

More-Less

Not athletics;

Ohne Sport wär ich tot, aber zu viel ist für

More-Less, Full-

Sports is important;

mich auch nichts; - Without sports I’d be

Empty, Balance,

dead, but too much isn’t my thing either;

Part-Whole, Miss-

mehr auf die Marke; - Were the first associations, sports and the brand; Überhaupt nicht auf Leichtathletik; - Athle-

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tics not at all;

Exist Primär Sport; – Primarily sports;

Center-Periphery

Sports brand;

Viele Trikots von Adidas; - Many jerseys by

Part-Whole

Sports sponsoring;

Original interviews are in German language; this table includes literal translations of interview exerpts containing significant image schemata;

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Adidas; Weggelassen? Ja, die vielen Fußballer; - O-

Miss-Exist

Football;

Link

Sports brand;

mitted? Yes, the many footballers; Denke schon an Sport; - Think about sports;

Adidas ist Tennis – Adidas is tennis Das erste ist hier Tennis, weil das mein Fa-

Center-Periphery

Tennis;

More-Less, Link

Tennis;

More-Less

Tennis;

Attraction

Tennis star, sponso-

vorit ist; - Here, the first is tennis, because it’s my favorite; Obwohl Adidas bei Tennis nicht die größte Rolle spielt; – Although Adidas does not play a major role in tennis; Mehr auf Tennis eingegangen; - Show more interest in tennis; Roger Federer mag ich gerne; - I like Roger Federer;

ring;

Tennis mein Lieblingssport; - Tennis my fa-

Center-Periphery

Playing tennis;

Link

Sports is tennis;

vorite sport; Auf Tennis beziehe, sportmäßig; - Refer to tennis, sports-wise; Adidas ist international – Adidas is international Dann…New York…weil ich dort den Mega-

Link, Cycle

store besucht habe; - Next, New York, as I’ve

Global, international, renowned;

visited the Megastore there; Worldwide, die Erde, weil es weltweit vertre-

Balance, Miss-Exist

Global, worldwide;

Balance, Force

Globalization;

Cycle, Identity

Childhood memory,

ten ist; - Worldwide, the earth, as it is represented worldwide; (2x)

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Globalisiert durch Adidas und ist weltweit; Globalized by Adidas and is worldwide; New York ist für mich persönlich; - New York is personally;

personal connection;

Eigentlich gibt’s es für mich überall; - Actu-

Balance, Miss-Exist

Global, worldwide;

ally, Adidas is everywhere; Adidas ist Schuhe – Adidas is shoes Dann Schuhe, ich besitze eigentlich die tren-

Container

Trendy, lifestyle,

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

107

fashion;

digen Schuhe; – Next shoes, I actually have the trendy ones; Primär verbinde ich mit Adidas Schuhe; -

Center-Periphery,

Primarily I connect Adidas with shoes; (2x)

Container, Link

Shoes, fashion;

Große Produktvielfalt – Big variety of products Ich kenne auch die Parfüms von Adidas,

More-Less

Cosmetics, beauty;

Obwohl Adidas eigentlich alles anbietet; -

Part-Whole, More-

Wide product range;

Although Adidas offers everything actually;

Less

Obwohl sie auch andere haben, das wäre das

Part-Whole, More-

mit dem Parfüm; - Although they also have

Less

finde es aber nicht so gut; - I also know the perfumes by Adidas, I don’t like them too much though;

Wide product range;

others, such as the perfume; Den kosmetischen Bereich würde ich weglas-

Miss-Exist

Cosmetics, beauty not relevant;

sen; - I would skip the cosmetics; Adidas ist trendy – Adidas is trendy Viel auf das Trendige gegangen; - Focused a

Path, More-Less

Trendy, lifestyle;

Appearance

Beauty, look;

Geht’s mehr ums Aussehen; - It’s more about

More-Less,

Beauty, look;

the look;

Appearance

Weil ich der Typ dazu bin, der aufs Äußere

Appearance

Beauty, look;

Appearance

Fashion brand;

lot on the trendy stuff; (2x) Es muss auch gut ausschauen; - It also has to look good;

schaut; - As I’m the type of person who emphasizes appearance;

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Mode; - Fashion;

Table 30: Interview (collage 2bd0407r) III. Comparison of meanings Adidas is sport is the first meaning deduced from verbal and visual analyses. Both analyses show that Adidas plays an important role in people’s lives in the form of sports. Beyond that both analyses found that Adidas is a supporter in sports, particularly in tennis and football. Verbal analysis shows the connection to tennis is dominant. Adidas as an interna108

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

tional brand is present in both analyses, demonstrating the worldwide presence of many Adidas products, mainly through globalization. Shoes are identified as the number one Adidas product in both analyses. However, visual analysis focuses more on the enablement factor rather than the lifestyle factor, and the verbal analysis strongly emphasizes the lifestyle and trendiness of Adidas. With cosmetics products Adidas improves people’s look, which is also identified by visual analysis. Therefore the big variety of products is a major meaning which is not particularly obvious in visual analysis. Visual analysis however focuses on high-class, high-quality aspects of Adidas and represents the brand as sophisticated and on top. Those aspects are not prevalent in verbal analysis. The high-quality aspect is supported by color theory and the color white. The verbal analysis meaning of Adidas as a fashion and lifestyle brand is supported by the color black, which represents fashion and elegance. Black also confirms the sports meaning and is related to exhaustion and pain in sports. Red also supports this and stands for activity, excitement and power in sports. The cosmetics theme is shown by a red perfume on the collage, red being the color of desire and consequently having attractive effects. Gray plays a major role in color theory and represents Adidas as a rather mediocre, boring and nostalgic brand. Gray finally shows Adidas as an urban brand, which is not found in verbal analysis. In this collage color theory coincides only with a few of the meanings from verbal analysis. The communication model sees Adidas more as a sports brand as opposed to a fashion brand. However, the main meaning in this model is Adidas as a high-class, highquality and exclusive sports brand, and this coincides with meanings from verbal analysis. Furthermore, an aspect of internationality is found. Finally, the communication model supports Adidas as a sports brand associated with fun sports as opposed to high-performance sports. Other aspects such as tennis, football or the variety of products cannot be identified. Structural analysis does not outline Adidas as a versatile brand, as there are many free spaces. The objects are strictly separated, meaning that aspects and features are distinct and cannot be combined. This is in line with verbal aspects such as sports, tennis and cosmetics. Finally the collage is empty, and this conveys the impression that the brand itself is empty and superCopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

ficial, also supported by verbal analysis and the theme of beauty generally. Table 31 compares the aggregated key brand meanings of the four visual analyses to the aggregated key brand meanings of verbal analysis.

Brand meanings conveyed by collage

Brand meanings conveyed by interview

Adidas supports customers (22.2%):

Adidas is sports (27.5%):

Associate, support, reinforcement

Sports, football, tennis

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109

Adidas is exceptional (17.5%):

Adidas as beauty brand (25%):

High-class, high-quality, exclusivity

Cosmetics, beauty, look

Adidas represents intense feelings (15.9%):

Adidas as global player (25%):

Passion, excitement, power, effort, hate

Global III, international, sponsoring II

Adidas is sports (15.9%):

Adidas as fashion brand (22.5%):

Sports, tennis, football, fun

Trendy, lifestyle, fashion, non-athletic

Adidas as fashion brand (12.7%): Fashion, beauty, look, elegance, urban Adidas as global player (9.5%): Internationality, diversity, global, uniting Adidas is ordinary (6.3%): Neutrality, mediocrity, lack of innovation Table 31: Aggregation of meanings (collage 2bd0407r) 4.2.3.1.6 Collage 2bv0809r I. Meaning conveyed by collage Figure 6 shows collage 2bv0809r, which offers the basis for interpretation in this chapter; table 32 outlines the main findings derived from the first visual approach, visual metaphor

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analysis. The table is discussed in greater detail below.

110

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3 1 5 4 2 11

10

7

9

6

8

Figure 6: 6 Collage 22bv0809r Steps 1--3: Metapho or analysis Metaph hor

Image schemaata

Meaning g

1) “Musskeln? Hier Entlang!” –

Patth, Transforrmation

Training, work-out;

Lin nk, Contact, Attraction

Being tog gether, lovee, good

“Musclees? This waay!”; 2) Kissiing couple;

times; 3) Exulttant women n with trophhy #1;

Patth, Enablem ment, Link

Celebratiion, victory y,

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achievem ment; 4) Exulttant women n;

Resstraint remooval

Celebratiion, achieveement;

5) Moun ntain;

Blo ockage, Scale, Path

Master obstacle, o chaallenge;

6) “Nurr einer wird sich halten! Der

Surrface, Balannce, Force

Competittion, persev verance,

Rest kan nn abtanzen n!” – “Only one

performaance;

will holld on! The rest r runs offf!” (TV sho ow ad); 7) Peopple dancing oon head;

Surrface, Balannce, Force

Performaance, skill, movem ment;

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111

8) Man sitting in chair smiling;

Appearance, Balance

Relaxation, break, being balanced;

9) Man whispering into woman’s

Link, Contact

ear;

Happiness, funny, being together;

10) Exultant women with trophy

Path, Enablement, Link

#2;

Celebration, victory, achievement;

11) Man standing in snow with

Path, Transformation,

Prepared, geared up to take

snowboard in his hands;

Enablement, Balance

on challenges;

Table 32: Metaphor analysis (collage 2bv0809r) Metaphors 2 and 9 are based upon the link and contact schemata. The persons in both pictures touch each other and appear to be relaxed and having a good time; there’s a certain connection between these images. This illustrates Adidas as young, relaxed and chilled, and creates the impression of Adidas as a casual brand. Metaphors 3, 4 and 10 show several women celebrating. The underlying image schemata are: path, enablement, link and restraint removal. It seems that these women (3, 10) are one team and as such there is a definite connection between them. Together they walked a long road to victory, and together they finally achieved their goal. The other women (4) seem to break out of snow and represent the restraint removal schema. In general Adidas seems to help in achieving goals and victories, forms a unity and supports teams on their road to success. Another meaning is based upon pictures 6 and 7, with surface, balance and force schemata. People are dancing on a head and try not to fall off, which obviously involves a surface and to stay on top balance and strength is required. Those metaphors and image schemata represent competition, perseverance and performance and means that Adidas can support people in this competition and help them to succeed. People need good equipment and a perfect physical and mental condition to win a competition, which can be offered by Adidas. There is a lot of competition and people must

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be strong in order not to fall (off). Metaphor 1 is based upon path and transformation. The phrase “Muscles? This way!” obviously indicates a certain path, a tough path, where people choose to transform themselves. Working out, playing sports and training are ways to achieve that goal; Adidas offers equipment that helps to reach that goal faster and more effectively. Metaphor 8 is seemingly the opposite of this and shows a man sitting in a chair. Based on the balance schema this metaphor shows that it is important to keep the balance between training and relaxation and Adidas also assists in keeping this balance. Adidas is not only sports, but also rest. The last metaphors are a mountain, and a man with a snowboard (5, 112

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

11). The mountain (5) represents a big (scale) obstacle and challenge (blockage), which can be mastered in several ways (path). The goal is to find the easiest and most effective way and Adidas helps in finding that way. Beyond that Adidas encourages people to take on and master such challenges. The man (11) has an end in mind (path) and is wearing certain equipment to achieve this (transformation, enablement). He looks relaxed and cool as he has trust in his skills and equipment. Adidas is the equipment and helps to overcome obstacles faster and more successfully.

Step 4: Color theory Color

Number of elements

Meaning

White

8 (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11) /

Gentleness, silence, relaxation, purity;

uncolored parts Blue

7 (2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11)

Snow, coldness, infinity, freedom, belief;

Black

6 (1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 11)

Blockages, toughness, individuality, secrecy;

Red /

5 (1, 2, 3, 4, 7) / 2 (8, 11)

Emotions, fighting, power, victory, energy;

2 (3, 5)

Nature, relaxation, body and soul;

Orange Green

Table 33: Color theory (collage 2bv0809r) Table 33 illustrates the main findings conveyed by color theory: First of all it is worth noting that there are no black and white pictures in this collage; the most prevalent color is white. Overall this collage has a very positive effect, and this is confirmed by the numerous white spots. White is the color of gentleness and quietness and this is represented in some of the pictures, such as the silence on a mountain, or the relaxation after doing sports (5, 8, 9, 11). White also stands for purity – such as fresh snow on a mountain (5, 11). Blue may be related to snow and coldness in this collage (4, 5, 11). Moreover blue is about infinite space and free-

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dom, evidenced in the pictured mountains (5, 11). The creator may wish to say that Adidas represents those features, and is a brand for playing sports outside – symbolizing freedom. Beyond this, blue is associated with wishful and dreamful thinking, representing belief in one’s own skills and goals. Black may be related to blockages that need to be overcome (4, 5, 7, 11). It stands for toughness and individuality in sports and may mean that Adidas supports athletes on their difficult path. Furthermore it symbolizes secrecy and mystery, as shown by the couples (1, 9) not wanting to be interrupted. Red is the most active color, it stands for intense emotions and feelings triggered when fighting for victory. Red also represents the emo-

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113

tions and power-play associated with victory or loss (3, 4, 7, 10). Furthermore, red stands for .

pleasure and energy – showing that Adidas is fun and energizes. Finally, the green spots throughout the collage symbolize nature and relaxation. This includes playing sports in nature and relaxation afterwards;

Step 5: Communication model Table 34 outlines the main findings from the four sides model: Question

Description

Meaning Matter layer

What are the dominant

All objects excepting one show people in

Strong people

scenes?

very different situations (8 pictures).

brand;

What is the context?

There are different contexts: three pictures

Fun, happiness,

What do the pictures

show happy and cheering women, four pic-

relaxation, casual

represent?

tures show people having fun together or

brand;

relaxing, one picture shows people dancing on a head, another shows a mountain. Self-revelation What do the chosen

The sender relates fun and sports to Adidas,

Fun, satisfaction,

pictures tell about the

as there are many happy faces and sporting

sports relieves peo-

sender (attitudes, emo-

contexts on the collage. He/She likes doing

ple, outdoor sports;

tions, feelings)?

sports outside and thinks Adidas is good for that, as there are pictures showing nature. Nevertheless relaxation should not be forgotten.

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Relationship What is the relationship The creator probably wears Adidas for sport

Relaxation, leisure

between the brand and

in their free time, but also to relax. He/She

activities, nature;

the creator of the col-

likes the brand as it can be used for various

lage?

occasions such as sports in nature, as some pictures show outdoor sporting motifs.

How does the research-

It is a positive collage and made the main

Winter sports,

er perceive the collage

points clear. When looking at the collage, I

coldness, relaxati-

(feelings, emotions,

think about playing sports outside, such as

on;

experiences)?

skiing or snowboarding – although I do not

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Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

associate Adidas with winter sports. Relaxation is also a dominant feeling. Appeal What does the collage

It says have fun, fight for your success, but

ask you to do? What

don’t forget to relax. Always try to have a

message is conveyed?

good time!

Have a good time;

Table 34: Communication model (collage 2bv0809r) Step 6: Structural analysis Characteristic

Description

Meaning

Number of ob-

10/10 – few meanings;

Not versatile;

4 large, 5 medium, 1 small – large focus

Few aspects, but very

on meanings;

important, match Adidas;

Use of area/distance

Whole area used, free spaces between

Connect aspects, rich and

of objects

pictures, few overlaps; - Image schemata:

profound;

jects/elements Size of elements

link, contact, full-empty; Composition

The largest picture in the middle, others

Focus on center, centrali-

organized around; - Image schemata:

ty;

center-periphery, balance; Table 35: Structural analysis (collage 2bv0809r) Table 35 represents the main structural features and their implications: With only ten elements this collage has the fewest number of all the collages. As such this collage may present Adidas as a specialized brand that is not applicable in many fields. Interestingly however, all chosen elements are large or medium, excepting one small element, indicating that the crea-

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tor placed a lot of value in the represented meanings. Those aspects seem to represent and match Adidas very well. The pictures are clearly organized and most do not overlap. The collage is not overcrowded with pictures, and this enhances the importance of the existing pictures. Although the objects barely overlap, there is a definite connection between them as they touch slightly, indicating that Adidas may connect various aspects of sports or customers. Due to free spaces the collage appears to be full, symbolizing a certain richness to the brand. Although it seems to be slightly limited, the Adidas brand does have the potential to be rich and profound. This could mean that customers recognize or use the brand regularly, or

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115

that customers relate numerous experiences with the brand. The largest picture is in the middle, but as there are several large objects overall it does not appear to be a typical center-periphery schema. Rather, it is a balance schema, as the objects are evenly spread on the paper creating equilibrium. This could mean that Adidas is a balanced brand that is for anybody and does not discriminate in regards to people or sports. Beyond that Adidas offers the same opportunities in every field. II. Meaning conveyed by interview Table 36 presents the main findings conveyed by verbal metaphor analysis: Text & metaphors

Image schemata

Meaning

Adidas hat mehrere Gesichter – Adidas has more faces Das Bild über zwei Seiten…weil die Marke

Splitting, Part-

Many aspects, versa-

für mich mehrere Seiten hat; – The picture is

Whole

tile;

Splitting

Two meanings;

Der Gemütlichkeits- und Stylefaktor versus

Part-Whole, Coun-

Lifestyle versus

dem Sportfaktor; - The comfort and lifestyle

terforce

sports;

Splitting, Link

Two meanings;

across two sides…as to me the brand has more sides; Zwei Seiten der Marke; - Two sides of the brand;

factor versus the sports factor; Ich finde das Bild sehr gesplittet, es hat zwei Aspekte, wobei diese noch verbindbar sind; The pictures is split, it hast two aspects, whereas those can be connected; Adidas ist Gemütlichkeit – Adidas is comfort Da kommt eher die linke Seite ins Spiel und

More-Less

Comfort;

das ist eher das Gemütliche; - There the left Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

side comes into play and that’s rather comfort; Auch für diese, die zwar sportlich sind, aber

More-Less, Splitting, Sporty, but comfor-

ganz gern auch ein bisschen gemütlicher; –

Balance

table;

Also for those who are athletic, but also like

Original interviews are in German language; this table includes literal translations of interview exerpts containing significant image schemata;

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it easygoing; Da ist auch wieder der Gemütlichkeitseffekt;

Enablement

Comfort;

- There again is the comfort effect; (2x) Sondern eher das Gemütliche; - But rather the More-Less

Comfort;

comfort; Der Funfaktor sicher auch; - The fun factor

Part-Whole, Enab-

definitely too;

lement

Fun;

Adidas ist nicht Leistungssport – Adidas is not high-performance sports Man ist schon sportlich aber nicht Vollgas –

More-Less, Splitting, Sports within reason;

You are sporty, but not too much; (3x)

Balance

Grundsätzlich die Motivation wäre zwar da,

More-Less, Splitting, Sports within reason;

aber nicht ganz so megadurchziehen; - Basi-

Balance

cally the motivation is there, but not to pull something through hard; Marke, die nicht nur für die extremen Sport-

More-Less, Splitting, Amateur athletes;

ler da ist; - Brand not only for the extreme

Balance

athletes; (2x) Wo es vielleicht wieder sportlicher zugeht; -

More-Less

Sports brand;

Where it is sportier again; Da es eigentlich eine Sportmarke ist; - As it is Matching, Identity

Sports brand;

actually a sports brand; Eher nicht dieser Leistungssport; - Rather not

More-Less

high-performance sports; Dass derjenige schon sportlich ist; - That this

Not highperformance;

More-Less

Sports brand;

one is rather sporty;

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Adidas verkörpert Style – Adidas embodies style Gewisser Stylefaktor; - Certain style factor;

Enablement,

Lifestyle;

Appearance Fashion ist ein Aspekt von der Marke; -

Part-Whole

Fashion brand;

Miss-Exist

Many aspects;

Fashion is one aspect of the brand; In der gezeigten Situation, ist Fashion überhaupt nicht das Thema; – In the shown situation fashion is not the theme at all;

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117

More-Less, Path

Lifestyle, style;

Nicht das bemühte, das tussige; lässig, ge-

Part-Whole,

Casual brand;

mütlich; - Not forced, the girly-like; casual,

Appearance

Geht viel eher in die Stylerichtung; - Goes rather towards style;

comfortable; Schon das hippe im Stil; - The hip in the

Appearance, Contai-

Lifestyle, trendy;

style;

ner

Ein bisschen hip, ein bisschen cool; - A little

Part-Whole,

Lifestyle, trendy,

bit hip, a little bit cool;

Appearance

cool;

Adidas ist jugendlich – Adidas is juvenile Eine jugendliche Marke; - A juvenile brand;

Identity

Young, dynamic;

Ist so die unterste und die geht weiter bis zu

Path, Space

Juvenile brand;

Im Vordergrund eher dieses Jugendliche; - In

Space, Center-

Young, dynamic;

the foreground rather this juvenility;

Periphery

den 30 (Alter); - Is the lowest and goes until 30 (age);

Adidas ist vielseitig – Adidas is versatile Nicht nur zum Laufen, sondern etwas alterna- Part-Whole

Fringe sports;

tivere Sportarten; - Not only for running, but some more fringe sports; Für den Alltag hernehmen kann; – Can be

Enablement

Casual wear;

Path, Enablement

For any occasion;

Container, Path

For any occasion;

used in everyday life; Wenn man kreuz und quer durch die Pampa läuft; - If you run crisscross through the scenery; Einfach ins Grüne hinaus; - Simply out into

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the country; Table 36: Interview collage (2bv0809r) III. Comparison of meanings Adidas as a brand with more faces is the first meaning deduced from verbal analysis, and it is true, as there are several different aspects connected with Adidas found in both metaphor analyses. Adidas as a young and dynamic brand is one aspect conveyed by both analyses. A main meaning in verbal analysis is that Adidas is for comfort and not high118

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performance sports. Notably, this is only partially supported by visual analysis. The visual analysis states that relaxation is important and Adidas helps to relax, but it does not explicitly indicate that Adidas is not high-performance. While verbal analysis represents Adidas as a fun sports brand, visual analysis focuses more on competition, perseverance and performance. Moreover team spirit is a main meaning, showing that it is important to form a unity. A major meaning deduced with verbal analysis is lifestyle, which was not identified via visual analysis. Visual analysis however focused on equipment and perfect conditions offered by Adidas to achieve goals effectively. This meaning partially supports the versatility meaning from verbal analysis, which states that Adidas is appropriate for any occasion. Color theory represents Adidas as a positive, gentle, and pure brand – coinciding with verbal analysis. Moreover the color blue represents outdoor sports and freedom, which supports the meaning that Adidas is associated with fun sports. However blue also supports competition, which is not present in verbal analysis. Black confirms this competitive meaning by showing toughness when taking on challenges. Red as an active color stands for intense emotions and feelings connected with sports. Furthermore red stands for pleasure and energy, showing that Adidas is fun and energizes. Finally, the green spots symbolize nature and relaxation, such as playing sport in nature and relaxing afterwards. These aspects are in line with verbal analysis. The lifestyle and juvenility aspects were not considered by color theory. The communication model represents Adidas as a people brand that offers various opportunities to its customers. In general the impression of a fun brand is conveyed. Adidas as a versatile outdoor brand is reflected by most layers, and is in line with verbal analysis. In structural analysis the low number of elements contradicts the aspect of versatility, but notably the size of elements stresses the importance of the few meanings that are indeed present. Adidas may be a specialized brand with only a few relevant fields. This is also shown by verbal analysis, which shows only a few major meanings. There is a connection between the meanings and they complement each other, and this is also shown in verbal analysis. The collage gives a balanced impression, offering same opportunities for everybody, in turn reflected by verbal analysis. Table 37 compares the aggregated Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

key brand meanings of the four visual analyses to the aggregated key brand meanings of verbal analysis.

Brand meanings conveyed by collage

Brand meanings conveyed by interview

Adidas helps customers succeed (24.6%):

Adidas as fashion brand (43.2%):

Victory, achievement, master/take on chal-

Lifestyle, fashion, Casual brand, trendiness,

lenge, perseverance, performance

comfort

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119

Adidas is (outdoor)) sports (22.8%):

Adiddas is (fun) sports (27% %):

Sports, leisure activ vities, winteer, nature

Sporrts within reeason III, am mateur, fun

Adidas helps recreaating (19.3% %):

Adiddas has two faces (16.2 2%):

Relaxattion, break, balance, geentleness

Lifesstyle vs. spo orts, many aspects a

Adidas is fun (17.5 5%):

Adiddas is juvenile (13.5%):

Celebraation, happin ness, fun

Younng, dynamic

Adidas is powerfull (8.8%): Passionn, power, tou ughness Adidas as people brand b (7%): Being to ogether, lov ve, people brand b Table 37: Aggregation A n of meaninngs (collagee 2bv0809r)) 4.2.3.1.7 7 Collage 2ba0309e I. Meanning conveyed by collag ge F Figure 7 sh hows collagge 2ba0309 9e, which ooffers the basis b for in nterpretation n in this chapter;; table 38 ou utlines the main m findin ngs derived from the firrst visual ap pproach, vissual metaphor an nalysis. Thee table is disscussed in greater g detaail below. 11

1

10

2 3

13 7

6

4

9

18 34

8

20

33

30 28 8

16

14

5

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12 2

15

3 32 17

31 19 24 4 29

21 22 27

26

2 25

Figure 7: 7 Collage 22ba0309e 120

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23 3

Steps 1-3: Metaphor analysis Metaphor

Image schemata

Meaning

1) Fans with German flags;

Identity, Matching, Path

Patriotism, community, Germany;

2) “Marketing, Werbung” – “Mar-

Appearance, Attraction

keting, Advertising”;

Sponsoring, Advertisement;

3) Football players running;

Path, Part-Whole

Team spirit, teamwork;

4) “Neue Sponsoren” – “New

Link, Identity

Sponsoring, Advertise-

sponsors”;

ment;

5) Coach going wild;

Attraction

Emotion, passion;

6) Players with trophy;

Object, Enablement

Emotion, celebration, achievement;

7) Players cheering;

Attraction, Enablement

Emotion, celebration, achievement;

8) “Starke Marken” – “Strong

Force

Strong brand;

Counterforce

Competitor, power

brands”; 9) Nike logo;

struggle; 10) “Quality is our non-

Force, Scale

High-quality;

11) “Brand eins” – “Brand one”;

Scale

Best brand;

12) “100% Leistung” – “100%

Scale, Enablement, Full-

High-performance

Performance”;

Empty

13) Stock chart;

Scale, Path, Cycle

compromising obligation.”;

Stock market, money-

Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

maker, profit; 14) 1 Euro coin;

Enablement, More-Less

Money-maker, profit;

15) Weightlifter;

Force, Restraint removal

Strength, power, pain;

16) Beautiful view;

Scale

On top, look down;

17) “Gold Hoffnungen” – “Hopes

Scale, Enablement

Achievement, belief;

Force

Achievement, success,

for gold”; 18) “Erfolgsgarantie” – “Guarantee success”; 19) “Erfolg” – “Success”;

performance; Force

Achievement, success;

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121

20) Football player cheering;

Enablement

Emotion, passion;

21) People running;

Path

Movement, performance;

22) “Tune your run”;

Transformation

Improvement in performance;

23) Bicycle race;

Path, Enablement

Movement, performance;

24) Woman running and cheering;

Path, Enablement

Emotion, celebration, achievement;

25) Man running;

Path

Movement, performance, pain;

26) Carrefour ad/Family shopping;

Path

Purchase; consumption;

27) Little Chinese girl hiding from

Transformation

Protection, shelter;

Blockage

Imprisonment, no free-

rain; 28) Little Chinese boy behind bars;

dom; 29) “The world in 2008”;

-

-

30) “Nothing to smile about”;

Blockage

Unhappiness;

31) “Das Dilemma” – “The dilem-

Blockage

Being stuck, no way out;

32) Runner in starting position;

Path

Prepared, ready;

33) Black car with “?” on it;

Container, Identity

Secret, no identity;

34) “Money-maker”;

Scale, Process

Money-maker, profit;

ma”;

Table 38: Metaphor analysis (collage 2ba0309e) The first major meaning in this collage is shown by metaphors 5, 6, 7, 20 and 24. Each of these pictures show passionate people: some celebrating, others angry or relieved. Metaphors 5, 6 and 7 represent an attraction and enablement schema. People are full of emotions and

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attempt to achieve a certain goal by doing anything they can. This means that Adidas assists in achieving those goals and is related to passion, emotions and finally celebration. Metaphors 20 and 24 show people going a difficult way (path) in order to achieve a goal, which is only possible if people have the ability to do so (enablement). The common meaning of these metaphors is achieving goals in life, and that this is only possible if people have the ability to do so - Adidas makes it possible. Adidas supports athletes and helps them to succeed. Adidas is doing this by accompanying its customers, during training and during competition. It enables them, guides them, and transforms them to reach their goals. A similar meaning is 122

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symbolized by metaphors 21 to 25, with path, transformation and enablement as underlying schemata. During competitions, matches or races people literally walk a specific path, often a difficult path presenting obstacles. By improving and preparing oneself (transformation), athletes become stronger and more capable (enablement). For that reason Adidas is seen as as a partner on a journey, improving skills in order to achieve a goal. Sponsoring is another prevalent meaning in this collage. Metaphors 1, 2 and 4 represent: identity, matching, link, appearance and attraction schemata. Sponsoring means that Adidas buys people and products’ identities, therefore in most instances Adidas chooses people that match their philosophy and consequently have a certain appearance; by doing so a link is created and attention is caught. This is similar to metaphor 1, which shows people identifying with nationality. This means Adidas is doing marketing to present itself and catch attention; Adidas becomes part of a team and a person. This leads to the next meaning reflected by metaphors 13, 14 and 34, which are based upon: scale, enablement and process. Adidas pursues high profits (scale) with its businesses (process), as more money equals opportunities (enablement). Indeed, Adidas’ main goal is to make money, which it undoubtedly does, in turn making it more powerful. This introduces arguably the most important meaning of this collage, as it is reflected by ten metaphors (8-12, 15-19). Most of them have an underlying force and scale schema. As a strong brand (8, 11) Adidas has much power and strength (force), which it needs to stay on top (16, scale) and prevail against (counterforce) competitors (9). Adidas is successful (17, 18, 19) as it performs to its maximum (12, scale) and provides high-class quality (10, scale). This enables the brand to remove obstacles (15) and maintain ground in the marketplace (9). This means that Adidas is a strong and powerful brand that ensures high-quality, stands for maximum performance and guarantees success. This made Adidas the number one brand, powerful enough to master several challenges including defeating strong competitors. Finally there are also blockage schemata present, meaning that Adidas is not as perfect as it seems. Metaphors 27 and 28 show one child protecting itself from rain and the other locked up (blockage). Metaphor 30 confirms the negative feeling by saying “Nothing to smile about” Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

(blockage). Beyond that metaphor 31 supports the blockage schemata. There are some pertinent questions here. What role does Adidas play in these dilemmas (31)? Does Adidas provide shelter (27)? Is Adidas locking up the boy (28)? Child labor is a major issue for big companies, such as Adidas. It is a dilemma, as more money is made by employing cheap workers; there is seemingly no way out. There are two sides of the coin and the main question is: What is Adidas’ real identity (33, identity)?

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123

Step 4: Color theory Color

Number of elements

Meaning

White

25 (1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10,

Perfection, on top, positive attributes, godlike,

11, 13, 15, 17, 18, 20, 21 ,

belief, performance, money;

22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33) Black

20 (1, 2, 3, 7, 9, 11, 15, 16,

Blockage, repression, misfortune, suppression,

20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27,

child labor, commercialization, globalization;

28, 29, 31, 32, 33) Red

Blue

15 (1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 17, 18, 19,

Intense emotions, encouragement, dynamism,

20, 24, 25, 26, 29, 32, 34)

energy, support;

9 (11, 12, 15, 16, 19, 21,

High position, mighty, omnipresent, surround-

23, 25, 26)

ing, huge, untouchable, distant;

Yellow/Gold 7 (1, 14, 17, 25, 29, 33, 34)

The joy of sport, wealth, prosperity;

Gray

Dark side of Adidas, suspicious, cheap child

6 (2, 5, 7, 23, 27, 28)

workers; Green

4 (3, 11, 16, 27)

Culture, civilization;

Table 39: Color theory (collage 2ba0309e) Table 39 illustrates the main findings conveyed by color theory: The color white stands for the success and purity of the brand Adidas. It is seemingly a perfect brand that assists athletes in performing better (3, 7, 15, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25). It sponsors people (2, 4) and teams, and that in turn makes a lot of money (13, 14, 18). Adidas is on top of the world and better than their competitors. Adidas appears to be a perfect brand with numerous positive attributes (8, 10, 11, 12, 18). Moreover, white is a godlike color and represents belief (17) – the belief in goals and one’s own skills. The black counterpart is also very present in this collage and rep-

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resents the darker side of the brand. Black is the color of blockage and repression, of evil and misfortune. It may mean that Adidas exploits its workers through low wages or illegal child labor (27, 28, 30, 31). In addition to this the color black could stand for the commercialization of sports (2, 4, 33) and worldwide globalization. The many black spots in this collage imply that there are also negative aspects of the brand Adidas, and this should not be neglected in the analysis. Red is also prevalent and stands for the intense emotions connected to sport, as a spectator or as an athlete (3, 6, 7, 20). Red is the color of activity and encouragement. It represents the dynamism and energy of the brand, and the power it needs to stay on top as and to 124

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

support athletes. In general the creator perceives Adidas as a very active and strong brand. Blue once again represents the high position Adidas has (12, 16). It is a mighty brand, almost godlike, and seems to be omnipresent. Blue also embodies this, as blue surrounds the earth(19). Many sports stars wear Adidas, which can in turn make Adidas seem untouchable and distant – not for ordinary people. Yellow and gold represent the joy of sports, along with wealth and prosperity, pride and abundance. Adidas makes a lot of money and is very wealthy, as shown in pictures 14, 16, 33 and 34. Black, red, and gold may stand for the identity of Adidas, namely German. Gray recalls the darker side of Adidas, where inexpensive child workers are forced to work (27, 28, 30), establishing a bad image. Green is not particularly present, but may show the development of culture and civilization in recent years.

Step 5: Communication model Table 40 outlines the main findings from the four sides model: Question

Description

Meaning Matter layer

What are the dominant

This collage shows many pictures with peo-

scenes?

ple, but as there are 33 elements, several

Diversity;

different aspects are shown. Moreover there is also a remarkable amount of text phrases. What is the context?

Most people in the pictures are shown in a

Sports brand, is-

What do the pictures

sporting context representing the bright side

sues, negative as-

represent?

of the brand. Others however are in sad situ-

pects, success, per-

ations representing the darker side of the

formance, profits;

brand. The text phrases are mainly about money, wealth and success of the brand.

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Self-revelation What do the chosen

The sender is a little skeptical about Adidas,

Profit-maker, ex-

pictures tell about the

as there are several negative objects. He/She

ploiter, commer-

sender (attitudes, emo-

definitely appreciates the success of the

cialization, globali-

tions, feelings)?

brand and how they support people, howev-

zation;

er they wish to focus on the darker side as well – the commercialization of sports and child labor. The attitude is neutral, although he/she may not be a big fan of Adidas or

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

125

brands in general. Relationship What is the relationship The creator knows the brand well and prob-

Brands have issues,

between the brand and

ably wears it sometimes, however he/she is

image problems;

the creator of the col-

not the biggest fan, as he/she has concerns

lage?

about profit making and exploitation.

How does the research-

There are numerous impressions to be

Rather negative

er perceive the collage

gained from this collage. It reminds me of

image, big events,

(feelings, emotions,

big events such as the world cup, and of rich

greed for profits,

experiences)?

executives in the board, but also of child

exploitation;

labor in the Third World. Overall it triggers negative feelings rather than positive ones. Appeal What does the collage

The creator wants customers to also look at

There is no perfect

ask you to do? What

the problems associated with wealthy

brand;

message is conveyed?

brands. All that glitters is not gold!

Table 40: Communication model (collage 2ba0309e) Step 6: Structural analysis Characteristic

Description

Meaning

Number of ob-

31/33 – many different meanings;

Highly versatile and di-

jects/elements Size of elements

verse; 2 large, 6 medium, 23 small – large focus

A few special fields;

only on few meanings; Use of area/distance

Most area used, small free spaces in the

Universality, omnipres-

of objects

upper right, most objects overlap, some

ence, different aspects,

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completely placed over others; - merging, rich; mass-count, full-empty, superimposition; Composition

Objects spread randomly, most elements

Multiple opportunities,

in lower right and upper left area; - path,

universality, combines

full-empty, splitting;

several meanings;

Table 41: Structural analysis (collage 2ba0309e)

126

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Table 41 represents the main structural features and their implications: This collage contains the most elements out of all of the collages. 33 elements show a very high versatility and diversity of the brand. However, only 8 of those are large or medium, which in turn presents Adidas as a brand that focuses on numerous areas with little effort. There are only a few important meanings. Due to the high number of elements, some are no longer recognizable, as they overlap too much. Due to the overlapping of many objects the merging and superimposition schema are once again relevant. The creator seems to attempt to combine several small objects to form one larger object. Many objects in one space reflect the mass-count schema. The creator may be attempting to overwhelm the observer with many different meanings and aspects. These characteristics represent Adidas as a very rich, versatile, diverse brand that involves many different aspects and meanings. Adidas seems to be omnipresent and applicable in every context. In regards to composition, it is very hard to identify a particular pattern, as objects are distributed randomly. This collage appears to have no clear and dominant objects. Noticeably, a kind of path runs from the upper left to the lower right corners. Most pictures, especially small ones, are placed along this path. Above and below this line fewer objects are found. These findings are based upon a path and splitting schema. Adidas may once again be divided into two major meanings, event though the path also includes many objects. Adidas seems to be a brand that combines various aspects and offers multiple opportunities. II. Meaning conveyed by interview Table 42 presents the main findings conveyed by verbal metaphor analysis: Text & metaphors

Image schemata

Meaning

Adidas die Sportmarke – Adidas the sports brand Denk ich zuerst mal an Sport; - Thinking

Center-Periphery

Sports brand;

Einfach an Laufschuhe gedacht und an Berg

Path, Container,

Running;

hochlaufen; - Simply thought about running

Enablement

about sports first;

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shoes and about running up a mountain; Weil man Sport machen möchte und gesund

Enablement, Balance Sports, healthy;

leben möchte; - As you want to do sports and live a healthy life; Zentral: Sport; - Central: Sports;

Center-Periphery

Sports brand;

Original interviews are in German language; this table includes literal translations of interview exerpts containing significant image schemata;

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127

Path

Running;

Link, Scale

Outdoor sports;

Es ist auch für jeden, Rollstuhlfahrer und

Part-Whole, Ena-

For anybody;

Behinderte; - It is for anybody, wheelchair

blement, Restraint

users and disabled persons;

removal

Jeder sollte es machen, weil es gibt dir ein

Balance

Mit Laufen insgesamt; - With running altogether; Wegen dem Panorama, um sich auch mit der Natur verbunden zu fühlen; - Due to the panorama, to feel connected with nature;

Sports, healthy;

gutes Gefühl und es geht dir danach einfach besser; - Everybody should do it, as it gives you a good feeling and you are better afterwards; Adidas mit Siegermentalität – Adidas with winning mentality Adidas sponsert natürlich eher Siegertypen; -

More-Less, Enable-

Sponsoring, for win-

Adidas is sponsoring winners;

ment

ners;

Sportler, die es halbwegs drauf haben; - Suc-

Scale, Enablement

Talented athletes;

Superstars in Kleidung von Adidas; - Super-

Container,

Sponsoring;

stars clothed in Adidas;

Appearance, Identity

cessful athletes;

Glauben, dass sie selbst dann auch ein Sieger- Enablement, Identity

Improvement, moti-

typ sind; – Believe that they are winners too;

vation;

Jedes Mal wieder motivieren und da denke

Force, Enablement

Motivation, victory;

Identity, Enablement

Improvemant, moti-

ich auch wieder an Siegertypen; - Motivate again and think about winners; Diese Gefühle bekommt man indirekt halt

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auch durch die Marken, die man da anhat; -

vation;

These feelings come indirectly when wearing brands; Leistung, Erfolg, Ausdauer; - Performance,

Force, Enablement

success, endurance; Du hast das noch nie gemacht und du schaffst das; - You’ve never done that before and you

Performance, success;

Force, Enablement

Motivation, achievement;

can do it; (2x) 128

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Adidas ist Deutschland – Adidas is Germany Ich verbinde es natürlich auch mit Deutsch-

Link, Identity

Connection with Germany;

land; – Of course I link it to Germany too; (3x) Nicht vorstellen…Nike Hauptsponsor der dt.

Matching

Nationalmannschaft; - Unimaginable…Nike

Connection with Germany;

lead sponsor of German national team; Ein deutsches Sportprodukt, dann wird sicher

Miss-Loss

Adidas is Germany;

Adidas genannt; - German sports product, and Adidas will be called; Zugehörigkeit zur Nationalität, Kultur; - Affi- Link, Identity

Patriotism;

liation to nationality, culture; Adidas ist finanzieller Erfolg – Adidas is financial success Ist ein börsennotiertes Unternehmen; - Is a

Container

listed company; (2x) Dass Sport und Sponsoring ganz klar zusam-

Profit-making, successful;

Link, Matching

Sports sponsoring;

mengehören; - That sports and sponsoring are clearly connected; Adidas hat Verantwortung – Adidas has responsibility Dass sie auch gegenüber von Menschen und

Force

Responsibility;

Link, Force

Responsibility;

Force

Responsibility;

Counterforce

Fight cheating;

Link, Appearance

Bad image;

Enablement, Link

Don’t sponsor;

der Gesellschaft Verpflichtungen haben; – They also have responsibility towards people and society; Olympia/Peking mit der Verantwortung in Verbindung; - Olympic Games/Beijing in connection with responsibility;

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Verantwortung, die man als großes Unternehmen weltweit hat; - Responsibility that a large company has worldwide; (2x) Dass sie auch Doping bekämpfen müssen; That they have to fight doping; Adidas mit Doping in Verbindung; - Adidas in connection with doping; Man kann die Sportler nicht weiter unterstüt-

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129

zen oder sponsern; - You cannot support or sponsor the athletes; Man möchte kein schlechtes Image haben; –

Appearance

Bad image;

You do not want to have a bad image; Adidas hat Probleme mit Kinderarbeit – Adidas has problems with child labor Im Allgemeinen viele Kinder Fußbälle usw.

More-Less, Force

Child labor;

Force, Miss-Exist

Child labor;

More-Less, Force

Child labor is major

herstellen müssen; - In general, many children have to produce footballs and so on; Wo sie überhaupt nichts verdienen und unter brutalen Konditionen arbeiten müssen; Where they do not earn anything and have to work under brutal conditions; Der größte Teil der Fußbälle von der WM

problem;

von Kindern gemacht wurde; - The main part of footballs of the WC was produced by kids;

Politik und Sport muss getrennt werden – Politics and sports need to be separated China eine Politik verfolgt, die halt die Re-

Blockage

Wrong politics;

Splitting

Separate politics and

gierung nicht dulden können; – Pursuing a policy the governments cannot put up with; Man sollte immer Politik und Sport trennen; – Politics and sports should always be separa-

sports;

ted; Ist aber sehr schwer, deshalb sind sie halt in

Blockage

Problems, dilemmas;

Counterforce

Don’t put up with

dem Dilemma; – It is difficult, that’s why they are in a dilemma; Dass die französische Regierung gegen die

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Tibetpolitik protestiert hat; – That the french

anything;

government protested against the tibet policy; China…gesagt hat, wir boykottieren alle Le-

Counterforce

bensmittel von Carrefour; - China…said that

Don’t put up with anything;

we boycott all products of Carrefour; Weil der chinesische Markt einer der welt-

More-Less, Force

Profit-making,

größten ist und es geht halt immer nur um Geld; - Since the Chinese market is one of the 130

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largest in the world and it is always only about money; Dass…Adidas die Sportarten nicht zu sehr

Force

Large influence;

Splitting

Separate politics and

beeinflussen sollten; - That Adidas should not influence sports too much; Man sollte Politik und Sport voneinander trennen; - Politics and sports should be separ-

sports;

arted; Adidas ist Globalisierung – Adidas is globalization Auch noch an Globalisierung gedacht; -

Force

Globalization;

Weil sie auch expandiert haben und weltweit

More-Less, Miss-

Globalization, wor-

ihre Produkte verkaufen und auch produzie-

Exist

ldwide, global;

Thoughts about globalization as well;

ren; - As it expanded and sell and produce its products worldwide; Adidas besser als seine Konkurrenten – Adidas is better than its competitors Sie sind schon Marktführer; - It is market

Scale, Force

leader;

On top, better than rest;

Ist einer der meistbekannten, auch in Ameri-

Miss-Exist

Worldwide, renowned, global

ka; - Is one of the most popular, in the USA as well; Nike bei der NBA ausgestochen; - Outpaced

Counterforce

Victory, global;

Nike in the NBA; Table 42: Interview (collage 2ba0309e) III. Comparison of meanings

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The overall meaning of verbal analysis is that Adidas is a sports brand. First of all Adidas has a winning mentality and is for winners, which is also represented by visual analysis. Adidas as an associate and supporter is shown in both analyses. Verbal analysis states that achieving goals is possible by motivating athletes and encouraging them. Verbal analysis also shows that Adidas is German, which is not explicitly stated by visual analysis. Another meaning not identified through visual analysis is Adidas’ responsibility for customers, athletes and employees. Both analyses however showed that Adidas is a powerful and financially successful company. While verbal analysis emphasizes the company’s financial success, (through

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131

sponsorship and the stock exchange for example), visual analysis focuses particularly on the opportunities offered through this financial success – such as becoming the number one brand worldwide. Nevertheless, verbal analysis also identified Adidas as better than its competitors. Both analyses show that Adidas is not as perfect as it seems and does encounter problems. The major problem is child labor and it is hard to find a way out. Beyond that verbal analysis identified problems in regards to the influence of politics on sports and globalization, two aspects not mentioned in visual analysis. Color theory supports the positive versus negative view of Adidas. White shows the positive aspects, such as success and perfection, and that Adidas appears to be perfect and better than competitors. Blue confirms this impression and represents Adidas as a mighty and godlike brand. Blue also shows that Adidas is distant and almost untouchable. All aspects are also found in verbal analysis. Red represents the sports meaning and motivation Adidas shows. Yellow represents the joy of sports and also wealth and prosperity – symbolizing the financial success of Adidas. However many black and gray spots also outline the negative aspects of Adidas. Black is the color of blockage and repression and indicates child labor, globalization and the commercialization of sports. Gray supports the presence of these negative aspects, which are also found in verbal analysis, however the responsibility and politics problems were not shown. The communication model shows a very diverse brand with many different aspects including: sports, success, performance, profits and related problems. The main meaning is an image problem caused by profit making, exploitation, commercialization and globalization. This model emphasizes the negative aspects rather than positive ones and makes it clear that Adidas is far from perfect. This means the model is in line with verbal analysis when it comes to negative aspects, but does not support positive meanings. In structural analysis a large number of elements show high versatility and diversity, which overwhelms the observer with many different meanings and aspects. Adidas is represented as a very rich brand that is omnipresent and applicable in many contexts, which is confirmed by verbal analysis. Beyond that, Adidas may be divided into two major meanings through a kind of a path. Adidas appears to be a brand that combines various Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

fields and aspects and offers multiple opportunities. However, it is difficult to establish what the two major meanings are. Table 43 compares the aggregated key brand meanings of the four visual analyses to the aggregated key brand meanings of verbal analysis.

Brand meanings conveyed by collage

Brand meanings conveyed by interview

Adidas struggles with a bad image (26%):

Adidas as sports brand (20.4%):

Suspicion, blockage, commercialization,

Sports, outdoor sports, for winners, healthy

132

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negative image, exploitation, unhappiness Adidas helps customers succeed (23%):

Adidas supports customers (20.4%):

Achievement, success, performance, belief

Improvement, motivation, performance

Adidas as money-maker (18%):

Adidas as global player (16.7%):

Money-maker, profits, wealth, sponsoring

Globalization, worldwide II, on top

Adidas is divine (14%):

Adidas struggles with a bad image (18.5%):

On top, mighty, omnipresent, divine

Child labor, bad image, wrong politics

Adidas is powerful (11%)

Adidas as money-maker (9.3%):

Power, strength, movement, protection

Sponsoring, profit-making

Adidas represents intense feelings (8%):

Adidas bears responsibility (7.4%), Adidas is

Passion, emotion

German (7.4%) Table 43: Aggregation of meanings (collage 2ba0309e)

4.2.3.1.8 Collage 2bm1005n I. Meaning conveyed by collage Figure 8 shows collage 2bm1005n, which offers the basis for interpretation in this chapter; table 44 outlines the main findings derived from the first visual approach, visual met-

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aphor analysis. The table is discussed in greater detail below.

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133

1

6 5 7 2 4 8

3

9 17

16

10

15 113 14 12

11

Figure 8: Collage 2bbm1005n or analysis Steps 1--3: Metapho Metaph hor

Image schemaata

Meanin ng

1) Crouuched person n;

Conntainer, Cennter-

Sadness, despair;

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Perriphery 2) Youn ng girl;

Atttraction, Apppearance

Good shape, traineed;

3) Man leaning on cactus;

Enaablement

Despairr, exhaustio on;

4) Footb ball;

Objject, Part-W Whole

Object,, football;

5) Man doing yogaa exercises;

Ballance

Relaxattion, balanccing;

6) Brokker;

Ballance, Scalee

Money-maker, proofit;

7) Youn ng girl stretcching;

Atttraction, Ballance

Preparaation, worko out;

8) Doug glas ad/Beau uty productts;

Conntainer, Traansformati-

Cosmettics, look, beauty; b

on, Appearancce 9) Youn ng man;

Atttraction, Ballance

Preparaation, worko out;

10) Sneeaker;

Conntainer, Traansformati-

Associaate, reinforccement,

on, Merging, E Enablementt

supportt;

Parrt-Whole, M Merging,

Supporrt, accessory y, look;

11) 3 w watches;

Traansformationn 134

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12) Perfume;

Container, Transformati-

Cosmetics, look, beauty;

on, Appearance 13) “Ich will da rein!” – “I want

Container

Elite club;

14) Partial face;

Appearance

Hair, style;

15) „Qualität hat ihren Preis…“ –

Scale

High-quality

16) Hot-air balloons;

Scale

Air, sky, height;

17) Man without face “Identität

Container, Identity

Missing identity;

in!”;

„You get what you pay for…”;

durch Marke?” – “Identity through brand?”; Table 44: Metaphor analysis (collage 2bm1005n) Metaphors 2, 7, 8, 9, 12 and 14 show well-shaped bodies, perfumes and cosmetics articles and are based on the dominant image schemata: appearance, attraction, container and transformation. People in good shape (2, 7, 9) appear in an attractive light (appearance, attraction). To become more desirable people transform themselves with cosmetics articles (8, 12, container). Metaphor 14 shows an example of style (appearance). This collage focuses on appearance, look and beauty. The bodies (2, 7, 9) show that Adidas is for good-looking people, and that in turn Adidas provides a good look. This is also represented through the cosmetics articles (8, 12). It provides products that assist customers in achieving a better look. This shows that Adidas is a versatile brand, as it is in fashion, beauty, cosmetics, clothing (10) and watches (11). Metaphors 1 and 2 seem to be desperate and exhausted. They are alone and apart from the others (center-periphery). They may be expelled and not part of the community. They want to get in, but it is not possible (13, container). It seems that people without Adidas are worthless, which indicates a society based on classes. Metaphor 17 questions whether a

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brand can provide identity. In a society based on classes Adidas is able to give people an identity and in turn people attempt to identify with Adidas. Metaphor 5 shows a man doing yoga exercises. Based on the balance schema this shows that it is important to keep body and soul balanced and to find a balance between fitness and rest. Metaphor 6 is based upon balance and scale, as it is about buying and selling and making as much money as possible. Importantly, Adidas is a company that wants to maximize profits. Metaphors 10 and 11 are fashion articles and transform the customer in order to better achieve a goal, to either look better or perform better. The last metaphors are 15, 16 and 17 and symbolize the value and quality of

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135

Adidas. Adidas is like an air-balloon (15) high in the sky (scale); it offers the best quality (16) for an expensive price (scale).

Step 4: Color theory Color

Number of elements

Meaning

White

11 (1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11,

Purity, perfection, the ideal, good looks, high-

13, 15, 17) / uncolored parts

quality, good image;

10 (1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 14,

Exclusion, suppression, differentiation, society

15, 17)

based on classes, obstacle;

Gray/Silver

6 (1, 5, 9, 10, 11, 12)

Counterfeit, speed, indifference;

Blue

5 (6, 7, 8, 14, 16)

Utopia, dreams, distance;

Red

5 (1, 5, 8, 13, 16)

Energy, activity, dynamism, eye-catching, at-

Black

traction; Green

2 (3, 8)

Balance, relaxation;

Yellow/Gold 2 (6, 16) / 2 (11, 14)

Extroversion, prosperity;

Table 45: Color theory (collage 2bm1005n) Table 45 illustrates the main findings conveyed by color theory: The white color in this collage represents the purity and perfection of the brand Adidas or at the very least the impression of a seemingly perfect brand. White is the color of the good and the ideal, as shown by the perfectly-shaped girl (2), or the quality phrase (15). This means Adidas is a high-quality brand that helps people. The creator sees Adidas as a brand that provides people with an almost perfect identity and image (17). White shows that the brand combines several positive virtues such as honesty, intelligence and truth (2, 8, 10, 11, 15, 16). Black symbolizes the ‘others’, who do not wear Adidas (1, 3). To exaggerate slightly, they are excluded and suppressed and this represents the differentiation and strangeness of others. This symbolizes the

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society based on classes, in which we live today (13, 17). Not wearing Adidas seems to be an obstacle for people, and this is symbolized by the color black. This is the only collage that incorporates several spots of silver. Silver often represents something faked or artificial, such as people who try to hide behind the brand Adidas (9, 11, 12). However silver may also represent speed and movement of the brand, shown by the sneakers (10). If interpreted as gray it may stand for unfriendliness and indifference, meaning that society can be cold and negligent. The color blue is the color of utopia and wishful thinking, and may stand for the dreams and wishes of athletes (5, 16); wearing Adidas can fulfill customers’ dreams. Blue is the color of 136

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infinite dimensions and symbolizes distance (6, 16). This could be distance between customers and the brand itself or between people who wear it and those who do not. The color red symbolizes the energy and activity of Adidas, as playing sport means being active. It is a dynamic and eye-catching color, as are some Adidas products (8). In addition to this red is the color of desire, attraction, and good looks, as shown by cosmetics articles (8). Green may represent balance and relaxation that Adidas helps to achieve (5). Yellow is a bold color and stands for extroversion, whereas gold stands for prosperity and abundance (6). Step 5: Communication model Table 46 outlines the main findings from the four sides model: Question

Description

Meaning Matter layer

What are the dominant

There are various motifs in this collage.

People brand, pro-

scenes?

There are nine pictures showing people, six

duct brand;

showing Adidas products, and two text phrases. The rest is very mixed. What is the context?

The contexts are beauty rather than sports

What do the pictures

contexts. It is more about appearance and

represent?

looks than sports. This is also confirmed by

Beauty, look, style;

several beauty products throughout the collage. Self-revelation What do the chosen

The sender may divide society into two clas- Society based on

pictures tell about the

ses – one that wears Adidas and the other

classes , income

sender (attitudes, emo-

that does not. There,are happy and sad peo-

gap, community,

tions, feelings)?

ple, and status symbols on the collage. It is

status symbol;

not clear what class the sender belongs to.

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He/She sees Adidas as a brand that emphasizes look and beauty. The overall impression is a positive attitude towards the brand according to the products, but also a negative attitude due to the society based on classes. Relationship What is the relationship Although it is not clear what class the crea-

Status symbol,

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137

between the brand and

tor belongs to, it is more likely that he/she

high-class products,

the creator of the col-

wears Adidas, as there is a large and positive not a sports brand;

lage?

focus on Adidas products. Also, the creator emphasizes beauty and fashion over sports. Moreover he/she may wear Adidas as a status symbol.

How does the research-

In my opinion the creator focuses too much

Used to distinguish

er perceive the collage

on the beauty aspect, as for me Adidas is a

oneself, not a real

(feelings, emotions,

sports brand and not a cosmetics brand. Al-

beauty brand;

experiences)?

so, the collage triggers emotions of a society based on classes, which I do not perceive as positive. It reminds me of bullying kids in school. Appeal

What does the collage

It shows the problem of a society based on

The income gap is

ask you to do? What

classes we are living in, but does not really

getting larger;

message is conveyed?

condemn this fact.

Table 46: Communication model (collage 2bm1005n) Step 6: Structural analysis

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Characteristic

Description

Meaning

Number of objects/elements 19/17 – above average meanings;

Rather versatile, diverse;

Size of elements

3 large, 7 medium, 7 small – both

Special focus on most

relevant and irrelevant meanings;

areas;

Use of area/distance of ob-

Objects organized like an “H”,

Society based on classes ,

jects

left and right edges are used, some separation but connection free space in middle, most objects

between meanings, two

overlap; - Image schemata: block-

faces;

age, link, contact, near-far, path; Composition

Most objects on right side, only

Two parts contain main

two in middle, rest at right side; -

meanings, two main

Image schemata: center-periphery, meanings; splitting; Table 47: Structural analysis (collage 2bm1005n) 138

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Table 47 represents the main structural features and their implications: 17 elements are above average and represent Adidas as a rather versatile and diverse brand. A certain level of internationality may also be present. More than half of all elements are large or medium, demonstrating a special focus on most areas. The objects are organized like an “H” with many objects at the left and right side and few objects in the middle. The “H” shape is distinct and divides the collage into two categories, which may represent a society based on classes. The two sides are separated by a certain distance (blockage), but are connected by a small path in the middle, which symbolizes a certain connection between the two parts. Adidas is represented as a brand with two faces – a major player a in a society based on classes. Beyond that there is some free space in the middle and most objects overlap. There are many small pictures and most are toward the right side. The collage is slightly messy and chaotic, though it is possible to recognize each picture. There are only two objects in the middle, whilst the rest are at the left and right side. This appears to be center-periphery schema, but with most pictures outside. It could mean that the two objects in the middle are most important; however, it is more likely that the two parts at the sides contain main meanings. Beyond that the “H” shape represents a splitting schema, showing the separation between both directions successfully. II. Meaning conveyed by interview Table 48 presents the main findings conveyed by verbal metaphor analysis: Text & metaphors

Image schemata

Meaning

Adidas als status symbol – Adidas as status symbol Leute, die es mögen und die es sich leisten

Enablement, Blo-

können; - People who like it and can afford it; ckage

Expensive, luxurious;

(2x) Möchte damit auch etwas zeigen und etwas

Appearance, Identity

Poser, image;

Identity

Certain types of pe-

unter Beweis stellen; – Want to show someCopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

thing and prove a point; Welche Typen von Menschen überhaupt Adidas anziehen; - Which kind of people

ople;

wear Adidas at all; Leute, die sich das nicht leisten können; –

Blockage

Expensive, luxuri-

Original interviews are in German language; this table includes literal translations of interview exerpts containing significant image schemata;

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

139

ous;

People, who cannot afford that; (2x) Center-Periphery

Community;

Dass sie dazugehören wollen; – That people

Part-Whole, Blocka-

Community;

want to be part of it;

ge

Manche fühlen sich unsportlich und ziehen

Blockage,

sich Markenkleidung deswegen nicht an; -

Appearance

Sich deswegen minderwertig und nicht zugehörig fühlen; - Feel inferior and not part of it due to that;

Beauty, look;

Some feel unathletic and do not wear brandname clothes due to that fact; Dass es auch Leute gibt, die darauf keinen

Center-Periphery

Irrelevancy;

Nicht dazu gehören wollen oder auch nicht

Center-Periphery,

Community;

dazu gehören können; - Do not want to be

Blockage

Wert legen; - That there are people, who do not appreciate it;

part of it or not able to be part of it; Adidas ist Sport – Adidas is sports Mit Adidas assoziiert wird, zum Beispiel

Link

Sports;

Enablement

Doing sports;

Part-Whole

Sports;

Link, More-Less

Doing sports;

Sportlichkeit; - Associate with Adidas, for example sportsmanship; Wo jemand Adidas trägt, oder wo Sport betrieben wurde; - Where somebody wears Adidas or where sports were played; Einmal wegen der Sportlichkeit; - Once due to sportsmanship; Am ehesten ist es Sport und die Sportlichen

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Leute; - It is sports and sporty people most likely; Adidas ist Geld – Adidas is money Hier die Funktion von Adidas als Sponsor; –

Identity, Matching

Sponsoring, image;

Container

Profit-making, suc-

Here the function of Adidas as sponsor; (2x) Dann die Börsennotierung; - Then the stock exchange listing; Dass es einen hohen Gewinn erzielt und hohe

cessful; Scale

Profit-making, mo-

140

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

ney-maker;

Umsätze hat; - That is made high profits and revenue; (2x) Die Börse, ist ja eher ein Hintergrundaspekt; - Center-Periphery

Profit-making, suc-

The stock exchange is a rather unimportant

cessful;

aspect; Die andere Überlegung wäre das Finanzielle;

Part-Whole

ney-maker;

- The other consideration would be financials; Auf der anderen Seite die Qualität und der

Profit-making, mo-

Splitting, Scale

Preis; - On the other side quality and price;

High quality, high price;

Adidas als Identität – Adidas as identity Ob Adidas etwas mit der Identität eines

Identity, Link, Mat-

Menschen zu tun hat; - If Adidas has some-

ching

Image;

thing to do with the identity of people; Weil sich manche damit identifizieren und

Identity, Link, Mat-

manche nicht; – As some are identifying with

ching

Image, identity;

it and others not; Das Bild sagt etwas über die Identität und das

Identity,

Image, identity, sta-

Prestige von jemandem aus; – It tells some-

Appearance, Mat-

tus symbol;

thing about the identity and prestige of some-

ching

body; Adidas ist Vielseitigkeit – Adidas is versatility Part-Whole

Wide product range;

Weil jeder das Recht hat, Markenkleidung

Part-Whole,

For anybody;

anzuziehen, egal wie man ausschaut; - As

Appearance

Welche Produkte es überhaupt gibt, Schmuck, Kosmetika, Parfüm, Schuhe und Kleidung; – What products are there, jewelry,

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cosmetics, perfumes, shoes and clothing;

everybody has the right to wear brand-name clothes, no matter what appearance; Was der Mensch für Interessen hat; - The

Attraction

For different interests;

interests of people; Table 48: Interview (collage 2bm1005n)

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141

III. Comparison of meanings The first meaning that is evident from verbal and visual analyses is that Adidas is a status symbol. Aspects such as beauty, looks, luxury and a sense of belonging are part of this. High-quality, high-price and a better look with the aid of Adidas are three additional aspects. Beyond this both analyses identify a society based on classes. Adidas provides people with a better image and helps them to become part of the group. Versatility is also an important meaning and is found in verbal and visual analysis, showing that Adidas is very popular in fashion, beauty, cosmetics and clothing. Furthermore both analyses found a money aspect and show that Adidas wants to maximize profits. The sports meaning is peripheral in this collage and only mentioned casually by both analyses. Verbal analysis describes Adidas as a classic sports brand, whereas visual analysis focuses a lot of attention on the balance between sports and rest. In color theory the color white represents the purity of the brand and supports a seemingly perfect image of Adidas. It is this image of the brand that makes people like wearing Adidas, which in turn causes a society based on classes, also reflected by color theory. Black spots show the negative aspects and stand for those excluded. Color theory however focuses more on sports in general, as silver stands for performance as well as speed and blue represents the dreams and wishes athletes have. Additionally red shows the energy and activity of Adidas, particularly during sports. The meaning of Adidas as a status symbol is also represented by color theory. As an eye-catching color red represents extraordinary Adidas products and gold symbolizes prosperity and abundance. Furthermore, red stands for attraction, which is symbolized by cosmetics articles and good-looking people. Almost all meanings from verbal analysis are also represented by color theory, even though some only partially. The major meanings deduced from the communication model are the status symbol and the society based on classes, which are both in line with verbal analysis. Overall Adidas is defined as a people and product brand that focuses on beauty, look, and style and offers a wide range of products. However, people who do not use Adidas are excluded. Therefore Adidas is

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a status symbol and stands for high-class products. The sports aspect is neglected completely along with the meaning that Adidas is a profit-making company. The structural analysis presents Adidas as a brand with special focus on specific areas. The distinct “H” shape divides the collage and represents a society based on classes as well as the two faces of Adidas, which is in line with verbal analysis. Further aspects that coincide with verbal analysis could not be identified. Table 49 compares the aggregated key brand meanings of the four visual analyses to the aggregated key brand meanings of verbal analysis.

142

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Brand meanings conveyed by collage

Brand meanings conveyed by interview

Adidas makes people look good (24.1%):

Adidas is exclusive (48.6%):

Cosmetics, look, beauty, style

Poser image, status symbol, luxurious, identity, high quality, community

Adidas is exclusive (24.1%):

Adidas as profit-maker (25.7%):

Society based on classes, status symbol II,

Profit-making, sponsoring, successful

attraction III, distinguishment II Balance between rest and work (13.8%):

Adidas makes people look good (14.3%):

Relaxation, balance, workout

Beauty, look, wide product range

Adidas is divine (12.1%):

Adidas is sports (11.4%):

Purity, perfection, good image, high-quality

Sports

Adidas is not for everybody (12.1%): Despair, sadness, exclusion, suppression Adidas is energetic (6.7%), Adidas supports customers (6.7%) Table 49: Aggregation of meanings (collage 2bm1005n) 4.2.3.1.9 Collage 2bk0109n I. Meaning conveyed by collage Figure 9 shows collage 2bk0109n, which offers the basis for interpretation in this chapter; table 50 outlines the main findings derived from the first visual approach, visual met-

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aphor analysis. The table is discussed in greater detail below.

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143

1

3 5

2

4

6 10

12

111

7

9 8

Figure 9: 9 Collage 22bk0109n

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Steps 1--3: Metapho or analysis Metaph hor

Image schemaata

Meanin ng

1) “Erfo olg” – “Succcess”;

Patth

Achiev vement, succcess;

2) Man in white sh hirt (J. Löw));

Atttraction, Apppearance,

Emotio on, tactics;

Forrce 3) Germ man flag;

Identity, Matchhing, Link

German ny, patriotissm;

4) “Ich liebe die Heerausforderu rung”

Blo ockage, Resstraint re-

Accept challenges;

– “I lov ve the challeenge”;

moval, Enableement, Transform mation

5) „Tunn Sie doch was!“ w – „Doo so-

Forrce

Encourragement;

144

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mething!“; 6) Biathlete on ski trail;

Path, Cycle, Force

Competition, force, power;

7) „Schnell“ – „Fast“;

Enablement

Speed;

8) Runner;

Path, Cycle

Performance, speed;

9) „Wettkampf“ – „Competition“;

Counterforce

Competition;

10) „Fussball“ – „Football“;

Part-Whole, Counterforce

Football

11) German national Football

Part-Whole, Matching

Team spirit, achievement;

Path, Force

Dynamism, strength,

Team; 12) Trained athlete;

power; Table 50: Metaphor analysis (collage 2bk0109n) The first meaning is competition, with metaphors 4, 7 and 9 representing: blockage, enablement, restraint removal and counterforce schemata. At the beginning a new challenge always seems to be an obstacle (blockage), but every obstacle can be mastered if the person has the right skills (enablement). With force and counterforce the obstacle can be removed (restraint removal) and the challenge mastered. Adidas encourages (force) athletes to accept new challenges (5), because only new challenges assist in improving and developing further. Individuals must go higher and faster to reach new goals, and this is what Adidas wants them to do. But Adidas does not only encourage people, it also supports them, to become faster for instance (7) in order to win the competition (8, 9); be strong, be prepared, take on challenges and succeed (1). It is about success, and Adidas offers guidance on the road to success. Metaphors 2, 3 and 11 show: the German national football team (11), its coach (2) and a German flag (3). Being part of a team and mastering challenges as a team is very important. There is a link between each member, and together they are united, and are stronger than the

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individual. Adidas as a supporter is part of the team and consequently pushes members to higher limits – as a team, and as individuals. They must perform well and give everything to succeed. Metaphors 6 and 12 show two athletes fighting for success. The first (6) is on a path, which is his challenge – his personal road to success. The second reaches out for something and also has to perform well. He looks strong, dynamic and prepared to take on a challenge. Adidas supports and encourages all those athletes in order to reach their goals. An important message is that there is no victory and success without first mastering a difficult path.

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145

On the way people encounter obstacles such as competitors, and Adidas is your partner on this road.

Step 4: Color theory Color

Number of elements

Meaning

Black

8 (2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12)

Overcoming blockages, pain, challenges and obstacles during competition;

White

Red

7 (2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11) / un-

Victory, achievement, celebration, belief, trust

colored parts

reaching the finish, unity as a team;

5 (3, 5, 6, 8, 11)

Power, strength, will, accept new challenges, aggression;

Blue

5 (2, 4, 5, 8, 11)

Goals far away, connectedness in a team, athletes’ dreams, outdoor sports;

Yellow

4 (1, 3, 8, 11)

Activity, extroversion, optimism;

Green

2 (6, 11)

Relief, relaxation, hope; Table 51: Color theory (collage 2bk0109n)

Table 51 illustrates the main findings conveyed by color theory: This is the second collage without any black and white pictures; however, there are more black spots than expected, as it seems to be a positive collage overall. Nevertheless there are some features found that do justify the eight black spots. Firstly, black symbolizes the blockages athletes must overcome and the pain related to this process (4, 6, 7, 8, 9). Therefore main findings are the challenges and obstacles faced during competition that need to be mastered in order to achieve a goal. White emphasizes the positive side of competition, including victory, achievement and celebration. White is the color of light and stands for belief and trust, therefore in this collage white is like experiencing a bright sense of elation when reaching the finish line and the belief

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athletes have in themselves and their team (8, 11). Furthermore the color white stands for the unity of a team and the good virtues needed to succeed, including intelligence, honesty and faith (7, 8, 11). Red is the urge to do something (5) and represents the power, strength and will necessary to succeed and master challenges. It symbolizes Adidas’ encouragement of athletes to accept new challenges and to do everything in their power to master such challenges (1, 5, 6). Moreover red is an aggressive color and shows that competition is not unlike war, as it may be difficult and painful. Blue represents the goals people want to achieve, and that are often far away, but do seem more realistic as one gets closer to achieving them (4, 5, 8, 146

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12). Blue represents the connectedness of a team and the wishes and dreams of athletes (11). Moreover it is a cold color and stands for outdoor sports (6, 8). Yellow is a positive color and stands for activity and extroversion. It is a color of life and represents the optimism athletes should possess (1, 3). Green is the color of hope and represents the faith athletes must have in themselves or their team in order to win a competition (6, 11). Moreover it could also refer to the relief and relaxation experienced by players when the competition is over.

Step 5: Communication model Table 52 outlines the main findings from the four sides model: Question

Description

Meaning

What are the dominant

There are five pictures showing people and

Hard to explain

scenes?

five text phrases.

Adidas visually;

What is the context?

The pictures show people in sporting situa-

Sports brand, com-

What do the pictures

tions, during or following the game. It is

petition, skill, per-

represent?

about competition and being in a state of

formance;

Matter layer

concentration during a match or a run. The phrases are about the virtues connected to competition and challenges. Self-revelation What do the chosen

The sender has a positive attitude towards

Partner, reliability,

pictures tell about the

the brand and sports, but is also aware of the

high-performance

sender (attitudes, emo-

pain experienced during competition.

sports, achieve-

tions, feelings)?

He/She perceives Adidas as more of a brand

ment, success;

for high-performance sports and as a partner for achieving goals, as some pictures show

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athletes during competitions. Relationship What is the relationship I guess the creator is performing a certain

Regular sports, ef-

between the brand and

sport that requires a lot of training and will,

fort, reliable

the creator of the col-

as he/she may identify him/herself with the

equipment;

lage?

pictures chosen. He/She can depend on Adidas as it is a reliable partner.

How does the research-

There is a large focus on performance and

High-performance

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147

er perceive the collage

success and as such I do not see the fun con-

sports brand, pro-

(feelings, emotions,

nected to sports. The pictures show pain and

fessional athletes,

experiences)?

effort connected to sports when trying to be

high-quality;

successful. The overall theme however fits well with Adidas. Appeal What does the collage

It shows Adidas as partner for athletes that

No success without

ask you to do? What

supports them during competitions. It also

pain;

message is conveyed?

shows that sometimes athletes have to suffer to win.

Table 52: Communication model (collage 2bk0109n) Step 6: Structural analysis Characteristic

Description

Number of objects/elements 11/12 – few meanings; Size of elements

Meaning Specialized brand;

1 large, 3 medium, 7 small – small Modesty, plainness; focus on meanings;

Use of area/distance of ob-

Free spaces at the bottom, objects

Partially rich, partially

jects

on top are overlapping, large dis-

simple, related and con-

tances at bottom; - Image schema-

nected activities;

ta: full-empty, contact, link; Composition

Largest picture in the middle,

Dynamic, fast, road to

most others on top, only three at

success, high-quality,

bottom; - Image schemata: path,

performance;

scale, center-periphery;

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Table 53: Structural analysis (collage 2bk0109n) Table 53 represents the main structural features and their implications: Note that this is the only collage that has been created in vertical orientation. 12 elements is a rather small number of elements and may symbolize a specialization of Adidas in specific fields. Only one large element implies that Adidas is seen as a modest and plain brand in its fields; Adidas appears to be literally inconspicuous. There is an abundance of free space in this collage. Most pictures are placed on top and overlap and the large free spaces are found in the lower half of the collage. Based upon a full-empty schema, Adidas seems to be a rich brand (as shown by 148

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the upper half), but at the same time a rather simple brand (as shown by the comparatively empty lower half). In addition to this there is a link schema present, as all objects are connected to and touch each other. This may mean that Adidas’ activities are related and connected, such as in the different areas of high-performance sports. Most objects are in the upper half with only a few in the lower, making for a very dynamic and athletic impression which consequently represents Adidas as a dynamic and fast-paced brand. There is a large picture in the center of the collage showing a center-periphery schema. This central motif may represent the main meaning of the collage. The composition resembles a sort of path, which may symbolize the road to success or the bumpy road athletes have to master. The vertical orientation of the paper reflects a scale schema, and may represent the high-quality nature and high performance output of Adidas. II. Meaning conveyed by interview Table 54 presents the main findings conveyed by verbal metaphor analysis: Text & metaphors

Image schemata

Meaning

Adidas ist Wettkampf – Adidas is competition Auf den sportlichen Aspekt eingegangen; -

Path

Sports;

Path, More-Less

Competition, sports;

Link, Counterforce

Competition;

Mit dem Fußball; - With football;

Link

Football;

Eher halt Funktionalität und das Sportliche

More-Less, Space

Functionality, sports;

Focus on the sporty aspect; Zu sehr auf Wettkampf, Sport und sowas eingegangen; - Too much focus on competition, sports and so on; Nur an Wettkampf und so hängengeblieben; Stuck with competition and so on;

und was da dahinter steckt; - Rather functionality and sportsmanship and what’s behind Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

it; Adidas ist dynamisch – Adidas is dynamic Das zentralste ist die Dynamik; - Dynamism

Center-Periphery

Dynamism;

Counterforce, Blo-

Dynamism, competi-

is most central; Die Dynamik von dem Wettkampf; - The

Original interviews are in German language; this table includes literal translations of interview exerpts containing significant image schemata;

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

149

dynamism of competition;

ckage

tion;

Eben gerade dieses dynamische; - Just that

Path, Enablement

Dynamism;

dynamic; (2x) Adidas ist Höchstleistung – Adidas is maximum performance Das Ganze auch bei Olympia sehr präsent; -

Container, Attraction Big events, sponso-

The whole thing is very present at Olympic

ring;

Games; Dann eben die Schnelligkeit; - Then the

Force

Speed;

Force

Power;

speed; (2x) Der Power; - The power;

Adidas ist Gemeinschaft – Adidas is community Durch Adidas auch die Gemeinschaft und

Link, Part-Whole

dieses Teamzusammenhängen; - Community

Community, team spirit;

and team spirit through Adidas; (2x) Von der Deutschen Mannschaft zu sehen; -

Link, Part-Whole,

Germany, team spi-

Watch the German team;

Identity

rit;

Dann auf der einen Seite Fußball, Team; - On

Link, Part-Whole,

Football, team spirit;

the other side football, team;

Identity

Adidas ermuntert – Adidas encourages Die Herausforderung, durch die man durch

Force, Blockage

Master challenges;

Force, Blockage

Master challenges;

Force

Encouragement;

Force

Encouragement;

Force

Encouragement;

Adidas gezwungen wird; - The challenge forced onto by Adidas; Die Herausforderung, dass man selber etwas tun soll; - The challenge, that one should do something; (3x) Durch die man durch Adidas gezwungen

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wird; - Forced by Adidas; Dass man selber etwas tun soll; - That one should do something; (2x) Dass man zum Sport getrieben wird; – To be forced into doing sports; (2x) Adidas ist Erfolg – Adidas is success Erfolg der Marke Adidas; - Success of brand

Erfolg der Marke

Adidas; (2x)

Adidas; - Success of

Success

150

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brand Adidas; (2x) Und eben auch Sportsponsoring, ganz groß

More-Less, Center-

dabei; - Big in sports sponsoring as well;

Periphery

Den verbindet man halt durch das Sponsoring

Link

Sports sponsoring;

Sponsoring;

und durch die EM mit Adidas; - Relate to Adidas through sponsoring and the EC; Adidas ist nicht Fashion – Adidas is not fashion Fehlt: Mehr den gesellschaftlichen Aspekt

Miss-Exist, Part-

eingebracht; - Misses: Bring in more social

Whole

Less society;

aspects; Dieses ganze Modische habe ich bewusst

Miss-Exist,

weggelassen; - I skipped the whole fashion

Appearance

Less fasion;

part; (2x) Vielleicht auch in der Mode was zu bedeuten,

More-Less,

aber für mich halt nicht so sehr; - Maybe big

Appearance

Maybe some fashion;

in fashion too, but not for me; Table 54: Interview (collage 2bk0109n)

III. Comparison of meanings Both metaphor analyses emphasize strongly the sporting aspect of the brand Adidas, and the first mutual meaning is competition. The focus is on being strong and prepared to take on new challenges and succeed. Both analyses show Adidas as an associate on a difficult road, where maximum performance and encouragement are major requirements. Verbal anal-

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ysis emphasizes dynamism as a major element of success. Both analyses represent Adidas as a partner for teams or individuals. Creating a united front makes people stronger and Adidas pushes individuals or teams to higher limits. Fashion aspects are completely ignored here; only sporting aspects including victory and the achievement of goals (with the assistance of Adidas) are emphasized. Color theory also confirms the meaning of competition. Black symbolizes negative aspects such as challenges and obstacles that must be mastered, or that are faced during competition. Conversely, white here emphasizes the positive aspects of competition, including victory, achievement and celebration. Red stands for sports in general and

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151

symbolizes the power, strength and will necessary to succeed in and master challenges. Furthermore red shows Adidas as a motivating factor in accepting new challenges, and this is in line with the meaning from verbal analysis – that Adidas encourages. Blue represents the goals people want to achieve, and the connectedness of a team. Yellow and green represent the optimism and hope athletes should possess. Color theory supports the sporting aspect strongly and also focuses on competition. Minor meanings, including dynamism, are not mentioned however. The communication model coincides with verbal analysis in regards to aspects of a sports brand such as competition, skill, and performance. The communication model represents Adidas as a reliable partner used for high-performance sports, as achievement and success are main aspects; it is not about fun in sport, but pain and effort. Adidas is for professional athletes, and stands for high-quality. The community factor is neglected in addition to any mention of Adidas as encouraging. The structural analysis sees Adidas as an inconspicuous and ordinary brand that is specialized in high-performance sports. This is in line with verbal analysis, as here it is not seen as a fashion brand and does not emphasize beauty and look. The objects are connected, which symbolizes that Adidas’ activities are related. The composition of objects gives a very dynamic and athletic impression, supporting the dynamic aspect found in verbal analysis. The portrait orientation represents high-quality and highperformance of Adidas, also conveyed by verbal analysis. Table 55 compares the aggregated key brand meanings of the four visual analyses to the aggregated key brand meanings of verbal analysis.

Brand meanings conveyed by collage Adidas helps customers succeed (29.6%):

Brand meanings conveyed by interview Adidas supports customers (27.6):

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Achievement, victory, accept/overcome chal- Encouragement, master challenges, dynalenges, performance

mism

Adidas prevails against competitors (27.8%):

Adidas is sports (24.1%):

Competition, power, strength, speed

Sports, football, no fashion

Adidas is high-performance sports (20.4%):

Adidas prevails against competitors (17.2%):

High-performance sports, high-quality, goals

Competition, speed, power

Adidas fosters team spirit (11.1%):

Adidas as sponsor (17.2%):

Team spirit, unity, partner, reliability

Sponsoring, success

Adidas gives hope (11.1%):

Adidas fosters team spirit (13.8%):

Encouragement, belief, effort, emotion

Community, team spirit

Table 55: Aggregation of meanings (collage 2bk0109n) 152

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

4.2.3.1.10 Collage 2bm0907r I. Meanning conveyed by collag ge F Figure 10 shows s collaage 2bm090 07r, which offers the basis for in nterpretation n in this chapter;; table 56 ou utlines the main m findin ngs derived from the firrst visual ap pproach, vissual metaphor an nalysis. Thee table is disscussed in greater g detaail below.

2 3

1 4 5 16 6 10 15 11

7

14 13 9

12

8

Figure 10 0: Collage 22bm0907r

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Steps 1--3: Metapho or analysis Metaph hor

Image schemaata

Meanin ng

1) Man talking (J. Klinsmann) K );

Parrt-Whole, C Container

Sporty impression;

2) Wom man in sporttswear sittinng and Ballance, Appeearance,

Satisfacction, happiiness,

smiling;

balanceed;

Enaablement, T Transforma-tion n

3) Man running;

Patth, Enablem ment, Force

Perform mance, achieeve-

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153

ment; 4) 3 football players wearing Adid-

Path, Part-Whole, Force,

Determination, concent-

as jerseys;

Identity

ration, team spirit;

5) 3 stripes;

Path, Balance, Identity

Dynamic, trademark;

6) Tennis player;

Force, Enablement

Force, power, tennis;

7) Football player wearing Adidas;

Enablement, Transforma-

Sponsoring, equipment;

tion 8) Line-up;

Balance, Part-Whole

Tactics, strategy, discipline;

9) Woman cheering (A. Merkel);

Enablement, Link

Emotion, celebration;

10) Woman in sportswear;

Balance, Attraction, Enab-

Preparation, sporty im-

lement, Transformation

pression;

11) Several balls;

Container, Attraction

Sports equipment;

12) “Gesund” – “Healthy”;

Balance

Health, fitness;

13) “$15 billion?”;

Scale

Profit, money-maker;

14) Football player;

Path, Force

Concentration, performance;

15) Adidas logo small;

Matching, Identity

Trademark;

16) Football shoes;

Container, Enablement,

Associate, reinforcement,

Merging, Part-Whole,

support;

Transformation Table 56: Metaphor analysis (collage 2bm0907r) This collage is largely about Adidas as a brand for sportswear. Metaphors 2, 3, 4, 6, 10, 14 and 16 show several persons in sportswear. First of all, people wear Adidas to perform better, whether as an individual (2, 3, 6, 10, 14) or as part of a team (4). Adidas supports them on

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their road to success (path, enablement) by making them stronger (transformation, force). Metaphors 3, 6, and 14 in particular show that power and will is important in achieving goals. Therefore Adidas’ clothes help to perform better and feel comfortable. But in a game not everything is about power and skill, having the right strategy (1, 8) is also important; as a part of the team a coach (1) gives instructions and devises a strategy (8). Concentration and discipline are important to succeed. By providing equipment (12) Adidas becomes part of the team as well as the match. The three stripes (5) and the Adidas logo (15) represent in one respect trademarks of Adidas based upon the identity schema, and in another respect dyna154

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mism based on balance and path. The stripes symbolize performance, balance and speed, features expressed by Adidas. Metaphor 13 may indicate that Adidas is a high-value brand that makes large profits (scale). Furthermore, metaphor 7 shows a football player wearing Adidas, which shows that Adidas is a sponsoring brand (identity). Finally, metaphor 12 presents Adidas as a brand that helps to maintain balance and stay healthy.

Step 4: Color theory Color

Number of elements

White

12 (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, Balance between sports and rest, health, hap-

Black

Blue

Meaning

12, 14) / uncolored parts

piness, achievement, celebration;

9 (3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 13,

Sponsoring, business contracts, commerciali-

14, 16)

zation, pain in sports;

6 (1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 12)

Sponsors, distance between customers and stars, introversion, concentration;

Red

3 (3, 7, 15)

Activity, energy, emotions, win, defeat;

Green

3 (3, 8, 16)

Recreation, rest, nature;

Yellow/Orange 3 (2, 6, 14)

Joy of living, fun in sports;

Table 57: Color theory (collage 2bm0907r) Table 57 illustrates the main findings conveyed by color theory: The white spots in this collage represent the balance between sports and rest (2, 4, 10). White is a positive color and represents the positive aspects of this collage including health, happiness, achievement and celebration (2, 4, 9, 12). The implied meaning is that Adidas makes people happy and focuses on people’s strengths. Nevertheless there are several black parts in the collage, meaning that there are also some negative aspects associated with Adidas. For example the sponsorship and business contracts that bind athletes. Today sports are full of commercialization and many

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athletes can be seen as objects rather than human beings by huge companys (1, 3, 7). At times the brand can be seemingly more important than the athlete (4, 5, 16). Moreover black also represents the pain associated with performing well (3). Blue may represent the magnitude of the brand Adidas, as it sponsors many stars. This enhances the gap and distance between ordinary customers and sporting celebrities (7). However, blue is also the color of introversion and may represent the concentration athletes require (3, 10). Red symbolizes the activity and energy in sports, which can be seen in picture 3. Furthermore it represents the emotions connected to winning or losing (9). Green represents the more relaxing aspect of sport, such as

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155

recreation and rest (2, 10). Playing sport in nature is also connected to the color green (3, 16). Finally, the color yellow/orange represents the joy of living and the fun of sport (2, 14).

Step 5: Communication model Table 58 outlines the main findings from the four sides model:

Question

Description

Meaning Matter layer

What are the dominant

Ten out of 16 elements show people in dif-

People brand;

scenes?

ferent situations.

What is the context?

There are some situations showing people in

Sports brand, appli-

What do the pictures

a relaxed and happy mood, and others peo-

cable in various

represent?

ple running or fighting. In general all pic-

sports;

tures are somehow connected to sport. Self-revelation What do the chosen

The creator has a positive attitude towards

Sports sponsoring;

pictures tell about the

the brand, but is also aware of the commer-

Sports brand;

sender (attitudes, emo-

cialization of sports. Mainly however it is a

tions, feelings)?

sports brand and is represented by the various pictures related to sport. Relationship

What is the relationship The creator probably appreciates Adidas and Helps people, perbetween the brand and

brands in general, as they may help to

the creator of the col-

achieve goals and live a healthy life. How-

lage?

ever, he/she does not place too much im-

form well;

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portance on what to wear. How does the research-

This collage triggers mainly positive feel-

Typical sports

er perceive the collage

ings. It shows very successfully that Adidas

brand, passion, ver-

(feelings, emotions,

is a sports brand for various sports. Emotion

satile;

experiences)?

and relaxation is connected to sport in the same way as sponsoring is. For me this collage shows Adidas as the typical sports brand.

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Appeal What does the collage

It probably says that Adidas can be used for

Sponsoring and

ask you to do? What

various occasions and you do not need to be

sports is connected;

message is conveyed?

a star to wear it, although sponsoring is a major element of Adidas.

Table 58: Communication model (collage 2bm0907r) Step 6: Structural analysis Characteristic

Description

Number of objects/elements 18/16 – average number of ele-

Meaning Average versatility;

ments; Size of elements

6 medium, 12 small – no large

No distinction, differenti-

object, no real focus on specific

ation;

meaning; Use of area/distance of ob-

Many free spaces especially in

Plain, simple, not excep-

jects

middle, some overlaps; - Image

tional, separated aspects;

schemata: full-empty, near-far; Composition

Most objects outside and along

Several distances be-

the edge, some outside of paper; -

tween brand, customers,

Image schemata: center-

products etc.

periphery; Table 59: Structural analysis (collage 2bm0907r) Table 59 represents the main structural features and their implications: As there are an average number of 16 elements in this collage, no special characteristics are shown here. It is noticeable however that there is no large picture in this collage; this could mean that Adidas

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does not differentiate itself and has no distinct aspects. In general the pictures are rather small and are overshadowed by the hand drawn Adidas logo. The collage seems relatively empty, as there are mainly small elements throughout. This conveys the impression that Adidas is a plain and simple brand without singularities. In addition to this, the objects are far away and as such do not allow for any clear connection. Therefore it seems to be difficult to combine different aspects of Adidas. The composition is unique, as the objects are organized along the edge with drawings in the middle. The main image schema represented is centerperiphery, with a drawing in the middle and objects lying outside of this. Moreover, some

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157

objects are not even backed by the paper as such. It could mean that there is a specific distance between Adidas and its aspects, features, customers, products or fields of application.

II. Meaning conveyed by interview Table 60 presents the main findings conveyed by verbal metaphor analysis: Text & metaphors

Image schemata

Meaning

Adidas als Kindheitserinnerung – Adidas as child hood memory Früher Fußball gespielt habe; - Played foot-

Cycle, Link

ball earlier;

Childhood memories, football;

Mehr Vergangenheitsbezüge; – Has a lot to

Link

do with the past; (2x)

Childhood memories;

Sachen, die beim Durchschauen der Hefte

Link, Attraction

Childhood memories;

eine Erinnerung hervorgerufen haben; Things that recall a memory when flipping through magazines; Die Fußballsachen, weil ich selber mit Fuß-

Link, More-Less

ball viel in Verbindung bringe; - Football

Childhood memories, football;

stuff, as I relate a lot to football; Adidas steht für Qualität – Adidas stands for quality Für Qualität steht; - Stands for quality;

Link, Scale

High quality;

Dass es etwas teurer ist; - That it is a bit more

Scale

Expensive;

Leute anspricht, die mehr Sport machen

Enablement, Scale,

Doing sports, having

und/oder mehr Geld haben; - Appealing to

More-Less

money;

expensive;

people, who do sports or have more money;

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Adidas als Sponsor – Adidas as sponsor Weil Adidas ein Sponsor ist; - As Adidas is a

Identity

Sponsoring;

Auf allen Trikots drauf; - On all jerseys;

Space, Link

Sports wear;

Sie machen sehr viele Trikots bzw. die ge-

Part-Whole, More-

Sports wear;

samte Sportbekleidung; - It produces many

Less

sponsor;

Original interviews are in German language; this table includes literal translations of interview exerpts containing significant image schemata;

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jerseys and whole sportswear respectively; Es ist natürlich ein Werbemittel und sie

More-Less, Attrac-

sponsern da sehr viel; - It is a means of ad-

tion

Sponsoring;

verstising and it sponsors a lot; Adidas ist Schuhe – Adidas is shoes Fußballschuhe bzw. Turnschuhe; - Foot-

Enablement, Part-

Shoes;

ballshoes, sneakers respectively;

Whole

Adidas höre, denke ich vorrangig an Schuhe

Center-Periphery,

Shoes rather than

und nicht an Kleidung; - Hear Adidas, I think

More-Less

clothes;

Enablement

Shoes, sneakers;

Part-Whole

Fashion brand;

rather about shoes and not clothes; Die ganz normalen Turnschuhe, mit denen man Laufen geht; – Ordinary sneakers that are used for running; Die Schuhe und Bekleidung; - Shoes and clothes; (2x) Adidas ist Joggen – Adidas is jogging Adidas sagt natürlich viel über Joggen über

Enablement

Health, fitness;

Path

Health, fitness;

Part-Whole

Health;

Sport für mich aus; - Adidas reveals a lot about jogging and sports for me; (2x) Nach einer Frau gesucht, die entlang eines Baches beim Joggen ist; - Looking for a woman that is running along a river; „Gesunde Sachen“; - „Healthy stuff“

Adidas als Markenzeichen – Adidas as trademark Impossible is nothing;

Enablement, Rest-

Slogan, recall value;

raint removal

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Ich weiß den Adidas Slogan nicht mehr; - I

Miss-Exist

Slogan, recall value;

Als erstes kommt das Symbol; - First, there is

Center-Periphery,

Logo, recall value;

the symbol; (2x)

Identity

don’t remember the slogan;

Merkel ist immer so ein Symbol für die EM; - Link

Representation;

Merkel is a symbol of the EC; Adidas die Unbekannte – Adidas the unknown Ich selber habe keine Adidassachen; - I per-

Miss-Exist

Few personal

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159

connections;

sonally do not have any Adidas things; Dass ich relativ wenig Sport mache; - That

More-Less

Adidas is sports;

Link

Few personal

I’m doing few sports; Keine zu engen Bezüge zu Adidas, deshalb

connections;

ein ziemlich buntes Bild; - Bear no relation to Adidas, therefore a pretty colorful picture; Wenig über Marken nachgedacht, wenig über

More-Less

Brands irrelevant;

Adidas, wenig über Sport; - Thought little about brands, Adidas, sports; (2x) Table 60: Interview (collage 2bm0907r) III. Comparison of meanings Verbal analysis demonstrated that the creator connects several personal memories to the brand Adidas, however it is not clear from visual analysis exactly what those personal memories are. A meaning deduced by both analyses is Adidas offering high-quality. Visual analysis indicates that Adidas is a high-value brand that makes high profits, while verbal analysis focuses on high-quality and a high price. Both analyses represent Adidas as a sponsoring brand. Shoes are a personal memory of the creator and are mentioned explicitly in verbal analysis; visual analysis does not identify this aspect. Visual analysis however does outline the enablement meaning by saying that Adidas improves athletes. Another meaning only represented by verbal analysis is jogging. Both analyses identify trademarks of Adidas. In visual analysis the three stripes and the Adidas logo are illustrated, whereas in verbal analysis the slogan and logo have recall value. Adidas is rather unknown to the creator in verbal analysis, as the creator only has few connections with the brand. It was not possible to identify this impression in visual analysis. Finally, visual analysis outlined strategy and discipline as two further aspects. Several white spots in color theory are positive and represent Adidas as a

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brand that makes people happy. This is in line with positive childhood memories of the creator. Nevertheless there are also some negative aspects associated with Adidas, such as commercialization and the implication that the brand seems to be more important than the athlete. However the sponsoring meaning from verbal analysis does not convey a negative impression. Blue supports the sponsoring theme and represents the magnitude of the brand Adidas. Red is about activity and energy in sports and emotions connected to winning or losing. Green represents the more relaxing aspect of sports and yellow symbolizes the fun involved. The sporting meaning is not very prevalent in verbal analysis, as the creator bears no personal re160

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lation to this. However, as the creator does not know much about the brand, those meanings may represent unconscious thoughts. The Communication model shows Adidas as a people and sporting brand, seemingly typical in nature and applicable to various sports. The main meaning however is sports sponsorship, which is connected to known trademarks. Adidas is a brand that helps people to perform well. However, some meanings from verbal analysis could not be identified with the communication model. Structural analysis represents Adidas as an inconspicuous brand that does not differentiate from other brands. The objects are far away and do not allow for any connection between each other. This coincides with the meaning that Adidas triggers memories. The objects are ordered along the edge, which symbolizes a certain distance between features, customers, products or fields of application. As the creator has only few connections to Adidas it seems reasonable that there are only few main meanings involved. Table 61 compares the aggregated key brand meanings of the four visual analyses to the aggregated key brand meanings of verbal analysis.

Brand meanings conveyed by collage

Brand meanings conveyed by interview

Adidas supports customers (32.8%):

Adidas is renowned (45.2%):

Performance, achievement, determination,

Slogan, recall value, logo, sponsoring, mem-

concentration, tactics, support, equipment

ories

Adidas is sports and sports are fun (27.6%):

Adidas is sports (19.4%):

Sports, emotion, passion, happiness, fun

Sports, football

Adidas as sponsor (17.2%):

Adidas as fashion brand (19.4%):

Sponsoring, commercialization, trademark

Shoes, fashion, high quality, expensive

Adidas makes customers healthy (13.8%):

Adidas makes customers healthy (16.1%):

Balance, recreation, nature, health

Health, fitness

Adidas is energetic (8.6%): Dynamism, force, power, activity

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Table 61: Aggregation of meanings (collage 2bm0907r) 4.2.3.2 Information gained from metaphor analysis of collages The first part of this section emphasizes image schemata and their related meanings, as image schemata are the main components in visual metaphor analysis. The second part concentrates solely on actual brand meaning on a content level and neglects underlying image schemata.

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Overall, 397 single image schemata and 28 specific types of schemata are counted in the ten collages. Note that one metaphor in the form of a picture or text phrase can have more than one underlying schema. The average number of image schemata per collage is 39.7, with collage 9 having the lowest number with 25 schemata and collage 3 with the highest number with 57 schemata. In terms of elements, the average number is 16.5 per collage, with a range from 10 in collage 6 to 33 elements in collage 7. This shows that on average 2.4 image schemata are found per element/metaphor in the collages. Table 62 shows that the most common types of image schemata found are: container (10.8%), enablement (10.3%), path (8.3%), force (7.1%), balance (6.8%), appearance (6.8%), part-whole (6.6%), transformation (6.3%), attraction (4.8%), link (4.3%), merging (4.3%), scale (4.3%), identity/matching (3.8%), and blockage (3.0%). This list shows all schemata types that exceed a value of 3%, which corresponds to 12 single image schemata. Overall the 14 most common types of schemata make up 87.4% of all image schemata found in the collages. The meanings of the most important types of image schemata are outlined in chapter 3 in pages 35 to 38. The most common schema is the container schema. It represents brands such as Adidas as containers that includes certain features and attributes. Many respondents use sneakers to express this schema, as sneakers can represent containers worn by people. For these particuar respondents, Adidas seems to be a associate or supporter that reinforces them. The container schema, closely related to the appearance schema, is also often found in pictures showing people representing different moods, features, and characteristics. This is because people are essentially containers full of different emotions, feelings and experiences. In addition to this, a globe, the Olympic rings or an Olympic stadium may represent containers that incorporate various sports and nationalities. The enablement schema represents the capability of Adidas to empower people through the use of their products. For example, this is shown by the phrase “100% performance” and by metaphors including: sneakers, clothing, and sports equipment such as bicycles. Moreover this schema is also conveyed by metaphors showing sports activities and people celebrating, which symbolizes the competition and the Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

goals achieved due to this enablement. In summary, the enablement schema means that Adidas products improve athletes on their journey, and help them to succeed. The path schema is represented by pictures of people running or climbing, and by a phrase such as “against the stream”. It represents Adidas as a partner on a difficult journey or competition, as the brand supports athletes on their road to success. This schema often occurs in combination with the enablement and restraint removal schema, as Adidas enables athletes to overcome obstacles on their way. The force schema represents Adidas as a strong and powerful brand. Further162

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

more, it portrays Adidas as a brand that strengthens people. This is represented by pictures showing football tricks, people running and jumping, a boxer punching, and a weightlifter. Adidas is also represented as an inner force urging people to be active and encouraging them, as well as a counterforce helping athletes to resist and defend themselves. The balance schema represents Adidas as a brand that harmonizes body, mind and soul and this is shown with pictures of football tricks, yoga, training exercises and people balancing or jumping. Adidas is presented as a brand that helps in finding and maintaining balance, particularly in regards to the balance between sports and relaxation, or exertion and fun. The appearance schema is a schema not defined by Johnson (1990) and similar to the container schema. This schema is based on the assumption that brands, objects and human beings permanently appear in a certain light and represent particular characteristics. Respondents use this schema mainly to represent features, characteristics or abilities of Adidas. Pictures showing various people in different situations and moods were chosen to convey these meanings. For example cosmetics articles are used to convey the image of a beauty brand, whereas determined, concentrated, and exhausted people represent Adidas as a brand for high-performance sports. The partwhole schema represents Adidas as a versatile, diverse and international brand that combines different sports and nations, and this can be shown by a globe or metaphors of big events. Sneakers also serve as metaphors to convey this schema, as shoes essentially become a part of the athlete. Moreover, this schema shows the wide range of Adidas products, including cosmetics, clothes, shoes and watches. The transformation schema is also mainly represented by images of sneakers, clothing and cosmetics, as such pictures suggest that Adidas can transform people. Wearing Adidas changes people and makes them better athletes. This schema is often connected to the enablement schema, since athletes are transformed first and enabled second. The attraction schema is represented by various objects including: a football chased by players, perfumes, or attractive people. It symbolizes Adidas as a brand that catches attention and attracts people – as it is popular. Furthermore, metaphors of good-looking people or cosmetics products indicate that Adidas attracts people, like a perfume, and has the effect of Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

making people more appealing to others. The link schema showed that Adidas is connected to certain people and objects. The theme “far away, but still close” represents Adidas as a huge international company, that is still found in the closet at home. The link schema is also conveyed by metaphors showing teams such as volleyball or football teams. It symbolizes the unity and team spirit of people having fun and fighting together and shows that the brand can become part of a team. The merging schema is also often represented by sneakers and clothing. By wearing Adidas products the athletes essentially merge with the brand and product,

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which in turn enables them to perform better. It is also indicated that Adidas merges different sports and nationalities. The scale schema is used to represent how far, high, and fast Adidas can go. It shows that Adidas can overcome any obstacle, no matter how difficult. Phrases such as “high-class” or “brand one” indicate the high-quality and high-value of Adidas. The identity/matching schema represents Adidas as a sponsoring brand that use people for advertisements. Respondents use pictures of people to attribute people’s characteristics and features onto Adidas. The schema is also used by creators to identify themselves with Adidas, and to assign certain nationalities to the brand, such as Germany. Finally the blockage schema symbolizes the different challenges and obstacles athletes have to master and overcome during competition, and this is shown by mountains, water, or men lying on the floor. Moreover the schema is also associated with the “far away, but still close” theme and represents an obstacle between customers and Adidas. Beyond that the blockage schema symbolizes challenges for Adidas itself, such as child labor.

Metaphor

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5

Container

5

8

10

1

9

Enablement

4

2

5

2

7

Path

2

5

2

C7

C8

1

6

3

8

1

1

5

Force

3

4

4

1

2

Balance

4

5

3

2

4

2

1

Appearance

1

10

7

Part-Whole

3

1

1

5

7

Transformation

1

1

3

2

5

3

3

2

Attraction

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C6

3

43

10.8%

2

7

41

10.3%

9

4

5

33

8.3%

5

4

5

28

7.1%

5

27

6.8%

4 3

1

1

27

6.8%

1

2

2

4

26

6.6%

2

2

4

1

4

25

6.3%

1

1

3

3

1

2

19

4.8%

4

1

1

1

17

4.3%

1

1

17

4.3%

6

3

1

17

4.3%

4

1

4

15

3.8%

12

3.0%

4

2

2

1

1

Merging

3

1

3

2

6

Scale

1

3

2

Identity/Matching

1

2

Blockage

4

1

C10

1

Link

2

C9

1

1

3

3 1

Table 62: Most common image schemata (visual metaphor analysis) The second part of this chapter refers to table 63 and illustrates the key brand meanings derived from visual metaphor analysis. Besides key brand meanings, this table also shows single

164

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

brand meanings that have been aggregated to key meanings; for example the meanings fun, happiness and celebration can be combined to the key meaning Adidas is fun. The most common brand meaning conveyed by visual metaphor analysis is “Adidas as a supporter”. Customers perceive Adidas as their associate that supports and assists them in their tasks. Adidas and its products make customers more enduring and faster and protect and reinforce its customers this way. Next, “Adidas as a sports brand” is the second most frequent meaning found. The meanings “Adidas is sports” and “Adidas is fun” are part of this key meaning and represent Adidas as a brand that makes sports fun. In further consequence one can say that sports are fun and Adidas is sports. The single meanings are sports-related, such as football and tennis, but also represent the passion and emotion connected to competition in sports. Furthermore the meanings fun, happiness and celebration symbolize Adidas as a fun brand. The next two meanings both amount to 13.2 percent. Firstly, “Adidas makes customers succeed” represents Adidas as a brand for winners, whose major goals are success and victory. Taking on and mastering challenges by an excellent performance may be top priority for customers using Adidas. The second key meaning illustrates Adidas as a superior brand. The features powerful and divine are the major components of this key meaning and represent the strength and power of Adidas in terms of supporting athletes, prevailing against competitors or quality of profucts. In addition to that customers perceive Adidas as a highclass and seemingly perfect brand. The meaning “Adidas as a big player” amounts to 8.8 percent and can be divided into the meanings “Adidas is global” and “Adidas is a moneymaker”. Customers perceive Adidas as a sponsoring brand that is present at events and locations all over the world. As a consequence, people may perceive Adidas as an international and divers brand that is economically successful. Furthermore, Adidas is a brand that fosters team spirit and forms unities. It assists in pulling a team together and making it succeed. The last three minor meanings with 5 or less percent are: Adidas as a brand that assists in recreating, Adidas as a fashion brand and Adidas as a brand that has to tackle problems. To sum up, one can say that metaphor analysis provides valuable information on semantics of Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

collages. It provides insights into the attitudes of respondents towards the brand, their perceptions, and information on usage situations.

Key brand meanings conveyed by visual metaphor analysis Adidas supports and strengthens customers (24.7%): Associate, support, protection, determination, concentration, speed, endurance Adidas as sports brand (19.9%):

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Adidas is sports (12.2%): Sports, football, tennis, training, emotion, passion, movement Adidas is fun (7.8%): Fun, happiness, celebration Adidas makes customers succeed (13.2%): Achievement, performance, take on/master challenges, victory, success Adidas is superior (13.2%): Adidas is powerful (9.1%): Power, strength, force Adidas is divine (4.1%): On top, perfection, mighty, divinity, high-class, high-quality Addias as big player (8.8%): Adidas as money-maker (6.4%): Events, sponsoring, advertisement, money-maker, profit Adidas is global (2.4%): Variety, diversity, internationality, global Adidas fosters team spirit (6.4%): Connectedness, team spirit, togetherness, community Adidas helps to recreate (5.1%): Relaxation, balance, recreation Adidas as fashion brand (4.7%): Beauty, look, fashion, cosmetics Adidas has to struggle (4.1%): Imprisonment, competition, unhappiness Table 63: Key brand meanings (visual metaphor analysis) 4.2.3.3 Information gained from color theory in collages The first part of this section focuses on colors and their related meanings, as colors are the main components in color theory. The second part concentrates solely on actual brand meaning on a content level conveyed by color theory. Color theory has a long tradition in art and psychology, however it is not very popular in marketing. One reason may be that there are several limitations when applying color theory

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such as different meanings in different cultures or the wide range of meanings for each color. A more detailed discussion about limitations and issues of color theory is provided in the discussion section in pages 185 to 189. It can be said that color theory as a solitary method of interpreting visuals and collages is too vague and consequently inappropriate. But in combination with metaphor analysis it is useful and helpful in revealing further information. It complements metaphor analysis very well by providing more information on personal meanings. Therefore color theory complements metaphor analysis and provides additional valuable information on semantics, especially information on a more personal level. This is possible be166

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

cause colors are basic influences that trigger reactions and associations based on past experiences (Heller, 1998) in order to influence our personality, mind, and behavior (Braem, 1998). Meaning that what is revealed is what respondents feel when they see the brand, what their major emotions and experiences are, and what their overall perception of the brand is. In turn, this information provides insight into brand knowledge and the meanings consumers associate with a brand. The remainder of this section provides an overview of the results found with the assistance of color theory. Each element in a collage incorporates at least one color, but can also include several. This means that there is usually more than one color present per element. Overall 393 color spots are counted within 165 elements in ten collages. The fewest color spots are found in collages 5 and 6 with 28 spots, the most in collage 7 with 82 spots. Table 64 shows that the most common colors are white (26.0%) followed by black (25.5%) with 102 and 100 color spots respectively. Next, colors red (15.0%), and blue (14.5%), followed by the colors gray (7.1%), and green (5.9%), and finally the colors yellow (4.3%) and gold (1.8%). Note that the colors yellow and gold can be combined, as their meanings are similar and it is not always clear whether a color is actually yellow or gold. Each of the colors black, white, red, and blue appear at least once in each of the ten collages, the color gray and yellow in six out of ten, green in nine out of ten, and gold in four out of ten collages. One reason for the high number of white, black, and gray spots is the heavy use of black and white pictures. The meanings of the most important colors are outlined in chapter 3 in pages 42 to 44. The color white was the most common color throughout the collages. White is the most positive color, which means that respondents perceive Adidas as a positive brand. White is the color of light and represents openness and innocence. It is the color connected to divinity and therefore a godlike color that stands for faith and belief. It is the color of purity, perfection and universality and stands for gentleness and neutrality. The respondents show that Adidas seems to be a perfect, pure, and innocent brand that is a reliable associate for athletes and assists them in finding balance between sports and relaxation. It is also described as a brand that Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

helps athletes to perform better by supporting them. White symbolizes several good and positive virtues that Adidas combines such as honesty, intelligence, and truthfulness, and represents Adidas as divine and better than the rest. The color black is a gloomy color often associated with evil and death, as the main associations with black are night, darkness, and shadow. Black is the color of negative feelings and misfortune and often connected to repression and blockage. Obviously respondents also connected several negative aspects with the brand. Black is a mysterious color and could mean that not everything is known about the brand. The

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color black also stands for differentiation and individuality representing toughness and individuality in sports. Black is related to challenges and obstacles that athletes must overcome, and consequently the pain associated with this; black may symbolize blockages and challenges in life and sports which lead to exhaustion and pain. Moreover, black is the color of fashion and elegance, and these are major themes in some collages. Finally, Adidas could be seen as a dark power representing the suppression of children and the illegality of child labor, in addition to the commercialization of sports and globalization worldwide. The major meanings of the color red are activity and power. Red is the urge to do something, to be active, and to make an impact – attributes that perfectly match a sports brand such as Adidas. It is the color of intense feelings and strong emotions, which are very present in sporting situations. Respondents often associated strong feelings with the brand, symbolizing the passion and activity in sports. Moreover, red stands for the will necessary to succeed and master challenges, and the power and strength of Adidas, as it helps to achieve goals by supporting and empowering athletes. The color red symbolizes the energy of Adidas and respondents perceive Adidas to be a very active and strong brand. Beyond that red is a color of danger and warning and may symbolize attention in terms of Adidas. One negative connotation is the color’s connection to Communism, which supports the perception that Adidas may be an oppressor. The color blue is the color of infinite dimensions, faithfulness and desire. As it is also the color of imagination; it stands for secrecy and utopian dreams. It stands for the dreams and wishes athletes have, which may be fulfilled by using Adidas. Blue is an exterior color, as it is related to snow and water, and this means that respondents relate Adidas to playing sport outside and in nature. Moreover blue is the color of masculinity and unemotional virtues such as courage, performance, sportsmanship, and intelligence – virtues connected to a sports brand and in this case Adidas. Respondents perceive the brand as something infinite and unlimited, as it is international and very successful. Blue represents Adidas as a symbol for freedom and elusiveness as well as team spirit, since blue is the color of connectedness. Gray is a light version of black and usually triggers dull feelings. It is an unfriendly color and stands for indifference Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

and simplicity. Gray stands for unloved virtues including punctuality, and is the color of inferiority and insecurity. Some respondents perceive Adidas as an ordinary, mediocre, and simple brand that lacks uniqueness and originality of ideas. Moreover, respondents associate gray with cities and civilization – representing Adidas as an urban brand. Furthermore, the color gray is similar to black and supports Adidas’ darker side, for example child labor. Green is the color of nature and hope as well as immaturity and youth. Green stands for freshness and health, which are attributes related to sport and a sports brand like Adidas. It is the color of 168

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life and has a balancing and relaxing effect, such as playing sports outside and relaxing afterwards. Finally, as green is the color of hope, it represents the self-belief and optimism of athletes to win a competition. The color yellow is the color of optimism and extroversion. Similar to green, it is a color of life and represents optimism. By using yellow respondents showed the joy of living and the fun of sport in relation to Adidas. Nevertheless, yellow also can mean envy and greed, which leads over to the color gold. Gold represents wealth, pride, and abundance of the brand, as the company makes a lot of money. This conveys the impression of Adidas as a superior and rich king that oppresses his people.

Color

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5

C6

C7

C8

C9

C10

White

5

10

10

10

8

8

22

11

7

11

102

26.0%

Black

8

10

10

10

9

6

20

10

8

9

100

25.5%

Red

4

6

9

3

4

5

15

5

5

3

59

15.0%

Blue

6

4

9

5

1

7

9

5

5

6

57

14.5%

Gray

6

4

3

3

6

6

28

7.1%

Green

2

2

2

4

2

2

3

23

5.9%

Yellow

3

4

2

4

3

17

4.3%

2

2

7

1.8%

Gold

4 1

2

1

2

Table 64: Most common colors (color theory) Table 65 outlines the actual brand meanings derived from color theory. Again the table shows the key brand meanings and their underlying single brand meanings. Note that, the three most common key meanings add up to about 72 percent, which shows the great importance of those three meanings derived from color theory. “Adidas is huge” is the most common key meaning by far. It consists of the meanings “Adidas is divine” and “Adidas without limits”. “Adidas as divinity” is based upon the perception that Adidas is a perfect and superior, omnipresent

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and mighty brand. “Adidas without limits” is about the infinity and freedom of the brand Adidas. Customers may believe that nothing can stop Adidas and that the sky is the limit. Next, Adidas is a powerful and strong brand in terms of supporting athletes, prevailing against competitors or quality of profucts. Adidas encourages customers, makes them perform better and represents intense feelings. The third key meaning represents the bad image of Adidas. Customers may perceive Adidas that way, as big companies often struggle with child labor, commercialization and globalization. Therefore blockage, oppression and suspicion are the main issues found. The last four key meanings have percentages lower than 8 percent and

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play only a minor role. “Adidas as an ordinary brand” is based upon the meanings simplicity, conservativeness and mediocrity. Furthermore, Adidas assists in recreating, which is shown by the meanings relaxation, balance and rest. “Adidas as a wealthy brand” and “Adidas as a fun brand” are the last key meanings derived from color theory. It is worth to note, that the major key meanings from visual metaphor analysis (“Adidas as a sports brand” and “Adidas as a brand that supports customers and makes them succeed”) do not or only partially occur in color theory. However, most of the other key meanings are conveyed by both visual analyses.

Key brand meanings conveyed by color theory Adidas is huge (34.1%): Adidas is divine (20.7%): Divinity, perfection, purity, belief, superior, mighty, omnipresent Adidas without limits (13.4%): Infinity, distance, utopia, internationality, diversity, freedom Adidas is powerful (20.1%): Power, excitement, effort, desire, encouragement, high-performance, passion, emotion Adidas has a bad image (17.7%): Blockage, oppressor, exploitation, suspicion, misfortune, warning, society based on classes Adidas is ordinary (7.9%): Ordinariness, simplicity, conservativeness, mediocrity, nostalgia Adidas helps recreating (7.9%): Relaxation, balance, silence, rest Adidas is wealthy (6.7%): Profit-making, commercialization, wealth, sponsoring, sociability Adidas is fun (5.5%): Fun, happiness, pleasure, celebration

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Table 65: Key brand meanings (color theory) 4.2.3.4 Information gained from communication model The first part of this section concentrates on the single layers of the communication model and their related meanings. The second part emphasizes the actual brand meaning conveyed by the communication model. The communication model was chosen to gain information on the pragmatics of collages, however it is not appropriate as a solitary method, as it is rather vague and more subjective than metaphor analysis and color theory. The information gathered is limited, and does not add much new information to the information provided by 170

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the first two methods. More details about limitations of this model are provided in chapter 5. The major information provided are the different contexts in which the brand can be found and used. Furthermore, various relationships between the brand, customer, participant and researcher can be identified. Personal information, such as attitudes and usage situations of customers are also elicited. Finally, but importantly, the appeal layer provides information on what the respondents want the receiver to do regarding the brand Adidas. The communication model assists in gathering information about the brand Adidas in terms of facts, relationships, self-revelation, and appeals. The matter layer provides information concerning motifs and contexts of objects. The most common motifs are people, followed by text phrases, fashion products, and sports equipment, however it is important to note that people are by far the most popular motif. In addition to this, most metaphors represent a sporting-related context. The situations, moods, and feelings of persons in pictures vary from laughing and cheering individuals, to sad or powerful athletes. The contexts fashion and beauty, competition and relaxation, are also common throughout. The text phrases are mostly associated with virtues related to sports, including intelligence and performance, or success and money. In summary, the matter layer describes Adidas as a brand for people, that is used by people in several situations. The main context is sports, followed by fashion, power, and success. The self-revelation layer helps gain insight into the attitudes, emotions, and feelings of respondents. Six respondents have a positive attitude towards the brand, and four a neutral or negative attitude. This layer shows that some respondents use Adidas just for fun and in free time, whilst others use it only for high-performance sports and relate the brand to pain and fighting. Some people wear Adidas because it is high-class and high-quality, which represents a society based on classes, while others appreciate the fashion aspect and do not relate Adidas to sports at all. The negative aspects are: skepticism (as some people do not know much about the brand), a relation to child labor, or the commercialization of sports. Others also see a superior brand that takes advantage of its power and exploits people. The relationship layer provides information in terms of relationships between the creator and the brand, as well as Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

the collage and the researcher. This layer is similar to the one above, as attitudes and relationships often go hand in hand. Most people use Adidas for their hobbies during free time. For some it is a fashion brand rather than a sports brand and as such they wear Adidas in everyday life. Some people wear the brand to present a more positive image and feel better, while others perceive Adidas as a partner in sports and competition. Some respondents do not appear to have a particularly positive opinion of Adidas, or brands in general, and as such care little. Looking at the collages often triggers positive feelings and elicits thoughts of leisure sports,

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or hanging out and having fun with friends. The achievement of goals, big events, and the passion of sports are positive feelings also elicited. Others trigger negative or mixed feelings in regards to child labor, oppression, pain, brutality, bullying children, or a society based on classes . The appeal layer helps to better understand the overall message and what the creator actually wishes to convey with a collage. The ten appeals found in the collages are: Have fun! Be skeptical! Adidas is fashion! Adidas is power! Adidas is modern! Do not forget to relax! All that glitters is not gold! We live in a society based on classes! Adidas as associate in sports! Adidas as a sponsor! These appeals show the variety of meanings and perceptions customers have about Adidas and indicate well the overall trends of the ten collages. Table 66 shows the most common key brand meanings derived from the communication model. The most frequent meaning found is a very dominant one with more than 30 percent and a major statement by the communication model, namely “Adidas is a sports brand”. The underlying meanings are sports and leisure activities, fun and happiness. Same as in visual metaphor analysis one can say that sports and fun go hand in hand and can be combined to sports are fun. The second key meaning is still dominant with more than 21 percent and represents Adidas as a big player, meaning that Adidas is an international and versatile brand that makes a lot of profits. Customers perceive Adidas as a brand that connects people from all over the world and as a brand known from several global events as a sponsor. The third most common meaning shows the dark side of Adidas, as customers may associate exploitation, such as child labor, and pain in sports with Adidas. The fifth key meaning has about the same frequency and is positive again. 15 percent of all meanings represent Adidas as a fashion brand. The meanings high-class, high-quality and “Adidas as a status symbol” make Adidas appear exclusive. In addition to that it shows that Adidas is not for everybody, since only some can afford it. The meanings fashion and creativity define Adidas as a classic fashion brand that appreciates good style and trendiness. “Adidas is powerful” is the next key meaning and outlines not only the power and strength, but also the passion and support of Adidas. The power of Adidas improves customers and assists them in achieving their goals. Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

The last meaning is “Adidas as a simple and mainstream brand”. The communication model is in line with most key meanings from visual metaphor analysis and color theory, even though the importances of meanings differ.

Key brand meanings conveyed by communication model Adidas as sports brand (30.1%): Adidas is sports (15.8%): Sports, leisure activities 172

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Adidas is fun (14.3%): Fun, happiness, positive Adidas as big player (21.1%): Adidas is versatile (15.8%): Diversity, versatility, internationality, Adidas connects people Adidas as sponsor (5.3%): Sponsoring, profit, big events Adidas has a bad image (15.8%): Suspicion, bad image, pain, exploitation Adidas as fashion brand (15%): Adidas is exclusive (9%): High-class brand, high-quality, income gap, status symbol Adidas is fashion (6%): Fashion, creativity Adidas is powerful (13.5%): Success, performance, support, competition, skill, passion, power Adidas is simple (4.5%): Ordinariness, neutrality, mainstream Table 66: Key brand meanings (communication model) 4.2.3.5 Information gained from structural analysis This analysis is used to provide information on syntax of collages. The most important structural characteristics are indentified, illustrated and interpreted. Table 67 outlines and summarizes the most important findings. It was possible to find correlations between structure and meaning, which suggests that structural features can be related to the meaning of collages. The average number of elements per collage is 16.5, with a range from 10 elements in collage 6 to 33 in collage 7. The number of elements may be an indicator of the diversity and versatility of a brand. The more elements on a collage, the more aspects a brand possesses, as a large number of aspects equals a versatile and diverse brand. This could mean that Adidas is an international brand, a brand that offers opportunities for various sports and athletes or a brand that can be used in several different contexts. The size of elements could indicate the

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importance and distinction of meanings and metaphors, as large elements may be more important to the participant than smaller elements. This impression is enhanced if there is only one large element and several medium or small ones, as this has the effect of making the larger element outshine the smaller elements more pointedly. Several large elements could indicate a brand that has more important aspects, whereas a collage without a large object represents a brand without distinct features. The average number of large elements per collage is 2, medium elements 4.9, and small 9.8. Eight respondents used 1 to 3 large elements on their collages, only one used 4 large elements and one more put no large element on the collage.

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The number of medium elements ranged from 3 to 8, and for small elements from 1 to 23. This means that the average participant assigned 2 important aspects to the brand and filled the collage with 5 to 10 minor aspects. 80% of the respondents did not use the entire piece of paper and left at least some free space between objects. In 80 percent of all collages at least some overlapping objects were found. The use of area and the distance of objects may be an indicator of the closeness of Adidas’ aspects, and may indicate the distance between customers and the brand. A collage without any free space and with overlapping objects may show that the fields of Adidas can merge (merging schema), or at the very least are connected with each other (link), such as different kinds of sport. The lack of free spaces presents Adidas as a rich brand with a variety of different aspects (full-empty). Furthermore, it may show that customers are close (near-far) to the brand and that there are several touching points (contact) between the brand and its customers. However, if there are many free spaces and no overlaps at all, the aspects of the brand are not connected and are separated (blockage). Moreover the distances (near-far) between the single objects make the collage appear empty (fullempty), which represents Adidas as a simple and plain brand. The composition of the collages shows that 50% of the respondents put one or more large objects into the center. Collages with a large object in the middle clearly indicate a center-periphery schema, with the most important object centered and all others circling around it. This means that the middle object could represent the creator’s most important meaning of the brand. Another interesting composition of collages is the split collage. In this case the creator puts two large objects on the collage, which effectively splits the collage. Obviously the splitting schema plays a major role here. This means that the creator connects two major meanings to the collage, for example

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sports and fashion, or a negative and positive side.

Characteristic

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5

C6

C7

C8

C9

C10

Number of elements

13

16

20

14

14

10

33

17

12

16

165

Large elements

1

2

3

2

2

4

2

3

1

0

20

Free space

X

Overlapping

X

Central large object

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

8

X

X

X

X

X

X

8

X

X

X

Table 67: Structural characteristics (structural analysis)

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5

4.2.3.6 Information gained from metaphor analysis of interviews The first part of this section emphasizes image schemata and their related meanings, as image schemata are the main components in verbal metaphor analysis. The second part concentrates solely on actual brand meaning conveyed by verbal metaphor analysis and neglects the underlying image schemata. The same procedure used for visual elements was used for interpreting verbal elements. The use of image schemata is well-suited for textual and verbal elements, and sometimes even makes it easier to identify metaphors and underlying image schemata in interviews, as people are more familiar with spoken metaphors than visual ones and consequently express themselves more clearly. This facilitates the approach and makes it more comfortable to use. Knowledge of social backgrounds and mentalizing skills are not particularly relevant for the interpretation of verbal elements, as they are more straightforward. On the one hand the interpretation of interviews was applied to establish what kind of information can be gained, and on the other hand as a comparison to the results of the visual analysis in order to identify differences. In the interviews 564 single image schemata and 26 different types of schemata are found. Once again, one metaphor only (this time in the form of text phrases) can have more than one underlying schema. Moreover, the number of image schemata in the interviews exceeds the number of elements on the collages. The average number of image schemata per interview is 56.4, with interview 2 having the lowest number with 37, and interview 7 with the highest number with 79 schemata. In terms of elements, the average is 35 per interview, and this ranges from 24 elements in interview 2 to 52 in interview 7. This results in an average number of 1.49 image schemata per element/metaphor in interviews. Table 68 shows that the most common types of image schemata found in the collages are: more-less (10.3%), link (9.4%), part-whole (8.7%), enablement (8.3%), identity/matching (7.1%), force (6.3%), center-periphery (6.3%), appearance (5.5%), path (4.6%), balance (4.3%), miss-exist (3.9%), blockage (3.6%), container (3.4%), and splitting (3.2%). This list shows all schema-

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ta types that exceed the value of 3%, which corresponds to 14 single image schemata. Overall the 14 schemata types make up 84.73% of all image schemata in interviews. The most common image schema in interviews is the more-less schema, a schema not defined by Johnson (1990). The more-less schema covers the intensity of features and characteristics, brands, objects and human beings possess. Respondents use this schema to define what Adidas is, and what Adidas is not. It defines how distinct certain features and meanings of the brand are, such as Adidas as a fashion or sports brand. Some examples should provide a clearer understanding: “Adidas is rather recreational sports than high-performance”, “Adidas

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is not that represented in high-performance sports“, and “Adidas does not play a major role in tennis…“. The link schema is also mentioned regularly. Respondents use it to establish connections between persons or objects and the brand, or between themselves and the brand, (such as a distinct connection between Adidas and sports sponsoring). Again some examples are provided: “Adidas is connected with the city, hip-hop and lifestyle“, “I associate football clubs with Adidas“, and “I link Adidas to Germany“. The part-whole schema is the third most common schema and can show two features of Adidas. Firstly, it may show that the brand itself consists of several parts that make up the brand, and secondly, that Adidas produces different products – making it popular in different sports. “Adidas is football…but is also represented in other sports“, “People want to be part of it“, and “There are several products, jewelry, cosmetics, perfumes, shoes and clothing“. The enablement schema describes Adidas as a brand that can empower people and equip them with skills to perform better. This can be done by providing clothes or shoes, or by strengthening people’s minds. More examples are provided here: “Adidas makes sports easy”, “They are able to do the lap easily” and “They buy it and believe that they are winners too“. The identity/matching schema is used to show typical attitudes and features Adidas possesses, mainly through metaphors featuring people. This schema illustrates how Adidas is perceived by attributing distinct features of different persons onto the brand. For example, a young couple may project fun, happiness, and relaxation onto the brand. Furthermore, this schema is often connected to Adidas as a sponsorship brand, as Adidas sells its identity. “It is the typical couple that wears Adidas”, “Here Adidas functions as a sponsor“, and “Some people identify themselves with it and others not“. A very important schema is the force schema, which is used to describe the brand in various situations. It shows the strength of the brand itself (such as in respect to profit making), the power it provides for people during competitions, and how it helps to resist other forces (counterforce). “Football is pushed by Adidas“, “They have responsibility towards people and society“, and “To be forced into doing sports“. The center-periphery schema belongs to the family of space schemata and is often used to describe central associations and Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

themes of the creators according to Adidas. This is shown by examples such as: “The central message is…”, “The shoes are the focus“, “Body shape is rather outlying“, and “Performance and seizing opportunities have priority”. Respondents use the appearance schema to characterize and describe Adidas, and to show what Adidas represents, and this is closely related to the identity/matching schema. The major difference is that the identity/matching schema uses subjects such as a person to represent the brand, whereas the appearance schema attributes characteristics directly onto the brand. “It represents the easiness of sports”, “Joy and move176

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ment should be represented here” and “It tells something about the prestige“. The path schema is a common schema used to outline the direction in which the brand is moving; what features and attitudes does the brand go more towards or away from? Examples such as “Towards the lightness of sports“, “Away from high-performance sports and the fact that sports can hurt”, “Get the brand close to the people”, and “Moves pretty much into the fashion area”, should clarify this schema. The balance schema presents Adidas as a balanced brand, such as a fashion and sports brand in equal shares, or as a brand that is able to balance somebody or something, such as between sports and relaxation. “Adidas is represented everywhere“, “Provides a calming influence and thoughtfulness“, and “Adidas is for those who are athletic, but also easygoing” are examples of related statements. The miss-exist schema is the last of three schemata Johnson (1990) does not define. As the name suggests the miss-exist schema points out what certain features the brand possesses or is lacking in, for instance Adidas may be dynamic, but lacks universality. “Adidas is missing originality“, „Here fashion is not the theme at all“, and “I tried to omit natural things” are such examples. The blockage schema is often used to symbolize obstacles and challenges athletes are confronted with, illustrated by the following examples: “Lying on the floor“, “It is difficult and that’s why they are in a dilemma“, and “People, who cannot afford that“. The container schema represents brands, objects, and people as entities. As such it symbolizes Adidas as a container, including specific attributes such as performance, success and simplicity. “Out of the high-performance area”, and “Next shoes, I have actually the trendy ones” are two examples. Finally, the splitting schema shows different aspects and faces of the brand. In some cases the creators used the splitting schema to emphasize two major meanings. Examples are: “Recreational sports versus highperformance sports”, “The positive and the negative are presented side by side“ ,”Being two-

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parted between lifestyle and sports“, and “…as to me the brand has more sides“.

Metaphor

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5

C6

C7

C8

C9

C10

More-Less

5

2

6

3

11

13

5

1

4

8

58

10.3%

Link

3

11

6

5

1

7

4

6

10

53

9.4%

Part-Whole

3

2

11

4

6

7

1

5

5

5

49

8.7%

Enablement

6

2

2

5

6

12

3

5

6

47

8.3%

Identity/Matching

2

1

4

3

1

3

8

12

3

3

40

7.1%

2

8

1

36

6.4%

36

6.4%

31

5.5%

Force

15

10

Center-Periph.

1

7

9

5

1

4

4

2

Appearance

6

3

5

4

4

3

4

2

3

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Path

5

Balance

4

Miss-Exist

5

1

Blockage

3

Container

3

Splitting

1

1

2

1

4

2

2

4

6

6

2

3

2

7

1

4

1

2 2

2

2

3

2

5

2

1

2

26

4.6%

24

4.3%

22

3.9%

2

7

5

20

3.6%

2

4

1

2

19

3.4%

9

3

1

18

3.2%

Table 68: Most common image schemata (verbal metaphor analysis)

The second part of this chapter discusses the key brand meanings derived from verbal metaphor analysis, which are illustrated in table 69. The most dominant key meaning is “Adidas as a sports brand”. “Adidas is sports”, including the meanings sports, football and tennis, is the major component of this key meaning. Note that some meanings represent Adidas as unsuitable for high-performance sports and only appropriate for fun sports. “Adidas is powerful” and “Adidas is fun” are the other two components of this key meaning. The next key meaning represents Adidas as a big player that operates globally and makes huge profits. Internationality, globality and universality are three dominant meanings here. In addition to that, customers perceive Adidas as a wealthy company that is a big sponsor and shown at several events. “Adidas as a fashion brand” has a high percentage as well. Adidas seems to be a brand that makes people look good, which makes it exclusive. Beauty, look and attractiveness are important meanings here; beyond that, shoes are mentioned explicitly as symbol for fashion by several participants. The high-price and high-quality give Adidas a certain exclusivity as well. As a consequence Adidas becomes a status symbol that may separate society. Verbal analysis also found that Adidas supports customers and helps them to succeed. Adidas products improve and encourage customers and assist in achieving goals and being successful. “Adidas as a young and modern brand” is related to the fashion aspect and stands for trendiness, lifestyle and juvenility. Wearing Adidas is hip, modern and fashionable. The last three key

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meanings are of minor importance. “Adidas is not a perfect brand and has to fight several problems” is one of those. Next, “Adidas has recall value” shows that Adidas is a renowned brand and many customers recognize it immediately. Last but not least, Adidas is seen as a brand that fosters team spirit. A detailed discussion about differences between visual and verbal analysis is provided in the next chapter.

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Key brand meanings conveyed by verbal metaphor analysis Adidas as sports brand (28.4%): Adidas is sports (15.3%): Sports, football, tennis, unsuitable for high-performance Adidas is powerful (7.2%): performance, strength, power, divinity, on top Adidas is fun (5.9%): Easiness, lightness, painlessness, fun, enjoyment Adidas as a big player (18.9%): Adidas is global (11.0%): Internationality, global, versatility, diversity, universality, renowned Adidas makes profit (7.9%): Sponsoring, events, profit-making Adidas as fashion brand (14.8%): Adidas makes people look good (9.2%): Attractiveness, cosmetics, beauty, look, fashion, shoes Adidas is exclusive (5.6%): high-class, high price, poser image, status symbol, high quality Adidas supports customers and helps them to succeed (11.5%): Improvement 8, support 5, motivation 6, health 5, encouragement 8, achievement 4, success 9 Adidas is young and modern (9.5%): Young, dynamism, trendiness, lifestyle, casual brand, modern, urban Adidas has its issues (7.7%): Skepticism, bad image, exploitation, wrong politics, responsibility, competition Adidas has recall value (5.1%): Recall value, germany, identity, childhood memories Adidas fosters team spirit (4.1%): Connectedness, customer contact, unity, team spirit Table 69: Key brand meanings (verbal metaphor analysis) 4.2.3.7 Differences in results between collages and interviews The first part of this section emphasizes differences of image schemata and their related meanings between collages and interviews, whereas the second part concentrates solely on

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the differences of actual brand meanings between collages and interviews. The application of metaphor analysis was equal between visuals and verbals and therefore allows for a comparison of results. An overview is provided by table 70. The first difference between collages and interviews is the fact that there are more elements found in interviews than in collages and therefore respondents use more image schemata in interviews. One of the reasons is that respondents are less restricted in verbally explaining collages. They can speak freely and may find it easier to explain visuals with words. Moreover, much information is repeated during an interview, making parts of the interviews redundant. The interviewer quality and the posed

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questions also influence the content and richness of interviews. During the collage creation process respondents encountered some restrictions in relation to: space, time, and materials (where respondents were forced to focus on essentials and select only certain pictures). Although there are more image schemata in interviews, the average number of image schemata per element was higher in collages than in interviews. This implies that there is more room for interpretation by the researcher in collages, and that people are more precise when they express themselves verbally. However, it is not clear whether individuals are actually able to communicate what they want, nor if they are aware of their actual motives for choosing their final images.

Characteristic

Collages

Interviews

Number of image schemata

397 (39.7 on average)

564 (56.4 on average)

Range of image schemata

25-57

37-79

Number of elements

165 (16.5 on average)

350 (35 on average)

Range of elements

10-33

24-52

Image schemata per element

2.4

1.5

Table 70: Characteristics (collages & interviews) This section of the book evaluates the differences between the chosen image schemata in visual and verbal analysis. Table 71 shows that image schemata occur differently in collages and interviews. Ten schemata are found in both, four in collages, and four in interviews only. The numbers in the brackets show the ranks of schemata in collages and interviews respectively. The image schemata available in both collages and interviews are container (1-13), enablement (2-4), path (3-9), force (4-6), balance (5-10), appearance (6-8), part-whole (7-3), link (10-2), identity/matching (13-5), and blockage (14-12). Expressed in percentages, 67.8% of all image schemata found in collages are also used in interviews. This means more

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than two-thirds of all schemata occur in collages as well as interviews, implying that the results deduced from collages do actually correspond to the results from interviews to a large extent. If it is assumed that interviews provide the “real” meaning of respondents, visual metaphor analysis is able to reveal a major part of the intended meaning through collages without the aid of additional information. The four schemata that occurred only in collages are: transformation (8-0), attraction (9-0), merging (11-0), and scale (12-0). And the four image schemata that are found only in interviews are: more-less (0-1), center-periphery (0-7), miss-exist (0-11), and splitting (0-14). Note that schemata used in collages do not belong to 180

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the most common schemata in collages, as they occupy the ranks 8, 9, 11, and 12. This implies that respondents may not be aware of meanings and therefore do not mention them in interviews. The schemata used only in interviews have a higher rank. The more-less schema is a particularly special case as it is the most common schema in interviews, and yet it did not appear in the collage list at all. However, all four schemata are characteristic for interviews. The more-less schema represents features that are more or less distinct, whereas the missexist schema represents features that exist or do not exist. These schemata can be communicated more easily through words, as it is difficult for the creator to illustrate more or less of an aspect in a collage. Beyond this, it is even more difficult to identify these schemata in a collage; the center-periphery and splitting schema are not particularly obvious. Both schemata underlie expressions that are frequently used in language, such as primarily, central, or divide. However, it is more difficult to determine whether elements split a collage into different parts or whether elements in the middle of a collage are actually the central themes via visual metaphor analysis. Structural analysis is more appropriate in identifying such space schemata, and the results are outlined above. The container schema is similar to the more-less schema, as this is the most common schema in collages, but only the second to last in interviews. The main reason is that people and sneakers as objects often refer to the container schema. The smaller the differences in regards to percentages, the more equally the different types of image schemata are used between collages and interviews. The schemata with the smallest differences are: blockage (0.5%), force (0.8%), appearance (1.3%), enablement (2%), partwhole (2.1%) and balance (2.5%). Respondents used these schemata almost equally in collages and interviews, and therefore were able to convey meanings associated with the brand Adidas verbally and nonverbally. Nevertheless, two-thirds of the schemata in the lists are separated by at least 3.3 percent or do not even occur in both. This means that the results between collages and interviews are still rather different. This may be due to the fact that respondents are unable to convey the same meaning verbally and visually, or that metaphor analysis of collages emphasizes different aspects of meaning to metaphor analysis of interviews. UnforCopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

tunately this does not reveal anything in regards to the importance of the used schemata. However, the importance can be assessed by adding the percentages of the same types of image schemata, as the higher the percentage, the more frequently an image schema occurred. The higher the sum of percentages, the more often a schema occurred in collages and interviews. The schemata that have the largest sums of percentages are: enablement (18.7%), part-whole (15.2%), container (14.2%), link (13.7%), force (13.3%), path (12.9%), appearance (12.3%), balance (11.1%) and identity/matching (10.9). These findings show the

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main schemata used by the participants to describe the brand Adidas. The meanings related to these schemata are outlined above. The comparison showed that the appearance, the more-less and the miss-exist schemata were very dominant in collages and especially in interviews. This book introduced these schemata, as they have not been found in any other literature. The appearance schema was introduced to demonstrate that each person has a certain appearance and represents something particular superficially. The more-less and miss-exist schemata show that brands, objects, and human beings possess certain features and characteristics – some more distinct than others. Note that the more-less and miss-exist schemata appear almost exclusively in verbal metaphor analysis, as it is especially hard to identify more-less and missexist schemata in visuals.

Most common image schemata

Collages

Interviews

1.

Container (10.8%)

More-Less (10.3%)

2.

Enablement (10.3%)

Link (9.4%)

3.

Path (8.3%)

Part-Whole (8.7%)

4.

Force (7.1%)

Enablement (8.3%)

5.

Balance (6.8%)

Identity/Matching (7.1%)

6.

Appearance (6.8%)

Force (6.3%)

7.

Part-Whole (6.6%)

Center-Periphery (6.3%)

8.

Transformation (6.3%)

Appearance (5.5%)

9.

Attraction (4.8%)

Path (4.6%)

10.

Link (4.3%)

Balance (4.3%)

11.

Merging (4.3%)

Miss-Exist (3.9%)

12.

Scale (4.3%)

Blockage (3.6%)

13.

Identity/Matching (3.8%)

Container (3.4%)

14.

Blockage (3.0%)

Splitting (3.2%)

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Table 71: Most common image schemata (collages & interviews) The second part of this section discusses general differences in meanings between verbal analysis and each single visual approach. In general, the meanings deduced from visual metaphor analysis often coincide with meanings from verbal metaphor analysis. This is due to the fact that both analyses are based upon cognitive metaphor theory. However, some differences did on occasion occur – in some collages often, in others less often. Although the overall meanings of both analyses were for the most part equal, the breadth of meanings differed. 182

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This means that either visual analysis or verbal analysis provided more information regarding a certain meaning. For example, in one case both analyses identified the meaning connectedness, however verbal analysis explained it in greater detail and related connectedness to internationality and usage of products – visual analysis provided no further information. Another difference that occurred in some collages was that the meanings were equal but the outcomes differed. For example, in one collage enablement was identified by both analyses – however visual analysis emphasized mastering challenges and verbal analysis focused on fun of sports. Also, sometimes one analysis identified meanings that were not identified by the other at all. In most cases however those meanings were of minor importance, with the creator mentioning them only casually, and their being rather neglected on collages. As mentioned above, visuals are more open to interpretation, and this is shown by a higher number of image schemata per element than in verbal analysis. Therefore, some elements may provide easier access to interpretation than others, whereas verbal data is more straightforward and sometimes redundant, leading to a more detailed explanation of some meanings in verbal analysis. Overall, it could be said that in most cases verbal analysis provides more information than visual analyses. However, the meanings that are identified by both analyses are similar in kind and amount of information (even though for some meanings visual analysis provides more information and vice versa). Such differences imply that participants may be unable to express what they actually wish to say, or that it does not cross their minds when explaining their collage. Essentially, this confirms the assumption that visual data is less straightforward than verbal data and does not allow for the identification of every single meaning. Color theory often confirms core meanings of verbal metaphor analysis, although color theory uses a different approach and bases its meanings on other criteria. Nevertheless, in general, fewer consensuses are found between the two analyses. One reason may be that participants are not aware of their inner basic experiences or emotions related to a certain topic, and are therefore unable to verbalize them. Color theory provides more meanings that are based upon basic experiences and emotions. For example, the color black represents a blockage, an obstacle, or something that Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

impedes a subject. However, it is not clear from color theory what exactly this obstacle is. It may be a physical obstacle during competition; a psychological obstacle, such as less selfconfidence; or a profit-related obstacle for a company, such as child labor or competitors. The main point is that color theory provides substantial information on a collage, but less detailed and much more restricted in its diversity. This restriction is due to the fact that color theory is based upon basic experiences, emotions, and feelings and therefore on a larger scale than metaphor analysis for example. Also, there are only six to seven colors available, as different

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shades of colors are neglected – whereas image schemata are available in an unlimited number. Therefore, color theory is useful only to support or confirm certain meanings that already exist, as it is very difficult to deduce an exact meaning from color theory alone. The communication model is even more restricted and identifies even fewer meanings than color theory. In general, the communication model identifies one to three core meanings which are represented in all four layers. Obviously one to three meanings are not enough to cover all meanings deduced from verbal data. However, those core meanings do often coincide with verbal analysis, and the communication model can be very useful if it is used to identify the major themes of a collage and the main attitudes of creators. It can also provide information on a more personal level than metaphor analysis. Core meanings deduced include: Adidas as a fashion brand that can be used also for sports, or Adidas as an exclusive and expensive sports brand that is not for everybody. The major difference to verbal metaphor analysis is that it is based upon the estimations and impressions of the researcher, as he/she has to answer the questions using his/her own discretion. Therefore it is the same approach as for color theory; this model should not be used as a solitary method, as it is not suitable to deduce exact meanings. Structural analysis is a special case. It is definitely possible to deduce meaning from visuals; however, the meaning deduced is a different sort of meaning, as it does not tell anything about the context of a collage. However, it does reveal a great deal in regards to general aspects of a brand, such as versatility, specialization, universality, or number of major meanings. It can be said that structural analysis identifies the major foundations of a brand, while other analyses fill those foundations with meaning and context. For example, the composition of a collage can reveal whether the collage has one or more central meanings; if there are two large objects on the collage it can be assumed that the creator has two major meanings in mind. It is noticeable that those characteristics coincide with verbal analysis in most cases. For example, collages 1 and 2 have one large object in the middle and verbal analysis deduces one major meaning, whereas collage 3 is split into two parts and verbal analysis finds that Adidas has two faces. Beyond this, the number and size of elements reveal a great deal about Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

the versatility of the brand. The third part outlines the most important similarities and differences of actual brand meanings between collages and interviews, shown in table 72. This table illustrates all brand meanings conveyed by collages and interviews in this book in an aggregated form. The left column of table 72 shows the aggregation of all meanings from each visual analysis, while the right column shows the same information for all meanings from interviews. The left column is referred to as visual analysis, even though it consists of meanings from four visual analyses. 184

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Note that this part mainly focuses on the similarities and differences and does not elaborate on meanings itself, as the content of actual brand meanings, their emergence and their relationships have already been discussed above in the particular chapters. The most common brand meaning derived from collages is “Adidas as a sports brand”, which is the most common brand meaning derived from interviews at the same time. This meaning is unsurprisingly, as Adidas actually is a sports brand and people more likely perceive it as such. “Adidas as a sports brand” is a key meaning of the brand Adidas and can be divided into several subcategories, which in turn arise from certain single brand meanings. Adidas is sports, powerful and fun, are part of the key meanings of both analyses. “Adidas is passion” and “sports can be painful” were found only in visual analysis. Nonetheless both analyses derived clearly the same most common meaning and both meanings amount up to about 30 percent. “Adidas supports customers and helps them to succeed” is the second most frequent brand meaning conveyed by collages and make up 19.4 percent. In interviews it is in fourth place with 11.5 percent. Even though the key meanings are identical, the underlying single brand meanings differ, as visual analysis derived this meaning more frequently and in a larger variety. This may be due to the fact that visual analysis is less straightforward than verbal analysis. It is the other way round with the second most common meaning conveyed by interviews, which is in fourth place in collages. “Adidas as a big player” makes up about 19 percent in interviews and about 10 percent in collages. Although the frequencies differ between visual and verbal analysis, both key meanings can be divided into globality and profit components. The single brand meanings that generate the key meanings, such as internationality, diversity and sponsoring, are similar between verbal and visual analysis as well. The key meaning “Adidas as fashion brand” is the third most common meaning in collages and interviews. The percentage is higher in verbal analysis, which is due to the higher frequency of the meaning “Adidas makes people look good”, while the meaning “Adidas is exclusive” has about the same importance in both analyses. However, both analyses convey that Adidas is exclusive and makes people look good, with only slight differences in frequencies of single Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

brand meanings. Places 6 and 8 convey identical meanings as well. Both analyses agree that “Adidas has its issues” and is not a perfect brand. Verbal analysis is slightly more skeptical about Adidas than visual analysis and takes politics and responsibility into account, whereas visual analysis emphasizes solely exploitation and oppression. However, overall both meanings play a minor role in the analyses. An even minor role is occupied by the key brand meaning “Adidas fosters team spirit” with only 5.2 percent in visual analysis and 4.1 percent in verbal analysis. The brand meanings occupying places 5, 7 and 9 in visual analysis are unique

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and do not occur in verbal analysis. “Adidas is divine and untouchable” with 7.6 percent, “Adidas helps recreating” making up 5.7 percent and “Adidas is conservative” amounting to 4.0 percent are only conveyed by visual analysis. On the contrary the brand meanings in places 5 and 7 conveyed by verbal analysis, “Adidas is young and modern” (9.5%) and “Adidas has recall value” (5.1%) are singular as well and solely occur in interviews. To sum up, one could say that most actual key brand meanings are represented by visual and verbal analysis. Most of them even have the same importance in both analyses or differ only slightly in frequency. The four most important meanings conveyed by collages and interviews are identical making up 71.1 percent of all meanings in collages and 73.6 percent of all meanings in interviews. Only 17.3 percent of meanings in collages and 14.6 percent of meanings in interviews are unique and do not occur in both analyses. This demonstrates a very high consensus between brand meanings conveyed by the multi-layered approach and brand meanings conveyed by verbal analysis.

Brand meanings conveyed by collages

Brand meanings conveyed by interviews

Adidas as sports brand (31.3%):

Adidas as sports brand (28.4%):

Adidas is powerful (11.0%): Power, activity,

Adidas is sports (15.3%): Sports, football,

strength, performance, skill, dynamism, force tennis, unsuitable for high-performance Adidas is sports (7.5%): Sports, football,

Adidas is powerful (7.2%): Performance,

tennis, training

strength, power, divinity, on top

Adidas is fun (5.4%): Fun, happiness

Adidas is fun (5.9%): Easiness, lightness,

Adidas is passion (4.7%): Determination,

painlessness, fun, enjoyment

encouragement, passion, emotion Sports can be painful (2.7%): Painfulness, brutality, hard, danger, masculinity, fight Adidas supports customers and helps them to

Adidas as a big player (18.9%):

succeed (19.4%):

Adidas is global (11.0%): Internationality,

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Reinforcement, associate, support, concentra- global, versatility, diversity, renowned tion, protection, achievement, master/take on

Adidas makes profit (7.9%): Sponsoring,

challenge, success, celebration, belief, tactics

events, profit-making

Adidas as fashion brand (10.6%):

Adidas as fashion brand (14.8%):

Adidas is exclusive (5.4%): High-class, high- Adidas makes people look good (9.2%): quality, exclusion, attraction, exceptional

Cosmetics, beauty, look, fashion, shoes

Adidas makes people look good (5.2%):

Adidas is exclusive (5.6%): High-class, high

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Beauty, look, fashion, cosmetics, style

price, status symbol, high-quality

Adidas as a big player (9.8%):

Adidas supports customers and helps them to

Adidas makes profit (5.4%): Profit-making,

succeed (11.5%):

wealth, sponsoring, commercialization

Improvement 8, support 5, motivation 6,

Adidas is global (4.4%): Diversity, interna-

health 5, encouragement 8, achievement 4,

tionality, versatility, universality

success 9

Adidas is divine and untouchable (7.6%):

Adidas is young and modern (9.5%):

Divinity, perfection, on top, mighty, omni-

Young, dynamism, trendiness, lifestyle, cas-

present, distance, mystery, freedom

ual brand, modern, urban

Adidas has its issues (6.4%):

Adidas has its issues (7.7%):

Suspicion 5, negative image 12, exploitation

Skepticism, bad image, exploitation, wrong

8, oppression 8, blockage 5, competition 7

politics, responsibility, competition

Adidas helps recreating (5.7%):

Adidas has recall value (5.1%):

Leisure activities, relaxation, nature, balance,

Recall value, germany, identity, childhood

health

memories

Adidas fosters team spirit (5.2%):

Adidas fosters team spirit (4.1%):

Connectedness, togetherness, unity, team

Connectedness, customer contact, unity,

spirit, people brand

team spirit

Adidas is conservative (4.0%): Simplicity, ordinariness

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Table 72: Key brand meanings (collages & interviews)

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5 Discussion This book attempts to find a way to interpret collages without any additional information given by respondents. The approaches selected are: metaphor analysis, color theory, a communication model, and structural analysis. Furthermore, this book tries to answer the questions of what information can be gained from collages, and whether there are differences between the results of visual and verbal analysis. Compared to older studies (Zaltman & Coulter, 1995; Havlena & Holak, 1996) this book focuses on the interpretation of collages as opposed to the construction of collages. The book provides an interpretation approach for collages without focusing on additional information given by the respondents. This is a deliberate attempt to avoid two common issues encountered in previous several studies using collage technique. Firstly, older studies (Rickard, 1994; Costa et. al, 2003) mainly based their interpretation of collages on participants’ statements, which in turn lead to a focus on verbal data. Secondly, earlier studies (Zaltman, 1997; Belk et al. 1997, 2003; Blümelhuber, 2004) did not provide any interpretation criteria applied. This book attempts to establish a standardized approach to collage interpretation in marketing research. Unfortunately, a convincing methodology of metaphor analysis is yet to be established (Niedermair, 2001), not to mention a methodology for visual metaphors. In order to finally answer the first research question the limitations of the applied interpretation process are discussed. One of the major challenges in visual metaphor analysis, as in every other qualitative research method, is that every individual researcher brings his or her personal experiences and assumptions to the interpretation process, making it necessary to know the socio-political context (el Refaie, 2003). Interpreting visuals is especially susceptible to such biases, as visual elements are more abstract than verbal elements. The interpretation of metaphors by others is enabled and restricted by social contexts, biographical experiences, and the scope of knowledge (Schmitt, 2003). Sharing a similar social, political and cultural background with the participants assists in finding the “right” meaning of a metaphor;

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the more similar the background, the easier it is to put oneself into another’s shoes and to find the relevant meaning (Schmitt, 2003). The more knowledge somebody has in regards to cultural and technical backgrounds, the more concerned someone is with a certain subject, and consequently the easier it is to apply metaphor analysis (Schmitt, 2003). This book applied metaphor analysis on collages without any additional information on participants, which does make it susceptible to such issues. However, the combination of Schmieder (2006) and Johnson (1990) helped to reduce susceptibility and increase validity. In regards to the application of the analysis, the identification of image schemata was not always clear. It is up to the re188

Pachler, Philipp. How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds : A guide to consumers' minds, Diplomica Verlag, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,

searcher to choose the relevant schemata and a certain amount of subjectivity cannot be avoided. However, Bargh (1990) qualified that statement by asserting that the mind grows from interpersonal activities within a socio-cultural world, producing commonly shared meanings. This means that people think universally, which makes it possible to interpret others’ minds and consequently reduce subjectivity. Moreover, some elements were ambiguous and could be based upon multiple image schemata, in turn leading to multiple meanings. Often elements had more than one underlying image schema, meaning that metaphors were based on several schemata potentially creating the same meaning or representing different meanings. Therefore, it was not always clear what the “right” and most important image schemata were. In such cases it is inevitable to rely on the researcher’s knowledge, experience and intuition. A good example of complementing schemata is the sneakers metaphor, which is based upon the: container, enablement, merging, part-whole and transformation schema. Finally, it should be noted that the introduction of the three schemata: appearance, more-less, and miss-exist was a necessity, as the image schemata by Johnson (1990) neglected basic social experiences in social interactions and human behavior (such as affection or rejection). The three new schemata introduced attempt to fill this gap slightly, as the image schemata suggested by Johnson (1990), including full-empty instead of more-less/miss-exist and container instead of appearance, are insufficient. Color theory also encountered some limitations. First of all, it is a very sensitive field and even small differences in colors can lead to big variations in meaning. For example, although the color blue is only one color and everybody can identify it, it includes numerous different shades with various meanings, ranging from dark navy blue to light cyan blue. While light blue is perceived as exciting and dynamic, dark blue is a rather calm, serious and even depressing color (Riedel, 1986). Secondly, researchers conducted studies and established theories based on different shades of colors. For instance Stefanescu-Goanga (1912) used a dark Indigo blue, whereas Heiss, Halder and Höger (1975) used Prussian blue and cyan blue to develop their theories. For this reason it would be arduous to focus on the exact shades when interpreting collages, therefore only general meanCopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

ings derived from several studies can be regarded. Furthermore in each of the interpreted collages, five to seven different colors were found. Obviously, different colors have different and sometimes even contrasting meanings. The question now is what color is more dominant, a color that occurs in more elements or a color that occupies more space? This book only counted the color spots in collages and did not regard the space, as it would have taken too long to calculate the exact space used. Furthermore, it is not known whether the motifs of pictures played a greater role than colors or vice versa. As there is no answer to this question,

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this book assumes that pictures were selected based equally on motifs and colors, as the respondents had sufficient freedom of choice between pictures. Therefore it is also assumed that respondents chose their pictures based upon unconscious influences, and that a selection process was at work. In general, as there are often divergent meanings for the same color, it is advisable to interpret the collage in combination with another interpretation method, such as metaphor analysis. This provides a framework for the interpretation of colors and guides the researcher. Otherwise, results would yield information of limited use. Finally, it is of greater use to assess collages as a whole when applying color theory, as the greater the detail, the more difficult it becomes to find a meaning. The communication model is based upon a concept by Holzbrecher and Tell (2006). This model was applied on photography originally and so consequently an adaption was necessary. While photographers have a huge influence on the style and motifs of their pictures, collage creators are unable to act as freely when choosing. They must create the collages with the available pictures, photos, motifs and colors only. Therefore it is questionable whether the participants wish to say what is seen on the pictures, as effectively, they have no influence on motifs, colors or effects in the pictures. However, the fact that respondents are able to choose from a great variety of pictures makes this statement more or less void. In general, a great deal of empathy and mentalizing was necessary when using this technique. This subjectivity is due to the fact that it is up to the researcher to answer the questions related to the four layers. The fact that there was very little background information available on the creators made this method even more difficult, as a significant amount of empathy and intuition was required. The lack of a framework, such as image schemata in metaphor analysis, made this method very susceptible to biases and subjectivity. The structural analysis part of the interpretation process was not based on any guidelines from literature. Nevertheless, it was possible to determine certain relationships between the structure of a collage and its meanings, even though major limitations were encountered. Firstly, as there are no guidelines, the researcher has to develop an individual approach on their own; whether the findings are correct is doubtful. The evaluation and estimation of the Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

extent of features is also subjective. However, if the researcher finds a consistent classification of features, the analysis gains value. Nonetheless, this analysis should only be regarded as an addition to other approaches. Finally, there were also challenges in interpreting and analyzing interviews. First of all, the interviews only exist in German and a translation was necessary. As such, there is a risk of translation errors and deviations in meanings between the German and English versions. Secondly, the quality of interviewing and transcription could also pose an issue, as the interviews were not conducted by the researcher himself. In addition 190

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to this, there is the risk that the interviews may have been influenced by the interview quality and style; the questions asked, probing, reliability and accurateness of transcriptions may have influenced results, as people differ in their communicative and expressive abilities (Rook, 2006). Furthermore, the use of text phrases and sentences in addition to drawings and written words should also be taken into account, as drawings often stimulate knowledge that could otherwise not be verbalized. However, those kinds of elements may influence the researcher and potentially affect the results. In order to avoid bias, researchers should be prepared to analyze drawings as well as words. Alternatively, respondents could be instructed to use pictures only, and categorically no text passages or drawings. This however would restrict the participants to a certain extent and would affect their creative freedom. The validity of this study was measured by comparing the results of the visual interpretation with the results of the verbal interpretation. The extent to which the results of the interpretation of collages coincide with the results deduced from interviews was measured. As the application of metaphor analysis was identical in both approaches, the results were comparable. As already mentioned, 67.75% of all image schemata used in collages were also found in interviews. It was assumed that the interviews given by the respondents reflect the “real” or intended meaning of the creators. If this is true, more than two-thirds of the meaning deduced from collages can be found in interviews and therefore represents “true” meaning. It is possible that the validity may be affected by translation errors, interview and transcription quality. Moreover it was not clear whether the respondents were able or willing to fully express themselves. The comparison of meanings derived from different analyses showed that visual and verbal analyses coincided very well indeed. Most meanings could be identified in both analyses, even accounting for differences within those meanings. The major difficulty of visual metaphors is that they are less straightforward, context-dependent, and defined by their specific shapes (el Refaie, 2003). Color theory and the communication model provided useful support for the metaphor analyses and were able to confirm several meanings deduced. However, it is important to note that both are unsuitable as solitary approaches. Finally, the strucCopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

tural analysis also proved to be quite useful in interpreting collages, as it provided valuable information on the “structure” of the brand Adidas. The comparison of actual brand meaning between visual and verbal analysis enhanced meaningfulness even more and demonstrated that it is possible to derive brand knowledge from collages without further information from respondents. The analysis of actual brand meaning on a content level showed that most actual key brand meanings were represented by both visual and verbal analysis. Differences between analyses were due to varying frequencies of meanings rather than varying content. The fol-

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lowing figures shall support these findings: The four most common brand meanings conveyed by visual analysis and verbal analysis were identical at content level. These meanings represented 71.1 percent of all meanings found in collages and 73.6 percent of all meanings found in interviews. Only 17.3 percent of meanings in collages and 14.6 percent of meanings in interviews were unique and did occur only in one analysis. As a consequence, one can say that the multi-layered approach developed in this book is able to provide a substantial amount of information that corresponds to data gathered from verbal analysis. This suggests that it is possible to derive actual brand meaning to a certain extent without any further information

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given by respondents.

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6 Managerial implications and future research This book attempts to contribute to marketing research by providing an interpretation process for collages. The most important aspect of this interpretation process is that it does not rely on additional verbal information given by the respondents. The possibility to interpret collages as separate and independent from additional information opens up new and remarkable opportunities for marketing researchers in various fields. Many people have difficulties expressing themselves verbally, and for such individuals a method that does not require speaking can assist in overcoming such difficulties. Collage construction is one such method. Generally speaking, all people are stimulated to retrieve knowledge from an unconscious level that could otherwise not be retrieved. This method of collage creation is especially useful for customers such as children, people with language or mental disorders, people that do not possess the capability to articulate themselves appropriately, or people who simply do not wish to talk freely. It enables such individuals to unconsciously express what they think and gives researchers a possibility to gather this information without probing respondents verbally. Also, even if people are able to express themselves without problems, the possibility to deduce meaning from collages without statements by the respondents would facilitate marketing research tremendously. This analysis of collages provides a thorough and extensive picture of the brand Adidas and yields valuable insights into the minds of customers. As collages are a very flexible medium, it can be used for any research subject – from evaluating brands, to assessing products, or to judging advertisements. Although the importance and advantages of visual research are widely recognized and undeniable, research on visuals is still undervalued. Consequently, it is necessary to encourage researchers to develop visual research further and to apply more visual methods in marketing research. For future research it would be interesting to see researchers developing a framework for the use of image schemata in metaphor analysis, as there is no comprehensible approach for interpretation provided in Johnson’s works as yet. Metaphor analysis in general has great

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potential to reveal customers’ inner thoughts and reasoning and should be given greater importance by researchers in the future. Furthermore, it is very important to further investigate the interpretation of collages in order to increase validity of deduced meaning. It is crucial to establish to what extent customers are able to express themselves in interviews, and what cannot be conveyed by words alone. Perhaps interview situations affect the quality of interviews and prevent researchers from gaining the “real” meaning. As respondents are not able to adequately convey their feelings and expectations by words alone (Costa et al., 2003), it is important to find out exactly what it is that customers cannot convey. In order to determine

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whether or to what extent the interpretation of a collage is valid, a comparison with the “real” meaning is necessary. The “real” meaning is the intended meaning and true information individuals possess. As long as it is unclear what the “real” meaning is and how this meaning can be gathered, it is difficult to evaluate any interpretive approach. Unfortunately even individuals themselves are not aware of all of their thoughts, which bears great challenges for future research. More insights into the interpretation of collages can be gained by comparing interpretation results of collages dealing with different brands, different products, or different advertisements. Such results could provide more insight into what information can be gained from collages and to what extent. For example, it would be very interesting to compare different fashion brands – from sports, to luxury, to children’s wear. Results gained from such stud-

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ies could revolutionize the method of collage creation and collage interpretation.

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Heiss, Robert, Petra Halder, and Dieter Höger (1975), Der Farbpyramidentest, Bern, Switzerland: Hans Huber. Heller, Eva (1998), Wie Farben wirken, Reinbek, Germany: Rowolth. Henderson, Geraldine R., Dawn Iacobucci, and Bobby J. Calder (2002), “Using Network Analysis to Understand Brands,” Advances in Consumer Research, 29, 397-405. Hermeneutics (2005), in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu. Holzbrecher, Alfred and Sandra Tell (2006), “Jugendfotos verstehen: Bildhermeneutik in der

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