History of Romanian Technology and Industry : Volume 2: Electrical Engineering, Energetics, Transport and Technology Education [45, 1 ed.] 9783031391903, 9783031391910

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History of Mechanism and Machine Science 45

Dorel Banabic   Editor

History of Romanian Technology and Industry Volume 2: Electrical Engineering, Energetics, Transport and Technology Education

History of Mechanism and Machine Science Volume 45

Series Editor Marco Ceccarelli , Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy Advisory Editors Juan Ignacio Cuadrado Iglesias, Technical University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain Teun Koetsier, Vrije University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Francis C. Moon, Cornell University, Ithaca, USA Agamenon R. E. Oliveira, Technical University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Baichun Zhang, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Hong-Sen Yan, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan

This bookseries establishes a well-defined forum for Monographs and Proceedings on the History of Mechanism and Machine Science (MMS). The series publishes works that give an overview of the historical developments, from the earliest times up to and including the recent past, of MMS in all its technical aspects. This technical approach is an essential characteristic of the series. By discussing technical details and formulations and even reformulating those in terms of modern formalisms the possibility is created not only to track the historical technical developments but also to use past experiences in technical teaching and research today. In order to do so, the emphasis must be on technical aspects rather than a purely historical focus, although the latter has its place too. Furthermore, the series will consider the republication of out-of-print older works with English translation and comments. The book series is intended to collect technical views on historical developments of the broad field of MMS in a unique frame that can be seen in its totality as an Encyclopaedia of the History of MMS but with the additional purpose of archiving and teaching the History of MMS. Therefore. the book series is intended not only for researchers of the History of Engineering but also for professionals and students who are interested in obtaining a clear perspective of the past for their future technical works. The books will be written in general by engineers but not only for engineers. The series is promoted under the auspices of International Federation for the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science (IFToMM). Prospective authors and editors can contact Mr. Pierpaolo Riva (publishing editor, Springer) at: [email protected] Indexed by SCOPUS and Google Scholar.

Dorel Banabic Editor

History of Romanian Technology and Industry Volume 2: Electrical Engineering, Energetics, Transport and Technology Education

Editor Dorel Banabic Technical University of Cluj Napoca Cluj Napoca, Romania

ISSN 1875-3442 ISSN 1875-3426 (electronic) History of Mechanism and Machine Science ISBN 978-3-031-39190-3 ISBN 978-3-031-39191-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39191-0 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

The purpose of publishing an abridged English version of the volumes titled History of Romanian Technology and Industry is that of disseminating internationally the Romanian achievements in the field of technology. The present book is the first work of Romanian history of technology published in English. It consists of two volumes titled as follows: History of Mechanics, Processing Techniques and Construction and History of Electrical Engineering, Energy, Transport and Technology Education, respectively. Each volume includes several chapters covering the fields referenced in the volume subtitle. Along the decades, the history of Romanian technology has been tackled in Romanian specialised literature in several books authored by historians, engineers, industrialists, and sociologists. Nonetheless, is scarcely known about this field outside of Romania. This is due in part to, amongst other reasons, the insufficient popularisation in world languages of the history of Romanian technology and of the main Romanian contributions to the global technology heritage. Romania is mentioned in the history of technology encyclopaedias and in the encyclopaedias dedicated to inventions across the world especially because of contributions in the fields of aviation and aeronautics. Missing, however, are numerous names of Romanian engineers and inventors who have contributed significantly to the development of both Romanian and world technologies. The multidisciplinary approach of the volumes means that the field of technology had to be split into several branches. The present volume includes the following industries: electrical engineering, energy technology, biomedicine, maritime and rail transport, automotive industry, and aviation. The history of engineering societies, of engineering education, of intellectual property, and of inventions, as well as a synopsis of the personalities of Romanian engineering has been tackled in separate chapters. For each subfield, the best specialists in that field or the authors who have already published histories of those fields have been invited to contribute to the volume. Some of the chapters have been authored by specialists who have acted as decision-makers in elaborating the development strategies of Romania, who are familiar not only with the facts and the history of their field of expertise, but also with the ‘philosophy’ of that field’s development. Such chapters are those on the v

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Preface

history of electrical engineering, the history of energy, and the history of aviation, rocket technology, and aerospace engineering. Putting the spotlight on these ‘living archives’ contributes to the quality of the present book. This approach is new as compared to those of the books on the history of technology written in the last 80 years. It has the advantage that the specialists in the field are in a better position to make a hierarchy in terms of value of the technological accomplishments across the years. Now, in the age of the Internet, when it is not the retrieval of information that is a problem in documenting an issue, but rather making a hierarchy based on the value of the information, this approach is essential and adds to the value of the present work. One of the limits of this approach is that there are differences in writing style across the various chapters, due to the different individual styles of each chapter author(s)/editor(s), which is inherent to any book with a large number of co-authors. Another element of novelty in this book as compared to those published so far is the fact that the authors could make good use of the wealth of information available on the Internet, which is accessible to all, but was structured and hierarchised by the specialists in the respective fields. The coordinator of the book is grateful to all of the authors who have contributed to the chapters of this volume. They all put in significant effort to complete this project in a timely and professional manner. A lot of gratitude also goes out to all those who have contributed to this book. Cluj Napoca, Romania June 2023

Dorel Banabic

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dorel Banabic A Chronicle of Important Events in the Field of Electrical Engineering in Romania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Florin T˘an˘asescu and Ion Boldea

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History of Energetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Victor Vaida and Viorel B˘adescu

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The History of Biomedical Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alexandru Mihail Morega

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The History of Naval Transports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carmen Irène Atanasiu

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History of Rail Transport in Romania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Serban ¸ L˘acri¸teanu History of Motor Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Mircea Oprean, Cristian Andreescu, Nicu Dumitrache, Anghel Chiru, and Marius B˘at, a˘ us, History of Aviation, Rocket Technology, and Aerospace Engineering . . . 141 Dumitru-Dorin Prunariu, Dan Antoniu, Constantin Olivotto, Corneliu Berbente, and Octavian Thor Pleter History of Engineering Societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Mihai Mih˘ai¸ta˘ History of Technology Education in Romania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Ion Popescu, Dorel Banabic, Coleta De Sabata, and Mihail Voicu History of Industrial Property and Inventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Ghorghe Manolea Romanian Personalities in the Field of Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Dorel Banabic vii

Contributors

Cristian Andreescu University Romania

POLITEHNICA

of

Bucharest,

Bucharest,

Dan Antoniu The National Museum of Romanian Aviation, Bucharest, Romania Carmen Irène Atanasiu Romanian Committee for History and Philosophy of Science (CRIFST), Constan¸ta Branch Romanian Academy, Constan¸ta, Romania Dorel Banabic Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Cluj Napoca, Romania Corneliu Berbente Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania Ion Boldea Politehnica University Timi¸soara, Timi¸soara, Romania Viorel B˘adescu University Politehnica of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania Marius B˘at, a˘ us, University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania Anghel Chiru University TRANSILVANIA of Bra¸sov, Bra¸sov, Romania Nicu Dumitrache National Technical Museum ‘Prof.ing.Dimitrie Leonida’, Bucharest, Romania Coleta De Sabata University Politehnica of Timi¸soara, Timi¸soara, Romania Serban ¸ L˘acri¸teanu The National Railway Goods Transport Company-SNCFR, Bucharest, Romania Ghorghe Manolea University of Craiova, Craiova, Romania Mihai Mih˘ai¸ta˘ Technical Sciences Academy of Romania, Bucharest, Romania Alexandru Mihail Morega University Politehnica of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania Constantin Olivotto The National Institute for Aerospace Research “Elie Carafoli” (INCAS), Bucharest, Romania

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Contributors

Mircea Oprean University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania Octavian Thor Pleter Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania Ion Popescu University Politehnica of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania Dumitru-Dorin Prunariu The Romanian Space Agency, Bucharest, Romania Florin T˘an˘asescu Academy of Technical Sciences of Romania, Bucharest, Romania Victor Vaida Society of Power Engineers in Romania-SIER, Bucharest, Romania Mihail Voicu Technical University “Gheorghe Asachi” of Ia¸si, Ia¸si, Romania

Introduction Dorel Banabic

Abstract The purpose of publishing this work is defined in the introduction. The arguments for publishing this history of Romanian technology and industry are listed. Then a brief history of the works in Romanian published over time in this field is presented. After which it was described how the history of Romanian technology and inventions is reflected in foreign literature.

1 Introduction In 2018, the Romanian Academy started an ambitious program to publish a series of books entitled Romanian Civilization. The purpose of the program was to have a panoply of the most significant achievements of Romanian civilization throughout the ages. Why include History of Romanian Technology and Industry in the series titled Romanian Civilization? The first argument is that technological civilization is part of civilization in its broad sense. If civilization represents the level of material and spiritual development attained by a socio-economic entity, then technological civilization represents that part of civilization which corresponds to the material development of society. Industry is the characteristic form of production of our times and the whole of social life is being technologized. The second argument is that there are few works in Romanian specialized literature in which the history of Romanian technology is tackled by specialists in the various branches of technology. The history of Romanian technology has been discussed along the decades by historians (Iorga 1927; Pascu 1954, 1982; Giurescu 1973; Wollmann 2010–2016), as well as industrialists (Furnic˘a 1926), engineers (the collective volume of the Polytechnic Society 1931), B˘alan and Mihailescu 1985, R˘adulet, 2000, Leon˘achescu 2007, Iancu 2009) and sociologists (Gusti 1939). Only three of the books written by the authors above feature a multidisciplinary approach: History of Technology Development in Romania (*** 1931) in three volumes, dedicated to the D. Banabic (B) Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Cluj Napoca, Romania e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 D. Banabic (ed.), History of Romanian Technology and Industry, History of Mechanism and Machine Science 45, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39191-0_1

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50th anniversary of the Polytechnic Society in Romania, Romanian Encyclopedia (Vol. 3) (Gusti 1939) by Dimitrie Gusti, and the treatise by Pascu (1982). The history of technological development in Romania by sector is tackled in a comprehensive manner in the three volumes of (*** 1931), which constitute a veritable encyclopedia of Romanian industry up to 1930. The volumes add up to nearly 1500 pages and are structured into 77 chapters, each of them focusing on a specific field of technology and having been drafted by a specialist in the respective field. One cannot leave out the third volume of the Romanian Encyclopedia treatise, titled National Economy and edited by Dimitrie Gusti. Modelled after the Encyclopédie Française (de Monzie and Febvre 1935–1966), edited by Anatole de Monzie, this treatise is the most accomplished presentation of Romanian industry up to the beginning of World War II, with each chapter being authored by specialists in the field (74 specialists were involved in drafting the treatise). These two works have constituted the main source of information as to the time before World War II. The history of science and technology in Romania was approached in a multidisciplinary manner by S, tefan Pascu in his ambitious treatise History of Romanian Scientific and Technical Thinking and Creation, which, unfortunately, never went further than the first volume, thus only discussing the preindustrial age (before the eighteenth century). It is the intention of the present volumes on the history of Romanian technology and industry to continue this enterprise. The third argument is that the history of Romanian technology is scarcely known outside the borders of Romania. This is due, among other reasons, to the insufficient popularization in widely spoken languages of the history of Romanian technology and main Romanian contributions to the world’s technological heritage. A relevant testimony in that sense is the opinion of Jacques Attali, influential French thinker and former adviser to President Mitterand, who, in his Romanian edition of the book A Brief History of the Future (Attali 2007), mentions three reasons why ‘Romania never managed to become a dominant power in Europe’. Two of them have to do with the field of industrial technology, namely: (1) Romania has always privileged agriculture over the mobility industry, innovation, and technology; (2) Romania has not succeeded in forming a sufficiently numerous class of creative people (engineers, researchers, entrepreneurs, traders, etc.); it has never attracted enough scholars, bankers, and businessmen. The English-language edition of the present work aims to bridge that gap. The fourth argument is that studying and understanding the past is useful in prospecting the future, as Mihai Eminescu splendidly and concisely put it in his poem ‘Gloss˘a’: Both the future and the past /Are but sides of the same page; /In beginnings, ends are cast /For whoever can be sage.1 The present volumes of History of Romanian Technology and Industry approach the field in the spirit of the treatise published under the aegis of the Polytechnic School in 1931 (*** 1931) and of the third volume of Dimitrie Gusti’s Romanian Encyclopedia, adapted to present times, namely to the beginning of the fourth industrial revolution. This approach involved dividing the field of technology into multiple 1

Translator’s note: Translation source: http://luceafarul.com/Pages/sbsglossabantas.html.

Introduction

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industrial branches, such as: mining, metallurgy, oil, natural gas, machine building, agricultural machinery, military, textiles, construction, electrical engineering, energetics, biomedicine, naval transport, railway, automotive, aviation. Folk technology, the forming of the industrial system, mechanics, inventions, technological societies, higher education within technology are tackled in separate chapters. At the end of these volumes, a chapter was introduced which contains brief portraits of eminent figures in Romanian technology. The engineers who have contributed to advancing the fields of computers, automation, and electronics are not included here, as these fields are part of another work within the series. For each field, we engaged the collaboration of top specialists or authors who have already published a history of their field. Certain chapters were drafted with the aid of specialists who have played the part of policy makers in the elaboration of development strategies for Romania and who are familiar not only with the facts and the history of their field, but also with the ‘philosophy’ behind its development. Such is the case of the chapters on the history of machine building, the history of electrical engineering, the history of energetics, and the history of oil. Making the most of these ‘living archives’ adds to the quality of the present book. This represents a new approach as compared to the books on the history of technology written in the last 80 years, an approach which has the advantage that specialists in the field are more capable of correctly ranking the value of technological achievements along the ages. Nowadays, in the age of the Internet, when the issue is not about finding information when doing research, but about ranking it based on its value, such an approach is crucial and increases the worth of the present work. One limitation to this approach, which is inherent to any book with a large number of authors, is that the chapters are written in different manners, each author/chapter supervisor having a different style. Another element of novelty brought by the present work as compared to the ones preceding it is the fact that the authors have made full use of the extremely bountiful information found on the Internet, a source accessible to all, yet this time employed most fruitfully thanks to the ordering and ranking conducted by specialists in each field. Furthermore, archive documents published after 1990 were used, such as the ones included in the paper (Manole et al. 1991). There is a wealth of world literature on the history of technology, published from the early twentieth century onwards, first in Germany (Beck 1900; Darmstaedter 1908) and, after World War II, in Britain (Singer 1954–1978), France (Daumas 1962– 1978), the USSR (Zvorikin 1963), the USA (Klemm 1964), Italy (Capocaccia 1973), Poland (Orlowski 2008). A vast five-volume treatise has recently been published in Germany by the Propyläen Publishing House (Konig 1997–2000), while in the USA, the publication of a treatise began in 2010, having now reached its fourth volume (Deming 2010–2012). These volumes mention but a few Romanian technological achievements, such as those of George Botezat (helicopters), Gogu Constantinescu (the theory of sonics and automatic transmission) and Hermann Oberth (interplanetary travel) in A History of Technology (Singer 1954–1978) and those of Oberth in Propyläen Technikgeschichte (Konig 1997–2000). Chinese technology, with its ancient traditions and remarkable contributions to the world heritage, is presented in a plethora of books on the history of technology in Chinese, some of which have

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recently been translated into English, such as the ample three-volume treatise called A History of Chinese Science and Technology (Lu 2015). In the mid 1930s, historian Lucien Febvre, who, together with Anatole de Monzie, created the Encyclopédie Française (de Monzie and Febvre 1935–1966), said about the history of technology: ‘Technique: un de ces nombreux mots dont l’histoire n’est pas faite’ (Technology: one of the many words whose history has yet to be made). These words have spurred historians all over the world to approach the topic of the history of technology, which has led to an avalanche of works from the 1950s onwards (as can be seen from the list above). Furthermore, series of books on the history of technology were published, by the VDI Publishing House in Germany (*** 1909–1919) in 1909–1919 and by the Springer Publishing House in the same country from 1938 onwards (Holey 1938). In 2007, the same publishing house began issuing a series of books titled History of Mechanism and Machine Science, which has reached 34 volumes so far (http:// www.springer.com/series/7481?detailsPage=titles). In 1964, a series of books on the history of technology started to be published by the MIT Press in the USA (so far, it comprises over 250 volumes) (https://mitpress.mit.edu/category/discipline/sci ence-technology-and-society/history-technology). In 1991, the Institute of Historical Research of the University of London began issuing a series of books titled History of Technology, which has reached its 33rd volume (Inkster 1991–2016). As a result of the impetus given to the research on the history of technology, international professional associations were also created to bring together the efforts made by researchers in the field. The first and most well-known such association is the Society for the History of Technology (https://www.historyoftechnology.org), which was founded in 1958 and counts over 1500 members. The society organises an annual conference, publishes a magazine titled Technology and Culture (https:// www.historyoftechnology.org/publications/technology-and-culture/), and supervises a series of books in its field (https://www.historyoftechnology.org/publicati ons/historical-perspectives-on-technology-culture-and-society/historical-perspecti ves-on-technology-culture-and-society-booklets-in-print/). Subsequently, in 1968, the International Committee for the History of Technology (ICOHTEC) (http://www. icohtec.org/) was founded in Paris, as part of the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science (IUHPS). The ICOHTEC issues an annual magazine titled ICON (http://www.icohtec.org/publications-icon.html). It is worth noting that Romanian Academy Member S, tefan B˘alan was the president of ICOHTEC in 1981–1989. In Romania, the Romanian Committee for the History and Philosophy of Science (CRIFS) was created in 1956, under the aegis of the Romanian Academy and upon the initiative of its president, Traian S˘avulescu. The first person to be elected president of this committee was Romanian Academy Member Mihai Ralea, while Romanian Academy Member Remus R˘adulet, was head of the division of technological sciences. In 1957, this Romanian committee became part of the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science. The sustained activity of the Romanian committee within that international body enabled the former to organise the 16th Congress of the History of Science in Bucharest in 1981. In 1992, CRIFS is restructured into three divisions and its name is changed into the Romanian Committee for the History and

Introduction

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Philosophy of Science and Technology (CRIFST). The three divisions are dedicated to: history of science, logic, methodology and philosophy of science, and history of technology, respectively. The latter division was headed by Romanian Academy Member Horia Colan from the time of its creation until his death (2017). CRIFST is editor to two annual publications: NOESIS, founded in 1972, and NOEMA, founded in 2002 (http://www.acad.ro/crifst/crifst.htm). When it comes to Romanian inventions mentioned in books on the history of inventions, the situation is similar to that of the history of technology. For example, in the four-volume encyclopedia edited by Alvin Benson, titled Great Lives from History: Inventors and Inventions (Benson 2009), 413 inventors from 36 countries are presented, yet none of them is Romanian. Other recently published encyclopedias mention merely one Romanian each: in Britannica Guide to Inventions (Curley 2010), Hermann Oberth is included due to his contribution to interplanetary travel; in Ancient Engineers Inventions (Rossi and Russo 2017), Conrad Haas is mentioned for his invention of the multi-stage rocket; in the 1000 Inventions and Discoveries (Bridgman 2014) encyclopedia, Steven Auschnitt is featured due to his invention of the ZipLoc for plastic bags. In The Timetables of Science (Hellemans and Bunch 1991), 5 Romanians are mentioned, 3 of whom are engineers: Traian Vuia (first flight in a self-propelling aircraft), Henri Coand˘a (the jet-engine aircraft), Gogu Constantinescu (sonics). In the Larousse- Dictionary of inventors and inventions (*** 2001), 8 Romanians are mentioned, 4 of whom are engineers: Henri Coand˘a (the jet-engine aircraft), George Botezat (the helicopter), Hermann Oberth (interplanetary travel), Gogu Constantinescu (sonics). The same can be noted with respect to the great thematic encyclopedias, such as Mc Graw Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology (*** 2007), or general ones: British Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia Universalis, Larousse, etc. Romania is mentioned in encyclopedias of the history of technology and of inventions especially for its contributions to the fields of aviation and aeronautics. Such publications leave out numerous names of Romanian engineers and inventors who have had significant contributions to the development of global technology, such as: Petrache Poenaru (the fountain pen), Alexandru Ciurcu (applications of the jet engine), Laz˘ar Edeleanu (oil refining), Ion Basgan (sonic-vibration drilling), Aurel Pers, u (the aerodynamic automobile), Dumitru Daponte (3D cinematography), Augustin Maior (multiple telephony), Constantin Budeanu (electrical engineering terminology), Nicolae Vasilescu-Karpen (the thermoelectric pile), Elie Carafoli (aerodynamics) and many more. An exhaustive list of Romanian inventors is featured in the work edited by the State Office for Inventions and Trademarks (Oficiul de Stat pentru Invent, ii s, i M˘arci – OSIM) (*** 2002). There are numerous solutions for increasing the visibility of Romanian technological achievements, such as: publishing a history of Romanian technology and industry on the website of the Romanian Academy and on that of Academia de S, tiint, e Tehnice din România (Academy of Technical Sciences of Romania); having Romanian specialists participate more frequently in conferences on the history of technology; introducing information on Romanian engineers into the English version of Wikipedia; publishing monographs on various themes in English, etc. Several

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commendable initiatives have been taken by the State Office for Inventions and Trademarks (OSIM), such as the publishing of In the World of Romanian Inventors (*** 2002), and, more recently, by the Romanian Cultural Institute, which has lately published a book titled 100 Romanian Innovators (Vis, inescu et al. 2018), both works having been issued as bilingual editions (Romanian and English). The present work aims to contribute to promoting the valuable achievements of Romanian technology both at home and abroad (through its English edition).

References Attali J (2007) Scurt˘a istorie a viitorului (Short history of the future). Polirom, Iasi B˘alan S, t, Mihailescu NS, t (1985) Istoria s, tiint, ei s, i tehnicii din România. Date cronologice (History of science and technology in Romania. Chronological data). Academy Publishing House, Bucharest Beck T (1900) Beiträge zur Geschichte des Maschinenbaues. Springer, Berlin Benson A (2009) Great Lives from History: Inventors and Inventions (Vol. 1–4). Salem Press Bridgman R (2014) 1000 Inventions and Discoveries. DK, London Capocaccia AA (1973) Storia della Tecnica (Vol. 1–4). UTET, Torino Curley R (Ed) (2010) The Britannica Guide to Inventions that changed the Modern World Encyclopedia Britannica, London Darmstaedter L (1908) Handbuch zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften und der Technik. Springer, Berlin Daumas M (1962–1978) Histoire generale des techniques (Vol. I-V). Pressses Universitaires de France, Paris de Monzie A, Febvre L (Eds) (1935–1966) Encyclopédie Française (Vol I-XX). Societé de gestion de l’Encyclopédie française, Paris Deming D (2010–2012) Science and Technology in World History (Vol. 1–4). McFarland, Jefferson NC Furnic˘a D (1926) Industria s, i desvoltarea ei în T˘arile Românes, ti (Industry and its development in the Romanian Countries). Romanian Press, Bucharest *** (1931) Istoricul desvolt˘arii tecnice în România (History of technical development in Romania) (Vol.1–3). Polytechnic Society of Romania, Bucharest Giurescu CC (1973) Contribut, ii la istoria s, tiint, ei s, i tehnicii românes, ti în secolele XV-XIX (Contributions to the history of Romanian science and technology in the XV–XIX centuries). Scientific Publishing House, Bucharest Gusti D (Ed) (1939) Enciclopedia României-Economia na¸tional˘a (Encyclopedia of RomaniaNational Economy) (Vol. III). Scientific Association for the Encyclopedia of Romania, Bucharest *** (2002) În lumea inventatorilor români (In the world of Romanian inventors). State Office for Inventions and Trademarks-OSIM, Bucharest *** (2007) Mc Graw Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology (Vol. 1–19). McGraw Hill, NewYork Hellemans A, Bunch B (1991) The Timitables of Science. Touchstone Books, New York *** (2001) Larousse- Dict, ionar de inventatori s, i invent, ii (Larousse-Dictionary of inventors and inventions). Technical Publishing House, Bucharest Holey K (1938) Blätter für Geschichte der Technik. Springer, Berlin Iancu S, t (2009) Incursiune in istoria ingineriei (Foray into the history of engineering). AGIR Publishing House, Bucharest (in Romanian) Inkster I (1991–2016) History of Technology (Vol. 1–33). Continuum IPG, London

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Iorga N (1927) Istoria industriilor la români (The history of Romanian industries). National Industrial Credit Society, Bucharest Klemm F (1964) History of Western Technology. MIT Press, Cambridge MA Konig W (1997–2000) Propyläen Technikgeschichte (Vol. 1–5). Verlag Propyläen, Berlin Leon˘achescu N (2007) Premise istorice ale tehnicii moderne românes, ti (Historical premises of modern Romanian technique). AGIR Publishing House, Bucharest (in Romanian) *** (1909–1919) Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technik und Industrie (Jahrbuch) (10 vol.). VDI, Berlin Lu Y (2015) A History of Chinese Science and Technology (Vol. 1–3). Springer, Berlin Manole V, B˘adescu M, Ciuc˘a E (1991) Documente privind dezvoltarea industriei în oras, ul Bucures, ti, 1856–1933 (Documents regarding the development of industry in the city of Bucharest, 1856– 1933). General Directorate of the State Archives of Romania, Bucharest Orlowski B (2008) Historia techniki polskiej, WNITE, Radom Pascu S, t (1954) Mes, tes, ugurile din Transilvania pân˘a în secolul al XVI-lea (Crafts from Transylvania until the 16th century). Academy Publishing House, Bucharest Pascu S, t (1982) Istoria gândirii s, i creat, iei s, tiint, ifice s, i tehnice românes, ti (History of Romanian scientific and technical thought and creation) (vol. I), Academy Publishing House, Bucharest R˘adulet, R (2000) Istoria cunos, tint, elor s, i a s, tiint, elor tehnice pe p˘amântul României (History of knowledge and technical sciences on Romanian soil). Academy Publishing House, Bucharest Rossi C, Russo F (2017) Ancient Engineers’ Inventions. Precursors of the Present. Springer, Berlin Singer C (1954–1978) A history of technology (Vol. I-VII). Oxford Press, Oxford Vis, inescu M et al (2018) 100 de Inovatori Români (100 Romanian Innovators). Romanian Cultural Institute, Bucharest Wollmann V (2010–2016) Patrimoniul preindustrial s, i industrial în România (Pre-industrial and industrial heritage in Romania) (Vol. I-VI). Honterus, Sibiu Zvorikin AA (1963) Istoria Tehniki. ISEL Moskva

A Chronicle of Important Events in the Field of Electrical Engineering in Romania Florin T˘an˘asescu and Ion Boldea

Abstract The Chronicle of important events in the field of electrical engineering in Romania from 1776 to 2017 unfolded in the Chapter was chosen to allow the international professionals in the field and various synthesis Institutions to grasp quickly but profoundly the evolution of electrical engineering Industry and Education over more than 200 years in Romania. It should be noted that electrical engineering started as Electro-Physics and then continued by close cooperation between electro-physics and engineering education for Industry. On the part of Industry strong and rather synchronous with the international trends, developments of the electric power system (with hydro and thermal power plants) and of power electric devices, from electric machines and transformers and power electronics drives of all sorts and power levels, to locomotives, subway and streetcar traction systems have been observed in the twentieth century. On the part of Education, strong research Institutes like ICPE and IPA etc. and Technical Universities contributed notably with R&D results (many with international visibility) while providing for Industry more 1,000,000 electrical engineers over the twentieth century. A few thousands of Romanian electrical engineers are working today for industry all over the world, too; some in key technical leadership positions. Though slowing down immediately after the year 1989, the Industry related to electrical engineering is reviving slowly but steadily, with new targets and means, with strong international investments and cooperation, such that now in Bucharest, Timisoara, Cluj-Napoca, Iasi, Sibiu, Brasov, Craiova etc. thousands of electrical engineers are doing R&D in international companies in close cooperation with local Universities. The international academic cooperation flourished, as never before, in the last 30 years and is here to stay for a bright future of Electrical Engineering-academic and industrial, in Romania.

F. T˘an˘asescu (B) Academy of Technical Sciences of Romania, Bucharest, Romania e-mail: [email protected] I. Boldea Politehnica University Timi¸soara, Timi¸soara, Romania © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 D. Banabic (ed.), History of Romanian Technology and Industry, History of Mechanism and Machine Science 45, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39191-0_2

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Date Event—Description—Comments 1776 Nikephoros Theotokis Professor at the Princely Academy (Academia Domneasc˘a) of Ias, i, publishes Elements of Physics in two volumes. 1851 Teodor Stamate publishes in Ias, i a Technical Dictionary. 1852 The first Timis, oara-Sibiu-Vienna telegraph line is developed. 1854 The Ias, i-Predeal, Ias, i-Bucharest, and Bucharest-Giurgiu-Russe telegraph lines are built; the first school of radiotelegraphy is founded. 1855 The Telegraph Office is established in Ias, i, operating the Ias, i-Cern˘aut, i-Vienna line. 1877 Dionisie Germani (1877–1948), construction, hydrotechnics, and electrical engineer, as well as professor at the Polytechnic School of Bucharest, developed a criterion which experts in the field call ‘the GERMANI criterion of similarity’. 1882 Engineer H. Slade sets up Romania’s first thermoelectric power station in Bucharest, equipped with steam boilers and Brush-type direct current generators. An electric power station is installed at Atelierele C.F.R. (Romanian Railways Workshops)—Bucharest North for the lighting of the railway station premises, and in Bus, teni an electric generator set is installed at the paper factory. 1883 The first industrial electrical power installations in the country are set up at the Res, it, a Metallurgical Works in the form of small electrical generator sets located in the proximity of important technological equipment to drive the engines of the installations in question. Dimitrie Leonida (1883–1965), Romanian electrical engineer. 1884 The first alternating current power plant in Romania and one of the first in continental Europe is built in Timis, oara; its four 30 kW-sets were powering 731 incandescent street lamps and 16 arc lamps. Timis, oara was in fact the first European city to use electricity for street lighting. The Military Hospital in Bucharest has its own electric power plant set up, thereby making it one of the first European hospitals to be lit electrically. From 1884 to 1887, the electrical power generated in Timis, oara is used exclusively for public lighting with direct current. The first telephone conversation takes place in Bucharest. 1885 Francis Jehl, an American engineer and assistant to Th. A. Edison, supervises in Bucharest the construction of a DC power station in the courtyard of the National Theatre. A DC power plant enters into operation in Bucharest. The founder of the Romanian school of electrical machinery is Ion S. Gheorghiu (1885–1968), author of the first Romanian treatise in this field (Tratat de mas, ini electrice, 4 vol., Bucharest, 1957–1965); he founded the first workshop for electrical machinery in the country, at the Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1921), developed a unified theory of alternating current electrical machines with or without a commutator, expanded the scope of application of the equivalent quadrupole to the study of three-phase commutator motors, as well as to series motors with indirect supply.

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The electric lighting of the National Theatre becomes permanent and electric arc lamps (Yablochkov candles) are introduced in the Peles, Castle. Constantin I. Budeanu (1886–1959), electrotechnical engineer, professor at the Polytechnic School of Bucharest, member of the Academy of the Socialist Republic of Romania from 1955. He is one of the founders of the Romanian school of electrical engineering. He showed the existence of distortive effects associated to the reactive power in the transport of electric power, thus making significant contributions to this issue of great interest from a technical and economic standpoint. He examined inertial forces and worked to rationalise the system of units of electrical measurement. Corneliu Miclo¸si (1887–1963) was born on 5 March 1887 in a village in Arad. He attended the Faculty of Electrical Engineering at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, and then the Faculty of Mechanics in Budapest. He is the founder of the School of Welding in Timis, oara and creator of new technologies in the fields of welding, electric traction, and electrification. The first communal power station in Bucharest is installed at the Slaughterhouse. Its prime mover was a locomotive that served as a generator and supplied electricity to six arc lamps and 180 incandescent light bulbs. On 27 July 1889 electric trams were introduced in Timis, oara. A thermal power station is put into operation in Caransebes, (Caras, -Severin county), using a 100 HP set, the first in the country to distribute single-phase 2000 V alternating current. The Groz˘aves, ti power plant is built using a small waterfall (7.30 m) on the river Dâmbovit, a, at Ciurel, close to the entry into Bucharest. The plant had four Girard turbines (180 HP each), two for pumping water into the city’s water distribution system and two for supplying electricity for public lighting (as of 1890, and later also for the electric tram running from Cotroceni to Obor, introduced in 1894). The Romanian government acquires a telephone exchange servicing 1200 numbers. A first telephone switchboard is installed in Bucharest, used by only 5 subscribers, for the purpose of ensuring the connection between the Parliament and main ministries. Installation of telephone lines is extended to private users, reaching approximately 300 users by 1893. The first inter-city telephone lines were built between Bucharest and Sinaia, and between Bucharest, Br˘aila and Galat, i. In Galat, i, the first power station is built on the docks, followed, in 1893, by another one providing hydraulic service and a communal power station for electric lighting. The Engine and Waggon-building Joint Stock Company is founded in Arad by Johann Weitzer; at that time, the factory was manufacturing passenger railroad cars, freight cars, locomotives, electric tramcars, as well as military equipment. In 1921, it becomes the company called ASTRA; after nationalisation, the company maintains the manufacturing of freight cars, passenger cars, and metro cars (the entire fleet of railcars used by METROREX—Bucharest

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Fig. 2.1 The electric power plant of Timis, oara (Uzina Electric˘a Timis, oara)

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Metro). In 1990 it is incorporated as a stock company called S.C. ASTRA Vagoane Arad S.A. A power station built at B˘aile Herculane, on the Cerna river, becomes operational. The first electric generator set is installed in Ias, i on the premises of the ‘Sf. Spiridon’ Hospital, followed in 1896 by the one installed at the National Theatre, in 1897 by the one installed at the University, and in 1899 by those installed at the municipal power plant. The town authority of Timis, oara purchases all electrical installations from concessionaires and decides to undertake their commercial operation. The Electric Power Plant of Timis, oara (Uzina Electric˘a Timis, oara) is established in 1893 (Fig. 2.1). Public distribution of electricity is introduced in the small town of Toplet, (Caras, -Severin County), the first rural community in our country to benefit of electrification. It was followed by Sadu (Sibiu County), which became electrified in 1897. Underground electric lighting is used for the first time in the Romanian mining industry at the Sl˘anic salt mine. Oskar von Miller is granted the concession to complete by 1897 the construction of a hydroelectric power station on the Sadu river, together with transmission lines covering a distance of 18 km. The first electric tram in Bucharest is put into service on 9 December. Electric trams were subsequently introduced in the cities of Br˘aila (1898), Galat, i (1900), Ias, i (1901), Sibiu (1905), Oradea (1906), etc. The first underwater telegraph line is established between Br˘aila and M˘acin, along the Danube river bed. Dragomir Hurmuzescu develops, at the Sorbonne, an original method for the most accurate determination of the speed of light available at that time:

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300,000.1 km per second, as compared to the one calculated by Maxwell in 1868 which was 280,300 km per second. 1896 The power plant of Craiova city is put into operation, under a concession agreement granted to the German company AEG until 1937. In his doctoral thesis, defended at the Sorbonne, Dragomir Hurmuzescu builds upon an idea first advanced by Maxwell to determine, based on an original method, the most accurate value of the < v> ratio (ratio of the electromagnetic and electrostatic units of charge) from which the speed of light is obtained. Rosa and Darsey from the American Bureau of Standards mention that the result determined by Dragomir Hurmuzescu is the most accurate, 300,000.1 km per second (1895) as compared to the one calculated by Maxwell, which was 280,300 km per second (1868). Dragomir Hurmuzescu and the Frenchman L. Benoist pioneered ‘the discovery of the discharging effect of X-rays on insulator bodies’, a discovery that was presented by Gabriel Lippmann—a Nobel laureate—during a session held at the Academy of Sciences, before the discovery of the same phenomenon by H. Dufour and J.J. Thomson. In his work, Jean Perrin (1923) acknowledges their precedence, but adds the names of Roentgen, J.J. Thomson, and Righi A. 1897 The Sadu Hydropower Station is built, the third of its kind in the world following the ones at Niagara Falls and Merano (Italy), developed by Oskar Miller—founder of the Deutsches Museum of Science and Technology in Munich, the operation of which was continued by Dachler. The electrical operation of equipment in drilling installations is introduced experimentally in the exploitation of oil fields in the Prahova Valley, supplied with electricity from a 220 kW hydropower station located in Câmpina. The physics laboratory at the University of Ias, i begins work on the first applications of X-rays in medical radiography; Prof. Marinescu and Severneanu collaborate to promote this technology, and ‘Sf. Spiridon’ Hospital becomes a pioneer in the use of these applications. Public lighting in Res, it, a. Power-generating electric motors are installed experimentally in the drilling and extraction installations in the Prahova Valley oil fields. The electricity used was supplied by a micro hydropower station of approximately 220 kW, located in Câmpina, on the Prahova river. The power plant of the city of Arad becomes operational. A hydroelectric power plant is built and put into service on the Sadu river (Valea Sadului), the first hydroelectric power station in Romania and the third of its kind in the world. City power plants enter into operation in Târgu Mures, , Res, it, a, and Constant, a, supplying electricity for public lighting and industrial uses. Thermoelectric power plants are set up in Br˘aila, Ias, i, and Arad, followed in 1898 by the completion of the 10,000 V electricity transmission line between Sinaia and Doftana.

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1898 In Sinaia, on the Prahova river, a 1000 kW hydroelectric power station is established to supply electricity for public lighting in the city. The hydroelectric power station was designed by engineer Elie Radu at a very high technical level for that time, both in terms of construction, as well as equipment used. The first electric refrigerating equipment in Bucharest is introduced at the Luther and Bragadiru breweries, followed in 1903 by the refrigerators installed at the Central Market House. In the beginning, the refrigerating equipment was powered by electricity supplied from the operators’ own power stations, and after 1918 by the city’s power grid. The electrification of the city of Br˘aila begins, initially for the electric tram running to the Lacu S˘arat (Salt Lake) spa resort, and afterwards for public and domestic lighting, as well as for small industries. 1899 Romania’s first electricity transmission line enters into operation, running over a distance of 18 km from the hydroelectric power station at Valea Sadului to the city of Sibiu. Romania purchases a manual telephone exchange from the international exhibition organised in Paris, the first to be used in our country, which serviced 1200 numbers. The hydroelectric power stations in Alba Iulia and Piatra Neamt, become operational. The Municipal Electricity Plant (Uzina Comunal˘a de Electricitate) in Ias, i begins construction of the tram lines which will become operational a year later. 1900 The first 25,000 V three-phase electric line is put into service. It ran from Sinaia to Câmpina, it was 32 km-long, and had copper wires (25 mm2 ) supported by metal poles. In 1900 the industrial entity that would later become ‘Electromotor’ Timis, oara is established. It manufactured electric machines and ceased its activity on 3 March 2016. The research initiated by Dragomir Hurmuzescu in the field of magnetochemistry (to find out whether magnetisation can create an electromotive force) is expanded during the following years. Andrade publishes an article titled The Rise of Magnetochemistry from Ritter to Hurmuzescu showing that Dragomir Hurmuzescu’s work cleared some controversies which had persisted for more than 100 years in the scientific community, and that his experiments related to this phenomenon were the most rigorous and reproducible. 1901 In addition to the hydroelectric power plant, a new thermoelectric power plant is built at Groz˘aves, ti, based on the designs of Eng. Elie Radu, equipped with steam engines generating electricity. In 1912 a new thermoelectric power plant (designed by Eng. Dimitrie Leonida) becomes operational in Groz˘aves, ti. The Groz˘aves, ti power plant marks the beginning of centralised electrification in our country.

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The Romanian electrotechnical engineer Tudor T˘an˘asescu (1901–1959) is born. He is the author of fundamental theoretical works in the field of electrotechnics and electronics. The National School of Roads and Bridges is set to begin training mechanical and electrical engineers. The committee comprising of Mironescu, Saligny, Harjeu, proposes that ‘joint classes will be organised for the first two years, and during the last two years three specialisations will be offered: construction engineers and architects, mechanical and electrical engineers, mining and industrial engineers’. 1902 A thermoelectric power station is set up in Bac˘au. Engineer Nicolae Vasilescu-Karpen (1870–1964) discovers the cause of the magnetic reaction in the induction of ‘dynamo’ machines and demonstrates by experiment the validity of the theoretical explanations, establishing a series of relations between the energies of magnetic and electric fields, on one hand, and the tension and repulsion of the force lines of these fields, on the other. Martin Bercovici (1902–1971), engineer, professor at the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest, member of the Academy of the S. R. of Romania from 1963, a pioneer in the field of general energetics in our country. He published works on topics such as calculation of three-phase short-circuit currents, the theory of symmetrical components, transport of energy. He was involved in developing the plan for country-wide electrification. At the thermoelectric power plant in Craiova, the first Diesel set is put into operation, using a 120 HP MAN system, only two years after the deployment of this type of sets in the industrial sector in other countries. 1903 In researching the possibility of making the best use of some watercourses in Romania and benefit from their full hydropower potential, engineer Dimitrie Leonida (1883–1965) sets forth the proposal to build a hydroelectric power plant at Bicaz, for which he designs in 1908 the gravity dam on the Bistrit, a river. 1904 Remus R˘adulet, (1904–1984), electromechanical engineer, professor at the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara and the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest, member (from 1963) and vice-president (1966–1974) of the Academy of the S. R. of Romania, vice-president (1961–1964) and then president (1964– 1967) of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). He made contributions to the electrotechnology of energy and information, to the field of electrotechnical calculation, to the field of electric heat and electric welding, to the technology of electric devices and machines, and to the field of energy. He led (1957–1968) the editorial board that coordinated Lexiconul tehnic român [Romanian Technical Lexicon]. His published works include: Bazele electrotehnicii: probleme [Fundamentals of Electrotechnics: problems] (1980); Proiectarea hidrogeneratoarelor s, i a motoarelor sincrone [Design of hydrogenerators and synchronous motors] (1980); co-authored.

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An electrical vehicle is brought from Budapest to Sibiu: a wooden wheeled omnibus that was in use only for a few months and replaced afterwards by trams. 1905 The electrification of the city of Hunedoara begins by setting up an electric power station on the premises of the steelworks. The same year marks the opening of the first electric power station in Târgu Ocna (Bac˘au county), servicing the local salt mine. The power plant at Câmpina is built and starts operating with an installed power of 3000 HP. Its purpose was to supply electricity to the oil installations in Prahova and Dâmbovit, a counties, as well as to other towns and industrial facilities in the region. The beginnings of modern education in Romania in the field of electrotechnics. The first department for the study of electrotechnics in the country (Bucharest Polytechnic Institute). Engineer Nicolae Vasilescu-Karpen teaches the first electrotechnics course in the country, at the National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest, where he also establishes, in 1912, the laboratory of electricity, electrotechnics, electrical measurements, and electrical machinery. Augustin Maior (1882–1963) demonstrates that multiple calls can be transmitted simultaneously through one circuit, using different frequencies of signals, and thus lays the groundwork for the development of multiple telephony. The first wireless telegraph station in Romania, with a range of approximately 600 km, provides the connection between ships sailing on the Black Sea. 1906 The construction of the thermal power plant at Filaret-Bucharest begins; it is put into operation in September 1908, equipped with 675 HP Diesel engines, the largest of this kind at that time to be installed in a power plant in Europe. On the occasion of the Jubilee Exhibition, a first automatic telephone exchange, servicing 20 numbers, is installed in Bucharest. In the Scientific Annals of the University of Ias, i, Dragomir Hurmuzescu discusses the process of secondary emission under X-ray irradiation, foreshadowing the model developed by Rutherford. Ganz company builds a hydroelectric power plant on the Somes, ul Rece river to supply electricity for the city of Cluj, which marks the birth of Cluj Power Plant (Uzina Electric˘a Cluj) (1200 HP Francis turbines coupled with 1200 kVA, 15 kV, 42 Hz three-phase generators). The only railway with electric traction system was the Arad-Podgoria railway (1906), a line for Diesel locomotives that connected Arad to a series of localities in a neighbouring area of vineyards and orchards. The central point of this star-shaped route was the small town of Ghioroc, which was connected to Pâncota, Arad, Radna. The electrification of the line will be completed in 1913. A first law on patents for inventions is adopted.

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1907 Augustin Maior successfully tests multiple telephony on an initial 15 km line using high-frequency alternating current. Numerous scientific publications confirm this achievement as an original breakthrough. Augustin Maior’s scientific priority in the field of multiple telephony is acknowledged by Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift Journal in May 1907. In 1908, at the First Conference of PTT Engineers, he describes in his presentation titled Harmonic Telephony [Telefonia armonic˘a] the foundations of this theory and his findings are later published in the Electrical World Journal. 1908 The Romanian engineer Dimitrie Leonida (1883–1965) designs the construction project for a gravity dam at Bicaz, which involved breaking through the mountain and setting up a hydropower station. The project was implemented with a few modifications from 1951 to 1960, when the construction of Bicaz Hydroelectric Power Plant was completed. The thermal power plant is built in Baia Mare to supply electricity for the city’s needs, and also for the town of Baia Sprie. 1909 Professor Dragomir Hurmuzescu organises in Ias, i the first school for the application of electricity in the country, which would become, on 1 November 1910, the School of Industrial Electricity at the University of Ias, i. In addition to the School of Electricians and Mechanics, founded in Bucharest in 1908, the Technical Museum is also established on the initiative of engineer Dimitrie Leonida, initially aimed at popularising scientific progress in the country. It was rebuilt, expanded, and reorganised, and then reopened to the public in 1954, and currently operates as ‘Dimitrie Leonida’ Technical Museum (Muzeul tehnic „Prof.ing. Dimitrie Leonida”). In 1909 the Bucharest Tram Society (STB) is established. Vasilescu Karpen proposes, in a note addressed to the Academy of Sciences in France, the use of high frequency currents for long-distance telephony. 1910 The first School of Industrial Electricity is created by Dragomir Hurmuzescu; it would later become the Electrotechnical Institute (1913). The Electrotechnical Institute created by Dragomir Hurmuzescu is established as part of the University of Ias, i. It will cease activity in 1937. 1910–1912, construction of the Groz˘aves, ti Power Plant with an installed power of 2200 kW, using three-phase AC, a pioneer solution accomplished by Dimitrie Leonida and S, tef˘anescu Radu. Romania shows great interest in electric traction in the 1910–1911 period, when a line of small vehicles with accumulators was in circulation in Bucharest on Calea Victoriei (Victory Avenue), later discontinued for economic reasons. 1911 The electric power plants at Câmpulung-Muscel, Câmpulung Moldovenesc, Botos, ani, Focs, ani, Z˘arnes, ti, and Râs, nov are put into service, followed in 1912 by the ones at Curtea de Arges, and Târgovis, te. 1912 The engineer Dimitrie Leonida designs and builds a new thermal power plant at Groz˘aves, ti, with an initial installed power of 2000 kW, using three-phase current, equipped with four steam boilers and two 1000 kW turbines each driving a 1250 kVA generator.

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The power plant of the city of Vaslui, built according to the project designed by the engineer Nicolae Vasilescu-Karpen, is put into service using two 120 HP Diesel engines. Lamps with Wolfram filaments are introduced for street lighting. At the National School for Bridges and Roads in Bucharest the Laboratory of electricity, electrotechnics, and electrical measurements is established and will play an important role in testing the performance of Romanian electroctechnical products. The no. 17 tramway line Obor-Gara de Nord begins operating in Bucharest. 1913 Surface-contact electric traction is introduced for the first time in Romania as part of the electrification of the narrow railways Arad-Ghioroc-Pâncota and Ghioroc-Radna, with a length of 58.4 km, on which rail cars had been circulating since 1906. The School of Industrial Electricity, founded in 1909 on the initiative of Dragomir Hurmuzescu at the University of Ias, i, becomes the Electrotechnical Institute. Dragomir Hurmuzescu also establishes an Electrotechnical Institute at the University of Bucharest. Both institutes, in Ias, i and Bucharest, will remain active until 1937. Both conferred at graduation the title of ‘university electrical engineer’. While still a student, S, tefan Procopiu determines the molecular magnetic moment by applying Planck’s theory of quanta and Langevin’s theory of magnetism, calculating the expression for the moment of the electron based on the value of universal constants. The value of the molecular magnetic moment, also called theoretical magneton, was determined by S, tefan Procopiu a few years before Bohr calculated the same value and made it known to the scientific community. As an act of justice, this discovery is also called the Bohr-Procopiu Magneton. Professor I. S. Gheorghiu conducts the survey on the Electrification of the Ploies, ti-Predeal Railway and recommends that two hydroelectric power plants be set up on the upper course of the Ialomit, a river, at Dobres, ti and Galma-Moroeni; they will be completed later (the first in 1928–1930, and the second in 1952–1953). 1914 The first radiotelegraphy connection between Romania and another country is established with equipment installed in T, epes, tower in the Liberty Park (Parcul Libert˘at, ii). 1915 Engineer Nicolae Vasilescu-Karpen installs at Her˘astr˘au the first radiotelegraph station in Romania, a 150 kW station that enables connections with similar stations outside the country. At the same time, engineers Dimitrie Leonida and Emil Giurgea also build a transceiver station. During the war, they mounted the station on a train car and sent it to Moldova, where it was of valuable service on the frontline. The 55,000 V aerial electric line Res, it, a-Anina, 25 km long, becomes operational.

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1919 Augustin Maior organises in Sibiu the first School of Telephony and Telegraphy in Transylvania. On 27 June the first tramway is put into service in Timis, oara. 1920 The Polytechnic School is established in Timis, oara, with sections for electromechanics and metallurgy. The Association of Electric Power Plants in the New Provinces of Romania (Asociat, ia Centralelor Electrice din Noile Provincii ale României) is founded in Cluj. In 1931 it will merge with the Association of Producers and Distributors of Electricity (Asociat, ia Produc˘atorilor s, i Distribuitorilor de Energie din România, APDE). C. D. Bus, il˘a takes over the German company ENERGIA, which is capitalised and becomes a strong Romanian company. 1921 In the laboratories of Gabriel Lippman at the Sorbonne, S, tefan Procopiu discovers a new optical phenomenon consisting in the longitudinal depolarisation of light in suspensions of crystalline particles and colloids, a discovery that will be presented to the Academy of Sciences in France. It will be later called the ‘Procopiu Phenomenon’. Acad. Toma Dordea (1921–2015) is born in Bungard. He was a Romanian electrical engineer who had highly original scientific contributions to the theory of electrical machines operating in permanent sinusoidal mode, by also taking into account iron losses, a new mathematical model of calculation in the field of electrical machines, by developing original algorithms for synchronous and asynchronous machines, transitory phenomena in electrical machines (by expanding the theory of the 2 axes for m-phase machines, with non-sinusoidal distribution of the magnetic field along the pole pitch). His ideas can be seen in numerous industrial ‘firsts’ at Res, it, a Works and Electroputere Craiova Works. Dimitrie Leonida launches Energia magazine. 1922 The thermal power plant at Flores, ti (Prahova County) is built and put into service (1922–1923). Designed for an initial power of 6300 kW, the plant was first intended to supply electricity to oil fields. The first electric machines manufactured in Romania are produced by the factories in Res, it, a. The earliest beginnings of the production of electric machines in Res, it, a go back to the year 1915, when the war gave rise to the need for a special workshop for the maintenance and repair of the electric machines already existing at the Steel Works and Domains of Res, it, a (Uzinele de Fier s, i Domeniile Res, it, a, UDR). Starting in 1918, new machinery was built in this workshop for UDR, and from 1922 it started making machines for third parties. Thus it became the first electric machinery factory in Romania. The first school for technicians specialised in electromechanics is created in Cluj. It offered a 4-year study programme and was led by a gifted engineer with special merits in the field of electrotechnical education, Professor Dragos, Traian. He held the position of director from 1927 to 1946 when was succeeded by A. Domsa (the school was transformed into the School of

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Sub-Engineers in 1933). He showed exceptional qualities as an engineer and intellectual (he invented a new low temperature combustion Diesel engine, the design of which was sadly lost). He organised the school based on the model provided by ‘Ingineur Schule Mittweida’ in Germany, which enjoyed a very good reputation across Europe. In 1947, based on a memorandum addressed to the Ministry of National Education, the transformation of the School of Electromechanical Sub-Engineers into the Faculty of Electrotechnics is requested. However, the only response to this request was to establish the Faculty of Mechanics, which would later include an electrical field of study. S. Drachler proposes an extensive project for the electrification of Transylvania. The Ministry of Public Works establishes the Commission for the Electrification of Romania, which will operate within a framework provided by the Energy Law of 1924. After the war, the development of electrical traction for trams is continued until 1922; there were 20.9 km of double tracks and 27.3 km of horse-drawn lines. The fleet is supplemented with 50 Thomson-Hudson carriages and 50 trailers. 1923 On 15 September 1923, Acad. Corneliu Miclo¸si is appointed director of the Power Plant in Timis, oara. In 1923, it is decided to modernise the power installation and switch to 50 Hz alternating current with 10,000 V distribution, while the secondary distribution would be 380/220 V. During his time in Paris and after returning to Romania (1924–1956), Vasilescu Karpen developed the so-called K-piles, which appear to defy the second principle of thermodynamics. Prof. A. Nicolaide (2006) considers that Vasilescu Karpen developed the first pile with liquid dissolved fuel, cells with identical and unalterable electrodes, made of platinum sponge, with the positive electrode immersed in NO3 H and the negative electrode in contact with a KOH solution. To this day, the question whether it is a combustion pile or a concentration pile remains a subject of controversy. From that year onwards, the academician Corneliu Miclo¸si made remarkable contributions to the welding of testing equipment and welding processes. He is also the founder of the Welding School in Timis, oara. A. Nicolau establishes at the Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara the Laboratory for testing electrical machines. 1924 Dragomir Hurmuzescu develops, in the Electrotechnical Institute of Bucharest, the first experimental radio station that allows broadcasting, and in 1925 the first radio broadcast was transmitted in the Carol Park (within the ‘Bucharest Month’ event). A Law on energy is voted, but not enforced, and later, in 1930, another law is passed that provides the right to concession for certain assets in the energy field. The hydroelectric power plant at Dobres, ti starts operating (16,000 kW).

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Mircea Volanschi, director of the Communal Society for Electricity plays a significant role in the development of applied uses of electricity, longdistance transmission of high-voltage electricity, and as a teacher training young electrical engineers. 1925 The ‘Prietenii Radiofoniei’ (‘Friends of Radio’) Association is founded at the recommendation of Dragomir Hurmuzescu and the Radio Român and Radiofonia magazines are launched. – The Radiofonia Magazine is launched, issued bimonthly. 1926 Engineer Nicolae Vasilescu-Karpen, who started researching electrochemical phenomena in 1920, puts forth the hypothesis that free electrons exist in liquids, and develops the related electronic theory. It wasn’t until 1963 that the hypothesis of free electrons was revisited by French researchers, who used it to expand electrochemical redox processes in electrolytes. The first regular radio broadcasts start, and on 1 November 1928 the words: ‘Alo, Alo, aici Radio Bucures, ti, România’ (‘Hello, hello, this is Radio Bucharest, Romania’) are heard on the air for the first time. D. Bus, il˘a, the most representative figure of the Romanian engineering in the interwar period, creates the Romanian National Institute for the Study of Planning and Use of Energy Sources (Institutul Nat, ional Român pentru studiul Amenaj˘arii s, i Folosirii Izvoarelor de Energie, IRE), which provided a venue for debating some of the most important issues concerning the field of energy and electrotechnics in Romania: electrification, new sources of energy (hydro, wind, waste), electric traction, electrotechnical industrialisation. The names ‘IRE’ and C. D. Bus, il˘a are intertwined with Romania’s affiliation to CIGRE, CEI, WEC, Large Dams Commission. He was a leading figure in the professional associations that were established in Romania at that time: the Polytechnic Society, the Romanian Electrotechnical Committee (Comitetul Electrotehnic Român, CER), IRE, the High Council of Water and Energy (Consiliul Superior al Apelor s, i Energiei), Association of Producers and Distributors of Electricity (Asociat, ia Produc˘atorilor s, i Distribuitorilor de Energie din România, APDE), General Union of Industrialists in Romania (Uniunea General˘a a Industrias, ilor din România (UGIR). 1927 Engineer Plaut, ius Andronescu (1893–1975) establishes in Timis, oara, at the Polytechnic School, the first laboratory for high-voltage technology in the country. Electrotechnical engineer Constantin I. Budeanu publishes the work titled Puissances réactives et fictives, in which he coins the term ‘deformed power’, defines the concept, and provides methods of calculation. This was a contribution of global importance to the field of electrotechnics. Due to the Romanian Electrotechnical Committee (Comitetul Electrotehnic Român, CER), established on the initiative of IRE by Mr. C. D. Bus, il˘a, Romania becomes a member of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), with Dragomir Hurmuzescu as its first president. An automatic telephone exchange servicing 2000 numbers is installed.

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1928 Engineer Dimitrie Leonida organises in Bucharest the first exhibition in Romania dedicated to the field of electricity. 1928–1930 In the upper catchment area of the river Ialomit, a the Dobres, ti (Dâmbovit, a County) a hydroelectric power plant is built and put into service. It had a power of 16 MW, the highest in the country at that time, and its purpose was to supply electricity to the city of Bucharest. Dragomir Hurmuzescu establishes the Romanian Radio Broadcasting Company. Work on B˘aneasa station begins; it will be completed in 1929 and put into service in 1930. Traian Dragos, establishes in Cluj a School of Technical Conductors, which would later become the School of Electromechanical Engineers, where he was director and taught the course titled ‘Lifting Machinery and Strength of Materials’. Original research in the field of Diesel engines. In 1928, Nicolae Malaxa (1884–1965), taking advantage of a law that encouraged the development of the national industry (1927), used a bank loan to build the largest European rolling stock factory; during the first crisis (1938), he delivered the 100th locomotive, was producing railcars equipped with Diesel-Ganz engines (1931), the first Diesel locomotive (1936), and in 1938 he delivered to CFR a first batch of 28 locomotives. A collaborator described him as ‘the man and engineer who had the courage, skill, and patriotism necessary to demonstrate to the world the industrial vocation of the Romanian people’. Plautius Andronescu establishes at the Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara the Laboratory for Electrotechnical Research. 1929 During the period 1929–1930, the electric thermal power plant is put into service at Schitu Goles, ti (Arges, County); it had a power of 18,000 kW, was equipped with steam turbines, and operated using coal extracted in the region. The Nomenclature Committee of IEC adopts the name of VOLT AMPERE REACTIVE (VAR) proposed by C. Budeanu, which defines the reactive power and the unit of measurement. He thus joined the ranks of electrotechnicians who proposed units of measurements that were named after them: Siemens, Tesla, Coulomb, Ohm, Farad, etc. The Laboratory for industrial testing of electric machines, devices, and materials, led by Th. Popescu, and the Laboratory for Electro-communications led by Matei Marinescu enter into operation. Short-wave broadcasts using a station of the Association ‘Friends of Radio’ and another higher power station put into service by Prof. Tudor T˘an˘asescu at Politehnica in Bucharest. S, tefan Procopiu points out magnetic discontinuities when electricity passes through a ferromagnetic wire, findings that will lead to the discovery of the ‘PROCOPIU Effect’ in 1951. 1930 During a session organised in Stockholm, the International Electrotechnical Commission adopts, based on the proposal and phrasing put forward by the Romanian delegation led by Eng. Constantin I. Budeanu, the definitions for

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1935

1936 1937

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‘reactive power’ and ‘power factor’, as well as for ‘VAR’ (Volt-AmpereReactive) as a unit of reactive power. Subsequently, at the International Conference of Large Networks, it was decided to establish a special committee for the study of reactive and deforming phenomena, under the leadership of the Romanian engineer. At Urlat, i (Prahova County), the first transformation station with outdoor 60/15 kV connections in the country is set up. 1930–1931 The thermal power plant at S, orecani-Aghires, u (Cluj County) is built, with a power of 500 kW, equipped with turbo-alternators, and using local coal to operate. 1930–1932 With a view to supply the city of Constant, a with electricity, a 4000 kW thermal power station is installed on the shore of lake T˘ab˘ac˘aria, equipped with turbo-alternators powered by heating oil. It operated in conjunction with the old power station that had been in service in the harbour since 1908. Dimitrie Leonida designs the first Project for the underground transportation system in Bucharest. I. S. Gheorghiu drafts the General Plan for Railway Electrification. The power plant (Uzina electric˘a) in Craiova publishes (1933–1935) a periodical titled Contactul, which is aimed at informing readers about ‘issues that are not known and are of interest to all. We will keep you up to date with regard to the innovations and advances in the field of technology (bread toasters, electric kettles, clothes irons, electric stoves, electric hobs)’. During the fair exhibition in Parcul Carol (‘Carol’ Park) visitors were shown a small ship on the lake that was controlled remotely from the shore by electromagnetic waves. Designed by Mihail Konteschweller, a collaborator of Dragomir Hurmuzescu, the ship could receive 6 commands: forward, backwards, right, left, siren, and stop. M. Konteschweller was awarded the prize of the Romanian Academy for the book Telemecanica [Telemechanics] and was thus recognised as a pioneer of telemechanics in Romania. The first Science Congress is organised in Romania by Dragomir Hurmuzescu. Engineer Aurel Avramescu (1903–1985), member of the Romanian Academy since 1963, drafts the first scientific memorandum on the calculation of the heating of electric conductors due to short-circuiting. The ‘Gh. Asachi’ Polytechnic School is established in Ias, i. On 1 April 1938 the Power Plant (Uzina Electric˘a) in Timis, oara is merged with the municipal tramways, forming the Electromechanical Works of Timis, oara (Întreprinderea Electromecanic˘a Timis, oara, I.E.T.), which remained active until 1948, the year of nationalisation. 1939–1940 The hydroelectric power plant at Valea Sadului is built and put into service to supply water and power to an industrial complex located in the area where the Jiu river exits the gorge. Prof. Cezar Parteni-Antoni is the founder of the Electrical Machines Laboratory at the Faculty of Electrotechnics in Ias, i.

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Corneliu Miclo¸si publishes a work of great technological importance for the electrification of Romania: Electrificarea Banatului (Electrification of the Banat Region), aimed at preventing the danger of some concessionaires. It will be followed in 1942 by Utilizarea energiei hidraulice din Munt, ii Banatului (Using hydraulic power in the Banat Mountains). Starting this year and continuing until 1953, Augustin Maior addresses the problems of gravity and some universal constants, gravity and thermodynamics, magnetic fields and magnetism, published in the Scientific Bulletins of the Romanian Academy. A synthetic overview of A. Maior’s works written in the period 1942–1944 will be presented by Louis de Broglie to the Academy of Sciences in France under the title Gravitational Field and Magnetism. In Timis, oara 43 electric clocks ordered from a plant with two ‘mother clocks’ are installed at the electric power plant. Th. Ionescu professor at the Universities of Ias, i and Bucharest (educated at Nancy, collaborator of the great physicist Cotton at the Sorbonne) builds, alongside the physicist V. Mihu, an installation that will be used to obtain the first MASER stimulated emission. It was a precursor of the MASER invented in 1954 by Townes, Basov, and Prokhorov. Under the coordination and revision of R. R˘adulet, , the translation of HÜTTE is published; it is an exceptional work on engineering and features additions and restructuring of some chapters. At the recommendation of AGIR and the Polytechnic Society, with a view to address the important need of engineers for a work that provides relevant information in various technological fields, the committee responsible for LEXICONUL TEHNIC ROMÂN [ROMANIAN TECHNICAL LEXICON] is established. The first edition will be published from 1949 to 1956 (7 volumes, 48,763 entries), and the second edition from 1957 to 1968 (19 volumes, 68,550 entries), coordinated by Remus R˘adulet, , Al. Timotin, Andrei T, ugulea. The ‘Gh. Asachi’ Polytechnic School in Ias, i, established in 1937, becomes the ‘Gh. Asachi’ Polytechnic Institute, and the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara, established in 1920, is transformed into a polytechnic institute, and the departments of electromechanics and mines and metallurgy become faculties. Concurrently with the installation of electric power stations in different areas of the country, construction is started on a wide power transport and distribution network, while also transitioning from the 110 kV voltage to the 220 kV and then to 400 kV voltage. ‘ELECTROPRECIZIA’ plant in S˘acele. On 30 June 1936, in Bras, ov, PREROM is established as a joint-stock company specialised in the manufacture of aircraft dashboards. In 1941, PREROM buys a small company, TARTLER, specialised in the manufacture of electric engines. In 1946, as a result of the political upheaval in the aftermath of the Second World War, production of equipment for the aeronautical industry was stopped. The company was nationalised in 1948 and renamed ELECTROPRECIZIA. In 1949, due to the expansion of production, the company was moved to its current location, and focused its activities on the production of electrical

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Electroprecizia Electrical Motors S.R.L.

Electroprecizia Automotive Equipment S.R.L.

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Electroprecizia Electrical Equipment S.R.L.

Fig. 2.2 Electrical profiles of Electroprecizia

engines. In 1953, ELECTROPRECIZIA started to manufacture electrical equipment for tractors and trucks made in Romania. Between 1965 and 1975, massive investments were made in the production lines for starters, alternators, dashboards, ignition distributors, and relays, using SERI-DUCELLIERJAEGER licences. At the same time, the manufacturing of electric engines was developed. In 1998, following the privatisation process, it becomes a 100% private company with Romanian capital. In 2009, with a view to improve the efficiency and development of activities, Electroprecizia was divided into 8 modules, of which three had electrical profiles: Electroprecizia Electrical Motors S.R.L., Electroprecizia Automotive Equipment S.R.L. and Electroprecizia Electrical Equipment S.R.L. (Fig. 2.2). The Electrical Machine Works (Uzina de Mas, ini Electrice) in Bucharest starts its activity (under the initial name ‘Dinamo’, later changed to ‘Clement Gotwald’, currently UMEB) by transforming ASAM into production of electric motors for general use, welding transformers. Over time, alongside Res, it, a Works (Uzina Res, it, a), it will come to represent the conceptual core of Romania’s motor production. 1949 The ‘Electroputere’ plant is established in Craiova. It produces heavy electrotechnical machinery (Fig. 2.3): synchronous and asynchronous electric motors of up to 1600 kW, high voltage electrical equipment, high voltage electrical transformers (Fig. 2.4), etc., as well as Diesel-electric locomotives (from 1961) and electric locomotives (from 1967). It was founded on the 1 September 1949 and its name is tied to the development of the Romanian power system and the modernisation of the rail and urban transportation system. The first power transformers were developed based on its own design starting with 1951. In the period from 1960 to 1965, production is diversified and the factory buys the ELIN Austria licence for the 200 MVA autotransformer and the ASEA Sweden licence for the electric locomotive transformer. The period between 1965 and 1975 sees the reorganisation of the transformer production, the building of new production halls, and the production of the 400 kV and 400 MVA transformers using the plants own resources.

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Fig. 2.3 Heavy electrotechnical machinery

Fig. 2.4 High voltage electrical transformers

The first 440 MVA transformer is manufactured in 1987 for the Cernavod˘a Nuclear Plant, and it was the largest transformer ever delivered in Romania. The test laboratories also benefit from substantial development, leading to the diversification of the production of transformers, which were needed domestically, as well as for export, and for which all of the test runs were carried out. The manufacturing of rotating electrical machines started in 1950 and more than 400 types of electrical machines were supplied. Starting with 1991, Electroputere was incorporated as a joint stock company. Electroputere underwent privatisation in November 2007 and the majority stake went to the Saudi company Al-Arrab Contracting Company Limited. The first receiving stations factory in the country—‘Radio popular’—starts production in Bucharest. It would later become ‘Electronica’. It was equipped

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with stat-of-the-art machinery, and was the factory that marked the beginnings of the development of the Romanian electronics industry. The Institute of Industrial Designs (Institutul de proiect˘ari industriale, IPI) is established in Bucharest; it was later transformed into the Institute of industrial designs and metallurgical installations (Institutul de proiect˘ari de uzine s, i instalat, ii metalurgice, IPROMET), from which the Rolling Mills Design Institute (Institutul de proiect˘ari pentru laminoare, IPROLAM) branched out after 1959. In the same year several other institutions come into being: Institute for Studies and Power Engineering (Institutul de studii s, i proiect˘ari energetice, ISPE), for the production of power grids, thermoelectric and nuclearelectric power plants, district heating networks, high voltage power lines and stations, etc., and also the other two specialised plants, ‘Energoconstruct, ia’ and ‘Energomontaj’, both of which became trusts in 1953. Once the Groz˘aves, ti-Giurgiu-Ruse 60 kV aerial power line is put into service, the Romanian power system is connected for the first time to a similar system in another country. The first trolleybus is introduced in Bucharest, between Victory Square (Piat, a Victoriei) and Hipodrom, on a route of 5700 m, which was later extended to the B˘aneasa Airport and, in the opposite direction, to Cotroceni via Bucharest North Railway Station (Gara de Nord). The engineer Dorin Pavel builds on the river Bârzava the Gozna dam, the first large embankment dam in Romania, 48 m tall, which formed a lake with a total volume of 11.5 million cubic meters, the most important artificial water body of the time, which was used to power the hydroelectric power plant at Cr˘ainicel, near Res, it, a. Within ASIT, the engineer Tudor T˘an˘asescu organises the first automation classes in Romania. The merger of the Polytechnic Society with the General Association of Engineers in Romania (Asociat, ia general˘a a inginerilor din România, AGIR) results in the creation of the Scientific Association of Technicians (Asociat, ia s, tiint, ific˘a a tehnicienilor, AST), which is transformed in 1951 in the Scientific Association of Engineers and Technicians (Asociat, ia s, tiint, ific˘a a inginerilor s, i tehnicienilor, ASIT). Starting with 1962 it operates as the National Council of Engineers and Technicians (Consiliul nat, ional al inginerilor s, i tehnicienilor, CNIT). Under the auspices of ASIT (1949–1962) and CNIT (1962–1968), Lexiconul tehnic român (Romanian Technical Lexicon) is published (first edition, 7 volumes, 1949–1956; second edition, 19 volumes, 1957–1968) is published. It is a comprehensive lexicographic work, the first of its kind in Romania and one of the few known worldwide, which provides a handbook with practical explanations of machines, apparatus, operations, phenomena, and problems of the scientific production and research. The work, which covers more than 100 disciplines and comprises 49,000 articles in the first edition and more than 70,000 in the second edition, was created with contributions from about 400 external collaborators plus an editorial board coordinated by academicians

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Remus R˘adulet, and S, tefan B˘alan and by engineers Nicolae S, t. Mih˘ailescu, Radu T, it, eica, and Carol Neumann. Gh. Cartianu makes the first radio relay connection in the country between the Bucharest studios, using the Tânc˘abes, ti radio station, based on an original design. He carries out the first experiments with High-Fidelity radio broadcasting. 1949–1956 sees the beginning of the editing of the 8 volumes of Lexiconul tehnic român (Romanian Technical Lexicon) (LTR). 1950 The beginning of the Romanian school of research in electrical engineering. Pursuant to the Decision of the Council of Ministers no. 868 of 1950, the Department of Electrotechnical Planning (Direct, ia de Proiect˘ari Electrotehnice, DPEt) and the Institute of Electrotechnical Research (Institutul de Cercet˘ari Electrotehnice, ICEt) were established within the Ministry of Electricity. The Decision of the Council of Ministers no. 357 of 1954 unified the two aforementioned institutions to form the Institute of Electrotechnical Research (Institutul de Cercet˘ari s, i Proiect˘ari Electrotehnice, ICPEt). It is worth noting that, based on the results of their own research, new domains and even departments and factories with day to day activities based on ICPE technologies were created. Among the economic units from the sphere of industrial production that benefited from these results, the following can be mentioned: ICME, Electromagnetica, Electroaparataj, IMF, IPRS B˘aneasa in Bucharest, Sinterom Cluj, IFU Urziceni, IMPTF Odorheiul Secuiesc, IEP S˘acele, IAEM Sf. Gheorghe, Elba Timis, oara, Electroceramica Turda, and more. On the basis of Law no. 15 of 1990 on the reorganisation of economic units, as well as of Government Decision no. 1284 of 1990 regarding some measures for the organisation and funding of research and development units, ICPE was incorporated as a joint stock company. On the basis of the same decision, another 8 companies specialised in research were founded, all separated from ICPE (SC-ICPE-ACTEL-SA, SC-ICPE-SAERP-SA, SCICPE-ELECTROSTATICA-SA, SC-ICPE-ECOENERG-SA, SC-ICPE-MESA, SC-ICPE ELECTROCOND TECHNOLOGIES-SA, SC-ICPE-TRAFILSA, SC-EUROTEST-SA). October The 10-year (1951–1960) national electrification plan is adopted, an important stage in the development of the field of energy in Romania. The plan was developed on scientific bases, with input from the best specialists. The plan included: the concentration of electric energy production in highefficiency large power plants through building new thermo- and hydroelectric power plants and developing the existing ones; the complex planning of watercatchment areas; the electrification of the main agricultural branches and the introduction of electricity in the rural areas; the construction of electricity transmission lines and electrotechnical plants; the rational exploitation of energy resources by making use of inferior fuel; the development of the nationwide power system. 1951 The construction of the hydroelectric power plant at Bicaz (Neamt, County) begins, which consists of a gravity dam at Izvoru Muntelui, on Bistrit, a river,

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and a hydroelectric power plant at Stejaru, with a total installed power of 210 MW. The resulting reservoir, the largest mountain lake in Romania, is 35 km long and 2 km wide. The construction of the hydroelectric power plant was accomplished, with some modifications, on the basis of engineer Dimitrie Leonida’s 1908 idea and based on the geological surveys conducted by Ion B˘ancil˘a (born 1901), who encompassed and expanded on Gheorghe Macovei’s older research. The hydroelectric power plant started operation at full capacity in 1962. As a result of his research in the field of magnetism, starting as early as 1930, S, tefan Procopiu discovers a new phenomenon, named in 1951 the Procopiu Effect. By studying the Barkhausen Effect, which consists of the passing of an alternating current through ferromagnetic wires, he discovers a circular effect of magnetic discontinuity, which was called by physicists THE PROCOPIU EFFECT, an effect that was later applied in the construction of computers (by the American-Romanian Storski). As a result of his research in the field of magnetism, starting as early as 1930, S, tefan Procopiu discovers a new phenomenon, named in 1951 the Procopiu Effect. By studying the Barkhausen Effect, which consists of the passing of an alternating current through ferromagnetic wires, he discovers a circular effect of magnetic discontinuity, which was called by physicists THE PROCOPIU EFFECT, an effect that was later applied in the construction of computers (by the American-Romanian Storski). The Institute of Electrical Machines and Devices (Institutul de Mas, ini s, i Aparate Electrice, IMAE) is established in Craiova, intended to support the numerous electrotechnical units that were to be developed in the Oltenia region, and having the following departments: Electrical machines, Electrical devices, Electrification for industry, agriculture, and transportation. The rector of the Institute was professor Cezar Antoni-Parteni. J. M. Juran (1907–2008), an American of Romanian descent, regarded as ‘the father of quality’, publishes this year the Quality Control Handbook. He was considered, next to Denning, the creator of quality-assessment methods. 1952 The Doices, ti (Dâmbovit, a County) thermoelectric power plant starts operating, with an installed power of 120 MW, which opens the series of large thermoelectric power plants to be built in Romania as part of the electrification plan. The same year, the hydroelectric power plant Cr˘ainicel-Res, it, a, on the river Bârzava, enters into operation with a power of 8.7 MW, using a 475 m waterfall. As part of the planning strategy for the river Ialomit, a, the hydroelectric power plant at Gâlma-Moroieni (Dâmbovit, a County) is put into service. Its construction began in 1949, it had an installed power of 15 MW, a dam that was 9 m tall, and a reservoir with a capacity of 40,000 cubic meters. Alongside the Dobres, ti hydroelectric power plant, it powered the city of Bucharest through a 110 kV, 125 km long high-voltage electricity line.

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The Ovidiu II thermal power plant in Constant, a sees the installation of the first Romanian transformer of 35/6 kV and 15 MVA, manufactured at the ‘Electroputere’ Craiova plant. Work begins at the Bicaz hydroelectric power plant. Prof. Nicolae Bot, an is the founder and organiser of the School of Electrical Drive Systems at the Faculty of Electrotechnics in Ias, i. He also established the academic discipline Electrical Drive Systems and created the first laboratory for electrical power drive systems. In 1972 he will organise the first National Conference on Electrical Drive Systems (Conferint, a Nat, ional˘a de Act, ion˘ari Electrice, CNAE). 1953 1953–1958 The Electrical Engineer’s Handbook (Manualul inginerului electrician) is published, a comprehensive work in 8 volumes, to which a large number of specialists have collaborated. The Central Laboratory is created at Electroputere Craiova, which will be equipped in 1962 with a 1.6 MV, 20 kWs pulse generator. In preparation for the new trams that needed to be built on the occasion of the World Festival of Youth and Students organised in Bucharest, the Dinamo factory builds the traction engines that were to be used for the new trams (35 kW, 3000 rpm). The traction engine will become the strength of the factory, with the engines produced here equipping future trams, trolleybuses, underground trains, and ships. 1954 The hydroelectric power plant at As, tileu (Bihor County) becomes operational; it was built on the river Cris, ul Repede, had an installed power of 3000 kW, a 3 m tall dam, and a 33 m waterfall. The thermoelectric power plant at Fântânele-Sângeorgiu de P˘adure starts operating, equipped with the first 25 MW set in Romania, the largest at that time. At the same time, 12 MW sets are also installed at the thermoelectric power plant in Com˘anes, ti (Bac˘au county). 1954–1960. The unified national energy system is completed by interconnecting the previously independently operating regional systems. The process starts in 1954 with the interconnection of the systems in Transilvania and Muntenia, which are joined in 1956 by northern Oltenia and Banat, in 1957 by the regions Ias, i and Galat, i, in 1959 by the regions Baia Mare and Craiova, and in 1960 by the regions Suceava, Oradea, and Dobrogea. 1955 The Sadu V hydroelectric power plant on the river Sadu (Sibiu County) starts producing electric power. The dam of the hydroelectric power plant, the first arch dam in Romania, placed at an altitude of 1158 m, 60 m tall, retains a water volume of 5,000,000 cubic meters. At UMEB, Bunea makes the high-frequency convertor series, with rotary sets with 50 Hz input and high-frequency, single-phase current output: 2500 Hz or 8000 Hz. The Electroputere Craiova factory starts manufacturing trams. The first trolleybuses are introduced experimentally in Bucharest and Timis, oara.

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1956 The thermoelectric power plant at Paros, eni (Hunedoara County), designed for a 300 MW capacity, and the one at Borzes, ti (Bac˘au County), designed for 625 MW, are put into service using the first 50 MW power units. At ICPE, Dan Fint, escu achieves the first electric drive of a rail car, using the magnetic amplifier, and develops and transfers to industrial use a series of magnetic amplifiers, thus advancing static switching. ICPE, through the team led by Dan Fint, escu and R. Z˘aroni, applies in the context of the electric operation of a rail car the first elements of commutation, developing a series of magnetic amplifiers subsequently produced by the Electrotehnica factory. It is the beginning of electric drive systems based on static switching and power electronics. 1957 1957–1965 Acad. Ion S. Gheorghiu, founder of the Romanian school of electrical machinery and the creator of the first laboratory for electrical machines in the country (1921), publishes at the Polytechnic School of Bucharest Tratat de mas, ini electrice (Treatise on Electrical Machines), (4 volumes), the first Romanian treatise that approaches and develops a unified theory of the construction of AC electrical machines. The first Romanian electronic computer is built under the guidance of engineer Victor Toma—CIFA 1 (a parallel type with electronic tubes and a memory on magnetic cylinder). In 1958 the second model is built, the improved CIFA 2, at the same time when a tube computer was built by ZUSE in Austria. The development at ICPE (Dan Fint, escu, R. Z˘aroni, S. Canescu) of unified Diesel equipment for the modernisation of Diesel locomotives. In the following years (1958–1960) the team is to be found modernising the 1400 HP electric Diesel locomotive, while in 1959 they contribute to the modernisation of the DE 200–400 kW shunter locomotive developed by the ‘23 August’ Factory (Uzina 23 August). 1957–1966 Publication begins for the second edition of Lexiconul Tehnic Român (Romanian Technical Lexicon) (19 volumes). 1958 ICPE—the Automation department—produces the control equipment for a machine tool with control through programmes imprinted on magnetic recorder tape. 1959 1959–1969 The Bras, ov-Bucures, ti railway is electrified, for the first years on the section Bras, ov-Predeal-Câmpina, and over the last years of this period on the section Câmpina-Bucharest. The work titled Analiza sistemelor prin separarea nodurilor s, i utilizarea curent, ilor de scurt-circuit (Analysis of systems through node separation and the use of short circuit currents) is published by the Romanian electrical engineer Paul Dimo (born 1905). In this work the author describes the methods of the general theory for analysing electro-energetic systems, with the assistance of digital computers—‘The DIMO nodal analysis’. Plautius Andronescu (1893), the head of the Electrotechnics Department in the Faculty of Electrotechnics in Timis, oara, with an interest in the Hall Effect

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and the operation of core memory systems, promotes, within the department, the building of the first MECIPT computer. Dan Fint, escu and R. Z˘aroni develop, on the basis of a highly original patent (winner of the State Award), a new scheme and operation equipment for industrial electrostatic filters, with pulsating current rather than direct current, showing a beneficial effect on the performance of the filters. Afterwards, this solution was implemented worldwide by most manufacturers of electrofilters. Romania stops importing trolleybuses from the Soviet Union and decides to design and implement a Romanian trolleybus for which UMEB comes up with the TN73 (134 kW, 3000 rpm) engine. 1960 The construction of the Fântânele-Odorhei-Miercurea Ciuc and Vas, c˘auOradea 110 kV electric lines is completed, through which Bihor county is connected to the national power system. Romania starts building 220 kV power lines, starting with the Bicaz-Ludus, line, later to be extended to Hunedoara. The ‘Electronica’ factories in Bucures, ti build the ‘Enescu’ radioreceiver, with frequency modulation technology. In March, the Romanian Railways are delivered the first 2100 HP Electric Diesel Locomotives, on a BBC licence. On 27 December, at Predeal, the 69 metal pole is set up—this is considered to be the beginning of electrification at the Romanian Railways (CFR). 1961 The ‘Electroputere’ factory in Craiova, in collaboration with the Machine Building Plants in Res, it, a, manufacture and deliver to the railways company the first 2100 HP electric Diesel locomotive, built on a licence from the Sulzer company, with a series of original improvements. With this, Romania begins the replacement of steam in railway traction with electric Diesel traction. The increasing number of locomotives being built leads to the generalised use of electric Diesel traction on the Romanian railways by 1970. The electric and thermal power station at Brazi-Ploies, ti is put into service with an initial capacity of 50 MW, which, due to successive further extensions, has reached today 600 MW. Besides the electric power produced, the thermal power generated by the station provides heating for the new residential neighbourhoods of Ploies, ti and for the greenhouses at I.A.S. T˘at˘arani. In the field of computing, the improved CIFA 3 computer is built in 1961 at IFA, and the MECIPT-1 computer is built at Timis, oara Polytechnic. The Institute of Automation Engineering (Institutul de Cercet˘ari s, i Proiect˘ari Automatiz˘ari, IPA) is established in 1961. Remus Radulet, is elected vice-president of the most representative institutions in the field of Electrotechnics: the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). 1962 The construction of Romanian computers makes remarkable progress in the 1962–1968 period due to the building of the CET-500 and CET-501 computers at the Institute of Nuclear Physics in Bucharest, DACCIC-1 and DACCIC-200 for which the first FORTRAN compiler was used, at the Institute of Numerical Analysis (Institutul de calcul) in Cluj, as well as MECIPT-1, MECIPT-2, and

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MECIPT-3 at the Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara, all of them featuring superior memories and computation speeds and a greater ease of use. The B˘aneasa Radio and Semiconductor Parts Company (Întreprinderea de piese radio s, i semiconductori, I.P.R.S.) is established, a company that produces electronic components, as well as electric and electrotechnic equipment in Romania. IFA builds CIFA 101 with transistors and magnetic-core memory, and then CIFA 102. 1963 The thermal power station in Iernut (Mures, County) is established, using for the first time in Romania methane gas as a source of electric power. Starting with a 100 MW power generating set, the first of this size in Romania, followed by additional 100 and 200 MW generators, the power plant reached in 1967 a total installed power of 800 MW. The power plant in Ludus, (Mures, County), the power plant ‘23 August’ in Bucharest, and the hydroelectric power plants Roznov I and Roznov II from the chain of hydroelectric power plants on Bistrit, a river start producing electric power. The hydroelectric department of the Institute of Power Studies and Design (Institutul de studii s, i proiect˘ari energetice, ISPE), established in 1949 for the purpose of conducting research on the electrification of the country, merges with the Institute for studies and field research for works in the power sector (Întreprinderea de studii s, i cercet˘ari pe teren pentru lucr˘ari energetice, ICSE), established in 1958, thus forming the Institute of Hydroelectric Studies and Design (Institutul de studii s, i proiect˘ari hidroenergetice, ISPH). After the completion of the hydroelectric power plant at Stejarul-Bicaz in 1960, another 12 hydroelectric power plants (7 in Neamt, County and 5 in Bac˘au County) with a total power of 244 MW were built from 1963 to 1966 on the river Bistrit, a, downstream, reaching the point where the river flows into Siret. Static excitation systems are designed and built by ICPE. High capacity automated exchange systems come into use in Romania, manufactured at Electromagnetica, based on a Pentaconta licence (1963). At the Institute of Numerical Analysis (Institutul de calcul) in Cluj the DACICC computer is built. Test runs begin for the first regular electrified railway in Romania on the Bras, ov-Predeal section. 1964 Romania’s representative in the International Electrotechnical Commission, acad. Remus R˘adulet, , is elected president for a mandate of four years. Some great personalities to have held the same position are: Lord Kelvin, Kennely, Thomson, Semenza. At the thermoelectric power plant in Paros, eni (Hunedoara County), fuelled with coal from Valea Jiului, the first 150 MW set becomes operational, the largest in Romania at the time. It is decided to connect the national power system to the similar system in Yugoslavia, a process that would continue in 1965 with Hungary and in 1967 with Bulgaria.

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Fig. 2.5 Iron Gates I (Por¸tile de Fier I)

Work begins at Port, ile de Fier I (Iron Gate I). The governments of Romania and Yugoslavia (currently Serbia), taking into account the huge hydropower potential of the Danube on their shared section, agreed in 1956 that making use of that potential was to the mutual benefit of both parties and decided to research the most productive avenues with a view to jointly build hydroelectric power plants that would ensure the use of this potential to the fullest. The hydroelectric node Port, ile de Fier I (Iron Gate I) is the largest hydroelectric power plant in Europe and permanently solves the problem of navigation on the river Danube, which used to be hindered by the natural flow of the river in the area of the rapids. The first phase, between 1964 and 1972, consists of building the Port, ile de Fier I (Iron Gate I) System at rkm 943 of the Danube, with an installed power of 2050 MW and a generated power of 10,500 GWh per year. During the second phase, between 1978 and 1986, the Port, ile de Fier II (Iron Gate II) System was built from rkm 862 of the Danube, and the headwater level raised by 1.5 m upstream of the Port, ile de Fier I (Iron Gate I) System (Fig. 2.5), with an installed power of 432 MW and a generated power of 2400 GWh per year. During the third phase, between 1987 and 2000, two extra power stations were added to the Port, ile de Fier 2 System and the headwater level was raised by 0.8 m upstream of the Port, ile de Fier I (Iron Gate I) System, with an installed power of 108 MW and a generated power of 600 GWh per year. Romania’s part was 50% of these values, specifically 1295 MW installed power and 6750 GWh per year electric power. – The Faculty of Electrotechnics in Cluj is established as a result of the transformation of the Electromechanics section at the Mechanics Faculty. – The first attempts at a full wave impulse test 1.2/50 µs of a 200 MVA, 220/110 kV transformer.

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1965 The first 400 kV high voltage power line in Romania becomes operational (Iernut-Mukacevo); the first 400/220 kV autotransformer is installed at Iernut. The thermal power plant at Is, alnit, a, with a power of 1000 MW, starts producing electric power with an initial 50 MW set, using coal from Rovinari. In 1967 the 315 MW generator set is installed at Is, alnit, a, the largest in the country at the time. Elements of automation with UNILOG systems and Germanium transistors (IPA-FEA), passive and active electronic components (diodes, transistors, capacitors, coils, transformers and speakers, correlated with the production of radio broadcast receivers and TVs, cathode-ray television tubes (Electronica and IPRS) are developed. On 9 December, the Bras, ov-Predeal section is put into service and in the following year circulation is open on the electrified line Predeal-Câmpina, extending to Bucharest. 1966 The hydroelectric power plant at Vidraru, on the river Arges, , enters into service. It consists of a subterraneous power station, with an installed power of 200 MW, producing annually about 400 million kWh, and an arch dam, 165 m tall, 300 m long, 6 m wide, and measuring 25 m at its base, which accumulates in the Vidraru lake (14 km long) the water that operates the power station’s turbines. The first 100 MW generator set with a quick start boiler starts operating at the Fântânele-Sângeorgiu de P˘adure thermal power plant; the first 200 MW generator set starts operating at the Ludus, thermal power plant, the largest at the time in the country, and the first gas turbine (36.5 MW) starts operating at the Bucharest-South (Bucures, ti-Sud) power station. At the same time, work begins to build the important hydrotechnical complex at Poiana, on Valea Uzului (Uz river). The Institute for Computer Research and Development (Institutul de Cercet˘ari s, i Proiect˘ari Tehnic˘a de Calcul, ITC) is established. 1967 The first electric locomotive in the country is manufactured at ‘Electroputere’ factory in Craiova, based on original Romanian designs, and then put into operation on the major railways. The Bucegi and Oltenia relay broadcasting stations become operational. At the Is, alnit, a thermoelectric power station, the 315 MW power set, the largest of its kind in the country at the time, is put into operation. The factory manufacturing electrical motors (Fabrica de motoare electrice, IMEP) enters into operation in Pites, ti. Production started with universal motors and single-phase induction motors. A few months later, three-phase induction motors start being produced, based on a modern licence of technology and production. In the years that followed, new types of motors were produced, mainly for the household appliances industry and for the automotive industry. Continued growth placed IMEP S.A. in a leading position in the 1990s, as the most important Romanian manufacturer of electric motors. In 1996, ANA Group bought 51% of IMEP shares. From 1975, some of the electric motors started to be exported and today the factory exports more than

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90% of its products, mainly motors for washing machines, dryers, and kitchen hoods. Electroputere Craiova delivers to CFR (Romanian Railways) the first 5100 kW electric locomotives, built on an ASEA licence, equipped with electric motors designed and produced at the Res, it, a Works (Uzina Res, it, a). In the years that followed, the integration of components into the locomotive was to be carried out in the country, with a minimal proportion of parts still imported. 1968 The Centre for Research and Development is established at ‘Electroputere’ factory in Craiova. The Centre for Research and Development that would later become ICCE is established at IPRS B˘aneasa. 1969 The first 210 MW set at the Mintia thermal power plant, the first 50 MW set at the Govora heating power station, the first 12 MW set at the Pites, ti-Sud heating power station, and the first 210 MW set at the Deva thermal power plant start operating. A modern and original approach leads to the development of the series of feed motors and main drives for the machine tools developed by IPCMUA and IPA, motors designed based on the ICPE collaboration with professors C. R˘adut, i and Al. Fransua from the Faculty of Electrotechnics in Bucharest, and C. Apetrei, S. Slaiher from ICPE. On 16 February the Predeal-Câmpina electrified line is extended to Bucharest. 1970 Work begins at the hydropower system on the valley of the river Somes, ul Cald (Cluj County), in the Gil˘au Mountains, which will include two power stations (Tarnit, a overground and M˘aris, el underground), and a reservoir to supply water to the city of Cluj. The Welding and Resistance sections of the Academy Base merge and form the Institute for Welding and Material Testing (Institutul de Sudur˘a s, i Rezistent, a Materialelor, ISIM), the first director of which was Traian S˘al˘agean. At ICPE, Ghe. B˘al˘as, escu develops Zn AIR fuel cells, with a long service life, which served to equip the broadcasting relay stations placed in isolated areas. At the level of the year 1970, the Romanian electrical industry provides for the country, as well as for export, a wide range of electric motors and electric apparatus, and there is growth in the production of locomotives using Romanian components and materials, the development of unitary series of motors, transformers, insulators. Transformer core plates with electrical laminations with oriented crystals are produced, the 220 kV voltage is achieved, and the 200 MVA–220/110 kV transformer is built. The first high-power 50–125 kVA electric generator sets are produced in Romania with Wola Leryland and Rolls Royce thermal engines and UMEB electric engines—the most modern electric generator sets in the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. UMEB develops the series of electric engines intended for the main drive of machine tools or processing units (5–155 kW, 625, 850, 1560… rpm).

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The largest engine was the one used for the 16 m Carousel, a work of reference in the Romanian industry and research. Ghe. Cartianu invents a transmission-reception station for two-way radiotelex transmissions and the first system in the world for two-way communication in mining galleries. ICPE builds an electric bicycle equipped with a 350 W/24 V disc motor. 1971 The ‘Electroputere’ Craiova factory delivers the first Romanian electric locomotives on the African continent, to the Helwân (Egypt) Steel Mill, the result of Romanian-Egyptian cooperation. S, tefan Grosu anticipated the perspectives for the use of kinetic energy to generate electricity. His paper, published in the United States, brought him the high distinction of the IEEE ‘Honourable Mention’. Romania starts producing the series of articulated trams for which Dinamo (UMEB) delivers the TN71, 120–240 kW, 750 V engine. The series of traction motors will bear, in the indicator of the type, the N initial for the name of the designer, Eugen Nicolescu, a leading figure in the conception and design of traction engines. Al. Timotin starts working, together with Eléctricité de France, on the problem of defining the magnetic field, the losses through turbine currents, and the associated phenomena in the front sections of large turbo-alternators, alongside Andrei T, ugulea, Augustin Moraru, Cezar Flueras, u, Fl. H˘ant, il˘a, and the Department of Electrotechnics Fundamentals at the Faculty of Electrotechnics in Bucharest, providing new scientific approaches to the design of large electric machines. The collaboration will extend over many years, until 1992. The laboratory for high power testing of the electric arc breaking (7500 MVA) is put into operation at U Electroputere Craiova, aimed at testing the breaking capacity of a circuit breaker. The project was implemented by P. Rotileanu and the Electroputere team, one of the largest European laboratories for direct testing. 1972 The factory for electrical measurement devices (FAEM) starts working in Timis, oara, producing one-phase and three-phase meters (the bulk of the production was exported in 15 countries), automated switchboard equipment, and precision devices for metrological, electrotechnical, and electric laboratories and others. In 1998, Luxten bought the FAEM Timis, oara meter factory. In 1999–2000, the company benefited from major investments. The first two 200 MW turbo-aggregates at the Rovinari-Rogojelu thermal power station, as well as the first 170 MW set at the Lotru hydroelectric power plant, fitted with the largest ‘Pelton’ type turbine manufactured in Romania, are connected to the national power system. At the same time, the 400 kV Port, ile de Fier I (Iron Gate I)—Rovinari-Bucharest aerial electric line enters into service. On its length, at Slatina and Bucharest-South (Bucures, ti-Sud), the first two 400/220 kV Romanian-produced transformers, manufactured by ‘Electroputere’ Craiova, are put into service.

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The 400 kV aerial transdanubian high voltage bus is built and starts operating between Port, ile de Fier (Iron Gate) and Djerdap (Yugoslavia). This was needed to interconnect the power systems of Romania and its neighbouring friend country. The electrical engineer C˘alin Mih˘aileanu (born 1923) invents a minimum voltage electronic relay for the protection of electric engines. In 1979 he invented an installation for the treatment of the neutral point in mediumvoltage power grids. The first medium capacity computer, Felix C-256, is designed and produced at the Factory of Electronic Computing Devices (Fabrica de ordinatoare electronice) in Bucharest, for computer centres and production units. The Institue of Electronic Research (Institutul de Cercet˘ari Electronice, ICE)—1972 and the Institute of Studies and Technological Planning for Plants in the Electrotechnical and Electronic Industries (Institutul de Studii s, i Proiect˘ari Tehnologice pentru Uzine din Industria Electrotehnic˘a s, i Electronic˘a, EUP) are established. Together with Eléctricité de France, Prof. Timotin develops a theoretical model for calculating the electromagnetic field and its associated phenomena from the frontal areas of high-power turbo-generators, with significant implications for the safety of operations. The whole department for the study of the fundamentals of electrotechnics at the Faculty of Electrotechnics in Bucharest will be co-opted, but Andrei T, ugulea, Augustin Moraru, and Cezar Flueras, u are the main authors of computing programmes. The theoretical model for the calculation of losses through turbine currents produced in the sheets packets was elaborated by Al. Timotin, who, together with Cezar Flueras, u, also developed a theoretical model that was to be used in France as well as Romania for the design of large electric machines. F.M.G. Tomescu, Al. Nicolae, Cornelia Ionescu, N. Cristea, and G. Costache have had targeted contributions to this highly complex technical issue. Dan Coms, a lays the foundations of the School of Electrothermics in Cluj. At the International Salon at CAEN (France), the country that has developed rotary disc motors, Romania is awarded the Golden Medal for the solutions found for the building of the Romanian rotary disc motors with lamellar conductors, the authors of which were D. L˘az˘aroiu and S. Slaiher. 1973 Work begins on the construction of one of the largest thermal power stations in Romania at Turceni (Gorj County). It will become operational in 1976 and today it has five 330 MW turbo-aggregators, all manufactured in Romania. The Petros, ani-Mintia electrified railway is put into service. The Factory of Electric Apparatus for Installations (Întreprinderea de aparataj electric pentru instalat, ii) in Titu (Dâmbovit, a County) starts operating. The first 170 MW aggregate starts operation at the hydroelectric power plant on the river Lotru, at Ciungetu (Vâlcea County), the largest one on the inner rivers of Romania (larger than Bicaz and Arges, put together), with a final installed power of 600 MW, for which construction had started in 1966.

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A group of teaching staff at the Faculty of Electrotechnics at the Polytechnic Institute in Timis, oara designs the linear electric motor, with very diverse technical applications, especially for means of transportation. The ‘Electronica’ factory in Bucharest produces the first transistor portable television sets, and the Mechanical Plant (Uzina mecanic˘a) in Sibiu builds the first Romanian machine for the processing of plastic. A large capacity trolleybus, fitted with motors built at UMEB (134 kW/ 3000 rpm), is built in Romania. The first Romanian-American joint venture, RomContolData (RCD), specialising in the production of hard disks and printers, is established in Romania. 1974 The Institute of research and design for electronic components and equipment is established in Bucharest. The first 400 MVA transformer unit is produced, and is part of the equipment for the largest turbo-generator manufactured by the Romanian electrotechnics industry, intended for the use of the thermoelectric power plant in Rovinari-Rogojelu (Gorj County). The electrified railway section Curtici (Arad County)—Lökösháza (Hungary) is put into service, connecting the electrified railway networks of Romania and Hungary. 1974–1982. With a view to making full use of the hydropower potential of the river Olt, a series of hydroelectric power plants are built on the course of the river, in the Olt and Vâlcea couties, with powers ranging between 13 and 50 MW: Râmnicu Vâlcea—46 MW (1974–1975); Govora—46 MW (1975); D˘aies, ti—37 MW (1976); Râureni—48 MW (1977); Iones, ti—38 MW and B˘abeni—37 MW (1978); Strejes, ti—50 MW (1979); Z˘avideni—38 MW (1979–1980); Arces, ti—38 MW (1980); Dr˘ag˘as, ani—45 MW (1980–1981); C˘alim˘anes, ti—38 MW and Slatina—26 MW (1981), and Turnu—70 MW (1982). In an original PhD thesis, S, tefan Grosu presents new solutions for the use of the dispersion flow to obtain the reactor effect in transformers, solutions that were implemented in the manufacturing of transformers at ‘Electroputere’ Craiova. The Romanian IAR 93 airplane, subsonic and intended for ground attack, flies for the first time. 1975 The ‘Electroputere’ Craiova factory produces the first 4000 HP electric Diesel locomotive. The first 125 MW set starts operating at the new electric heating station Bucharest-West (Bucures, ti-Vest). The Electronic Computers Factory in Bucharest produces the CE-801 microcomputer, the first ‘pocket’ computer to be produced in Romania. At the Ot, elu Ros, u Factory, the Electric Steelworks (Ot, el˘aria Electric˘a) starts operating—electric arc furnaces and continuous casting machines, the first of the kind in Romania.

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1977

1978

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For the Bucharest Metro the TN 75 traction engine is produced, supplied with 750 V (maximum 900 V) current, which in the process of starting/ stopping needed to develop a torque value double the size of the rated value. The first 330 MW set, the largest in the country at the time, starts producing power at the electric heating station at Rovinari (Gorj County). The following year the second set is installed, built at Uzina ‘Electroputere’ Craiova. ‘Electroputere’ Craiova produces the first thyristorised locomotive, with equipment designed and produced at ICPE. The first 73.5 MW aggregate at the hydroelectric power plant M˘aris, el (Cluj County) is put into service, and all the equipment of the plant is completed within the same year. At the Ciungetu hydroelectric power plant on the river Lotru a new electronic system for the centralised automatic remote control of hydroaggregators starts operating for the first time in Romania. The first electrified section of the railway connecting the capital city with the Black Sea seaside, the Bucharest-Fetes, ti section, is put into service. The first Romanian trainset (coupled cars) is built. It consists of four passenger coaches, with electric engines on all the axels of the cars, with an added power of 1920 HP, which can reach a speed of 120 km/h, intended for urban traffic. The engineer Mihai Dr˘ag˘anescu initiates in Romania a course of functional electronics, which was a novel university experience, worldwide, in this field (1977–1978). The team working at the Institute for Computer Research and Development (Institutul de Cercet˘ari s, i Proiect˘ari Tehnic˘a de Calcul, ITC) builds at the Electronic Computers Factory in Bucharest the ‘Independent 100’, ‘Independent 102’, and ‘Felix MC-8’ minicomputers. – The thermal power station at Turceni (Gorj County) starts operating with a first 330 MW set, and at the end of 1984 reached a total power of 1980 MW (6 sets). The electric equipment for the operation of F 200 drilling rigs is approved for the supply, control, and adjustment of 4 motors with a cylinder capacity of 850 kW 770 V, 1200 A. On the basis of the first projects designed at IPROMET, I.M.G.B. produces a 100 t electric furnace, which is put into service at the new steel mill at Câmpia Turzii. The Machine Building Plant (Întreprinderea de construct, ii de mas, ini) in Res, it, a begins producing the first large 170 MW ‘Francis’ turbine for the Râul Mare hydroelectric power station. On Ceahl˘au mountain, the first Romanian experimental wind operated mini-power station starts working. It provides electricity for the Dochia chalet. The first Romanian electrodynamic installation for the automatisation of railway circuits starts operating at Focs, ani. The hydroelectric power station on Motru and the hydroelectric power station at Strejes, ti, on the river Olt, start operating. The construction of

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hydroelectric power stations begins at Leres, ti-Voines, ti on Râul Târgului, at Belareca-B˘aile Herculane on Cerna, upstream of Tarnit, a on Somes, ul Mic, in the section Slatina-Dun˘are on Olt river, and the development of Siret on the Bistrit, a-Trotus, section. Installations for the use of geothermal power are set up in the counties Timis, , Bihor, Arad, Satu Mare. In the field of solar power, on the grounds of research and projects at ICPE, INCERC, etc., a series of catchers were built to provide domestic hot water. At the research laboratory for the use of wind energy (Laboratorul de cercetare pentru utilizarea vântului) in Bras, ov, a few types of small capacity (0.5, 1.6, and 20 kW) wind turbines are built and go into standard production. The first section of the Bucharest metro (Sem˘an˘atoarea—Timpuri Noi, 7.8 km long, 6 stops) starts operating. 1980 The engineer Remus R˘adulet, publishes Bazele electrotehnicii: probleme (Fundamentals of Electrotechnics: problems) in two volumes, a fundamental work for the practical application of electrotechnical knowledge, and also, in collaboration, (Proiectarea hidrogeneratoarelor s, i a motoarelor sincrone [Design of hydrogenerators and synchronous motors). The transducer manufacturing factory in Pas, cani begins its activity. The first 75 MW group starts operating at the hydroelectric station in Gâlceag (Alba County), on the river Sebes, , and at the Smârdan station the first 400/110 kV transformer in Romania is installed. In Cluj-Napoca, the Industrial Electronics and Automation Equipment Enterprise (Întreprinderea de electronic˘a industrial˘a s, i automatiz˘ari, I.E.I.A.) begins its activity. The electrified railway section between Bac˘au and Roman is put into service. ICPE develops, based on its own patents, a series of high-performance welding sources, which received awards at major International Fairs (Welding sources with non-fusible electrode in protective Argon environment, MIGMAG-SU 1000, Mig-MAG with impulses went into production at Electrotehnica). ICPE produces the first impulse generators for the electrical discharge machines families that are to be produced at Electrotimis, . 1981 Work starts for the construction of the Târgu Neamt, -Pas, cani electrified railway, which will be completed in 1985. The first Romanian trolleybus equipped with continuous current motor and chopper is produced by the ICPE team Dan Ion; the beginning of the modernisation of urban electric traction through the development of electric drivers with direct or alternating current motors. 1982 The Br˘adis, or hydroelectric power plant on the river Lotru starts operating, with the first 57.5 MW generator, the third of the series of hydroelectric power plants on this river. A second group is installed at the Turnu hydroelectric power plant on the river Olt.

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Work begins for the building of Colibit, a hydroelectric power plant (Bistrit, a-N˘as˘aud County). The Machine Building Plant (Întreprinderea de construct, ii de mas, ini) in Res, it, a starts producing the first turbines with 27 MW bulbs from the series intended for the equipment of Port, ile de Fier II (Iron Gate II) hydroelectric power plant. A new factory is established in accordance with the trends observed worldwide in the field of electronic components: Microelectronica (1982). ICPE -Dan Ion- builds the 200,000 A/300 V rectifier intended for the power supply of coal material production lines for High-Power Electrodes, intended for electric furnaces (Slatina and Titu). The construction of the second major line of the Bucharest underground begins, on the north–south direction. At the same time, work for the completion of the first major line begins. At Port, ile de Fier II (Iron Gate II), in the hydroelectric power plant on the Romanian side, the power set of no. 1 hydro-aggregate is launched, a national first. The Tismana (Gorj County) hydroelectric power plant starts operating, with two sets of 53 MW each, the first plant in the Cerna-Motru-Tismana hydropower complex (initiated in 1972). The first hydroelectric power plant on Siret river, at Galbeni, also starts producing electric power, with a 15 MW set. Dan Ion and his ICPE team patent the first driving system with chopper voltage variator and power recovery, intended for the use of trams formed of carriages with 2 single-engine and double-engine bogies, with multiple control system. Dictionnaire CEI multilingue de l’electricite is published, containing more than 20,000 entries. The work was coordinated by the Romanian Electrotechnical Committee at the request of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and was edited by Acad. Remus R˘adulet, and Al. Timotin. The hydroelectric power plant at S, ugag (Alba County), on the river Sebes, , starts producing electric power, with the first two sets of 75 MW each. In Bucharest, the first transformer substations start operating, equipped with cells from metallic tires made in Romania at ‘Electroputere’ Craiova. The ‘23 August’ Factories (Uzinele 23 August) in Bucharest start series production of the 1100 HP electric Diesel locomotive. A facility for the production of modules and memory blocks for SPECTRUM compatible personal minicomputers starts operating (FMCTC Timis, oara, 1985). ICPE develops one of the most modern European laboratories intended for testing electrical equipment for nuclear power plants: Seismic testing and LOKA (verifying the loss of the coolant in the reactor); equipment is based on original designs. The first vehicle on a magnetic cushion MAGNIBUS 01 (4 t prototype on an experimental 150 m route) (Fig. 2.6) is built, with propulsion and active

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Fig. 2.6 MAGNIBUS 01 on the experimental pathway at “Politehnica” University Timi¸soara

1989 1990 1994

1994 1995 1996 2000

magnetic levitation, with synchronous neutral ground (DC + AC) linear motors and passive pathway (from massive ferromagnetic elements), designed and tested by the POLITEHNICA University in Timis, oara, in collaboration with ‘Electroputere’ Craiova (for details, see: Ion Boldea—Linear Electric Machines, Drives and MAGLEVs Handbook, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, New York, 2016). The IEC Thesaurus of Concepts is published in Geneva, completed by a team made up of the Romanian Electrotechnical Committee (CER), the Faculty of Electrotechnics in Bucharest, ICPE, and more than 100 electrical engineers in the country. The industrial infrastructure of Romania at this point situated the country in the top 10 countries in Europe. Romania resumes its place in the International Electrotechnical Commission, after the 1986–1990 period in which its activity was suspended. Prof. Augustin Moraru and Prof. Aurelian Panaitescu research the electromagnetic phenomena caused by very intense currents and the ones in the configuration of aluminium electrolysis baths. The first issue of the international journal ELECTROMOTION is published in Cluj. Electrostatics Society of Romania is created on the initiative of Prof. Radu Morar. The number 1 nuclear unit at Cernavod˘a (650 MW) starts operating. The Journal of Electrical Engineering is published at the University Politehnica of Timisoara, and may be the first internet-only international technical journal www.jee.ro.

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2004 Astra Vagoane Arad builds the first railcar on a Siemens licence: the Desiro railcar. 2005 90% of the Romanian hydroelectric and thermal power plants are fitted with RUN and SRAT (static exciter and rectifier equipment) produced by ICPE SAERP. 2007 Number 2 unit at Cernavod˘a (650 MW) starts operating. 2010 The Co–Co electric locomotive Transmontana, fitted with an asynchronous motor, 6000 kW rated power, enters production at Softronic. 2011 Softronic builds, based on an original design, a 6600 kW locomotive fitted with asynchronous motors and frequency converters. 2012 Softronic builds a bi-system train that can operate both on 25 kV alternating current and on 3 kV direct current. 2015 In Timis, oara, the modernised, alternating current traction tram carriages (with asynchronous motor and frequency converter) are put into service; they are manufactured by Electroputere VHU Pas, cani, Astra Vagoane C˘al˘atori Arad, ICPE SAERP. 2016 Uzinele Vagoane cal˘atori (Passenger Coaches Factories) in Arad, together with ICPE SAERP build a tram equipped with asynchronous motors and frequency converter. In Romania, there are 962 photovoltaic stations/parks, with an installed power of 4871 MW. The number of wind power parks in Romania is above 80, with installed capacities of up to 600 MW. The total installed capacity in Romania is 3025 MW. In 2015, the power delivered to the network has exceeded, according to INS, 7.04 TWh, with about 1250 installed turbines. 2017 The M˘agurele Laser undergoes technical testing, an objective of a European project—ELI—Extreme Light Infrastructure. The first electric traction equipment for electric buses and electric hybrid vehicles is produced: a bus/trolleybus built by ICPE SAERP.

History of Energetics Victor Vaida and Viorel B˘adescu

Abstract The presentation of the history of the Romanian energy system is structured in four stages: before the First World War (1882–1918); between the two World Wars (1918–1950); from the Second World War to 1990; after year 1990. For every stage the text presents separately the components of the energy system: general energy, thermoenergetics, hydroenergetics, nuclear energetics, energy resources, renewable energy and electroenergetics. The thermoelectric power plants the hydroelectric power plants and the high-tension power lines of Romania were made almost entirely by Romanian construction and assembly trusts with Romanian specialists and Romanian workforce. Thermoelectric power plant projects, hydroelectric projects and electrical installation projects were realized by the design institutes of Romanian in collaboration with equipment suppliers and beneficiaries. Energy equipment was mostly imported until 1950, then, for the most part, they were produced by the Romanian industry.

1 Electrification of Romania from the Earliest Beginnings to the First World War (1882–1918) The word ‘energy’ comes from the Greek energeia meaning ‘at work’. The term was introduced by Thomas Young in 1807 to replace the term vis viva (‘living force’) which had been used until then to describe the cause generating the movement of bodies. A specific form of energy is electric energy. In the nineteenth century, the notion of energy was extended to encompass all forms of movement of matter and, at the beginning of the twentieth century, a new term came into use—energetics—to designate the science which studies the types of V. Vaida (B) Society of Power Engineers in Romania-SIER, Bucharest, Romania e-mail: [email protected] V. B˘adescu University Politehnica of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 D. Banabic (ed.), History of Romanian Technology and Industry, History of Mechanism and Machine Science 45, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39191-0_3

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energy corresponding to these forms of movement, as well as their mutual transformation, in well-defined relationships. The main purpose of the science of energy is the rational conversion of different types of primary, non-renewable energy into useful power. A significant milestone was achieved at the end of the nineteenth century when, building on previous studies and applications, thermal and mechanical energy was successfully converted into electricity. The study of electrical energy explores the generation, transmission, and use of electricity (Dordea et al. 2010, p. 99). As a field of study, energy is divided into several branches: general, thermal energy, hydropower, electrical energy, nuclear energy, renewable sources of energy. All of these subfields are currently being applied as part of the National Energy System (SEN, Sistemul Energetic Nat, ional). Following the discovery of the principle of electromagnetic induction by Michael Faraday (1791–1863), the steam engine and the electric dynamo were used together to generate electricity, and employed as a secondary carrier of energy for long-distance transportation. On 6 September 1882, Edison ushered in a new era as he started to supply electricity in New York from the first power station designed to generate, transport, and use electric energy. The most important method of producing electrical energy consists in the use of a generator which converts the mechanical energy supplied by a turbine powered by steam, gas, water, etc. into electricity (World Energy Council 1995, p. 98). The results achieved and available data show that Romania was among the forerunners in Europe and even worldwide in the use of the new form of energy—electricity. Romanian engineers were aware of the theoretical studies and practical applications conducted worldwide, and drew on them to produce their own original studies and applications, as Romanian accomplishments.

1.1 The Evolution of Electric Power Plants. Thermoelectric Power Plants A conventional steam thermoelectric power plant is a large-scale converter of energy. It converts the chemical energy of fossil fuels into thermal energy and the thermal energy into mechanical rotational energy which, in its turn, is then converted into electrical energy. The evolution of thermoelectric power plants has seen several stages of development, reaching today, in case of coal-powered plants, powers exceeding 1000 MW, supercritical and ultra-supercritical steam parameters up to 270–300 Bars, temperatures of 600–620 °C or even higher, and efficiencies of around 46–47%, tending to reach 50%, while combined-cycle power plants can achieve more than 60% efficiency. An important feature of thermoelectric power plants is their environmental impact. Efficient technological methods have been designed and implemented for the purpose of eliminating the SOx and NOx toxic gases from the flue gases. Intensive research is being conducted on technologies for the capture and storage of CO2 in the flue gas. Along with the execution of steam boilers, significant progress has also been made with regard to the execution of steam turbines and electric generators.

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1.2 Nuclear Power Plants (NPPs) In parallel with the development of fossil fuel power plants, in the ‘60s electricity started being generated in fission nuclear power plants. A large number of nuclear power plants have been built in several countries in the world, and in France and Japan the electricity produced by nuclear power plants covers more than 50% of all electricity consumption. Today, the development and operation of nuclear power plants has decreased, as a result of nuclear accidents that occurred in Ukraine and Japan. In Romania, two 706.5 MW CANDU nuclear units were installed at the Cernavod˘a NPP, achieving remarkable results in operation.

1.3 Hydroelectric Power Plants (HPPs) The first water turbines were built in the eighteenth century and then perfected throughout the nineteenth century and beyond, to the present day. In today’s hydroelectric power plants, water turbines convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy, which is then converted into electricity by electric generators. About 20% of the electricity used worldwide is supplied by HPPs, and in some countries (Norway, Brazil, Canada, Austria, Switzerland, etc.) this proportion exceeds 60%. In Romania, HPPs account for 25–30% of all electricity production. Romania’s hydropower potential is a secure and permanent energy resource, used to advance the electrification of the country. Hydropower has an (estimated) average annual energy potential of about 40 TWh and stations with capacities below 10 MW/ unit account for approximately 6 TWh of this amount. The degree to which the technically exploitable potential (36 TWh/year) and the economically exploitable potential (30 TWh/year) are utilised varies around 50% and 60%, respectively. The exploited hydropower potential may increase to approximately 59% in 2020, approximately 65% in 2028, and approximately 67% in 2038.

1.4 The Electrification of Romania The electrification of the country began in 1882. The process took place mainly between 1918 and 2018 and it was completed for the most part over the period 1950–1990. The electrification of Romania was a major technical achievement that contributed greatly to the economic, social, and cultural development of the country (IRE 2003, p. V). A key role in carrying out the electrification plan was played by Romanian personalities who were instrumental in advancing either the practical development, or the purely theoretical research. A large number of Romanian engineers were trained in Polytechnic Universities and Schools abroad: Dragomir Hurmuzescu, Nicolae Vasilescu-Karpen, A. Proca, Augustin Maior, S, tefan Procopiu,

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Aurel Avramescu, Remus R˘adulet, , Constantin Budeanu, Dorin Pavel, I. S. Gheorghiu, Dimitrie Leonida, Plaut, ius Andronescu, Al. Nicolau, C. D. Bus, il˘a, Elie Radu, and others who, in spite of having the opportunity to pursue academic or industrial careers abroad, chose to return home and contribute to the development of their own country. Alongside them, several generations of experts and workers have contributed to the electrification of the country and the establishment of SEN. A warm tribute goes to all of them. The timeframe over which the electrification of Romania was carried out (1882–2018) can be divided into four periods: the period until the First World War; the interwar period; the period from the Second World War to 1990; and the period after 1990.

1.5 Electrification of Romania Until the First World War The period until the First World War (1882–1918) was shaped by the initiatives undertaken by local authorities aimed at providing electric lighting for streets and homes. In the beginning, the solution implemented for electrification was to set up a power station for each town or city, industrial site, cultural establishment, or healthcare facility, which would supply low-voltage electricity. Zonal power supply systems were developed later by interconnecting at least two electric power stations and supplied medium-voltage electricity. The primary energy resources used in thermal power plants were coal and oil. The power equipment used to build the power plants was imported.

1.6 General Power Engineering The achievements recorded in the early days of electrification show that all relevant worldwide innovations were known in Romania, where there was a keen interest to apply them. In this respect, Romania was among the most developed European countries. The prime matter of interest for Romanian electrotechnical engineers— or mechanical engineers involved in the field of electricity—was to build thermal power plants or hydroelectric power plants (HPPs). Elie Radu, Dimitrie Leonida are worth mentioning in this regard, among others. Several electricity companies were established: Timis, oara Power Plant (Uzina Electric˘a Timis, oara), the first electricity company in the country, (Fig. 1) (1893); Hermannstadter Elektrizitatswerke A.G.— the Power Plant Company in Sibiu (1895); the Romanian Society for Industrial Electrical Enterprises in Bucharest (1898); General Gas and Electricity Company in Bucharest (1906). In Bucharest, Dimitrie Leonida establishes the company ‘Energia’ and lays the foundations of the Romanian electrotechnical industry (1912). Dimitrie Leonida, alongside Nicolae Caranfil, Cristea Niculescu, and Prof. Plaut, ius Andronescu created a new industry in Romania, a worthy competitor to foreign companies (AGIR 2015, p. 81).

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Fig. 1 The administrative headquarters of the Timisoara electric plant (1936) (Vaida 2018, p.18)

1.7 Thermal Power The period 1882–1918 is comprised of two stages. The first one, 1882–1900, featured the use of Cornwall steam boilers, shell boilers, and piston steam engines. The power capacity of these plants was limited to 5 MW, steam parameters to 15 bars and 300 °C, efficiency to 5%. The second stage, 1900–1918, featured the use of boilers with highinclination tubes, travelling grates for burning coal, and steam turbines. The flow rate of these steam boilers was approximately 30 t/h, steam parameters were 40 bars and 425 °C, and efficiency around 20%. The noteworthy achievements during the 1882– 1918 period include mainly: the first thermal power plants equipped with steam boilers and Brush direct current electric generators (1882), used for public lighting in Bucharest and Timis, oara; the first power plant in the country and one of the first in the world to supply single-phase alternating current, Caransebes, (1889); Ias, i—the electric power plant (1898); the new plant at TPP Groz˘aves, ti, with steam engines (1901); Filaret TPP (Fig. 2) with three 675 HP Diesel sets (1907–1908), the largest of this kind in Europe at that time to be installed in an electrical power plant; the new Groz˘aves, ti TPP, the largest power plant in the country (1912); Târn˘aveni TPP equipped with the first 6 MW set in the country (1917), etc. Fig. 2 Filaret Power Plant—plant building (Vaida 2018, p.26)

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1.8 Hydropower In the 1884–1918 period, studies were conducted with regard to the use of hydropower resources to generate electricity and supply cities with water. Elie Radu and Alexandru Or˘ascu explored the possibilities to tap the potential of tributaries to the Ialomit, a River, while Dimitrie Leonida did the same for Bicaz river. This period includes 2 stages of development: (a) The 1884–1900 stage: 13 HPPs were commissioned, with powers ranging from 70 to 100 kW; turbines and electric generators were installed at 6 industrial hydraulic facilities. Achievements during the 1884–1900 period include mainly: the first low power HPP (Fig. 3) on the Peles, river, which provided lighting for Peles, castle (1884); Groz˘aves, ti HPP on the Dâmbovit, a River, the first industrial HPP in the country (1888–1889); the Toplet, HPP on the Bârza stream, which also supplied power to the small town of Toplet, , the first electrified rural locality in the country (1893); Sadu I HPP (Fig. 4)—the third in the world to supply a city by long-distance transmission of electricity (1896); the HPP in Câmpina on the Prahova River—it powered world’s first electric drilling site; HPP Sinaia 1 (Fig. 5) on the Prahova river, the largest power plant in the country, with the first improved Francis turbines installed in Europe (1896–1900). The total power in the HPPs put into operation during 1888–1900 was 4466 HP (3750 kW), plus an additional 365 kW from HPPs in industrial plants. (b) The 1901–1918 stage: 18 HPPs with powers ranging between 25 and 5000 kW were put into operation, as well as several industrial micro-hydropower plants, and existing HPPs were expanded to a total power of about 32,000 HP (21,000 kW). Romania’s achievements during the 1901–1918 period include mainly: Grebla-Res, it, a HPP on the Bârzava river (1901–1904), which remained the largest HPP in the country until 1930; Dimitrie Leonida puts forth the proposal to build the HPP at Bicaz and designs the project for the dam on Bistrit, a river (1908); Sadu II HPP, on Sadu river (1905–1907) (Fig. 6); HPP Fig. 3 The Peles, hydroelectric plant (Vaida 2018, p.32)

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Fig. 4 Hydroelectric plant Sadu I—plant building (1896) (Vaida 2018, p.34)

Fig. 5 Hydroelectric plant Sinaia I, engine room (after renovation) (Vaida 2018, p.35)

Fig. 6 Hydroelectric plant Sadu II, Engine room (Vaida 2018, p.36)

Timis, oara on Bega river, the first low-voltage dam-plant without branching in the country (1908–1910).

1.9 Electric Power Systems In the period 1982–1918, the electric energy technology in Romania closely followed the development of the electric energy technology in Europe and worldwide. Some of the achievements recorded in the 1882–1900 period include: Timis, oara (Fig. 7)—the

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Fig. 7 The first lighting fixture installed on the streets of Timis, oara (Vaida 2018, p.39)

first city in Europe to use electric street lighting (12 November 1884); Toplet, (Caras, Severin County)—the first electrified rural locality in the country (1893); Sl˘anic salt mine—the first underground electric lighting (1893); Bucharest—the first electric tramway and among the first in Europe (1894); in Bac˘au County—the first recorded use of electricity for lighting at the Zemes, and Solont, -St˘anes, ti oil fields (1895); the first integrated power system for the production, transport, and distribution of electricity in Romania, on the Sadu River Valley (Sibiu County) (1896); Sinaia I HPP— first generation of electricity using the three-phase system, at a frequency of 50 Hz (1898); the first interconnected operation between HPP Sinaia and HPP Doftana (1899); the first 25,000 V three-phase electric line, OHL Sinaia-Câmpina (1900); interconnection of TPP Câmpina with HPP Sinaia and HPP Doftana (1907); the first electrified railway Arad-Ghioroc-Pâncota-Radna, with a 1500 V direct current contact line; the first 55 kV OHL between CHP Anina and Res, it, a Plants, 24 km in double circuit, and the first 55 kV stations in the country, the highest voltage in Romania (1916).

1.10 Personalities with Notable Contributions to the Electrification of Romania in the 1882–1918 Period This stage features the first researchers and experimenters of electrical phenomena in the country, also known as predecessors, who, at the end of nineteenth century and early twentieth century had the first practical achievements in the field of electricity: Emanoil Bacaloglu, Dragomir Hurmuzescu, Elie Radu, Nicolae Vasilescu-Karpen, Dimitrie Negreanu, Constantin Miculescu, Augustin Maior, S, tefan Procopiu, Laurent, iu Teodorescu, Sigismund Dachler, Ion S, tef˘anescu Radu, Dimitrie Ghermani (IRE 2003, p. 13).

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2 Electrification of Romania Between the Two World Wars (1918–1950) This period is characterised by an evolution in a liberal economy context, without significant involvement of the government in energy investments. The key objectives pursued included: to continue building thermal power plants and HPPs; to expand the transmission and distribution power networks; to set up zonal energy systems; to develop education in the field of energy and electrical engineering. A range of measures were taken to accelerate electrification: the establishment of the Union of Power Plants in the New Provinces of Romania in Sibiu (1920); zonal electrification works by interconnecting certain power plants, with 60 and 110 kV OHLs; the manufacture of the first electric machines in Romania (1922); the design of the first electrification programmes by Dimitrie Leonida, Nicolae Caranfil, and Sigismund Dachler; establishment and development of polytechnic education in Bucharest, Timis, oara, and Ias, i.

2.1 General Power Systems The main objectives pursed during the 1918–1950 period: electrification of the country; approval of energy legislation; establishment of national scientific bodies and affiliation to international scientific bodies, etc. A series of actions were undertaken: Dimitrie Leonida edited the first energy-themed magazine in Romania, Energia (1921) and drew up the First Plan for the National Electrification of Romania (Fig. 8); the Legislative Chambers approved the Water Law with the participation of Elie Radu and Dimitrie Leonida (AGIR 2015, p. 87); the TRANSCARPATINA (1922) study was presented by Oskar von Müller from Munich and Sigismund Daher from Sibiu in March 1922 (IRE 2003, p. 88); the Energy Law was approved, ‘establishing which are the installations for the production, transmission, and distribution of energy, how they are built, and who owns them’ (1924) (AGIR 2015, p. 88). The approval of the Mining Law on the prospecting, exploration, exploitation, and use of the country’s resources is also worth mentioning. The mining sector was ‘essential for the development of the national economy and for building thermal power plants equipped to make the best use of coal, oil, and natural gas’ (AGIR 2015, p. 87). The newly established specialised bodies included: the Romanian Electrotechnical Committee (Comitetul Electrotehnic Român, CER), affiliated to the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) (1927); the Romanian Institute for Energy (Institutul Român de Energie, IRE), member of UNIPEDE; the Romanian Association of Producers and Distributors of Electricity (Asociat, ia Produc˘atorilor s, i Distribuitorilor de Energie Electric˘a, APDE) (1931), an UNIPEDE associate; the Romanian National Committee on Large Dams (CROMB) (1933). Other notable mentions are Nicolae Caranfil’s plan to electrify Muntenia (1939) (Fig. 9); the establishment of the Ministry of Electricity and Electrotechnical Industry (MEEIE) (1949); the establishment of

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the Institute for Studies and Power Engineering (ISPE) (1949); the establishment of construction and assembly enterprises: Energoconstruct, ia and Electromontaj (1949); the establishment of the ‘Electroputere’ Plant in Craiova (1949), which had an important contribution to the implementation of the electrification programme for 40 years (1949–1989). Fig. 8 The first National electrification plan of Romania (Vaida 2018, p.53)

Fig. 9 Muntenia electrification plan, (1939) (Vaida 2018, p.57)

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Fig. 10 Timis, oara power plant (1935) (Vaida 2018, p.65)

2.2 Thermal Power The period 1918–1950 can be divided into two stages. The first stage spanned from 1918 to 1925, and was characterised by the use of boilers with high-inclination tubes, travelling grates for burning fuel, and steam turbines. The flow rate of the steam was approximately 30 t/h, steam parameters were 40 bars and 425 °C, and efficiency around 20%. The second stage lasted from 1925 to 1950, and featured the introduction of the pulverized coal burner for boilers; the flow rate reached 400 t/h, the steam parameters 120 bars and 525 °C, and efficiency went up to 35%. Notable achievements during the 1918–1950 stage include: Flores, ti TPP (1923); Groz˘aves, ti TPP (1926); CDE Filaret (Filaret Diesel Electric Power Plant) (1929); Timis, oara TPP (1935) (AGIR 2015, p. 84) (Fig. 10). The first gas turbine in the country was used at Filaret TPP, with a power of 10 MW (1949). In 1950, the installed power was 740 MW, of which 680 MW (92%) was represented by thermal power plants and 60 MW (8%) by hydropower plants.

2.3 Hydropower In the history of hydropower engineering in Romania, the period from 1921 to 1950 can be divided into two stages: (a) The stage that lasted from 1921 to 1940 saw the construction of 19 HPPs with powers ranging from 100 to 16,130 kW, amounting to a total power of 28,930 kW, and expansions of existing plants. The installed power reached 45,600 HP (32,140 kW). The main achievements during this period include: Letea Bac˘au HPP on Bistrit, a river, equipped with the first unit in Romania to use a Kaplan turbine (1928); the Dobres, ti HPP (Dâmbovit, a County), with a power of 16 MW, the largest in the country until 1950. (b) The stage that lasted from 1941 to 1950 saw the commissioning of several HPPs with a total power of 4600 HP (3,104 kW). Main achievements include: the reservoir built on the Bârzava river by Dorin Pavel; the Gozna dam, the first large

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rockfill dam in the country, which had a height of 48 m and formed a reservoir lake with a volume of 11.5 million cubic meters, to supply water to the HPP at Cr˘ainicel—Res, it, a (1949). In 1944, the total installed power stood at about 60 MW in more than 100 HPPs and MHPPs. Between 1947 and 1955, works were executed for HPP facilities, reaching a water volume of 16.3 million cubic meters and a power of 59,000 HP (42,200 kW), and the following entered into operation after 1950: HPP Cr˘ainicel—Res, it, a (1947–1952); HPP Moroieni (1949–1953); HPP As, tileu (1949–1954). In 1950, the total installed power of Romania’s HPPs was only around 30 MW, due to the decommissioning of some HPPs.

2.4 Electric Power Systems In 1921 Dimitrie Leonida submitted a proposal for a map of the 120 and 70 kV distribution network, alongside the First National Plan for the electrification of Romania (Fig. 8). Achievements in the 1918–1950 period include mainly the interconnection of zonal energy systems: Valea Prahovei with Bucharest (1924) and with Bras, ov (1924); Sibiu with Târn˘aveni (1931); the Dobres, ti HPP, the TPP at Schitu Goles, ti, Groz˘aves, ti TPP, and Filaret TPP (1929); the construction of the 30 kV ‘supernetwork’, Bucharest thus becoming the second European city, after Berlin, to have a 30 kV super-network (1931); Dimitrie Leonida designs the National Power System (SEN) (1938) (Fig. 11); the first interconnection with the power system of another country, namely Bulgaria, using a 60 kV OHL, TPP Groz˘aves, ti-Giurgiu-Ruse (1949); 110 kV OHL, double circuit, Bras, ov-Azuga, the first line that was designed and built with Romanian staff (1949); the Power System of Central Transylvania by interconnecting the power system of the Apuseni mountains (TPP Gura Barzza) with the power system in the Sebes, -Sibiu-Târn˘aveni area (1949). Fig. 11 D. Leonida’s conception of achievement of the National electrification plan (1938) (Vaida 2018, p.73)

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2.5 Personalities with Notable Contributions to the Electrification of Romania in the Interwar Period The figures who had remarkable contributions to the electrification of Romania in the period between the two World Wars make up the golden generation. Their ideas and projects continued to be applied over the next period (1950–1990). Some noteworthy mentions include: Constantin Bus, il˘a, Dimitrie Leonida, Dorin Pavel, Constantin Dinculescu, Ioan S. Gheorghiu, Corneliu Miclos, i, Plaut, ius Andronescu, Nicolae Caranfil, Cezar Parteni-Antoni, Aurel Avramescu, Aurel B˘argl˘azan, Ion Antoniu, and others (Dispecerul Energetic Nat, ional 2005, p. 31).

2.6 Education in the Field of Energy and Electrical Engineering The beginnings of higher education in the field of energy go back to the years when the first Polytechnic Schools were established, which included faculties of Electromechanics or Electrotechnics. The electrification of Romania commenced in 1882, with the beginning of the ‘age of electricity’, and was carried out, for the most part, by graduates of the Romanian schools of electrotechnics and power engineering (AGIR 2017, p. 180).

2.7 Bucharest In 1921, the ‘Polytechnic School’ is created by transforming the ‘School of Bridges and Roads’ and Vasilescu Karpen is appointed as the first rector (1920–1940). It included the following sections: Constructions, Electromechanics, Mining, Industrial. In 1948 it is transformed into the ‘Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest’, with four faculties: Electrotechnics, Industrial Chemistry, Mechanics, and Textiles.

2.8 Timis, oara On 15 November 1920 the Polytechnic School is founded, with sections of Electromechanics, Mining, and Metallurgy (Sabin 2002, p. 84). The first rector was Prof. Traian Lalescu (Vlad 2016, p. 15). In 1933 the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and the Faculty of Mining-Metallurgy are created. In 1948 the Polytechnic School is renamed the Polytechnic Institute, with the following faculties: Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Civil Engineering, and Industrial Chemistry.

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2.9 Ias, i The school of electrical engineering went through the following stages: the School of Industrial Electricity (1910–1912), the Electrotechnical Institute (1912–1923), which conferred to its graduates the title of ‘university electrical engineer’, the section of applied electrotechnics (1923–1937), and then the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (1937–1989), as part of ‘Gh. Asachi’ Polytechnic School. One of its key figures was S, tefan Procopiu.

3 The Electrification of Romania from the Second World War to 1990 The period after the Second World War until 1990 (1950–1990) is defined by a centralised planned economy, with developments based on five-year plans focused mainly on industry and intense advancement of electrification. The main energy resources used were natural gas, oil, coal, and hydropower. Initially, the power equipment used for electrification was mostly imported (approximately 80%) from Eastern and Western Europe, and later was obtained domestically. The main objectives pursued during this period were: to increase the production of electricity; to develop the transmission and distribution of electricity; to set up and expand SEN and then to interconnect it with the power systems of other communist countries in Eastern and Central Europe; to develop the education of specialists and workers who were needed for the growth and operation of the power system. The prerequisites to achieve these objectives included: a domestic machine-building and electrotechnical industry focused on energy; companies involved in the execution of energy objectives; design and research institutes focused on the energy field; specialised designers-researchers, as well as specialists in the execution and exploitation of power installations.

3.1 Machine-Building and Electrotechnical Industry The country developed its own industry for the manufacture of power equipment, producing thermal power units and hydropower sets with individual powers up to 330 MW, equipment based on licences for 706.5 MW nuclear units, and electrical equipment for power lines and stations with voltages up to 400 kV. The programme for the development of the country’s industry had the following main components: (a) The thermal power development programme, which provided: the production of steam turbines and electric generators in the following plants: U.C.M Res, it, a, 2– 50 MW; General Turbo, 150 and 330 MW (with licence from ALSTOM France)

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and 706.5 MW (with licence from General Electric); the production of steam boilers in the following plants: Vulcan Bucharest; Berceni; the Small Boilers Plant in Cluj, with flow rates ranging from 10 to 100 t/h; Vulcan for boilers with flow rates of 440 t/h and 550 t/h, a 1035 t/h boiler (with licence from Babkok), and district heating boilers of 50 and 100 Gcal/h. Electrical and automation equipment was manufactured at ‘Electroputere’ Craiova; ‘Automatica’ Plant in Bucharest, and others. (b) The hydropower development programme. By 1990, about 6600 MW were put into operation, of which about 5500 MW with equipment manufactured in the country. In 1965, the machine-building plant U.C.M Res, it, a was manufacturing 6 MW hydropower units (the largest). The production later came to include all types of turbines, with powers of 5 to 178 MW. At CUG Cluj, bulb turbines were manufactured to be used for the installations on Olt river. U.C.M. Res, it, a was manufacturing 175 MW Kaplan turbines for the Port, ile de Fier I (Iron Gate I) HPP, 170 MW Francis turbines for the underground plant on the river Rezul Mare in Retezat Mountains, 178 MW Pelton turbines for the Lotru HPP, and bulb turbines for the Port, ile de Fier II (Iron Gate II) HPP. (c) The nuclear programme. Following the conclusion of the agreement with AECL Canada to build CANDU nuclear units, a programme was developed to incorporate into production and manufacture in Romania equipment for nuclear plants. The primary objective set out in this programme was to bring IMG (Heavy Machine Works) Bucharest to the performance level required to manufacture such equipment, and to that end it was transformed into the Plant for Nuclear Energy Equipment (Fabrica de Echipament Nuclear) using documentation drawn up by General Electric, as well as Canadian and Japanese documentation for hot technologies. It also included the installation of machinery for the manufacture of equipment intended for the nuclear and the conventional parts, for 660 and 1000 MW units. In 1989, Romania was ranked among the first 10 countries in the world as regards the production capacity for nuclear equipment. In 1981, a licence agreement was signed for the execution at IMGB of a 706.5 MW turbo-aggregate (steam turbine and turbo-generator) based on the technical documentation provided by General Electric USA; the equipment and installations in the engine room were executed based on the technical documentation from ANSALDO Mecanico Nucleare (AMN) Italy (Vaida 2018, p. 91). At the Nuclear Power Plant Cernavod˘a, the contract provided the execution of unit 1 using 50% equipment from Canada and USA and 50% Romanian equipment, unit 2 with 35% Canadian and American equipment and 65% Romanian equipment, unit 3 with 30% Canadian and American and 70% Romanian, and unit 4 with 18% Canadian and American and 82% Romanian equipment. At the Heavy Water Plant in Drobeta Turnu Severin, 95% of equipment was produced in Romania. At the Nuclear Fuel Plant in Feldioara, part of the equipment was made in Romania. (d) Development of research and design capacity: I.C.P.E.T Bucharest, with profiles such as steam turbines, electric generators, and auxiliary equipment for the engine rooms of thermal power plants; the Research and Design Centre at

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‘Vulcan’ Boilers in Bucharest; the Hydropower Research and Design Institute in Res, it, a; the Design Centre at the Small Boilers Enterprise in Cluj; Transformers Design Institute in Craiova; the ‘Automatica’ Design Institute for Automation Installations in Bucharest.

3.2 The Execution of Power Facilities The thermal power plants, the HPPs, as well as high voltage power lines and stations in Romania have been built almost entirely by four construction and assembly trusts using Romanian specialists and Romanian workforce: (a) The ‘Hidroconstruct, ia’ Trust (T.C.H) executed, in the period 1950–1990 and afterwards, 169 concrete dams, with heights of up to 168 m and a total volume of reservoirs of 10,500 million cubic meters of water, 175 HPPs, around 1000 km of retaining or routing dikes, over 850 km of underground tunnels (Vaida 2018, p. 93). Figure 12 shows the execution of the dam at Izvorul Muntelui (Bicaz). (b) The ‘Energoconstruct, ia’ Trust (T.E.C) carried out, in the 1950–1990 period and afterwards, construction and installation works for more than 30 thermal power plants and more than 20 district heating plants, comprising (Vaida 2018, p. 96): 137 power units with capacities of 3–330 MW and a total capacity exceeding 15,000 MW, including: foundations for turbines and boilers, cooling towers, smokestacks, coal deposits, district heating grids, power stations, etc. Figure 13 shows the execution of the 220 m smokestack foundation at TPP Mintia. (c) The ‘Energomontaj’ Trust (T.Eg.M.) executed and commissioned, in 1950– 1989, several thermal power units with powers of 12–330 MW and a large number of HPPs. Until 1989, the ‘Energomontaj’ Trust carried out the installation and commissioning of thermal power plants and HPPs with a total power of more than 21,000 MW (Vaida 2018, p. 101). Figure 14 shows installation works carried out for a 210 MW turbine at TPP Mintia. Fig. 12 Construction of the Izvorul Muntelui dam (Bicaz) (Vaida 2018, p.95)

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Fig. 13 Execution of the foundation of the 220 m chimney of power plant Mintia (Vaida 2018, p.97)

Fig. 14 Installation of a 210 MW turbine (power plant Mintia) (Vaida 2018, p.99)

(d) The ‘Electromontaj’ Trust (T.E.M) built, in the 1950–1989 period, approximately 100,000 km of high, medium, and low voltage OHLs. In the period 1950– 1989, the electric power installed in power stations and transformer substations was above 90,000 MVA (Vaida 2018, p. 105). Figure 15 shows a 400 MVA autotransformer installed in 400/220 kV power stations.

3.3 The Development of Designs for Power Facilities (a) The Institute for Studies and Power Engineering (ISPE). The general plan and the technological solutions for thermal power plants were provided by the suppliers of equipment, while the solutions related to location, construction works, hydrotechnology, and all auxiliary installations were established almost entirely by ISPE (Vaida 2018, p. 108). The projects carried out by ISPE include: 80% of all projects for thermoelectric and district heating plants; for the first two 706.5 MW units at Cernavoda NPP (the conventional part); engineering works for 100% of the 220 kV, 400 kV, 750 kV OHLs, and 30% of the 110 kV OHL within SEN; 80% of the projects developed for high and medium

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Fig. 15 Autotransformer 400 MVA at Electroputere Craiova (Vaida 2018, p.105)

voltage power stations within the national distribution network; projects for about 258 Centralised Heat Supply Systems nationwide, amounting to a total of 16,500 km of transmission and distribution network. (b) The Institute of Hydroelectric Studies and Design (ISPH) completed studies and designs for water resources development for multiple purposes, with focus on utilising the energy potential. Results of this activity include: 97 dams of various types, 119 HPPs, more than 600 km of tunnels and drifts, more than 100 km of canals, 11 sluices, which were built until 1994 and followed by others afterwards (Vaida 2018, p. 110). (c) The National Research and Development Institute for Energy (Institutul de Cercet˘ari s, i Moderniz˘ari Energetice, ICEMENERG) carried out activities consisting in streamlining, modernisation, studies and research in the field of thermal and hydro energy, automation, high voltage engineering, electric machinery, etc. It conducted scientific research, as well as technological engineering and microproduction. Since 1986, a division has been organised for the conventional part of nuclear power plants. (d) ICN (Institute for Nuclear Research) in Pites, ti. It was established in 1971 as a strategic unit, carrying out activities in the following fields: design, engineering and technological development, scientific and technological responsibility in developing the nuclear power industry in Romania (Vaida 2018, p. 113).

3.4 General Power Systems The period 1950–1990 can be divided into three stages: 1. The 1950–1960 stage saw the beginning of a more structured industrialisation and electrification process in the country. In October 1950 the ‘First Plan for Electrification and Water Management’ was adopted. It was a ten-year programme (1951–1960) that had the following objectives: to concentrate the production of electricity in new thermal power plants and HPPs and to develop the existing

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ones; to carry out complex works on river basins; to ensure electrification of the main agricultural branches and in villages; to build electricity transmission lines; to pursue a rational utilisation of energy resources by using inferior fuel; to create SEN with 110 kV transmission grids. 2. The 1961–1979 stage was defined by the industrialisation of the country and the intense development of the energy sector. Some key actions taken during this time include: expansion of SEN and switching to 220 and 400 kV transmission voltages; interconnection of SEN with the power systems of neighbouring countries and with the Interconnected Power System (SEI) of Central and Eastern European countries (27 October 1963); the agreement signed between Romania and Yugoslavia on the construction and operation of the Iron Gate Hydropower and Navigation System, ranked third in Europe due to its technological and economic features; the establishment of the Ministry of Electric Energy (MEE) (1965); the establishment within the MEE of the Trust for the Construction of Nuclear Power Plants (TCI-CNE) (1979). The installed capacity in SEN increased from 7346 MW in 1970 to 16,109 MW in 1980, and electricity production from 35,000 GWh in 1970 to about 67,500 GWh in 1980. 3. During the 1980–1989 stage, the industrialisation and electrification process was continued countrywide. Electricity consumption increased and could not be covered at all times by domestic electricity production, requiring an occasional import of electricity. Electricity production increased steadily until 1989, with thermal power plans accounting for the major share of electricity generation. From 1950 to 1989, the production of electricity increased about 35 times, from 2.113 to 75.851 TWh, about 32 times in thermal power plants, from 1944 to 63.223 TWh, and about 74 times in HPPs, from 0.169 to 12.628 TWh. The electric power installed in thermal plants for district heating increased steadily between 1960–1990, from 472 (1960) to 6201 MW (1990). Between 1960 and 1990, the power installed in thermal plants for district heating increased 13 times.

3.5 Thermal Power 3.5.1

The Design and Execution of Thermal Power Plants Commissioned in Romania in the 1950–1990 Period

From 1950 to 1990, thermal power plants (including those for district heating) were the main contributors to the generation of electricity and heat for the economy and for centralised heating systems. The projects for thermal power plants were drawn up by ISPE in collaboration with the suppliers of equipment and with the beneficiaries. From the beginning, construction and assembly works were completed by Romanian companies established for this purpose, using Romanian specialists and domestic workforce. The necessary steps were taken to ensure the production

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of Romanian-made 50, 150/125, and 330 MW power units, operating on coal and hydrocarbons, as well sets with lower powers of up to 12 MW (Vaida 2018, p. 126). In 1950, the main fuels used in thermal power plants were black oil and Diesel. Most of the power plants that were operational in 1950 remained in service: TPP Timis, oara, TPP Arad, TPP Oradea, TPP Gura Barza, etc. The following power plants owned by autoproducers were connected to the zonal power systems: The paper factory in Bus, teni, the cement factory in Fieni, Ploies, ti Refineries (Vaida 2018, p. 126), among others. At the power plants in Bucharest: Filaret Diesel Electric Power Plant and Groz˘aves, ti TPP, expansion works were conducted, as well as transitioning to urban central heating. The unit capacity of thermal power systems was increased as follows: 20 MW—Groz˘aves, ti (1928), 25 MW—Fântânele (1954), 50 MW— Paros, eni (1956), 100 MW—Ludus, -Iernut (1963), 150 MW—Paros, eni (1964), 200 MW—Ludus, -Iernut (1966), 210 MW—Mintia (1969), 315 MW—Is, alnit, a (1967), 330 MW—Rovinari (1976).

3.5.2

The Development of Thermal Power Plants

The 1950–1990 period saw the development of fossil fuels thermal power plants and can be divided into four stages: 1950–1960; 1960–1970; 1970–1980; 1980–1990. 1. In the 1950–1960 stage two development paths were followed: the use of natural gas as primary fuel for the production of electricity and heat, and the development of district heating, for the industrial sector and centralised heating systems. There were two stages of development: (a) The 1st stage (1950–1954), with steam parameters up to 64 ata and 450 °C. Achievements include: Doices, ti TPP (1950–1960); CDE Filaret— Bucharest, a 12 MW gas turbine, the largest in Europe at that time (1951); the TPP at Fântânele-Sângeorgiu de P˘adure, with a 25 MW gas-fired unit—the largest in the country at that time (1954), etc. (b) The 2nd stage (1955–1960), with steam parameters of 100–160 ata and 500– 540 °C. Achievements include: The Fântânele TPP; Borzes, ti TPP; Paros, eni TPP—the first 50 MW set, the largest in the country at that time (1956) (Vaida 2018, p. 127), etc. 2. The 1960–1970 stage saw the widespread introduction of steam parameters at 140 ata and 540 °C, and intermediary overheating in district heating systems. Achievements include: Govora CHP and Palas CHP, the first 50 MW units produced in the country; Ludus, TPP (Fig. 16)—the first gas-fired 100 MW unit, imported from Czechoslovakia; Paros, eni TPP—Paros, eni—unit no. 4, 150 MW (made in the Soviet Union)—the largest unit in the country at that time. CHP Bucharest South—the first unit with 36.5 MW gas turbines, the largest unit with gas turbines in the country (1966); the TPP at Fântânele—Sângeorgiu de P˘adure, the first 100 MW unit with Siemens fast start boiler; Ludus, TPP, the first 200 MW gas-fired unit (made in the Soviet Union)—the largest in the country at that time;

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Fig. 16 Ludus, thermal power plant, general view (Vaida 2018, p.120)

Fig. 17 Thermal power plant Is, alnit, a, general view (Vaida 2018, p.120)

Is, alnit, a CHP (Fig. 17), the first lignite-fired 315 MW unit (made in France and Germany)—the largest in the country at that time (1967), etc. 3. The 1970–1980 stage. Achievements include: TPP Mintia (1971–1972) (Fig. 18); TPP Br˘aila (1973–1979) (Fig. 19); TPP Rovinari (1972–1979) (Fig. 20); TPP Brazi (1973–1976); TPP Bucharest-West (1975–1976); TPP Bucharest-South (1975); TPP Galat, i (1975); PP Borzes, ti (1975–1977); TPP Turceni (1978–1980) (Fig. 21), etc. 4. The 1980–1990 stage. The manufacture, assembly, and commissioning programme for 330 MW, 150/120 MW, and 50 MW units was continued, using coal mined in the country. Achievements recorded in Romania during the 1980–1990 stage include: (a) Thermoelectric power plants: TPP Turceni (Fig. 21), one 330 MW unit each year (1981, 1982, 1983, 1985, 1987), reaching a maximum power of 2310 MW with seven 330 MW units; Doices, ti TPP (1982); Anina TPP (1984), etc. (b) Central heating plants: CHP Borzes, ti (1982–1983); CHP Pites, ti (1983); CHP Drobeta Turnu Severin, (1986–1989); CHP Craiova II (1987–1989), etc.

66 Fig. 18 The Mintia thermal power plant, general view (Vaida 2018, p.129)

Fig. 19 Br˘aila thermal power plant, general view (Vaida 2018, p.129)

Fig. 20 Rovinari thermal power plant, general view (Vaida 2018, p.130)

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Fig. 21 Turceni thermal power plant, general view (Vaida 2018, p.130)

The thermal power generated in central heating plants increased steadily between 1960 and 1990: 800 Tcal (1960), 21,524 Tcal (1970), 45,6544 Tcal (1980), 56,204 Tcal (1990). And then it decreased: 43,258 Tcal (1993), 24,956 Tcal (2000), 12,243 Tcal (2003). Starting in 1950, district heating network systems were developed for the transmission of thermal power to industrial and urban consumers, over a distance of more than 4000 km. The largest quantity of thermal energy was produced using hydrocarbons: 1975 (87%), 1985 (80%), 1993 (78%).

3.5.3

Hydropower

In the 1950–1990 period remarkable results were obtained in terms of how the hydropower potential was utilised: 115 HPP were commissioned, with powers exceeding 3.5 MW (Vaida 2018, p. 192) and a total power of 5853 MW; 118 dams are built, with a total reservoir water volume of 10,800 million cubic meters; investment works amounting to approximately 15 billion dollars (prices at the level of 1989); the annual production was approximately 16,500 GWh. The hydropower developments and related HPPs were mainly executed by the following construction and assembly companies: TCH, TEgM, and TEM. The HPPs executed in the country are of different gravitational types (Vaida 2018, p. 192): HPPs with high head of water and high powers, with reservoirs with gravitational supply or with pumped storage, that have an important role in ensuring the operational safety of SEN: Stejaru—Bicaz, Arges, — Vidraru, Lotru—Ciunget, Somes, —M˘aris, elu, Sebes, —Dorin Pavel etc.; high head HPPs without their own reservoirs, but with large lakes upstream, such as: Somes, — Tarnit, a s, i Sebes, —S, ugag; low head HPPs, isolated, such as Stânca—Costes, ti; low head HPPs, with waterfall, such as those built on the rivers Arges, , Bistrit, a and Olt; HPPs on large rivers: Iron Gate 1 and 2; MHPPs on smaller rivers.

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Hydropower Development Concept

In the 1950–1989 period, the concept of hydropower development was based on prioritising the choice and advancement of complex hydropower facilities expected to bring the maximum global benefits Two concepts on hydropower development can be highlighted (Vaida 2018, p. 192): (a) Prior to the oil crisis of 1973–1974, HPP metrics had to be determined so as to cover the variable part (peak load) of the SEN load curves. The projects developed over the 1960–1973 period had the following defining features (Vaida 2018, p. 192): creation of large reservoir lakes; development of high-power HPPs, with high unit powers. On the middle and lower sectors of rivers, cascade hydropower plants have been developed, with approximately equal heads and installed flows, with a view to standardise hydro-aggregates. In the 1960–1973 period, hydropower facilities were also developed to meet energy and water management requirements (Vaida 2018, p. 192). (b) After the onset of the 1973–1974 oil crisis (Vaida 2018, p. 193), the development concept for HPP production was focused on generating more electricity and absorbing SEN peak loads. Pumped-storage HPPs were developed to ensure the operational safety of SEN. Over time, the unit capacities of hydropower sets increased from 8 (1953) to 55 MW (1962) and to 170–175 MW after 1970. 3.5.5

Achievements in the Hydropower Field in the 1950–1990 Period

The hydropower developments carried out over the 1950–1990 period can be divided into complex hydropower facilities and secondary hydropower facilities. Complex facilities: 1. The hydropower development of Bistrit, a river, with a 454 MW HPP, which includes: Stejaru-Bicaz HPP (Dimitrie Leonida) (Fig. 22), with a capacity of 210 MW (1960–1961), and a chain of 13 HPPs upstream, with a total power of 244 MW (1962–1966). 2. The hydropower development of Arges, river, with a total power of 417.2 MW, which includes: The underground HPP at Corbeni (Arges, ), with a power of Fig. 22 Hydroelectric power plant D. Leonida—Stejaru (Vaida 2018, p.197)

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Fig. 23 Hydroelectric power plant Corbeni (Vaida 2018, p.197)

218 MW (1966) (Fig. 23), and the chain of HPPs with a total power of 187 MW (1967–1990). 3. The hydropower development of Lotru river, with an installed power of 510 MW, which includes: The underground HPP at Ciunget, with a power of 510 MW (3 MW × 170 MW) (1972–1974), the only high-power plant in the country equipped with Pelton turbines and with the highest fall of water in a hydroelectric development in the country (809.0 m). The first 170 MW unit (1972) is equipped with the largest Pelton turbine from ICM Res, it, a (Fig. 24). Downstream, the M˘alaia HPP (1978) and Br˘adis, or HPP (1982) were developed. 4. The facilities developed on Siret river, which include 3 dam HPPs with dams and reservoirs and cascade power stations (1983–1986). 5. The hydropower development on Buz˘au river, which includes the high-power HPP at Nehoias, u, with a capacity of 207 MW (1988), and a chain of HPPs upstream of Buz˘au. Fig. 24 Rotor of Pelton turbine, Ciunget (Vaida 2018, p.200)

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6. The hydropower development on Olt river, which includes the following facilities: Upper Olt, with reservoirs and a cascade of 11 dam-type HPPs (1989– 1994); Middle Olt, with reservoirs and a cascade of 14 dam-type HPPs (1975– 1994); Lower Olt, with reservoirs and a cascade of 5 dam-type HPPs (1980– 1991). All HPPs developed on the lower sector of Olt were equipped with reversible bulb turbines. 7. The hydropower development on Râul Mare river, which includes: the reservoir at Gura Apelor; the 334 MW underground HPP at Râul Mare-Retezat (1987), with two hydro-aggregates equipped with a Francis turbine. In 1970, I.C.M. Res, it, a begins manufacturing the first 170 MW Francis turbine produced in the country, which would later be installed at the Râul Mare-Retezat HPP (1980). Upstream of the Râul Mare-Retezat HPP there is a cascade of 10 dam-type HPPs (1986–1990). 8. The hydropower development on Strei river, which includes a cascade of 6 HPPs up to the point where Strei river flows into Mures, river (1993). 9. The hydropower development on Sebes, river, which includes: Gâlceag HPP, S, ugag HPP, and S˘asciori HPP, with a total installed power of 342 MW (1984– 1986), on the upper sector of the river, and the cascade of small power stations built upstream of the S˘asciori HPP. 10. The hydropower development on Somes, river, which includes: The highpower underground HPP at M˘aris, elul de Sus, with a capacity of 200 MW (1997), the 45 MW HPP at Tarnit, a (1974–1975), on the Somes, river, and several cascade power stations. 11. The hydropower development on Cris, ul Repede river, which includes: The 100 MW underground HPP at Remet, i (1985), which processes the water from the Dr˘agan-Iad reservoir (Fig. 25), the 58 MW HPP at Munteni I (1988), and several cascade HPPs. 12. The hydropower development in the Timis, —Bârzava—Nera catchment area, which includes: the 80 MW underground HPPs at Poiana M˘arului (1992), the 140 MW HPP at Poiana M˘arului (1990), and the HPP at Turnu Ruieni; the 40 MW HPP at Râul Alb (1992). Fig. 25 Dr˘agan Dam (Vaida 2018, p.213)

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13. The hydropower development in the Cerna—Motru—Tismana area, which includes: The 106 MW HPP at Tismana (1983) and the 50 MW HPP at Motru (1979), both underground; the Herculane HPP, above ground. 14. The hydropower plants on the Danube. In 1956, the governments of Romania and Yugoslavia reached a decision on how to best utilise the hydropower potential of the Danube. In 1964, construction work began on the Port, ile de Fier I (Iron Gate I) facility (Fig. 26), one of the biggest HPPs in Europe. During the first stage, the HPP at Port, ile de Fier I (Iron Gate I) (Romanian-Yugoslavian) was built, with a power of 2100 MW (12 MW × 175 MW) (1964–1972) and a production of electricity amounting to 10,500 GWh/year. During the second stage (1978–1986), the HPP at Port, ile de Fier II (Iron Gate II) (RomanianYugoslavian) was built, with a power of 432 MW (16 MW × 27 MW) and a production of electricity amounting to 2400 GWh/year. During the third stage (1987 s, i 2000), two additional HPPs were built at Port, ile de Fier 2 (Iron Gate 2), with a capacity of 108 MW (4 MW × 27 MW) and a production of electricity amounting to 600 GWh/year. The HPP at Port, ile de Fier 1 (Iron Gate 1) (Fig. 27) has the highest flow rate in the country (8700 m3 /s) and the highest power generated by Kaplan units (175 MW). The HPP at Port, ile de Fier 2 (Iron Gate 2) uses bulb turbines (27 MW). The 54 MW Gogos, u HPP is located upstream of the Port, ile de Fier 2 (Iron Gate 2) HPP, on the Gogos, u branch of the river, and uses to bulb-type units with a capacity of 27 MW. 15. The hydropower development on Jiu river. The hydropower development on the Jiu river includes the reservoir at Valea Sadului and a few HPPs built on the Jiu river. Fig. 26 Arrangement of the Iron Gates I (Vaida 2018, p.216)

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Fig. 27 Hydroelectric power plant Iron Gates I (Vaida 2018, p.217)

3.6 Nuclear Energy In Romania, the nuclear energy field is comprised of: research and design, manufacture of equipment, construction and commissioning of nuclear units and of heavy water and nuclear fuel plants, and operation of the two 706.5 MW CANDU-6 nuclear units. The nuclear energy programme in Romania can be divided into two development stages: 1950–1989 and 1990–2018. The notable achievements of the 1950–1989 period include: (a) International actions: Romania, a founding member of IAEA; the Agreement for Cooperation in the Development and Application of Atomic Energy for Peaceful Purposes between Romania and Canada; selecting the CANDU solution as the best option for Romania based on technological and political considerations. (b) Domestic actions focused on the preparations required to built nuclear plants in Romania: research on the production of heavy water at the ROMAG Plant; production of natural uranium fuel in the nuclear fuel plant; organising the Romanian machine building industry to manufacture equipment for the nuclear plant under licences; creating the ISPE nuclear energy group. (c) Choosing the CANDU 6 solution, with natural uranium as fuel and heavy water as coolant and moderator: agreements with AECL Canada for the nuclear part of U1 at Cernavod˘a NPP, which cover the issues of licence, design and technical assistance, the supply of equipment and materials from Canada; extension of the agreement with AECL Canada to build U2 at Cernavod˘a NPP; the decision to develop 5 units at Cernavod˘a NPP with work being initiated and carried out simultaneously on all units; start implementing the programme to incorporate the manufacture of specific nuclear equipment and materials into domestic production, with the involvement of 240 Romanian enterprises.

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3.7 Electric Power Systems From 1950–1990, the interconnection of zonal energy systems was carried out. Initially, a single SEN was created and then it was connected to the neighbouring countries and to the Interconnected Power System (SEI). Voltage levels are increased in power lines and stations, from 110 to 220 kV and then to 400 kV. Achievements in the 1950–1990 stage include mainly: the creation of SEN and the National Power Dispatch System (DEN, Dispecerul Energetic Nat, ional); improvement of the institutional organisation of SEN and DEN (Vaida 2018, p. 226) (1951–1955); gradual introduction of Romanian equipment and materials in electric power lines and stations; dispatch management of interconnected zonal power systems (1951), with a 110 kV voltage, using the dispatch unit at Groz˘aves, ti TPP; commissioning the 110/35/6 kV plant in Bras, ov (1953), the first 110 kV power station provided in the country’s Electrification Plan (1950–1960); creating a single SEN by interconnecting the zonal power systems (1954–1960): Transylvania and Muntenia (1954); northern Oltenia and Banat (1956); Ias, i and Galat, i regions (1957); Baia Mare and Craiova regions (1959); Suceava, Oradea, and Dobrogea regions (1960); the extension of the single SEN, on 24 January 1959, at 16:00 (the centenary of the Union of the Romanian Principalities), making the first parallel connection between the existing single SEN of 110 kV and the system in Moldova through the 110 kV OHL Buz˘au-Focs, ani; connection of the single SEN with the power systems in the following areas: Maramures, , Craiova, and Baia Mare (1959); Suceava, Dobrogea, and Oradea (1960). At the end of 1960, SEN covered the entire territory of the country and 82.6% of the installed power of electric plants. The first parallel connection between SEN and the Interconnected Power System (SEI) of socialist countries (coordinated from DCD Prague) (1963) is achieved using the 220 kV OHL Ludus, –Lemesany (Czechoslovakia), designed and built for 400 kV. SEN was then interconnected with the power systems of Yugoslavia (1964), Hungary (1965), and Bulgaria (1967). Figure 28 shows the stage of zonal interconnections in early 1951. Several 220 kV, 400 kV, and 750 kV lines and stations (Fig. 29) are put into operation with a view to: (a) Optimise the operational modes of SEN. OHLs (1965–1970): Slatina— Bucharest South; Slatina—Sibiu—Ludus, ; Port, ile de Fier—Slatina, etc.; Loopcircuit OHLs (1968–1981): Ureches, ti—Bucures, ti Sud; Bucures, ti Sud—Gura Ialomit, ei—Lacul S˘arat; Bradu—Bras, ov, etc.; (b) Provide stability for SEN, OHLs: Port, ile de Fier—Bucharest South (1972); Port, ile de Fier I—Rovinari—Bucharest; Bucharest South—Pelicanu (1982); Isaccea—Smârdan (at the Smârdan station, the first 400/110 kV transformer from Electroputere Craiova); (c) Complete the interconnection between USSR and the Popular Republic of Bulgaria: the 400 kV OHL Vulc˘ane¸sti—Dobrudja (1971), passing through Romania; the 750/400 kV Isaccea station (8 June 1986), as an interconnection station between SEN and Bulgaria and Ukraine; the 750 kV OHL at the USSR border—Isaccea; the 750 kV OHL Isaccea (Romania)—Varna (Bulgaria) (30

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Fig. 28 Zonal interconnections at the beginning of 1951 (Vaida 2018, p.227)

Fig. 29 The configuration of the 220–400 kV electrical networks in 1980 (Vaida 2018, p.246)

December 1986). Romania becomes the 5th country in Europe to use 750 kV installations for electricity transmission and transformation, and 5th in the world, after USSR (1970), Hungary (1978), Sweden (1982) at 800 kV, USA (1969) at 735 kV, Brazil (1980) at 765 kV, and South Africa (1982) at 765 kV; the 750 kV OHL Isaccea (Romania)—Varna (Bulgaria) (30 December 1986), reaching the border with Bulgaria; (d) Interconnection of SEN with the power systems of neighbouring countries: OHL Port, ile de Fier—Djerdap (SFR Yugoslavia); OHL Arad—Szeged (220 kV) (Hungary); OHL T, ânt, a˘ reni—Kozlodui (Bulgaria);

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(e) Connection of large power plants to SEN, using 400 kV stations: Ureches, ti for the Rovinari TPP; Ros, iori and T, ânt, a˘ reni for the Turceni TPP; Port, ile de Fier 1 for the Port, ile de Fier 1 (Iron Gate 1) HPP. (f) The 220 kV OHL for the connection of HPPs to SEN: S, ugag—Alba Iulia; Râul Mare—H˘as, dat, etc.;

3.8 The Power Management of Renewable Energy Sources Since 1979, increased focus has been placed on the use of unconventional energies, by researching solutions and determining the power technologies and equipment appropriate to utilise them. In the field of solar energy, based on research conducted and projects drawn up at ICPE, INCERC, etc., a series of collectors for the supply of domestic hot water were incorporated into production. At the research laboratory for the use of wind energy (Laboratorul de cercetare pentru utilizarea vântului) in Bras, ov, a few types of small capacity (0.5, 1.6, and 20 kW) wind turbines are built and go into standard production. In 1979, the first Romanian experimental wind operated mini-power station began operating at the Dochia chalet (Ceahl˘au Mountain).

3.9 Personalities with Notable Contributions to the Electrification of Romania in the 1950–1990 Period The notable figures from the 1950–1990 period, also known as the great wave, had an important contribution to the electrification of the country, the development of SEN, the execution and exploitation of large-scale power facilities, as well as the establishment of the Romanian school of energy. They collaborated with the golden generation and built upon their excellent ideas and projects. This group of prominent figures should be divided into subgroups based on the area of energy in which they activated: professors, researchers, designers, construction and assembly engineers, supervisors, experts in exploitation.

3.10 Education in the Field of Energy and Electrical Engineering The higher education system in the field of energy and electrical engineering trained specialists for the electrification of the country, the development of research and education in the field of energy in institutions such as the Technical Universities of Bucharest, Timis, oara, Ias, i, and Craiova. From 1950 to 1990, these included faculties such as Electrotechnics and Power Engineering, organised in various structures, with highly valued professors.

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4 The Electrification of Romania After 1990 The 1990–2018 period is defined by the transition of the Romanian economy and energy sector from a centrally planned economy to a market economy. The main energy resources used are: coal, natural gas, oil, hydropower, nuclear energy, and renewable energy resources. This period of electrification can be divided into two stages: the 1990–2000 stage, which saw the transition to the market economy, and the period after 2000, with an established market economy.

4.1 General Power Engineering The 1990–2018 period saw the reorganisation and restructuring of the energy sector, for the purpose of transitioning to the market economy through privatisation and development of the electric power market. In 1990, the Ministry of Electric Energy is transformed into the Electricity Division (Departamentul Energiei Electrice, DEET), which served as foundation for the Creation of the Romanian Electricity Authority (RENEL) (November 1990). Several professional and scientific associations affiliated to international organisations are established: The Romanian Member Committee of the World Energy Council; the Romanian Society of Power Engineers (SIER), member of the Convention of National Associations of Electrical Engineers of Europe (EUREL); the Romanian Nuclear Energy Association (AREN), member of the ‘European Nuclear Society’ (ENS); the Romanian Society of Thermotechnicians; the Romanian Energy Institute (IRE); the AQUA NOSTRA Romanian National Association of Hydropower Engineers (ANHR), among others (Vaida 2018 p. 260). The following actions were taken: the outsourcing of the Nuclear Energy Group within RENEL and the establishment of S.N. Nuclearelectrica (1998), as a producer of electricity and nuclear fuel, and the Romanian National Company for Nuclear Activities (RAAN), as a producer of heavy water and provider of design services and research; the establishment of CONEL (1998), followed by CONEL’s dissolution and the establishment (1999) of the following: SC TERMOELECTRICA SA, SC HIDROELECTRICA SA, CN TRANSELECTRICA SA and SC ELECTRICA SA. The new structure of installed power and available power (Fig. 30) for the production of electricity (energy mix) took shape, based on fossil fuels, hydropower, nuclear energy, and renewable resources. In 2002, according to the previous structure, thermal power plants had a 69% share in the production of electricity (of which 18% nuclear, with two 706.5 MW units), while hydropower plants accounted for 31%. In 2013, in the new structure (which includes renewable sources), the production of electricity is broken down as follows: 47.6% in thermal power plants (approximately 21% lower than 2002), 20.9% hydropower, 23.5% nuclear power, and 8% wind power. In 2015, consumption in the national economy (constructions, industrial sector, and services) accounted for 75% of the final energy consumption, with the rest attributed to residential consumption

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Fig. 30 The power installed and available in the National electric system, on April 1, 2016 (Vaida 2018, p.270)

(approx. 12 TWh) (Vaida 2018, p. 269). Over the following years, due to the increase in the share of electricity production from renewables and HPPs, the production of coal and natural gas-fired plants has decreased; however, these are still necessary to ensure energy security and operational safety in the National Power System (SEN) (Vaida 2018, p. 270).

4.2 Thermal Power The production of thermal energy from district heating power plants within SEN has decreased steadily from 56,204 Tcal (1990) to 12,243 Tcal (2003). Following the decline of investments in the energy sector, there was a significant decrease in activities such as research and design, construction and assembly, and manufacture of equipment for the power industry. A defining feature of the 1990–2018 period is the technological advancement seen in the construction of thermal power stations. An important feature of this period is the environmental issue (Fig. 31). Technological methods have been designed and implemented for the purpose of capturing the toxic gases SOx and NOx from the flue gases. Intensive research is being conducted with regard to technologies for the capture and storage of flue gas CO2 . During this period, several power units in large lignite and coal-fired power plants were upgraded; these account for approximately 90% of the production of coal-based electricity and part of the thermal power supplied to central heating plants (Craiova, Deva, Jiu Valley). The works included the installation of environmental protection equipment (electrofilters, desulphurisation and dense slurry systems), while the installation of low NOx systems is scheduled to be completed in 2020, the deadline for compliance set with the EU. Coal and gas-fired thermal power plants have a total available power of approximately 9000 MW (Fig. 30), which translates as a major contribution to the safe operation of the SEN, insofar

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Fig. 31 Integrated protection of the environment at a coal-based thermoelectric plant (Vaida 2018, p.271)

as wind power stations operate intermittently. Achievements recorded during the 1990–2018 period in the field of thermal energy refer mainly to: the rehabilitation of thermal power plants, with a capacity of 4560 MW (1993–2000); the development of combined-cycle gas-fired units: OMW—Petrom (Brazi), with a power of 860 MW, CHP Bucharest West, with a power of 160 MW, and others.

4.3 Hydropower During the 1990–2018 period, the investment and modernisation programme for HPPs was continued, within the limits of available financial resources. Investments have not yet started on the Tarnit, a—L˘apus, tes, ti Pumped-Storage Hydropower Plant, the largest project for a pumped-storage power plant. Several HPPs were commissioned during this period as part of different hydropower developments: Poiana M˘arului, Strei, Olt, Sebes, , Jiu, Surduc—Siriu, Runcu—Firiza, Bistrit, a, Cerna Belareca, Ruieni, Poiana Rusc˘a, Siret, etc., while the hydropower units at Port, ile de Fier (Iron Gate) I and II and other HPPs underwent retrofitting. The main source of renewable energy is represented by the hydropower potential of watercourses. The degree to which the technically exploitable potential (36 TWh/ year) and the economically exploitable potential (30 TWh/year) are utilised varies around 50% and 60%, respectively. The exploited hydropower potential may reach approximately 59% (2020), 65% (2028), and 67% (2038), respectively (Vaida 2018, p. 296). The total installed power in HPPs in 2015 was 6741 MW (54% with reservoir lake and 46% run-of-the-river), and the production of electricity was 16,546 GWh (57% with reservoir lake and 43% without reservoir).

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4.4 Nuclear Energy In Romania, the option of using natural uranium was chosen for the construction of nuclear power plants, as it ensures independence from countries that use uranium enrichment technology. The production of the nuclear fuel necessary to operate the 706.5 MW U1 and U2 from Cernavod˘a NPP relies on domestic uranium resources. CANDU 6 units use as moderator heavy water, which is produced by ROMAG Drobeta Tr. Severin, for the entire lifetime of U1 and U2 in Cernavod˘a (3–5 tons/ year/unit) and for the first load at U3 and U4 (1,100 tons). Romania has the benefit of having achieved a full nuclear cycle.

4.5 Achievements in the Field of Nuclear Energy from 1990 to 2018 U1 (1996) and U2 (2007) were put into operation at Cernavod˘a NPP (Fig. 32), with a lifetime of 30 years, until 2027 and 2038, respectively. Their lifetime can be doubled, reaching up to 60 years, through a technical overhaul and retubing of reactors. The achievements recorded during the 1990–2018 period include: the modernisation of the heavy water factory ROMAG Drobeta Tr. Severin; the commissioning of units U1 and U2; the establishment of the Nuclear Fuel Plant in Pites, ti (1992) and its qualification (1995) as a producer of nuclear fuel, etc. Figure 32 shows U1 and U2 at Cernavod˘a NPP, and Fig. 33 the overall layout of the Cernavod˘a NPP, with 5 nuclear units (U1 and U2 in operation, U3, U4, U5 kept in preservation). Production at Cernavod˘a NPP covers approximately 20% of

Fig. 32 Nuclear power plant Cernavod˘a (view of units 1 and 2) (Vaida 2018, p.300)

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Fig. 33 The general plan of nuclear power plant Cernavod˘a (Vaida 2018, p.299)

the total production of electricity in the country and may increase to more than 30% when the nuclear units U3 and U4 begin to operate.

4.6 The Power Management of Renewable Energy Sources The energy potential of renewable sources consists of biomass, wind power, solar power, hydropower, and geothermal sources. As regards renewable energy, Romania has areas with high potential for exploitation (Vaida 2018, p. 304). In Romania, renewable energy accounts for approximately 40% of the total energy production, as compared to the EU28 average of 15%. Based on the renewable energy indicator, Romania is above the EU 2020 target, a position that will be maintained until 2035 (Vaida 2018, p. 304). The National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) sets national targets and contributes to meeting the targets set at EU level (Vaida 2018, p. 305).

4.7 Electric Power Systems In the 1990–2018 period, SEN resumes interconnected operation connected to the Interconnected Energy System (SEI) (13.03.1990) after a period of isolated operation, and is then interconnected to the European energy system coordinated by UCTE (ENTSO-E) (Fig. 34). Notable achievements in the field of electric energy during

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Fig. 34 National energy system (2014) (Vaida 2018, p.314)

this period include: technical training, testing and interconnection of SEN to UCTE (10.10.2004) through the OHL Arad—Sándorfalva; the commissioning of a large number of high-voltage power stations with modern equipment; the establishment, development, and operation of the electricity market, etc.

4.8 Personalities with Notable Contributions from 1990 to 2018 The most remarkable figures after 1990 could be called successors of the great wave. They contributed to the further advancement of power facilities and shaped the modern education in the field of energy in Romania. They also collaborated with the ‘great wave’ generation and have moved forward the development of Romanian power engineering. This group of prominent figures should be divided into subgroups based on the area of energy in which they activated: professors, researchers, construction and assembly engineers, supervisors, experts in exploitation.

4.9 Higher Education in the Field of Energy In Romania, higher education establishments in the field of energy and electrical engineering can be found in Bucharest, Ias, i, Timis, oara, Cluj, Oradea, Craiova, Bras, ov, Galat, i, Sibiu, Suceava, Târgovis, te, Petros, ani, training specialists for the National Energy System.

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5 Medium and Long Term Strategic Guidelines The future development of the Romanian energy field depends largely on the evolution of this field in the European Union and worldwide, but most importantly it relies upon the country’s own energy policies and strategies. Romania is among the few countries in the European Union, and even on the entire continent, that possesses all the conditions necessary to ensure its energy resources and electricity for the medium and long term, through optimal energy management and a balanced mixed use of energy, supported by coherent national policies and strategies. Energy, power systems, and the electricity market must serve as supporting factors for economic growth and general welfare. Following the analysis of the current situation of SEN interconnected to the European Power System, of the internal potential of energy resources and the need for development, with a view to ensure the medium and long term supply of electric and thermal power, it has been concluded that a new Energy Strategy is needed, developed by Romanian specialists to serve the best national interest. To this end, the following medium and long time guidelines have been put forward (Vaida 2018, p. 403): 1. Romania has non-renewable and renewable energy resources that can secure the country’s medium and long-term energy supply, provided they are subject to rational exploitation and are used in the national interest. 2. The new Energy Strategy should provide for the necessary investments in new production capacities for electric and thermal power, in order to prevent a future gap in production, and manufacture of: high-performance units, either coal-fired (supercritical and ultra-critical parameters) or gas-fired (combined cycle); the Tarnit, a-L˘apus, tes, ti pumped HPP; the nuclear units U3 and U4 at Cernavod˘a NPP, etc. 3. Achieving new capacities for domestic and cross-border electricity transmission, in order to increase the safety of the operation of the SEN and the efficiency of the energy market with a view to create a single European energy market. 4. The development of electricity production from renewable resources should be continued within the technical and economic limits required for the safe operation of the SEN and the efficient functioning of the electricity market. 5. Achieving a balanced energy mix, based on domestic energy resources, consisting of coal (25–30%), hydropower (25–30%), nuclear power (20–25%), renewable energy (15–20%), and hydrocarbons (8–10%), for the 2020–2035 period and beyond. 6. Development of activities that support the operation, development, and modernisation of installations used in the Energy Sector and the Electric Power System (research and design, construction and assembly, machine building, education). 7. Environmental protection must be an important component of the Energy Strategy. In the version suggested for the energy mix over the 2020–2030 period, about 65% of the electricity production (hydropower, nuclear power, and renewable energy) is free of CO2 emissions.

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8. The security of the energy supply, which is an important component of national security, is achieved by: ensuring the necessary energy resources mainly from domestic sources, while imports should serve only a supplementary purpose; safe operation of SEN and its integrated installations for the production, transmission, and distribution of electricity. 9. Increasing the efficiency of the electricity market based on genuine transparency and competition on the European energy market.

6 Conclusions 1. The electrification of the country began in 1882, and for the most part it was completed over the hundred years spanning from 1918 to 2018, albeit at a faster rate in the 1950–1990 period, and must be continued in order to meet the new operating conditions of the SEN interconnected to the European Energy System. 2. The Romanian energy field should serve as an important lever in the hands of the Government, helping to boost sustainable economic growth and improvement of general welfare, with major medium and long-term impact. 3. The prominent figures who contributed to the electrification of Romania should be grouped based on the area of the energy field in which they carried out their activity and achieved remarkable results: professors, researchers, designers, construction engineers, assembly engineers, experts in exploitation, supervisors. 4. The proper development of the Energy Sector and Electric Power System should be addressed as a priority, aimed at enhancing the energy security, which is a key component of national security. 5. The Government and the Parliament should give priority to the development and implementation of the new Energy Strategy. Any delay in its implementation will have a major medium and long-term impact. 6. Only when all decision-makers are properly informed and have a good understanding of the importance of national energy matters for economic development and improvement of the general welfare it is possible to make the most appropriate decisions, with medium and long-term impact, in accordance to the European Union requirements and geopolitical circumstances. 7. The electrification of Romania was completed with extraordinary efforts and sacrifices on behalf of the Romanian people and on behalf many generations of power engineers working in the field of research and design, education, construction and assembly, or exploitation. Most of them are unknown, yet we owe them all our deepest gratitude.

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References AGIR (2015) Tezaurul Energeticii. Asociat, ii profesionale ingineres, ti din Sistemul Energiei Electrice s, i Termice din România (AGIR. The treasury of energy. Professional engineering associations from the Romanian electric and thermal energy system). AGIR Publishing House, Bucharest AGIR (2017) Tezaurul energeticii. Formarea specialis, tilor sistemului energiei electrice s, i termice din România (AGIR. The treasury of energy. The training of Romanian electricity and thermal energy system specialists). AGIR Publishing House, Bucharest. Dispecerul Energetic Nat, ional (2005) 50 de ani 1955–2005 (National Energy Dispatcher. 50 years 1955–2005). Evenimentul Românesc Publishing House, Buz˘au Dordea T, Andea P, Muntean N, Mus, uroi S (2010) Facultatea de Electrotehnic˘a s, i Electroenergetic˘a. 90 de ani de înv˘at, a˘ mânt electric la Timis, oara – Monografie (Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Power Engineering. 90 years of electrical education in Timis, oara—Monograph). Orizonturi Universitare Publishing House, Timis, oara IRE (2003) Personalit˘at, i din energetica româneasc˘a (IRE: Personalities from the Romanian energy sector). AGIR Publishing House, Bucharest Sabin I (2002) Profesorii (The professors). Politehnica Publishing House, Timis, oara Vaida (2018) Centenarul energeticii românes, ti (The centenary of Romanian energy). AGIR Publishing House, Bucharest Vlad IV (2016) Strategia de dezvoltare a României în urm˘atorii 20 de ani. Vol. III. Partea 2-a (Romania’s development strategy in the next 20 years, vol III, part 2). Romanian Academy Publishing House, Bucharest World Energy Council (1995) Dict, ionar de termeni folosit, i în domeniul energiei (World Energy Council. Dictionary of terms used in the field of energy). A&C International SA, Bucharest

The History of Biomedical Engineering Alexandru Mihail Morega

Abstract This chapter is about biomedical engineering in the country. The opening preamble introduces this realm, a relatively new, multidisciplinary, and multiphysics area of science, education, research, and technology devoted to solving problems in the medicine and biology parts of physics. The following section is devoted to the outstanding forefathers of biomedical engineering and the education and achievements that boded this industry in the country. The third section concerns biomedical schools, technology, and engineering in the interwar decades, from private initiatives to state-ruled education, institutions, and industry. Section four concerns biomedical engineering, education, and research in the post-war and contemporary periods. A birds’ eye view reference timeline presents the organizations, committees, national chapters, and bodies of bioengineering.

1 Preamble Biomedical engineering applies engineering principles and methods to solve problems in medicine and biology (Arnaldez et al. 1970). Exhibiting exceptional dynamics, it explores avenues of research from all science fields. The specific time and place of emergence of biomedical engineering are challenging to pinpoint historically; however, there are some crucial points of reference: the establishment of the German Biophysical Society (1943); the Conference on Engineering in Medicine and Biology, USA (1948); the Professional Group on Medical Electronics (1952) of the Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE), which later became the Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and the Department of Biomedical Engineering at McGill University, USA (1966). In 1924, the Romanian Society of Medical Radiology and Electrotherapy was founded. It began publishing the journal with the same name in 1934. A. M. Morega (B) University Politehnica of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 D. Banabic (ed.), History of Romanian Technology and Industry, History of Mechanism and Machine Science 45, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39191-0_4

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2 Romanian Forerunners of Biomedical Engineering Dragomir Hurmuzescu (1865–1954) may be regarded as the most prominent figure at Romania’s forefront of physics and medical engineering. Alongside Eng. Victor Chabaud, invented the ‘Chabaud–Hurmuzesco tube’ (1896), the first X-ray device in Romania. He demonstrated in Bucharest (1896) ‘a new method for radiological investigation’ and performed several bone radiographs at the Boarding High School in Ias, i (1896–1897) (Fleancu et al. 2015; Baciu 1988). He also founded the ‘Laboratory of Radiography and Radioscopy’ at the Faculty of Physics in Ias, i (Fleancu et al. 2015). Following a suggestion by Prof. Gh. Marinescu (1863–1938), the founder of the Romanian school of neurology, he performed the historical radiography that allowed for the discovery of the sphenoid bone (‘Turkish saddle’). The Benoist–Hurmuzescu electroscope was, possibly, the first X-ray dosimeter. Together with Gh. Marinescu produced the world’s first X-ray of the skull. The first research activities in the field of magnetic detection in Romania were undertaken within the framework of military medicine by the physicist S, tefan Procopiu (1890–1972), using the ‘Hugues balance’. Professor Ioan G. Stravolca (1847–1910), the first physics graduate from the University of Bucharest (1870), holder of a Ph.D. in physics from the Free University of Brussels (1875), a successor of Prof. S, tefan Micle (1820–1879), and the first rector of the ‘Moldavia and Wallachia’ University of Ias, i (Micle 2023; Manea 2012; Romanescu 1979), established the Medical Physics Department (Anuariul ¸ 1896). Doctor A. Stere organized a radiology Universit˘at, ei din Ias, i pe Anul Scolariu laboratory (1905–1908) at the Cantacuzino–Pas, canu Hospital in Ias, i (Daniil 1923), using the device built by D. Hurmuzescu in 1897. Professor Petru Bogdan from the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Ias, i started teaching medical physics (1910), a study subject integrated into the Physiology Department, which later became the Department of Physiology and Medical Physics, coordinated by Prof. Gabriel Socor. Prof. Vasile R˘as, canu (1885–1980) established the Physiology Laboratory (1922). The beginnings of technical medicine are linked to the activity of orthopedic technicians (Fleancu et al. 2015; Manea 2012). Professor Constantin Severneanu, Ph.D. (Colt, ea Hospital) mentions (1860) the workshop opened on Apolodor Street in Bucharest by Travizani (who had previously worked at Suer in Vienna) and Bröhm (who had previously worked at Charier in Paris), employed at the Board of Civil Hospitals by its administrator, dr. Carol Davila (Manea 2012). The outcomes of the Romanian War of Independence (1877–1878) prompted King Carol I to support bringing in the country experts in medical technology from Germany. Thus, Carol Bünger (born in 1860 in Bavaria, at Tuttlingen, where the medical companies Aesculap and Karl Störz were operating) and Wilhelm Heining came to Bucharest and Ias, i, respectively. Carol Bünger initially worked in the Bröhm workshop, founded his firm (1890, on Calea Victoriei), and became a supplier to the Royal House. At that time, there were three workshops on medical technology in the Kingdom: Bröhm and Bünger (in Bucharest) and Heining (in Ias, i) (Manea 2012). Carol Bünger’s workshop (1894) for surgical and medical instruments marked the beginning of the Romanian medical technology industry. At the request of Queen Elisabeth, who

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presided over the Friends of the Blind civic organization, Carol Bünger built (1906) the Braille typewriter for the blind based on the machine invented by Frank Hall in the USA. When Romania entered the First World War (1916), the business was taken over by his sons, Wilhelm Fritz Bünger and Alfred Dimitrie Bünger (1893–1986, Bucharest, optician and orthopaedist). However, the two brothers then went to war as non-commissioned officers in the Romanian army. Following the outbreak of the war, other German technicians abandoned their practices as well, leaving Romania unable to cover the need for government assistance in terms of prosthetics and orthotics. After returning from the front lines, A. D. Bünger set up (1917) the Nicolina Workshops in Ias, i, with help from the Society of War Invalids, an official Orthopedics Workshop providing prostheses, orthoses, and occupational therapy for those who had been disabled or maimed in the war (Baciu 1988; Manea 2011).

3 Biomedical Technology and Engineering in the Interwar Period After the war, the Bröhm and Penchas & Mendel companies resumed their activity in Bucharest, and many other smaller companies started operating. A. D. Bünger opened (1925) the Carol Bünger Workshops (Manea 2012). The company produced the first ‘medical devices and instruments, Röntgen devices and accessories, equipment and installations for medical testing laboratories, optical devices and items, electrical devices for medical use, surgical instruments and items, hospital furniture’. It was focused on Romanian surgeons’ applied use of inventions and innovations (Bünger 1929). He was also the editor of the Progress of Medical Instruments [in Romanian, Progresele instrumentat, iei medicale] magazine—an Information Bulletin on advancements and improvements in the field of medical and surgical instrumentation, published initially by the Triumful printing house in Bucharest, and then by Tiparul Românesc in Bucharest (1946). The bulletin was sent to every physician in the country, free of charge (Manea 2012). Technician schools and repair and maintenance workshops are established. Engineer Petre N. Georgescu (1892–1980), an alumnus of the Vocational School, also known as the Polizu Industrial High School attached to the School of Roads and Bridges (Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest), was sent by the government to France (at the behest of Prof. Mihai Ciuc˘a and Prof. V. Sion) to pursue a specialization in the manufacture of medical instruments and equipment at the Institut Normal Électrotechnique in Paris (founded in 1911), from where he obtained a Diplome d’Ingénieur Électricien (1923). He was the coordinator and deputy director of the Healthcare Workshops of the Ministry of Health (Atelierele Sanitare ale Ministerului S˘an˘at˘at, ii, ASMS) (Bucharest 1920), which were subordinated to the General Healthcare Directorate of Bucharest (1923). He also organized the School of Apprentices in Bucharest and later the Public Economic and Commercial Administration of the Healthcare Workshops (RECAS), Bucharest. ASMS begin their activity with small

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works (rods for hospital beds and metal bedside tables), then produce medical instruments and equipment directly for clinical use. The first sterilization box was built (1928), presented by Prof. Nicolae Hortolomei and Prof. Ion T, urai, and the first operating tables made in Romania were introduced and offered to Prof. Nicolae Hortolomei and Prof. Theodor Burghele. Worth mentioning also are the electric sterilizer for medical instruments, the dental chair, the thermostats, the Camson-type installation for steam sterilization, vertical autoclaves, etc. The first chrome-plating installation and a bronze foundry for surgical instruments are built. The Radiology Institute in Cluj-Napoca, led by Prof. Dimitrie Negru, received (1926–1928) war reparations comprising radiology devices from Siemens, Erlangen (Manea 2010). The first school for technicians in the field of radiology equipment begins operating in Bucharest (1931–1934, Dimitrie Leonida) (Negru 1931). The Ministry of National Defence introduced (1935) the specialty of Medical equipment technology, similar to a Vocational School, as part of the School of Military Foremen, subordinated to the Central Sanitary Depot of the Army. The graduates received a baccalaureate degree and became military foremen qualified for medical devices (Manea 2010). The technical staff from the School of Technical Conductors and then from the School of Electromechanical Sub-Engineers, both led by engineer Traian Dragos, , was carrying out installation and repair works for medical equipment, building ovens, and sterilization devices, installations for supplying power to clinics, hospitals, and sanatoriums in Cluj-Napoca. Augustin Maior, the inventor of multiple telephony, was also consulted about the Röntgen installations. The ASMS is assigned under concession to private entities (1937–1946), Carol Bünger Workshops opened a branch in Cluj-Napoca, and a syringe factory was established in Sighis, oara. After the war, the Electrometal Company became a basic medical equipment provider (Manea 2010). The Romanian Optical Enterprise (Întreprinderea de Optic˘a Român˘a, IOR), founded in Bucharest (1936) and focused on the design and manufacture of optomechanical equipment (Romanian Optical Enterprise 2023), was militarized in 1941. After 1949, IOR manufactures the first eyeglasses lenses, the first didactic microscopes (1951), and its first photo camera (1954). Starting in 1959, IOR developed products for medical use: the first binocular laboratory microscope (1960), the first dental unit (1961), and the first research microscope (1962). After the 80s, new fields are explored, such as optoelectronics, laser, metrology, and thermal vision with various applications (Romanian Optical Enterprise 2023). Under the nationalization law no. 118 of 11 June 1948, the Public Economic and Commercial Administration of Healthcare Workshops (RECAS) was established in Bucharest. It incorporated: ASMS, ACTA S.A.R. (Bucharest), the Workshop for the Construction of Medical Devices (C. Mih˘ailescu), the Factory for Orthopaedic Devices (Gh. Niculescu and P. Atanasiu, Bucharest), Instrumentaria (Traian N. Ionescu and I. Ionescu, Bucharest), Sanitaria (the Kraft brothers, Sighis, oara), Carol Bünger Workshops (A. D. Bünger), the Medical-Technical Company (Philips representation, Cluj-Napoca) and the Mechanical Constructions Company (Societatea de Construct, ii Mecanice S.A.R.) (Bucharest). RECAS became (1956) the Medical Technology Enterprise (Întreprinderea de Tehnic˘a Medical˘a,

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I.T.M.) (Bucharest), within the Ministry of Health, with an external Syringe Department in Sighis, oara, the Medical-Technical Department in Cluj, and the Repair Department in Bucharest. Starting with a single engineer for the manufacture of medical instruments and devices and with a small number of engineers and technicians who built small Röntgen devices and repaired radiology installations in 1951, ITM grew to more than 50 engineers in the 70s who, together with physicians and specialists, designed and put into production approximately 250 medical systems, devices, and equipment for diagnosis, treatment, and medical research in laboratories, in the field of dentistry, disinfection and sterilization, anesthesia and artificial respiration, medical and surgical instruments, etc. ITM included a wellequipped repair department capable of repairing complex medical devices. The central department and some regional workshops in Cluj-Napoca, Ias, i, and Timis, oara provided servicing and repair works, with engineers and technicians trained by the manufacturing enterprises.

4 Biomedical Engineering, Education, and Research in the Post-war and Contemporary Period After the First World War, the School of Apprentices was founded in Bucharest (1923). It recruited children around 14 years old from rural areas and war orphans. The school for the installation, maintenance, and repair of radiology medical equipment (Prof. Dimitrie Negru) was established in Cluj-Napoca (Manea 2010; Negru 1931), and the Post-secondary School for Training in the Operation of Medical Equipment was founded in Bucharest (1961). The first vocational schools training electromechanics qualified for medical equipment enrolled candidates from among physically disabled pupils who had completed seven grades of primary school. Thus, Special School Number Nine in Bucharest operated from 1964 to 1974, offering a three-year program and trained radiology operators for MRF micro cameras. Following the education reform (1948–1949), the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare organized, through the Vocational School for Healthcare, a post-secondary class for electrophysiology and radiology technicians at the Institute of Oncology, where the first telecobalt therapy device (GUT-400) was also installed. The Central Workshop for the Maintenance and Repair of Medical Equipment (Atelierul Central pentru Întret, inerea s, i Repararea Aparaturii Medicale, ACIRAM) was established in Bucharest (1957). The first class of graduates from post-secondary school completed their studies in 1955, and the candidates were granted a baccalaureate degree (Manea 2009). In 1964–1974, Special School No. 9 in Bucharest trained radiology operators for microphotography (MRF) devices and medical equipment repairs. At the Institute of Atomic Physics in Bucharest, Prof. Florin Cior˘ascu, corresponding member of the Romanian Academy (1915–1977), contributed to the construction of the hospital for nuclear radiation therapy on the M˘agurele Platform, coordinated the execution of the 17 meV linear electron accelerator at the Oncology Institute in Cluj-Napoca, of

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the betatron at the Army Research Institute at Fundeni, and of the 40 meV betatron at the Academy of Medical Sciences. The Radiology Cooperative, led by Eng. Gheorghe Harnagea was transformed into the ‘Radio Popular’ Cooperative and later into the ‘Electrotehnica’ state enterprise. In the 60s, at the ‘Automatica’ Enterprise in Bucharest, the first Röntgen device for micro-photographs called MRF-Automatica was built (Manea 2009). The County Workshop for Maintenance and Repair of Medical Equipment (Atelierul Judet, ean pentru Întret, inerea s, i Repararea Aparaturii Medicale, AJIRAM) Cluj– Napoca (1968, transferred under the administration of Sibiu County Hospital in 1973) provided medical equipment technicians. The participation of I.T.I.M., I.P.A. Branch, I.E.I.A., etc., and the contributions of the Institute of Electronic Research (ICSITE), Cluj-Napoca branch (1979, Prof. Traian Daniil Gligor) are also noteworthy (Manea 1980). At present, there is a significant number of companies and enterprises in Romania which carry out activities in fields such as medical equipment, laboratory equipment, and consumables, medical devices, equipment and consumables for dentistry, measuring instruments, devices for control and diagnosis, endoscopic equipment, equipment for different therapies, for medical imaging and radiology, surgical instruments, prostheses and equipment for patients with disabilities, etc. Large international companies, well-known for their medical devices and equipment, have active representation offices in the country. Numerous patents also substantiate the research and development activity in the biomedical field; as of the date of this submission, the OSIM (Romanian State Office for Inventions and Trademarks) database includes 2,161 records. The need for a multidisciplinary understanding of life sciences, in general, and of the biomedical field in particular, e.g., (Bejan and Zane 2012), has assigned key roles to engineering and technology fields and has shaped a new field—biomedical engineering. Furthermore, the cooperation with well-established international academic institutions, our current research, e.g., (Baltag 2021), and the existing premises, e.g., (Timotin 2004; Morega 2000; Teodorescu and Topoliceanu 1988), require and enable further development and reinforcement of higher technical or medical education. Thus, at the University Politechnica of Bucharest, bachelor’s and master’s degree programs in the field of biomaterials and biomedical equipment, systems, and devices have been created within the Department of Fine Mechanics and later at the faculties of Machine Building Technology, Mechanics (1970-), Electronics and Telecommunications (1966-), Electrical Engineering (1992-), Materials Science and Engineering, and Industrial Chemistry. In 2002, the Department of Bioengineering and Biotechnology was established (Morega 1998), offering master’s degree programs, and in 2010, based on a protocol signed with ‘Carol Davila’ University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Bucharest, the Faculty of Medical Engineering was established, offering undergraduate and master’s degree programs (Morega 2006). At the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Technical University of Ias, i, the Electronics, Machine Building, and Industrial Management and Mechanics faculties provide bachelor’s degree programs that include biomechanical components. In 1994, the Faculty of Medical Bioengineering (FBM) was established at the ‘Grigore T. Popa’ University

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of Medicine and Pharmacy in Ias, i, providing undergraduate and master’s degree programs (Teodorescu and Topoliceanu 1988). FBM is a founding member of the European Alliance for Medical and Biological Engineering and Science, EAMBES (2004), and the ‘bioengineer’ profession has been included in the nomenclature of occupations. The discipline of Medical technology (1997) becomes an elective package (2007), and then the section (2010) of Medical Engineering (2007) at the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca. Bachelor’s degree programs in Medical Engineering are also set up at the ‘Transilvania’ University of Bras, ov, within the Faculty of Product Design and Environment, and at the University ‘Politehnica’ of Timis, oara, within the Faculty of Mechanics. Organizations, Committees, National Chapters of Bioengineering—A Reference Timeline 1974 The Romanian Academy’s Committee for Bioenergy and Biotechnology organizes scientific sessions. 1974 The Bioengineering Club was established at the Ias, i Academy of Medical Sciences Branch. 1986 The Technology and Medical Engineering Club is established within the Society of Physicians and Natural Scientists in Ias, i. 1989 A plan for a bioengineering faculty is presented in Seattle, USA, at the Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (Teodorescu and Topoliceanu 1988). 1990 The Romanian Society of Medical Bioengineering (SRBM) was established; it is affiliated with EAMBS. 1992 The Romanian Federation of Bioengineering (FRIB) is established in Bucharest. 2000 In Cluj-Napoca, the National Society of Medical Engineering and Biological Technology is established and affiliated (2009) to the International Federation of Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE). 2002 The Romanian Society of Biomaterials (SRB) is established. 2007 In Bucharest, the IEEE—EMB chapter is established. It received the Best New Chapter Award in 2008. 2008 The Romanian Society for Protection Against Non-Ionising Radiation (SRPRNI) is established. 2010 The Committee for Biomedical Engineering is established at the Technical Sciences Department of the Romanian Academy.

References Anuariul Universit˘at, ei din Ias, i pe Anul Scolariu ¸ (1896) Anuariul Universit˘at, ei din Ias, i pe Anul Scolariu ¸ 1895–1896, precedat de o ochire retrospectiv˘a asupra învat, a˘ mântului superior din Ias, i (The Yearbook of the University of Ia¸si for the 1895–1896 Academic Year, preceded by a retrospective look at higher education in Ia¸si). Tipografia Na¸tional˘a, Ia¸si

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Arnaldez R, Beaujeu J, s¸.a. (1970) Istoria general˘a a s¸tiin¸tei, vol. 1, Stiin¸ ¸ ta antic˘a s¸i medieval˘a (The general history of science. Ancient and medieval science, vol 1). Scientific Publishing House, Bucharest Baciu C (1988) Pagini din istoria ortopediei s¸i traumatologiei aparatului locomotor în România (Pages from the history of orthopedics and traumatology of the locomotor system in Romania). Litera Publishing House, Bucharest Baltag O s¸.a. (2021) Gradiometru de ordinul doi si metoda de m˘asurare a câmpului magnetic (Second order gradiometer and magnetic field measurement method) Patent RO 129957 Bejan A, Zane JP (2012) Design in nature: how the constructal law governs evolution in biology, physics, technology, and social organizations. Doubleday, New York Bünger C (1929) Depozitul de instrumente chirurgicale s¸i articole de laborator. Catalog (Warehouse of surgical instruments and laboratory articles. Catalogue). Ed. Scrisul Românesc, Craiova Daniil C (1923) 100 de ani de radiologie la Ia¸si 1897–1997 (100 years of radiology in Ia¸si 1897– 1997). https://vdocuments.site/scurt-istoric-100ani-radla-iasipps.html. Accessed 6 May 2023 Fleancu A, Sechel G, Rogozea L, B˘anu¸ta˘ A, Badea M (2015) Începuturile utiliz˘arii radiologiei ca metod˘a diagnostic in Bra¸sov, Sighi¸soara, Sibiu (The beginnings of using radiology as a diagnostic method in Bra¸sov, Sighi¸soara, Sibiu). Universitatea “Transilvania” din Bra¸sov. Available at https://docslide.com.br/documents/09-fleancu-final-biblio-istoricpdf.html Manea P (1980) Instala¸tii electromecanice în tehnica medical˘a (1980–1982), primele manuale pentru înv˘a¸ta˘ mântului tehnic medical din România (Electromechanical installations in medical technology (1980–1982), the first textbooks for medical technical education in Romania). Editura Didactic˘a s¸i Pedagogic˘a, Bucharest Manea P (2009) Din istoricul “tehnicienilor de aparatur˘a medical˘a” (From the history of “medical equipment technicians”). Econ Health Adm J. Mediamira Publishing House, Cluj-Napoca, 53– 54:79–81 Manea P (2010) Scoala ¸ româneasc˘a în domeniul aparaturii medicale (The Romanian school in the field of medical equipment). Econ Health Adm J. Mediamira Publishing House, Cluj-Napoca, 55–56:127–130 Manea P (2011) Contribu¸tii române¸sti la na¸sterea s¸i dezvoltarea radiologiei mondiale (Romanian contributions to the birth and development of world radiology). Econ Health Adm J. Mediamira Publishing House, Cluj-Napoca 57–58:45–54 Manea P (2012) Speciali¸sti din afara grani¸telor noastre, care au venit în România (Specialists from outside our borders, who came to Romania). Econ Health Adm J. Mediamira Publishing House, Cluj-Napoca, 61–62:35–44 Micle S (1820–1879). http://www.phys.uaic.ro/index.php/prezentare/personalitati-ale-facultatii/ste fan-micle/. Accessed 6 May 2023 Morega AM (1998) Grant 89: Perfec¸tionarea înv˘a¸ta˘ mântului electric medical (Grant: improvement of medical electrical education). (World Bank/National Council for the Financing of Higher Education, CNFIS), Bucharest Morega M (2000) Bioelectromagnetism. Matrixrom Publishing House, Bucharest Morega AM (2006) Grant 54: BIOINGTEH, Platform˘a interdisciplinar˘a pentru cercetare, dezvoltare s¸i formare profesional˘a (Interdisciplinary platform for research, development and professional training). National Council of Scientific Research in Higher Education, Bucharest Negru D (1931) Radiologia medical˘a. No¸tiuni preg˘atitoare s¸i tehnici introductive (Medical radiology. Preparatory notions and introductory techniques). Ed. Cartea Româneasc˘a, Cluj Romanescu C (1979) Un secol de înv˘at, a˘ mânt medical superior la Ias, i. Facultatea de Medicin˘a 1879– 1979 vol 1 (A century of higher medical education in Ia¸si. Faculty of Medicine 1879–1979, vol 1). Întreprindrea. Poligrafic˘a, Ias, i Romanian Optical Enterprise (2023) Intreprinderea Optica Român˘a (Romanian Optical Enterprise). http://www.ior.ro. Accessed 6 May 2023 Teodorescu HN, Topoliceanu F (1988) Biomedical engineering in Romania. IEEE Eng Med Biol Mag 17:34–35 Timotin A (2004) La Structure de la fibre nerveuse: un projet optimal (The structure of the nerve fiber: an optimal project). Proc Romanian Acad Ser A 5:65–72, Bucharest

The History of Naval Transports Carmen Irène Atanasiu

Abstract In the Carpathian-Danube-Pontic geographical space navigation and sailing are millennia old activities. The Danube, the inland rivers and also the Western coast of the Black Sea, make up a rich and well-structured network of waters, which allowed for the development of sailing. Throughout the centuries it was practiced by the locals, even though the maritime and river routes were sometimes controlled by the Greeks, Romans, Italians, Byzantines, Ottomans, the latter from the end of the fifteenth century until 1878. During this long period of history, the Romanians had their own navigation, as proven by Moldavian sail ships during the reign of Steven the Great (S, tefan cel Mare), the “bolozan” and “s, aic˘a” types of ships. These ships were mentioned by a document (“Hrisov”) in Wallachia being used on the Danube and forming in 1793 the first commercial state-owned fleet. Other examples include the “Caique” ships of Constantin Brâncoveanu. The Romanian commercial fleet was crystalized at the end of the nineteenth century, with the creation of the two stateowned services (companies), on for the maritime and the other for riverine shipping, and it expanded considerably during the twentieth century. In the first half of the last century, the Romanian commercial fleet was led via the NFR (the Romanian Riverine Navigation) and the SMR (the Romanian Maritime Service), created in 1890 and 1895 respectively. During the second half of the twentieth century Romanian transport ships were administrated by a new company, NAVROM, a maritime and riverine navigation enterprise, founded in 1955. In the 90’s the company called Enterprise for the Exploitation of the NAVROM Maritime Fleet (IEFM NAVROM) was divided into three structures (all of them state-owned): “Petromin”, “Navrom” and “Romline”, based in Constanta. Until the end of the 80’s alongside IEFM Navrom Constanta, there were also two other companies involved in the shipping industry: ICE Navlomar Bucharest—state-capital company, dealing with foreign trade, and the mixt joined Romanian-Libyan company, “Roliship”. These two companies combined owned around 4.5% of the number of ships and 4.17% of transport tonnage. One important feature in the evolution of the Romanian commercial fleet (especially true C. I. Atanasiu (B) Romanian Committee for History and Philosophy of Science (CRIFST), Constan¸ta Branch Romanian Academy, Constan¸ta, Romania e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 D. Banabic (ed.), History of Romanian Technology and Industry, History of Mechanism and Machine Science 45, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39191-0_5

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when in regards to its maritime component), was the fact that for more than half a century since its inception, the endowment with ships was done exclusively with foreign built vessels. Before World War II they came from industrialized nations, such as Italy, England, France, Denmark and Germany. After the last great war, as the country was industrialized, the national shipyards and their industry were subsidized the state. At the end of the 80’s the Romanian commercial navy had reached its peak, the country being the owner of one of the largest maritime and riverine transport fleets in the world. Another key issue was the training of specialized personnel. In the early years of the commercial shipping companies, they had to rely to some extent on the expertise of Navy officers. This was because at the time the only schools for the training of senior naval personnel were those of the Navy, including the Naval School (today called the “Mircea cel B˘atrân” Naval Academy).

1 Specific Features of the Evolution of Romanian Naval Transport In the Carpathian-Danube-Pontic geographical space we find that navigation is an ancient practice. The Danube, the inland rivers and also the Western coast of the Black Sea, make up a rich and well-structured network of waters, which allowed for the development of sailing. Knowledge about sailing was accumulated gradually and it helped a lot in this that our ancestors acquired the rich experience of the Greeks and then of the Romans. The contact between our civilization and the Greeks took place in the Dobrogea area, towards the end of the first period of the Iron Age, especially between the 7–6 centuries BC. This period was characterized by an intense settlement of Greek colonists, of trade and navigation. In those colonies build by the Greeks–Histria (seventh century BC), Callatis and Tomis (sixth century BC) they built harbors, workshops and repair shops. Archeological findings prove that we are dealing with an intense commercial activity, which could not have happened without the contribution of the local population. After the Roman conquest of the area (first century BC) they formed an important institution—the “orae maritime Prefecture”—the Prefecture of the sea coast, at Tomis.

2 Naval Transports in the Romanian Territories Up To the First World War In 1793, after more than 300 years of Turkish monopoly in the Black Sea and on the Danube, in which time formally we have no navigation under Wallachia colors, the “vel-sp˘atar” of Wallachia, En˘achit, a˘ V˘ac˘arescu insisted that the ruler, Alexandru Moruzi should form the job of “sailors of the Crown to transport with ease, wherever they may need to, the supplies and the sweets for the High Porte” (Atanasiu-Croitoru

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2011). He wanted to develop the small fleet of Wallachia and also ensure higher revenues from trade. As a consequence of the Treaty of Adrianople (1829), the navigation of the Danube and in the Black Sea was formally declared free of restrictions. Moldavia and Wallachia, still under the suzerainty of the Ottomans, were the beneficiaries of decrees to free up navigation on the Danube, with national colors. This right was extended for the Black Sea in 1836. Therefore, at the end of 1834, under the rule of Alexandru Dimitrie Ghica, the brig “Marit, a”, built in the shipyards of Giurgiu, left Sulina “with Romanian colors”, with “300 big kilos of wheat” (300 tons) heading to Constantinople. The Captain was Ioan Cristescu, “a subject born in Wallachia” (Ciorbea and Atanasiu 1995). This was the first ship which sailed with Romanian colors after hundreds of years of Turkish monopoly in the Black Sea and on the Danube. The unification of the Principalities in 1859 opened up many new exciting possibilities in all areas, including the Navy. The new prince, Alexandru Ioan Cuza was influenced by his prime-minister, Mihail Kog˘alniceanu into fighting for a balance between the social realities of the country and its economy. Therefore, he embarked in a series of radical reforms to solve the major issues of Romania. The reacquisition of Dobrogea in 1878 and with it of a coast 220 km large opened up fresh new opportunities for Romania in the Black Sea and on the Danube. This drove Romania to continue its work to increase the fairway between Galat, i and Turnu Severin, to build new harbors and invest large sums of money for the modernization of existing ones. These all added up to an important contribution to the development of navigation and commerce on the Lower Danube (Atanasiu 2003). The result of all of these policies was that at the dawn of the twentieth century Romania already had 23 harbors on the Danube (Vârciorova, Turnu Severin, Gruia, Cetatea, Calafat Bistre¸s, Bechet, Corabia, Turnu M˘agurele, Zimnicea, Giurgiu, Olteni¸ta, C˘al˘ara¸si, Ostrov, Cernavoda, Or¸sova, Gura Ialomi¸tei, M˘acin, Br˘aila, Gala¸ti, Isaccea, Tulcea and Sulina), ten of which were connected to the railroad system. For the formation and development of the national commercial fleet some problems had to be tackled: connecting Dobrogea to the rest of the country; the modernization of Constant, a harbor, which will become the main export outlet for Romania; the creation of a commercial fleet and also of a Navy capable of protecting our shores. In this regard the first measures were taken by the Romanian Government, when in 1/13 July 1892 it bought back the Cernavod˘a-Constant, a railroad and the Constant, a harbor from the British company, “Danube and Black Sea Railway and Kustendge Harbor Company Ltd”. On September 29–October 10 1895 the new bridge at Cernavod˘a was revealed to the public. It was designed by the engineer Anghel Saligny. The same year work began to build a new harbor at Constant, a. Work began in April 1899 under the French contractor Hallier. He was soon bankrupt and the order was completed by Romanian contractors, led by Anghel Saligny. After many failed attempts to create a proper legislation (1887/1888), the creation of a commercial flotilla under the rule of the state could no longer be postponed (Aurelian 1887). In 1889, after the signing of a convention between the Direction of State Monopolies Administration and the Serbian government to supply Serbia with big amounts of salt, the Romanian government issued an extraordinary credit of

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Fig. 1 “3 Principele Carol”, the first Romanian passenger ship of Romanian construction

1.000.000 lei to “purchase the necessary ships to create a special naval transportation service for the State Monopolies Administration”. On November 1 1890 Romania inaugurated the Water Transportation Service of the Administration. In 1898 this company will change its name into Romanian River Navigation Service (N.F.R.), moving its headquarters from Turnu-Severin to Galat, i. The first river passenger ship “Principele Carol” of Romanian construction was built in 1895 at the shipyards in Turnu Severin (Fig. 1). The positive experience of the N.F.R. encouraged the decision makers to create a similar service on the sea side (Atanasiu 1990, 2003). On April 28 1895 the Councils of Ministers issued a Decision, followed by a memorandum, nr. 8656 that same year, deciding to organize a “maritime service”, under the Ministry of Public Works. It would act in subordination of the General Direction for Railroads and was named The Romanian Maritime Service—S.M.R. (Atanasiu 1981a). In 1897 the Cargo Service of the S.M.R. was created. It functioned with five freighters: “Dobrogea”, “Bucures, ti”, “Ias, i”, of 3200 TDW, built in 1897 in “Napiers and Sons” Shipyards, Glasgow, “Turnu-Severin” and “Constant, a”—3050 TDS, 1898 in “Howaldswerke” of Kiel, Germany. Their numbers rose in 193 with the addition of two new freighters of the same type: “Carpat, i” and “Bucegi”, 7200 TDW, built in 1911 in Britain at “Greenock and Grangemouth Dockyard Co”. The next year we received a mixt-ship “Durostor”—1395 TDW, built in Denmark, at “Kjobenhavns Fly Dk” in Copenhagen. Add to these support ships for Constant, a harbor: the tugs “Sulina” and “Ovidiu” and the motorboat “Viitorul” (1939). During the First World War, sea passenger ship „Regele Carol I” was transformed into a auxiliary cruiser (Fig. 2). The When mobilized, the passenger ships could be turned into auxiliary cruisers, mine-layers, sea-plane carriers and they could carry 1500 men. The freighters could be armed as well and they could transport between 3000 and 5000 men, horses, carriages and trucks.

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Fig. 2 The “Regele Carol” sea passenger ship, converted into an auxiliary cruiser

3 The Romanian Merchant Navy During the First World War (1916–1918) The beginning of the first global conflict put a stop on the development of the Romanian commercial Navy. Because the Straits were closed now, shipping routes such as Constant, a-Pireus-Alexandria were stopped on July 23 1914. On October 23 1914 the same thing happened to the Constan¸ta-Constantinople and Constan¸ta-Balcic routes. On October 21 1914 Turkey joined the Central Powers. Romanian passenger ships and freighters of the S.M.R. and of the “Romania” Society were withdrawn to our harbors. They only ones left were those caught outside of the Straits. They did ammo and supply runs for Romania and the Allies in the Arctic Ocean: S.M.R. freighter “Bucures, ti” and those of the privately owned company “România”: “Bistrit, a” and “Jiul”. The transport routes of 1914–1916 were: Port- Said—Singapore—Taiwan— Nagasaki–Vladivostok; those of 1917, through the White Sea and on to the unloading ports of Arkhangelsk and Kola. The four Romania freighters and those of the Allies had a significant part to play, like between April 1916–December 1917, when they carried 120.000 tons of ammo and supplies from French ports (St. Nazaire and Brest) to the distant harbors of Vladivostok and Kola. These supplies were then carried by railroad to Romania (Ciorbea and Atanasiu 1995). Unfortunately, the events in Russia between 1917 and 1918 made all of these conventions worthless The February Revolution caught our ships in Russia out in the sea, spread out thin in most of the southern harbors and even in the Caucasus. The Romanian Danube ships were also being evacuated at Odessa and in the Crimea.

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After the creation of the Peoples Commissar Council on October 26, 1917 it ordered the seizure of all Romanian ships, commercial and warships, all of the supply depots, etc. The events that followed almost destroyed the Romanian trade fleet in the Russian area. Its salvation was a difficult task for the Romanian leadership and it fell almost completely on the Romanian crews (Atanasiu 2001a). All of the other civilian ships, maritime of river ones, were used by the Naval Staff according to the needs of the war on different missions. Regardless of this however, these ships were an integral part of the national defense strategy. The contribution of the Romanian commercial fleet to what was to become The National Reunification War was a particularly heroic moment in the history of Romanian navigation and it proved that the commercial fleet could play an important role in any war to come.

4 Naval Transport Between the Two World Wars The formation of Greater Romania led to an increase in the economic potential of the country, including sea trade. The new administration for navigation tried to better meet the new demands. To this end there were a serios of changes, culiminating in the creation of the new ministry—The Air and Navy Ministy (M.A.M.) in 1936. The decree, issued in the “Official Records nr. 266” of November 14 1936, stated that the new ministry had to “coordinate the whole air and sea activity of the country, lead and manage all of the air and navy forces, the A.A., coastal defence, navigation protection, transports. It would also manage the activity of different privately owned companies and it would promote the Navy and the Air Force” (1980). The M.A.M. was responsible for the creation of the Direction for the Commercial Navy, whose sole objective was to coordinate maritime and river trafic and to develop these sectors. S.M.R and N.F.R. were subordinated to directly to the M.A.M. The interwar period was an age in which the maritime commercial fleet of Romania had to face many hardships, but had many achievements as well, such as the arrival of newer, modern ships and the increase in sea lines numbers. After the war, the number of ships available could never match the needs of a bigger country, however. This is why Romania had to build a number of new modern passengers and freighters. In 1932 they purchased the mixt-ship “Ardealul” from the German Shipyards “Hamburg-America Line”. The ship had 7840 TDS and it was built in 1922 at “Marinewerft” of Wilhelmshave. In 1933 new ships followed: “Alba Iulia”, “Peles, ” and “Suceava”, of the same type. The last two were built in 1923. On August 15 1933 the four new ships were renamed (Atanasiu 2015). That same day the Maritime Railroad Station was opened and a new mole was being constructed in Constant, a harbor. Between 1934 and 1936, the river passenger ship “Regele Carol II” (Fig. 3) was built at the shipyards in Turnu Severin, being the largest river ship in Europe at that time (Atanasiu 2003). Still, the need for new ships was still present because in 1935 S.M.R. was destined to become of the largest factors in the transit of goods in Romania. As a result of the business plan of the M.A.M., in September 1938 new ships entered service: the

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Fig. 3 The “Regele Carol II” river passenger ship, exclusively Romanian-made, 1936

sister ships “Transilvania” and “Basarabia”, each of 6672 TDW, built in 1938 in Denmark at “Burmeister and Wein”, Copenhagen. Modern, elegant, fast, these ships had a crew of 562 (Atanasiu 2015). In 1937 with a first issue of 12 million lei from the King and Government, the first SALVAMAR station was built at Constant, a. It would become one of the most modern rescue services, rivaling the Western ones. A public contribution was requested to build similar stations at Mamaia, Modern, Eforie and Mangalia in 1934 and Balcic, Carmen-Slva, Siut-Ghiol in 1935. In 1937 a new one was built at Budachi. Each station had a cabin, a rescue boat, medicine and communication devices, two sailors and a doctor. In 1938 the Constant, a station was fully operational: 2 mo orboats, “Pesc˘arus, ” and “Albatros”, 16 sailors with The House of the Rescuers, a stone building built by the Direction of Maritime Ports, where the rescuers would keep their effects (Atanasiu 2010a). Despite the preoccupations existing during the inter-war period for increasing the defense capability of the country and, implicitly, the maritime naval forces, when Romania entered the war, on June 22, 1941 the superiority of U.S.S.R. in naval and air forces was overwhelming.

5 The Romanian Merchant Navy After the Second World War The strategic positions, particularly advantageous, gave the possibility of the Soviet Navy to undoubtedly master the Black Sea basin. In this situation, the Romanian maritime and seaside fleets, numerically inferior and qualitatively deficient, most ships being old and used, were forced, with their modest means, to perform important

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and particularly difficult missions (Atanasiu 2014). With the entry of Romania into the war (22 June 1941), the outbreak of hostilities in the Black Sea and the bombing of the Constanta port, three of the five passenger ships of S.M.R.—“Romania”, “Dacia”, “Regele Carol I”—were transformed: first in auxiliary cruiser and workshop base ship, and the other two in auxiliary cruisers—carrying mines (Atanasiu 2001b). The sinking (Atanasiu 2013), the requisition and capture of our merchant ships during the military operations and even after their termination, made the Romanian commercial ships surviving the great conflagrations of the twentieth century to be: “Transilvania” and “Basarabia” kept by the Romanian government in Istanbul throughout the war and returned to the country in October 1944, “Dacia”, “Alba Iulia” and “Ardeal”. But not all of them remained in the possession of the Romanian Government. Under the provisions of the Armistice Convention of September 12, 1944, “Dacia”, “Alba Iulia” and “Basarabia”, renamed by the Soviets “Ukraine”, were kept by U.S.S.R. “Transilvania” and “Ardeal”, the only remaining of the 16 units constituting the naval fleet of S.M.R. at the beginning of the conflagration, resumed their courses in 1946, under the “Sovromtransport” Society (S.R.T.) (Atanasiu 2001b).

6 Naval Transport from 1945 to 1990 The restoration and development of the Commercial Romanian Navy, with the necessary structures, has been a long and very difficult process under the conditions of Soviet-Romanian joint companies, in this case “Sovromtransport”, through which the Soviet side could control and impose its own policy in the most important sectors of the national economy. The end of the Second World War, the occupation of Romania by the Soviet troops caused in the field of naval transport, the maritime and river navigation and national ports, the subordination of this fields to the economic interests of the Soviet Union for a period of a decade (Alexandrescu 1986). According to the Armistice Convention of September 12, 1944 (Official Gazette, No. 219 of September 22, 1944), the Romanian merchant ships, which were located in the national and foreign waters, were to be subjected to the operative control of the High Allied Command (Soviet), for their use in the interests of the Allies. Following the negotiations that took place in Moscow between 27 April and 3 May 1945, several agreements were signed between Romania and the USSR, among which an Economic Cooperation Agreement was key, on the basis of which the Soviet-Romanian joint companies were born—also known as the SOVROMs. Between 1945 and 1952 sixteen such companies were created, one of which was the Soviet-Romanian Navigation Society “Sovromtransport” (Official Gazette, I, No. 172, August 1, 1945). This company aimed at the management and exploitation of river and maritime transports, the use of Romanian river and sea ports, the organization of river and maritime communications, the shipbuilding and shipbuilding industry, as well as naval operations and commercial operations on the territory of Romania and abroad. As far as the navigation regime is concerned, the Superior

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Commission for Navigation endorsed that Sovromtransport ships should sail under the Romanian flag. Romania’s contribution to the establishment of “Sovromtransport” company consisted of renting Constanta Shipyard, “Romania” Shipyard in Braila and Turnu Severin Shipyard. The Romanian side was also required to register the two remaining ships, “Ardeal” and “Transylvania” in the company. In the following years, Romania’s contribution to the “Sovromtransport” activity increased by four cargos, two of which, built in 1942 and finalized in 1950: “Midia” (600 TDW) and “Sulina” (600 TDW), built in the shipyards in Braila and Turnu-Severin. The other two, “Constan¸ta” (600 TDW) and “Mangalia” (600 TDW), were built in the Budapest shipyard. The cargo ship “Constan¸ta” sailed under its original name until 1963, when it was named “Tulcea”. “Mangalia” was in the transport service until 1971 when it was transferred to the Tulcea’s “Danube Delta” plant and on 26 December 1976 it was taken over by the Marine Drilling and Geological Enterprise. Until October 1954, when “Sovromtransport” was dissolved, the entire chartering activity and commercial transactions was controlled by this company (Ciorbea and Atanasiu 1995). After almost a decade of exploitation of the Romanian commercial fleet by the Soviet occupation authorities, in 1954 “Sovroms” were abolished, the Romanian commercial fleet reintroducing itself under the exclusive authority of the Romanian state. By the Decision of the Council of Ministers no. 368 of February 1955, the Marine and River Navigation Enterprise—NAVROM was created, which started the difficult mission of rebuilding and developing the Romanian Commercial Shipping Fleet. We will briefly present the evolution of the Commercial Marine Fleet, developed on the basis of the five-year economic plans, as the entire economy of the period, whose points we will use in dealing with this subject. At the end of the 60’s of the last century, the merchant shipping fleet numbered 10 ships with a total tonnage of 34,327 TDW. After 1960, the Romanian maritime fleet entered a complex process of development and diversification of the types of ships, as more than half of the freight traffic for export was to be done by sea. The park was enlarged by both imported and Romanian ships, taking measures to stimulate the activity of the industrial branches related to the shipbuilding (Ciorbea and Atanasiu 1995). Between 1960 and 1966, 27 vessels of various types entered the NAVROM service, totaling 142,415 TDW. After the year 1969, the Romanian transportation fleet began the equipment with specialized ships—oil tankers and ore ships, this extended the Romanians economic relations by sea, adding to the classical economical routes the sea ones. After 1976, new ships, including the first Romanian oil tankers of 150,000 TDW, built in Constanta Shipyard, continued to be equipped. The “Independence”, ship was introduced to the fleet in that same year, and the ship “Unirea” in 1979, both with the main engine manufactured in Japan, followed in 1981 by “Biruint, a” (Fig. 4) and “Libertatea”, the last two with the main engine manufactured at M.A.N. Resit, a. Thus, at the end of 1979, the naval fleet of the Romanian Maritime Commercial Fleet numbered 153 ships, 103 of which were cargos, 42 ore carriers and 8 oil tankers, with which a total cargo volume of 20 million tons was transported and 300

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Fig. 4 The 150,000 DWT “Biruin¸ta” oil tanker, built at the Constant, a shipyard, 1984

ports were reached world wide (Sturdza 1904). By the end of 1989, Romanian naval vessels had vizited more than 1200 ports on all continents. Oil carriers brought oil from nine countries: Libya, Egypt, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Algeria, Nigeria, Angola, the Soviet Union, and transported petroleum products to Italy and countries in Northern Europe. Ore carriers transported iron ore, bauxite, coke, coal etc. from India, Brazil, Canada, the U.S., Australia, Germany, Poland and Guinea. Cargoes transported in different ports were mainly goods as: chemical products, metal products, machinery, food products and animals. The ships then brought various categories of goods to be imported. In the three decades since the start of the shipbuilding (1960–1990), at least in terms of the shipping capacity of the Maritime Fleet, Romania managed to substantially reduce the historical differences to the great maritime powers of Europe, in 1989 our country was ranked 9th amongst the maritime fleet states in Europe (Ciorbea and Atanasiu 1995; Beziris and Bamboi 1988).

7 Romania’s Deep Sea Fishing Fleet It came into existence in 1964 when the first two ships for deep sea fishing, “Galat, i” (Fig. 5) and “Constant, a”, built in Japan, were entered into service. The development of the deep sea fishing fleet peaked at the end of 1989, when it reached a total of 62 vessels, including 48 freezer trawlers, 12 transport freezer vessels, 2 oil tankers. According to LLOYD’S statistics, in the period from 1985 to 1990 Romania ranked 7th among the countries with trawlers over 2500 GRT (Gross Register Tonnage) and 5th among the countries with transport freezer vessels. As of 1990 the activity of the fishing fleet decreased and then stopped altogether in March 1997 (Atanasiu 2016).

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Fig. 5 The “Galat, i” trawler

8 Naval Education The naval education in Romania has seen a series of stages of development, during which several schools and institutes were established and provided training for seafarers and technical personnel for the military and civilian navy (Atanasiu 1981b). The first naval education institution, the Flotilla School, was founded in 1872 in Galat, i and offered a two-year instruction programme. From 1899 onwards, naval education became concentrated in Constant, a, forming a learning system of organic unity—the Marine Schools, which preceded the marine higher education. In 1909, the School of Application became the Superior Navy School, and then in 1920 the Naval School was established and remained active in Constant, a until 1948. Over the years, there were many structural changes, completed in 1973 by the merger of civil and military naval education which formed the “Mircea cel B˘atrân” Navy Institute, an institution of higher education subordinated to the Ministry of National Defence. In 1990 it was transformed into the “Mircea cel B˘atrân” Naval Academy. On 6 February 1990, the Faculty of Naval Electromechanics and the Faculty of Navigation of the Civil Marine (1200 students and 54 faculty members) transferred from the “Mircea cel B˘atrân” Marine Institute to the Ministry of Education, establishing the Merchant Marine Institute, currently called the Maritime University of Constant, a (UMC). The first training ship of the Romanian Military Navy was the “Mircea” brig, built in England by the Thames Ironworks and Shipbuilding Company from London (1881–1882). In 1939 it was replaced with a new sailing ship called “Mircea”, built in Hamburg at the “Blhom und Voss” Shipyard (1938–1939), which is still in use today.

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At the same time, education in the field of research, design, and shipbuilding was also developed. Its foundations were laid in 1951 with the establishment of the Mechanical-Naval Institute in Galat, i, which, in spite of having undergone successive restructuring processes, has remained the only faculty in Romania to provide the higher technical training that is required in the field of research, design, and construction of ships and marine structures. In 1990, the Faculty of Ships and Electrical Engineering was established in Galat, i, and operated under this name until 2002, when the two fields separated and the Faculty of Ships was created. In 2009 it became the Faculty of Naval Architecture, the only one in Romania to focus on the training of internationally recognised naval architects as its main criterion of performance. In 1966, the Research and Design Institute for Shipbuilding (ICEPRONAV) was established in Galat, i. Between 1966–1989, ICEPRONAV held a monopoly position in Romania in the field of design and research for naval constructions (Bejan 2006).

9 Naval Transport After 1990 After 1990, the evolution of the maritime commercial fleet was marked by the inheritance of some factors that negatively influenced the activity of the fleet until 1989, as well as by the shock of the decentralization of some structures in the Ministry of Transport, by the legislative vacuum created by the subjective abrogation of some normative acts, the drastic reduction in the import and export of goods, to which we can add the disappearance of the fleet monopoly, the liberalization of international transport, the lack of a clear strategy to solve the many problems that have arisen in this sector of activity, the lack of clear conditions for a good cooperation with Romania and foreign partners, changes in company leadership and so on. One stage in the complex transition process that the commercial maritime fleet has gone through has been the privatization of naval management. Financial shortcomings have failed to resolve rapidly the many technical problems faced by the maritime fleet, the economic bottleneck, and the willingness of shipping specialists to engage in the market economy, assuming the inherent risks that came from here, determined the beginning of the privatization process of Romanian shipping. Following the attempts to privatize shipping companies during the 1990s, ships still carrying the Romanian pavilion under lease or lease contracts to various operators were largely aging, in a precarious technical condition with great financial problems, and with many debts to banks and various service providers. The Romanian fleet, as it was in the early 2000s, was on the Black List of the Paris Memorandum (Paris MoU), an organization established since 1982, aiming at the elimination of substandard ships operating in the ports of Europe. The age of the ships under the Romanian pavilion was an essential component in the extremely difficult exploitation process which eventually led to the abandonment of their use. This was a determining factor for ship owners and operators in the maritime transport economy. The considerable age of the ships has not only damaged the contracts that they had to fulfill, but also damaged the economy: high maintenance costs, high fuel consumption and

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lubricants, low travel speed, frequent interruptions of repair voyages, high cost of spare parts, the draconian regime of Port State Control (PSC) inspections involving ships older than 15 years in European ports, etc. Over time, the ship owners have understood that they cannot perform with these ships, and with each passing year, the number of ships has dropped, these being in turn out of service or sold as scrap metal, so that in the first quarter of in 2011, the ships registered in the Romanian Register were “Eforie” (ferryboat/1991), a ship expelled from operation; “Mangalia” (ferryboat/1988), ship out of service. Romania’s commercial shipping fleet was an over-sized body and was only the finite product of the combined effort of several sectors of activity in Romania: steel, shipbuilding, machine building, education, etc. What happened after the Revolution of 1989 with the Romania’s commercial shipping fleet was only the natural consequence of what happened before the revolution. This huge shipping corporation, emerging without commercial justification from the system of an industrialized forced economy, has not resisted the maritime transport market with the disappearance of state subsidies. It is easy to understand why Romania needs a modern fleet, enlisted in the current technical and constructive standards that will provide maritime transport safety in terms of economic efficiency, but in order to achieve such a desiderate, the future is still uncertain (Ciorbea and Atanasiu 1995; Atanasiu 2010b).

References Alexandrescu I (1986) Economia României în primii ani postbelici 1945–1947 (Romania’s economy in the first postwar years 1945–1947). Scientific and Encyclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest (1939) Realiz˘arile Ministerului Aerului s¸i Marinei. De la înfiin¸tare s¸i pân˘a azi (The achievements of the Ministry of Air and Navy. From the creation until today). Bucharest (1980) Registrul navelor (Register of ships). Bucharest, Romania Atanasiu C (1981a) Înfiint, area primelor institut, ii nat, ionale de nasvigat, ie civil˘a la sfârs, itul secolului al XIX-lea (The creation of the first national civilian navigation institutions at the end of the 19th century). In: Volume in honor of 2050 years since the creation of the first Dacian state, led by Burebista. National Museum, Bucharest Atanasiu C (1981b) Ofit, eri de marina pe navele Serviciului Maritim Român (Navy officers on the ships of the Romanian Maritime Service). Buletinul Marinei Militare 2 Atanasiu C (1990) Contribu¸tii la o posibil˘a istorie a Marinei Comerciale Române (Contributions to a posibile history of the Romanian commercial fleet). Revista istoric˘a 1:11–12 Atanasiu C (2001a) În primejdie de moarte: flota maritim˘a comercial˘a român˘a 1917–1918 (Death threat: The Romanian Maritime Commercial fleet 1917–1918). Dosarele Istoriei 3:55 Atanasiu C (2001b) Un armistit, iu cu efecte devastatoare. Marina comercial˘a român˘a sub control sovietic (A devastating armistice. Romanian commercial fleet under Soviet control). Dosarele istoriei 3:55 Atanasiu C (2003) Problema suveranit˘a¸tii României la Dun˘are s¸i “Naviga¸tia Fluvial˘a Român˘a” 1919–1945 (The issue of Romanian sovereignty on the Danube and the “N.F.R.” 1919–1945). NELMACO Publishing House, Bucharest Atanasiu C (2010a) Yacht Clubul Regal Român—scurt˘a istorie (Romanian Royal Yacht Club—a short history). Romanian Yacht Club Publishing House, Bucharest

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Atanasiu C (2010b) Flota maritim˘a comercial˘a român˘a în procesul de tranzi¸tie (The Romanian commercial fleet in the transition process). Marea Noastr˘a 2:75 Atanasiu C (2013) Sinistre maritime române¸sti (Romanian Maritime tragedies). Marea Noastr˘a 1:90 Atanasiu C (2014) Cooperarea naval˘a româno-german˘a în Marea Neagr˘a în cel de-Al Doilea R˘azboi Mondial. Opera¸tiunea de evacuare a Peninsulei Crimeea în documente germane 1943–1944 (German-Romanian naval cooperation in the Black Sea during the Second World War. The evacuation operation of the Crimean Peninsula in German documents 1943–1944). National Scientific Com. Conf., Publishing House of the National Museum of the Romanian Navy, Constantza Atanasiu C (2015) Serviciul Maritim Român (S.M.R.)—120 de ani de la înfiint, area primelor institut, ii comerciale maritime (Romanian Maritime Service (S.M.R.)—120 years since the creation of the first maritime commercial institutions). Marea Noastr˘a 3:102 Atanasiu C (2016) Flota de pescuit oceanic. Scurt Istoric (Oceanic fishing fleet. Short history). Marea Noastr˘a XXVI:105 Atanasiu-Croitoru A (2011) Naviga¸tia în spa¸tiul românesc din cele mai vechi timpuri s¸i pân˘a în zorii epocii moderne (Navigation in the Romanian area from the dawn of time until the modern age). In: Atanasiu C, Atanasiu-Croitoru A (eds) The Romanian maritime commercial fleet between tradition and actuality. Publishing House of the National Museum of the Romanian Navy, Constantza Aurelian PS (1887) Înfiint, area unui serviciu national de navigatie (The creation of a national navigation service). Economia Nat, ional˘a, nr. 49, December Bejan A (2006) Dict, ionar Enciclopedic de Marin˘a (Enciclopedic dictionary for the navy). Publishing House “Society of Military Writers”, Bucharest Beziris A, Bamboi Gh (1988) Transportul maritim. Probleme tehnice de exploatare, vol II (Maritime transport. Technical problems in its use), vol II. Technical Publishing House, Bucharest Ciorbea V, Atanasiu C (1995) Flota Maritim˘a Comercial˘a Român˘a. Un secol de Istorie Modern˘a. 1895–1995 (Romanian commercial maritime fleet. A century of Modern History. 1895–1995). “Andrei S, aguna” Foundation Publishing House, Constantza Sturdza D (1904) Recueil des documents relatifs à la liberté de navigation du Danube. Puttkammer et Mühlbrecht, Berlin

History of Rail Transport in Romania Serban ¸ L˘acri¸teanu

Abstract The appearance and development of railways on the current territory of Romania since 1854 was determined, as in other European countries, by the transport of raw materials necessary for the development of industry and agriculture, which implicitly led to the improvement of the population’s standard of living. Compared to other countries, the construction and development of the railway network on the current territory of Romania was influenced by the territorial organization and the completion of the formation process of the modern Romanian state, on December 1, 1918, when the railway network from the occupied territories until then by the Austro-Hungarian Empire it was united with that of the old kingdom of Romania. In this way, a connection is made between western Europe and the port of Constan¸ta on the Black Sea, as well as with the far east, through Russia and Ukraine. Until 1918, the CFR network experienced continuous development, especially thanks to the Romanian railway engineers. The rolling stock manufacturing plants appear and develop in the country’s big cities, ensuring the full supply of locomotives and wagons. On December 9, 1965, the first electrified railway between Bra¸sov and Predeal was inaugurated, and in 2006 the total length of the CFR network exceeded 20,600 km, of which 4000 km were electrified lines. Currently, the provision of a high-performance infrastructure, adapted to current European requirements, will have the effect of increased transport speeds and capacities, safety and comfort for passengers, without forgetting the importance and strategic nature of rail transport and, not in lastly, the very low impact on the environment.

1 The Beginnings of Railroad Transport Worldwide Almost two centuries ago, mankind discovered a new means of transport that would revolutionise all fields of activity: THE TRAIN. Here is how Petrache Poenaru (1799– 1875, an engineer known as the first to patent the fountain pen), the first Romanian S. ¸ L˘acri¸teanu (B) The National Railway Goods Transport Company-SNCFR, Bucharest, Romania e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 D. Banabic (ed.), History of Romanian Technology and Industry, History of Mechanism and Machine Science 45, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39191-0_6

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Fig. 1 Exhibit on display at the Romanian Railway (CFR) Museum—a wagon that was running on wooden rails, a reconstruction of the type of cart that was used in the Brad gold mines (sixteenth century)

to travel by train on 27 October 1831 from Liverpool to Manchester, described this novel means of transport: ‘I made this trip with a new means of transport, one of the industrial wonders of this century… twenty carriages linked to one another, filled with 240 people, are drawn all at once by a single steam machine …’. Transport on rails, be they wooden tracks if not metal rails, was intended to make human labour easier and to facilitate the moving and marketing of goods, in particular in the mining sector. Some of the first applications of this transport system were recorded as early as the sixteenth century in the mines of Transylvania. Man-pushed carts made entirely of wood were running on wooden tracks, and the direction of movement was changed using switches also made of wood. An original wooden cart (wagon) from the ‘Ruda 12 Apostoli’ gold mines in Brad (Fig. 1) has been preserved and is on display at the Museum for Communication in Berlin. Various versions of the first vehicle-guiding systems are presented in book (Popescu 1987).

2 The Development of Railways in Romania in the Period Up to the First World War The evolution of the Romanian railways cannot be understood without a good grasp on the history of the country, including the arbitrarily drawn borders imposed on the Romanian people and the foreign occupation, both by Austria-Hungary and by the Ottoman Empire. Botez et al. (1977) describe the first efforts to build Romania’s rail network. The first and oldest line of Romania’s national railway network (CFR) was put into service in the Banat region on 1 November 1856 and ran between Oravit, a and the Danube port of Bazias, (62.5 km). Initially used for the transport of coal, the line was later extended to Anina, an important mining centre of the Banat region.

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In Transylvania, the plan for the introduction and construction of railways found a strong proponent in the person of George Barit, iu who, from the year 1862 onwards, published a series of articles, mostly in the Gazeta de Transilvania newspaper. He was supported in this activity by other important Romanian figures in Transylvania, such as Dr. Ioan Rat, iu, an outstanding fighter for the rights of Romanians, and Dimitrie Moldovan, councilor of the Transylvanian Aulic Chancellery. Unlike Banat, where StEG (Austrian company) held supremacy in the field of the construction and operation of railways, in Transylvania the majority of railways were built by Hungarian companies. Some of the first railroads built in Transylvania are: Curtici— Arad, inaugurated on 25 October 1858, Episcopia Bihor—Oradea, inaugurated on 24 April 1858, Arad—Simeria—Alba Iulia, inaugurated on 22 December 1868, Cluj— Oradea, inaugurated on 7 September 1870, or Sighis, oara—Bras, ov, inaugurated on 1 June 1873. In Dobrudja, the first railroad was built between the port of Cernavod˘a (Boghas Keui) and the port of Constant, a (Küstendjé) during the period when this province was under Turkish rule, and was 65.3 km long. This railway line had been leased under concession, on 1 September 1857, to the British company ‘Danube and Black Sea Railway and Küstendjé Harbour Limited’, better known by its acronym, D.B.S.R. The inauguration of the line took place on 4 October 1860. The arrival of the first train in the ports of Cernavod˘a and Constant, a was greeted by two beautifully dressed Turkish schooners which shot 21 cannon salutes each. The journey time on this route was 3 h and 45 min, reaching a commercial speed of 16.9 km/h. In the United Principalities, the scarcity of capital and credit, the lack of metallurgical industry and specialists, as well as the dependence on the Ottoman Empire delayed the advent of railways. After numerous discussions and negotiations, the construction of the first line from Bucharest (Filaret) to Giurgiu was assigned under concession, on 1/13 September 1865, to the British company J.T. Barkley and J. Staniforth. On 15 October 1868, Prince Carol I, accompanied by Panait Donici, Minister of Public Works, inspected the overall works carried out on the railway line, and in particular the embankments at D˘ait, a and Daia and the metal bridge over Arges, , near the Cop˘aceni village. In Fr˘ates, ti they left their carriage and continued their journey to Giurgiu on a test train prepared by the Englishman J.T. Barkley. The official inauguration of the Filaret—Giurgiu line, which was 67.171 km long, took place with great solemnity on 19/31 October 1869. After a horn blast—the traditional departure signal—the first train (called ‘The Michaiu Bravul train of honour’), pulled by locomotive no. 9 MICHAIU BRAVUL operated by Sir John Trevor Barkley himself, left the Filaret station (Fig. 2) at 10:45 amidst the cheers of an enthusiastic crowd of spectators. The average speed over the entire 67 km route entire route was 44.8 km/h. This was followed by the construction of the Roman—M˘ar˘as, es, ti—Galat, i— Buz˘au—Bucharest (Gara de Nord) line, with its Tecuci—Bârlad extension branch, as well as the Bucharest—Pites, ti—Slatina—Craiova—Turnu Severin—Vârciorova line, with a total length of 921 km. On 10 September 1868, the latter was leased under concession to a consortium of foreign entrepreneurs represented by the Neidenburg—East Prussia born businessman Dr. Bethel Henry Strousberg, also known as

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Fig. 2 Filaret railway station in 1869. Photograph by Carol Popp de Szathmari

‘the Railway King’. The construction of these lines, referred to as the ‘Strousberg Affair’, was highly damaging to the Romanian state from a technological, financial, political, and even diplomatic standpoint. On 3 August 1875, the Englishman George B. Crawley was granted the concession to build the Ploies, ti—Predeal and Adjud—Târgu Ocna lines. The route covered by the Ploies, ti—Predeal line (84.62 km) was significantly more difficult and therefore the concessionaire was not able to meet the time limits and shut down the works at the end of 1876. After the War for Independence, a new agreement was assigned, in July 1878, to the Frenchman Léon Guilloux, who completed the works and put into operation the Ploies, ti—Predeal line, first the Ploiesti—Campina (35.7 km) section and Sinaia—Predeal border (19.4 km) on 10 June 1879, and then Câmpina—Sinaia (29.5 km) on 1 December 1879. The development of railroad transport in the historical provinces of Romania is described extensively in Lacrit, eanu and Popescu (2004). On 31 December 1896, the total length of railway lines in the CFR network was 2879 km, of which main standard-gauge tracks accounted for 2322 km, secondary standard-gauge tracks for 504 km, broad-gauge tracks for 21 km (1524 mm, Ias, i—Ungheni), and narrow-gauge tracks for 32.5 km (1000 mm, Crasna—Hus, i). In the same year, the rolling stock of the Romanian railways was comprised of 441 locomotives (397 locomotives with separate tender and 44 tender locomotives), 14 royal and ministerial railway carriages, 854 passenger carriages, 43 medical and prisoner carriages, 23 mail carriages, 70 mail and luggage carriages, 101 luggage wagons, 5224 covered freight wagons, 177 tank-wagons, 3708 open-top freight wagons, 108 equipment wagons, 47 wagons for the use of CFR administration, and 40 snowploughs.

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1881 The first railroad built ‘with our minds, hearts, and arms’. A distinctive stage in the development of the Romanian railway system was set off when the state began, in 1879, the construction of the Buz˘au—M˘ar˘as, es, ti line (88.588 km), the first railway line designed and built entirely by Romanian engineers. The execution of the line was coordinated by the general inspector engineer Dimitrie Frunz˘a (a graduate of the National School of Bridges and Roads in Paris), and the team of works supervisors included Gr. Dumitrescu-Tassian, Pandele T, eruseanu, Leonida Pancu, and N. A. S, ut, u, alongside engineers Scarlat Ottulescu, Ion Baiulescu, D. Militeanu, Gr. Stoenescu, and C. M. Mironescu. The survey and the construction of the Buz˘au— M˘ar˘as, es, ti line took 25 months (from 1 May 1879 to 1 June 1881). After it was put into service on 13 June 1881, an official inauguration was also held on 30 October 1881 in the presence of King Carol I and Queen Elisabeth, the minister of Public Works, N. Dabija, and numerous invitees. 1880 The winged wheel becomes the official symbol of C.F.R. On 23 April 1880, the ‘Princely Directorate of Romanian Railways’ was established. Through it, the Romanian state assumed control over the operation of the lines of the Romanian Railways Shareholders Company (Societatea Act, ionarilor C˘ailor Ferate Române, CFR), which were bought back on 26 January 1880. This marked the factual beginning of the Romanian era of railroad transportation. The winged wheel was added to the previous ‘C.F.R.’ initials displayed on the wagons of the ‘C.F.R. Shareholders’ Company’, thus creating the emblem that would subsequently be applied to all lines operated by the state and become the symbol of the Romanian railway system. Among the first general directors of the ‘General Directorate of CFR’ were some prominent figures such as the engineers S, tefan F˘alcoianu (1880), Constantin Ol˘anescu (1883), George Cantacuzino (1883–1888), Gheorghe Duca (1888–1895), Anghel Saligny (1895–1899), Emil Miclescu (1899–1908), Alexandru Cottescu (1908– 1917), Alexandru Periet, eanu (1917–1918, 1918–1919, and 1927), Alexandru Mares, (1918), and Cezar Mereut, a˘ (1933–1936). On 31 December 1896, the CFR network amounted to 2879 km.

3 The Romanian Railways During the First World War Romania’s participation in the First World War was determined exclusively by the goal to reunite the country’s territories, as Transylvania, Basarabia, and Bucovina were under foreign occupation. The end of hostilities on the European battle fronts was signalled by the military collapse of the Central Powers and the signing on 11 November 1918 of the armistice with the Entente Powers. Shortly afterwards, on 1 December 1918, Greater Romania was established by incorporating the historical Romanian provinces: Transylvania, Bucovina, Basarabia, Hert, a, and southern Dobrogea. Various aspects pertaining to railway activities during the First World War are discussed in Bras, canu (2013). At the end of 1918, the total length of railway lines in Romania had reached a total of 11,349 km, of which 3805 km in the ‘Old Kingdom’, 1188 km in Basarabia,

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Fig. 3 The ‘PACIFIC’ locomotive, the most elegant and fast locomotive in the CFR fleet

611 km in Bucovina, and 5745 km in Transylvania and Banat, while the locomotive fleet amounted to 917 units. In (Lacrit, eanu and Popescu 2004), Lacrit, eanu et al. provide an account of the locomotive fleet operated by CFR up to the Great Union in 1918. On 1 December 1918 King Ferdinand the Loyal and Queen Marie, accompanied by the French general Berthelot, made their triumphant entry into Bucharest— Mogos, oaia Railway Station in a special train towed by the Pacific CFR 2237 locomotive and comprised of several royal carriages, indicating the resumption of railway activities after the war. A special phase in the evolution of CFRS’s steam locomotives was opened in 1913 when the first PACIFIC locomotives, series CFR 2201–2240, type 2C1-h4, (Fig. 3) built between 1913 and 1916 by the Maffei company in Munich, were put into service. Their lasting notoriety in the history of CFR is due both to their elegant construction, as well as to the fact that, until the emergence of the electric locomotives series 060-EA1, they achieved the highest ‘maximum speed’: 126 km/h!

4 The Development of the Railway Network and of the CFR Rolling Stock in the Interwar Period At the beginning of 1920, CFR’s situation was steadily deteriorating from one day to the next: traffic was decreasing, train delays were getting longer, discipline was virtually non-existent, and both the workshop activities, as well as overall operation were disrupted by successive strikes. The first remedial action taken was to militarise the personnel and strengthen the discipline. In 1924, the railway network reached a length of 11,791 km, which also included double tracks, turn-outs, or narrow tracks. Starting with 1930, the Romanian Railways were equipped with locomotives, wagons, and railcars produced domestically, manufactured at the Res, it, a, Malaxa Bucharest, Unio Satu Mare, and ASTRA Arad plants.

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Fig. 4 The RESICZA locomotive, manufacture number 2/1872, displayed at the Res, it, a Museum (1972)

The construction of rolling stock in Romania dates back to 1872, when the first steam locomotive was built at the Metallurgical Plant in Res, it, a. It was built after the designs of the Austrian engineer John Haswell, the director of the StEG locomotive factory in Vienna, and was intended for the traction of factory trains on 948 mm narrow gauge lines, Res, it, a—Bocs, a—Ocna de Fier and Res, it, a—Secu. The locomotive had the circulation number ‘2’ and was called RESICZA (Fig. 4). It had two coupled axles, a power of 45 HP, and could reach a speed of 25 km/h. A complete history of the Res, it, a Plants is presented in Perianu (1996). After 1925, imports of rolling stock were reduced, and the need for wagons and locomotives was covered almost exclusively by the Res, it, a and Malaxa plants. As for the freight wagons and passenger carriages, these were provided by the two large factories, ASTRA Arad (formerly ‘Johann Weitzer’, founded in 1891) and UNIO Satu Mare (founded in 1911). The first Romanian-designed locomotive, manufactured entirely in the country after 1919, was built in 1925 at the Res, it, a Steel Works and Domains plant. It was intended for narrow-gauge tracks (700 mm) and was called ‘PRINCE CAROL’. The first locomotive for standard-gauge tracks manufactured in Greater Romania was also produced by the Res, it, a Plants, in 1926 (Fig. 5). The locomotive’s number was 50,243 and it was called ‘KING FERDINAND’. It was set in motion in Res, it, a on 10 June 1926, for its first test run, by HM King Ferdinand himself, in the presence of the royal family. In (Perianu 2000), the author provides an extensive description of all types of locomotives manufactured in Res, it, a. Following the example of Res, it, a, with considerable financial and human efforts, but also extraordinary organisational measures, the first locomotive manufactured at the Nicolae Malaxa Plant in Bucharest came out of the factory’s gates on 18 December 1928. The locomotive was assigned the manufacturing number 1/1928, the circulation number 50,340, and was named ‘REGELE MIHAI’ (‘KING MICHAEL’). The official hand-over to CFR took place a few days later, in the presence of the Royal

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Fig. 5 The first standard-gauge locomotive built in Res, it, a in 1926

House, in the protocol hall of the Gara de Nord Railway Station. In the following years, new types of locomotives came out, impressive in size, power, and elegance: the 230,000 (Fig. 6), 142,000 (Fig. 7), 150,000 series and the notorious 151,000 (Fig. 8) series, of which only two units were made. A detailed monograph of the Malaxa Plants is presented in the four volumes of Holban and T˘art˘acut, a˘ (2007).

Fig. 6 At the Res, it, a and Malaxa Plants, 230 units of the 230,000 series were built

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Fig. 7 Series 142,000 C.F.R. locomotives achieved a maximum speed of 110 km/h

Fig. 8 The largest steam locomotive in the CFR fleet: the 151,000 series. Only two such locomotives were built at the Malaxa Plants in Bucharest from 1939 to 1942

In 1934 the construction of 2, 4, 6 and 8-axle railcars (Fig. 9) began at ASTRA Plants in Arad and Malaxa Plants in Bucharest. It is noteworthy that the 4, 6, and 8-axle railcars provided a level of comfort and speed similar to today’s passenger trains.

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Fig. 9 Eight-axle Diesel railcar, series 1000

5 The Romanian Railways During the Second World War In June 1940, the USSR annexed the Romanian territories of Basarabia, Bucovina, and Hert, a (an action followed by the annexation of Transylvania by Hungary on 1 September 1940, following the Second Vienna Award), as a result of the ultimatum issued by General Molotov on 26 June 1940. The Romanian territories would be later retrieved, unfortunately only for a short time, during the reunification war initiated by Marshal Ion Antonescu. The destruction and losses suffered by CFR in 1944 were caused both by the Allies, during the first part, and by the USSR who, aside from the destruction inflicted in the summer of 1944, also captured a significant number of locomotives and wagons, in addition to the ‘official’ requisitions.

6 From the Second World War to 1990 On 12.9.1944 the Armistice was signed between the governments of Romania and USSR, Great Britain, and USA. Following the signing of this document, Romania relinquished, in favour of the Soviet High Command, the use and control of its entire railway network (7986 km) and of the rolling stock it had available on 12 September 1944 (52,614 wagons and 2377 locomotives), as well as 80% of the capacity for repair and development works for wagons and locomotives (as part of the country’s obligations arising from the armistice agreement). The conditions in which railway workers carried out their activities were most difficult. Shortages of all sorts, the famine, the precarious condition of the railway network, and the lack of maintenance of the rolling stock during the war called for superhuman efforts, which few of us would be able to comprehend today.

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The period after 1945 was defined mainly by the expansion of the railway network (completion of the Salva—Vis, eu and Bumbes, ti—Livezeni line), the modernisation of marshalling yards and of the electro-dynamic centralisation installations, the construction of Electroputere Craiova Plants, changing the production profile of the former Malaxa plants, renamed 23 August, as well as the dieselisation and afterwards the electrification of CFR’s network. A true masterpiece of engineering, the Bumbes, ti–Livezeni railway, inaugurated on 31 October 1948, makes a strong impression even today due to the number and complexity of works over a length of only 31 km—35 bridges and viaducts, 39 tunnels, and dozens of retaining walls. Another railway regarded as an epitome of engineering, with numerous works, viaducts, and five tunnels, the longest of which spans over 2388 m, was inaugurated on 28 December 1949 and connected northern Transylvania with the Maramures, region through the S, etref Pass, between Salva and Vis, eu.

6.1 The Dieselisation of the Romanian Railways At CFR, Diesel traction started timidly, in 1938, with the 120 HP Diesel-mechanical locomotives for shunting operations, built at the N. Malaxa Plants in Bucharest, and with a single high-power Diesel-electric locomotive (4400 HP) manufactured in Switzerland for main line service. The experience gained with this locomotive translated into the design of the Diesel-electric locomotive CFR series 060-DA, 2100 HP, Co–Co type (Fig. 10). From 1960 to 1993, 2404 locomotives of this type were manufactured under licence at the Electroputere Craiova Plants, both for CFR, as well as for export. From 1960 onwards, the 23 August Plants incorporated into their own manufacturing process the production, under licence, of Maybach Diesel engines of different powers. Also in the early 60s, the Hidromecanica Plants (former Schiel) in Bras, ov began producing hydraulic transmissions under Voith licence. These two benchmarks will underpin the production of the Diesel-hydraulic series of locomotives, Bo-Bo type, initially produced in 3 versions, for CFR and factory railways or export (450, 700 and 1250 HP) (Fig. 11). Book (Halliwell 1970) presents the beginnings of Diesel traction in Romania.

6.2 Electrification of the Romanian Railways In accordance with the recommendations of the UIC Congresses in Annecy (1951) and Lille (1955), it was decided to use the 27,000 V/50 Hz single-phase alternating current system for the electrification of railways in Romania, and the first section selected to be electrified was the most difficult in the network, namely Bras, ov— Predeal, part of the Bucharest–Ploies, ti–Predeal–Bras, ov main line. The date of 27 December 1960 can be regarded as the effective start of work on the electrification

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Fig. 10 The 060-DA electric-Diesel locomotive, 2100 HP

Fig. 11 The 5100 kW CFR locomotive series 060-EA

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of railways in Romania, as it was the day when the first metal electrification pole was installed in the Predeal railway station. On the Bras, ov—Predeal section, the electrification works were completed in 1963, and on 16 February 1969, the first train pulled by an electric locomotive arrived at Bucharest North station. The length of electrified lines has reached today a total of 3800 km. Electrification works continued at a sustained pace on the main lines of the C.F.R. network, resulting in a current total length of 3800 km of electrified lines. Book (M˘argineanu and Lacrit, eanu 2014) provides an account of the beginnings of electric traction in Romania.

6.3 The Bucharest Metro A prestigious accomplishment of Romanian science and technology, the construction of the Bucharest underground transport system began in 1975, and after only 4 years, the first section, which was 8.1 km long, was inaugurated with great pomp in the presence of the party and state leadership of that time. The metro train sets were designed and manufactured entirely in the country, at the Arad Rail Cars Enterprise (Întreprinderea de Vagoane Arad, I.V.A.) and were comprised of two cars. Transport capacity was 200 passengers, of which 34 seated (Fig. 12).

Fig. 12 I.V.A. train set, restored by METROREX to its original condition

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7 Romanian Railways After 1990 The total length of the railway lines in Romania is currently over 22,000 km, a number that includes double tracks, turn-out tracks, and marshalling lines. In 1998, C.F.R. was divided into three large railway companies, CFR Infrastructure, CFR Freight, and CFR Passengers; however, this reorganisation has failed to bring about the expected rebound. Moreover, the frequent changes of leadership in the Ministry of Transport and the three railway companies led to an utterly inadequate state of affairs in the country’s railway system. The year 2011 also marked the emergence of the first private railway operators, which have gradually become competitors to state-owned companies. An important step for the future of railway transport was the approval by the Romanian Government of the General Transport Master Plan, a strategic document that defines the main paths of development for the Romanian transport infrastructure until 2030, for all types of transport: road, rail, naval, air, and multimodal. The document provides a general framework for the development of transport infrastructure, including the sources of funding, the strategy for project implementation, as well as ensuring maintenance and repair operations until 2030. At the same time, it lays out the strategic objectives, transport corridors, and implementation options for a balanced and sustainable development in the country, in line with the trans-European strategic objectives for transport infrastructure. Romania’s General Transport Master Plan aims to provide long-term support for the sustainable development of Romania and funding opportunities for the Romanian transport sector through the Large Infrastructure Operational Programme. The interoperable railway network in Romania is part of the main TEN-T network, comprised of the Rhine—Danube Corridor IV, northern branch (871 km, Curtici—Cos, lariu—Bras, ov—Bucharest—Constant, a), the Rhine—Danube corridor, southern branch (590 km Arad—Timis, oara—Craiova—Bucharest and Craiova— Calafat—Border, 108 km), the TEN-T Core network, which includes the former Giurgiu-Bucharest Corridor IX and Ploies, ti—Suceava (Pas, cani—Ias, i), Teius, — Dej—Suceava—Siret and Timis, oara—Stamora Moravit, a, 1087 km, TEN-T Comprehensive, which includes Arad—Oradea—Halmeu, Cluj—Episcopia Bihor, Dej— Satu Mare, Beclean pe Somes, -Siculeni-Adjud, Filias, i-Simeria, Bucharest-Pites, tiSibiu-Vint, ul de Jos, Buz˘au-F˘aurei—Galat, i and Faurei—Fetes, ti, 1373 km. A high-performance infrastructure, adapted to current European requirements, will result in improved speed and transport capacity, safety, and comfort for passengers. Other aspects that should not be overlooked include the importance and strategic nature of rail transport and, last but not least, a very low impact on the environment. With regard to the modernisation of the rolling stock, this has also seen significant progress, both with respect to locomotives, as well as towed rolling stock. It is worth noting the contribution of Romanian companies that developed highly complex technologies and technical solutions for the railway sector, such as SOFTRONIC Craiova (Fig. 13), Reloc Craiova, or ASTRA Vagoane Arad.

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Fig. 13 The HYPERION train set

References Botez C, Urm˘a D, Saizu I (1977) Epopeea Feroviar˘a Româneasc˘a (The Romanian railway epic). Sport-Turism Publishing House, Bucharest Bras, canu P (2013) Drum de fier prin praf de pus, c˘a s, i stele (Iron road through gunpowder and stars). S, tef Publishing House, Ias, i Halliwell C (1970) The locomotives of Romania. Frank Stenvall Verlag, Malmö Holban H, T˘art˘acut, a˘ G (2007) Pagini de Istorie–Uzinele Malaxa Faur, vol 1–4 (History pages— Malaxa Faur Plants), vol 1–4. CD Press, Bucharest Lacrit, eanu S, , Popescu I (2004) Istoricul Tract, iunii Feroviare în România, vol 1–3 (History of railway traction in Romania), vol 1–3. ASAB Publishing House, Bucharest M˘argineanu G, Lacrit, eanu S, (2014) Parcul locomotivelor cu abur cu ecartament normal al CFR (The fleet of standard gauge steam locomotives of the CFR). AGIR Publishing House, Bucharest Perianu D (1996) Istoria Uzinelor din Res, it, a 1771–1996 (History of the factories from Res, ita 1771–1996). Timpul Publishing House, Res, it, a Perianu D (2000) Istoria Locomotivelor s, i a C˘ailor Ferate din Banatul Montan (History of locomotives and railways from Banatul Montan). Timpul Publishing House, Res, it, a Popescu I (1987) C˘ai Ferate-Transporturi Clasice s, i Moderne (Railways-classic and modern transports). Scientific and Encyclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest

History of Motor Vehicles Mircea Oprean, Cristian Andreescu, Nicu Dumitrache, Anghel Chiru, and Marius B˘at, a˘ us,

Abstract In this Chapter the history of the Romanian automobile industry is presented from its beginnings till today. The first Romanian motor car was the steam car built in 1880 by Dumitru V˘asescu during his studies at École Centrale in Paris. On the Romanian territory, the production of automobiles powered by internal combustion engine started in 1909 in Arad, at the Marta factory, branch of the Astra Company (at that time in Austro—Hungarian Empire). A remarkable invention of the Romanian George (Gogu) Constantinescu was the first automatic transmission in the world based on his, sonic torque converter”. In 1924, the engineer Ioan A. Dimitriu patented in Paris the car with dual control, absolute priority worldwide. In 1925, the first Laboratory for the psychological testing of public transport drivers was set up in Bucharest, the 3rd in the world after those established in 1921 in France and Germany. Aurel Persu built the first aerodynamic car worldwide recognized. He presented his invention at the Romanian Academy under the title “The correct aerodynamic car”. The only car factory in Romania between the two WW was the “Ford-Romania” plant, in Bucharest. The first Ford car made here was the “1935” model, Ford V8 Sedan. After the WW II, in 1946, at the “Malaxa” factories, which later became “23 August”, a small car was designed by engineer Petre Carp. In 1947, the “Tractorul” Factory from Bras, ov, former IAR, starts its production, at first with a single model, IAR 22 (copy of the Hannomag model), a universal type tractor. Over the years, almost 40 models were produced at this factory from the smallest, of 26 HP, for vegetable growing and viticulture, to those of 360 HP, for land improvement works, constructions, embankments etc. In 1954, at the “Steagul Ros, u—Red Flag” Plants in Bras, ov, later called the “Truck Factory”, began the production of the SR 101 truck, followed by SR-131 Carpat, i and SR-113 Bucegi. In 1971, the first heavy M. Oprean (B) · C. Andreescu · M. B˘at, a˘ us, University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania e-mail: [email protected] N. Dumitrache National Technical Museum ‘Prof.ing.Dimitrie Leonida’, Bucharest, Romania A. Chiru University TRANSILVANIA of Bra¸sov, Bra¸sov, Romania © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 D. Banabic (ed.), History of Romanian Technology and Industry, History of Mechanism and Machine Science 45, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39191-0_7

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trucks came into production, according to Romanian projects, SR 132 for transport in heavy conditions, AB 45–116 A a dump truck with a payload of 4.5 t, 7AB-1 truck with a payload of 7 t, then (in 1978) the Diesel—electric DAC dump truck of 100 t. In 1956, in Bucharest, the production of buses and trolleybuses started under the brand “Tudor Vladimirescu—TV”, later called “Autobuzul”. There were designed and manufactured numerous types of buses (simple or articulated urban, interurban, coaches), trolleybuses (simple or articulated), minibuses and vans. In 1957, at the Mechanical Plant from Câmpulung—Muscel, in Arges, County, started the manufacturing process of IMS 57, a 100% Romanian off-road car. From 1964 it began the production of M 461 model, which, due to its performances comparable to those of the most prestigious models at that time, had a remarkable success outside Romania. ARO 240, a new off-road car model, was launched in 1966. It will generate the ARO 24 family, with 5 basic models and over 60 constructive variants. On September 6, 1966, the CEO of Régie Nationale des Usines Renault, Pierre Dreyfus, signed in Bucharest the contract granting to the Romanian party the manufacturing license of the Renault 12 model. From 1969, the Colibas, i plant starts the production of the Dacia 1300 car. In 1979, the Dacia 1310 model was designed starting from this first variant; it underwent numerous re-stylings and was produced until 2004. In 1976, the Romanian—French Joint Company OLTCIT S.A. was established, aiming at the manufacture and sale of small city cars. From the 29th of September 1999, Renault became the majority owner of SC AUTOMOBILE DACIA SA. On June the 2nd, 2004, Dacia Logan was the first law cost car launched in Paris at a price of only 5000 Euros. The best-selling model of the Dacia brand on the Western market was Sandero (2008). In 2010, Dacia presented the first SUV in the history of the brand—the Duster model. In 2016, the Easy-R robotic transmission was introduced on the Logan and Sandero models while in the spring of 2017, the Duster 4 × 2 model equipped with the EDC dual-clutch automatic transmission was launched. On September the 12th, 2007, Ford Motor Company acquired SC Automobile Craiova S.A. The production of Ford B-Max, the first European motor car equipped with an advanced connectivity system—SYNC, with voice commands in several languages and with an emergency assistance function, started in Craiova, in 2012. At the beginning of October 2017, began the production of the SUV model “Ford EcoSport”. The Renault Group set up Renault Technologie Roumanie which is its most important research and development center for automotive engineering outside France. Also, in Bucharest operates Renault Design Central Europe which is the first and only design center of Renault in Romania and South-Eastern Europe. Over 600 companies are active in Romania in the domain of automotive components production, most of which being subsidiaries of international holdings. At the end of this chapter, some priority trends in the development of the automotive industry are presented.

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1 The Beginnings of the Motor Vehicles Until the First World War The car—as a means of transport—is the bearer of the imperative of qualitative changes and an image of its time. It implicitly reflects the defining concerns for contemporaneity from artificial intelligence (the perspective of autonomous cars) to environmentalism and a new relationship with nature. The oldest vehicle with wooden wheels, which was moving on wooden rails, considered the oldest vehicle on rails in the history of Romanian technology, is the wagon from the sixteenth century gold mine in Brad–Barza. The original is in the Berlin Communications Museum (1985). The first Romanian to assert himself in the history of motor vehicles was engineer Dumitru V˘asescu (1859–1909). When he was a student at École Centrale in Paris, in 1880, he built, with his own resources, a steam car of notable performances at that time (1994, 2007). V˘asescu’s car was open, with a low platform and a sofa reserved for passengers located at the back of the car, above the water tank, and in front of the steam boiler. The car was equipped at the front with wheels with metal rims and steel spokes, and at the rear with wheels equipped with rubber damping rings, interposed between the rim and the solid rubber outer bandage, so as the shock of unevenness when driving on unpaved roads should not cause discomfort to passengers. The car did not have a steering wheel, but a lever located on the right side of the sofa. By means of a longitudinal rod, the lever turns the front wheels. Braking was performed with two braking systems, one on the wheel drive shaft and the other on the rear wheel tire. At the time, some people considered it “the most successful train without rails”! At the beginning of the twentieth century, another Romanian, engineer N. Iliescu, built a three-wheeled steam car, equipped with a mechanical transmission, steering system with deformable trapezium, suspension with lamellar springs and two braking systems (for service and parking). The car could reach a top speed of 60 km/h (1994). The first car officially registered in Romania, in 1900, with the registration Certificate no.1, from the traffic service of the Capital, was a F.N. (Fabrique Nationale) Herstal, manufactured in Liège, with 15 HP internal combustion engine and wheels with rubber tires and it developed a maximum speed of 7–8 km/h (1985). In 1906, 150 cars were registered in Romania, most of which were De Dion-Bouton, Panhard and Mercedes. The First World War (1914–1918) caused a slowdown in the development of automotive engineering because the young industry had to adapt to the needs of the war (production of weapons, explosives, ammunition, aircraft, special vehicles for the army etc.).

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2 The Period Between the Two World Wars After the end of WWI, unprecedented competition began between car manufacturers in both the United States and Europe. In 1925, the first Laboratory for the psychological testing of public transport drivers was set up in Bucharest, the 3rd in the world after those established in 1921 in France and Germany (1985). Between 1936–1937, the ASTRA Plants in Bras, ov were built and put into operation. Later it became the “Steagul Ros, u—Red Flag” Truck Factory. On the Romanian territory, the production of automobiles started in 1909 with trucks and buses in Arad, at the Marta factory (Magyar Automobil Részvény Társaság Arad), branch of the Astra Company (Fig. 1). In 1926, the Marta branch was completely moved to Bras, ov within the Romanian Aeronautical Industrial Society (IAR). The only car factory in Romania, in the interwar period, was the “Ford-Romania” plant in Bucharest. The factory was established in 1935 under the name Ford Româna SAR in order to manufacture car body elements and to repair cars. The first Ford car made here was the “1935” model, Ford V8 Sedan, with 65 HP, V8 cylinder engine, and a top speed of 120 km/h (1994). In 1948 the factory was nationalized and closed. It was also here, starting with 1938, that a 3 t truck was manufactured for the transport of troops, and a year later the assembling of Ford cars for military use and “Ford-Marmon” trucks with the same destination began. These trucks could be fitted with flexible caterpillars with metal plates manufactured at the “Concordia” factories in Ploies, ti. Despite the fact that until the Second World War the domestic car industry did not know the rise and development of Western European countries and the USA, Romania gave to the world some inventors unanimously recognized as pioneers of

Fig. 1 Car manufactured on the Romanian territory, MARTA, 1910 (2023)

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Fig. 2 Persu aerodynamic car from MNT “Prof. ing. D. Leonida” (2012)

automobile improvement. These are the engineers Aurel Persu (1890–1977), George (Gogu) Constantinescu (1881–1965) and Ioan A. Dimitriu (1897–1975). Aurel Persu built his aerodynamic car with parts and subassemblies that he found at that time on the technical market in Germany (Fig. 2). The engine was manufactured by “AGA AG AUTOMOBILBAU” with four cylinders in line and 20 HP, centrally placed. The AGA type mechanical gearbox drives the rear axle by means of a short cardan shaft. The rear axle, due to the very small track width, has no differential. The dynamo and the electric starter were manufactured by “EISEMANN”. In 1936, Aurel Persu presented his invention at the Romanian Academy under the title “The correct aerodynamic car”, after publishing in the Bulletin of the Polytechnic Society of Bucharest the article “The only solution in the construction of future cars” (no.3/01.08.1932). In 1918, Gogu Constantinescu published the treatise on the theory of sonicity entitled “The theory of sonics. A treatise on the transmission of power by vibration” on which a new science is based. This is “Sonicity” which he discovered in 1912. “Sonicity” is the science related to the transmission of power by periodic forces and movements through liquids, solids or gases (1985). The applications of sonicity are multiple: hammers and sonic perforators, much more efficient than pneumatic ones, sonic diesel injectors for diesel engines, sonic drilling etc. A remarkable invention of Gogu Constantinescu is “The sonic torque converter” designed mainly to replace the classic transmission (clutch and gearbox) of a car, thus making the first automatic transmission in the world. It was successfully tested in 1923, on an experimental model built on an old Sheffield Simplex chassis equipped with a 10 HP engine. The converter was capable to amplify the input torque up to 5 times! The experimental model could travel 100 miles (one mile = 1609 km) with one gallon of gasoline (one gallon = 4.54 l) at a speed of about 38 miles/h (61 km/h) (1985, 2003). Another Romanian who contributed to the development of a field in connection with the automobile itself, namely the field of learning to drive, was the engineer Ioan A. Dimitriu who, in 1924, patented in Paris the car with dual control, absolute priority worldwide (Fig. 3). He set up 106 driving schools in 17 major cities across Europe.

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Fig. 3 The dual control car [National Technical Museum “Prof.ing.Dimitrie Leonida” (Archive)]

3 The Period from World War II to 1990 In 1944, the Mechanical Plant from Câmpulung-Muscel, in Arges, County, started its activity, where, starting with 1957, the 100% Romanian off-road car was manufactured. The manufacturing process started with IMS 57 off-road car (Fig. 4). In 1946, at the “Malaxa” factories, which later became “August 23”, a small car was designed by engineer Petre Carp (Fig. 5). The prototype was built in the Malaxa plant in Res, it, a in collaboration with IAR and the ASAM Company (Administration of Aviation and Marine Establishments). The car had an air-cooled, three-cylinder radial engine inspired by aircraft engines, mounted in the rear. The cooling air was

Fig. 4 IMS 57 off-road car (2023)

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Fig. 5 “Malaxa” car 1946 (2023)

taken up by a slit above the windshield and carried through the double roof to the rear engine. The car weighed 500 kg and could reach 120 km/h. The car was launched into serial production, but the plant was nationalized in 1947 and the manufacture of the car was stopped. In 1947 the, “Tractorul” Factory from Bras, ov, former IAR, starts its production, at first with a single model, IAR 22 (copy of the Hannomag model), a universal type tractor, which can be used as an agricultural tractor, by mounting metal wheels, specially designed for this purpose or as a transport tractor, by adapting wheels with tires. It was equipped with a 5195 cm3 diesel engine, 38 HP, 4-cylinder, four-stroke, with antechamber and petrol starter. Almost 40 models were produced at the “Tractorul” Factory in Bras, ov during the peak period, from the smallest, of 26 HP, for vegetable growing and viticulture, to those of 360 HP, for land improvement works, constructions, embankments etc. Assembly lines were built for Romanian tractors in Egypt and Iran and the products were exported to over 50 countries! In 1953, at the State Metallurgical Enterprise (Întreprinderea Metalurgic˘a de Stat—IMS), the future ARO plant, 12 IMS-53 motorcycles were built, copies of the British Norton model, model 7, 350 cm3 and 17 HP (2023). Starting with 1959, the “Carpat, i—Carpathians” motorbike was manufactured, according to the German model Simpson SR 2, at the “6 of March” Tohani factory in Z˘arnes, ti, in two versions, “Carpat, i—Carpathians” (49 cm3 ) and “Carpat, i Super— Super Carpathians” (68 cm3 ). Between 1971 and 1994, the “Mobra” motorbike (Motorcycles—Bras, ov) with a 50 cm3 engine and 4 HP was manufactured (2023). In 1954, at the “Steagul Ros, u—Red Flag” Plants in Bras, ov, later called the “Truck Factory”, the production of the SR 101 truck, 4 t, began under the Soviet license of the ZIS 120 truck. The truck was equipped with a 5.55 l petrol engine, with 6 cylinders in line. The top speed was 65 km/h, quite low even for those times. It was followed, in 1956, by the SR-104 truck with two powered axles. In the period 1956–1961, at the same factory, dump trucks, firefighting vehicles, tank trucks, vans etc. were built in collaboration (1994). The first Romanian bus was built by the Vulcan plant in Bucharest in cooperation with the Atelierele Centrale ITB (Central Workshops of Bucharest Transport

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Fig. 6 TV 2U bus manufactured at the plant in Bucharest (2023)

Company), between 1955–1956, with the name MTD (Mao Tze Dun). The bus could accommodate 60 passengers of whom 28 could be seated. In 1956, in Bucharest, the production of buses and trolleybuses started under the brand “Tudor Vladimirescu—TV”. In 1957, the TV-1 bus with 26 seats and 39 standing places was launched and in 1958 the first utility car, TV-4 was also produced. 1960 saw the manufacture of the TV-2 bus in three versions: TV-2U with urban destination (Fig. 6) intercity TV-2R and TV-2E trolleybus (2023). It is also 1960 that the truck SR-131 Carpat, i, with a payload of 3 t, was launched into production, followed in 1964 by the 5 t truck SR-113 Bucegi, both equipped with an 8-cylinder V-engine, 5 l and a maximum power of 140 HP, designed and made entirely by Romanian specialists (Fig. 7). The hydraulic clutch control system and shock absorbers, under Armstrong license, were manufactured at IPA Sibiu, the panoramic windshield was produced in Medias, , the thin-walled bimetallic bearings, under Glacier license, at the Rulmentul plant in Bras, ov, the compression piston rings, hard-chromium plated, at the Colibas, i plant, the exhaust valve was cooled with sodium, the Weber license twin-barrel carburetors were manufactured at “Carfil” Bras, ov; the electrical and board equipment was manufactured at Electroprecizia S˘acele under Ducellier license etc. (1994). In 1961 IMS Câmpulung becomes UMM (Uzina Mecanic˘a Muscel—Muscel Mechanical Plant), and from 1964 it begins the manufacture of the model M 461 (Fig. 8), which, due to its performances comparable to those of the most prestigious models at that time, had a remarkable success outside Romania, over 58% of the specimens produced over time being exported (2017).

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Fig. 7 Romanian truck SR-113 Bucegi (2023)

Fig. 8 M461 off-road car, in military version (2017)

In 1966, the design of the new off-road car model, ARO 240 (Fig. 9) is launched. It will generate the ARO 24 family, with 5 basic models and over 60 constructive variants (2017). 1966 is the beginning of the production of the 5 t, all-terrain truck Bucegi and of the fifth-wheel tractor for a 13 t semitrailer. Between 1963 and 1969, 5 t chassis dumper trucks, fire trucks, tank trucks, truck cranes, garbage trucks, vacuum trucks, vans, mobile workshops, forestry vehicles were produced in Bras, ov in collaboration with other Romanian companies. On September the 6th, 1966, the CEO of the Régie nationale des usines Renault, Pierre Dreyfus, signed in Bucharest the contract granting the Romanian party the

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Fig. 9 Off-road car ARO 240 (2017)

Fig. 10 The passenger car Dacia 1100 (2016)

manufacturing license of the Renault 12 model. The beginning was made with the license for mounting the Renault 8 Major model, under the name Dacia 1100 (Fig. 10). On August the 2nd, 1968, the Colibas, i Motor Car Plant (became in June 1969 the Pites, ti Motor Car Plant—UAP, based in Colibas, i) was inaugurated with the production of the Dacia 1100 car, which was equipped with an engine of 1108 cm3 displacement and 46 HP maximum power, located in the back of the vehicle. In November 1968, the license-cooperation contract with the MAN company from the German Federal Republic was concluded. The German license also included the right of the Romanian partner to manufacture the following subassemblies: inclined MAN 2156 HMN and horizontal MAN 2156 HMV engines, AK/S-5–35 and AX/S 6–80 gearboxes, Hydro 8065 power steering, steering box Gemmer GD 68 from ZF, braking system from Knorr etc. In the same year, Întreprinderea de Piese Auto—IPA (the Motor Car Parts Factory) from Sibiu was set up by unifying two units, Uzina Elastic and Uzina Automecanica Sibiu, whose main products were car suspension components, cardan transmissions and braking systems.

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Fig. 11 Romanian car Dacia 1310 (2017)

From 1969, the Colibas, i plant starts the production of the Dacia 1300 car, with the engine disposed longitudinally, above the front axle and the traction on the front wheels, the total displacement of 1289 cm3 and the maximum power of 54 HP. In 1979, the Dacia 1310 model was designed starting from this first variant; it underwent numerous restylings and was produced until 2004 (Fig. 11). In 1971, the first heavy trucks came into production, according to Romanian projects, SR 132 for transport in heavy conditions, AB 45–116 A dump truck with a payload of 4.5 t, 7AB-1 truck with a payload of 7 t, then DAC dump truck of 100 t. In June 1975, the “National Institute of Thermal Engines” (“Institutul Nat, ional de Motoare Termice”—INMT) was inaugurated in Bucharest; its major objective was the research and design of prototypes of internal combustion engines with different destinations. In the period 1980–1989, at INMT, the very small passenger car Dacia 500— ˘ LASTUN, with 2 + 2 seats was produced on the basis of an original design and with Romanian components. It was propelled by a 499 cm3 , 22.5 HP air-cooled engine, with 2 cylinders. The car had a consumption of 3.3 l/100 km (Fig. 12). In 1976, the Romanian-French Joint Company OLTCIT S.A. was established, aiming at the manufacture and sale of small-town city cars. The models manufactured in Craiova were: Oltcit Special (1981–1985), Oltcit Club (1981–1995), Oltcit Club 11RL, Oltcit Club 11RM, Oltcit Club 12 TRS (1990–1994), Citroën Axel 11 R (Fig. 13) and Citroën Axel 12 R (1984–1990) equipped with 1157 and 1299 cm3 Fig. 12 The very small car Dacia 500—L˘astun (2023)

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Fig. 13 Romanian car Citroën Axel (2017)

engines and Oltcit Club 12 CS, made as a prototype in 1988, but manufactured from 1993 to 1995 under the OLTENA brand. In 1977, in Zal˘au, a city from S˘alaj County, the production of tires and inner tubes at the Silvania factory began. In 2001, the factory was taken over by Michelin and became “Michelin Zal˘au Anvelope” which, in 2017, had 130 car tire models in production. In 1978, the Diesel—electric dump truck was presented. The functional model, BC 170–90 B42 DE, of 100 tons (110 tons SAE) payload, was equipped with a 900 kW diesel engine and electric motors in wheels, developing a maximum speed in the construction site of 55 km/h (Fig. 14). The traction synchronous generator, the direct current rectifier and the traction electric motors in the wheels were made at Uzina Electroputere Craiova; the electronic transmission control block was designed by IPA Bucharest and produced

Fig. 14 The diesel—electric dump truck BC 170–90 B42 DE (2023)

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by “Întreprinderea Electrotehnica Bucures, ti” (the Bucharest Electrotechnical Enterprise); the electric drives (power contactors, relays etc.) were provided by the Bucharest Electroaparataj Enterprise, while the hydraulic cylinders and relays were imported. In 1983, at the tire factory in Drobeta-Turnu Severin, the huge tires for 50 t and 100 t dump trucks were manufactured for the first time in Romania and Europe (1985). They had an outer diameter of 1.6–2.7 m, a width of 50–70 cm and a weight of 240–1400 kg.

4 The Period After 1990 On November the 2nd, 1990, S.C. AUTOMOBILE DACIA S.A. was founded. Starting with February 1991, S.C. AUTOMOBILE DACIA S.A. produces the models Dacia 1325 Liberta, Dacia 1307 Double Cab and Dacia 1309 derived from the break version. On October the 10th, 1994, SC Automobile Craiova SA and the South Korean corporate group Daewoo established the joint venture Rodae Automobile Craiova (51% Daewoo Motor Co. Ltd and 49% Automobile Craiova). In 1996, the first Daewoo model made in Craiova, Cielo, came out of the assembly line. The car had front-wheel drive and was equipped with a 1498 cm3 spark ignition engine, with multipoint fuel injection, with a compression ratio of 8.6:1, offering 80 HP at 5400 rpm. At Craiova different models were produced: Cielo (1996–2007), Nubira (1997–2006), Matiz (1999–2008), Leganza (1998–1999), Tico (1998–2001) and Espero (1998–1999). First four models were also exported (2016). On July the 2nd, 1999 the privatization contract of SC AUTOMOBILE DACIA SA was signed, and, from September the 29th, Renault became the majority owner with 51.005% of shares. The first passenger car after the collaboration between Dacia and Renault resumed was Dacia SupeRNova launched at the end of 2000. The next model, Solent, a, was launched in the spring of 2003. On June the 2nd, 2004, the Chairman and CEO of Renault launched the “impossible car”, Dacia Logan, in Paris. This car was developed by Renault and manufactured in Romania (after a 400 million of euros investment in Pites, ti factory modernization) and it was offered at a price of only 5000 Euros (Fig. 15). On September the 12th, 2007, Ford Motor Company acquired SC Automobile Craiova SA. The first model to exit the production line was the Ford Transit Connect van on September 8, 2009 (2017). In 2008, Dacia Sandero (Fig. 16) was launched and in the following years it became the best-selling model of the brand on the Western market. In 2010, at the Geneva Motor Show, Dacia presented the first SUV in the history of the brand—the Duster model.

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Fig. 15 The low-cost passenger car Dacia LOGAN (2016)

Fig. 16 Dacia Sandero passenger car (2017)

From 2012, at the Ford plant in Craiova, the production of the Ford B-Max car started. This was the first European car equipped with an advanced connectivity system -SYNC, with voice commands in several languages and with an emergency assistance function. It was equipped with gasoline engines (Ford EcoBoost, 3-cylinders, 1 l with 120 HP or 125 HP) and diesel engines (Duratorq, 1.4 l with 95 HP or 1.6 l with 105 HP). The 1 l Eco-Boost engine was considered the best engine in its category in the “International Engine of the Year” competition for 4 consecutive years, the distinction being awarded by a jury of 87 journalists from 35 countries. This engine is used on the best-selling Ford models in Europe, such as the Fiesta and Focus, and larger models such as the B-Max or C-Max. In 2013, Star Assembly, a subsidiary of the Daimler German Corporation, started the production of the manual 5 gears gearbox at Sebes, , in Alba County, and in 2014 began the production of the 7 gears dual clutch gearbox for Mercedes-Benz passenger cars. In April 2016, the two Daimler subsidiaries, Star Transmission and Star Assembly, launched the production of the 9G-Tronic gearbox at Sebes, (2023). In 2016, the new versions of the Logan passenger car, Logan MCV, Sandero and Sandero Stepway models were launched and the Easy-R robotic transmission was introduced on the Logan and Sandero models. In the spring of 2017, the Duster 4 × 2 model equipped with the EDC dual-clutch automatic transmission was launched. The new generation of the Duster model was presented at the Frankfurt Motor Show. It proposed, for the first time in the Dacia

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Fig. 17 Dacia DUSTER sport utility vehicle (2017)

range, a whole series of unique equipment, such as the hands-free access function, the electric power steering and the automatic headlight ignition system (Fig. 17). At the beginning of October 2017, the SUV model “Ford EcoSport” was launched at Ford factory in Craiova. It is equipped with a 125 HP Diesel engine, automatic 6 gears transmission, “Intelligent All Wheel Drive” and SYNC 3 connectivity system. The model is also available with 1 l EcoBoost engine, with 140 and 125 HP, and 6 gears manual gearbox. The Craiova factory took over the production of this model for European market from the India based Chennai factory. The Renault Group set up Renault Technologie Roumanie which is its most important research and development center for automotive engineering outside France. It has over 2400 employees in four locations: Bucharest (development center), Titu (testing and control laboratories), Mioveni (applied engineering) and Pites, ti (development and manufacturing center for dies). Titu facility disposes of over 50 testing stands and 32 km of track on a 350 hectares surface. Also, in Bucharest operates Renault Design Central Europe which is the first and only design center in Romania and Southeast Europe. In this center designers of different nationalities are working. The main mission of the center is to create vehicles adapted to every market of Groupe Renault. Over 600 companies are active in Romania in the domain of the production of automotive components and the majority are subsidiaries of international holdings. In 2017 the automotive engineering related companies had over 210,000 employees.

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5 Trends in Automotive Development At the end of 2017, the Romanian automotive fleet counted 7.6 million of cars with a ratio of 1/5 between new and old ones. At least for the next decade, there are three major trends in the automotive industry: Electrification, Connectivity and Autonomous Driving. Volvo company has set itself the target of “zero deaths” in road accidents with its cars in 2020, and from 2021 the autonomy level 4 (total autonomy being level 5) (2017). The European Commission’s 2030 roadmap foresees, in a decarbonized economy, the target of an emission of 50 g CO2 /km for middle-class cars, which corresponds to a fuel consumption of up to 2 l/100 km (2014). With the EOLAB prototype, Renault achieved a performance of 1 l/100 km (22 g CO2 /km) in the European testing cycle (NEDC). Since the summer of 2014 Volkswagen has been selling the XL 1 model with a consumption of 0.9 l/100 km (2014). If today one can notice the generalization of stop & start system for all new cars, in the next 5–10 years the hybrid propulsion vehicles will dominate, at least in the mild architecture, with the switch to 48 V electric system, Flex 4™ AWD propulsion systems or a 48 V eAxle (electric axle) followed by full hybrid/Plug-in vehicles, the so called HDT (Hybrid Dedicated Transmission) and a high integration of eDrive system (2016). Beyond 2025, as consequence of the reduction of CO2 emission limit (68–75 g/ km in Europe and 107 g/km in USA), an increase of electric vehicle market (BEV and Fuel Cell) and a high integration of eDrive system is predicted. Over 50% of the total automotive production will be based on 26 global platforms (on the models produced in over one million of units per year). The solution for optimizing the propulsion system for autonomous cars will be used (it is estimated that from 2025 over 600,000 cars sold will be autonomous «autonomous drivingwithout driver»). A quarter of the total number of cars produced by Volkswagen in 2025 will be 100% electric (2016). The car of the future will have to respond to several global mega-trends. One of these is the limiting of fossil fuel consumption imposed by the more and more accentuated globalization and by the need to decarbonize the road transport corroborated with the increasing of urban population. Another trend consists in the massive use of digital systems that contributes to the definition of lifestyle and which allows the developing of new concepts of mobility. Demographic changes, environmental protection, raw material resources saving and customization of the car according to the buyer’s personality and preferences are also challenges to which the today’s automotive industry has to answer (2016).

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References (2023) https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magyar_Automobil_Részvéngtársaság_Arad. Accesed 4 May 2023 (2023). http://www.automobileromanesti.ro/Roman/SR_113.. Accesed 4 May 2023 (2023). http://www.automobileromanesti.ro/Altele/Malaxa/. Accesed 4 May 2023 (2023). http://www.mobra.ro. Accesed 4 May 2023 (2023). http://www.automobileromanesti.ro/Rocar/TV_2/. Accesed 4 May 2023 (2023). http://www.automobileromanesti.ro/Aro/IMS-57/. Accesed 4 May 2023 (2023). https://www.stcu.ro/star-transmission-filiala-daimler-in-romania-isi-extinde-reteaua-deproductie-la-sebes/. Accesed 4 May 2023 (2023). https://istoria-camioanelor.webnotte.ro/news/Roman/. Accesed 4 May 2023 (2023).http://www.automobileromanesti.ro/Dacia/Dacia_500/. Accesed 4 May 2023 *** (2014) Projet V2L: mission accomplie!, Ingénieurs de l’Automobile 833:16–21 *** (2014) Le véhicule 2 l/100 km: un grand programme d’avenir mobilisateur. Ingénieurs de l’Automobile 829:30–33 *** (2016) Volkswagen change tout en 2025. Ingénieurs de l’Automobile 843:12–13 Bulc V (2017) L’Europe veut accélérer sur la voiture connectée et autonome. Ingénieurs De L’auto 848:9–11 Hirsch J (2016) Powertrain of the future. In: 15th International congress and expo, CTI Symposium, 5–8 December 2016, Berlin, paper 2.9 Hohl G (2012) The history of the Romanian automobile (I). Automot Eng 6:6–8 Olteneanu M (2007) Mari personalit˘at, i ale s, tiint, elor tehnice din România (Great Technical Science Personalities in Romania. AGIR Publishing House, Bucharest Pop II, Marcu IL (2003) Mari personalit˘at, i. Gogu Constantinescu (Great Personalities: Gogu Constantinescu). AGIR Publishing House, Bucharest 1.B˘alan S, t, Mih˘ailescu N S, t (1985) Istoria s, tiint, ei s, i tehnicii în România, date cronologice (The History of Science and Technology in Romania. Romanian Academy Publishing House, Bucharest, Chronological Data) Stroe C, Drut, a˘ G, Sepciu S (2016) O istorie concis˘a a fabricat, iei de autoturisme. ARO, DACIA, OLTCIT (A Concise History of Car Manufacturing: ARO, DACIA, OLTCIT). Bucharest, Pite¸sti Stroe C, Drut, a˘ G, Sepciu S (2017) De la IMS 57 la Dacia Duster. O istorie a fabricat, iei de autoturisme în România (From IMS 57 to Dacia Duster. A History of motor cars manufacturing in Romania). AGIR Publishing House, Bucharest Vasiliu C (1994) Automobilul în România, istorie s, i tehnic˘a (The Automobile in Romania. FLUX Publishing House, Bucharest, History and Technology)

History of Aviation, Rocket Technology, and Aerospace Engineering Dumitru-Dorin Prunariu, Dan Antoniu, Constantin Olivotto, Corneliu Berbente, and Octavian Thor Pleter

Abstract This chapter is a synthesis of the aerospace engineering activities in Romania or performed by Romanians. Important contributions to aviation and space flight since the earliest times demonstrate Romanians’ vocation and passion for flight. The chapter is structured in three parts: aviation and aeronautical industry, space flight and rocket technology, and aerospace sciences and engineering education. The activity of aviation pioneers Traian Vuia, Aurel Vlaicu, and Henri Coand˘a is better known, but many other less known aviation pioneers are presented. Their contribution is important nonetheless: Anastase Dragomir who invented the ejectable pilot seat, Ion Stroescu, who designed and built some of the most innovative wind tunnels of the time, and George de Bothezat, who built some of the earliest helicopters. After the First World War, Romania developed its aeronautical industry. IAR Brasov was the leading aircraft manufacturer of the time, with the military fighter IAR-80 as an iconic success of these times. After WWII, the Romanian aviation industry recovered, relying on four aircraft manufacturing plants: ICA Ghimbav (IAR Brasov), IRMA/IAv Bucharest (ROMAERO), IA Craiova (Avioane Craiova), and IAv Bac˘au (Aerostar). In addition to those, Turbomecanica Bucharest was specialised in turbine engines manufacturing, and Aerofina Bucharest was supplying avionics. For the aircraft design, the Institute for Aerospace Scientific Research and Technological Engineering (ICSITAV) became the only research and design institution in the aerospace sector in Romania. After 1990, ICSITAV split but the National Aerospace Research Institute INCAS continued this central role activity. The second part of the chapter is about astronautics and space research and industry, starting with a history D.-D. Prunariu (B) The Romanian Space Agency, Bucharest, Romania e-mail: [email protected] D. Antoniu The National Museum of Romanian Aviation, Bucharest, Romania C. Olivotto The National Institute for Aerospace Research “Elie Carafoli” (INCAS), Bucharest, Romania C. Berbente · O. T. Pleter Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 D. Banabic (ed.), History of Romanian Technology and Industry, History of Mechanism and Machine Science 45, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39191-0_8

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of Romanian contributions, mainly with the visionary work of Hermann Oberth. The Romanian Space Agency established at the initiative of Cosmonaut Dumitru Prunariu in 1990 coordinated the activity of the Romanian space industry and research, with notable achievements. The early accession of Romania to the European Space Agency (ESA) accelerated the development of space activities in the country. The third part of the chapter presents the Romanian aerospace engineering school, with a tradition of almost 90 years. The school was established in the Polizu Campus of the University Politehnica of Bucharest by Academician Elie Carafoli. Thousands of Alumni made a decisive contribution to the Romanian aerospace industry and research, but also worlwide.

1 The Beginnings of Aeronautics in Romania The history of flight and flying machines in Romania is a defining component of the country’s technological history. Romanian inventors, innovators, and flight equipment manufacturers have been up to speed with international achievements in the field, sometimes even playing a decisive role in such achievements. In Romania, the first ascent of a hot air balloon took place in Bucharest in June 1818, on the Spirii hill. Almost two centuries before the flight experiments conducted in 1890 by the German Otto Lilienthal, in Romania Gligor Pintea the Brave, an outlaw from the Maramures, region, is documented in records dating from 1701 and 1702 to have built a ‘flyer’, which was a sort of glider that he used for launches from the mountains.

2 Romanian Contributions to the Development of Aeronautics Up to the Second World War and in the Interwar Period Constantin B˘al˘aceanu Stolnici, a Romanian scholar and flight enthusiast of substantial financial means, imagined, built, and tested between 1896 and 1906 five smallscale gliders of his own conception. His designs had a wingspan of about 3 m (Fig. 1). They were tested in flight, using ballast, and were manually launched from the hilltops of his estate in Stolnici. The Romanian Traian Vuia completed, in early 1903, drawing up his design for a flying machine and submitted on 16 February 1903 a report and project called ‘Airplane-Automobile’ at the Academy of Sciences in Paris. He obtained, for this design, the French patent no. 332.106 of 17 August 1903. Traian Vuia added to the accomplishments of those who preceded him in building flying machines two original technical solutions: the landing gear with pneumatic wheels and the aircraft’s own take-off system. With his aircraft, ‘Vuia no. 1’ (Fig. 2), a heavier-than-air machine

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Fig. 1 Constantin B˘al˘aceanu-Stolnici and one of his gliders. Source personal archives of the B˘al˘aceanu-Stolnici family

featuring a self-contained propulsion system, he accomplished a world’s first on 18 March 1906, at Montesson, France, when his machine took off the ground and glided through the air. La Nature magazine reported that ‘On 18 March, Vuia took off with his aeroplane and reached a height between 60 and 1 m above the ground, after gaining the desired momentum on ground. He touched the ground at a distance of 12 m from the point where he had lifted off, because the propeller had slowed down’. From 1914–1918, Traian Vuia set up a laboratory for testing lifting rotors. He authored a study about rotors called Rotating Wings. The tests conducted in 1921 with ‘Vuia no. 2’ helicopter (Fig. 3) were crowned with success. For this invention, he received the Patent no. 516.838 on 10 December 1920 (Vuia 1920). Alexandru Tandargian from Craiova developed in 1909 the ‘Vector Traction’. For this concept he received the invention patent no. 1663/1909 (Tandargian 1909). Fig. 2 The ‘Vuia 1’ machine. Source Romanian National Central Historic Archives

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Fig. 3 The ‘Vuia no. 2’ helicopter. Source Romanian National Central Historic Archives

The novelty of this design resided in the vertical handling of the device, performed by vector traction (Fig. 4). In 1907, following his university studies in Paris, the Romanian engineer Henry August returned to Bucharest and began the construction of biplane and monoplane aircraft models based on his own design concept. He conducted tests from July 1907 until June 1908, when he started building a 1:1 scale glider (Fig. 5). The flight tests were carried out in March 1909, on a field adjacent to the brick factory in the small town of Pantelimon, near Bucharest, and were performed by towing the aircraft with a 30 m cable connected to an automobile piloted by the constructor’s wife, Mrs. Aurelia August. He achieved lifts 4 m above the ground, with the tow cable snapping repeatedly. Henry August eventually chose the option of a monoplane for his new project and began construction in October 1909. He used Fig. 4 The Tandargian machine, drawing 3. Graphics by Robert S, utic

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Fig. 5 Henry August. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

a 25 HP three-cylinder ‘W’-type Anzani engine. He completed the construction of the device in December 1911 (Fig. 6). Ion Paulat designed and built, aboard the Turnu Severin vessel, a small aerodynamic tunnel, consisting of a square section pipe with a funnel and a chamber fan at the end, which he used to study the optimal shape of the wing for the aircraft he had invented. The air-flow was materialised by throwing flour in front of the fan. The flour, dispersed by the air current, formed deposits in the area of the wing’s maximum lifting power. Thus, depending on the layer of deposited flour, it was possible to determine which profile was more efficient.

˘ Revue Fig. 6 Henry August’s monoplane. Source GAZETA ILUSTRATA

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Between 1909 and 1910, Ion Stroescu (Fig. 7) built several flying models which he used for the study of lateral stability in flight. He tested jet propulsion using a mixture of gunpowder, and the aircraft models propelled in this manner achieved a speed of 120 km/h over a distance of 1 km. In March 1910, he patented in Bucharest a design called ‘Romania Airplane’ and another called ‘I.S.D.C. Airpane’. In 1911, he submitted to the Romanian Academy the work titled Principiul react, iei la motoarele de aviat, ie [The principle of reaction propulsion in aviation engines] and a gasoline pulse-jet engine, and conducted research in the field of aerodynamics, for the first time in Romania. He was also the first to apply suction and blow-out to the aircraft wing’s boundary layer in order to obtain hyper-lifting during take-off and landing. Some of Professor Ion Stroescu’s applied work precedes the achievements reported in Germany at Göttingen. With a view to determine the comparative strength of different aircraft types, Ion Stroescu carried out in 1912 tests that consisted in launching small-scale rocket-propelled aircraft models from the Suter hill. Although rudimentary, the devices were novel for that time in terms of measuring capabilities. In 1913, Stroescu continued his experiments by measuring air resistance on different aerodynamic profiles exposed simultaneously to wind. In 1914, he submitted to the Aeronautics Directorate of the Ministry of War the first Romanian design for an aerodynamic tunnel. In 1915, Stroescu built an airplane wing equipped with a high-lift device in a converging angle to the leading edge, and invented a device that caused depression and therefore improved lifting on the wing extrados. In September 1916, he submitted two projects to the Ministry of War: one for a flare missile launched from an aircraft to illuminate the target of bombers and another for an incendiary projectile against balloons, both developed in collaboration with D. Cosmanovici. In 1917, he put forward the design for a jet-propelled biplane military aircraft, a revolutionary concept for that time, a preliminary design for a two-engine aircraft which was based on the analysis and calculation of all flight circumstances, as well as two improved versions of his pulse-jet engine, the 1911 model. In 1920 Ion Stroescu was sent to Italy, France, and Germany, where he visited experimental aerodynamics laboratories. On his return, he submitted a 40-page report to the Ministry of War in which he argued for the necessity of establishing in the country an aerodynamics laboratory to study the aerodynamic fundamentals and laws of flight. In 1922, he put forward a second wind tunnel design and laid the experimental foundations for the development of the installation called ‘pseudo-airplane’, known today as the ‘flight simulator’. In 1925, Professor Stroescu completed the project for an aerodynamic wind tunnel (Fig. 8). In that same year, he started building it in the gymnasium of the Râmnicul S˘arat high school, where he worked as a teacher and also had paid, out of his own pocket, for the repairs of the war-damaged building. Between 1929 and 1937 he was an assistant in the aerodynamics department run by Professor Elie Carafoli. During that time he designed and built an aerodynamic wind tunnel at the Polytechnic School of Bucharest, which was the place where Romanian-designed aircraft were tested. Between 1946 and 1948 he was in Paris, at the request of Professor Edmond Brun from the Sorbonne, where he designed and built, at Bellevue, an aerodynamic wind tunnel for the study of aircraft icing phenomena. In 1949, after returning to the country, he was employed as a collaborator

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Fig. 7 Ion Stroescu. Source Archives of the Stroescu family, currently kept by the National Museum of Aviation

Fig. 8 The wind tunnel built by Ion Stroescu in Bellevue, France in 1947. Source Romanian National Avation Museum archive

at the newly established Institute of Applied Mechanics of the Romanian Academy. There, he designed together with Prof. Elie Carafoli the 2 × 2.5 m wind tunnel which he subsequently built, in 1954, at the Institute of Applied Mechanics. Up until the end of the First World War, aircraft were built as wooden structures covered with cloth. A major shift in the technology of aeronautical constructions at the beginning of the twentieth century is owed to the engineer Henri Coand˘a (Fig. 9), a 1910 alumnus of the first class of graduates from the prestigious Ècole Supérieure d’Aéronautique et de Constructions Mécaniques in Paris. He developed a concept that consisted in a ducted propeller, which meant smaller size and higher speed. He eventually built a jet-effect propulsion system for aircraft, comprising of a radial compressor powered by an internal combustion engine by means of a rotation multiplier with a ratio of 1:4. This device, called a ‘motor-fan’, was the ancestor of today’s turbofan (Fig. 10). Henri Coand˘a thus became the inventor of jet propulsion,

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for which he received the French Invention Patent no. 13.5602 dated 13 February 1911 (Coanda 1911). He then built the Coand˘a 1910 aircraft, a two-seat biplane with jet propulsion (Fig. 11). The aircraft was showcased at the Second International Aeronautic Exhibition in Paris on 15 October 1910, at which time Gustave Eiffel, after examining the strange machine, told Coand˘a: ‘Young man, unfortunately you were born 30, if not 50 years too soon…’. Everything that Coand˘a accomplished with this aircraft surpassed the understanding of his contemporaries, as it was the world’s first jet-powered airplane. For this design, he obtained the Invention Patent no. 441.144, dated 20 May 1912 (Coanda 1912). In the absence of a wind tunnel, Henri Coand˘a tested his wing design on a railway carriage placed in front of a locomotive. He then conceived and built a wind tunnel called ‘Coanda Wind Tunnel’, which was an interesting and complex installation (Fig. 12). Coand˘a was a prolific inventor with achievements in many fields of activity. He is well-known for the discovery of the effect named after him—the ‘Coand˘a Effect’, that is the phenomenon in which a fluid stream tends to attach itself to nearby walls, patented in 1934, which has numerous practical applications. Fig. 9 Henri Coand˘a. Source Romanian National Avation Museum archive

Fig. 10 Sketch of the jet propulsion engine designed by Henri Coand˘a. Graphics by Robert S, utic

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Fig. 11 Coand˘a 1910 aircraft displayed at the Paris Salon in 1910. Source LA VIE DU GRAD AIR revue

Fig. 12 Coand˘a wind tunnel built in 1912 at British and Colonial Aeroplane Co. Ltd. Source Bristol Aero Colection

Aurel Vlaicu (Fig. 13), born on 19 November 1882 in the village of Bint, int, i, Hunedoara county, was a Romanian engineer, inventor, and a pioneer in both Romanian and world aviation. He graduated in 1908 from the Royal Bavarian Polytechnic of Munich. He developed, based on an original concept of his own, a design for a flying machine and in 1909 he built a glider to test the validity of his calculations. He made successful attempts at flying, towed with ropes by young men from the village or by horsemen. Inspired by his success, he revised the design, this time equipped with a motor, and obtained the invention patent no. 1969 of 15 October 1910 under the name ‘Arrow-shaped flying machine’. The ‘Vlaicu no.1 1910’ aircraft was thus the first device designed and built in Romania (Fig. 14). Vlaicu signed a contract with

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the Ministry of War, which provided the necessary funding for the construction, location, labour, and engine. The construction was completed at the Army’s Construction Arsenal, and the tests and parking took place at the Cotroceni aerodrome. He carried out his first flight on 17 June 1910 on the Cotroceni field, powered by a 50 HP Gnome Omega air-cooled rotary engine with 7 cylinders. Fig. 13 Aurel Vlaicu. Source personal archive Vlaicu Popescu

Fig. 14 Vlaicu 1 aircraft in flight. Source personal archive Vlaicu Popescu

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In 1911 he built a second plane, Vlaicu II, which in 1912 notably won five prizes at the aviation contest in Aspern, Austria (1 first prize and 4 s prizes). The competition brought together, from 23 to 30 June 1912, 40 pilots from 7 countries, including Roland Garros, the most famous pilot of that time. On 13 September 1913, during an attempt to fly across the Carpathian Mountains in his airplane Vlaicu II, Aurel Vlaicu crashed near Câmpina. The Romanian George (Gogu) Constantinescu also made an important contribution to the development of aeronautics during the First World War. After graduating head of class from the School of Polytechnics, he left for Great Britain where he carried out both theoretical and practical work on the development of a new branch of continuum mechanics called the theory of sonics. He developed the highest performance device for military aircraft during the First World War, a machine that could shoot through the disc formed by the spinning blades of the propeller irrespective of the engine speed, called G.C. Gear (Constantinesco Fire Control Gear). This device provided a superior firing advantage to the British Bristol fighters aircraft. His solution proved to be the most reliable and highly original. The construction and flying of helicopters was a particular challenge for the nineteenth century and early twentieth century. In 1903, Ion Stoica designed and built a small-scale helicopter, with which he conducted several successful experiments, but financial hardships forced him to give up. Grigore Bris, cu designed in 1909 the system intended to ensure the stability and handling of the helicopter, a device that allowed the cyclic variation of the pitch of the rotor blades, called ‘pitch variation plate’. This is the vital organ of the helicopter; it was later improved and widely used in the construction of this type of aircraft. In 1910, Grigore Bris, cu published a study entitled Helicopters, in which the author demonstrates that helicopters can serve as practical, economical, and safe flying machines, used by the general public. Traian Vuia is another inventor with noteworthy achievements in the field of helicopter construction. He developed and built in 1918, in collaboration with the French engineer Ivonneau, a helicopter which he tested in 1920 on the aerodrome at Juvisy, where the helicopter reached a 10 m height. This first helicopter was intended to be operated by the muscular power of the pilot alone, which proved to be insufficient to lift the aircraft off the ground. He is joined by George de Bothezat (Fig. 15), whose original name was Gheorghe Botezatu. He went to Russia, first as a professor at the Polytechnic Institute in St. Petersburg, and then at the Odessa Institute of Aerodynamics, serving under Tsar Nicholas II and subsequently under the Provisional Government led by Lenin. In 1918 he fled to the United States with the help of the American embassy, and only three weeks after his arrival he was enlisted by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. After arriving in the United States he adopted the name George de Bothezat. In 1919 he published The general theory of blade screws. In 1921 he met Col. Thurman H. Bane, commander of the Air Service’s Engineering Division, who asked him to build a helicopter based on his theory of propellers. He accepted, and the United States Congress approved $200,000 for the project. He was then appointed as acting chief of the Engineering Division’s Special Research Section at McCook Field, where he began designing and building the helicopter for the U.S. Army Air Force (Tranche

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1957) (Fig. 16). He obtained the patent no. 1573228 (Bothezat 1921). Each propeller had 6 variable-pitch blades of the ‘radial-plane’ type invented by Bothezat. The successful ‘GB.1’ was followed by several other helicopter designs with coaxial rotors and by a fourth version of the helicopter known as ‘Bothezat GB-5’ (Fig. 17). The first anchored flight took place on 9 May 1940, on a small field at the Corporation headquarters in Long Island, and the test pilot was captain Sergiewsky. The Romanian Anastase Dragomir contemplated the impossibility of rescuing the passengers of an airplane in difficult or uncontrolled circumstances, or at high speeds. Thus, he invented an early version of an ejection seat. The invention consisted in a so-called parachuted cell, a dischargeable chair, vertically ejectable from an aircraft or other vehicle, provided with two parachutes and designed to be used only in case of emergency (Fig. 18). It was an early but quite sophisticated version of today’s ejection seats. The design developed by Anastase Dragomir and T˘anase Dobrescu Fig. 15 George De Bothezat. Source Matei Kiraly personal archive

Fig. 16 The GB 1 Helicopter invented by George de Bothezat in flight. Source Matei Kiraly personal archive

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Fig. 17 The GB.5 helicopter invented by George de Bothezat. Source Matei Kiraly personal archive

Fig. 18 Dragomir parachuted cell, after the test conducted in Romania. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

was successfully tested on 25 August 1929 at Paris-Orly airport in France, and later, in October 1929, at B˘aneasa airport near Bucharest. The following year, Dragomir and Dobrescu obtained the official patent for the ‘catapultable cockpit’ from the French Patent Office, registered under number 678.566 dated 2 April 1930 (but with the patent priority previously dated 3 November 1928, the date when the patent application FRD678566 19281103 was filed), with the official name of ‘Nouveau système de montage des parachutes dans les appareils de locomotion aérienne’ (‘A new system of parachuting from the apparatus for air locomotion’). In 1927, engineer Romulus Bratu (Fig. 19) presented to the Aeronautical Technical Service of the French Ministry of Aviation an original design for a three-engine monoplane with a cantilever wing placed above the cockpit and with fixed landing gear. The distinguishing feature of this airplane was the original layout of the three engines on a common axis, so as to avoid any traction asymmetry in the event of engine failure. This axial three-engine airplane was called BRATU-220 and was patented under no. 16079 of 6 November 1928 (Bratu 1928). It was designed to transport 10 passengers and the flight crew (Fig. 20). In 1928, a 1:25 scale model was tested with excellent results at the Saint-Cyr Aerodynamic Laboratory, which

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prompted the construction of two such airplanes at the Athis-Mons aeronautical factory near Orly airport. The airplane was assembled in the early 1930s in the hangar of CIDNA airline at ‘Le Bourget’ aerodrome. On 22 November 1932, the pilot Klein and the mechanic Carré began the field test runs, followed by the first flights, which continued in January 1933. The BRATU 220-001 aircraft was highly appreciated. Engineer George Fernic (Fig. 21) developed the concept of tandem wings. In 1924, he bought the bankrupt company ‘DEUTSCHER LUFT LLOYD Fugzeuge Werke’ in Germany, where he designed and built airplanes either based on his own designs, or on designs commissioned by customers. For commercial reasons, he kept the original name of the company. In 1927, when Germany was in the midst of the economic crisis, he sold the company, moved to the United States and settled in New

Fig. 19 Romulus Bratu. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

Fig. 20 Bratu 220 passenger airplane. Source personal archive Michel Marani

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York, where he was employed by the ‘Bellanca’ company. Shortly afterwards, in February 1928, he founded the ‘Fernic Aircraft Corporation’, with the main purpose of developing and building Fernic-designed aircraft, which showed a radical break with the time’s conventional designs. The ‘Fernic FT-9’ airplane completed (Fig. 22) its first flight successfully on 9 September 1929 at Roosevelt Field, Long Island, New York, piloted by the constructor, assisted by his Romanian friend Paul Dorian, the factory’s chief engineer, as flight mechanic. In early 1930, Fernic designed and built the ‘FT-10 Cruisaire’, applying the same basic principles, but on a smaller scale (Fig. 23). On 29 August 1930, while participating with his FT-10 aircraft in an air show at Curtiss Reynolds Airport in Chicago in the presence of 40,000 spectators, George Fernic lost his life in a crash caused by the explosion of the engine. In 1907 the Dutchman Ellehammer managed to fly a single-wing engine. The Romanian Mihail Filip also had a keen interest in this type of construction. After

Fig. 21 George Fernic. Source personal Archives of the Ionescu family

Fig. 22 Fernic FT-9 Aircraft. Source Central National Historical Archives, Photographic Album Collection

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Fig. 23 Fernic FT-10 training aircraft. Source Central National Historical Archives, Photographic Album Collection

the end of the First World War, he started working as an aviation mechanic at the Cotroceni Aeronautical Arsenal. Appreciated for his intelligence, he was sent to France where he completed a practical training in several aircraft factories. Completely fascinated by tailless aircraft, Mihail Filip (Fig. 24) developed a design for which he obtained the French invention patent no. 555.929, dated 4 April 1923 (Filip 1923). He experienced financial difficulties in completing his project, called ‘Stabiloplan Type IV’ (Fig. 25), but with the help of friends he eventually succeeded in finishing it. On 22 April 1933, the pilot Ioan Culuri performed the first flight with the stable plane at B˘aneasa airport. On 22 November 1933, he performed the official certification flight, with the pilot Lucien Levy controlling the aircraft. On 15 August 1925, on the occasion of Romania’s Royal Navy Day, the flight of the first Romanian-built hydroaeroplane, the R.A.S.-1 ‘GETTA’ S.T.C., took place. The

Fig. 24 Mihail Filip. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

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Fig. 25 The Stabiloplan type IV aircraft. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

‘GETTA’ hydroaeroplane was designed and built by Radu Stoika in the Workshops of Constant, a Transport Company (STC), between 1 June and 15 August 1925, using only Romanian workforce and locally sourced materials. The prototype took off from the Titan dock in the port of Constant, a and was piloted by a renowned test pilot of that time, Romeo Popescu, with 2 observers on board. The hydroaeroplane performed well during the flight. One of the many inventors in the field of aeronautics residing in Paris in the early twentieth century was the Romanian officer Rodrig Goliescu (Fig. 26) who, starting in 1906, devoted himself to the study of aerodynamics and bird flight, establishing his own rules and concepts which he later applied to small-scale aircraft models. He presented the conclusions of his research to the Academy of Sciences in Paris in a study titled Laws of air dynamics in different aerial environments. According to this research, his aircraft was to use only the engine to gain altitude, then continue with gliding flight, using the thermal effect. He was granted the French Patent no. 402329 of 26 August 1908, under the name ‘Avioplan—aviation aircraft’. Fig. 26 Rodrig Goliescu. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

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In Romania, he registered the invention based on patent no. 2221, file no. 2467, under the name ‘Goliescu Aeroplanes’. The Espinosa Avionnerie S.C.A.A. company in Paris provided him with funding and thus he built the aircraft called Avioplan 1909 (Fig. 27), owned by said company. Using the revenues from this contract, Goliescu then built the smaller and cheaper Avioplan 1910 aircraft (Fig. 28), with which he flew back to Bucharest. In 1934, Rodrig Goliescu built an aircraft called ‘Avio-Coleopter Mecanic’ with two engines that provided vertical take-off, hovering, and horizontal flight. He patented it in the country, obtaining the patent no. 23317 dated 29 October 1934 (Goliescu 1934). Fig. 27 The Goliescu 1909 avioplan. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

Fig. 28 The Goliescu 1910 avioplan. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

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3 The Romanian Aeronautical Industry in the Interwar Period On 20 November 1909, the company ‘CERCHEZ & CO’ was established, with the headquarters in Chitila near Bucharest; it will become the first factory, the first aerodrome, and the first pilot school. Its founder was the lawyer Mihail Cerchez. On 1 July 1920, the Aeronautical Arsenal was set up in Cotroceni, Bucharest. Here, all aircraft belonging to the military aviation were repaired and airplanes were built, either based on prototypes or under licence (Fig. 29). Some of the standard models built here included Hansa Brandemburg 269 (Fig. 30) and the glider Grünau Baby IIB. As for prototypes, Aeron 1 and 2 and Proto 1 are worth mentioning. In 1923, a section for the manufacture of airplanes was established within the ASTRA wagon factory in Arad, incorporating the existing engine-manufacturing unit that was building the MARTHA and BENTZ aircraft engines. The ASTRAS, es, efschi airplanes and 25 units of the Proto-1 aircraft for training and acrobatics (Fig. 31), later modified into Proto-2, were produced here from 1923 onwards. Fig. 29 Henri Farman III aircraft. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

Fig. 30 Hansa Brandemburg 269 aircraft. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

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Fig. 31 The Proto 1 aircraft. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

In 1924, the engineer Grigore Zamfirescu laid the foundations of an aircraft factory, the Society for Technical Exploitation (Societatea de Exploat˘ari Tehnice, SET), in Bucharest. The aircraft produced at SET were used mainly for training and in the army (Fig. 32). The factory also manufactured aircraft under licence: SET-Nardi FN-305, IAR-39. The factory was closed down in 1948. The Romanian Aeronautical Enterprise (Întreprinderea Aeronautic˘a Român˘a, IAR) was inaugurated in Bras, ov on 11 October 1927. It was initially established as a joint venture between the Romanian Government and the French companies Lorraine Dietrich for engines and Bleriot-Spad for airplanes. The factory produced aircraft and engines under licence or based on local designs. It built the first allRomanian fighter aircraft, IAR CV 11, regarded as one of the best in the world in its category. Elie Carafoli (Wikipedia 2023a) was directly involved in the design and manufacturing of this model. The most successful Romanian aircraft at the time, the well-known IAR 80, a monoplane fighter and dive-bomber, was completed here in only 14 months. The aircraft was designed and built by a team led by engineer Ion Grosu (1901–1970). It ranked 4th among the fastest fighter aircraft in the world at the time after Hawker Hurricane, Curtiss P-37, and Messerschmit 109. From 1943, the Fig. 32 The SET-7K aircraft. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

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IAR-81 monoplane dive-bomber was built. The bombers could mount two bombs of 50 kg each under the wings and one 250 kg bomb under the fuselage. Some versions of the IAR-81 model could carry, in addition to the 7.92 mm machine guns, two 20 mm cannons. The first aircraft engines manufactured in our country were also mass-produced by the IAR plants, under British and French licences. The IAR-K9, manufactured in 1935, was the first Romanian aircraft engine derived from the Gnome-Rhone engine. Another engine with noteworthy features and performance was the IAR-K14 engine. The first Romanian-made high-power aircraft engine was the IAR-1000 A. It was approved in 1940 and mass production started that same year. From its establishment until 1944, when the IAR Bras, ov plant was bombed, 11 types of aircraft engines, with powers between 130 and 1475 HP, were manufactured here. The new solutions introduced by engineer Ion Grosu (Fig. 33) to the fighter aircraft were later used by the Germans for the Focke-Wulf 190 D9 airplane. Eng. Mircea Grossu-Viziru (Aviatori.ro 2023a) (1903–1980) is the author of inventions and designs of great importance for the IAR plant and for the Ministry of War. He developed the design for a defensive turret (Fig. 34), which was patented under no. 20588 of 11 February 1932 and underwent further improvements and enhancements. The turrets were called ‘Grossu-IAR’ and were mounted on Potez 25, IAR-37, 38, 39, and SET-4, 41, and all variants of SET-7K aircraft, and were exported to France, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and the USA, where the US.1.953.710/1934 patent was obtained. A licence was issued to certain French factories to manufacture these turrets. Between 1931 and 1939 the following were mass-produced at IAR-Bras, ov: IAR27, a training plane powered by a 200 HP Gipsy engine; IAR-37 (Fig. 35), a reconnaissance and light bomber aircraft powered by a 870 HP engine, which had a speed of 331 km/h; IAR-39 (Fig. 36), a reconnaissance and bomber aircraft powered by a 1,070 HP engine that had a speed of 380 km/h. In addition to these aircraft, IAR Fig. 33 Mircea Grossu-Viziru. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

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Fig. 34 The Grossu-IAR defensive turret. Source National Military Archive

Bras, ov also manufactured under licence other fighter aircraft indented for military aviation: the PZL-11F (Fig. 37), the Messerschmit Me-109 G, as well as the Savoia— Marcheti bombers, Savoia 79 B type, under Italian licence, in several versions. With a wide range of aircraft in production in 1939, IAR Bras, ov had become one of the largest aircraft factories in the world, with around 7000 employees and a production area of 130,000 m2 . In addition to IAR-Bras, ov, there were other 20 factories working in the aviation sector. According to the records held by the Ministry of National Defence, during the war, the Romanian aeronautical industry produced more than 1300 aircraft, including 460 units of the well-known IAR-80 fighter, with the IAR-81 bomber version. Romania was the only country in the world which had, during the Second World War, an all-female team of pilots, officially called the Medical Squadron. This aviation unit evacuated wounded soldiers from the battlefield. It was flying airplanes painted white and bearing the Red Cross symbol. This inspired the Italian writer and Fig. 35 The IAR-37 reconnaissance and light bomber aircraft. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

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Fig. 36 The IAR-39 reconnaissance and bomber aircraft. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

Fig. 37 The IAR-11 CV airplane. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

journalist Curzio Malaparte to call them ‘the White Squadron’ (Wikipedia 2023b), the name under which they became known worldwide.

4 The Romanian Aeronautical Industry After the Second World War The aeronautical industry in Bras, ov, located outside the city, in Ghimbav, was to be revived in 1968 in the form of the Aeronautical Construction Company (Întreprinderea de Construct, ii Aeronautice, ICA), subsequently returning to the original name, IAR (Industria Aeronautic˘a Român˘a, Romanian Aeronautical Industry). Between 1950 and 1955, the rest of the aeronautical factories in the country were also repurposed to produce fans, off-road automobiles, or pumps. Due to the regime change, military aircraft could no longer be produced in Romania; however,

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a number of aviation enthusiasts sought to perpetuate this specialisation, even with modest means. The first Romanian aircraft produced after the Second World War, the IAR-811 two-seater trainer aircraft, was built in Bras, ov in 1949 by Radu Manicatide Wikipedia 2023c) (1912–2004). Radu Manicatide was also the creator of the IAR-813 series produced at the Glider Repair and Manufacture Factory (Uzinele de Reparat, ii Material Volant, URMV3) in Bras, ov, a series that set national and world records certified by the International Aeronautical Federation (F.A.I.). The first Romanian turboprop agricultural aircraft, IAR-828, was produced by IAR Bras, ov. In 1950, at the request of the Romanian Aeroclub, Vladimir Novit, chi (Aviatori.ro 2023b) (1917–2003), established in Reghin, at the Wood Processing, Exploitation, and Industrialisation Enterprise (IPEIL), a section for glider and aircraft manufacturing. On 11 September 1950, the first RG-1C ‘Baby’ training glider, which he had built, soared into the air in Reghin. Between 1957 and 1960, in collaboration with the engineer Gheorghe Rado from the ‘Traian Vuia‘ Institute of Applied Mechanics of the Romanian Academy, he designs the first Romanian helicopter developed and built in the country: the RG-8-H1- ‘Mosquito’. Romanians in the diaspora also made contributions to the development of the aeronautical industry. Thus, the engineer S, tefan Apostolescu (Fig. 38), a resident of New-York, focused initially on studying how to simplify helicopter lift rotors, and then broadened his interest to the entire field of helicopters, VTOL aircraft, and aircraft with ground effect. He suggested the solution of tandem propellers for helicopters. He was the promoter of tandem-rotor helicopters. In 1956, he founded his own helicopter construction company, Apostolescu Universal Helicopter Company Inc., with the headquarters in New York and workshops in Hicksville, Long Island. The constructive solutions put forth by S, tefan Apostolescu are reflected in numerous patents registered in the USA, the last of which was issued on 11 December 1974. Fig. 38 S, tefan Apostolescu. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

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Marcel Jurc˘a (Fig. 39) was a graduate of the Military School of NonCommissioned Pilot Officers in 1943 and of the Polytechnic School of Paris. He settled in France, where he designed and built miniscule aircraft, applying simple, yet ingenious solutions and highly original solutions. He designed and built a total of 28 types of aircraft, of which he made 2,096 units. The MJ-2 Tempête aircraft (Fig. 40), built in 1956, and its versions, were in production for 40 years. The maintenance of military jet aviation required a specialised unit. This was founded in 1953, in the area of the Domnit, a Maria village, south of Bac˘au. It provided repair services for aircraft and manufactured spare parts and tools for activities specific to the field. It was called the Central Aviation Workshop, and was part of

Fig. 39 Marcel Jurc˘a. Source personal archive Constantin Manolache

Fig. 40 The MJ-2 Tempête airplane. Source personal archive Constantin Manolache

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Fig. 41 The IAK-52 trainer aircraft. Source Aerostar Bac˘au

the Ministry of National Defence. On 1 April 1955, U.M. 03767, also called U.R.A. (Uzina de Reparat, ii Avioane, Aircraft Repair Plant), operated at a capacity of 382 employees. In 1977, the investment for the construction of the Light Aircraft Factory, IRAv-Bac˘au, was approved, which in 1978 became the Bac˘au Aircraft Enterprise (IAv-Bac˘au), In 1987 a new annex was built, the Engine and Reductors Factory (FMR). It was here that the first Romanian subsonic jet aircraft, IAR 93, was built in 1974. Other aircraft produced here included: IAK-52 (trainer aircraft) (Fig. 41) under licence, LIA-88 Soim (passenger aircraft), IAR-AG-6 (agricultural aircraft). The MIG-21 aircraft were improved here and the MIG-21 Lancer version was created. A successor of the enterprise founded in 1953, the Industrial Aeronautical Group in Bac˘au, was registered in 1991 under the name of S.C. Aerostar S.A. In 1946, the IRMA enterprise was established in Bucharest; it provided repair and maintenance for aviation equipment. In 1964 it became the Aeronautical Equipment Repair Company (Întreprinderea de Reparat, ii Material Aeronautic, IRMA) and in 1979 Bucharest Aircraft Company (IAvB). It manufactured aircraft based on Romanian designs: IAR-818; IAR-821; IAR-822; IAR-827. In 1969, the British passenger aircraft BN-2 started being produced here under licence. The Bucharest Aircraft Company also manufactured, in 1982, the ROMBAC 1–11 passenger airplane (Fig. 42), under British licence. After 1990, the Bucharest Aircraft Company was transformed into the SC ROMAERO S.A. company. In November 1968, the Aeronautical Construction Company—ICA Bras, ov was established in Ghimbav, near Bras, ov. The main artisan of this undertaking was Iosif S, ilimon (Alumni Politehnica Aerospace Engineering 2023) (1918–1981), a graduate of the Polytechnic School of Bucharest, the aeronautics department, who had started his activity at IAR—Bras, ov in 1941. He was the creator of almost 30 types of highperformance gliders and motorgliders, as well as several types of aircraft. With his IS-28 B2 two-seat glider, two American pilots set a world record in April 1979 by covering a distance of 829 km on an out-and-return course in Pennsylvania. Iosif S, ilimon supported the Franco-Romanian cooperation in the construction of helicopters and coordinated the construction the construction of the Alouette (Fig. 43) and Puma helicopters (Fig. 44), under licence from Aérospatiale.

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Fig. 42 The ROMBAC 1-11 passenger airplane. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

Fig. 43 The IAR- 316 Alouette helicopter. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

Fig. 44 The IAR-330 Socat fighter helicopter. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

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Fig. 7.45 The IAR-93 bomber and ground attack aircraft. Source personal archive Dan Antoniu

In 1972, the AVIOANE CRAIOVA S.A. Company was founded with the purpose of manufacturing and supplying military aircraft for the Romanian Air Force. In cooperation with the former Yugoslavia, it produced the IAR-93 bomber and ground attack aircraft (Fig. 45), and together with the National Institute of Aerospace Construction, the IAR-99 trainer. The Turbomecanica Plant (Uzina Turbomecanica) was established in 1975 with the purpose of manufacturing aviation turbine engines, mechanical transmissions and components for helicopters. It produced the Viper 633-41, Turmo IV C engines and mechanical transmissions for PUMA helicopters made by Rolls-Royce, Turbomeca, and Aérospatiale, respectively. In 1980, through Tehnoimportexport, a Rolls-Royce licence was obtained for the manufacture of the civilian double-flow turbojet engine Spey 512-14 DW, which powered the BAC-111-500 aircraft. In 1985, the Governments of Romania and of the former Soviet Union initiated a joint programme aimed at developing and producing, at the Turbomecanica factory, a 700 HP turbine engine for helicopters. On 15 May 1980, the Bucharest-based Research and Production Enterprise for Aircraft Devices and Equipment was founded. In 1985, it became the Bucharest ‘AEROFINA’ Avionics Enterprise. In 1991, the company became part of the Autonomous Administration ‘Army Industrial Group’. In 1997, through the establishment of the Autonomous Administration ‘Army Arsenal’ and the restructuring of some autonomous administrations, the Commercial Company AEROFINA S.A. Bucharest was founded. In 2000 it becomes S.C. AEROFINA S.A., which produced equipment for Romanian military airplanes and helicopters, as well as railway installations.

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5 Aerospace Engineering In 1950, the Institute of Applied Mechanics of the Romanian Academy was established. In 1965 it branched off and formed a specialised institution working in the aeronautics and aerospace field. The first institute to design a subsonic fighter-bomber aircraft was called the Institute of Aerospace Research and Design (I.C.P.A.S.) and was established in October 1968. In 1970, it merged with the Institute of Fluid Mechanics of the Romanian Academy, forming the Institute for Fluid Mechanics and Aerospace Construction (IMFCA). In 1985, it became the Institute for Aerospace Scientific Research and Technological Engineering (ICSITAV) and in 1990 ICSITAV became the Aviation Institute, which is the only research and design institution in the aerospace sector in Romania. In 1991, the Romanian Office for Aerospace Research (ORCAS) was established to coordinate all aeronautical research and to represent the Romanian aeronautical activity abroad. Several other research institutions had been founded, all separated from the Aviation Institute: IMFDZ, STRAERO (Institute for Theoretical and Experimental Analysis of Aeronautical 2023), INAv (INAV Aviation Institute 2023), ELAROM, SIMULTEC (Simultec 2023), CPCA, each of them aimed at developing a delimited field of aeronautical sciences. Of these, only two—IMFDZ and ORCAS—were covering a wider scope of aeronautical and aerospatial research, which eventually resulted in their merging and the creation of a new company, called The National Institute of Aerospace Research ‘ELIE CARAFOLI’ (INCAS). INCAS facilities include the Trisonic Wind Tunner, the Subsonic Wind Tunnel, the AERO-VR Virtual Reality Laboratory and two experimental platforms in Strejnicu and M˘aneciu, Prahova County. INCAS is the creator of the Center for Experimental Research for the Atmosphere and Observation of the Earth’s Surface (CAART), unique in the country in terms of equipment, which works to develop the technological capabilities of aerospace research. CAART uses for the study of the atmosphere unmanned aerial platforms, equipped with state-of-the-art sensor systems, and the ATMOSLAB airborne platform, which is a Hawker Beechcraft King Air C90 GTx aircraft, YR-INC registered, part of the Romanian ACTRIS research infrastructure (ACTRIS-RO), included as an active project in the ESFRI 2016 roadmap. INCAS plays a key role in the EU research policy and in the development of the vision laid out in FlightPath 2050 and the Horizon 2020 programme.

6 History of Rocket Technology in Romania 6.1 Pioneers of Rocket Technology in Romania An important forerunner of rocket flights was Conrad Haas (Barth 1983), who carried out his ac/tivities in Sibiu. A military man and inventor of Austrian descent, Haas settled in 1551 in Sibiu, on Romanian territory, where he remained until the

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Fig. 46 Conrad Haas potrayed in the pages of the Sibiu Manuscript. Source Central National Historical Archives

end of his life (1576). He conducted a series of experiments using various types of rockets. His studies on rocket technology are presented in the third part of Varia II 374 manuscript discovered in Sibiu (Fig. 46), written by Conrad Haas between 1529 and 1556, alongside other pyrotechnic works that Haas had carried out while he was the head of the military arsenal in Sibiu. The part about rockets is dedicated to the construction and use of two- and three-stage missiles (Fig. 47). Seventeen types of rockets of various shapes are described, all equipped with triangular steering stabilisers at the bottom. The rockets built by Hass had already been used successfully against the Ottoman armies during the siege of Vienna in 1542. The Sibiu Manuscript, discovered in 1961 in the State Archives of Sibiu, is considered the oldest European document on rocket technology. The manuscript was found and then researched in detail by the historian and researcher Dimitrie-Doru Todericiu, who published in 1969 the book titled Preistoria Rachetei Moderne [The Prehistory of the Modern Rocket]. Manuscrisul de la Sibiu [The Sibiu Manuscript] (1400–1569) was reprinted in 2008 (Todericiu 1969). In 1966, at the Congress of the International Astronautical Federation held in Mar del Plata, the academician Elie Carafoli presented, for the first time for an international audience, the contribution of Conrad Haas to the field of rocket technology. Rocket technology and space navigation found an ardent promoter in Romania, on a conceptual and practical level, in the person Hermann Oberth (Barth 1979). He was born on 25 June 1894 in Sibiu. A great admirer of Jules Verne’s novels, he began, at an early age, to draw sketches of rockets. He made mathematical deductions, he designed a centrifuge for astronaut training, he conducted medical experiments simulating weightlessness submersion in the public swimming pool in Sighis, oara. In 1914 he deduced the first formulas related to rocket flight, including the fundamental rocket equation. In 1917 he was the first person in the world to develop the

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Fig. 47 An image from the Sibiu Manuscript, showing the rockets described by Conrad Haas. Source Central National Historical Archives

design for a long-distance rocket, calculated for 300 km, using alcohol and liquid oxygen as fuel. In 1920, Hermann Oberth (Fig. 48) designed the first multistage space rocket, with three steps, weighing 100 tons. A year later, he completed the manuscript of his book titled The Rocket into Interplanetary Spaces defended on 18 May 1923 as a dissertation at the University of Cluj, in Romania. The book The Rocket into Interplanetary Spaces was published that same year by the Oldenburg publishing house in Germany. In this work, Hermann Oberth put forth four propositions that were later proven to be true. In 1925 Oberth obtained a position as a teacher of mathematics and physics at the ‘Stephan Ludwig Roth’ gymnasium in Medias, . In 1935, he launched his first liquidfuel rocket in Medias, . His 1929 work, C˘aile navigat, iei spat, iale [Ways to Spaceflight], was regarded by the French pioneer of space technology Robert Essnault-Pelterié as the ‘Bible of space astronautics’. For this book, the Transylvanian scientist won the REP-Hirsch Prize (Prix International d’Astronautique), awarded by the French Academy. In 1929 Hermann Oberth also became the first president of the League for Space Navigation (Erster Vorsitzender des Vereins für Raumschiffahrt), based in Berlin. In 1930, Oberth conducted successful experiments at the Institute for Technical and Chemical Research in Berlin, Plötzensee, with the ‘cone-shaped engine’ (Kegelduse), the first liquid-fuelled rocket motor. Between 1948 and 1950, he experimented with fuel at the Military Institute in Bern and Oberried in Switzerland, and between 1950 and 1953 he collaborated with the Italian Navy in La Spezia, as part of a research contract. At the request of Wernher von Braun, who became the head of the US space programme, between 1955 and 1958 Hermann Oberth worked as a consulting engineer in Huntswille, Alabama.

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Fig. 48 Hermann Oberth in the workshops of the School of Military Aviation in Medias, , 1934 (Barth 1979)

Wernher von Braun once said that ‘Hermann Oberth was the first who, when thinking about the possibility of a real space flight, grabbed a slide-rule and formulated concepts and designs based on thorough calculation’, and Willy Ley regarded him as ‘the true father of the space age’. In 1972 and 1974 he came to Romania invited by the Romanian Academy. In 1982, the Romanian cosmonaut DumitruDorin Prunariu and the scientist Hermann Oberth met for the first time in Moscow, on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of the launching of the first artificial Earth satellite (Fig. 49). In 1984, Hermann Oberth awarded to the Romanian cosmonaut the ‘Hermann Oberth’ gold medal, at the congress organised in Salzburg on the occasion of the scientist’s 90th birthday, for his contribution to the development of astronautics and for being the first cosmonaut in his native country. They remained in constant contact until the scientist’s death on 28 December 1989.

6.2 Production and Repair Works in the Field of Rocket Technology In 1961 the ‘Base for rocket technology manufacture and repairs’ no. 268 was established in Crângu lui Bot, near Ploies, ti (Ploies, ti 2023). In 1981, the Rocket Technology Production and Repair Enterprise and the Centre for Scientific Research and Technological Engineering for Rocket Technology were established. In 1988, new

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Fig. 49 The cosmonaut Dumitru Prunariu with the scientist Hermann Oberth and his biographer Hans Barth in front of the control module of a Soyuz spacecraft, Moscow, 1982 (personal archive Dumitru Prunariu)

production halls were built. In addition to rockets, the unit began producing thermochemical batteries and simulators as well. The first missiles entered production here: the A-90 air-to-air missile guided by radiolocation (reference model: RS-2US), type-approved in 1984; the A-91 infrared homing air-to-air missile (reference model R-3S), type-approved in 1984; the A-921 air-to-surface missile with radio command guidance (reference model Kh-23M GROM), type-approved in 1992. In 1990, the 2 entities on the Crângu lui Bot platform were incorporated into the Autonomous Administration ‘Army Industrial Group’, and the Centre for Scientific Research and Technological Engineering for Rocket Technology was transformed into the Institute of Electromechanical Research and Design. In 1997, the Autonomous Administration ‘Army Industrial Group’ was dissolved and the Autonomous Administration ‘Army Arsenal’ was established. The Rocket Technology Production and Repair Enterprise merged with the Institute of Electromechanical Research and Design and formed the Electromechanical Plant in Ploies, ti. After 1998, there was a sharp decline in the production of special equipment, requiring a reorganisation of all sectors of activity in the plant. In 1999, S.C. Uzina Electromecanica Ploies, ti S.A., a subsidiary of C.N. Romarm S.A., signed a contract with the Italian company Marconi Communications for the assembly, testing, and integration of transmission centres. The Ploies, ti Electromechanical Plant played an active part, in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, in the development of the National Anti-Hail and Precipitation Increase System programme (Ploies, ti 2023). At the request and in cooperation with the Romanian Space Agency, the assembly, testing, and integration of transmission centres. The Ploies, ti Electromechanical Plant carried out studies and analyses on the possibility of adapting some of the factory’s products with a view to launch scientific micro- and nanosatellites within the framework of European civil space programmes.

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6.3 History and Development of Aerospace Sciences in Romania In 1968, the ‘Romanian Commission for Space Activities’ (CRAS) was established, in the context of the deployment of the international Interkosmos Programme in 1967, which involved Eastern European countries in a cooperation to explore outer space. The first space experiment conducted with Romanian participation was carried out in 1972, aboard the artificial satellite Interkosmos 6. Two years later, another Romanian experiment was conducted in low Earth orbit aboard the Kosmos 690 satellite, followed in 1978 by another experiment aboard the Interkosmos 18 satellite. Romania succeeded in sending a total of 17 pieces of equipment and devices on board the rockets involved in the Interkosmos programme. In addition to the scientific research, Romania’s experience in the field of space applications was also noteworthy. In October 1976, the Satellite Communications Centre in Cheia, Prahova County, was inaugurated and became operational. It was the largest teleport in Central and SouthEastern Europe, equipped with numerous communications stations and two antennas with a 32 m diameter. Furthermore, Romania distinguished itself with applications of remote sensing and GPS technology used in the oil industry, agriculture, environment, cartography, and land use. On 14 May 1981, Romania sent the first Romanian citizen to outer space, becoming the 11th country in the world to accomplish this feat. Dumitru-Dorin Prunariu (Fig. 50), the 103rd human to reach outer space, conducted on board the Salyut-6 orbital space station numerous scientific experiments, mostly Romanian, together with his colleagues (Fig. 51). Romania was among the first Eastern European countries to sign in the 1970s collaborations with NASA and Western European countries, such as the agreement with France based on which Romanian specialists were sent to Toulouse for training in the field of satellite remote sensing. The Romanian Space Agency (ROSA) was established in 1991. ROSA signed international agreements, for instance the first agreement between Romania and the European Space Agency (ESA) on space cooperation for peaceful purposes was signed in Paris on 11 December 1992, followed in 1999 by the Agreement between the Government of Romania and the European Space Agency (ESA) on cooperation for the exploration and peaceful use of outer space. Following the visit of the NASA Administrator Hon. Daniel Goldin to Romania in the summer of 1999, and the meeting and discussions held at the Romanian Space Agency on that occasion, the first space cooperation agreement between the Government of Romania and the American National Aeronautics and Space Administration—NASA was signed in 2000 in Washington D.C. (Fig. 52). On 22 December 2011 Romania became the 19th Member State of the European Space Agency (Fig. 53). The full member status of the European Space Agency has allowed Romanian organisations, to the same extent as organisations in other ESA member countries, access to all ongoing programmes, which translates as a significant transfer of technology and the opening of an advanced technology market. Following

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Fig. 50 The cosmonaut Dumitru-Dorin Prunariu on board the Salyut-6 space station, May 1981 (personal archive Dumitru Prunariu)

Fig. 51 The cosmonaut Dumitru-Dorin Prunariu assembles the equipment for the ASTRO scientific experiment, alongside the flight engineer Viktor Savinîh on board the Salyut-6 space station, May 1981 (personal archive Dumitru Prunariu)

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Fig. 52 The signing of the first agreement between the Government of Romania and NASA, by the president of the Romanian Space Agency, Dumitru-Dorin Prunariu, and NASA’s Assistant Administrator for External Relations John Schumacher, Washington DC, 29 May 2000. Among the officials, Romania’s Prime Minister Mugur Is˘arescu, and the Administrator of NASA, Hon. Daniel Goldin (personal archive Dumitru Prunariu)

the meeting of the ESA Ministerial Council on 2 December 2014, Romania joined the optional programmes regarding the operation of the International Space Station and the development of the newest European rocket, Ariane 6. Through the Romanian Space Agency, Romania has signed cooperation agreements with other states and international organisations, which ensured Romania’s presence and participation in the efforts of the international community for the development of space sciences and applications, as well as for peaceful cooperation in

Fig. 53 The signing in Bucharest, on 20 January 2011, of the agreement on the accession of Romania to the European Space Agency (ESA). The agreement is signed by the Director General Jean-Jacques Dordain on behalf of ESA and by physicist Marius Ioan Piso, CEO of the Romanian Space Agency, on behalf of Romania, in the presence of the Romanian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Teodor Baconschi (personal archive Dumitru Prunariu)

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Fig. 54 Dumitru-Dorin Prunariu, in his capacity as president of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), presiding the works of the 53rd session. Vienna, June 2010 (personal archive Dumitru Prunariu)

this field. Romania is a regular participant in the sessions and debates of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS). Since its establishment in 1959, Romania has held the vice-presidency of this committee for many years. From 2004 to 2006, the cosmonaut Dumitru-Dorin Prunariu was elected and served as Chairman of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee of this UN specialised committee. In consideration of his extensive experience and his professional skills, Dumitru-Dorin Prunariu was nominated and elected president of the UN—COPUOS specialised committee for the 2010–2012 term (Fig. 54). Physicist Marius Ioan Piso, PhD, the president of the Romanian Space Agency was elected president of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) for the 2020–2022 term.

7 Higher Education in the Field of Aeronautics and Space Science In its almost one century of existence, higher education in the field of aerospace science has contributed to the hall of fame of Romanian and world aviation and astronautics with an impressive array of specialists. Higher education in the field of aviation began in 1928 with the Aerodynamics Course organised by Prof. Elie Carafoli (Aerodynamics Conferences) at the Polytechnic School of Bucharest. In 1930, Carafoli founded the Department of Aerodynamics and Fluid Mechanics at the Faculty of Mechanics and Electricity. In 1931, a high-performance aerodynamic tunnel was inaugurated, built by Ion Stroescu and based on an original design (Manole and Stanciu 2001; Stanciu 2016). Prof. Ion Grosu (1901–1970) also worked at the

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Aviation Department. From 1968 he was also a professor of Aircraft Calculus and Construction (Tomescu and Spineanu 2015). Eng. Grigore Zamfirescu taught the same subject. Acad. Nicolae Tipei (1913–1999) is another remarkable figure. He taught aircraft mechanics at the Aviation Department of the Polytechnic and was head of the Lubrication Laboratory of the Institute of Applied Mechanics of the Romanian Academy. Professor Tipei was a school founder, laying the foundations of studies on gas lubrication, alongside his most important collaborator, Acad. Virgiliu Nicolae Constantinescu (1931–2009) (Rusu 2017). Among the professors of the Aviation Department in the interwar period, Ioan Lintes, (aircraft equipment, aerodynamics), Vasile Marcu (air navigation), Alexandru Stratilescu, Adrian Stambuleanu, Niculae Popp (aviation engines), Mihail Popescu, Ion Cârstoiu are also worth mentioning (Tomescu and Spineanu 2015). The aerospace engineering department of the Polytechnic School was, from the very beginning, closely linked to the Romanian aeronautical industry. From 1929 to 1930 IAR Bras, ov produced the first Romanian-designed aircraft, the IAR C.V. 11. It was designed by Elie Carafoli in collaboration with Lucien Virmaux, the representative of Blériot-Spad in Romania. In addition to IAR C.V. 11, Elie Carafoli developed, designed, built, and tested the IAR-13, IAR-14, IAR-15, and IAR-16 aircraft, which achieved remarkable performances for that time. One of these types was ranked among the six best aircraft in Europe at a competition that took place in Bucharest in 1931 (Rusu 2017; Gheorghiu 1981). In 1946, the Aviation Department was moved to the Faculty of Electromechanics at the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest, and in 1948 to the Faculty of Mechanics. After te Second World War, military higher education was separated from civilian education. In 1949 the Faculty of Aviation was established at the Military Technical Academy, with sections of aircraft and engines, on-board installations and devices, on-board weapons, and on-board radio. In 1971, the Faculty of Aerospace Constructions was established at the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest, and Prof. Victor Pimsner, a former fighter pilot and a specialist in thermodynamics and jet engines, was appointed dean. The Department of Aircraft and Flight Devices is established. Some of its top professors included: Acad. Virgiliu Nicolae Constantinescu(aerodynamics and fluid mechanics), Prof. Adriana N˘astase (high speed aerodynamics, Univ. Aachen), Prof. Augustin Petre (aeroelasticity, calculation and construction of aircraft), Prof. Mihai M. Nit, a˘ (aircraft mechanics and rocket flight theory), corresponding member of the International Academy of Astronautics, Prof. Corneliu Berbente (gas dynamics and aerothermochemistry), Prof. Stelian G˘aletus, e, Conf. S, erban Tomescu (experimental aerodynamics, hydraulic systems). In 2006, the Department of Aeronautical Systems Engineering ‘Nicolae Tipei’ was established, led by Prof. Adrian Stoica (dynamic systems theory, digital signal processing, aircraft stability and control, automated flight control, automated control of spacecraft) (Stanciu et al. 2008). New specialisations will be added in time to the faculty portfolio: missiles (1980– 1994), air navigation (1981–1986, resumed in 2012), and aeronautical engineering and management (since 2008). The specialisation of on-board installations and

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devices was expanded to include ground equipment, and became ‘aviation equipment and installations’. In 1990, a section of specialised in aerospace construction was established at the Faculty of Technological Engineering and Industrial Management of the Transilvania University of Bras, ov. In 1992, the Faculty of Electrical Engineering of the University of Craiova launched a study programme focused on aviation equipment and installations. In 1992, the name of the faculty was changed to the Faculty of Aerospace Engineering of the ‘Politehnica’ University of Bucharest. Some of the most prestigious alumni of the Faculty of Aerospace Engineering include two presidents of the Romanian Academy, who also held the position of rector of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest: Acad. Radu Voinea and Acad. Virgiliu Nicolae Constantinescu, as well as the first Romanian cosmonaut dr. eng. DumitruDorin Prunariu.

References Alumni Politehnica Aerospace Engineering (2023) https://inginerie.aero/index.php/en/2017/06/04/ ing-iosif-silimon-2/. Accessed 24 May 2023 Aviatori.ro (2023a) http://www.aviatori.ro/dict_pers.php?sel=G. Accessed 24 May 2023a Aviatori.ro (2023b) http://www.aviatori.ro/dict_pers.php?sel=N Accessed 24 May 2023b Barth H (1979) Hermann Oberth—Titanul navigat, iei spat, iale (ed. 2). (Hermann Oberth—the titan of space navigation, 2nd ed), Kriterion Publishing House, Bucharest Barth H (1983) Conrad Haas. (in German) Kriterion Publishing House, Bucharest de Bothezat G (1921) U.S. Patent 573228/1921 Bratu R (1928) OSIM ROYAL Patent 16079, 6 Nov 1928 Coanda H (1911) French Invention Patent 13.5602. Archives of the National Aviation Museum, Henri Coand˘a Collection, 13 February 1911 Coanda H (1912) French Invention Patent 441.144. Archives of the National Aviation Museum. Henri Coand˘a Collection, 20 May 1912 de Tranche N (1957) The Genius of Dr. George de Bothezat. American Helicopter Electromecanica Ploies, ti (2023). http://www.elmecph.ro/. Accessed 24 May 2023 Filip M (1923) OSIM ROYAL Patent 555.929, 4 Apr 1923 Gheorghiu C (1981) Fabricile de avioane românes, ti în perioada interbelic˘a. (Romanian interwar aeroplane factories). Technical Publising House, Bucharest Goliescu R (1934) OSIM ROYAL Patent 23317, 29 Oct 1934 INAV Aviation Institute (2023). http://www.inav.ro/. Accessed 24 May 2023 Institute for Theoretical and Experimental Analysis of Aeronautical—Astronautics Structures (2023). http://www.straero.ro/. Accessed 24 May 2023 Manole I, Stanciu V (2001) Istoria înv˘at, a˘ mântului superior ingineresc aerospat, ial din România 1900–2000. (The aerospace higher education history in Romania 1900–2000). Media Uno Publishing House, Bucharest Rusu M (2017) Quality management principles as illustrated by the organization of romanian inter-war factories. A century of Romanian industrial tradition in aeronautics. INCAS Bulletin 9:139–153 Simultec (2023). http://www.simultec.ro/. Accessed 24 May 2023 Stanciu V (2016) Cartea de aur a înv˘at, a˘ mântului politehnic aerospat, ial la 85 de ani. (The golden book of polytechnic aerospace education at 85th anniversary). Printech Publishing House, Bucharest

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Stanciu V, Berbente C, Pantazopol D, Tomescu T (2008) Istoria industriei aeronautice românes, ti de la începuturi pân˘a în prezent. (Romanian aeronautical industry from beginning to present). Manuscript, University Politehnica of Bucharest Tandargian A (1909) OSIM (Romania’s state office for inventions and trademarks) ROYAL Patent 1663/1909 Todericiu DD (1969) Preistoria Rachetei Moderne. Manuscrisul de la Sibiu 1529–1569. (The prehistory of the modern rocket. The manuscript from Sibiu 1529–1569). Romania Socialist Republic Academy Publishing House, Bucharest Tomescu T, Spineanu B (2015) Inginerii de Aviat, ie de la IAR Bras, ov. (Aeronautical engineers of IAR Brasov). AGIR Bulletin, Bucharest Vuia T (1920) U.S. Patent 516.838, 10 Dec 1920 Wikipedia (2023a). https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elie_Carafoli. Accessed 24 May 2023a Wikipedia (2023b). https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escadrila_Alb%C4%83. Accessed 24 May 2023b Wikipedia (2023c). https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radu_Manicatide. Accessed 24 May 2023c

History of Engineering Societies Mihai Mih˘ai¸ta˘

Abstract The first societies of engineers in Romania appeared at the end of the nineteenth century. The chapter presents the context of the emergence of these societies and the main personalities who played an essential role in their establishment. The evolution of these societies in the interwar period and in the communist period is also presented. The political changes after 1989 led to the revival and restructuring of these societies as well as the establishment of the Technical Sciences Academy of Romania. The chapter also presents information about the periodical publications of engineering societies.

1 The Polytechnic Society Initiatives to ‘coagulate’ the activities typical to the ‘guild’ of engineers had been seen previously as well; for instance, in 1872, a group of engineers and architects edited a weekly technical journal, Inginerul (The Engineer), which published 17 issues, under the lead of engineer Davidelu (Buletinul Societ˘at, ii Politehnice 1885–1946). Another attempt was that of 30 engineers and architects who, in 1876, published Revista Societ˘at, ii de Ingineri s, i Arhitect, i (Magazine of the Society of Engineers and Architects), which had three issues. It must be said that the Society included numerous foreigners, who had no interest to cooperate for the development of the Romania’s technology, which is why the above-mentioned structure—aiming to be a professional association—only lasted for a very short while (Buletinul Societ˘at, ii Politehnice 1885–1946). On the 18/30 October 1881, in the Focs, ani railway station—the scene of the inauguration of the Buz˘au-M˘ar˘as, es, ti railway, in which King Carol I himself praised Romanian engineers for their new accomplishment—on the wave of the general enthusiasm of the participants, it was decided to establish an association of engineers M. Mih˘ai¸ta˘ (B) Technical Sciences Academy of Romania, Bucharest, Romania e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 D. Banabic (ed.), History of Romanian Technology and Industry, History of Mechanism and Machine Science 45, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39191-0_9

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and architects, which was ‘to act and fight for the betterment of engineering in our country’ (Buletinul Societ˘at, ii Politehnice 1885–1946). The society was established on 6/18 December 1881, at 10:00 o’clock, in the first class waiting room of the North Railway Station (Gara de Nord) in Bucharest, led by colonel engineer S, tefan F˘alcoianu, the general director of the Romanian Railways. Inspector general Dimitrie Frunz˘a, the former director of the construction project of the Buz˘au-M˘ar˘as, es, ti railway, was elected as a president. Through a royal decree, on 25 January 1882, ‘The Polytechnic Society’ was acknowledged as a society of public interest, and through the law that passed on 9 March 1893 it became a moral and legal person. In parallel, several other societies were established, which recruited not only new members, but also former members of the Polytechnic Society. The following were founded: The Romanian Society of Sciences, with mathematics, physics, chemistry, and natural sciences branches; the Association of Engineers and Technicians in the Mining Industry (Asociat, ia Inginerilor s, i Tehnicienilor din Industria Minier˘a); the General Association of Engineers in Romania (Asociat, ia General˘a a Inginerilor din România, AGIR), etc. Among the active members of the society, many were politiciens, ministers, general secretaries of various departments, general directors of Railways, Post, Telegraph and Telephony, of the Administration of State Monopoly, of harbours and waterways, directors and chiefs of the technical services in the ministries of public works and others. Basically, among the members were all of the engineers who designed and built the most important works in the country at the time, the leading entrepreneurs of public works, the directors of the major factories and, in the last period, the directors of one of the most important financial institutions in the country as well. Professors from the technical institutions, university professors, architects, agronomists, foresters, science faculties professors, military schools professors were members as well. The member fees were always very small, serving just to cover part of the expenses. The Society had its needs covered through contributions from the members and from institutions through subsidies, even for printing the Bulletin. The yearly member fee was not high enough to cover even the Bulletin subscription. In the beginning, in order to access funds, the Society was reviewing technical documentations, was executing private work for its members, was consulting, was studying laws and regulations. The Society contributed to the writing of the Law of the technical body, to the Law for preserving the engineer title and for exercising the engineer profession, and also to the establishing of the Corps of Engineers. The Polytechnic Society had a permanent involvement in the technical education in universities, contributing to its organisation in a rational manner and to its continuous adaptation to the evolution of the economy. It put up a constant fight for the concentration of engineering education in polytechnical schools. It always tried to spell out its position in matters of interest for Romanian engineering, believing that the concern for the organisation of technical education in universities should not be confined to the hands of the politicians and administrative institutions alone. It

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formed a commission to reach the most appropriate phrasings to be included in the laws. The Society organised a library that kept growing through the donations of the members. The reading room offered books, technical and scientific journals, and other publications. In order to ensure the permanent exchange of ideas and knowledge in the vast field of scientific, technical, and economic issues, several conferences were held even at a time when the Society did not have its own venue. In the hall of the Society, conferences were held by major figures from abroad, leading scientists and professors, thus establishing links between the countries that were more advanced and the promising activities taking place in Romania. The Society had at its disposal special funds from donations for awards for original papers, for conference participations, for purchasing books, etc. In order for the members of the Society to see the major works done in the country, the industrial projects and its natural beauty, numerous trips were organised. There were also organised trips abroad. A major concern of the Polytechnic Society was the printing of its Bulletin, which started being published in 1885, to prove that ‘the Society exists and is productive’. Financial hardships led to pauses in publishing in 1887 and in 1916–1919. The materials in the Bulletin concerned all branches of science, engineering, economy, organization, technology, the history of engineering, etc. In spite of all the difficulties during the war and the period after the war, the Society worked for the development of technical and scientific culture in the country, by encouraging studies and research and supporting them financially, through the publishing of reports in the Bulletin, in brochures, or in specialised works. It has also kept in touch with various international associations in the field, participated in congresses and, as former president N.P. S, tef˘anescu said, the Society was concerned with the common technical culture, with the relationships between science and entrepreneurs, professionals and workers, in order to ensure ‘national peace and general betterment’. The members of the society who investigated the causes of poor results in the admission exam for the School of Bridges and Roads—engineers Victor Balaban, Vasile Cristescu, Ion Ionescu, Mihail Roco, and Ion G. Zottu—reached the conclusion that a journal needs to be edited in order to improve the level of mathematical knowledge in high school students. The state did not support with funds the publishing of the journal, a fact that determined this group of enlightened and patriotic engineers to not only produce the journal, but also to support its publishing using their own financial resources. The first issue of the journal Gazeta Matematic˘a (Mathematics Gazette) was published on 15 September 1895, the day after the launch of the railway and the bridge over the Danube at Fetes, ti-Cernavod˘a. It is worth mentioning that the editors of the journal also worked on this remarkable project. The corps of engineers has a debt of gratitude to Gazeta Matematic˘a, as well as to all those who cultivated the mathematical sciences in the country. The journal was

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‘a monument of work and perseverance, with impressive results for the progress of mathematics and of mathematics education in Romania’. Nowadays, the journal is run by mathematicians. It is the only publication to have appeared with no hiatus for 123 years. As early as the first years of the Society’s existence, its Committees sought to build a dedicated venue. Following several failed attempts, in 1909 the plot at 130 Calea Victoriei was bought and, according to the Appeal signed by Anghel Saligny, the Book of donations for the offices of the Polytechnic Society was opened, in which the top position will be held by the great benefactor Spiridon Yorceanu, a member of the Society. In December 1913, the plans of architect P. Antonescu were examined but, unfortunately, because of the Balkan War, it was impossible to line up the financing plans that had been initiated, so the plans to build a venue for the Society stagnated and the project was picked up again after the peace treaty signed in Bucharest. Over the course of 1916, the new solutions proposed by architect Petre Antonescu were not applied, due to the fact that Romania entered the First World War alongside the Allies. The construction of the Palace of the Society started in June 1925 (Fig. 9.1). The construction of the venue and the furnishing were done with funds donated by financial institutions, industrialists, businessmen, and private donors, with no contribution from the state. The ceremony for the inauguration of the Palace of the Polytechnic Society started Sunday, 11 March 1928, at 10:30 o’clock, in the presence of high-ranking officials, representatives of the Royal House and the Government. The wishes expressed on the occasion of the inauguration did not remain empty words. The Palace of the Polytechnic Society managed to be a focal point for the efforts and energy of all the members who contributed to the moral and material progress of the country. On 10 July 2008, a memorial plaque was unveiled to mark 80 years since the inauguration of the Palace of the Polytechnic Society. The plaque, mounted by the Ministry of Culture, makes known that the building belongs to the national patrimony, as a historical monument. Today, after long and gruelling lawsuits, when we regained what was rightfully ours in this Palace that makes us proud, we have a duty to honour it through more activities, shining a light on the real new needs of Romania.

2 The General Association of Engineers in Romania (Asociat, ia General˘a a Inginerilor Din România, AGIR) The idea of establishing the association has its roots in the war for the unification of the nation and its aftermath. The war, in which all engineers—with various tasks— took an active part, made them think about the shortages of the country and especially those in their profession.

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Fig. 9.1 The palace of the Polytechnic Society

After many debates, with argumentation and counter-argumentation, the impetuous young people were joined by the ‘old cadres’ and the general opinion was that in order to represent the professional interests of the engineers, a new professional association was needed, for engineers only, led in a more lively manner. Eventually everyone rallied behind this belief. At the founding meeting held on 20 August 1918 in Ias, i, George Bals, was elected president in unanimity. Constantin Bus, il˘a and Tiberiu Eremia were elected as vicepresidents and Mihail Manoilescu as secretary general (Bulletin of AGIR 1919– 1941).

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AGIR, as a strictly professional association, embraced all matters of concern for engineers across the country, without focusing on topics of a strictly scientific and technical nature, which were to form later the objectives of the Polytechnic Society and other scientific and technical societies. The society needed to be identified as a moral and legal person and, thanks to the support provided by minister Anghel Saligny this could be achieved through the Decree-Law of 30 December 1918. Since their purpose was to cultivate connections with the engineers in Greater Romania, they contacted the Reunion of Romanian Technicians (Reuniunea Tehnicienilor Români), with the headquarters in Sibiu, and the Association of Romanian Academic Engineers and Architects (Asociat, ia Inginerilor s, i Arhitect, ilor Academici Români) in Bucovina, aiming to consolidate relations with the technical world nationwide. The festive meeting of the Reunion of Technicians from Transylvania and the General Association of Engineers in Romania took place on Sunday, 21 September 1919, at 4 PM, at the Palace of the Association for Romanian Literature and Culture in Sibiu, and the enthusiasm of the participants was beyond words. Similar activities were organised in Basarabia and Bucovina, especially on the occasion of the yearly meetings. AGIR congresses were held annually, in Ias, i in 1921, then in Timis, oara, Bucharest, Cluj, Chis, in˘au, Cern˘aut, i, Oradea, Constant, a, Arad, Craiova, and Bras, ov. Later on, starting with 1931, the interval grew to two years, beginning with Galat, i, Ias, i, Bucharest and so on. The congress sections were organised around: transportation, energy, public works, technical education, the expansion of industrial production, mining and metalworks, national work, and social-professional matters. Politicians used the papers from the congresses as an inspiration to promote laws and sustainable projects. The first congress of the engineers from all the corners of unified Romania was held in Ias, i in 1921, during the first days of October (Fig. 9.2). This congress had a very special character with impact on all the future ones. The second Congress, at Timis, oara, in 1922, just like the one in Ias, i, did not handle professional demands. Taking cues from the general and rather vast framework of the Congress in Ias, i, the congress encompassed eight sections: transportation, public works, the question of energy, the expansion of industrial production, mining matters, forestry matters, technical education, social issues. From the very beginning, the engineers in all the provinces of the country adhered to the association in large numbers, especially the engineers in Basarabia and Bucovina, most of which joined the association. In 1925, 10% of the members of AGIR were from Basarabia and Bucovina. They worked in fields such as constructions, roads and bridges, railways, forestry, power plants, administration, or were independent engineers. Due to widespread adhesion, from the very beginning, of engineers from Basarabia and Bucovina, their numbers remained almost unchanged, even though the total number of AGIR members had almost tripled by 1940. Up until 1947, AGIR contributed in a professional manner to the draft laws on technical–economic matters, such as: roads law, water bodies management law, mining law, the law for the sale and control of state enterprises, etc.

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Fig. 9.2 The participants in the first congress of the Romanian engineers

In 1934 there was a growing professional interest from specialised associations, which asked for a promotion of their interests through AGIR. Thus, ‘a new trend of thought and outlook, in concurrence with the vigorous liveliness of the youth’ was born and ‘antiquated methods and inefficient practices of the past’ were cast aside. In 1936, the Association took the initiative of building its own venue, which began with Casa AGIR on 2 Mihai Eminescu street (today, 26 Bd. Dacia), which was inaugurated in 1940 (Fig. 9.3). After countless hardships and struggles, this accomplishment was another dream come true for Romanian engineers. AGIR carried out its activities in parallel to the Polytechnic Society until 1949, when they merged and formed the Scientific Association of Technicians (Asociat, ia s, tiint, ific˘a a tehnicienilor, AST) which, during its first congress in 1951, became the Scientific Association of Engineers and Technicians (Asociat, ia S, tiint, ific˘a a Inginerilor s, i Tehnicienilor, ASIT), a nonprofit legal person. In the following years, the Society of Agricultural Sciences (Societatea S, tiint, elor Agricole), as well as the Association of Sub-engineers and Work Supervisors (Asociat, ia Subinginerilor s, i Conduc˘atorilor de Lucr˘ari) merged with ASIT. The society was accepting as members engineers and technicians, inventors and innovators, as well as other individuals (for instance mathematicians) who were interested in technology. According to the administrative organisation, there were ASIT branches in all the regions and sub-branches in all the districts and cities. As a result of the devoted work, stripped of all material, political, and personal interests, of the best engineers in Romania, the prestige of ASIT, in the period in which it was active, went beyond the engineers’ strict framework of activity. Starting with 1962, the Scientific Association of Engineers and Technicians (ASIT) was replaced by the National Council of Engineers and Technicians (Consiliul Nat, ional al Inginerilor s, i Tehnicienilor, CNIT), which worked under the guidance of

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Fig. 9.3 AGIR House

the General Union of Trade Unions in Romania (Uniunea General˘a a Sindicatelor din România, UGSR). Any other form of traditional autonomous organisation— professional association or society—was rejected, both in the initial organisation phase, as well as in later attempts. In 1972, the organisation was effectively dismantled. At a national level, the National Council of Engineers and Technicians was intended to function under the guidance of the former National Council for Science and Technology (Consiliul Nat, ional pentru S, tiint, a˘ s, i Tehnologie, CNST), with departments working in collaboration with the research institutes in their fields, and the county commissions (CJIT) and factory commissions (CIT) continuing to operate under the guidance of the trade unions. At the same time, the number of journals was drastically reduced, with the

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majority of the economic branches ceasing to have any professional journals. The engineers lacked the opportunity to have a written dialogue on the technical and scientific matters that concerned them. At the same time, the last opportunities to get acquainted with accomplishments in other countries were scrapped, because there were no more subscriptions to foreign specialised journals. During the difficult years of dictatorship, the engineers did not go missing; they took on a certain moral duty, managing through their actions to preserve the tradition of engineering societies. In December 1989, the General Association of Engineers in Romania was reestablished. Through its activity thus far, it has demonstrated the ability to organise in an autonomous form of activity and has distinguished itself as an active, unanimously recognised force of the civil society. Now, almost 28 years later, we can say that we have achieved what we set out to do and even more, in all of the domains that we targeted (Mih˘ait, a˘ 2018). AGIR has branches in almost all the counties in the country, and specialised associations in the large cities. Professional engineering associations, legal persons, are affiliated to the association as collective members, and many factories are supporting members. Initially every year and later on, for financial reasons, every two years, the association organises the Symposium of Romanian Engineers Worldwide (Simpozionul inginerilor români de pretutindeni), where the most important topics of interest for the country are debated, using the experience of Romanian engineers in the neighbouring countries and in the diaspora. Every year, starting with 1995, it celebrates the Day of the Romanian Engineer (Ziua inginerului Român), which was officially acknowledged through a Governmental Decision in 2000. On the same day the AGIR Awards are presented for outstanding engineering work, whether ideas, designs, or already implemented projects, and also for original books of a high technical-scientific standard. For special activities, on the occasion of anniversaries, technical-scientific events, or competitions, medals and awards are handed out. Another Governmental Decision in 2007 acknowledged the association as serving the public interest. The association’s patrimony kept growing through the recovery in court of part of the properties owned by the association in Bucharest. It is a matter of regret that association’s branches in the major cities did not get involved in this action thus making it impossible to recover any part of the existing patrimony in other cities in the country, with the exception of Bucharest. There have been other disappointments as well, such as the initiative for the building of the National Park of Science and Technology, because the study that was put together and promoted was treated with indifference by the state institutions to which the project was lobbied. In 1990 we resumed our activity within the framework of the World Federation of Engineering Organisations (WFEO), where we were represented in the Executive Committee from 2001 to 2010 by the president of the association. Also as a result of our activity, in 1998 we organised in Bucharest, for the first time in Romania and

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in this part of Europe, the Meeting of the Executive Committee and of the Technical Committees of WFEO, with delegates from all continents. As an acknowledgement of our activities locally and internationally, we were admitted to the European Federation of National Engineering Associations (FEANI) in 1995, and between 1997 and 2000 the president of the association was a member of the Executive Board. The prestige of AGIR, still growing, led to the organisation, in 2008, for the first time in Bucharest, of the meeting of the FEANI Committees, the FEANI General Assembly, the Academic Session on the topic Engineer for life! Ongoing professional development is the tool and a workshop on the topic Engcard Accreditation/Pilot project (Mih˘ait, a˘ 2018). The Association obtained the accreditation by FEANI of all established technical faculties in the country and, as a result, up until now 240 Romanian engineers were granted the title of European engineer (EURING). AGIR is a member of the International Association for Continuing Engineering Education (IACEE) and of other regional organisations. With the first issue of the AGIR Bulletin in January–February 1919, and in particular after the Second World War, the AGIR Publishing House starts printing the great engineering treatises in Romanian as well. In 1949–1966, under the coordination of academician Remus R˘adulet, , the 19 volumes of Lexiconul tehnic român [The Romanian Technical Lexicon] were published. From 1950 until 1998, the engineering publications were printed under the name of Editura Tehnic˘a and from 28 April that same year the AGIR Publishing House (Editura AGIR) was re-established, which became the main source of technical books in Romania. After 1990 AGIR established the twice-monthly publication Univers Ingineresc (Engineering Universe) and resumed printing the AGIR Bulletin. At present, the titles published cover 50 diverse fields, to be found in the 15 book series and collections. Until now, more than 800 titles were published, including the works that appear under the aegisof the Technical Sciences Academy of Romania. At the moment, AGIR Publishing House provides editing for the periodical publications of several national research institutes and professional associations. AGIR Bookshop is located on the ground floor of the AGIR headquarters on 26 Dacia Boulevard in Bucharest, where one can find books published by AGIR Publishing House, as well as other publishing houses. Under the outer layer of scientific rigour pertaining to the engineer profession, sensitive people with remarkable artistic talents are ‘hiding’: writers, musicians, visual artists, etc. The Symphony Orchestra of the Engineers has remained a prestigious ensemble, unique in the world. It has performed for more than 60 consecutive years in annual seasons at the Romanian Athenaeum and was well-received by the music lovers. They also toured many countries in Europe, North America, and Africa. The history of the orchestra is laid out in the book Ingineri, pasiune s, i muzic˘a [Engineers, passion, and music] authored by conductor engineer Andrei Iliescu. The landscape of the engineers’ music is completed by the ‘Concertino’ choir, which continues, for more than five decades, the activity initiated by an enthusiastic group of railway engineers.

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The literary circle of the engineer writers ‘LiterarIng’ is meant to support the activity and the image of engineers in Romania through means different from those strictly professional, in order to develop the cultural dimension of an engineer’s personality. The members of the circle are engineers with passion and talent for the written word. The activity of the literary circle is fortuitously complemented by the establishment of the engineers’ epigram circle, ‘Ing-Epigrama’.

3 The Technical Sciences Academy of Romania (Academia de S, tiint, e Tehnice din România, ASTR) Insomuch as the Romanian Academy can only provide a very limited framework for the advancement of valuable individuals in the field of technical sciences, AGIR has initiated and supported the establishment, 20 years ago, of the Romanian Academy of Technical Sciences (ASTR). It was created initially as an association, through Court Order 1216 on 11 December 1997, and has the status of an NGO. Through Law no. 230 of 2008, the Romanian Academy of Technical Sciences was established as a platform for the scientific undertakings of leading figures in the field of engineering, at a national level, following the reorganisation of the ‘Technical Sciences Academy of Romania’ (Mih˘ait, a˘ 2017). During the meeting of the founding members on 7 October 1997, academician Radu Voinea was elected President, Mih˘ait, a˘ Mihai and Mircea Petrescu Vice-presidents, and Florin Teodor T˘an˘asescu Secretary General. Once it was founded, the Academy worked and achieved its objectives and was acknowledged and appreciated in the country and abroad. It is a member of the European Council of Academies of Applied Sciences, Technologies and Engineering (Euro-CASE) along other 23 Academies in Europe. The members of the Academy have been carrying out an intense publishing activity, with papers grouped under 12 themes. Some of the studies published in the series Politici, Strategii, Dezvoltare (Policies, Strategies, Development) were appreciated by specialists and debated in the expert committees in the Parliament. In parallel, the series Istoria Dezvolt˘arii Industriei României (History of Industrial Development in Romania) was published for all the sectors of the economy. As of 2016, every trimester, the Journal of Engineering Sciences and Innovation (JESI) is published under the aegis of the Technical Sciences Academy of Romania. The systematic and methodical manner in which the role of ASTR grew in the life of society was ensured to a large extent by the annual organisation of ‘Zilele Academiei de S, tiint, e Tehnice din România’ [‘The Days of ASTR’] in the main cultural and scientific centres in the country. It has now reached its 12th edition, and the theme has always been chosen carefully so as to approach decisively issues that are current and of interest for the future. A Proceedings containing the papers presented is published.

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The international activity has been growing constantly. ASTR has participated with specialists in the meetings of the Technological Transport Platorm, in the AIRBUS Electric project, and in the project titled ‘Science Advice for Policy by European Academies’ (SAPEA), in the frame of which, in October 2017, the workshop ‘Good practices in the interaction between academies and politicians’, and in May 2018, the workshop on the topic ‘The capture of carbon and its uses’ were organised. The Technical Sciences Academy of Romania, as a prestige institution, aims, mainly, to encourage and guide scientific creation, through maintaining a propitious environment that can foster the talents it wants to attract in its midst. Enticing and encouraging the elites is one of the main goals of ASTR, as well as of the General Association of Engineers in Romania.

References Buletinul Societ˘at, ii Politehnice 1885–1946 (Bulletin of the Polytechnic Society 1885–1946). Bucharest Buletinul AGIR 1919–1941 ((Bulletin of AGIR 1919–1941). Bucharest Mih˘ait, a˘ M (2018) Asociat, ia General˘a a Inginerilor din România, 100 de ani de la înfiint, are— Documente s, i Confesiuni (The General Association of Romanian Engineers, 100 years since its foundation—Documents and Confessions). AGIR Publishing House, Bucharest Mih˘ait, a˘ M (2017) Academia de S, tiint, e Tehnice din România. Scurt˘a istorie în date (Academy of Technical Sciences from Romania. Brief history in data). AGIR Publishing House, Bucharest

History of Technology Education in Romania Ion Popescu, Dorel Banabic, Coleta De Sabata, and Mihail Voicu

Abstract The chapter presents a synthesis of the evolution of technical education in Romania. The first attempts from the beginning of the nineteenth century to found an engineering education are presented, starting with the School of Surveying and Civil Engineers in Moldova (1813) and Wallachia (1818). Later these schools evolved into a French form of engineering schools. Thus, in 1851, the School of Bridges and Roads was founded in Bucharest with a curriculum similar to that of engineering schools in France. This can be considered the first technical university in Romania. The evolution of this school is presented in detail, the transformations undergone in the second half of the nineteenth century due to significant political (establishment of the Kingdom of Romania) and economic (influence of the first industrial revolution on the Romanian economy) transformations. The establishment of the universities of Iasi (1860) and Bucharest (1864) also had a great influence on engineering education, especially in the fields of chemical and electrotechnical engineering. The political changes after the First World War (the union of Transylvania with Romania) radically transformed the Romanian technical education. The National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest was transformed into the Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1920), the Politehnica din Timisoara was founded (1920) and the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic School was founded (1937). This period of higher technical education in Romania can be regarded as a stage of growth, when the level reached could bear comparison to technologically developed countries. After the end of the Second World War the Romanian educational system is changing from the ground up, using Coleta De Sabata: Deceased. I. Popescu University Politehnica of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania D. Banabic (B) Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Cluj Napoca, Romania e-mail: [email protected] C. De Sabata University Politehnica of Timi¸soara, Timi¸soara, Romania M. Voicu Technical University “Gheorghe Asachi” of Ia¸si, Ia¸si, Romania © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 D. Banabic (ed.), History of Romanian Technology and Industry, History of Mechanism and Machine Science 45, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39191-0_10

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the Soviet system as a model. As regards the higher technical education, in 1948, there were three polytechnics in Romania (in Bucharest, Timis, oara, and Ias, i) which trained engineers in all relevant fields. These three universities are developing strongly, expanding the number of faculties covering all fields of engineering. At the same time, new technical universities were established in Cluj Napoca, Galati and Brasov, as well as some specialized technical universities (Technical Military Academy, Technical University of Construction, Institute of Oil and Gas, Coal Institute). At the same time, new universities were founded (Craiova, Sibiu, Constanta, Suceava, Resita, Bacau, Pitesti, Petrosani, Ploiesti) where technical faculties were also included. A new stage in the development of technical education began after the change of political regime in 1989, when state or private universities were established or re-established in the vast majority of large cities in Romania, which also included faculties with a technical profile. An overview of these universities, which also include technical faculties, is presented at the end of the chapter.

1 Introduction The training of engineers in specialised technical schools or universities has been in existence since the eighteenth century. Prior to that, engineering was learned through apprenticeship and was generally regarded as an empirical profession. The first technical schools for the training of engineers were established in Hungary, Germany, France, and Russia starting from mid-eighteenth century. The first institution to provide vocational training for mining engineers (Berg-Schola) was established in 1735 in Selmecbánya (near Miskolc, Hungary). In 1745 the Collegium Carolinum was founded in Braunschweig (School of Mines), followed by two other mining schools in Freiberg (1765) and Berlin (1770). In 1747, the School of Bridges and Roads was established in France, followed by the School of Mines in 1783 and by the Polytechnic School of Paris in 1794. In 1773, the Mining School, an institution of higher education, was established in St. Petersburg, Rusia (Lembre 2016). As can be noted in the examples above, the first schools of higher technological education were established for the purpose of providing training for engineers in the field of mining and bridges and roads. Following the example of the aforementioned schools of engineering, Romanian formal instruction in engineering also gave precedence to preoccupations with infrastructure (bridges, roads, railways, public buildings), due to the urgent need to initiate the modern phase of economic and social development. For a long time, most engineers and technicians (conductors) were trained for this type of works, and the technical education institutions were a reflection of this direction. Prior to the emergence of the first Romanian universities aimed at training engineers, they were schooled in universities in Europe, in particular Austria, Germany, France, and Hungary.

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2 The Beginnings of Engineering Education in the Romanian Principalities The transition from the stage of empirical training of engineers to a stage when their knowledge was being built up over time on a solid scientific foundation took place gradually, starting in late eighteenth century. This transition was firstly contingent on the state of industrial development reached by each country, on how much freedom each country had to shape its own future, and, last but not least, on the level of development of primary and secondary education in a given country. This transition occurred first in Moldavia and Wallachia in early nineteenth century, due to the fact that these two principalities had dealings with more developed countries in Central and Western Europe (where engineering had begun to grow in the eighteenth century). In addition, these principalities enjoyed a certain degree of independence and selfgovernment, which allowed for the establishment of a political class that was, for the most part, invested in the fate of the country they represented. As for Transylvania (Transylvania proper, Banat, Cris, ana, Maramures, , and, starting in 1775, Bucovina as well), which was part of Hungary which in turn belonged to the Habsburg Empire (which became the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1867), the Romanians there were deprived of some basic rights, even though they formed the majority population. The beginnings of engineering education in Romanian at the Royal Academies of Ias, i and Bucharest date back to the age of Romanian Enlightenment (R˘adulet, 2000; Ionescu 1932), which became more prominent after 1774 (the year when the Kucik-Kainargi treaty was signed, 10/21 July 1774, following the Russo-Turkish war of 1768–1774), when Romanians were brought into increased contact with the Europeans and with the philosophy of the lumières. It is considered (Iorga 2015) that the first Romanian language class of surveyors and civil engineers was founded by Gheorghe Asachi (Fig. 1), in 1813, at the School of Surveying and Civil Engineers, which was part of the Princely Academy of Ias, i.1 At that time, there was a need for surveying engineers who were able to measure estates, but also to read and understand old land charters2 written in Romanian 1

The Princely Academy of Ias, i had been founded by the Prince Antioh Cantemir in 1707 as an institution of higher learning which taught in Greek and Latin. It was reformed in 1776 by Prince Grigore III Ghica, who modernised it so as to be on par with European universities. The Princely Academy of Ias, i was active during the 18th (when studies were essentially Aristotelian) and nineteenth centuries. From 1760 onwards, a series of enlightened directors introduced to the Princely Academy of Ias, i the study of mathematics, natural sciences, and modern philosophy. In 1821, the Royal Academy of Ias, i was disestablished and for 14 years there was no institution of higher education in Ias, i. In 1835, during the rule of Mihail Sturza, the Academia Mihailean˘a (The Michaelian Academy) was inaugurated and remained active until 1847. It is worth mentioning that the first institution of higher learning in Moldavia was Academia Vasilian˘a (the Vasilian College), founded by Prince Vasile Lupu in 1634, which taught in Slavonic and Latin. It was organised after the model of the Mohyla Academy in Kiev (founded by the Metropolitan Petru Movil˘a). Academia Vasilian˘a (The Vasilian College) was based at the ‘Three Hierarchs’ church and was symbolically carried forward from 1707 onwards by the Royal Academy of Ias, i. 2 Charter (Rom., hrisov)—a royal document that served, in the feudal system of Moldavia and Wallachia, as a deed of property, privilege, etc.

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Fig. 1 Gheorghe Asachi, the founder of technical education in Moldavia

and Slavonic. Thus, Gheorghe Asachi, animated by national ideals and justifying his actions by newly emerging needs, proposed to the ruler Scarlat Callimachi to approve the opening of a ‘class’ of surveying engineers, taught in Romanian. The success obtained by Gheorghe Asachi, who was appointed on 15 November 1813 professor of practical geometry and drawing at the Princely Academy of Ias, i, was made possible by the support of Metropolitan Veniamin Costache. Sons of great boyars enrolled in the courses for surveying engineers, reaching a total of 33 students (Xenopol 1885; Urechia 1892). Gheorghe Asachi’s school began its activity in November 1813, the studies were completed on 18 June/12 July 1818, and in 1821 it was closed down by order of the Ottoman sultan. After 1835, when the Michaelian Academy in Ias, i was inaugurated, Gheorghe Asachi introduced special courses in topography and engineering. The academy included an engineering and architecture department. In 1849, Gheorghe Asachi founded in Ias, i, as part of the Michaelian Academy (which had been disestablished in 1847), the Application School for Engineers and Conductors. In 1860, when the University of Ias, i was founded, the Michaelian Academy was transformed into the National College of Ias, i. Gheorghe Asachi led the organisation of Moldavian schools for almost 40 years. In Wallachia, the ruler Ioan Gheorghe Caragea approved on 8 March 1818 the establishment of a school of surveyor engineers and appointed Gheorghe Laz˘ar (Fig. 2) ‘teacher’ of arithmetic, geometry, and geography at the Princely Academy of Saint Sava. The newly established college, which taught in Romanian, was to function at the Saint George New (Sfântul Gheorghe Nou) Church, with three teachers on three levels, beginners, advanced, and surveyor engineers. Thus, the Academy School for Philosophical and Mathematical Sciences at Saint Sava Monastery was established in 1818 as part of the Princely Academy. In the words of Nicolae Iorga, ‘But to teach in Bucharest, in the local language, subjects of advanced level was something new, and therein lies the originality of Gheorghe Laz˘ar,

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Fig. 2 Gheorghe Laz˘ar, the founder of technical education in Wallachia

as well as his courage to speak about the greatness of the ancestors either from the teacher’s lectern or in the kellions at Saint Sava Monastery, which were thus warmed up in winter time by more than just the firewood brought from home by the pupils themselves’ (Iorga 1928). The planned curriculum was comprised of four stages: The first was learning the letters, reading, writing, readings from theological texts, etc. The second was the study of grammar, poetry, geography of the globe, rhetoric with the history of the nation and of the homeland, and other sciences. The third included arithmetic, Earth geography, geometry, trigonometry, algebra, geology with economics and architecture. The fourth was learning of ‘higher philosophical or juridical systems’ (Iorga 1928). This was in line with the requirements spelled out by one of the curators, the boyar Constantin B˘al˘aceanu: ‘what we want, teacher, is engineering; we want the boys to measure our estates, so go ahead and teach them engineering, because calculation they can learn by themselves in any grocer’s store’ (Iorga 1928). Based on the above, it can be argued that Gheorghe Laz˘ar’s school was the first centre of advanced scientific culture and higher education for surveyor engineers in Wallachia, having some contribution, by supplying teachers, to the development of the network of primary and secondary schools across the country. The schools founded by Gheorghe Laz˘ar and Gheorghe Asachi helped fulfil some of the goals of the Uprising of 1821, which prompted the Ottoman government to put an end to the Phanariote administration in Moldavia and Wallachia and return to appointing native rulers in the two principalities. The schools established by Gheorghe Asachi and Gheorghe Laz˘ar proved that it was possible to study and conduct scientific work in Romanian. When Gheorghe Laz˘ar’s leadership at the Princely Academy came to an end (he died in 1823), his student Ion Heliade-R˘adulescu (Fig. 3) took the lead of the institution. He was aided by his former colleagues, Eufrosin Poteca, Constantin Moroiu, and Simion Marcovici. On 12 September 1823, the prince of Wallachia Grigore IV Ghica approved the report of the Board of Schools (Eforia S, coalelor)

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Fig. 3 Ion Heliade-R˘adulescu

regarding the extension of the duration of studies abroad for those who left in 1820. On the same date, Ion Heliade-R˘adulescu was appointed as a permanent teacher at the Princely Academy and joined by Petrache Poenaru on 28 September 1824. The activity of those who had studied abroad started to bear fruit: on 1 October 1825, Eufrosin Poteca began teaching philosophy in Bucharest, at the Saint Sava school; Simion Marcovici was appointed, on 26 October 1826, as teacher of mathematics and philosophy; and Constantin Moroiu began teaching law at the same school on 1 September 1827. Petrache Poenaru, on the other hand, extended his studies and research visits from 1820 to 1832, with some interruptions. In Paris, he conducted work on bridge and road engineering, as well as topographic surveying. He also studied in Vienna and visited England. It is worth mentioning that on 15 June 1826, the Board of Schools issued a report providing an account of the extensive activity carried out by Gheorghe Laz˘ar’s School. Over more than seven years of activity, the school was attended by many pupils (students), some of them beneficiaries of scholarships from abroad; the number of surveyor engineers increased in Wallachia to approximately 10 (including those who studied abroad); some graduates contributed to the opening of institutions of higher education in other important cities in Wallachia. On 21 July 1828 the school at Saint Sava Monastery in Bucharest ceased its activity because of the plague and cholera outbreak. Furthermore, the Russo-Turkish war took place in 1828–1829. The school remained closed until 1831.

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2.1 The Period of Endeavours to Establish a Successful School of Engineering (1831–1881) The efforts made by Gheorghe Laz˘ar’s School towards the development of a higher education in technology in Wallachia yielded modest results. This could be due to the fact that the school was working, in parallel with the courses for engineers, to train teachers for institutions of higher education. A thorough training of engineers was achieved abroad, but it was expensive. Moreover, the Romanian Principalities were surrounded by three empires (Ottoman, Russian, and Austrian), all seeking to exercise their influence over the Romanian territories or even to annex some of them, a situation that was sure to hinder their development. After 1830, the country’s system of higher education for engineers was entering an era which, in the words of Professor Ion Ionescu Bizet, (Ionescu 1932), was defined by ‘numerous explorations: periods of forming, transforming, reforming’. During the Russian occupation, from 1828 to 1834, the Organic Statute (Regulamentul Organic) was drawn up stipulating that the training of civil engineers would be carried out with graduates of applied mathematics classes pertaining to special courses. The duration of training for civil engineers was three years. In the first year, the subjects taught were higher algebra and trigonometry, with focus on theory in the first semester and on practice in the second. The first course taught in the second year was geodesy, which included trigonometry, the use of instruments, ‘protection of maps’, Figure of Earth, and the second was differential and integral calculus. In the third year there was a course of mechanics divided into practical mechanics and the teaching of crafts using special machinery, followed by a third course of civil architecture, which provided a general training for constructions in different industries, i.e., civil engineers or architects. In addition to the Department of Applied Mathematics, which served as a school of architecture and mechanical engineering, there was also the Department of Practical Agriculture. The National School at Saint Sava Monastery opened its courses on 1 November 1831, following a hiatus of more than three years. The Plenipotentiary President of the Divans in Wallachia and Moldavia, General Kiseleff, appointed Eufrosin Poteca in Bucharest and Gheorghe Asachi in Ias, i in charge of education. In 1832, Eufrosin Poteca was succeeded by Petrache Poenaru (Fig. 4) who had recently returned to the country. In the same year, Petrache Poenaru was appointed Director of the Board of National Schools in Wallachia, a position which he held until 1848. After 1832, professors G. Pop and D. Plavid taught proficient courses of algebra and geometry at the Saint Sava College. In 1832 Carol Wollenstein, a painter and teacher at the College at Saint Sava Monastery, published the textbook Elements of drawing and architecture, which was the textbook of drawing and architecture intended for engineering education in Wallachia. In 1838 Petrache Poenaru published an article titled Engineering Science, in which he wrote a critical analysis of how engineers had been trained until that moment, highlighting the fact that the current volume of theoretical and practical mathematics was sufficient to produce highly trained surveyor engineers, nevertheless they were facing uncertain career prospects

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Fig. 4 Petrache Poenaru

after graduation and some were bound to take other jobs. In 1836 there were 865 students enrolled at the School at Saint Sava Monastery, and 370 students at the other schools in Bucharest. Six years later, in 1842, at the School at Saint Sava Monastery in Bucharest, there were 18 teachers and 657 students, which means about 36–37 students per each teacher. It is worth pointing out that at that time, there were 3,141 students in all the urban schools in Wallachia. During the rule of Gheorghe Bibescu (1843–1848), the Public Works Directorate was organised, with four sections: 1. engineering; 2. roads and bridges; 3. architecture; 4. hydraulic works. The heads of the four sections formed the Committee of the Public Works Directorate. In Moldavia, on 16 June 1836, during the rule of Mihai Sturdza, the Michaelian Academy was opened, which included an engineering and architecture section. It trained civil engineers and plant engineers (the duration of studies was three years). Starting with the fourth decade of the nineteenth century, engineers of different specialisations (other than surveyors), educated abroad, became increasingly available in Wallachia and Moldavia. After the Revolution of 1848, Barbu Dimitrie S, tirbei was appointed Prince of Wallachia and Grigore V Ghica Prince of Moldavia (1849–1856). Barbu Dimitrie S, tirbei designated a commission (comprised of Petrache Poenaru, Simion Marcovici, and C. N. Br˘ailoiu) which, in September 1850, presented the Project for the organisation of national education (in which provisions were made for: primary schools, colleges or gymnasiums, and faculties, one for civil engineering and another for law) (Iorga 1910, 1928). With regard to engineering, the Commission’s project laid down the following terms: ‘Subjects taught in the school of engineering have been combined with the purpose of educating students about the fundamental principles of topography, bridge and road construction, and architecture by learning the mathematical sciences applied to drawing, to measuring, to calculating, to knowing the strength of building materials, to mechanics, and by learning different architectural orders’ (Ionescu 1932).

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Pursuant to the project drawn up by the aforementioned commission and the order issued by Prince S, tirbei, the School of Bridges and Roads was established in 1850 in Bucharest (based on the French model), followed, in 1851, by the School of Arts and Crafts (Ionescu 1932). The curriculum for engineering courses (aimed at training surveyors, civil engineers, and architects) was as follows: First Year: Trigonometry applied to the execution of topographical plans; Mineralogical knowledge of materials; The strength of wood; Descriptive geometry; Everyday topographic and landscape drawing. Second Year: Elements of mechanics applied to different common machines; The principles of building roads and bridges of wood and stone; Architectural principles and different orders with their ornaments. Third Year: Perspective and construction of shadows; Composition in the architecture of civil and religious buildings; Practical operations for executing plans and technical constructions in the above sciences. Fourth Year: Mapmaking; Calculation of operations; Applications and practice. The graduation examination was held in April, and those who obtained the diploma were ‘to join a chief architect or engineer of bridges and roads or a surveyor, depending on the specialisation chosen by each student, in order to gain more practice’ (Ionescu 1932). The commission for the organisation of national education system proposed that only those who present diploma for completing the civil engineering should be accepted for the position of bridge and road engineer, or architectural engineer, or surveyor engineer. The schools open on 8 January 1851. Because of the scarcity of candidates at the ‘Faculty of Engineers’, the Board of Schools accepted, without an admission competition, the graduates of former complementary classes of further education, who had to sit nevertheless an exam in arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. The Board of Schools (P. Poenaru, S. Marcovici, A. Filipescu, I. Florescu and D. R. Arsaki) announced that the vacant teaching positions were open for applicants in April 1851; substitute teachers were used until that time. One of the professors brought by the Prince to teach physics and chemistry was Alexe Marin. At the Faculty of Civil Engineering, the vocational classes were re-established. Those teaching there included P. Plavid for algebra; G. Pop for geometry; Alexe Marin for physics and chemistry (Ionescu 1932). Due to the long duration of engineering education, as an initial step bridge and road operatives were trained, whose instruction was more focused on practical than theoretical knowledge. The Faculty of Civil Engineering at the College of Saint Sava Monastery enrolled 15 students in October 1851. Professor Alexandru Or˘ascu was the person teaching the descriptive geometry course. In fact, the Faculty of Civil Engineering was the same as the School of Bridges and Roads, where I. Constantinescu was appointed professor of mechanics on 10 December 1851. The graduates of the Engineering School of Wallachia were examined, at the end of their studies, by both teachers and specialists from the Public Works Directorate or other organisations within the Ministry of Public Works, who were almost entirely trained abroad. Noting that the engineering education was ‘essentially treading water’ with regard to the organisation, on a solid foundation, of the Corps of Bridges and Roads and Technical Services of the State, Prince Barbu S, tirbei used his personal connections in the French Government to request that a skilled and experienced engineer be sent

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to carry out this organisation (Ionescu 1932). To this end, the French Government sent to Wallachia the engineer Louis Chrétien Léon Lalanne (Fig. 5), a graduate of the National School of Bridges and Roads in Paris. Léon Lalanne had extensive experience, he had executed numerous works, had been part of multiple technical and administrative services, etc. He arrived in Wallachia in 1852 and was entrusted with the Directorate of Public Works, established in the same year. He also became a member of the Board of Roads (Eforia Drumurilor). Among other responsibilities, Léon Lalanne was tasked with overseeing the application school that was to be organised, in agreement with the Board of Schools, for the purpose of teaching special classes pertaining to technical works. Thus, Léon Lalanne founded, in 1852, the first School of Conductors for Public Works. Seeing the shortage of highly trained technical professionals in Wallachia, Léon Lalanne asked for engineers to be brought from abroad. The School of Conductors for Public Works, founded by Léon Lalanne, continued its activity after Léon Lalanne returned to France in August 1853. In 1854 the School had 26 students (13 in the branch of bridges and roads, 4 in mining, and 9 in forestry). The school remained active for eight years, until the years 1858/ 1859. Léon Lalanne carried out remarkable work for the development of engineering in Wallachia, showing that engineering and superficiality don’t go well together. Léon Lalanne’s activity in Wallachia lasted about two years (1952–1954), but left a profound mark on the establishment of technological education in Romania. The School of Bridges and Roads, which offered a three-year programme of civil engineering, began its activity in 1855 and was disestablished in 1858; the graduates became technical conductors. The school’s teachers included Or˘ascu for the subject of descriptive geometry, E. Constantinescu for the subject of analytical geometry, A. Gisel for geographical works, and St. Lespezeanu for topographic surveys, etc. Fig. 5 Louis Chrétien Léon Lalanne

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The 1864 Law of Public Instruction, the first education law adopted by the Romanian national state, was the work of Alexandru Ioan Cuza (1859–1866), the first ruler of the newly formed Romania (Giurescu 2000). It was a democratic document, in particular due to the fact that primary education was declared general, compulsory, and free. In 1860, the University of Ias, i was established. On 8 October 1863, the Higher School of Sciences was established in Bucharest, followed on 30 October 1863 by the Higher School of Letters, which were both aimed at training teachers. On 4 July 1864, the two schools of higher education were merged and formed the University of Bucharest. With regard to engineering, in 1862 the Regulation for the organisation of the corps of civil engineers was established, which outlined the divisions of public works, the hierarchy of engineers correlated with their wages, the criteria for promotions, etc. On 28 July 1864, Mihail Kog˘alniceanu (the minister of Interior, Agriculture, and Public Works) established a school of special experts (technical conductors) for the management of public works that were started daily and required specialists in bridges and roads, mining, etc. On 1 October 1864, Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza ordered the establishment of the School of Bridges and Roads, Mines, and Architecture. It was supposed to provide a two-year study programme, but the abdication of Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza on 11/23 February 1866 led to the change of government and significant reductions in the funding for technical services, and the school was closed down. Pursuant to the decree issued by Prince Carol I on 30 October 1867, it reopened under the name of School of Bridges, Roads, and Mines (Berindei 1992). The study programme had a duration of five years and the following structure: Foundation year: Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry, Elementary Physics, Drawing. First Year: Descriptive geometry, Differential and integral calculus, Physics, Analytical geometry, Drawing. Second Year: Applications of descriptive geometry, Chemistry, Analytical mechanics, Drawing. Third Year: Applied Mechanics, Constructions, Mineralogy and Geology, Industrial Physics, Geodesy, Drawing. Fourth year (1), the Bridges and Roads Section: Roads, Bridges, Railways, Industrial Architecture, Geodesy, Drawing. Fourth year (2), the Mining Section: Applied Chemistry, Metallurgy, Mining, Administrative Law, Political Economy, Projects, Drawing. Under this organisation, the school began its activity on 8 November 1867 and it was subordinated to the Ministry of Interior, Agriculture, and Public Works. Meanwhile, at the request of the Minister, the teachers of the school together with the engineers D. Frunz˘a and S. Yorceanu (a graduate of the National School of Bridges and Roads in Paris) prepared a project for a School of conductors offering a three-year study programme. Minister Panait Donici, assisted by S. Yorceanu, named the three-year school the School of Bridges and Roads, which trained specialists for conducting surveys and for the management and execution of public works related to communication routes, construction of civil buildings, and exploitation of mines (Ionescu 1932). Graduates of this school were granted the title of ‘class III conductor’. The school was declared ‘permanent’. The duration of courses was three years, each year lasting from 1 October to 1 May in the following year. This School of conductors, under the name of School of Bridges and Roads, continued to function in good conditions from 1868 to 1875, being led by the following directors: Captain Peiu (March

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1868-October 1868); Colonel Carol Begeanu (October 1868–April 1873); engineer Alexandru Poienaru (April 1873–October 1875). In Moldavia, the organisation of the first establishment for higher education in engineering took place in 1849, when Gheorghe Asachi founded in Ias, i the Application School for Engineers and Conductors. The school regulations approved by Prince Grigore Alexandru Ghica on 1 January 1851 stipulate that engineering courses, upon completion of which the title of ‘civil engineer’ would be granted, were to be organised at the Michaelian Academy, at Section II of the Faculty of Philosophy. However, after the establishment of the University of Ias, i in 1860, the attempts to introduce certain engineering disciplines in 1870, 1876, and 1891 proved unsuccessful (Irimiciuc 2007). It became evident that the attempts to build a school of higher level engineers had grinded to a halt, however eventually some very good schools of conductors were established. This was the period defined by a tenacious pursuit to raise the current schools of conductors to the level of engineering schools. The transformation, which can be qualified as a success, took place in the years 1875 to 1876. Thus, on 23 July 1875, Theodor Rosetti, Minister of Public Works, called upon the School of Bridges and Roads (which trained technical conductors) to convene the Board of Instruction in order to revise the school regulations and curriculum and to expand the courses so as to become a school of engineering (Ionescu 1932). They submitted an initial proposal for a four-year study programme, with the following structure: First Year: Descriptive geometry applied to stereotomy and stone-cutting; Higher algebra and analytical geometry; Topography; Levelling and introduction to geodesy; Drawing; French; German. Second Year: Technology and fundamentals of construction of buildings and machines in general; General Physics and Chemistry; Construction of roads and bridges; Mineralogy and geology; Graphic works and drawing of plans and sketches; French; German. Third Year: Introduction to differential and integral calculus; Analytical mechanics; Architecture; Civil and industrial constructions; Industrial physics and chemistry; Introduction to administrative law; Political and industrial economics; Geographical works and projects; French; German. Fourth Year: Strength of materials and hydraulics; Construction and operation of railways; Metallurgy and mining, Projects and estimates; French; German. This programme was first applied during the 1875/1876 academic year. Nine departments were created and the vacancies were occupied by the following teachers: E. Bacaloglu, I. G. Cantacuzino, Al. Duperrex, Sp. Yorceanu, Al. Poienaru, Constantin Zeucianu, and Alfons O. Saligny. Graduates who had completed two years in compliance with the applicable standards could terminate their studies and received the title of conductor. Those who successfully completed the four years were granted the title of engineer. After the Russian/Romanian-Turkish war of 1877–1878, which resulted in Romania gaining its independence, the country’s financial situation grew significantly worse. One solution used for he purpose of savings was that students enrolled at the School of Bridges and Roads attend at the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Bucharest all courses that were shared by the two institutions. On 1 April 1878, the School of Bridges and Roads returned to the Ministry of Public Works and Mathei M. Dr˘aghiceanu was appointed director of the school. During the time he held

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this position (1878–1880), Mathei M. Dr˘aghiceanu drew up the school’s regulations and added mining courses. This period of growth of the country’s first engineering school was concurrent with certain events that encouraged the development of engineering: on 3 March 1868, the Law of Roads was promulgated, which opened up a broad field of activity for bridge and road engineers; the first specialised book, titled Manual pentru construct, ia drumurilor s, i a podurilor (Manual for the construction of roads and bridges) was published (authored by professor Spiridon Yorceanu); the ‘Regulation for the organisation of the Romanian Technical Corps by degrees and classes’ was drafted by Professor S. Yorceanu (based on the French model); on 6 March 1868, the ‘Regulation for marking and establishing boundaries’ was promulgated, which was regarded as a setback; the Romanian state favoured Romanian engineers to operate the railways, which were built in compliance with the provisions a law adopted on 17 March 1865 stating that ‘Public works of any kind will be executed under concession by companies and capitalists whose advanced capital will be refunded by means of percentages and returns on investment’. Attempts were made to establish engineer associations and the first long-standing technical association, the ‘Polytechnic Society of Romania’ was finally founded in 1881. Under the coordination of C. Ol˘anescu, the Bulletin of the Polytechnic Society was first published in 1886. The number of graduates of the School of Bridges and Roads (technical conductors and engineers) for the 1871–1881 period is given in Table 1. It can be stated that Romania came to have a good school of engineers in the late eighth decade of the nineteenth century, but produced very few engineers as compared to the efforts made. During this period, when the Romanian Principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia) were striving to create a school of engineers on par with those in Western European countries, it can be noted that the second half of the nineteenth century brought the final triumph of industrialisation. The Engineer is seen as the central figure of industrialisation and industrial development. The industrialisation of a country requires that the economy be governed by capitalist relations. For several centuries prior to the nineteenth century, the Romanian economy was oriented towards Constantinople and the Ottoman monopoly was readily apparent in the pre-emption rights granted to Ottoman traders over the Romanian products. After Carol I took the throne, he continued the modernisation of the Romanian economy (Oprit, escu 2005; Iorga 2011; Urechia and 1901), and managed to sever Romania’s reliance on the Ottoman economic system. The measures implemented during this period by the government led by I. C. Br˘atianu (1876–1888) for the protection of the Romanian industry are noteworthy: the customs tariff applied on 17 May 1886; the 1887 law concerning the ‘General measures to help the national industry’. The Table 1 Number of graduates of the School of Bridges and Roads from 1871 to 1881 Series (year)

1871 1872 1873 1874–1877

Number of graduates 5

4

1

1878 1879 1880 1881

13 (on average 3 per 16 year)

6

5

0

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development of local industry gathered a rapid pace, in particular in the food, forestry, and extraction sectors. A spectacular growth was also seen in terms of oil extraction and processing, as well as construction of roads and railways.

2.2 The Coming of Age of Romanian Technical Education (1881–1948) On 14 March 1881, Romania was proclaimed a Kingdom and on 10 May the same year, Carol I was crowned King of Romania. On 1 April 1881, engineer Gheorghe I. Duca (Fig. 6) was put in charge of the ‘School of Bridges and Roads’. He was the one to lead, develop, and raise the school to the level of Western European schools for bridge and road engineering (Popescu and Dumitrache 2014). In 1881 the name of the school was changed to The National School of Bridges and Roads. Due to the need for specialisation, curriculum plans were drawn so as to include a thorough scientific training (mathematics, physics, chemistry), specialised courses, and practical applications that were necessary for engineers in general and for bridge and road engineers in particular. Thus, Gh. I. Duca applied two principles: first, he discarded the idea of ‘training universal engineers’ and instead he organised a school aimed at ‘training engineers for the State’s public services’, seeking to enrol only highly qualified candidates. The following curriculum was introduced: First Year: Differential and integral calculus; Stereotomy; Physics; Chemistry; Topography; Mineralogy; Geology; Drawing. Second Year: Rational mechanics; Civil Engineering; Roads; Metallurgy; Industrial physics; Graphic Statics; Drawing. Third Year: Strength of Materials; Bridges; Civil Engineering; Iron Roads; Machinery; Graphic Statics; Hydraulics; Projects. Fourth Year: Iron Roads; Strength of Materials; Hydraulics; Navigation; Bridges; Steam Engines; Fig. 6 Gheorghe I. Duca

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Political Economy; Administrative Law; Projects. During the summer, first year students were completing their practical training in topography, and second, third, and fourth year students practiced applied engineering works for railways, both in surveying and construction stages. Due to the excellent teaching staff, to the thorough selection of future students during the admission process, and to the disciplinary measures that had been put in place for students, the National School of Bridges and Roads had some brilliant achievements during Gheorghe I. Duca’s term. Gheorghe I. Duca endeavoured to build the school’s own venue and in 1884, a loan of 800,000 lei was obtained for this purpose. The school’s premises were built at the intersection of Polizu Street and Calea Grivit, ei (Fig. 7). In October 1886, the new building (Wing A) of the National School of Bridges and Roads was inaugurated in the presence of King Carol I (Popescu and Dumitrache 2014). After the departure of Gheorghe I. Duca, on 1 April 1888, Scarlat Vârnav (an alumnus of the Central School of Art and Manufacture in Paris) was appointed director of the National School of Bridges and Roads. He continued the work started by Gh. I. Duca. Thus, he expanded the school’s premises with new buildings, he developed the laboratories and the museum, he enhanced the library due to donations (for the most part), he set up the workshop for the repair of technical instruments. Noting the emerging need for mechanical engineers, he also introduced a machinery course. The most important accomplishment of Scarlat Vârnav as director of the National School of Bridges and Roads was to place it on equal footing with major schools abroad. Thus, in 1890, graduates of the National School of Bridges and Roads were granted the right to be admitted to the Technical Corps of the State and hold

Fig. 7 The building of the National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest, inaugurated in 1886

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a rank of ordinary class III engineers, same as graduates of major foreign schools. Thus, the prestige of the Romanian engineering school became widely known across Europe. In 1889, director Vârnav published for the first time the extended curriculum for the school’s courses, which was 286-page long and showed that the National School of Bridges and Roads had risen to the high standard set by similar schools abroad. On 1 January 1892, Constantin Sturza was appointed director of the National School of Bridges and Roads. He was also a graduate of the Central School of Art and Manufacture in Paris and had worked in the field of railway construction. Constantin Sturza’s leadership followed the same principles laid out by his predecessors Gh. I. Duca and Scarlat Vârnav. On 23 March 1898, while Spiru Haret was the Minister of Ministry of Public Education and Religious Affairs, the Law on Secondary and Higher Education was promulgated. The National School of Bridges and Roads was subordinated to the Ministry of Public Works. This law was beneficial for the National School of Bridges and Roads: high school was organised in 8 grade-levels, with two paths of study, classical and exact sciences (the first four classes formed the gymnasium); university vacancies were filled through a contest-based procedure, and rectors and deans were appointed by decree for a limited time (three years for rectors, who were appointed from among three candidates selected by the University Council, and two years for deans, who were appointed from among three candidates selected by the Faculty Council). Director Constantin Sturza passed away at the beginning of July 1899 and the management of the school was entrusted to Grigore Cerchez until 12 August 1899, when Constantin M. Mironescu was appointed director, while also maintaining his membership in the Technical Council. Constantin M. Mironescu assumed leadership of the National School of Bridges and Roads in difficult times, during the crisis of the early twentieth century. He was asked to retire teachers, to eliminate positions, both teachers and civil servants, to cut down on laboratory spending, etc. The School of Bridge and Road Conductors was disestablished and then re-opened in 1907. In 1906 a new ‘Regulation of the National School of Bridges and Roads’ was drawn up. During Constantin Mironescu’s directorate, the first yearbooks of the National School of Bridges and Roads were published, one for 1903–1904 and another for 1905–1906, which helped inform the general public about the School’s work. These yearbooks included: school regulations; interior organisation; programmes; lists of teachers and graduates. On 1 April 1915, Professor Emil Balaban, a graduate of the Faculty of Sciences, University of Bucharest, and of the National School of Bridges and Roads in Paris (1880–1884), was appointed director of the National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest, a position that he held until 1919. He also served as director of the National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest in difficult times, namely during the First World War and the post-war state of disarray. In 1915, the Regulations for appointing tenured professors at the National School of Bridges and Roads were drawn up. On 20 February 1920, Professor Nicolae Vasilescu-Karpen (Fig. 8), an alumnus of the Paris School of Electricity and a graduate of Physical Sciences at the University

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Fig. 8 Nicolae Vasilescu-Karpen

of Paris, was appointed director (from 1 October 1919 to 20 February 1920, the school’s management had been entrusted to Professor Grigore Cerchez). Courses that had been held in Ias, i since 1916 were stopped on 1 September 1918 and then reopened in Bucharest in October 1918. Starting in the autumn of 1919, the National School of Bridges and Roads was able to resume its normal activities (Popescu and Dumitrache 2014). At the end of the First World War, following the Paris Peace Treaty signed in Paris, Romania was unified with the Romanian provinces of Basarabia, Bucovina, Banat, Transylvania, Cris, ana and Maramures, , which had been under the control of foreign empires before the war. This created new problems related to engineering students from the provinces that had been incorporated in Romania, students who, prior to the war, had attended schools in the territories belonging to the Central Powers (Germany and Austria-Hungary) and had not graduated yet (as was the case of Transylvania, Banat, and Bucovina). Those students were allowed to continue their studies at the National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest. Also, there were engineering students in Basarabia who had attended technical schools in Russia, for example, engineering in studies in Kharkiv. On 3 March 1919, the Professorial Council of the National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest decided: ‘To accept the principle that, for admission into the school, female candidates will be taken into consideration on equal term as male candidates’. And so it was that in 1919 the gates of the National School of Bridges and Roads were open to female students of engineering as well. In 1919–1920, the National School of Bridges and Roads continued to operate on the previous pre-war foundations. Professor Nicolae Vasilescu-Karpen pursued, as a priority, the drafting of a law for the transformation of the National School of Bridges and Roads into the Polytechnic School, a task that was completed successfully through the Decree-Law issued by King Ferdinand I on 10 June 1920. Thus, in October 1920, the Polytechnic School of Bucharest held its first courses. Only third and fourth year students remained to

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complete their studies at the National School of Bridges and Roads, while the others were distributed, based on their options, to different sections of the Polytechnic School of Bucharest. The number of graduates of the National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest, in the period 1882–1923 ranged between 4 (in 1882) and 41 (in 1919). Students had to meet particularly stringent criteria in order to be granted the title of engineer, therefore only about a third of those who completed the courses obtained the title of engineer in the same year. Due to the wish to expand university education to include applications at the University of Ias, i, at the initiative of Professor Dragomir Hurmuzescu (1865–1954), the School of Industrial Electricity started its activity officially on 1 November 1910, attached to the Faculty of Sciences. In 1912, the School of Industrial Electricity from Ias, i became by law the Electrotechnical Institute. Thus, the year 1912 is regarded as the beginning of the history of higher education in the field of electrical engineering in Romania. During the same period, without considerable delay, specialisations of university engineers were introduced at the University of Bucharest. Thus, in 1906, in addition to the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Bucharest, the Institute of Chemistry was established, with the following specialisations: Industrial Chemistry, Food Chemistry, and Agricultural Chemistry. In 1913, in addition to the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Bucharest, the Electrotechnical Institute of the University was created, led by Professor Dragomir Hurmuzescu, who had transferred from the University of Ias, i to the University of Bucharest. This institute remained active until 1938, when it was incorporated into the Polytechnic of Bucharest. In 1914, the Institute of Technological Chemistry was established at the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Bucharest, which probably originated from the Specialisation of Industrial Chemistry of the Institute of Chemistry. The Institute of Technological Chemistry was transformed in 1919 into the Institute of Industrial Chemistry, led by Professor Negoit, a˘ D˘an˘ail˘a (1878–1953). The Institute of Industrial Chemistry attached to the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Bucharest was assimilated by the Polytechnic of Bucharest in 1938, when it merged with the Industrial Section of the Polytechnic School of Bucharest and thus formed the Faculty of Industrial Chemistry of the Polytechnic of Bucharest. It can be stated that the National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest was not a monotechnic school, as the name might suggest, but instead was a school with a polytechnic type of education because it trained engineers in various specialisations, namely in the field of urban works, constructions, mining and oil, etc. In fact, this allowed for an easy transformation into the Polytechnic School of Bucharest at the end of the second decade of the twentieth century. As soon as he was appointed director of the National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest on 10 February 1920, Professor Nicolae Vasilescu-Karpen began work on drafting the law for the transformation of the National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest into the Polytechnic School of Bucharest. The Decree-Law no. 2521 issued on 10 June 1920 by King Ferdinand I of Romania approved the establishment and organisation of the Polytechnic Schools of Romania. The purpose of polytechnic schools, which were

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subordinated to the Ministry of Public Works, was to train engineers. Also, the same Decree-Law stipulated that other schools will be established in other cities of the country and will be organised similarly to the first polytechnic school, which had been established by expanding and transforming the National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest, which became the Polytechnic School of Bucharest. The aforementioned decree provided the content of the curriculum of polytechnic schools, their administration and management, the structure of the teaching and administrative personnel (appointment, activities, disciplinary regulations), the activity of school students (from recruitment to graduation), exams, certificates, diplomas, school facilities (laboratories, workshops, other institutions ancillary to polytechnic schools), fees, legacies, donations, revenues, administration of funds, and transitional provisions. For its application, several provisions were made in relation to the establishment of the Polytechnic School of Bucharest. In a first stage, the Polytechnic School of Bucharest was comprised of four sections, namely the Constructions Section; the Electromechanical Section; the Mining Section; the Industrial Section. In addition to these sections, in the period 1920–1930 the following subsections were also established: the Telegraphy and Telephony Subsection, organised in 1924, attached to the Electromechanical Section; Subsection of Surveyors and Cadastre Engineers, established in 1926; the Aviation Subsection, established in 1929, as a result of the increasing importance of aviation as a means of rapid communication, in combat, etc. The study programme at the Polytechnic School included scientific studies, which formed the basis of the proper technical education, which included two categories of courses: general courses necessary for engineers of any specialisation, and specialised technical courses. Knowledge was acquired through lessons, lectures, drawings, assignments, practical projects in laboratories and workshops, practice (on construction sites or in plants, factories, mines) and scientific trips. In addition to scientific and technical education, there were also courses focused on economic and administrative issues: political economy, law, accounting, trade, business organisation, etc. Throughout its entire existence (1920–1938), the director of the Polytechnic School of Bucharest was Professor Nicolae Vasilescu-Karpen. Admission to the Polytechnic School in Bucharest was based on a competition, depending on availability (amphitheatres, project rooms, laboratories, etc.) and based on a minimal level of knowledge that was required for the student to make good use of the school’s courses. The year 1930 was a jubilee year for the Polytechnic School of Bucharest, which celebrated 75 years of technical education in Romania (1850 was the year when the School of Bridges and Roads was established, within which the School of Conductors for Public Works was founded in 1852 by Louis Chrétien Léon Lalanne; 50 years since the School of Bridges and Road was reorganised intro The National School of Bridges and Roads (in 1881), and 10 years since the establishment of the Polytechnic School of Bucharest (10 June 1920). That year, the Professorial Council of the Polytechnic School of Bucharest was comprised of 145 teachers, specifically: 45 teaching staff (of which, four honorary professors; 33 tenured professors; one full-time temporary professor, one foreign professor, and six substitute teachers); 24 lecturers (10 tenured full-time lecturers; 7 temporary full-time lecturers, and 7 substitute lecturers), and

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60 assistants (20 permanent full-time assistants; 10 temporary full-time assistants and 30 substitute assistants). There were 16 more persons in charge of conferences. Taking into account five years of study, it follows that there were 8–10 students for each teaching position. In the 1920–1930 period, the number of students of the Polytechnic was 7729, with fluctuations from year to year, from 268 (in 1930) to 910 (in 1925) There were 857 graduates in the aforementioned period (approximately 11% of the total number of students). This reflects the very stringent standards of the school. With regard to the duration of studies, the data is a as follows: two completed their studies after four years; 86 after four and a half years; 177 after five years; 180 after five and a half years; 130 after six years, 95 after six and a half years, 54 after seven years, 28 after seven and a half years, 40 after eight years, 21 after eight and a half years, 8 after nine years, 4 after nine and a half years, 8 after 10 years, 1 after 10.5 years and 1 after 12 years. The number of students who completed, in the same 1920–1930 period, the four-year programme of study, but had not yet obtained the diploma due to incomplete exams, projects, or practical works, was 508. Most of the funding of the Polytechnic School of Bucharest was from the state. It also received donations for laboratories (from the National Society of Industrial Credit, Country Textile Industry, the Society of Friends of Polytechnic Schools, the Autonomous CFR Administration, the Ministry of Industry and Commerce, the Regional Directorate of Bistrit, a, and the Citizenship Cooperative). On 7 May 1931, the Polytechnic School of Bucharest was renamed, with a festivity, the ‘King Carol II’ Polytechnic School of Bucharest. In April 1932, the ‘Law on the organisation of university education’ was promulgated, which provided that:—the rector was to be elected for five years by the tenured professors and associate professors of the respective university; the election required a simple majority;—rectors and deans could be elected only once consecutively;— the faculty was comprised of tenured professors, associate professors, and lecturers, and the as assistant teaching staff was comprised of heads of sections, supervisors, expert chemists, lecturers, assistants, and instructors. It should be noted that in Chapter VII of the law (Transitional provisions, Article 85), it is stipulated that the engineering sections of universities shall remain as they are until the ‘Law on the reorganisation of higher technical education’ will provide a more consolidated structure. In 1934 there was an extensive debate in the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies on how to amend the law on the organisation of university education, so as to concentrate technical higher education in polytechnics. On 15 June 1934, the ‘King Carol II’ Polytechnic School of Bucharest is approved the right to grant the scientific title of Doctor of Engineering. From 1934 to 1948, doctoral theses were completed under the supervision of the following professors: Traian Negrescu, Costin Nenit, escu, Emil Filipescu, Aurel Beles, , Nicolae-Vasilescu-Karpen, Ion S. Gheorghiu, Negoit, a˘ D˘an˘ail˘a, S, erban Solacolu. In 1936, the ‘King Carol II’ Polytechnic School of Bucharest awarded the first doctoral degree in engineering to Woltan J. Grook from Stanford University (CA, USA), who, under the supervision of Professor Traian Negrescu, defended his doctoral thesis titled Recherces experimentales sur le constituitif mineralogique, et sur l’action chimique de scorier de

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l’elaborative de l’acier. Starting with the academic year 1935–1936, the ‘King Carol II’ Polytechnic School of Bucharest had six sections: Constructions, Electromechanics, Mining, Industrial, Forestry, Aeronautics, as well as Cadastral Surveying (Popescu and Dumitrache 2014). The Decree-Law no. 2521 of 10 June 1920 outlined the organisation and instructional content of polytechnic schools in Romania. Thus, the intention of the Romanian leadership was to set up new polytechnic schools, in addition to the Polytechnic School in Bucharest. During 1906–1917, attempts were made to establish a Polytechnic School in Timis, oara. After the First World War, at the insistence of the mayor of Timis, oara, Stan Vidrighin, the Governing Council of Transylvania approved the establishment of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara on 15 October 1920, allocating one million lei for this purpose. The Decree no. 44822, issued by the Governing Council, was countersigned by King Ferdinand I on the date of 11 November 1920, which thus became the birthday of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara (R˘adoi 1960). The courses began on 29 November with 15 teachers and 117 students (89 enrolled in first year and 28 in the foundation year). The faculty members included: Traian Lalescu (Fig. 9) (Mathematical Analysis), who also served as rector, Constantin C. Teodorescu (Strength of Materials and Theoretical Mechanics), Victor Vlad (Descriptive Geometry), Constantin Cândea (Chemistry), among others. The building of the primary school where the courses were held during the first year of existence of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara is still the property of the Polytechnic University of Timis, oara, the current successor of the Polytechnic School. In 1923, work began on the construction of the first sections of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara on Mihai Viteazul Boulevard. They were inaugurated in the presence of King Ferdinand I on 11 November 1923. In the beginning (1920), the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara (R˘adoi 1960) offered two specialisations: Electromechanics (Mechanics and Electricity) and Mining-Metallurgy. In 1921 the first issue of the Yearbook of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara was published; the first series of public conferences on scientific and general knowledge topics was launched; the Society of Students of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara was established and the Mathematical Magazine (Revista Matematic˘a) of Timis, oara (RMT) was founded. The year 1923 saw the inauguration of the Mechanics Hall, the establishment of the Scientific Society of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara, which published in 1925 the first issue of the Bulletin Scientifique de l’Ecole Politehnique de Timis, oara. In 1924, the engineering degree was awarded to the first graduating class. In 1925, the Department of Electricity was established at the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara, led by Professor Plaut, ius Andronescu, who had returned from Switzerland where he had held the position of private lecturer at the Polytechnic of Zürich. In 1927, the first Congress of Engineers was organised with the participation of graduates of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara. Romania’s first Society of Chemistry was founded in 1929 as part of the Polytechnic of Timis, oara. In 1933, due to the increasing number of students, two distinct faculties were created within the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara: The Faculty of Electro-Mechanical Engineering and the Faculty of Mining and Metallurgy. In 1935, the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara was taken into consideration with a view to be given the right to grant the title of Doctor of Engineering, a

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Fig. 9 Traian Lalescu

motion that was approved by the Professional Development Council in 1937. The first title of Doctor of Engineering granted by the Polytechnic of Timis, oara was awarded to S, tefan N˘ad˘as, an for his work in the field of strength of materials (under the supervision of C. C. Teodorescu). During its existence (1920–1938), the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara had the following rectors: Traian Lalescu (1920–1921), Stan Vidigrin (July–October 1921), Victor Vâlcovici (1921–1930), Victor Blasin (1930–1933), Constantin C. Teodorescu (1934–1939) (Sabata and Munteanu 1993). The building of the rectorate of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara, located in the central area of the city, is shown in Fig. 10 (Sabata and Andea 2001). In the city of Cluj, the inception and development of technical education followed a completely different path as compared to Bucharest, Ias, i, and Timis, oara. In the history of Cluj, the second half of the nineteenth century was a time of economic prosperity. In 1884, the Workshops for the construction, wood, and iron industry carried out their activity in Cluj and, with a view to contribute to their development, the Special Industrial School of Cluj was established and opened on 27 July 1884 (Nistor 1998). It was comprised of three sections: architecture, carpentry, and mechanics. The duration of the courses was three years. In 1887 the Central School of Technical Drawing was founded. During that same year, the groundwork was laid for a Transylvanian museum of industry, namely the Technological Industrial Museum, which was aimed at cultivating the public’s interest in technology and its products (inaugurated on 26 December 1888). The School of Technical Drawing and the Technological Industrial Museum were both attached to the Industrial Technical School, which in 1887 was renamed the Special Industrial School of Cluj, which now offered a four-year study programme. The graduates were considered foremen and were entitled to open their own workshops after a one-year period of practice. In 1899, the building of the ‘Franz Joseph’ Museum of Industry and Technology (today, the main building of the Faculty of Electrical Engineering) was inaugurated (Nistor 1998). It was moved to a new building in 1904, the Establishment of the

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Fig. 10 The building of the rectorate of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara

Technological Museum (today, the main building of the Faculty of Civil Engineering of the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca) (Fig. 11). This was also the building that hosted the former Higher School of Industry (Special School of Industry), which was requisitioned by the Romanian State on 5 April 1919, after the unification of the country. In 1919, the Higher Industrial School was established and opened its courses on 1 February 1920, at the same time with the festive inauguration of the University of Dacia Superior. The school was successively renamed, initially the Higher School of Arts and Crafts, and then the Technical Secondary School. On 2 October 1922, the School of Technical Conductors was inaugurated in Cluj. It was the only school with an electromechanical profile in Romania and is considered the forerunner of the Technical University of Cluj. Another school whose activity was intertwined with the existence of the School of Technical Conductors, as the two institutions influenced each other throughout their existence, was the School of Conductors for Public Works, which had its beginnings in Cluj in 1920. This school was focused on roads and bridges and was called, for a while, the School of Bridges and Roads. It can be regarded as a true precursor of the Faculty of Civil Engineering of the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca. The School of Technical Conductors and the School of Conductors for Public Works were on equal levels in terms of student quality. In 1936, the School of Conductors for Public Works in Cluj was transferred to Bucharest, where it will become the School for Junior Engineers in Public Works.

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Fig. 11 The building of the Higher School of Industry in Cluj Napoca

The School of Technical Conductors became, in 1937, the School for Junior Engineers in Electromechanics. In 1940, as a consequence of the Second Vienna Award, this school was forced to move from Cluj to Timis, oara, where it continued its activity until 1945. From 1928 to 1946, the director of this school was Traian Dragos, , an outstanding specialist with strong organisational skills and remarkable innovative and design activities. The establishments of higher technical education which trained university engineers, institutions of higher electrotechnical education, applied chemistry, and agronomic education, attached to the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Ias, i (Fig. 12), as well as the Electrotechnical Institute of the University, the Institute of Industrial Chemistry, and the Institute of Agricultural Chemistry attached to the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Bucharest, continued to operate until 1938 (Irimiuciuc 2001). As previously mentioned, in 1932 the Law for the organisation of university education was promulgated, followed in 1938 by the promulgation of the Law for the amendment and completion of the laws concerning higher and special education for the purpose of rationalisation. According to these laws, higher education was provided in Universities, Polytechnics, Academies of Higher Commercial and Industrial Studies, and Special Higher Schools (archiving, physical education, etc.). Pursuant to the Royal Decree of 4 November 1938, the title of engineer can be obtained only after graduating from a polytechnic (in other words, technical higher

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Fig. 12 The building of the University of Ias, i, which initially housed the Polytechnic

education witnessed a shift from a unified diverse system to a unified uniform educational system!). Starting with 1938, the higher technical education in Romania was represented by three polytechnics: The ‘King Carol II’ Polytechnic of Bucharest (after 1940, the Polytechnic of Bucharest), the Polytechnic of Timis, oara, and the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic of Ias, i (Irimiuciuc 2001). The ‘King Carol II’ Polytechnic of Bucharest was established through the Royal Decree of 3 December 1938, which also appointed the following positions, as of 1 December 1938: Niculae Vasilescu Karpen, rector of the ‘Carol II’ Polytechnic of Bucharest; Dionisie Germani, dean of the Faculty of Civil Engineering; Constantin Bus, il˘a, dean of the Faculty of Mechanics and Electricity; Gheorghe Macovei, dean of the Faculty of Mining and Metallurgy; Negoit, a˘ D˘an˘ail˘a, dean of the Faculty of Industrial Chemistry; Gheorghe Stinghe, dean of the Faculty of Silviculture. Specialisation groups were established within each faculty of the ‘Carol II’ Polytechnic of Bucharest. For instance, the Faculty of Mechanics and Electricity included the following specialisations: Mechanics, Aviation, Weaponry, Naval Technology, Electrical Engineering, Electrical Communications. Following the abdication of King Carol II, the ‘Carol II’ Polytechnic of Bucharest changed its name to the Polytechnic of Bucharest. On 9 October 1940, Professor Eugen Chirnoaga from the Faculty of Industrial Chemistry was appointed rector, replacing Professor Nicolae VasilescuKarpen, and Professor Ion Cantuniari was appointed dean of the Faculty of Mechanics and Electricity, replacing Professor Constantin Bus, il˘a, who had become minister of Communications. On 27 January 1941, Professor Constantin C. Teodorescu was appointed rector of the Polytechnic of Bucharest. He held this position until 13 October 1944. During the existence of the Polytechnic of Bucharest (1938–1948) the number of students ranged from 2500 to 3400. During the dictatorial regime of Ion

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Antonescu, young Jewish students were banned from attending schools, irrespective of level. Under this repression imposed by Germany, educational activities included technical training courses, led by engineer Martin Bercovici; the Jewish School of Technology (known at that time in academic circles by the name of ‘Bercovici Polytechnic’), a unique institution in the parts of Europe where Nazi-like legislation was enforced. The school was active from 11 December 1940 to 23 August 1944. In 1942, the ‘Bercovici Polytechnic’ had reached a total of 50 teachers and 943 students. After 23 August 1944, when Romania joined the Allies, all certificates and diplomas issued by Jewish private schools were recognised by the Romanian Senate. By the Decree-Law of 29 September 1944, the restrictions against Jewish students enrolling in schools were repealed. By the Decree of 13 October 1944, the rector of the Polytechnic of Bucharest and the deans of the faculties of the Polytechnic of Bucharest were appointed. Nicolae Cior˘anescu, rector of the Polytechnic of Bucharest; Niculae Profiri, dean of the Faculty of Civil Engineering; on S. Gheorghiu, dean of the Faculty of Mechanics and Electricity; Traian Negrescu, dean of the Faculty of Mining and Metallurgy; Costin Nenit, escu, dean of the Faculty of Industrial Chemistry; Constantin Georgescu, dean of the Faculty of Silviculture; Grigore Ionescu, dean of the Faculty of Architecture; Traian S˘avulescu, dean of the Faculty of Agronomy. In the autumn of 1944, the Public Education Cleansing Committees began their activity against those regarded as Nazi collaborators and, as a result, five professors were removed (Mihail Manoilescu, Eugen Chirnoaga, Constantin Iotzu, Constantin Bus, il˘a, and Negoit, a˘ D˘an˘ail˘a). On 21 December 1945, Professor Petre Sergescu was appointed rector of the Polytechnic of Bucharest, replacing Professor Nicolae Cior˘anescu who had resigned, and in 1946 Professor Niculae Petrulian was appointed rector to replace Professor Petre Sergescu (who had emigrated to France). On 23 July 1945, the ‘Central Library’ of the Polytechnic of Bucharest was established (Popescu and Dumitrache 2014). The Polytechnic of Timis, oara was founded on 3 December 1938 as a result of the transformation of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara. The Polytechnic of Timis, oara included the following faculties: Faculty of Electromechanics; Faculty of Mining and Metallurgy; Faculty of Agronomy in Cluj, Faculty of Civil Engineering, established in 1941 within the Polytechnic of Timis, oara; the Faculty of Agronomy, established in 1945, which operated within the Timis, oara Polytechnic of Timis, oara until 1948. The Polytechnic of Timis, oara had the following rectors: Constantin C. Teodorescu, (1938–1939), also former rector of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara between 1934–1938); Corneliu Severineanu (1939–1940); Victor Lat, iu (November 1940 January 1941); Plaut, ius Andronescu (1941–1944); Marin B˘an˘arescu (1944–1946); Constantin Cândea (1946–1947); Ilie Murgulescu (1947–1949), who was also a former rector of the Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara (1948–1949) (R˘adoi 1960). On 20 March 1937, the Romanian Parliament voted to ratify the Law on Public Education, which established that the engineering degree was to be granted only by polytechnics and abrogated the system of university engineering education. In Ias, i, where the existing institutions of higher technical education had been established only as part of the University of Ias, i and were issuing university engineering degrees, the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic School was founded on 6 April 1937,

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with Cristea Niculescu Otin, a professor of technological chemistry, appointed as the first rector. The Decree issued on 3 December 1937 regulates the establishment of the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic of Ias, i, which effectively began its activity on 1 October 1938. In the beginning, the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic of Ias, i had three faculties, derived from former departments that trained university engineers within the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Ias, i: Faculty of Electrical Engineering; Faculty of Industrial Chemistry; the Faculty of Agronomy (with the headquarters in Chis, in˘au). The ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic of Ias, i broadened its profile by establishing the Faculty of Civil Engineering in 1941. Furthermore, in 1942 the Faculty of Electrical Engineering was expanded to include a mechanical component and became the Faculty of Electromechanics. As a result, as of 1942 the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic of Ias, i included the following four faculties: Faculty of Electromechanics, Faculty of Industrial Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, and Faculty of Agronomy. In the academic year of 1939–1940, 257 students were enrolled in the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic of Ias, i. In the autumn of 1941, following Romania’s entry into the war (22 June 1941), the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic of Ias, i was moved to Chernivtsi. Some of the noteworthy professors who worked in Chernivtsi after 1918 included Eugen B˘ad˘ar˘au, Dimitrie Ioan Mangeron, Miron Nicolescu, Constantin Pârvulescu (astronomer) Tiberiu Popoviciu, Simion Stoilov, Gheorghe Vrânceanu. In 1944, as the eastern battlefront was approaching Romania, the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic was evacuated from Chernivtsi and moved to Turnu Severin. After sojourning in Deveselu and Bucharest, it returned to Ias, i in 1945, and was given premises in the former venue of the University of Ias, i. On 14 October 1944, Professor Cezar Parteni Antoni was appointed rector (he held this position from 1944 to 1948). From 1938 to 1948, the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic of Ias, i issued 736 engineering degrees (Irimiuciuc 2001). The following professors worked as doctoral supervisors at the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic of Ias, i: S, tefan Procopiu, V. Petrescu, Th. Câmpanu, and Cezar Parteni-Antoni in Electromechanics, and Gh. Alexa in Industrial Chemistry. In 1938–1948 four doctoral degrees in engineering were awarded to Gérard d’Albon in 1939, I. S˘aveanu in 1946, Emil Luca in 1947, and V. Corl˘at, eanu in 1948 at the Faculty of Electromechanics, as well as a title of doctor of engineering awarded in 1948 to Cristofor Simionescu at the Faculty of Industrial Chemistry (Irimiuciuc 2001). To sum up, the 1881–1948 period of higher technical education in Romania can be regarded as a stage of growth, when the level reached could bear comparison to technologically developed countries. Many years of searching and exploring (1830– 1881), a period during which the field’s forerunners diligently revised their activities year after year, eventually led up to the satisfaction of accomplishment. This was possible due to the country’s particular circumstances, to the experience accumulated in time and, last but not least, to the experience of those who studied abroad.

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3 Higher Technical Education in Romania from 1948 to 1990 3.1 Higher Technical Education During 1948–1968 After the end of the Second World War, Romania entered the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union and moved towards the establishment of a communist, soviettype regime. By 1948, the Communists were in complete control of the country. As far as education is concerned, the first phase of communism is considered to have spanned from 1948 to 1964 and featured the establishment of an educational system emulating the one in the Soviet Union. During this stage, Romanian public education was under the dictates of the USSR (through the deployed Soviet advisors) and of the class conflict. The task of preparing textbooks for pre-university education was not assigned to the Ministry of Education, but to the Education Commission of Agitprop Department of the Central Committee of Romanian Workers’ Party. The second phase of communism, considered to be the 1964–1978 period, brought a return to relative normality and revival of some Romanian traditions. The third phase of communism spanned from 1978 to 1989 and was defined, for the most part, by the upholding of principles introduced in the second phase, but with a more pronounced political and ideological violence against education. It is noteworthy that during the first phase the education law of 1948 was drawn up, during the second phase – the education law of 1968, and during the third phase—the education law of 1978. These three laws served as a guide for the development of education during the communist era. As regards the higher technical education, in 1948, there were three polytechnics in Romania (in Bucharest, Timis, oara, and Ias, i) which trained engineers in all relevant fields. These polytechnics were split so as to provide nationwide distribution of higher education in technology. The Polytechnic of Bucharest was divided (in 1948) into: The Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest, its direct successor, which included four faculties (Faculty of Mechanics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Chemistry, and Faculty of Textiles); Bucharest Institute of Civil Engineering (replacing the former Faculty of Civil Engineering of the Polytechnic of Bucharest); the Institute of Geology and Mining Technology of Bucharest, with two faculties (Faculty of Geology and Faculty of Mining Technology); Bucharest Institute of Wood Engineering, with two faculties (Faculty of Forest Engineering, Wood Transport and Processing and Faculty of Wood Engineering); the Silviculture Institute of Bras, ov; the Institute of Forestry and Wood Engineering in Câmpulung Moldovenesc, with two faculties (Faculty of Silviculture and the Faculty of Wood Exploitation, Processing, and Transport; Bucharest Institute of Architecture, which was a successor of the Faculty of Architecture of the Polytechnic of Bucharest; the Agronomic Institute of Bucharest, which replaced the Faculty of Agronomy of the Polytechnic of Bucharest (Popescu and Dumitrache 2014). In 1948, the Polytechnic of Timis, oara was divided into: The Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara, a direct successor of the Polytechnic of Timis, oara, comprised of four faculties, namely the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and the Faculty of Electrical

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Engineering were successors of the former Faculty of Electromechanics of the Polytechnic of Timis, oara; the Faculty of Civil Engineering, which replaced the Faculty of Civil Engineering of the Polytechnic of Timis, oara; the Faculty of Chemistry (founded in 1948); the Institute of Ferrous Minerals of Timis, oara, derived from the Faculty of Mining and Metallurgy of the Polytechnic of Timis, oara; the Institute of Nonferrous Minerals of Brad, also derived from the Faculty of Mining and Metallurgy of the Polytechnic of Timis, oara; the Agronomic Institute of Cluj, derived from the Faculty of Agronomy of Cluj (with the headquarters in Cluj), which was subordinated to the Polytechnic of Timis, oara; the Agronomic Institute of Timis, oara, which was derived from the Faculty of Agronomy, established in 1945 as part of the Polytechnic of Timis, oara. In 1952, the Institute of Ferrous Ores in Timis, oara and the Institute of Non-Ferrous Ores in Brad were disestablished and the students were transferred to the Mining Institute of Bucharest, which also incorporated the former Institute of Geology and Mining Technology of Bucharest. Thus, in the 1952–1957 period there were two mining schools in Romania: the Mining Institute of Bucharest and the Mining Institute of Petros, ani. Beginning with the academic year of 1957–1958, the Mining Institute of Bucharest ceases its activity and, for a while, the Mining Institute of Petros, ani remained the only school in Romania to provide higher education in the field of mining (Popescu and Dumitrache 2014). The ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic of Ias, i was divided into: the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic Institute of Ias, i, its direct successor, which operated until 1955 with four faculties (Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, and Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, established in 1948); the ‘Ion Ionescu de la Brad’ Agronomic Institute of Ias, i, derived from the Faculty of Agronomy of the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic of Ias, i (Irimiuciuc 2001). In August 1948, the Institute of Mechanical Engineering of Cluj was established, comprising a single faculty, the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, which had two sections: Thermotechnics and Machinery. The duration of studies was four years. In 1953, it was transformed into the Polytechnic Institute of Cluj, which operated from 1953 to 1992. At the time of its establishment, the Polytechnic Institute of Cluj was comprised of four faculties: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technology (*** 2015); Faculty of Civil Engineering; Faculty of Transport Mechanics. In the academic year of 1956–1957, the Faculty of Technology merged with the Faculty of Mechanics and formed the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. Thus, for eight years (1956/1957–1963/1964), the Polytechnic Institute of Cluj operated with only two faculties: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Faculty of Civil Engineering. Bucharest Institute of Civil Engineering was established in 1948 to replace the Faculty of Civil Engineering of the Polytechnic of Bucharest, operated with the following faculties: Faculty of Civil and Industrial Engineering; Faculty of Bridges and Large-Scale Constructions; Faculty of Roads and Urban Works, and Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, which was a successor of the Institute of Architecture of Bucharest. After two years, in 1951, three more faculties were established: Faculty of Installations and Construction Equipment; Faculty of Hydrotechnics; Faculty of Construction Economics (F˘atu 1998). In 1952, the Faculty of Architecture

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was expanded to include the specialisation of Urban Planning; it later became independent and was renamed ‘The Institute of Architecture’. From 1948 to 1968, the Bucharest Institute of Civil Engineering had the following rectors: Nicolae Korcinski, Dumitru Proporgescu, and Vasile Nicolau. In 1948, the Bucharest Institute of Transports and Communications was established, comprising a single faculty, the Faculty of Railways. In 1949–1950, the Faculty of Railways was transformed into the Institute of Railways, which included five faculties: Faculty of Railways Engineering, Faculty of Transport Mechanics; Faculty of Railway Operation; Faculty of Bridges for Railways, and Faculty of Automotive Transport. In 1950, the Faculty of Rolling Stock was added. Between 1951 and 1954 it was known under various names and in 1959 it was disestablished and the faculties transferred to either the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest or the Bucharest Institute of Civil Engineering. The Faculty of Transports was created within the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest, following the merger of the Faculty of Mechanics and the Faculty of Railway Operation from the Institute of Railways. At the Bucharest Institute of Civil Engineering, the Faculty of Railways, Roads, and Bridges was established, for the purpose of training civil engineers for these fields (Voinea et al. 1981). In 1948, the Institute of Land Surveying was inaugurated in Ias, i. This was the first school in Romania aimed at training specialists with higher education (geodetic engineers) to solve problems pertaining to topography, geodesy, photogrammetry, and cartography. In 1951 the institute was transferred from Ias, i to Galat, i and became the Faculty of Land Surveying, a name that was changed in 1952 into Faculty of Geodesy of Galat, i. In 1955, the Faculty of Geodesy of Galat, i was transferred to the Bucharest Institute of Civil Engineering. In 1991, the Faculty of Railways, Roads, Bridges, and Geodesy is split into the Faculty of Railways, Roads, and Bridges and the Faculty of Geodesy, both subordinated to the Institute of Civil Engineering in Bucharest. In 1993, the Bucharest Institute of Civil Engineering became the Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest (F˘atu 1998). On 14 January 1950, the Decree issued by the Presidium of the Grand National Assembly on the establishment of the ‘aspirantura’ postgraduate programme was published. The title obtained was Candidate of Sciences, and the three years of study included five examinations: one in Marxism-Leninism, two in foreign languages (compulsory Russian and a foreign language of choice, the options being English, French, and German) and two science exams in the field in which the student was enrolled (the specialised exams were proposed by the supervisor). After four years, the thesis submitted in view of obtaining the ‘candidate of sciences’ degree was defended before a committee (comprised of five members: the chairman of the commission was the dean of the faculty where the thesis was defended, the scientific supervisor, and three members specialised in the field of research in question) and before the Council of the faculty providing the study programme in which the candidate was enrolled. The vote for the title of candidate in sciences was decided by the Faculty Council. The same Decree also laid out the conditions for obtaining the title of doctor of sciences. The decision of the Council of Ministers of 2 September 1950 on the creation and modification of certain institutions of higher education stipulates,

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in article 3, that ‘institutions of higher education shall be allowed to provide evening courses and distance learning’. In the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest, in the academic year of 1950–1951, three more faculties were added to the four existing ones: Faculty of Economist Engineers, the Faculty of Metallurgy, and the Faculty of Energy. The Faculty of Textiles (which had been in existence since 1948) continued its activity within the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest until the academic year of 1951–1952. The decree issued on 26 June 1951 by the Presidium of the Grand National Assembly stipulated the disestablishment of the College of Engineers and of the Corps of Junior Engineers and Conductors, and their assets were transferred to the Scientific Association of Technicians of the newly-proclaimed People’s Republic of Romania. The Law of 10 August 1938 concerning the award of the title of engineer (which was granted by the Certification or Accreditation Commission/Higher Technical Council), the exercise of the profession of engineer, and the establishment of the College of Engineers, and the Law of 12 May 1932 concerning the establishment and organisation of the Corps of Architects are repealed. The decision issued by the Council of Ministers on 2 October 1951 established the institutions of higher education and the sections and specialisations which were to function as of the 1951–1952 academic year for a period of five or four years. This decision was necessitated by the reduction in the number of grade-levels of pre-university education (from the initial 12 grade-levels to 11, and eventually to 10). The duration of studies provided for each faculty applied to students accepted and enrolled in the first year, starting with the academic year of 1951–1952. As regards the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest, the duration of studies was five years in five faculties (Electrical Engineering, Energy, Mechanical Engineering, Industrial Chemistry, and Metallurgy) and four years in the Faculty of Economist Engineers. The decree of 2 October 1951 provided that the Faculty of Textiles (which functioned, from 1948 to 1952, within the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest) was to be transformed into the ‘Institute of Light Industry’, which was independent and based in Ias, i. It subsequently became, in 1955, the Faculty of Light Industry within the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic Institute of Ias, i. The Decree issued by the Presidium of the Grand National Assembly on 17 October 1951 established the Council for Higher Education, which was affiliated to the Council of Ministers of the People’s Republic of Romania. Pursuant to the same decree, it is decided to ‘establish special courses, necessary for the training of engineers and technicians, indicating the educational institutions that provide them, the duration of courses (four or five years), the criteria to be met by students recruited from among skilled workers, the teaching and administrative staff required for these courses to be appointed by decision of the Committee for Higher Education, with the assistance of the ministries concerned, etc.’. In the academic year 1953/1954 the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest had the following faculties: Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications, Faculty of Energy, Faculty of Machine Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Chemistry, Faculty of Metallurgy, Faculty of Economic Engineering, and Faculty of Labour. In the following years, the number of faculties was reduced to 5–6, and in 1960s, with the establishment of the Faculty of Agricultural Mechanical Engineering (1962) and of the Faculty of Automation (1966), as well as the disestablishment of the

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Faculty of Labour, the number of faculties returned to 8. Through the Decision of the Council of Ministers of 30 May 1956, the High Commission for Academic Degrees was established within the Ministry of Public Education, comprising of 33 members (three of the members were from the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest, namely professors Elie Carafoli, Constantin Dinculescu, and Remus R˘adulet, ). In 1960, the Decision of the Council of Ministers of 8 July 1960 regulating ‘the assignment of jobs and employment of graduates of higher education institutions’ was adopted. In 1963, work began on the investment project for ‘The new premises of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest’ on Splaiul Independent, ei, with the help of UNESCO. The project manager was the architect Octav Doicescu (Fig. 13). In the academic years of 1966–1967, 1967–1968, and 1968–1969, in the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest there were 10 faculties (Electrical Engineering, Energy, Electronics and Telecommunications; Automation, Mechanical Engineering, Agricultural Mechanical Engineering, Industrial Chemistry, Machine Building Technology, Metallurgy, and Transports). On 13 May 1968, the Grand National Assembly adopted the ‘Law No. 11 on the public education in the Socialist Republic of Romania’ (the second such law to be enforced during the communist regime in Romania) which stipulates, among other provisions, that faculties and universities are governed by faculty councils and senates. The structure of faculty councils and senates was laid out in detail, as well as their related responsibilities, the procedures for electing or appointing teaching staff for managerial positions in institutes, faculties, and departments, etc. (Popescu and Dumitrache 2014; Voinea et al. 1981).

Fig. 13 The building of Rector’s office of the Polytechnic University of Bucharest

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In the city of Craiova, the beginnings of higher education go back to the years 1947–1948 (Vladimirescu and Otovescu 2007). Following on the footsteps of the universities of Ias, i, Bucharest, Cluj, and Timis, oara, the University of Craiova was founded and its establishment was legally grounded on Law no. 138 voted by the Assembly of Deputies in the session held on 5 April 1947. The law was promulgated by King Michael I on 21 April 1947. The law establishing the University of Craiova, included the recommendation to start with four faculties. However, due to the lack of staff, departments could be organised only for the establishment of the Faculty of Agronomy. In 1948, the name of the Faculty of Agronomy was changed to the Agronomic Institute, which began its activity with two faculties: Faculty of Agriculture and Faculty of Agricultural Machinery, to which the Faculty of Horticulture was added after a while. In 1951, the Institute of Electrical Machines and Equipment was established in Craiova, which included the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (in 1951) and later, in 1953, the Faculty of Electrification of Industry, Agriculture, and Transports. In 1956, the Institute of Electrical Machines and Equipment changed its name to the Technical Institute. A year later (in 1957), this was disestablished. Pursuant to the Decision of the Council of Ministers of 27 August 1965, the University of Craiova is reorganised to include, initially, nine faculties, for instance the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (which began its activity in the academic year 1966–1967 with 110 students). The Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara (1948–1970) was the successor of the Polytechnic of Timis, oara and was comprised of four faculties (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, and Faculty of Chemistry), offering 12 specialisations. In 1956, the duration of studies is changed to five years in case of full-time learning. In 1968, a three-year programme of full-time learning for junior engineers and a four-year programme of evening classes for engineers were established, and junior engineering sections are set up at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Faculty of Civil Engineering, followed by the Faculty of Electrical Engineering in 1969. In 1970, the Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara celebrated the half-centenary of higher technical education in Timis, oara and changed its name to ‘Traian Vuia’ Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara. Over time, it took different names: the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara (1920–1938), the Polytechnic of Timis, oara (1938–1948), and the Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara (1948– 1970). That year, the institute was comprised of five faculties (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Chemistry, and Faculty of Agricultural Mechanics), with 24 specialisations for engineers and junior engineers, 537 teachers, and 5653 students (Silas, i et al. 1970). The ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic Institute of Ias, i, the successor of the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic of Ias, i, carried out its activities from 1948 to 1955 with four faculties: Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Chemistry, and Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (newly established) (Dorin and Asandului 2013). During the 1955–1963 period, the Faculty of Light Industry was added. Between 1963 and 1968, following the transfer of the Faculty of Hydrotechnics from Galat, i, the Polytechnic Institute of Ias, i reached a total of six faculties. In 1952, as most other institutions of higher technical education in

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the country, the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic Institute of Ias, i began organising distance learning and parallel courses (with a duration of two years) for plant engineers. During the rectorate of Professor Cristofor Simionescu (1951–1975), the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic Institute of Ias, i saw a strong development both from a material standpoint, as well as in terms of the activity carried out by the teaching staff and the students. The technical higher education in Galat, i began in 1948 when the Institute of Land Improvements was established and later transformed into the Agronomic Institute (Stoicescu et al. 2014). In 1951, the Naval-Mechanical Institute was established through the Decision of the Council of Ministers issued on 2 October 1951. From 1951 to 1953, it had two faculties: Faculty of Civil Naval Engineering and Faculty of Naval and Port Operation. In 1953, the Technical Institute of Galat, i was created following the merger of the Naval-Mechanical Institute of Galat, i with the Agronomic Institute of Galat, i and the Institute of Fisheries. The Technical Institute of Galat, i continued to operate from 1953 to 1957. In 1954, the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering was founded within the Technical Institute of Galat, i. Thus, in the academic year of 1954–1955, the Technical Institute of Galat, i was comprised of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and the Faculty of Exploitation of Ships and Ports. The Technical Institute of Galat, i was later transformed into the Polytechnic Institute of Galat, i, which began its activity in the academic year of 1955–1956. It has two faculties: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and the Faculty of Food Technology and Fishing Technology. In Bras, ov, the foundations of higher education were laid in 1940 when the Academy of Commerce and Industrial Studies was established (*** 2014). The foundations of technical higher education go back to 1948 when the Institute of Forestry was created. In 1953, all four institutes of higher education focused on forestry in Bras, ov, Câmpulung Moldovenesc, and Bucharest were merged to create the Institute of Forestry in Bras, ov, which was established that same year. In 1949, the Institute of Mechanical Engineering was founded in Bras, ov. Initially, it had only one faculty, the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, which offered specialisations in Automobiles and Tractors. In 1953, the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering was split into the Faculty of Mechanics and the Faculty of Mechanical Technology, a structure that was maintained until 1956. In 1956, the Polytechnic Institute of Bras, ov was established following the merging of the Institute of Forestry and the Institute of Mechanical Engineering. The Polytechnic Institute of Bras, ov included the following faculties: Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Engineering (founded in 1948), the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (founded in 1949), Faculty of Technological Engineering and Industrial Management (founded in 1953), and Faculty of Wood Engineering (founded in 1959). In 1964, the Faculty of Machine Building Technology was established. In 1971, the Polytechnic Institute of Bras, ov and the Pedagogical Institute of Bras, ov (founded in 1960) merged, thus creating the University of Bras, ov. In 1971 the University of Bras, ov had reached a total of eight faculties: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Machine Building Technology, Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Engineering, Faculty of Wood Industry, Faculty of Mathematics

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and Computer Science, Faculty of Physics and Chemistry, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, and Faculty of Music ( *** 2014). The technical higher education in Petros, ani dates from 1948 when the Coal Institute of Petros, ani was founded, providing a four-year study programme. This institute had only one faculty: Faculty of Coal Mining and Processing (https://www.upet.ro/ istoric/). Between 1952 and 1957, there were two mining schools of higher education in Romania: The Mining Institute of Bucharest and the Mining Institute of Petros, ani. Thus, when the system of higher education in the field of mining was reorganised in 1952, the Coal Institute of Petros, ani changed its name to the Mining Institute of Petros, ani. In 1958 the Mining Institute of Bucharest ceased its activity, leaving only one institution of higher education in the field of mining in the country: The Mining Institute of Petros, ani, with two sections that were transformed into faculties, namely the Faculty of Mining and the Faculty of Electromechanics. The beginnings of technical higher education in the field of oil and gas in Romania go back to 1948, when the Institute of Oil and Gas was established in Bucharest pursuant to the Decree of 3 August 1948. Initially, it included two faculties: Faculty of Drilling and Production and the Faculty of Gas and Crude Oil Processing, with a duration of studies of four years. In its second academic year, the institute was expanded to include a department of economic engineering, and in the academic year of 1950–1951 the Faculty of Geology and Oil and Gas Exploitation, as well as the Section of Mechanical Engineering were added to the institute. Starting with the academic year 1951–1952, the Institute of Oil and Gas in Bucharest had in its subordination five faculties: Faculty of Geology and Exploration of Oil and Gas Deposits, Faculty of Oil and Gas Exploitation, Faculty of Oil and Gas Technology, Faculty of Petroleum Machinery and Equipment, and Faculty of Economics and Organisation of the Oil and Gas Industry. The Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering was created on the groundwork laid by the departments of the Faculty of Petroleum Machinery and Equipment. In 1957, the Faculty of Technical Geology, initially subordinated to the Institute of Geology and Mining Technology in Bucharest, was transferred to the Bucharest Institute of Oil and Gas, which consequently changed its name to the Bucharest Institute of Oil, Gas, and Geology. On 15 September 1967, the partial transfer of the Institute of Oil, Gas, and Geology from Bucharest to Ploies, ti was initiated. This led to the establishment of the Ploies, ti Institute of Oil, which began its activity in the academic year 1967–1968. The Ploies, ti Institute of Oil functioned in parallel with the Bucharest Institute of Oil, Gas, and Geology until 1975, when the transfer of the faculties from Bucharest to Ploies, ti was completed, with the exception of the Faculty of Geology which remained within the University of Bucharest. In 1975, the Ploies, ti Institute of Oil changed its name to the Institute of Petroleum and Gas of Ploies, ti and began to operate with three faculties: Petroleum Machinery and Equipment; Drilling of Wells and Exploitation of Oil and Gas Deposits; and Oil and Gas Technology and Chemical Processing. As early as the years 1924–1925, there was a keen interest in Romania to train specialised engineers to address specific needs of the army. However, for more than 20 years, engineer officers had been trained in civilian institutions of higher education that provided specialisations related to the needs of the military. On 15 September

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1949, through the Decree issued on 14 September 1949, the Technical Military Academy was established for the purpose of training engineer officers in specific areas of military technology. Initially, the Technical Military Academy had five faculties: Faculty of Armament and Ammunition; Faculty of Tanks and Mechanical Motors; Faculty of Aviation; Faculty of Transmissions, and Faculty of Navy. In 1952, by Order of the High General Staff, the Technical Military Academy of Bucharest was renamed the Military Technical Academy of Bucharest. The degrees obtained by the military engineers granted the holder the same rights as engineers who graduated civilian polytechnic institutes.

3.2 Higher Technical Education During 1968–1990 The previous part provided an account of the evolution of higher technical education during the communist era in Romania, including the period that brought the establishment of a new educational system in the country, similar to the one in the USSR and the period of return to some normality and Romanian traditions. This period was shaped by key shifts in the due course of development of the education system. Firstly, there was the elimination of the Quality and Accreditation Commissions, independent bodies which determined the quality of higher technical education at a level on par with technologically advanced countries (Quality Commission) and inspected higher technical education institutions to check whether their product complied with the provisions of the quality commission (Accreditation Commission), etc. However, for the most part, the stringent criteria for the recruitment of students were maintained, although exceptions were made in this area with regard to individuals presumed to be ‘of sound background’ or to represent the working-class, who were declared to require less time to train to the appropriate level. Fortunately, these actions did not last very long; nevertheless, their impact on the quality of the education process was not insignificant. Starting with 1968, when the Law no. 11 on the public education in the Socialist Republic of Romania was developed, which included provisions showing a return to some level of normality and Romanian traditions, there was more openness towards the higher technical education in technologically advanced countries. In the academic year of 1969–1970, the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest had 10 faculties (the same as those mentioned above for 1968–1969), plus the Institute of Junior Engineers in Pites, ti. In 1969, the first educational premises on the new platform built in Splaiul Independent, ei were put into service. As compared to the academic years of 1969–1972, a new faculty was established in 1972, the Faculty of Civil Aerospace Engineering. In 1974, the Faculty of Chemistry of the University of Bucharest was transferred to the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest, where, together with the Faculty of Industrial Chemistry, formed the Institute of Chemistry. In the academic year of 1974–1975, the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest included 12 faculties: Mechanics, Aircraft, Machine Building Technology, Agricultural Mechanical Engineering, Transport, Electrical Engineering, Energy, Automation, Electronics and Telecommunications, Metallurgy, the Institute of Chemistry of

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Bucharest (comprising the faculties of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry). In the academic year 1989–1990, the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest had 11 faculties (Electrical Engineering, Energy, Automation, Electronics and Telecommunications, Mechanics, Machine Building Technology, Agricultural Mechanical Engineering, Transport, Aircraft, Metallurgy and Chemical Technology) (Popescu and Dumitrache 2014; Voinea et al. 1981). On 29 July 1975, the Decree of the Council of State was issued to regulate enrolment in study programmes abroad, including doctoral studies and specialisations. During the session held on 21 December 1978, the Grand National Assembly adopted the Law on Education (Law No. 28 of 1978). At the Institute of Civil Engineering in Bucharest, the Faculty of Civil and Industrial Engineering began, in the autumn of 1968, to train junior engineers in addition to engineers (F˘atu 1998). In that year, the faculty opened its junior engineering sections, offering both full-time and evening courses. In 1975, it changed its name to the Faculty of Civil, Industrial, and Agricultural Engineering. Between 1984 and 1989, the Faculty of Hydrotechnics and the Faculty of Roads and Bridges merged under the name of the Faculty of Hydrotechnics, Roads and Bridges. Starting in 1990, the Faculty of Hydrotechnics operated with the two specialisations in the field of civil engineering (the specialisation of Hydrotechnical Designs and Constructions and the specialisation of Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Protection), followed by two more specialisations added in the academic year of 2005–2006 (Environmental Engineering and Automation and Applied Informatics). Towards the end of this stage, the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic Institute of Ias, i, as well as the entire educational system, carried out their activities against the backdrop of political, economic, and social hardships. The Faculty of Chemical Engineering of the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic Institute of Ias, i merged with the Faculty of Chemistry of the ‘Alexandru Ioan Cuza’ University of Ias, i, and formed the Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering. The Faculty of Light Industry, created in 1952 at the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic Institute of Ias, i after being transferred from the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest was the only one in Romania to provide training for the textile and leather industry. Towards the end of the communist era of higher technical education, the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic Institute of Ias, i had five faculties: Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Light Industry, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, and Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. From 1970 to 1991, the Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara was called the ‘Traian Vuia’ Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara and was comprised of five faculties (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Chemistry, and Faculty of Agricultural Mechanics), with 24 specialisations for engineers and junior engineers and a total number of 537 faculty staff and 5,653 students (10–11 students per faculty member). In 1971 the Institute of Junior Engineers in Hunedoara and the Institute of Junior Engineers in Res, it, a were established, both operating in their respective cities under the supervision of the ‘Traian Vuia’ Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara. In 1991, based on the Government Note issued on 4 January and on the order of the Minister of Education and Science

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of 22 March 1991, the name of the ‘Traian Vuia’ Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara was changed to the Technical University of Timis, oara. After the academic year 1956/1957, the Faculty of Mechanics of the Polytechnic Institute of Cluj-Napoca underwent successive restructuring, with short-lived sections being created while also laying the groundwork for future long-standing specialisations. Thus, some sections at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering are worth mentioning: Machine Construction Technology (established in 1955); Heat Processing Machinery and Equipment (established in 1958); Agricultural Mechanics (established in 1962); Electromechanics (created in 1960 and transferred in 1964 to the Faculty of Electrical Engineering); Technological Machinery (established in 1973); Machine-Tools (re-established in 1976), and Tractors (established in 1976). The Faculty of Electrical Engineering of the Polytechnic Institute of Cluj Napoca was established in the academic year 1973/1974. This faculty was created as a result of the establishment of a competent university body, which made it possible to change the structure of the institute. In 1960, the Department of Electromechanics was established within the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, a department that will became, in the academic year of 1964/1965, the Faculty of Electromechanics. Within the Faculty of Electromechanics, the following sections were gradually established: Electromechanics (engineers); Electrotechnics (junior engineers) (since 1969/1970) and Electrical Engineering (junior engineers) (since 1972/1973). In the 1973/1974 academic year, the Faculty of Electromechanics became the Faculty of Electrical Engineering. In the industrialised centres of Transylvania there was a network of institutes for junior engineers which were either subordinated to the Polytechnic Institute of Cluj Napoca, or operated under its supervision and guidance, namely: Institute of Junior Engineers in Baia Mare; Institute of Junior Engineers in Oradea; Institute of Junior Engineers in Sibiu; Institute of Junior Engineers in Târgu Mures, . In 1990, the Polytechnic Institute of Cluj Napoca was comprised of the following faculties: Faculty of Machine Building Technology; Faculty of Mechanical Engineering; Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering; Faculty of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications; Faculty of Computer Science. In 1977, the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering was established within the University of Craiova, which was housed in the former building of ‘S, tefan Velovan’ Normal School, built between 1898 and 1901 (Fig. 14). Technical higher education had existed in Craiova in 1951–1958 and then was continued in 1966 when the Faculty of Electrical Engineering was created. With the establishment of the Faculty of Mechanics in 1977, the technical field of the University was expanded. On 1 October 1989, the University of Craiova had seven faculties, two of which provided technical training (Vladimirescu and Otovescu 2007). The higher technical education in Galat, i began in 1953 with the establishment of the Technical Institute of Galat, i, which was transformed in 1957 into the Polytechnic Institute of Galat, i. In 1974, in accordance with the Decree of the State Council issued on 20 March 1974, the University of Galat, i was created by merging the Polytechnic Institute and the Pedagogical Institute. From 1974 to 1990 the University of Galat, i

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Fig. 14 The building of the University of Craiova

had three faculties: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Food Technology, Food Chemistry, and Fishery Technology, and Faculty of Pedagogical Education. From 1971 to 1990, the University of Bras, ov was comprised of the following faculties with a technical profile: Mechanical Engineering, Machine Building Technology, Silviculture and Forest Exploitation, Wood Industry), which all had developed a very good collaboration with the industry in the area. The Mining Institute of Petros, ani continued to operate with two faculties: Faculty of Mining and Faculty of Electromechanics. Starting with the academic year of 1970/ 1971, the Institute of Junior Engineers in Hunedoara, which had been established in 1970, became subordinated to the Mining Institute of Petros, ani until 1974/1975 (https://www.upet.ro/istoric/). The Ploies, ti Institute of Oil and Gas functioned from 1975 until 1992, when it became a university. The Faculty of Technological Equipment changed its name several times over the years, as follows: Faculty of Petroleum Machinery and Equipment (1952–1975); Faculty of Technological Equipment (1975–1986); Faculty of Petroleum Equipment and Technology (1986–1990), and Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering (from 1990 to the present). The Faculty of Oil and Gas Technology and Chemical Processing changed its name, as of the 1990–1991 academic year, to the Faculty of Petroleum Technology and Petrochemistry. Some minor changes in the names of faculties, departments, and specialisations notwithstanding, the Institute of Oil and Gas maintained the same three-faculty structure until 1992 (https://www.upg-ploiesti.ro/ro/upg).

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In the 1961–1990 period, the Technical Military Academy of Bucharest continued its activity with the same four faculties that had been established in the academic year of 1960/1961 (https://mta.ro). During the second part of the communist period in Romania, with the establishment of junior engineering education within institutions providing higher technical education for engineers, courses for junior engineers were organised in some cities of Romania with certain economic potential. In 1977, the Institute of Higher Education was established in Constant, a and in 1984 it became the Institute of Junior Engineers of Constant, a. In 1969, the Institute of Junior Engineers was founded in Pites, ti (subordinated to the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest). In 1974, the Pedagogical Institute and the Institute of Junior Engineers merged and created the Pites, ti Institute of Higher Education, which included two faculties: Faculty of Technical Education and Faculty of Pedagogical Education. In 1971, the Institute of Junior Engineers was established in Res, it, a, under the aegis of the ‘Traian Vuia’ Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara. In Arad, the Institute of Junior Engineers was established in 1972, also coordinated by the ‘Traian Vuia’ Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara throughout its entire existence (1972–1990). In 1972, the University of Craiova established in Târgu-Jiu a Faculty of Junior Engineering which remained active until 1990. In 1972 the Faculty of Technical and Pedagogical Education was established in Oradea, and in 1983 was transformed into the Institute of Junior Engineers of Oradea, affiliated to the Polytechnic Institute of Cluj-Napoca. It remained active until 1990. In Sibiu, higher education began in 1969. In 1984, the Sibiu Institute of Junior Engineers was established under the aegis of the Polytechnic Institute of Cluj-Napoca. It remained active until 1990. In Suceava, higher education began in 1963, when the Pedagogical Institute was established, providing a three-year study programme. Later, it was transformed into the Institute of Higher Education in Suceava (with a mixed pedagogical and technical profile). In 1986 it changed its name to the Institute of Junior Engineers in Suceava, which operated until 1990. In Bac˘au, the Pedagogical Institute of Bac˘au was established in 1961. In 1976 it became the Institute of Higher Education of Bac˘au and in 1984 it was transformed into the Institute of Junior Engineers of Bac˘au, subordinated to the ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Polytechnic Institute of Ias, i. It operated until 1990. It is noteworthy that the higher technical education in Romania during the communist era took into account new technologies that emerged in areas with a promising future in terms of economic development. Thus, in the academic year of 1957/1958, within the Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest, the specialisation of Nuclear Technology was introduced. In the 1960/1961 academic year it was replaced with the specialisation of Physicist Engineers, due to the fact that new breakthroughs in Physics are rapidly applied to the field of engineering. The specialisation of Physicist Engineers was maintained at the Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest until the late eighth-early ninth decade of the twentieth century, when it was transferred to the Faculty of Physics of the University of Bucharest under the name of Technological Physics. Also, in the 1960s, the specialisation of Nuclear

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Power Plants was established at the Faculty of Energy of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest.

4 The Post-Communist Period (from 1990 to the Present Day) After the events of 1989, Romanian education underwent profound changes. Thus, it was natural to take into consideration, for future guidance, the evolution of public education in the country from its beginnings until 1948. The steps that were taken in the field of education took into account, for the most part, the period of Communism in Romania, but also eliminated some of the positive parts of this wretched period. Free rein was given to the development of a unitary and uniform education system, in spite of the known fact that all countries in the world have an education that is unified by diversity. The threshold for recruitment in higher education institutions has sunk very low since the communist period. The current education system cannot, by any means, stand comparison with the public education when Romania held a top position in line with other world countries (from the early beginnings until the establishment of the communist regime in 1948). It will be left for history to characterise the quality of this education system, taking into account, first of all, its contribution to the economic, social, and cultural development of Romania. In the following section, a list of higher education institutions providing engineering training is provided. For those founded after 1990, the year of establishment is indicated in parentheses. Alba Iulia. The ‘1 Decembrie 1918’ University of Alba Iulia (1991) has one faculty training engineers, the Faculty of Exact Sciences and Engineering. Arad . The ‘Aurel Vlaicu’ University of Arad (1991) has two faculties of technical higher education, the Faculty of Engineering and the Faculty of Food Engineering, Tourism and Environmental Protection. The ‘Vasile Goldis, ’ Western University of Arad (1990) is a private university that includes a faculty of engineering. Bac˘au. The ‘Vasile Alecsandri’ University of Bac˘au (1990) has a Faculty of Engineering with several departments. Baia Mare. The North University of Baia Mare (1991) merged in 2012 with the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca. It includes a Faculty of Engineering. Bras, ov. The ‘Transylvania’ University of Bras, ov has eight engineering faculties: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technological Engineering and Industrial Management, Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, Faculty of Product Design and Environment, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Faculty of Forestry, Faculty of Wood Industry, and Faculty of Civil Engineering. Bucharest. The ‘Politehnica’ University of Bucharest is a direct descendant of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest. It includes 15 engineering faculties: Faculty of Electrical Engineering; Faculty of Power Engineering; Faculty of Automatic Control and Computer Science; Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications, and Information Technology; Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics; Faculty

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of Engineering and Management of Technological Systems; Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering; Faculty of Transports; Faculty of Aerospace Engineering; Faculty of Material Science and Engineering; Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science; Faculty of Engineering in Foreign Languages; Faculty of Applied Sciences; Faculty of Medical Engineering; Faculty of Entrepreneurship, Engineering and Business Management. The ‘Politehnica’ University of Bucharest is the successor of the oldest engineering school in Romania. Its traditions are related to the establishment in 1818, by Gheorghe Laz˘ar, of the first higher technical school offering courses taught in Romanian at the Princely Academy of Wallachia. The Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest is a successor of the Bucharest Institute of Civil Engineering. It includes seven faculties: Faculty of Civil, Industrial and Agricultural Buildings; Faculty of Hydrotechnics; Faculty of Railways, Roads, and Bridges; Faculty of Building Services Engineering; Faculty of Technological Equipment; Faculty of Geodesy; Faculty of Engineering in Foreign Languages. The ‘Ferdinand I’ Military Technical Academy of Bucharest is an independent military institution of higher polytechnic education and has the following faculties: Faculty of Military Electronic Systems and Computer Science; Faculty of Mechatronics and Integrated Armament Systems. The University of Bucharest has the following faculties that train graduates in the field of technology: Faculty of Physics and the Faculty of Geology and Geophysics. The ‘Hyperion’ University of Bucharest is a private university founded in 1990. It has a faculty that trains engineers, the Faculty of Exact and Engineering Sciences. Cluj-Napoca. The Technical University of Cluj-Napoca was established by changing the name of the Polytechnic Institute. It has 10 faculties: Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning; Faculty of Automation and Computer Science; Faculty of Civil Engineering; Faculty of Machine Building; Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Information Technology; Faculty of Materials and Environmental Engineering; Faculty of Electrical Engineering; Faculty of Building Services Engineering, and Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, based in Cluj-Napoca; and a Faculty of Engineering which is based in Baia Mare. The ‘Babes, -Bolyai’ University of Cluj-Napoca has four faculties (Faculty of Physics; Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Faculty of Biology and Geology, and Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering which also train engineers. Constant, a. The ‘Ovidius’ University of Constant, a has four faculties that train engineers or offer engineering specialisations (Faculty of Applied Sciences and Engineering; Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences; Faculty of Civil Engineering; Faculty of Mechanical, Industrial and Maritime Engineering). The ‘Mircea cel B˘atrân’ Naval Academy of Constant, a is a public university providing study programmes in the naval field (sea, rivers, ports) and includes two faculties: Faculty of Marine Engineering and the Faculty of Navigation and Naval Management. Craiova. The University of Craiova has seven faculties that train engineers: Faculty of Agriculture; Faculty of Automation, Computers and Electronics; Faculty

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of Electrical Engineering; Faculty of Horticulture; Faculty of Engineering and Management of Technological Systems (operating in Drobeta-Turnu Severin), Faculty of Engineering in Electromechanics, Environment, Industrial Informatics; Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. Galat, i. The ‘Dun˘area de Jos’ University of Galat, i has seven faculties providing training to engineers. Ias, i. The ‘Gheorghe Asachi’Technical University of Ias, i (a successor of ‘Gheorghe Asachi’Polytechnic Institute of Ias, i) has 11 faculties: The ‘G.M. Cantacuzino’ Faculty of Architecture; Faculty of Automatic Control and Computer Engineering; Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection; Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services; Faculty of Machine Manufacturing and Industrial Management; Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Information Technology; Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Energetics and Applied Informatics; Faculty of Hydrotechnical Engineering, Geodesy and Environmental Engineering; Faculty of Mechanical Engineering; Faculty of Material Science and Engineering; Faculty of Textiles, Leather and Industrial Management. The ‘Alexandru Ioan Cuza’ University of Ias, i has two faculties that offer study programmes in various technical fields: Faculty of Physics (engineers and physicists) and Faculty of Geography and Geology (geological engineering). Oradea. The University of Oradea (1990) has five faculties in the field of engineering: Faculty of Constructions and Architecture; Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology; Faculty of Energy Engineering and Industrial Management; Faculty of Management and Technological Engineering; Faculty of Environmental Protection. Petros, ani. The University of Petros, ani has two faculties of Engineering: Faculty of Mining and Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering. Pites, ti. The University of Pites, ti (1991) is a descendant of the Higher Education Institution. It includes two faculties of Engineering: Faculty of Mechanics and Technology; Faculty of Electronics, Communications and Computers. Ploies, ti. The University of Oil and Gas in Ploies, ti (a successor of the Institute of Oil and Gas) has three faculties of engineering: Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering; Faculty of Petroleum Technology and Petrochemistry; Faculty of Petroleum and Gas Engineering. Res, it, a. The ‘Eftimie Murgu’ University of Res, it, a has one faculty of engineering: Faculty of Engineering and Management. Sibiu. The ‘Lucian Blaga’ University of Sibiu has two faculties providing engineering education: Faculty of Engineering and Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Food Industry and Environmental Protection. Suceava. The ‘S, tefan cel Mare’ University of Suceava has four engineering faculties: Faculty of Food Engineering; Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science; Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Mechatronics and Management; Faculty of Forestry. Târgovis, te. The ‘Valahia’ University of Târgovis, te (1992) has four faculties that provide engineering training: Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, and Information Technology; Faculty of Environmental Engineering and Food Science;

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Faculty of Materials Engineering and Mechanics; and Faculty of Sciences and Engineering (based in the city of Alexandria). Târgu Jiu. The ‘Constantin Brâncus, i’ University of Târgu-Jiu (1992) includes a Faculty of Technical, Medical, and Behavioural Sciences. Timis, oara. The ‘Politehnica’ University of Timis, oara has 10 faculties: Faculty of Architecture and City Planning; Faculty of Automation and Computing; Faculty of Industrial Chemistry and Environmental Engineering; Faculty of Civil Engineering; Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Information Technologies; Faculty of Electrical and Power Engineering; Faculty of Management in Production and Transportation; Faculty of Mechanical Engineering; Faculty of Engineering (based in the city of Hunedoara); Faculty of Communication Sciences. The total number of universities offering engineering training is 30, of which two are private and the remaining 28 are public universities. There are eight universities which exclusively offer engineering education (‘Politehnica’ University of Bucharest, ‘Gheorghe Asachi’ Technical University of Iasi, the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, ‘Politehnica’ University of Timis, oara, the Technical University of Civil Engineering, the ‘Ion Mincu’ University of Architecture and Urbanism in Bucharest, the ‘Ferdinand I’ Military Technical Academy ‘Ferdinand I’ of Bucharest, and the ‘Mircea cel B˘atrân’ Naval Academy of Constant, a). The 30 universities that offer exclusively or partially engineering training are classified as follows: seven are included in Category I (advanced research and education), 10 are in Category II (research and education), and 13 Category III (education-centred). There is a total number of 24 cities that host universities providing engineering education (two in Banat, nine in Transylvania, four in Moldova, one in Dobrogea, five in Muntenia, and three in Oltenia). The classification of universities in the three categories indicated above was developed by ARACIS (Romanian Agency for Quality Assurance in Higher Education) in 2011–2013. More than 410,000 students are enrolled in Romanian universities, most of them in Bucharest, Cluj, Ias, i, and Timis, oara. In the 33 universities located in the Bucharest-Ilfov region, there are more than 127,000 students enrolled (which accounts for 31% of all students in Romania). Cluj ranks second among the top university centres in Romania, with more than 80,000 students (19% of the total number of students) enrolled in one of the 10 institutions of higher education in the county. Ias, i occupies the third place with more than 42,000 students (10.8% of the total). There is also a significant number of students enrolled in the universities of Timis, oara, specifically 31,000 students (7.5% of the total) in seven institutions of higher education. Statistical data provided by the National Institute of Statistics establish the cities of Bucharest, Cluj, and Timis, oara as a magnet for foreign investors, with Ias, i emerging lately as an important point of attraction for investments in the IT sector.

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References *** (2014) Monografia Facult˘at, ii de Inginerie Tehnologic˘a s, i Management Industrial (Monograph of the Faculty of Technological Engineering and Industrial Management). Publishing House of Transilvania University in Bras, ov *** (2015) Tehnologia Construct, iilor de Mas, ini. Istoric, evolut, ie, perspective. 60 de ani spre succès (Machine construction technology. History, evolution, perspectives. 60 years to success). UT Press, Cluj Napoca Berindei D (1992) Societatea Româneasc˘a în vremea lui Carol I (The Romanian Society in the time of Carol I). Military Publishing House, Bucharest de Sabata C, Andea P (2001) Universitatea ”Politehnica” din Timis, oara la 80 de ani (“Politehnica” University from Timis, oara at 80 years old). Politehnica Publishing House, Timis, oara de Sabata C, Munteanu I (1993) Remember: Profesori ai S, colii Politehnice din Timis, oara (Remember: teachers of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara). Helicon Publishing House, Timis, oara Dorin M, Asandului G (2013) Universitatea Tehnic˘a ”Gheorghe Asachi” din Ias, i (1813–2013)200 de ani de la înfiint, area s, colii de inginerie (“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi (1813–2013)—200 years since the establishment of the engineering school). Politehnium Publishing House, Ias, i F˘atu M (1998) Istoria Universit˘at, ii Tehnice de Construct, ii din Bucures, ti: 1818–1998 (History of the Technical University of Construction in Bucharest: 1818–1998). Publishing House of the Technical University of Construction in Bucharest, Bucharest Giurescu CC (2000) Viat, a s, i opera lui Cuza Vod˘a (The life and work of Cuza Vod˘a). Curtea Veche Publishing House, Bucharest https://www.upg-ploiesti.ro/ro/upg https://mta.ro https://www.upet.ro/istoric/ Ionescu I (1932) Istoricul înv˘at, a˘ mântului de ingineri în România pân˘a la înfiint, area s, coalelor politehnice (The history of engineering education in Romania until the establishment of polytechnic schools). The anniversary of 75 years of technical education in Romania, 50 years since the organization of the National School of Bridges and Roads, 10 years since the establishment of the Polytechnic School). Cartea Româneasc˘a Publishing House, Bucharest, pp 105–296 Iorga N (1910) Viat, a s, i domnia lui Barbu Dimitrie S, tirbei, domn al T, a˘ rii Românes, ti (1849– 1856) (The life and reign of Barbu Dimitrie S, tirbei, ruler of Wallachia (1849–1856)). Neamul Românesc, V˘alenii de Munte Iorga N (1928) Istoria înv˘at, a˘ mântului românesc (The history of Romanian education) Casa Scoalelor ¸ Publishing House, Bucharest, p 179 Iorga N (2011) Istoria Românilor, vol XI (History of Romanians, vol XI). Encyclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest Iorga N (2015) Istoria Românilor, vol VIII (History of Romanians, vol VIII). Encyclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest Irimiciuc N (2007) Înv˘at, a˘ mântul ingineresc ies, ean de-a lungul timpului, vol II (Engineering education in Ias, i over time, vol II). Politehnium Publishing House, Ias, i, p 313 Irimiuciuc N (2001) Înv˘at, a˘ mântul inginiresc ies, ean de-a lungul timpului, vol III (Engineering education from Ias, i over time, vol. III). Pan Europe, Ias, i, pp 125, 189 Lembre S (2016) Histoire de l’enseignement technique. La Decouverte, Paris Nistor IS (1998) Istoria înv˘at, a˘ mântului tehnic din Cluj-Napoca (History of technical education in Cluj-Napoca). UT Press, Cluj Napoca Oprit, escu M (2005) Istoria economiei (History of economics). ASE Publishing House, Bucharest Popescu IM, Dumitrache I (2014) Istoria Universit˘at, ii ”Politehnica” din Bucures, ti (History of the “Politehnica” University from Bucharest). Paideia Publishing House, Bucharest

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R˘adoi M (1960) 40 de ani de la înfiint, area S, coalei Politehnice din Timis, oara (40 years since the establishment of the Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara), vol 19. The Scientific and Technical Bulletin of the Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara, pp 15–20 R˘adulet, R (2000) Istoria cunos, tint, elor s, i a s, tiint, elor tehnice pe p˘amântul României (History of knowledge and technical sciences on Romanian teritory). Publishing House of the Romanian Academy, Bucharest Silas, i Gh, S, ora C, Mot, iu I, de Sabata C, Cosma A (1970) Institutul Politehnic din Timis, oara- Monografie (la 50 de ani) (Polytechnic Institute of Timis, oara—Monograph (at 50 years)). Litografia I.P.T., Timis, oara Stoicescu L, Oancea N, Fetec˘au C (2014) 60 de ani de înv˘a¸ta˘ mânt superior mecanic în Gala¸ti (60 years of mechanical higher education in Galati). GUP Publishing House, Gala¸ti Urechia VA (1892) Istoria s, coalelor de la 1800 la 1864. tom I (History of schools from 1800 to 1864. tom I). Imprimeria Statului, Bucharest, p 85 Urechia VA (1901) Istoria s, coalelor de la 1800 la 1864, tom IV (History of schools from 1800 to 1864, vol IV). Imprimeria Statului, Bucharest Vladimirescu I, Otovescu D (2007) Monografia Universit˘at, ii din Craiova (Monograph of the University of Craiova). Universitaria Publishing House, Craiova Voinea R, Voiculescu D, Voronca L Date cronologice privind istoricul Institului Politehnic Bucures, ti (1818–1981) (Chronological data regarding the history of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest (1818–1981)). Archive of the “Politehnica” University of Bucharest Xenopol AD (1885) Memoriu asupra înv˘at, a˘ mântului (Memoir on education). Tipografia Nat, ional˘a, Ias, i

History of Industrial Property and Inventions Ghorghe Manolea

Abstract The chapter is divided into six parts, the last five of them consisting in information grouped according to representative historic periods. In the first part, there is presented the history of the normative acts regarding the protection of the inventions in Romania starting with 1761–1766 and finishing with the year 2014. The first part also presents the history of the National Office for Industrial Property Protection and the methods of promoting this type of protection, even the format of printing a patent. The second part is dedicated to the period between 1800–1906, when the protection of the inventions was carried out with the help of Privileges and Special Laws. In 1906 the first Law of Inventions was adopted and the Invention Patents were issued until 1948 according to this law. The fourth part presents the history of inventions during the period 1948–1989, a period when the politics regime had an important influence on the domain of the industrial property protection, and the fifth part presents the history of inventions after 1989. The last part of the chapter presents examples of patents obtained by the Romanians before 1906, during the period 1906–1948 and during the period 1948–1989.

1 History of Protection and Promotion of Inventions in Romania 1.1 History of Legislation on the Protection of Inventions in Romania With a view to encourage the establishment of ‘factories’ or workshops in the Romanian Principalities, the rulers of the country issued documents, called privileges, which certified certain benefits for those who wanted to import or to apply new technology. Such benefits included exemption from taxes on raw materials, but also the G. Manolea (B) University of Craiova, Craiova, Romania e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 D. Banabic (ed.), History of Romanian Technology and Industry, History of Mechanism and Machine Science 45, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39191-0_11

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training of craftsmen. There are records mentioning the privileges granted between 1761 and 1766 to the woollen mill in Chiperes, ti, Ias, i, and later, in 1784, the privilege granted for the establishment of a woollen mill in Pociovalis, te, near Bucharest, and in 1793 for a glass factory in S, otânga, Târgovis, te. The first privilege, granting exclusive rights, was signed on 28 May 1800 by Prince Alexandru Moruzi. The first draft law on patents was drawn up in 1860, with a key contribution from Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza. Despite the fact that such a law was likely to protect the domestic industry, it was not adopted. The first law on patents—1906 After the country gained its independence in 1877, due to the fact that many Romanians had patented their solutions in Europe and most of the neighbouring countries had approved Laws pertaining to intellectual property, it was imperative to adopt a similar Law in Romania. There were many opposing voices. The pressure exerted by foreign capital, in particular German armament manufacturers, but also the large number of Patent Applications submitted to the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry, Trade, and Domains led to the adoption, during the session of the Assembly of Deputies held on 16 December and of the Senate on 21 December 1905, of the first ‘Law on invention patents’ promulgated by Royal Decree 102/13.01.1906 and published in the Official Gazette no. 229/17.01.1906. This Law remained in force until 30 December 1967, i.e., 61 years (Table 1). It was followed by the Preliminary Draft Law on Invention Patents, published in the Official Gazette on 1 May 1921, which brought important additional provisions on how to examine the novelty of the solution (B˘ad˘ar˘au et al. 2003). From 1921 to 1947, other pieces of legislation on intellectual property were passed (B˘ad˘ar˘au et al. 2003); however, none of them can be said to have brought substantive changes to the Law on patents that was promulgated in 1906. A transitional period followed, from 23 August 1944 to 30 December 1947, when 1088 patent applications were submitted (Iancu S, t 1998) and reviewed under the 1906 Law. As a result, 347 patents were issued (Iancu S, t 1998) and signed by King Michael. The change of political regime caused significant disruption in the field of patents due to the fact that, following the abolition of the institution of monarchy, the Industrial Property Office could no longer issue Invention Patents (B˘ad˘ar˘au et al. 2003). It was only in 1952 that, by Decree no. 86/17.04.1952 on the granting and revocation of patents, it was established that Patents were to be issued based on the Decision of the Council of Ministers. For these reasons, the first patents issued after 30 December 1947 were only granted as of 24 September 1954, although many applications had been submitted during this period. Table 1 Laws on inventions –1906

1906–1967

1967–1991

1991–

Privileges, Laws, Patents

Law on inventions, 1906

Law on inventions, innovations, and rationalisations

Law no. 64/1991

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Between 1947 and 1967, more than 18,000 patent applications were registered, of which 75% were filed by Romanian applicants and were reviewed under the 1906 Law. Between 1954 and 1967, 4900 patents were granted, of which 43% were issued in the name of certain ministries (B˘ad˘ar˘au et al. 2003). The year 1967 opened a new stage in the development of legislation in the field of Patents when the Decree no. 884 on inventions, innovations, and rationalisations was issued by the State Council. A system of rewarding the inventors by granting economic advantages was introduced. Even though Law no. 62/1974 on inventions and innovations did not bring any substantial changes, it is worth noting that it added the requirement for an expert opinion to be issued by a research institute on the fulfilment of the patentability criteria and the obligation of patent holders to experiment and apply the invention within one year after the patent assignment (B˘ad˘ar˘au et al. 2003). The year 1990 marked the transition from centralised economy to market economy and, as a result, on 11 October 1991, Law no. 64/1991 on Invention Patents (*** 1991), was adopted. It was based on the principle that ‘the right to the patent belongs to the inventor or his successor in rights’. The Law no. 83/2014 on Employee Inventions is worth mentioning to emphasise that the legislation adopted in the field of intellectual property is constantly changing so as to match the changes in economic life.

1.2 History of the National Office for the Protection of Intellectual Property (B˘ad˘ar˘au et al. 2003) In all technologically advanced countries there is a national office set up for the protection of industrial property. In Romania, this is called the State Office for Inventions and Trademarks and is based in Bucharest, at 5 Ion Ghica Street (www.osi m.ro). The history of this institution began in 1879 with the adoption of Law on factory marks and trademarks. The State Office for Inventions and Trademarks (OSIM) was established in 1969 under the subordination of the National Council for Scientific Research. Since 1990, it has been subordinated to the Government as a specialised state body of national interest. It is an entity with legal personality and its principal activity is to grant protection to original technical creations and to factory marks, trademarks, and service marks.

1.3 History of Industrial Property Promotion In 1992, the Institute of Inventions of Ias, i and the Centres for Invention Implementation in Ias, i, Tg. Mures, , and Craiova were established for the purpose of making the best economic use of inventions from their respective areas. In 1998, the Regional

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Table 2 Publications in the field of industrial property 1921–1965

1966–1990

1991–

Buletin Oficial [Official Bulletin] Bulletin Officiel

Invent, ii s, i Inovat, ii [Inventions and Innovations] Magazine

The Romanian Intellectual Property Magazine

Centres for the Promotion of Industrial Property Protection were established, building on the experience gained by the European Patent Office. The centres carried out their activities within host institutions and received information support from OSIM Bucharest. Currently, the 17 institutions are part of the European PATLIB network, thus ensuring the European integration of industrial property promotion.

1.4 History of Inventions Exhibitions In 1921, the Fair-Exhibition of the Romanian industry was organised in the Carol Park in Bucharest (B˘ad˘ar˘au et al. 2003), widely regarded as ‘the happiest national event’ after the end of World War I. The exhibition included a section for Inventions, which was set up in a special Pavilion. After 1990 Romanian inventors participated in many International Fairs worldwide. Also, several International Invention Fairs were organised in Romania.

1.5 History of Publications in the Field of Industrial Property The first publication in the field of intellectual property, the Official Bulletin, appeared on 1 May 1921, published in Romanian and French (Table 2). Over time, the publication included articles on legislation, on the theory and practice of intellectual property, the list of patents granted, comments on pioneering inventions, short biographies of Romanian inventors of international importance.

1.6 The Printed Format of Patents The format of printed patents varies depending on the time it was issued. The first Romanian Patent, granted in accordance to the Law of 1906, was published in the Official Gazette no. 189 of 21 November 1906 and was issued on 8 January 1907. The first page contains the insignia of the Royal House, a three-coloured ribbon, and the text ‘Kingdom of Romania, Ministry of Industry and Commerce, Romanian Royal Patent, no.1’ (Fig. 1) (*** 1906). After 1948, Patents were granted to state

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Fig. 1 The first Romanian patent [Public domain]

institutions, and the inventor received an Inventor Certificate. After 1990, both the applicant and the inventor received one copy of the Invention Patent.

2 History of Inventions in Romania Until 1906 2.1 Defining Economic and Technological Features of the Period In the first decades of the nineteenth century, the agricultural area in the Romanian Principalities increased threefold, and the fourth and fifth decades brought the use of agricultural machinery. In 1860, foreign trade saw a fourfold growth as compared to 1832. As of 1 January 1848, the customs’ unification of Wallachia and Moldavia was completed. In 1860 there were 12,867 industrial facilities, especially handicraft workshops, most of them working in the food and textile industry. In 1856 Ploies, ti was the largest oil producer in Europe, and 5 of the 10 Romanian refineries were

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located near Ploies, ti. The unification of the Principalities and the achievement of Independence were among the positive drivers of industrial development.

2.2 The Protection of Rights by Means of Privileges (B˘ad˘ar˘au et al. 2003) The first Privilege for exclusive rights was granted on 28 May 1800 to Hagi St˘anut, a˘ to build a weaving mill at the M˘arcut, a Monastery in Bucharest and was reconfirmed until 1813. The first Privilege for a new craft was granted on 20 September 1826 to Teodor Mamelegioglu, after he completed, before a commission appointed by the Prince, a demonstration of a process of washing, cleaning, and dyeing clothing. The first Privilege for a machine. On 25 July 1840, dr. Zuker applied for a privilege for the use of a threshing machine, invented by him, which could separate the grains by friction, unlike other tools that employed the beating principle. Prince Alexandru Dimitrie Ghica recommended that the machine be tested in a village in the presence of Petrache Poenaru, who at that time held the rank of Minister. The first Privilege with patent-like features. The request was submitted to the Prince of Moldavia on 21 April 1855 by Paul Iacovenco, who was well acquainted with the French law of inventions, having obtained several patents. The document contained the description of the solution, its advantages, the explanatory drawings, and also the commitment to apply the invention within three years. The invention, titled ‘Wide boats with impermeable canvas’, proposed a new solution for the transportation of goods, in particular grains. The first application for a patent. On 12 September 1862, a patent application was filed with the Ministry of Agriculture, Commerce and Public Works by Constantin S, tefanide for a ‘wooden frame, fitted with glass, intended for framing paintings and religious icons’ which had the advantage of preventing the penetration of dust and smoke. The request was accompanied by a model of the frame. First patent. On 8 July 1865, Paul Iacovenco filed a Patent Application for a ‘Double Pressure Water Reservoir for the Storage of Heating Oil and Other Liquid Greases’. In addition to the technical features, the author mentioned that he had already obtained patents for this solution in other countries, including England and France. By Decree no. 1343, published in the Official Gazette of the United Romanian Principalities no. 232 of 21 October 1865, Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza signed the first Patent for invention.

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2.3 Protection of Inventions Through Special Laws (B˘ad˘ar˘au et al. 2003) The patent signed by A. I. Cuza set a precedent that allowed for the granting of Patents for inventions through special laws, concerning each application. It was a cumbersome process that prompted many Romanians to patent their solutions abroad. Some of the patents protected by special laws include those presented below. The Rudolf Kopetzki Law, adopted by the Senate during the Session held on 1 December 1890, promulgated by Royal Decree no. 3416/10.12.1890 and published in the Official Gazette no. 204/12.12.1890, stipulates: ‘Lieutenant Rudolf Kopetzki of the Romanian Army is granted the exclusive right to manufacture, import, and sell lamps and lanterns fitted with automatic quenchers, based on his own invention…’. The Ion N. G. Daniilescu Law refers to a Digging-plough ‘designed for digging, ploughing, hoeing the soil amidst rows of corn, beans, tobacco, hops, and vineyards’. The law remained under discussion for 11 years. During this time, the DiggingPlough was experimented with, perfected, and showcased at several exhibitions, including the 1889 Exposition Universelle in Paris, where it was awarded the silver medal.

3 History on Inventions in Romania from 1906 to 1948 3.1 Defining Economic and Technological Features of the Period From 1906 to 1948, Romanian patents for invention were granted based on the Law of Inventions of 1906, with some amendments. During the first part of this period, Romania witnessed a remarkable economic and technological development. During this period, approximately 40,000 applications for patents were submitted and more than 31,000 Patents were granted. Foreign applicants accounted for the largest share, 69%. Of these, 30.3% came from Germany, 11.5% from France, 9.5% from Austria, 8.4% from the USA, 6.9% from Hungary, and 6.6% from England. Patent applications were filed with the Romanian Industrial Property Office through a Trustee. During the same period, specifically in 1920, the Office of Invention Patents became the Industrial Property Office, with its own headquarters. In spite of the country’s notable economic growth, many Romanians obtained Patents for invention abroad, in countries where they were either completing university studies or looking for investors interested in their ground-breaking solutions.

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3.2 The First Patent of Invention Granted in Romania Patent no. 1, called ‘S, tefania’ Romanian digging machine, was requested by Captain Ion Constantinescu, a resident of Tecuci, on 28 March 1906, was published in the Official Gazette no. 189 of 21 November 1906, and issued on 8 January 1907. The application was typed and included the list of components, a description of their structure, including the dimensions and operation of the machine. The claims section is titled ‘Patent claim and secrecy’ and contains 15 entries, such as: 1. The creation of the sectioned axle, for different depths, and the operation of handles without obstruction; 5. Movement of the sectioned axle, backward, forward, up and down, driven by the coupled wheel gear system A, as described; 15. The weight of the coupled wheel A generates the working power. It is mentioned that each page bears the author’s signature, including the rank ‘captain’.

3.3 The First 100 Patents of Invention Granted in Romania The first 100 applications for patents were filed from March 1906 (the Romanian digging machine ‘S, tefania’) until August 1906. Some applications were resolved by the end of 1906, others were granted patents in 1907. The applications were submitted by Romanian citizens, by foreign citizens, Romanian companies (for instance, Procedure for transforming liquid and powdery bodies into solid pieces, Patent no. 21 obtained by the ‘Romanian Star’ Oil Company on 20 February 1907), but also by many foreign companies from Austria, England, Croatia, France, Germany, Hungary, Serbia. Among the first Patents obtained by individuals was the ‘Digging Plough’, which was granted Patent no. 10 based on the application filed on 11 April 1906 and issued on 22 March 1907 to Ion G. N. Daniilescu. He had obtained protection for the Digging-Plough prior to 1906 through a Special Law. Patent no. 15 is also worth mentioning. It was obtained by Major Kalmusschi, a resident of Roman, on 1 March 1907, for the method applied by the inventor to identify the problem he then solved. ‘As an old soldier, fortunate to have fought in the war of 1877/78 and various manoeuvres during my career, I felt the need for a bed in which to rest after each day’s fatigue’.

4 History of Inventions in Romania from 1948 to 1989 The change of political regime had a major impact on the protection of industrial property. Thus, the applications filed between 1947 and 1967 (approximately 18,000) were also reviewed based on the 1906 Law, and approximately 4900 Patents were granted from 1954 to 1967. From 1948 to 1954, in spite of the large number of applications, no patent was granted; nevertheless, the inventions were promoted.

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In 1967 the Law on Inventions, Innovations and Rationalisations was adopted and departments were established within enterprises and research institutes aimed at increasing the activity in this field. The ever-growing interest in the protection of industrial property is also shown by the progression of the average number of applications: 1200 applications from 1920 to 1944, 1000 applications from 1951 to 1967, and more than 3000 applications in 1968. Law no. 62/1974 introduced the possibility of financial rewards for the authors of inventions applied in practice. The activity in the field of inventions was channelled towards solving the problems of the economy, which was regarded as a responsibility of all research units. The holder of the patent was the state institution which employed the inventor, who was only granted an Inventor Certificate. Also, the patenting of Romanian inventions abroad was not carried out by the holder of the patent or by the inventor, but instead by OSIM, which was allocated foreign currency funds for this purpose. As an example, in 1981 a total number of 64 patents were obtained abroad, and only 9 in 1989 (Bucs, a˘ 2009).

5 History of Inventions in Romania After 1989 5.1 Defining Economic and Technological Features of the Period The political shift of December 1989 meant the transition to a market economy, accompanied by major changes in the field of property, including industrial property. Under these circumstances, Law no. 64/1990 on Patents for Invention, Law no. 350/2007 on utility models (or small-scale inventions), and Law no. 83/2014 on Employees’ Inventions were adopted. OSIM undergoes transformations. The interest for the protection of the industrial property through Patents of invention becomes a substantive issue, as the economic operators are bound by the rules of market economy to protect their original solutions, both in Romania and in Europe, in order to withstand their competition. Actions such as participation in international invention exhibitions, organisation in Romania of regional, national, or international exhibitions, the awarding of prizes to inventors, the inclusion of patents among the criteria for the assessment of research activities, the establishment of Centres for the promotion of industrial property, the establishment of the Chamber of Industrial Property Counsellors, the introduction of industrial property courses in university curricula, in particular as part of master’s degree and doctoral studies, have all led to an increase in the number of applications and patents. This period also saw progress in the technology transfer activity, through which patented solutions are applied by economic agents, third parties. Entities have been established (Manolea 2009), standards have been developed. Romania is still at the beginning of this journey, and the desired change hopefully lies ahead.

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5.2 The Dynamics of Applications for Patents In spite of many incentive solutions that have been applied, from an organisational standpoint, the number of patent applications filed by individuals has decreased overall, although it stabilised in recent years. There is a notable increase in the number of applications submitted by universities, while the number of applications filed by companies and research centres has remained relatively constant. Between 2001 and 2016, the average number of national patent applications per 100,000 inhabitants was below 20. The number of European patents validated in Romania increased between the years 2006and 2016, and the ratio between the number of Romanian and European patents saw a steady and significant decrease from 0.63 in 2006 to 0.1 in 2016.

6 Patents of Inventions Obtained by Romanians. Examples 6.1 Patents of Inventions Obtained Prior to 1906 At the end of the nineteenth century, Romanians obtained more than 100 patents: 30 in Austria (1896–1902), approx. 40 patents (1898–1905) and 26 utility models (1891–1905) in Germany, 14 in Switzerland (1888–1900). The invention called ‘Never-ending portable pen that supplies itself with ink’ was patented by Petrache Poenaru who obtained, on 25 May 1827, the French Patent no. 3208. The fuel injector, invented by Teodor Dragu in 1896, was installed on 122 steam locomotives. The Jet-propelled boat—Reactive propeller, later known as the ‘Ciurcu-Buisson jet propeller’, was an invention by Alexandru Ciurcu and Buisson for which they received the French Patent 179001/ 12.10.1886. The solution was also patented in Germany, Belgium, England (*** 2001, 1999). On 13 August 1886, they successfully tested, for the first time in the history of technology, a boat powered by a jet engine. The experiment was conducted on the Seine, against the current, and lasted 15 min (Manolea 2010). The steam car (Fig. 2) was built by Dumitru V˘asescu in 1880, while he was a student. The car met the requirements for a vehicle operated by a driver: manometers and valves to adjust the steam pressure, lever to change the direction of movement, independent braking systems, wheels were elastic and fitted with spokes and tyres (*** 1999, 1982). The Airplane-automobile was invented by Traian Vuia, an invention for which he obtained the French Patent no. 332106/17.08.1903. He built the Vuia I aircraft, which he used for a demonstration flight on 18 March 1906 in the Montesson area of Paris. His aircraft was equipped with landing gear and a wing with variable inclination during flight. He continued his experiments and subsequently built the Vuia II plane, which he used for a 70-m flight on 17 July 1907.

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Fig. 2 Dumitru V˘asescu’s automobile [public domain]

6.2 Patents for Invention Obtained from 1906 to 1948 A statistical analysis of the applications and patents granted by OSIM in the 1906– 1940 period (*** 2017) shows that, proportionally, the majority of the applications submitted for patent consideration have received the Patent. Some examples are provided below. The Method for improving the efficiency and perfecting rotary drilling, with percussive rotation and damping of hydro-mechanical pressure was patented by Basgan S, t. Ion, who was granted the Romanian Patent no. 22789/1934. The method was also patented in the USA. He also obtained the US Patent no. 2103137/1937 for ‘Rotary Well Drilling Apparatus’ and the Romanian Patent no. 37743/1945 for ‘Rotary Well Driller’. The invention called ‘Rotary and percussion drilling system with sonic frequencies…’ was patented in 1967 in France, Portugal, USA, the United Arab Emirates (*** 2001, 1999). The helicopter with four rotors, invented and built by Gheorghe Botezatu. He tested the design on 18 December 1922, and again on 19 and 23 January 1923. Based on the results, he designed the GB-5 model, which is regarded as the most advanced helicopter of that time (*** 1999). The Bris, cu rotary internal combustion engine, Romanian patent 2014/1912, was invented by Grigore Bris, cu. In 1911 he made the model of a helicopter with two coaxial, counter-rotating rotors, fitted with a pitch variation plate. The world’s first jet-propelled aircraft was built by Henri Coand˘a. He displayed it in Paris on 16 December 1910. In 1934 he obtained the French Patent for ‘Method and apparatus for deviation of a fluid into another fluid’, also known as ‘the Coand˘a Effect’ (*** 2001, 1999, Manolea 2008). He obtained multiple Patents in Romania as well, for instance Patent no. 4876/22.11.1922 for ‘Henry Coand˘a Construction Method’’ which can be applied to all buildings and masonry structures, later known as ‘precasting’. In 1935, he patented, in France, the ‘Lenticular Aerodyne’. He built several models which he tested until 1956, when the Patent was purchased by US Air Force (Manolea 2010).

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Daponte Dumitru had notable contributions to Relief Cinematography or 3D Film, by building a camera with two lenses placed 6 cm apart. In 1923 he obtained the British Patent 222173 and the French Patent 592963 for relief cinematography. In 1931 he obtained the British Patents 346454 and 346406 (*** 2001, 1999). A New parachuting system was invented by Anastase Dragomir, who obtained the French Patent 678566/02.04.1930. He tested the invention in Bucharest, in October 1929. He obtained the Romanian Patent 40658 dated 01.04.1950 for ‘Parachuted cell’. On 20 May 1959 he submitted to the State Office for Inventions the application no. 40125 of 20 May 1959 for the construction of an aircraft provided with catapultable cockpits (*** 2001, 1999). The Radio-controlled boat was presented by Mihai Konteschweller in the autumn of 1935, during the Fair-Exhibition organised in the Carol Park in Bucharest. He obtained the Romanian Patent 34965 of 13 March 1943 ‘Intermittent feed using relaxation oscillation’. He received patents in the field of automobile aerodynamics. He is regarded as the father of Telemechanics in Romania (Manolea 2010, 2008). Major Augustin Sabiniu conducted experiments in Harmonic telephony or multiple telephony in late 1906, when he succeeded in transmitting five simultaneous calls between two telephone exchanges located 15 km apart and connected by a single telephone line consisting of two electrical conductors. The first long-range rocket was designed in 1917 by Oberth Hermann. He proposed a mixture of alcohol, water, and liquid air as fuel. In 1920 he completed the project of a rocket based on hydrogen and oxygen, the world’s first design of a multistage rocket using liquid fuel based on numerical calculations. He also designed a rocket that was intended to reach outer space with human crew on board and was the first to present mathematical calculations for the launch of a rocket to the Moon and for parachute landing (*** 2001, 1999). The Aerodynamic automobile was invented by Aurel Persu, who obtained the German Patent 402683/14.11.192 Vierrädriger Stromlinienkraftwagen mit innerhalb der Strom linienform and the American Patent 1.648.505/2.11.1932 Streamline Power Vehicles for the aerodynamic shape of automobiles, as well as ten other patents, for different innovations, granted in Switzerland, England, Belgium, France, Austria, Hungary, Romania (*** 2001, 1999, Manolea 2008). The uniform-temperature thermoelectric pile was the subject of application no. 1076/16.06.1922 submitted to the Industrial Property Office in Bucharest by Nicolae Vasilescu Karpen. He received the Patent no. 6824, and in 1950 he built the prototype (Fig. 3) of the pile that is still in use today (Manolea 2008). Arrow-shaped flying machine is the title of Patent RO2258 obtained by Aurel Vlaicu in 1910. He built several models of gliders (*** 1999), which he used to test the solutions he imagined for an aircraft that he built in 1909.

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Fig. 3 Karpen’s pile [public domain]

6.3 Patents for Inventions Obtained from 1948 to 1989. Examples The device for measuring the active power, the reactive power, and the deformant power was invented by Ion S. Antoniu and patented in Romania, USA, England, Switzerland, France (*** 1999). The method for transmitting wide-band signals was invented by Gheorghe Cartianu, who received the Golden Medal at the Invention Exhibition in Nüremberg in 1960 (Manolea 2010).

References B˘ad˘ar˘au Al, Ciontu P, Mih˘ailescu N (2003) Din istoria protect, iei propriet˘at, ii industriale în România (From the history of industrial property protection in Romania). Publishing House OSIM, Bucharest Bucs, a˘ Gh (2009) Contribut, ii la protect, ia propriet˘at, ii industriale în România (Contributions to the protection of industrial property in Romania). Publishing House OSIM, Bucharest *** (1906) OSIM archive *** (1991) Law no. 64/1991 published in Official Gazette of Romania no. 212/21.10.1991

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Iancu S, t (1998) Istoria protect, iei invent, iilor în România (History of Invention Protection in Romania). Publishing House of the Romanian Academy *** (1982) Personalit˘at, i românes, ti ale s, tiint, elor naturii s, i tehnicii. Dict, ionar (Romanian personalities of the natural sciences and technology. Dictionary). Publishing House Scientific and Encyclopaedic, Bucharest *** (1999) Inventatori români (Romanian inventors). Publishing House OSIM, Bucharest *** (2001) În lumea inventatorilor români (In the world of Romanian inventors). Publishing House OSIM, Bucharest Manolea Gh (2008) Invent, iile s, i istoria lor, vol I (Inventions and their history, vol I). Publishing House ALMA, Craiova Manolea Gh (2009) Valorificarea potent, ialului creativ din universit˘at, i prin inovare s, i transfer tehnologic (Harnessing the creative potential of universities through innovation and technological transfer). Rom J Innov 4:51–57 Manolea Gh (2010) Invent, ii s, i istoriile lor. Despre inventatori (Inventions and their histories. About the inventors). Publishing House ALMA, Craiova *** (2017) https://www.osim.ro/about-osim/who-we-are/statistics

Romanian Personalities in the Field of Engineering Dorel Banabic

Abstract The chapter briefly presents the biographies of the most representative personalities who made contributions in the field of engineering born in Romania, of Romanian origin or who worked on the territory of Romania. ALEXA Gheorghe (26 October 1891, Vutcani, Vaslui—30 September 1985, Ias, i). Chemical engineer. Founder of the Romanian school of leather engineering. Studies: Gh. Ros, ca Codreanu Secondary School, Bârlad; Applied Chemistry at the University of Ias, i; French Leather School, University of Lyon (France) (the first Romanian engineer with a specialisation in leather engineering). Teaching activity: Professor at the University of Ias, i. Research achievements: Author for the first internationally recognised researches in leather engineering, presented at the Prague International Congress (1929) and published (1930) in the journals: Le cuir technique and Journal of the Society of Leather Trades Chemistry; Author of the first treatise of tannery in Romania. Awards and medals: Gold medal of the French Association of Leather Chemists (1968); Silver Medal of the International Society for the Encouragement of Scientific Research and Inventions (1971); Labour Order second class; Order of the Star of the Romanian Socialist Republic, second class.

D. Banabic (B) Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Cluj Napoca, Romania e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 D. Banabic (ed.), History of Romanian Technology and Industry, History of Mechanism and Machine Science 45, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39191-0_12

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ANDRONESCU Plautius (10 December 1893, Zürich –4 November 1975, Timis, oara). Electrotechnical engineer. Studies: Matei Basarab Secondary School Bucharest (1914); ETH Zürich, Switzerland (1918); Doctor of Technical Sciences, ETH Zürich, (1922), Docent (1923). Technical activity: Oerlikon Factory of Electric Machines, Zürich; Dornach Metalworks; Cossonay Factory of Electric Cables. Teaching activity: Assistant Professor at ETH Zürich (1919–1925); Professor at the Polytechnic University of Timis, oara (1925). Positions: Technical director at the Energia Electric Machines Factory of Cluj (1925–1929); General Director of the Romanian Post-Telegraph-Telephone Company (1929–1931); Rector of the Polytechnic University of Timis, oara (1941–1944). Research achievements: The development of advanced mathematical methods in electrotechnics; new methods for designing the junction boxes for electric railways; contributions to the study of some electrotechnical materials and new semiconductors; founder of the Romanian school of theoretical electrotechnics. Main works: Încadrarea matematic˘a a fenomenelor electromagnetice (1934); Aplicarea calculului operat, ional în studiul circuitelor electrice (1957); Bazele electrotehnicii (2 volumes, 1972). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy of Sciences; Corresponding Member of the International Federation of Engineers. ANTON Ioan (18 July 1924, Vintere, Bihor County— 12 April 2011, Timis, oara). Hydraulic engineer. Studies: Samuil Vulcan Secondary School, Beius; Polytechnic School of Timis, oara (1943–1948); Doctor of Technical Sciences (1961); Docent (1972). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1949); Lecturer (1950); Associate professor (1951); Professor (1962–1990). Positions: Head of Departement (1962–1973, 1982– 1990); Vice-Dean (1951–1953); Dean of the Faculty of Mechanics (1961–1963); Vice-Rector (1963–1966); Rector (1971–1981) of the Polytechnic University of Timis, oara; Director of the Centre for Scientific Research of the Romanian Academy at Timis, oara (1970–2009). Technical achievements: The study, design and testing of axial turbines on Bistrit, a, Arges, and Olt rivers, and

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the rotors of the turbines of the Iron Gates I Hydroelectric Complex; author and co-author of seven inventions patented by the State Office for Inventions and Trademarks (SOIT). Research achievements: Elaboration of new relations of calculation of cavity ratio; definition of interior and exterior cavity curves at turbines; deduction of relations of energetic and cavitational scaleup effects. Main works: Cavitat, ia (2 volumes, 1984– 1985); Hidrodinamica turbinelor s, i pompelor bulb s, i turbinelor-pompe bulb (1988); Energetic and Cavitational Scale-up Effect in Hydraulic Turbines (2002). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy starting 1 March 1974 (Corresponding Member since 21 March 1963); Vice-President of the Romanian Academy (1974–1990); Member of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts from Salzburg. Awards and medals: State Award (1953); Scientific Merit National Order First Class (1970); Grand Officer of the National Order of Merit (2000). ˘ Constantin (29 September 1919, Ias, i—24 ARAMA March 2003, Bucharest). Thermotechnical engineer. Studies: Gh. Laz˘ar Secondary School, Bucharest (1938); Imperial College of Science and Technology, London (1938–1940); Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1940–1942). Technical activity: Craiova Locomotive Company; Timpuri Noi Company, Bucharest; ARO Automobile Company, Câmpulung; Dacia Plants, Pites, ti. Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1943); Lecturer (1945); Associate professor (1948); Professor (1951) at the Engines Department of the Technical Institute of Bucharest. Positions: Head of the Section of Thermotechnology of the Energetic Institute of the Romanian Academy (1948–1959); Head of Department (1956–1961). Research achievements: Analysis of sources of malodorants and methods of their elimination from the exhaust gases of engines; methods of traffic optimisation in urban network; foundations of a new technical discipline called ‘terotechnology’. Main works: Combustibili s, i lubrifiant, i pentru motoare (1962); Motoare cu ardere intern˘a. Procese caracteristice (1966); Terotehnica (1976). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 18 December 1991 (Corresponding Member since 21 March 1963).

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ASACHI Gheorghe (1 March 1788, Hert, a, Moldavia— 12 November 1869, Ias, i). Land surveyor (topographer). Studies: Lviv Secondary School, Ukraine (1802); University of Lviv, Ukraine (1803–1804); University of Vienna (1805–1808); University of Rome (1808–1812). Teaching activity: He had a major contribution to the creation and organisation of the education system of Moldavia; organisation of the courses of topography at the Princely School of Ias, i (1813); professor of the first course of engineering and land survey in Ias, i (1814); founder of technical training in Moldavia; founder of the Academia Mih˘ailean˘a higher education institution in Ias, i (1835); founder of the School of Arts and Crafts in Ias, i (1841); professor of civil engineering at the Princely School of Ias, i (1819). Positions: Referee at the Departament of Foreign Affairs (1813); Diplomatic agent at Vienna (1822–1827); Referee of the Guardianship of Public Learning in Moldavia (1828); Secretary of the Moldavian Committee for editing the Organic Regulations (1830); Director of the State Archives of Ias, i (1832). Main works: Relat, ie istoric˘a asupra s, coalelor nat, ionale în Moldova de la a lor restatornicire 1828– 1838 (1838). Organisation memberships: Member of the Agricultural Society of France (1828); Member of the Society of Fine Arts of Vienna (1828). AVRAM Constantin (19 February 1911, Ciumas, i, Bacau ˘ County—20 February 1987, Timis, oara). Construction engineer. Studies: Ferdinand I Secondary School of Bac˘au; School of Military Engineering of Bucharest; École Militaire et d’Application du Génie de la Versailles; Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1940). Technical activity: Designer at the Construction Company of Bucharest (1940–1948); took part in the reconstruction of the Res, it, a Plant and the building of the Hunedoara Plant, etc.. Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1940) at the Polytechnic School of Bucharest; Professor (1948) at the Polytechnic University of Timis, oara. Positions: Head of the Department of Reinforced Concrete and Buildings (1953–1975); Rector of the Polytechnic University of Timis, oara (1963–1971). Research achievements: Development of new manufacturing procedures for precast concrete; research of binders in concrete production; research of physical and

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mechanical mechanisms of concrete, etc. Main works: Grinzi continue (5 editions, 1949–1981); Betonul armat (1952); Manual pentru calculul construct, iilor (1959); Rezistent, ele s, i deformat, iile betonului (1971); Structuri spat, iale (1978); Concrete strength and strains (1981); Structuri de beton armat (1984); Space Structures (1984); Numerical Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Structures (1992). Organisation memberships: Corresponding Member of the Romanian Academy since 21 March 1963. Member of: International Federation of Precompression; European Committee for Concrete; Unified Commission for High Constructions, USA. ˘ BALAN Stefan ¸ (1 January 1913, Braila—26 ˘ March 1991, Bucharest). Construction engineer. Studies: Nicolae B˘alcescu Secondary School, Br˘aila; Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1937); Doctor of Technical Sciences (1945). Teaching activity: Associate professor (1941); Professor (1944) at the Department of Constructions of the Polytechnic School (1944– 1948) and the Constructions Institute in Bucharest (1948–1974). Positions: Head of the Department of Theoretical Mechanics at the Roads and Bridges Institute of Bucharest (1948–1950); Head of the Department of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics of the Institute of Constructions in Bucharest (1948–1974); Minister of Constructions (1956–1957); Minister of Education (1963–1969); Mayor of Bucharest (1954– 1955). Research achievements: He elaborated new theories in the plastic analysis of structures (the theory of mechanical density); he introduced the notion of ‘chromoplasticity’ used in the elastoplastic modelling of structures; he gave an expression to the degree of safety in the calculation of elastoplastic structures; he made significant contributions to the history of technology. Main works: Lexicon tehnic român (1st edition, 7 volumes, 1949–1956; 2nd edition, 19 volumes, 1957– 1968); Mecanica teoretic˘a s, i aplicat˘a (1959); Cromoplasticitatea (1963); Încercarea construct, iilor (1965); Din istoria mecanicii (1966); Istoria s, tiint, ei s, i tehnicii din România (1985) etc. Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 21 March 1963 (Corresponding Member since 2 July 1955); President of the Technical Sciences Section (1984–1991); Vice-President of the National Council of Engineers and

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Technicians; Member of the International Academy of the History of Science. Awards and medals: Scientific Order First Class (1956); Grand Officer of the National Order of Merit (1968); Peace Medal of the UN (1974); Emeritus Scientist (1970). ˘ ANESCU ˘ BAR George (13 May 1919, Odobes, ti, Vrancea County—6 April 2001, Chicago, USA). Automotive engineer. Studies: Dr. Mes, ot˘a Secondary School, Bras, ov; Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1942); Doctor of Engineering (1968); Docent of Sciences (1970). Technical activity: Director of the Romanian Railway Company’s Planning Department; General Secretary of the Ministry of Social Insurance. Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1947–1949); Associate professor (1949–1962); Professor (1962–1978) at the Technical Institute of Bucharest; Professor at the Technical Military Academy of Bucharest (1950–1954); Visiting Professor at the Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, USA (1982–1983) and the University of Illinois at Chicago, USA (1988). Positions: Head of the Thermal Energy Section of the Energy Institute of the Romanian Academy (1964–1968); Head of the Department of Internal Combustion Engines (1964–1978); Vice-Rector (1964–1968) and Rector (1968–1972) of the Technical Institute of Bucharest. Founder and President of Advanced Technology and Research Corporation. Research achievements: Energy conservation, use of unconventional fuels, thermodynamics, gas dynamics, dynamics of internal combustion engines, analysis of thermal tensions, etc. Author of four inventions patented in the USA. Main works: Calculul termodinamic al armelor cu propulsie prin react, ie (1955); Calculul proceselor de ardere (1955); Motoare cu ardere intern˘a. Metode de calcul termic (1977); A New Perspective in Thermodynamics (1992); A General Natural Principle (1991); etc. Organisation memberships: Corresponding Member of the Romanian Academy since 21 March 1963. President of the Committee for Tackling Environmental Pollution of the Romanian Academy (1967–1978). Awards and medals: Gold Medal (Caracas, 1995).

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˘ ˘ BARGL AZAN Aurel (27 March 1905, Porumbacu de Sus, Sibiu County—17 October 1960, Timis, oara). Hydraulic engineer. Studies: Secondary School in Bras, ov and Sibiu; Polytechnic School of Timis, oara (1923–1928); Doctor in Engineering (1940) at the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara (the first doctoral thesis in Romania in the field of hydraulics). Specialisations: at the Technical Universities of Vienna, Prague, Zürich, Berlin, Budapest, Turin and Milan; at the J. M. Voith plant in St. Pölten, Austria, the Escher Wyss in Zürich, and the Siemens in Berlin. Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1928–1931); Associate professor (1931– 1942); and Professor (1942–1960) at the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara. Positions: Head of the Department of Hydraulic Machines (1948–1960); Dean of the Faculties of Electromechanics and Mechanics (1942–1960) of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara; he contributed to the establishment and development of the Laboratory of Hydraulic Machines at the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara. Research achievements: The study of hydrodynamics and the development of methods for the design of turbo-machines; Analysis of the phenomenon of cavitation. Main works: Mas, ini hidraulice (2 volumes, 1948, 1951); Fenomenul de cavitat, ie la mas, inile hidraulice (1954); Turbotransmisiile hidraulice (1957); Încercarea mas, inilor hidraulice s, i pneumatice (1959). Technical achievements: He designed the turbines of the hydroelectric power plants of Suceava, Sâmb˘ata de Sus, V˘alenii de Munte, Z˘arnes, ti, Moldova Nou˘a, etc.; he designed a pump for furnaces called the ‘B˘argl˘azan pump’; he designed with his collaborators the Pelton (P = 3000 kW) and Frances (P = 1100 kW) turbines at V˘aliugCr˘ainicel (1949–1951) and the Kaplan turbines at Târgu Mures, (P = 2 × 750 kw) (1952); in 1938, he was a counsellor at U. D. Res, it, a in the field of hydraulic and pneumatic machines; he founded the collectives of hydraulic machine design at U. D. Res, it, a (1949) and within the Research and Design Institute for Hydroelectic Equipment at Res, it, a. Organisation memberships: Corresponding Member of the Romanian Academy since 2 July 1955. Awards and medals: State Award, First Class (1953); Labour Order, Second Class (1954).

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BASGAN Ion S, t. (24 June 1902, Focs, ani— 15 December 1980,Bucharest). Petroleum engineer. Inventor. Studies: The Ias, i Boarding School (1920); The Superior School of Mines and Metallurgy (Montanistische Hochschule) in Leoben, Austria (1924); Doctor in Engineering at the Montanistische Hochschule Leoben (1934). Specialisations: At the oil exploitation in Pechelbronn, Alsace (France). Technical activity: Drilling engineer at the Romanian Star Society; revolutionised the technology of oil exploitation, patenting several drilling methods: Metoda pentru îmbun˘at˘at, irea randamentului si perfect, ionarea forajului rotativ prin rotat, ii percutante si prin amortizarea presiunilor hidromecanice, patent filed in Romania (1934); Rotary Well Drilling Apparatus, patent filed in the USA (1934); Procedur˘a s, i sistemul de forare rotativ˘a cu vibrat, ie sonic˘a impuse fluidului de foraj, patent filed in the USA (1970). Basgan’s inventions led to an increased penetration speed of the drill and raising the depth of drilling to 5000–6000 m. These methods were then applied by oil extraction companies all over the world. Research achievements: He discovered that, as ‘the hydromechanical pressure acts upwards, in the opposite direction to that of the drill penetration’, it must be balanced by a supplementary force applied on the drill (known as the Basgan effect). Organisation memberships: Postmortem Member of the Academy of Technical Sciences in Romania (2005). Awards and medals: Cornel Nicoar˘a Award of the Romanian Academy (1935). BELES, Aurel (7 April 1891, Bucharest—10 January 1976, Bucharest). Construction engineer. Studies: Mihai Viteazul Secondary School, Bucharest (1909); National School for Bridges and Roads, Bucharest (1914). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1918); Associate professor (1920–1938); Professor (1938–1948) at the Polytechnic School and the Bucharest Institute of Constructions (1963–1976). Technical activity: Engineer at the General Direction of Bridges and Roads of the Ministry of Public Works (1914–1919), where he designed and built reinforced concrete bridges and railway bridges; Engineer at the Direction of the Superior Technical Council (1919– 1920); Engineer at the Transylvanian Technical Credit

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(1920–1921) and the General Technical Companies (1921–1933); He had significant results as a design engineer and building manager, responsible for: the foundations of the Stock Exchange Palace and the Chamber of Commerce from Galat, i, the building of the locomotive repair plant of the French-Romanian Society at Br˘aila, the building of the National Bank Palace, the consolidation and superelevation of the former Splendid Hotel, duplication of the Teius, -Apahida railway, building of the Bumbes, ti-Livezeni railway, design of the new reinforced concrete chimneys (80– 120 m high) of the new steelworks of Hunedoara, the centres in Doices, ti, Ovidiu, Paros, eni, the foundations of some buildings at the Bicaz hydroelectric plant, and of the Galat, i Steelworks, etc. Research achievements: Calculation of buckling in a homogeneous elastic medium; Design of antiseismic buildings; Calculation of thin curved plates, etc. Main works: Statica s, i rezistent, a (1936); Cutremurul s, i construct, iile (1941); Mecanica teoretic˘a s, i aplicat˘a (3 volumes, 1942– 1950); Teoria pl˘acilor plane (1950); L’application de la méthode plurilocale au calcul des coques de translation (1961); Calculul pl˘acilor curbe subt, iri (1969); Calculul construct, iilor amplasate pe terenuri deformabile (1977). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 21 March 1963 (Corresponding Member since 2 July 1955). Member of: International Association of Seismic Engineering; the International Association for Thin Curved Plate Structures; the Seismological Society of America. Awards and medals: Laureate of the State Award (1963); Emeritus Scientist (1964).

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BERCOVICI Martin (24 august 1902, Bârlad, Vaslui County—19 January 1971, Bucharest). Electrotechnical engineer. Studies: Secondary school at Bârlad; Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1921–1926). Technical activity: Engineer (1927) at the Gas and Electricity Company. Teaching activity: Professor at the Technical Institute (1948–1971), where he created a school for electric networks and systems. Positions: Technical vicedirector of the Gas and Electricity Company (1944– 1948); Director in the Ministry of Industry and Trade (since 1948); Director of the Energetic Research and Design Institute (1949–1952); General Technical Director in the Ministry of Electric Energy (1952– 1954); Director of the Direction of Electric Energy of the State Committee of Planning (1954–1967). He was one of the pioneers of Romania’s electrification planning. Research achievements: He developed methods of protection for electrical installations adapted to network structures and calculation methods of three-phase shortcircuit currents in asynchronous machines and electrical networks; he studied the configuration and protection of electrical distribution networks; he developed the theory of symmetrical components and its applications in electrotechnics; he analysed power and frequency regulation in electrical systems; he studied the influence of high voltage lines on telecommunication lines and long distance energy transport in alternating current and direct current; he contributed to the application of graph theory and matrix calculus to the study of electric networks, etc. Main works: Calculul circulat, iei curent, ilor în ret, elele electrice buclate cu ajutorul mas, inilor de calcul numeric (1960); Ret, ele electrice. Calculul mecanic (1963); Influent, a ret, elei asupra puterii de rupere a întrerup˘atoarelor la deconectarea scurtcircuitelor trifazate (1967); Ret, ele electrice (2 volumes 1974, 1981). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 21 March 1963 (Corresponding Member since 2 July 1955).

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BOTEZATU Gheorghe (7 June 1882, Saint Petersburg, Russia—1 February 1940, Boston, USA). Aeronautical engineer. Inventor. Studies: The Ias, i Boarding School; the University of Ias, i; the Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute (1902– 1908); the Montefiore Electrotechnical Institute of Liège (1905–1907); Graduate studies at the University of Göttingen and Humboldt University of Berlin (1908– 1909); Doctorate at the Sorbonne University in Paris (the first doctorate in aeronautics) (1911). Teaching activity: Professor at the Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute (1911– 1916); Professor at the University of Dayton, Ohio, USA. Positions: Director of the aerodynamics laboratories in Odessa; Scientific Consultant at the Ministry of War and the Ministry of Education in Russia (1917– 1918); Director of the Aerodynamics Laboratory of the University of Dayton, Ohio, USA (1918). Technical activity: He designed and created a gyroscopic control system which was the first form of automatic pilot in aviation (1917); inventor and constructor of an original helicopter model (1922); he calculated the optimal trajectories of Earth-Moon-Earth used in the Apollo programmes. Main works: Étude de la stabilité de l’aéroplane (1911); Théorie générale des régimes de l’aéroplane (1913); Teoria general˘a a s, urubului (1918); Fan engineering fundamentals (1935). BOTEZ Emil, (10 March 1914, Bucharest—19 May 1978, (Bucharest). Mechanical engineer. Studies: Polytechnic Institute of Ias, i (1944); Doctor of Engineering (1968); Docent (1973). Technical activity: Designer of tools and devices (1941–1944); Chief Engineer of machine tools maintenance and repair department (1944–1948) of the Cugir Mechanical Works. Teaching activity: Professor at the Bucharest Polytechnic Institute. Positions: Founder and first Head of the Department of Machine Tools and Tools; Dean of the Faculty of Mechanics of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest (1962). Research achievements: Contributions to the theory of gearing; he elaborated a theory of kinematic chains and the generation of surfaces on machine tools; inventor of gear machines and devices for measuring gears; founder of the Romanian school of machine tools. Main works: Angrenaje (1953);

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Act, ionarea hidraulic˘a a mas, inilor-unelte (1955); Cinematica mas, inilor unelte (1961); Bazele gener˘arii suprafet, elor pe mas, ini-unelte (1966); Mas, ini unelte (3 volumes, 1969, 1972, 1973); Tehnologia program˘arii numerice a mas, inilor-unelte (1973); Mas, ini-unelte: Teoria (1976) Proiectarea (1977). BUDEANU Constantin (16 February 1886, Buzau— ˘ 27 February 1959, Bucharest). Electrotechnical engineer. Studies: Vasile Alecsandri Secondary School, Buz˘au; National School of Bridges and Roads, Bucharest (1903–1908); Superior School of Electricity, Paris. Technical activity: Specialisations in electricity companies in Paris and Berlin (1908–1910); Engineer at the Romanian Railway workshops (1910–1919) and the Tramway Society in Bucharest (1919–1921). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1916); Associate professor (1920); Professor (1926–1959) at the Polytechnic School of Bucharest. Positions: Technical Director of the Electrica Society (1921–1931). Research achievements: He performed a new demonstration of conservation properties based on the physical reality of instantaneous quantities (power, current, voltage); he introduced new definitions and names for various quantities like reactive power unit and distorted power; he consolidated the definition of certain physical quantities and their units, etc. Main works: Puissances réactives et fictives (1927); M˘asuri electrice (1928); Tract, iune electric˘a s, i diverse sisteme speciale de tract, iune (1930); Sur la structure des systèmes d’unités et la définition des grandeurs en électrotehnique (1932); La question des grandeurs et unités electromagnétiques (1934); Problema electrific˘arii c˘ailor ferate în România (1937); Problema electrific˘arii în România (1944); Electricitate s, i electrotehnic˘a (1950); Sistemul practic general de m˘arimi s, i unit˘at, i (1957); Bazele electrotehnicii (2 volumes, 1958–1959), etc. Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 2 July 1955 (Corresponding Member since 27 May 1938); Member of the Board of Directors of the Society of Electricians in Paris; President of the International Committee for the Study of Reactive and Distortion Phenomena. Awards and medals: Medal of Recognition (1946).

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BURILEANU Stefan ¸ (10 January 1857, Burila Mare, Mehedint, i County—1951, Bucharest). Artillery General Metallurgical engineer. Inventor. Studies: Craiova Military Secondary School; Saint Louis Secondary School, Paris (1891); Bucharest School of Artillery, Military Engineering and Marine; Paris Polytechnic School (1891–1893); School of Applied Artillery and Military Engineering at Fontainebleau (1894–1898); Doctor of Mathematics at the Sorbonne University of Paris (1901). Teaching activity: Professor at the School of Artillery, Military Engineering and Marine Officers (1898–1916); Professor of metallurgy at the Applied School of Artillery Officers; Professor of mechanics at the University of Cluj (1923–1930). Positions: President of the Superior Technical Council of Artillery, Armament and Ammunition of the Ministry of War (1916–1918); General Director of the Technical Direction of the Ministry of War (1918–1924). Technical activity: He designed and created the 57 mm caliber rapid fire anti-aircraft gun known as the Burileanu gun (1917); he made the carriages for 150 mm gun barrels and 120 mm howitzers; he invented long-burning anti-aircraft warheads (1916). Main works: Curs de balistic˘a exterioar˘a (1899); Probabilité de tir (1911); Metalurgia fontei, fierului s, i ot, elului (1926); Curs de mecanic˘a (2 volumes, 1942, 1944). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy of Sciences (1935). Awards and medals: Knight of the Legion of Honour; Star of Romania and Crown of Romania Orders. ˘ Constantin (4 May 1877, Galat, i—3 February BUS, ILA 1950, Aiud). Engineer. Studies: Principatele Unite Secondary School, Ias, i; National School of Bridges and Roads, Bucharest (1900); Montefiore Electrotechnical Institute of Liège (1901). Technical activity: Engineer in the team of Anghel Saligny at the building of the Port of Constant, a; Director of the Electric Power Plant of the Port of Constant, a (1904–1909); Vice-Director of the Tramway Society, Bucharest (1909–1916); Engineer at the Direction of Ammunition of the Ministry of War (1918); Specialist at the General Direction of Railway Construction of the Ministry of Communications (1923); He

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contributed to the electrification of the Romanian railway network. Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1910); Professor (1916) at the National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest, later the Polytechnic School of Bucharest. Had a significant impact on the formation and organisation of engineers and introducing modern training programmes for technical education. Positions: General Secretary of the Ministry of Public Works (1918–1919); Founder of the Mining Credit Oil Company (1919); Director of the Electrica Company (1920); Delegated Administrator at the Res, it, a Plants (1924); Founder and coordinator of the Romanian Energy Institute (1926); Founder of the World Commission of Energy (1926); Founder and Vice-President of the Romanian Committee of Electrotechnics (1927); President of the Polytechnic Society (1935–1944); Dean and Vice-Rector of the Polytechnic School of Bucharest; Minister of Transportation and Communications (1941–1943). Main works: Înv˘at, a˘ mântul tecnic superior (1919); Înv˘at, a˘ mântul technic superior (1932); Înv˘at, a˘ mântul profesional al meseriilor (1935); Electrificarea drumurilor de fer (1935); Organizarea inginerilor (1938); Formarea inginerilor (1938). Awards and medals: Medal of Commercial and Industrial Merit (1914); Crown of Romania Order (1926). BUZDUGAN Gheorghe (11 December 1916, Sighis, oara, Mures, County—20 September 2012, Bucharest). Mechanical engineer. Studies: Andrei S, aguna Secondary School, Bras, ov (1934); Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1939); Doctor of Engineering (1968); Docent (1969). Technical activity: Engineer at the Gas and Electricity Company of Bucharest (1939–1940); Astra-Wagons Company (1940–1946). Teaching activity: Teacher at the Bucharest School of Sub-Engineers (1941–1949); Bucharest Railway Institute (1948–1952); Assistant Professor (1943–1948); Associate professor (1948– 1952); Professor (1952–1987); Consulting Professor (since 1987) at the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest. Positions: Head of the Department of Material Resistance (1974–1987); Vice-Rector of the Polytechnic Institute (1953–1954); General Director at the Ministry of Education (1963–1969). Research achievements: Studied the effect of wind on suspended bridges;

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proposed a new method for the calculation of the safety factor for variable loads by asymmetric cycles; formulated a new, unitary definition for the safety factors in the calculation of resistance; studied the dynamics of the machine-foundation-soil system, etc. Main works: Rezistent, a materialelor (10 editions between 1950 and 1991); Calculul de rezistent, a˘ la solicit˘ari variabile (1955); Fundat, ii de mas, ini (1958); M˘asurarea vibrat, iilor mecanice (1964) (the last two published in French translation as well). Editor of several handbooks of engineering: Manualul inginerului (2 volumes, 1965, 1966); Manualul inginerului mecanic (3 volumes, 1972, 1973, 1976), and of the translations of two treatises of international scholarship: Calculul de rezistent, a˘ în construct, ia de mas, ini (3 volumes, 1964, 1966, 1967); Locuri s, i vibrat, ii (3 volumes, 1968, 1969). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 22 January 1990 (Corresponding Member since 21 March 1963); President of the Section of Technical Sciences (1993–1998); Honorary President of the Academy of Technical Sciences (1997–2012). Awards and medals: Emeritus Professor (1969). CARAFOLI Elie (15 September 1901, Veria, Greece— 24 October 1983, Bucharest). Aeronautical engineer. Studies: Gh. Laz˘ar Secondary School, Bucharest; Dealu Monastery Secondary School; Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1923); Doctor of Physical Sciences at the Sorbonne, Paris (1928). Technical activity: Chief Engineer of the Studies and Construction Service, and Director of the IAR Bras, ov (1928– 1933) where he designed and created several types of airplanes (IAR-CV-11, IAR-14, IAR-15, IAR-16, etc.); Founder of the special plant Romanian Mechanical and Chemical Industry at Mija. Teaching activity: Assistant Professor at the Aeronautical Institute of Saint Cyr, Sorbonne, Paris (1926–1928). He founded the Department of Aerodynamics and Fluid Mechanics of the Polytechnic School of Bucharest, which he headed for 48 years. Positions: Head of Department at the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest; Director of the Institute of Applied Mechanics (1949); Founder and Chief Editor of the journals Studii s, i cercet˘ari de mecanic˘a aplicat˘a and Revue roumaine des sciences techniques. Série Mécanique appliquée. Research achievements: He

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created the Toussaint-Carafoli vat; the designed and created the first subsonic aerodynamic wind tunnel of south-east Europe (1930); he designed wing profiles with rounded flight edge (the Carafoli profiles) and the finite wing span (1934); he elaborated the hydrodynamic analogy for the study of wings in supersonic range (1949); research of the aerodynamics of supersonic movement (1955) and the design of side jet wings (1962), etc. Main works: Sur la théorie des ailes sustentatrices (1926); Sur le mouvement autour d’une plaque en rotation (1927); Méthode générale pour le tracé des profils d’avion (1927); Aérodynamique des ailes des avions (1928); Sur le centrage des avions (1929); Recherches expérimentales sur ailes monoplanes (1932); Determinarea caracteristicilor geometrice principale ale unui avion (1936); Curs general de aeronautic˘a (1936); Sur la théorie des ailerons (1944); Théorie des ailes monoplanes d’envergure finie (1945); Profile aerodinamice de mare vitez˘a (1948); Despre teoria profilelor cu un contur dat (1949); Aerodinamica (1951); Mecanica fluidelor (2 volumes, 1952, 1955); Mis, c˘ari conice în regim supersonic (1955); High Speed Aerodynamics (1956); Teoria aripii în zborul supersonic (1969); Dinamica fluidelor incompresibile (1981); Dinamica fluidelor compresibile (1983), etc. Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 12 August 1948; President of the Section of Technical Sciences (1966–1983); Member of the International Academy of Aeronautics and the Toulouse Academy of Arts and Sciences (1960); Member of the Royal Society of Aeronautics in London (1973); Member of the Hermann Oberth Astronomy Society; President of the International Astronautical Federation (1969–1972). Awards and medals: Louis Bréguet Award (1927); Médaille d’Honneur (1928); Paul Tissandier Diploma (1956); Gauss Medal of the Braunschweig Scientific Society (1970); Apollo 11 Medal of the NASA (1970); Tsiolkovsky Medal (1981); Labour Order First Class; Scientific Merit Order First Class; Star of the Republic National Order; Emeritus Scientist.

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CASASSOVICI Corneliu, (11 March 1886, Bucharest—1 March 1961, Bucharest). Textile engineer. Founder of textile training in Romania. Studies: I. C. Massim Secondary School, Br˘aila (1905); Freiburg Mining Academy (1905–1906); Polytechnic School of Dresden (1906–1909). Technical activity: Engineer at the cellulose factory of Br˘aila (1909–1910) and the Roman Sugar Factory (1910– 1913); Engineer at the Rizescu Mechanical Weaving Factory (1913–1916; 1919–1925) and the Army Ammunition Factory of Ias, i (1916–1919); Technical and Commercial Director at the Rizescu Company of Br˘anes, ti, Dâmbovit, a County (1925–1938); he founded and headed the Pucioasa Cotton Mill, Dâmbovit, a County (1936); he founded the Professional Association of Textile Industry (1938) and the Association of Cotton Mills in Romania. Teaching activity: Substitute teacher at the Academy of Economical and Industrial Higher Education, Bucharest (1919); Associate professor at the Academy of Commerce in Bucharest (1922); Associate professor for Textile and Sugar Industry at the Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1929); founded and headed the Superior School of Textiles (1934–1945); Professor of Textile Industry (1936). Positions: Director of the Institute of Test and Analysis of the Polytechnic School of Bucharest. Main works: Chestiunea zah˘arului în România (1916); Refacerea industriei (1919); Chestiunea inului s, i cânepii în România (1919); Comercializarea produselor industriale (1922); Compozit, ia s, i decompozit, ia t, es˘aturilor (1936); Utilizarea des, eurilor textile (Editura Tehnic˘a, 1962). He was the founder of the Journal of Romanian Textile Industry. Awards and medals: Commemorative Cross of the 1916–1918 War.

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CIURCU Alexandru (29 January 1854, S, ercaia, Bras, ov County—22 January 1922, Bucharest). Inventor. Studies: Bras, ov Secondary School (1872); University of Vienna (1873–1876). Technical activity: He designed and created, together with Just Buisson, an aerostat propelled by an electric engine (1881). The two inventors obtained the first French patent for the possibility of jet flying. They also designed and made an engine based on reaction force, which they tested on a boat on the Seine (1886). This was the first boat propelled by a jet engine. The invention was patented in several European countries and in the USA. He used jet engine propulsion with a railway trolley (1888). He is considered a forerunner of Henri Coand˘a regarding the research of jet engines. He organised the Romanian pavilion at the Paris World Exhibition of 1889, as the first Romanian pavilion ever built at in international exhibition. ˘ Henri Marie (7 June 1886, Bucharest—25 COANDA November 1972, Bucharest). Inventor and engineer. Studies: Sf. Sava Secondary School, Bucharest and the Military Secondary School, Ias, i; The Artillery, Military Engineering and Marine School of Bucharest (1905); Superior School of Aeronautics and Mechanical Constructions, Paris (1905–1908); Technische Hochschule of Charlottenburg-Berlin. Professional improvement: Montefiore Electrotechnical Institute of Liège. Technical activity: Gustav Eiffel’s building sites in Nice; Army Arsenal, Bucharest; Technical Director of the Bristol Airplane Plants (Great Britain, 1911–1914); engineer at the Delauney-Belleville Plants in St. Denis (1914–1916). He was one of the most prolific Romanian inventors with over 250 inventions. His most important inventions: the first jet plane (1910); the first twin engine aircraft (1914); gun without recoil for aircraft (1914); the gas-lift method for oil drilling; a device for deviation of one fluid into another (1936); a solar energy-based system for the desalination of sea water (1955); lenticular aerodynamics, a system of pneumatic tubular transportation (1973), etc. He discovered the socalled Coand˘a-effect (1934), which stood at the basis of several of his inventions. Positions: Counsellor in the State Committee (1970). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 16

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December 1970; Honorary Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society, London (1971); Honorary Member of the Geneva International Biological Research Centre (1956). Awards and medals: Gold Medal for Inventions (Padua, 1930); Aeronautical Medal (Paris, 1961); Order of Merit for Research and Invention (Paris, 1960), Harry Diamond Laboratories Award of Merit (New York, 1965); Doctor Honoris Causa of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest (1967); Order of Scientific Merit (1970). COLAN Horia (11 May 1926 Covasna-24 July 1917 Cluj Napoca). Mechanical engineer. Studies: “Moise Nicoar˘a” Secondary School in Arad (1944); Polytechnic School in Timi¸soara (1949); Doctor in engineering (1971). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor at the Polytechnic Institute of Cluj Napoca (1950–1953); Lecturer (1953–1964); Associate professor (1964–1971); Professor (since 1971). Positions: Head of the Department of Materials Science and Technology of the Polytechnic Institute of ClujNapoca and of the Research Center for Powder Metallurgy; (1971–1985); Rector of the Polytechnic Institute of Cluj Napoca (1990–1992). Research achievements: intergranular diffusion of copper in steels (patent); the microscopic study at high temperatures of synthesizing Fe-Cu-graphite materials; Pseudoalloys W-Cu, W-Ag (patent); silicification of molybdenum; Ni–Cr-SiB and Co-Cr-W–C alloys for metallization by powder design; metal matrix composites WC-W–Ni-(Cu–ZnSi)-diamond etc. Main works: Metals Technology (2 vols., 1954, 1957); The study of metals and thermal treatments (1964); The technology of manufacturing sintered parts from metal powders (1966); The study of metals (1968, 1977, 1983); Science of Materials (2002) etc. a. Chapters in the History of Romania. Transylvania (1999); La Technologie au risque de l’histoire, Paris (2000); Materials: Research, Development and Applications, Turnhout, Belgium (2002); Culture and Francophonie (2003), etc. Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 30 March 2010 (Corresponding Member since 9 March 1991); Founding Member of the Romanian Academy of Technical Sciences—ASTR(1997); President of the Materials Science and Engineering Section of the ASTR

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(1997); President of the Division of History of Technology of the CRIFST; Honorary President of the Romanian Powder Metallurgy Society (1990); Honorary member of the Société Française de Métallurgie et de Matériaux (1991). Awards and medals: Doctor Honoris Cause of the Technical Universities “Gh. Asachi” of Ia¸si, Cluj-Napoca, Timis, oara and the University “Transilvania” of Bra¸sov; Chevalier de l’Ordre des Palmes Académiques, France (1999); Knight of the National Order “Faithful Service” (2002); Honorary citizen of Cluj-Napoca (1997). CONSTANTINESCU Virgiliu Niculae (27 March 1931, Bucharest—31 January 2009, Bucharest). Mechanical engineer. Studies: Gh. Laz˘ar Secondary School, Bucharest (1948); Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest (1952); Doctor in aerodynamics and the mechanics of fluids at the Applied Mechanics Institutes of the Romanian Academy (1956); Docent (1974). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor at the Technical Military Academy (1952–1954) and the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest (1954–1958); Lecturer (1958–1968); Associate professor (1968–1971); Professor (since 1971); Emeritus Professor (since 1983); Visiting Professor at the Mechanical Technology Inc. of Latham, New York; Visiting Professor at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute of Troy, New York (1972–1974); University of Poitiers (1993); INSA Lyon (1994); University of Liège (1998–2003). Positions: Head of the Gas Lubrication Laboratory at the Applied Mechanics Institute of the Romanian Academy (1952–1970); Rector of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest (1990–1992); President of the Romanian Space Agency (1991–1997); Ambassador of Romania in Belgium (1997–2003). Research achievements: Contributions to viscous flows at large and small Reynolds numbers; the stability of laminar movements; turbulent movements in thin layers; supersonic movements with detached shockwaves; extension of the concept of bearing line to supersonic flow; compressible and viscous effects in thin layers; dynamic characteristics and stability of gas bearings; the influence of the molecular character of movement on gas lubrication; turbulent lubrication with liquid

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metals; air bearings with high tangential speeds; bearings operating in transition between laminar and turbulent regimes; etc. Main works: Lubrificat, ia cu gaze (1963); Teoria lubrificat, iei turbulente (1965); Lag˘are cu alunecare (1980; Dinamica fluidelor incompresibile (1981); Dinamica fluidelor compresibile (1984); Dinamica fluidelor vâscoase în regim laminar (1987); Dinamica fluidelor vâscoase: stabilitatea mis, c˘arii laminare (1993); Dinamica fluidelor în regim turbulent (2008); Laminar Viscous Flow (1995), etc. Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 18 December 1991 (Corresponding Member since 13 November 1990); President of the Romanian Academy (1994–1998); President of the Technical Sciences Sect. (2008–2009); Associate Member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium; Full Member of the International Academy of Astronautics; Full Member of the Academia Europaea; Member of the World Academy of Art and Science; Founding Member of the International Tribology Council of London. Awards and medals: Doctor Honoris Cause of the University of Poitiers; of the University of Liège; the Technical Universities of Cluj-Napoca, Timis, oara and the University of Suceava; Knight of the Order of Marie de Hongrie, Belgium; Gustave Trasenster Medal of Belgian engineers; Gold Medal for Tribology (Great Britain, 1996); Crystal Helmet of the Association of Space Explorers (1999); Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit (2000); Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold II (Belgium, 2003); Officer of the Legion of Honour (1995). CONSTANTINESCU Gogu (George) (4 October 1881, Craiova—11/12 December 1965, Coniston, Great Britain). Inventor and engineer. Studies: Carol I Secondary School, Craiova (1899); National School of Bridges and Roads, Bucharest (1904). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor at the National School of Bridges and Roads (1906–1908). Technical activity: He designed and built the first reinforced concrete bridge in Romania (1906); Engineer at the Bristol Airplane Company, England (1910); designed and built reinforced concrete reservoirs for the storage of tar; Counsellor of the British Admiralty (1914–1918); engineer of the Malaxa Plants of

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Bucharest where he applied the sonic torque converter to Malaxa locomotives and vehicles (1932–1934); he founded the Sonic Society. He was considered one of the great inventors of the world, with an impressive scientific work, and over 120 invention patents (published in four volumes of Patent Office of the UK). He was listed as one of the 17 greatest scientists of the world in the period of 1900–1925 (Leaders in the march of progress, The Graphic from 16 January 1926). Research achievements: Contribution on reinforced concrete (1904); oscillation of wagons while driving (1905); calculation of inarticulate vaults (1905). He discovered and grounded a new direction of research in the mechanics of fluids: sonics. Most of his patents are industrial applications of sonics. In recognition to the science of sonics, one group of the International Classification of Patents bears his name (F 16H33/12—Constantinescu Transmission). Main works: Theory of Sonics (1918); Sonicitatea (1919); Sonics (1959). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 3 February 1965 (Corresponding Member since 10 June 1920). Awards and medals: Honorary Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, London; Doctor Honoris Causa of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest. DIACONESCU Emanuel (7 February 1944 Buru-8 July 2011 Suceava). Mechanical engineer. Studies: „Al. Papiu-Ilarian” Secondary School in Târgu Mure¸s (1961); Polytechnic School in Ia¸si (1966); Doctor in engineering at University of London, UK (1975). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor at the Polytechnic Institute of Ia¸si (1967–1972); Lecturer (1972–1976); in 1976 he moved to the Institute of Education Superior from Suceava; Associate professor (1977–1981); Professor (since 1981). Positions: Rector of the “Stefan ¸ cel Mare” University in Suceava (1990– 2004). Research achievements: created and developed a research school in the field of lubrication, focused both on the fundamental aspects of the phenomena, as well as on the applied ones regarding bearings, gears, rolling guides and elastohydrodynamic transmissions. The research concerns were mainly oriented towards the experimental determination of the rheological behavior of lubricants, lubrication physics, contact mechanics,

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triaxial and contact fatigue, intelligent mechanical materials and structures. etc. Main works: The fundamental problems of rolling contact (1985), Mechanics of continuous media (996), Elements of contact mechanics (1999), Elements of elasticity theory with applications to simple stresses (2007), etc. Organisation memberships: Corresponding Member of the Romanian Academy since 13 November 1990; Corresponding member (1989) and fellow (since 2004) of the International Tribology Council; member of the ASME International Committee on Contact Mechanics (1987); member of the ASME International Committee on Nanotribology and Micro/Nano Systems; Vice-President (1987) and President of the Romanian Tribology Association (1993); Editor-in-chief of the journal “Acta tribologica”. Awards and medals: Doctor Honoris Cause of the University of Chernivtsi (Ukraine). Knight of the National Order “Faithful Service” (2004). DIMO, Paul Gh. (10 June 1905, Turnu Severin—17 April 1990, Bucharest). Energetic engineer. Studies: Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1928); Superior School of Electricity in Paris (1929–1930); Doctorate (1968); Docent (1970). Technical activity: Design engineer and technical director of the Gas and Electricity Company of Bucharest (1930–1945); Head of Sector at the Energetic Institute of the Romanian Academy (1949–1969); Scientific counsellor for the Iron Gates I hydroelectric and navigation system. Research achievements: He introduced new notions to the field of the analysis of electromagnetic system by using short-circuit current with vector measures. Creator of nodal analysis, internationally known as Dimo nodal analysis, and of REI methods, known in the scholarship as Dimo’s REI Methods. He studied nodal analysis for complex networks and analysis possibilities for the numerical electronic computer associated with the Dimo graphics analyzern (known as the Dimo anagraph). He explained the phenomenon called phase inversion, which appears with networks with isolated neutral, in case of a phase interruption. Main works: Cauza supratensiunilor prelungite în ret, elele cu neutrul izolat (1955); Studiul stabilit˘at, ii statice a sistemelor energetice (1961); Solut, ia problemei pierderilor în ret, elele electrice cu ajutorul echivalentului REI

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a „analizei nodale” asociat unui calculator numeric (1963); Une seule structure physique pour l’étude des réseaux. L’équivalent REI (1964); Analiza nodal˘a a sistemelor electroenergetice (1968); Graphes REI et leurs images nodales (1969); Les modèles REI. Solution générale pour l’information des réseaux d’énergie; Nodal Analysis of Power Systems (1975); Ergonomie intelectual˘a cu modelul ret, ea (1983); Sistemul energetic planetar (1988), etc. He had many inventions: a device to avoid prolonged overvoltages; the Dimo graphic analyser; the Dimo anagraph, etc. Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 22 January 1990 (Corresponding Member since 21 March 1963); Member of the Society of Electricians in France. Awards and medals: Traian Vuia Award of the Romanian Academy (1968); the International Montefiore Award; Awards for the electrification plan of Romania (1950) and designing for the Moreni hydroelectric plant (1954). DINCULESCU Constantin (23 November 1898, Alexandria—15 September 1990, Bucharest). Energetic engineer. Studies: Alexandria Secondary School (1917); Mathematics Department of the University of Ias, i (1917– 1918); Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1918–1922). Technical activity: Engineer at the Institute of Energetic Studies and Design (1924). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor; Lecturer; Associate professor; Professor (since 1945) of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest. Positions: Head of Department (1948–1969); Rector of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest (1954–1968); President of the Romanian National Committee for the World Energy Commission (1954–1964); President of the National Council of Engineers and Technicians. Technical achievements: He took part in the building of the Iron Gate hydroelectric power plant, the electrification of the Romanian railways; he cooperated in the general electrification plan of Romania (1945) and the electrification and water use plan of Romania (1950–1960); led the design and building works of the thermal power plants of Doices, ti, Ovidiu II, Com˘anes, ti, Borzes, ti, Petros, ani, and of the hydroelectric power plants of Bicaz and Sadu V. Main

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works: Asupra tensiunilor de încercare a izolatorilor (1928); Tract, iunea pe c˘aile ferate prin locomotive Diesel (1933); Istoria energeticii s, i electrotehnicii în România (1950); Centrale termoelectrice (1959); Analiza termodinamic˘a a schemelor centralelor electrice (1967); Ret, ele termice s, i hidropneumatice (1968); Istoria energeticii s, i electrotehncii în România (1981). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 22 January 1990 (Corresponding Member since 23 March 1952); Member of the Romanian National Commission for UNESCO. Awards and medals: Star of the S.R.R. Order First Class; Labour Order First Class. DRAGU Teodor (1848, Zapodeni, ˘ Vaslui County— 1925, Bucharest). Romanian engineer and inventor. Founder of mechanical engineering in Romania. Studies: National Secondary School of Ias, i; Academia Mih˘ailean˘a of Ias, i (1871); Central School of Arts and Crafts in Paris (1876). Technical activity: He introduced the steam heating system to the trains of the Romanian railway (1887) and the Westinghouse compressed air automatic braking mechanism (1892). He initiated in Romania the use of locomotives with liquid fuel and invented an oil fuel injector for boiler hearths. Teaching activity: Professor of steam machine building at the National School of Bridges and Roads (1880–1915). Positions: Founding Member of the Politehnica Society (1881). Head of the Romanian Railway’s Workshop and Rolling Stock Service (1886). President of the Politehnica Society (1916–1919). Main works: Locomotivele tender s, i locomotivele cu tender deosebit comparate din punct de vedere al aplicat, iunilor lor pe c˘aile secundare, în l˘argime normal˘a (1886); Description des installations et des appareils en usage aux chemins de fer de l’etat roumain pour l’emploi des locomotives (1907).

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˘ DRAGAN Gleb (6 July 1920, Tatar ˘ Copceac-Cahul, today the Republic of Moldova—24 October 2014, Bucharest). Energetic engineer. Studies: Secondary School at Comrat and Tighina; Polytechnic School of Timis, oara; Mathematics at the Faculty of Sciences, the University of Cluj (1941–1943); Doctor of Engineering (1958). Technical activity: Engineer at the Astra Român˘a Company of Câmpina (1945– 1946); Gas and Electricity Company (1946–1948); the Industrial Plant of Electric Energy (1948–1949); Institute of Energetic Research and Design (1949–1952); Ministry of Electric Energy (1952–1953). Researcher at the Energy Institute of the Romanian Academy (1951– 1967). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1948); Lecturer (1953); Associate professor (1958); Professor (1964–1990) at the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest. He established a modern and well equipped laboratory of high voltage technology at the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest. Visiting Professor at the École Polytechnique Fédérale of Lausanne, The University of Western Ontario London-Canada, the Università degli Studi di Roma La Sapienza. Positions: Head of the Electric Networks Department (1971–1984); Dean of the Faculty of Energetics (1963–1971); President of the Energy Commission of the Romanian Academy; President of the History of Science Division of the Romanian Committee of the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology; President of the Technical Sciences Section (2009–2014). Research achievements: Contributions to the corona discharge of industrial frequency and pulse; original solutions for the calculation of transient regimes for different electrical circuits; calculation of atmospheric and switching overvoltages. He published the first treatise in the field of high voltage in the world. Main works: Montarea ret, elelor electrice de distribut, ie (2 volumes, 1949); Tehnica tensiunilor înalte (1954); Supratensiuni interne în sisteme electroenergetice (1975); Protect, ia instalat, iilor chimice contra loviturilor de tr˘asnet (1985); Supratensiuni atmosferice în instalat, ii electroenergetice (1992); Tehnica tensiunilor înalte (3 volumes, 1996–2003). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 20 December 2004 (Corresponding Member since 9 March 1991). Honorary Member of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Moldova. Senior Member of

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IEEE-USA. Awards and medals: Doctor Honoris Causa of the Technical University of the Republic of Moldova and the University of Oradea; Knight of the National Order of Merit (1997). ˘ DRAGHICEANU Mathei (15 May 1844, Târgovis, te—2 May 1939, Bucharest). Mining engineer. Studies: Saint Sava Secondary School, Bucharest; University of Bucharest (1867, the first generation of the university’s graduates); Superior School of Mining of Paris (1872). Technical activity: Mining engineer at Ocnele Mari (1872). Teaching activity: Secondary school teacher; School inspector in Muntenia region; Professor at the School of Bridges, Roads, Mines and Architecture, Bucharest (1878). Positions: General Inspector of the salt mines of Romania (1874). Director of the state mines (1880). Main works: Salinele române din punct de vedere geologic, tehnic s, i economic; Legea privind organizarea salinelor din România; Les tremblements de terre de la Roumanie et des pays environnants (1886); Studii asupra hidrogeologiei subterane din România (1895); L’Eur-Asie, tectonique-seismique (1937). Organisation memberships: Honorary Member of the Romanian Academy (1933). Awards and medals: Grand Officer of the Crown of Romania Order. DUCA Gheorghe (3 February 1847, Galat, i—7 August 1899, Bucharest). Construction engineer. Founder of the higher technical education in Romania. Studies: Louis le Grand Secondary School, Paris (1864); Central School of Arts and Crafts in Paris (1869). Technical activity: Central Direction of the Guilloux Enterprise (1876–1881); Engineer at the Ias, i Circumscription of Bridges and Roads (1881); Founder of the School of Traction Mechanics (1890); Chief Maintenance (1892); and Handlers (1893). Teaching activity: Teacher at the Military Secondary School of Ias, i (1869); Professor at the National School of Bridges and Roads, Bucharest (1881). He transformed the School of Bridges, Roads, Mines and Architecture into the National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest (1881). Positions: Director of Ias, i-Ungheni railway line (1874); Director of the National School of Bridges and Roads of Bucharest (1881); General

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Director of the Romanian Railways (1888); Director of Works and the Port of Constant, a (1897). Organisation memberships: Founding Member of the Politehnica Society (1881); President of the Politehnica Society (1883 and 1890). DUMITRESCU Dumitru (7 September 1904, Buftea, Ilfov County—20 September 1984, Bucharest). Hydraulic engineer. Founder of the modern school of hydraulics in Romania. Studies: Gh Laz˘ar Secondary School, Bucharest; Polytechnic School, Bucharest (1930); University of Bucharest (with degrees in mathematics, law, letters and philosophy); École Supérieure d’Électricité of Paris; École d’Aéronautique (1930–1934); Doctorate at the University of Göttingen, Germany (1940). Technical activity: Engineer at the SET Aircraft Building Workshops of Bucharest (1940–1941); Engineer at IAR Bras, ov (1941–1944). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor at the University of Göttingen (1937–1940); Assistant Professor (1940–1943); Associate professor (1949–1950); Substitute Professor (1949–1950) at the Polytechnic School of Bucharest; Professor at the Institute of Constructions of Bucharest (1951–1953); Professor at the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest (1953–1974). He was also a professor at the University of Bucharest, the Mining Institute and the Technical Military Academy. Positions: Head of the Department of Hydraulics and Hydraulic Machines at the Bucharest Polytechnic Institute (1953–1974). Research achievements: Contributions to the theory of similitude and modelling for the power plants at Paros, eni, Bicaz, Sadu-Sibiu, P˘aulis, -Mures, , S˘avines, ti etc.; study of the free surface movement of heavy fluids; he introduced the method of networks in the hydromechanics of high viscosity fluids; the study of fluid movement stability; new wastewater aeration systems; theoretical and experimental research of biphasic movement in circular pipes under pressure; optimisation and improvement of the handling of large water discharges at hydropower facilities; optimisation of hydroenergetic operation of power plant systems, etc. Main works: Strömung an einer Luftblase in senkrechten Rohr, Göttingen (1942); Courbes caractéristiques de déversoires, Paris (1958); Contribut, ii la teoria încerc˘arilor pe modele

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în hidraulic˘a (1962); Probleme de mecanica fluidelor vâscoase (1967); Manualul inginerului hidrotehnician (2 vols., 1969–1970); Dict, ionarul ilustrat de construct, ii englezo-român (1981). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 21 March 1963 (Corresponding Member since 2 July 1955); General Secretary of the Romanian Academy (18 March 1963–4 February 1967). Corresponding Member of the Academy of Sciences, Inscriptions and Letters of Toulouse (1966.) Awards and medals: State Award (1962); Emeritus Scientist (1965). ˘ FALCOIANU S, tefan (6 March 1835, Bucharest— 22 January 1905, Bucharest). Military engineer; Major General; The first President of Politehnica Society; Founder of the Superior School of War. Studies: Military School of Officers of Bucharest; Imperial Applied School of General Staff of Paris; the Polytechnic School of Paris. Teaching activity: Professor at the Officer School of Bucharest. Positions: General Director of the Ministry of War (1869); Chief of the General Staff; Minister of War (1884–1886); General Director of the Post and Telegraph (1876– 1877); General Director of the Romanian Railways. The first President of the Politehnica Society. Founder of the Superior School of War, today the National Defence University (1889). Main works: Istoria r˘azboiului din 1877–1878 ruso-româno-turc (1895). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 1876; Vice-President of the Romanian Academy. Awards and medals: Star of Romania and Crown of Romania Orders; the Military Virtue Medal and Passage of the Danube Cross.

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FILIPESCU Gheorghe Emanoil (28 March 1882, Bucecea, Botos, ani County—25 November 1937, Bucharest). Mechanical engineer. Studies: A. T. Laurian Secondary School of Botos, ani; National School of Bridges and Roads, Bucharest (1907). Technical activity: Romanian Railways (1907– 1909); Direction of the Hydraulic Service (1911); General Direction of Communal Tramways (1911– 1937); he designed the garage lines of the Railway Yard of Ploies, ti; he took part in the building of the Piatra-Pris˘acani railway (1916–1918); he worked on the hydrographic map of the Danube; he had a role in the modernisation of the public transportation of Bucharest. Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1909); Professor (1916–1937) at the National School of Bridges and Roads of Bucharest. Positions: President of the Mathematics Department of the Romanian Science Society. Research achievements: He was the first Romanian engineer to make original contributions to the theory of elasticity and material resistance. He proposed the method of indeterminate coefficients for solving hyperstatic systems. Main works: Torsiunea barelor de sect, iune rectangular˘a (1920); Flambajul barelor într-un mediu elastic (1921); Arce încastrate (1928); Hypothèse sur la rupture des matériaux (1930); Rezistent, a materialelor s, i statica grafic˘a (1931); Calcul des cadres (1934); Statica construct, iilor s, i rezistent, a materialelor (1940), etc. Organisation memberships: Corresponding Member of the Romanian Academy since 25 May 1936; Member of the Romanian Sciences Society; Member of the Mathematical Gazette Society; Member of the International Association of Bridge and Structural Engineering.

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GERMANI Dionisie (17 March 1877, Galat, i—1 September 1948, Bucharest). Hydraulic engineer. Studies: Greek Secondary School of Galat, i (1887– 1895); National School of Bridges and Roads, Bucharest (1895–1900); Superior School of Electricity, Paris (1918–1919); Specialisations in Belgium, Germany and Great Britain (1900–1904); Doctor of Sciences at Sorbonne University in Paris. Technical activity: He designed the water supply for the following towns: Craiova (1904–1905), Bucharest—the Ulmi plant (1907–1909), Tulcea (1911), Turnu M˘agurele (1912), Br˘aila (1913), Bucharest—Arcuda (1919), Ploies, ti (1923), Curtea de Arges, (1929), Satu Mare (1930), etc. He designed modern hydroelectric plants at Govora and C˘alim˘anes, ti (1910–1916). Teaching activity: Substitute Professor (1910–1913) and Professor of Hydraulics (1913–1915) at the National School of Bridges and Roads, and the Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1920– 1946). He played a part in the establishment of the Hydraulic Laboratory. Positions: Dean of the Department of Constructions of the Polytechnic School of Bucharest; President of the Superior Technical Council (1944). Research achievements: Research in the field of similitude laws; research regarding the hydraulic shock, establishing simplified calculation diagrams; he drew up a method of calculating the tensions in the flexible walls of the vessels bordering on liquid masses; he had original contributions to the determination of tensions in an incompressable liquid and the problem of using complex dimensions in the study of spinning magnetic fields, etc. Main works: Amenaj˘arile hidroelectrice de la Res, it, a (1926); Considerat, ii asupra câmpurilor magnetice ale mas, inilor polifazate (1929); Complemente de hidraulic˘a (2 volumes, 1930); Aliment˘ari cu ap˘a s, i canaliz˘ari în România (1931); Cadastru s, i geniu rural (1941); Hidraulica teoretic˘a s, i aplicat˘a (1942); Fort, ele de inert, ie în lumina principiilor dinamice (1946), etc. Organisation memberships: Honorary Member of the Romanian Academy since 4 June 1945 (restored to rights on 3 July 1990); Member of the Superior Technical Council; Member of the Board of Directors of the Gas and Electricity Company, Bucharest; the Geographical Society of Lisbon; of the Civil Engineers Society of France.

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GHEORGHIU Ion (24 August 1885, Bacau—6 ˘ November 1968, Bucharest). Electrotechnical engineer. Studies: Secondary School (1896–1904); National School of Bridges and Roads (1904–1909); Specialisations in electrical machines in Paris (1909–1910) and Berlin (1910–1911). Technical activity: Engineer at the electrical installations of the Port of Constant, a (1911– 1912) and the Bucharest Tramway Society (1912– 1914). He took part in: the modernisation and extension of the Groz˘aves, ti and Filaret Plants; the building of Dobres, ti hydroelectric power plant; the operation of the first electric railway line of 110 KW in Romania on the Dobres, ti—Târgovis, te—Bucharest line. He wrote the electrification project for the Ploies, ti—Bras, ov railway line. He took part in the design of the gas pipeline from the Transylvanian plain to Bucharest. Teaching activity: Professor at the Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1948– 1962). Positions: Head of the Electrification Department of the General Direction of the Romanian Railways (1914–1924); Technical Director at the Gas and Electricity Company of Bucharest (1924–1948); Director of the Energetic Institute of the Romanian Academy. Research achievements: Creating a new general theory of electric machines. Research of parallel running of machines, transformers and power plants. He established a new formula to determine the ramp from which the electrification of the railway has more advantages than its doubling. He developed a unitary theory of alternating current electric machines. He proposed an original method called the ‘method of unique generator’. Main works: Probleme de mas, ini electrice (3 volumes, 1960–1966); Mas, ini electrice (4 volumes, 1968–1972). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 23 March 1952 (Corresponding Member since 1 November 1948); VicePresident of the Romanian Academy (1959–1963); President of the Technical Sciences Department of the Romanian Academy (1959–1963); Member of the Superior Council of Energy, of the Superior Council of Communal Exploits and the Superior Technical Council.

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HAAS Conrad (1509, Dornbach, Austria—1579, Sibiu). Arsenal master. Inventor. Technical contributions: He performed geometric and ballistic calculations specific to artillery; designed solutions for mobile manganese furnaces; proposed a method of distilling crude oil; performed an ordering of the fuels used for propulsion; proposed the use of alcohol-based liquid fuels and antimony compounds; built round-trip rockets (boomerang); invented the launch tower for rocket launching; created ‘organ’ rocket batteries; used rocket stabilizer fins (‘delta’ type fins); introduced the term rocket. His main work was the design, building and use of two- and three-stage rockets by mutual joining, considered the pioneer of multi-stage rocket construction. Main works: Coligatul de la Sibiu. IONESCU-BIZET, Ion (4 December 1870, Creat, aLes, ile, Ilfov County—17 September 1946, Bucharest). Construction engineer. Founder of the Mathematical Gazette. Studies: Commercial School of Bucharest; National School of Bridges and Schools (1889–1904). Technical activity: Engineer at the General Direction of the Romanian Railways. He designed the project of the Turnu Severin Dockyards. He created the hydrographic map of the Danube basin. Teaching activity: Professor at the Telegraph School of Bucharest (1897); Assistant Professor (1898); Substitute Professor (1903); Professor at the National School of Bridges and Roads, later the Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1914– 1938) (successor of Anghel Saligny at the Bridges Department). Positions: President of the Romanian Science Society (1910); Director of the Hydraulic Service of the Romanian Railways (1910); General Director of the Department of Metal Bridges; Inspector General Engineer (1919); Secretary (1914–1923), VicePresident (1923–1932) and President of the Polytechnic Society (1932–1934); President of the College of Engineers (1938–1941). Main works: Calculul pl˘acilor de beton armat (1907); Betonul armat (1915); Istoria Societ˘at, ii Politehnice de la înfiint, are pân˘a la inaugurarea localului propriu, 1881–1927 (1927); Istoria înv˘at, a˘ mântului de ingineri din România (1932). Organisation memberships: Corresponding Member of the Romanian Academy (1919); Founding member of

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the Mathematical Gazette; Member of the Mathematical Society of England (1914). Awards and medals: Manhood and Faith Award, First Class. ˘ LAZAR Gheorghe (5 June 1779, Avrig—17 September 1823, Avrig). Land surveyor (topographer). first school of technical higher education in Romania. Studies: Piarist School in Cluj (1806); University of Vienna (1811). Teaching activity: Teacher at the Orthodox Theological School of Sibiu (1811); Private tutor in Bucharest (1815–1818); Founder and Head of the Saint Sava School in Bucharest (Academic School for Philosophical and Mathematical Sciences), the first school of technical higher education in Wallachia (1818); Teacher at the Saint Sava School (1818–1822); Founder of Romanian language education and technical education in Wallachia; He worked as a land surveyor (topographer) in Vienna (1808–1811) and Bucharest (1816–1818). LEONIDA Dimitrie, (23 March 1883, Falticeni—14 ˘ May, 1965, Bucharest). Engineer. Founder of the first Technical Museum in Romania. Studies: Saint Sava School of Bucharest; Mircea cel B˘atrân School of Constant, a and Mihai Viteazul Secondary School of Bucharest; Polytechnic School of Charlottenburg, Berlin (1903–1908). Technical activity: Engineer at the Mayor’s Office of Bucharest (1908). He founded the first Technical Museum of Romania (1909). He designed the thermal power plant of Groz˘aves, ti (1912). He designed the thermal power plant of Botos, ani (1914). He founded the Energia Company, the first Romanian private company in the field of electrotechnics (1913). He took part in Romania’s plan of electrification. He edited the first energetic journal in Romanian, Energia (1921). Teaching activity: He founded the first School of Electricians and Mechanics in Romania (1908); Professor at the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara (1924–1941) and the Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1941–1945). Positions: Member of the first Board of Directors of the Romanian Electrotechnic Committee (1927); Technical Director of the Gas and Electricity Company (1937–1942); Director of the Direction of Electrification of the Romanian Railways

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(1942–1945). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy of Sciences (1935). Member of the Royal Society of Arts in London (1935). Awards and medals: Laureate of the State Award; Labour Order First Class (1961). MAIOR Augustin (21 August 1882, Reghin—3 October 1963, Cluj). Electromechanical engineer. Studies: Piarist School of Târgu Mures, ; Catholic School of Budapest (1900); Polytechnic Institute of Budapest (1904); Graduate courses at the Universities of Vienna, Munich and Göttingen. Technical activity: Engineer at the Experimental Station of the Post in Budapest (1905). He performed the first simultaneous transmission over one single 15 km long telephone line, 5 conversations with no interfering signals (1906). Teaching activity: Professor at the University of Cluj (1920); Founder of the School of Theoretical Physics of the University of Cluj. Positions: General Director of the Post, Telegraph and Telephone in Transylvania and Banat (1919); Director of the Institute of Theoretical and Technological Physics of Cluj; Dean of the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Cluj (1929–1946). Main works: Über Mehrfach-Fernsprechen (1907); The use of High-Frequency Alternating Currents in Telegraphy, Telephony and for Power Transmission (1914); Sur la télégraphie et la téléphonie multiple avec des courants de haute fréquence (1921); Electricitate s, i magnetism (1921). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy of Sciences (1937); Post Mortem Member of the Romanian Academy (2012). MALAXA Nicolae (23 December 1884, Hus, i, Vaslui County—1965, New Jersey, USA). Romanian engineer and industrialist. Studies: Ias, i Boarding School; Technical University of Karlsruhe, Germany Technical activity: He founded a rolling stock manufacturing workshop (1921); built the Malaxa Plants, Europe’s top rolling stock factory at the time (1923–1927); he built the first steam engine (1928); started building railcars with Diesel engine (1931); designed and built seven generations of railcars (1934–1940); applied the patent of Gogu Constantinescu, the sonic torque converter to locomotives and railcars (1932–1934); designed and built the first Diesel

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locomotive of Romanian design (1936) (due to the high performance of the Malaxa locomotives, Romania has not imported any locomotives since 1930); built the Seamless steel pipe factory following the Stiefel method (1938); built the Artillery Ammunition and Armament Factory (1936–1937) where the first Romanian tankette was built; he also built the first Romanian factory of optical equipment for armament (1938); he designed with Petre Carp, engineer at IAR Bras, ov, and built at Res, it, a a Romanian automobile named Malaxa (1945); he was the financial supporter of the publication of Dimitrie Gusti’s monumental work The Encyclopaedia of Romania. In 1948, he emigrated to the United States. Malaxa was characterized by one of his collaborators as follows: ‘He was the man and engineer who had the courage, skill, and patriotism necessary to demonstrate to the world the industrial vocation of the Romanian people, considered by foreigners to be nothing but ploughmen and shepherds’. MANEA Gheorghe (8 April 1904, Râmnicu Sarat—3 ˘ January 1978, Bucharest). Mechanical engineer. Studies: Ias, i Boarding School; Technische Hochschule Charlottenburg–Berlin (1928); Doctorate at the Technische Hochschule Charlottenburg–Berlin (1932). Technical activity: Administration of the Mining and Metallurgical Companies of Transylvania (1933–1934); Unio-Astra-Vagoane Company, Arad (1934–1947). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1933); Associate professor (1940); Professor (1944– 1972) at the Polytechnic School of Bucharest. Positions: Head of the Department of Machine Parts of the Polytechnic Institute Bucharest; Head of the Machines and Mechanisms Department of the Applied Mechanics Institute of the Romanian Academy. Research achievements: He offered an original solution to describe fluid flow processes through networks consisting of profiles of any shape and finite thickness; he developed models for calculating the temperature of the lubricant film in interdependence with the lift through the viscosity and thickness of the fluid layer; he conducted research in the field of plastic machinery part, in particular on bearings and gears. Main works: Elemente de amenajarea, organizarea s, i exploatarea fabricilor (1944); Organe de mas, ini (2 volumes, 1956, 1958, 2nd edition

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1970) (a course for technical universities). Organisation memberships: Corresponding Member of the Romanian Academy since 21 March 1963. Awards and medals: Emeritus Professor; Scientific Merit Award; Labour Order (1963). MANICATIDE Radu (17 April 1912, Ias, i—18 March 2004, Bucharest). Aeronautical engineer. Studies: Polytechnic School of Bucharest; Superior School of Aeronautics and Automobile Building, Paris (1931–1937). Technical activity: Engineer at the Romanian Airlines under State Authority (LARES) (1937); Head of the Cells Department of IAR Bras, ov where he took part in building the aircrafts IAR 39 and IAR 80; he played an important part in starting production of the Italian bomber Savoia-Marchetti 79; he made his own design and built the airplane RM 9 and the glider M 10; at IAR Bras, ov he also build an automobile of his own design (1945); built the teaching and training airplane IAR 811 (1948); and later the models IAR 813 (1949), RM 12 (1952), IAR 814 (1953). Engineer at the Aircraft Company (1967) and later at the Institute of Fluid Mechanics and Aerospatial Research in Bucharest, where he coordinated the design of aircrafts IAR 818-823 and the first turboprop aircraft IAR 827 built at I.C.A. Ghimbav. Awards and medals: Knight of the Star of Romania Order (2002). MANOLESCU Nicolae (31 March 1907, Adjudu Vechi, Vrancea County—10 October 1993, Bucharest). Mechanical engineer. Studies: Secondary school in Focs, ani; Polytechnic school of Timis, oara (1931); Doctor of Engineering (1970); Docent (1972). Technical activity: Engineer at the Technical Service- of Br˘aila (1932); Romanian Railways Workshops Bras, ov (1932–1936); Port of Constant, a and Palas (1936–1941); Directorate of the Romanian Railways Workshops (1941–1942); Directorate of the Romanian Railways Electrification (1942– 1945); Directorate of Supplies for Romanian Railways Materials of the Ministry of Transportation (1945– 1956). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor at the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara; Professor at the Superior School of Officers (1949–1982) and the Oil and Gas Institute of Bucharest; Associate Professor and Professor at the Department of Mechanisms

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and Machines Theory of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest. He held conferences at the RWTH Aachen, Braunschweig and Hanover, the École Centrale of Paris, etc. Research achievements: Contributions to the kinematic and dynamic study of bogie suspension, the engine of the electro-Diesel locomotive, especially connected to the automatic control and adjustment system; contributions to the numerical, structural and kinematic synthesis of mechanisms; he presented original methods in the field of kinetostatic and dynamic mechanism analysis. Main works: Culegere de probleme din teoria mecanismelor s, i a mas, inilor (2 volumes, 1963, 1968); Teoria mecanismelor s, i a mas, inilor (4 volumes, 1956); Cinematostatice s, i dinamica mecanismelor (1958). Organisation memberships: Corresponding Member of the Romanian Academy since 18 December 1991); Founding Member of the International Federation of Machine and Mechanism Theory (IFTOMM); Honorary Member of the Technical Committe IFTOMM of Mechanisms and Cams. MATEESCU Cristea (10 August 1894, Caracal—14 June 1979, Bucharest). Hydrotechnical engineer. Studies: Secondary school at Craiova and Buz˘au; National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest (1920); Specialisations in Switzerland (1920–1921) and France (1921–1922); Doctorate (1938). Technical activity: Engineer at the Electrica Company (1922). He supervised the installation of the hydroelectric power plants of Sinaia and T˘arlung, the building of the thermal power plant of Flores, ti, the substations and overhead power lines. He designed the hydroelectric and thermal power plant of Sadu. He was the project manager at the Vidraru-Corbeni hydroelectric power plant. Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1926); Associate Professor (1939) and Professor (1946) at the Faculty of Constructions (1936–1939), the Faculty of Industrial Chemistry, the Faculty of Forestry (1939–1941) and the Institute of Constructions in Bucharest (1942–1949). Positions: Head of the Department of Hydraulics and Hydraulic Constructions at the Bucharest Institute of Constructions (1950– 1964). Research achievements: Developed methods for calculating overhead power lines and developed

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some calculation requirements based on resistancelimit; studied safety and stability issues, especially for dams, extended cables, retaining walls; developed calculation models for dams; studied the arrangement of river intakes and sanders, the hydraulics of pipes, canals and rivers, etc. Main works: Calculul fundat, iilor pentru suport, ii liniilor aeriene (1929); La réduction des systèmes hyperstatique symétriques par la méthode des charges composés (1931); Contribut, ie la studiul sistemelor hiperstatice (1935); Principii de amenajare integral˘a a apelor (1951); Metode noi de determinare a distribut, iei vitezelor în mis, carea uniform˘a a fluidelor vâscoase (1957); Considerat, ii critice asupra calculului barajelor de beton (1958); Dimensionarea economic˘a a infrastructurilor barajelor fluviale (1960); Hidraulica (1961), etc. Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 1 March 1974 (Corresponding Member since 2 July 1955). Awards and medals: Laureate of the State Award. MATEESCU Dan (11 november 1911, Cal ˘ aras ˘ , i—15 April 2008, Timis, oara). Construction engineer. Studies: S, tirbei Vod˘a Secondary School C˘al˘aras, i; Technische Hochschule Charlottenburg, Berlin (1934). Technical activity: Engineer at the Res, it, a and Bocs, a Român˘a Factory of Bridges and Metalworks (1935– 1948). He introduced welding technology into the execution of metalworks. He coordinated over 100 projects for unique metal structure buildings, among which: the metal structure of the Administrative Palace of the Romanian Railways in Bucharest, the dome of the ROMEXPO pavilion in Bucharest, the Iron Gates Hydroelectric Power Plant, sports halls [Timis, oara, Baia Mare, Arad, Tripoli (Lybia), etc.], metal structures of railway bridges, etc. Teaching activity: Substitute Professor (1944–1948) and Full Professor (1948– 1981) at the Faculty of Constructions of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara. Positions: Head of the Department of Metal Constructions (1948–1981); Dean of the Faculty of Constructions (1961–1976); Vice-President of the Association of Design Engineers in Romania and the Association of Construction Engineers in Romania. Research achievements: He developed models for calculating and verifying the stability of compressed bars and

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bars in thin-walled profiles and roofs with large openings, using reticulated spatial structures; he designed metal structures on cables and domes, multi-level metal structures, efficient metal profiles, etc. Main works: Linii de influent, a˘ la sisteme static determinate (1949); Poduri metalice (1949); Linii de influent, a˘ la sisteme static nedeterminate (1950); Construct, ii metalice (2 vols., 1950–1951); Construct, ii metalice speciale (1956, 2nd edition 1962); Stabilitatea la compresiune a structurilor din bare de ot, el (1980); Calculul s, i proiectarea elementelor din ot, el (1981); Conducte metalice cu diametru mare (1985); Construct, ii metalice pretensionate (1989); Cl˘adiri înalte cu schelet de ot, el (1997), etc. Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 1 March 1974. Awards and medals: Doctor Honoris Causa of the Technical University of Cluj Napoca (1995), the Polytechnic University of Timis, oara (1996), the Technical University of Constructions of Bucharest (1997); Professor Emeritus (1971). MAZILU Panaite (21 March 1915, Bros, teni, Vrancea County—21 May, 2015, Bucharest). Construction engineer. Studies: Ias, i Boarding School; Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1938). Technical activity: Engineer at the Directorate of Research and Architecture of the Romanian Railways (1940–1945). He designed the Ias, i, Ploies, ti, Bras, ov railway workshops, the B˘aneasa air station, the Bras, ov Municipal Theatre, the resistance structure of the House of the Free Press Polygraphic Plant, the Bras, ov Railway Station, etc. Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1945–1948); Associate Professor (1948–1955); Professor (1955–1986) at the Institute of Constructions in Bucharest. He also taught at the Technical Military Academy and the Oil and Gas Institute of Bucharest. Positions: President of the Association of Construction Engineers in Romania; President of the Commissions of Technical Experts and Controllers of the Ministry of Public Works (1992– 2000). Research achievements: Calculation of the structures of certain buildings in Bucharest (Intercontinental Hotel, the Palace Hall, the National Theatre, etc.)

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and consolidation of buildings after the 1977 earthquake (the Aula of the Faculty of Law, the BucurObor blocks of flats, the Athénée Palace Hotel, the Palace of Justice of Bucharest, etc.) Main works: Statica construct, iilor (2 vols., 1955, 1959); Teoria s, i calculul pl˘acilor ortotrope (1981); Aplicarea teoriei elasticit˘at, ii s, i a pl˘acilor în calculul construct, iilor (1986), etc. Organisation memberships: Honorary Member of the Romanian Academy since 12 November 1993; Member of: the International Association of Bridge and Structural Engineering of Switzerland; the Council on Tall Buildings of the USA. Awards and medals: Doctor Honoris Causa of the Bucharest Technical University of Constructions (1998), the Transilvania University of Bras, ov (2007); Officer of the National Order of Merit (2000). MICLOS, I Corneliu (5 March 1887, Covasânt ˘ , , Arad County—10 August 1963, Timis, oara). Mechanical engineer. Studies: Secondary school in Arad; Technical University of Karlsruhe, Germany (Faculty of Electrotechnics) and the Technical University of Budapest (Faculty of Mechanics, 1909); Doctor of Engineering and Docent of the Technical University of Budapest (1912). Technical activity: Engineer at various industrial companies (1912–1918); Director of the Public Utilities Company of Timis, oara (1919–1948). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor at the Technical University of Budapest (1909–1912); Substitute Professor at the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara (1925–1930); Full Professor at the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara (1947– 1963). Positions: Director of the Journal Sudura in Timis, oara (1938–1945); head of the Department of Welding at the Scientific and Technical Research Base of Timis, oara (1951–1955); Director of the Technical Research Centre and the Timis, oara Base (1955–1963). Research achievements: Essential contributions to butt welding by intermediate melting and its application to railway rails; he invented the device called Taurus for electrically welded rails used in the construction of railings without joints (1938); established methods of softening and melting ash; studied the properties of metals and alloys in the presence of water and steam; contributed to material testing, and the plasticity

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and resistance of heterogeneous bodies. Main works: Tehnologia mecanic˘a (1926); Aplicarea sudurii electrice la fabricarea pieselor de mas, ini s, i la construct, iile metalice (1929); Mas, inile pentru încercarea materialelor (1939); Uzura s, inelor de tramvai (1940); Linii ferate sudate (1941); Sudura aluminiului s, i aliajelor sale (1943); Procedeele industriale de sudur˘a (2 volumes, 1961); Tract, iunea electric˘a (1961); Sudarea metalelor (1965), etc. Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 2 July 1955. ˘ A ˘ SAN NAD ¸ Stefan ¸ (19 august 1901, Timis, oara—23 September 1967, Timis, oara). Mechanical engineer. Studies: Secondary school in Timis, oara (1911– 1915), Eisenstadt, Austria (1915–1918) and Gy˝or, Ungaria (1918); Polytechnic School of Timis, oara (1920–1924) (the first generation of graduates); Doctorate (1939). Technical activity: Engineer at the Romanian Railways Workshops in Timis, oara (1924– 1948). He founded the first Design Institute in Machine Building, later IPROM (1949). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1925); Lecturer (1939); Substitute Professor (1940); Full Professor (1942) at the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara. Positions: Dean of the Faculty of Electrotechnics (1949), Director of IPROM (1949–1954); Head of the Department of Material Resistance (1953); Director of the Scientific Research Base (1961–1962) and the Technical Research Centre (1963–1966); President of the Welding Commission of the Romanian Academy (1964–1967); editor of the journals Studii s, i cercet˘ari de metalurgie and Revue Roumaine des Sciences Techniques. Série de Métalurgie (1963–1967); Vice-President of the National Council of Engineers and Technicians. Research achievements: He substantiated the introduction of welding by intermediate melting at steel–concrete bars and railway rails. He conducted research for the introduction of welded manganese alloy steel constructions; performed studies of fatigue, fragility and creep. Main works: Rezistent, a materialelor (4 volumes, 1957–1963); Probleme de rezistent, a materialelor (1926, five editions, 1931, 1939, 1941, 1943); Not, iuni elementare de rezistent, a materialelor (1947); Oboseala metalelor (1962); Studii s, i cercet˘ari de rezistent, a˘ s, i încerc˘ari de materiale (1965); Încerc˘ari s, i analize de metale (1965), etc. Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy

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since 21 March 1963 (Corresponding Member since 2 July 1955); Vice-President of the Romanian Academy (1963–1966); Honorary Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (1965). Awards and medals: Scientific Award (1966); Emeritus Professor (1964). NEGRESCU Traian (3 March 1900, Bucharest—23 December 1960, Bucharest). Metallurgical engineer. Studies: Matei Basarab Secondary School, Bucharest; National School of Bridges and Roads, Bucharest (1922); Doctor of Engineering in Paris (1927). Teaching activity: Associate Professor (1927); Professor (1934) at the Polytechnic School of Bucharest. Positions: Director of the Autonomous Administration of Mining and Metallurgical State-governed Companies of Transylvania; General Director of the Metalworks in Hunedoara; Director of the Mining and Metallurgy Service of the Ministry of Industry and Trade; Director of the Metallurgical Research Centre in Bucharest; founder of the journals: Studii s, i cercet˘ari de metalurgie and Revue Roumaine de Métallurgie; Rector of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest (1952–1954). Research achievements: He studied the determination of the desulfurization capacity of blast furnace slag, the oxidizing capacity of slag in steelmaking furnaces, the thermodynamics of liquid metallurgical slag; he studied the composition and structure of chromium carbides from alloy steels; and laid the foundations for the quantitative spectographic analysis of alloys in Romania. Main works: Fonte speciale (1932); Bronzuri obis, nuite s, i bronzuri speciale (1933); Fundamentele structurale ale activit˘at, ii termodinamice s, i ale react, iunilor diferit, ilor oxizi în zgurile metalurgice (in Russian, 1957), etc. Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 2 July 1955; Member of mining societies in France, Great Britain and the USA.

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PERS, U Aurel S, tefan Nicolae (26 December 1890, Bucharest—5 May 1977, Bucharest). Mechanical engineer. Studies: Gh. Laz˘ar and Mihai Viteazu Secondary School, Bucharest (1909); Technische Hochschule Charlottenburg–Berlin (1913). Technical activity: Engineer at the Army’s Automotive Traction Company (1916); Technical counsellor of the Romanian Railways (1930–1950). Teaching activity: Associate Professor (1924–1929); Professor (1944–1948) at the Polytechnic School of Bucharest. Positions: Director of IAR Bras, ov (1938–1940); Head of Department at the Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1944–1948). Research achievements: Patented (in eight countries), designed and built a car with aerodynamic form, and wheels embedded inside the body, which led to a low aerodynamic coefficient of 0.22 (1922). He had a decisive role in creating the famous Romanian aircraft IAR—80. He contributed to the field of mechanical vibrations and automobile mechanics, material resistance and heat engines. Main works: Aerodinamik und Mechanick der Flugzeuge (1914); L’automobile aérodynamique (1973); Mécanique appliquée. Mon testament scientifique (1975). Awards and medals: Crown of Romania Order; Corresponding Member of the Romanian Academy of Sciences. OBERTH Hermann (25 June 1894, Sibiu—28 December 1989, Nuremberg). One of the founders of astronautics. Studies: Teutsch Secondary School of Sighis, oara; Medical University of Munich; studies in physics at the Universities of Cluj (1923), Munich and Göttingen. Technical activity: The Peenemünde Experimental Rocket Centre (1941–1944); Military Institute of Bern, Switzerland (1948–1950); the Italian Marine Base in Spezia (1950–1953); consulting engineer at Huntsville, Alabama, in the space programme of the USA coordinated by Wernher von Braun (1955–1958). He was the first person in the world to develop the design for a long-distance rocket, calculated for 300 km, using alcohol and liquid oxygen as fuel (1917). He designed the first multistage space rocket, with three steps, weighing 100 tons (1920). He designed and created the ‘cone-shaped engine’ (Kegeldüse), the first

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liquid-fuelled rocket motor (1930). He designed a three steps rocket (1947). Teaching activity: Teacher at the Stephan Ludwig Roth Secondary School in Medias, (1925–1938). Professor at the Technische Hochschule in Vienna (1938) and the Technische Hochschule in Dresden (1939–1941). Positions: First President of the Spatial Navigation League (Erster Vorsitzender des Vereins für Raumschiffahrt) of Berlin. Research achievements: Deduces the first formulas related to rocket flight, including the fundamental equation of its flight (1914); discovers the phenomenon called selfrupture of fuel droplets during combustion (1929); he patented the invention ‘The Rapid Combustion Process’ (1931); he launched the first liquid-propellant rocket in Medias, (1935). Main works: Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen (1923); Wege zur Raumschiffahrt (1929); Menschen im Weltraum. Neue Projekte für Raketen – und Raumfahrt (1954); Das Mondauto (1959). Organisation memberships: Member of the German Academy of Sciences; Honorary Member of the Romanian Academy (1991). Awards and medals: REP-Hirsch (Prix International d’Astronautique) (1929); Scientific Merit Order, First Class (1974); Doctor Honoris Causa of the University of Cluj. OROVEANU Teodor (10 July 1920, Râmnicu Sarat— ˘ 5 March 2005, Bucharest). Hydraulic engineer. Studies: Secondary School at Râmnicu S˘arat; Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest; Doctor of Engineering (1967); Docent (1970). Technical activity: Engineer at Steaua Român˘a Company in Câmpina, then at the Processing-Metallurgy Industrial Plant (1945–1949); Institute of Fluid Mechanics (1948–1968). Teaching activity: Associate Professor (1951); Professor (1968– 1969) at the Oil and Gas Institute of Bucharest; Professor (1969–1984) at the Oil and Gas Institute of Ploies, ti; Visiting Professor at the Universities of Baku, Freiburg, Moscow, Paris, Rennes, Toulouse. Positions: Head of the Department of Hydraulics (1971–1984) of the Oil and Gas Institute of Ploies, ti; Chief Editor of the journal Revue Roumaine des Sciences Techniques. Série de Mécanique Appliquée (2003). Research achievements: Contributions in the field of fluid flows through porous environment; the convective diffusion in fluids; movement of viscous fluids, with applications in the field

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of oil and gas extraction and transportation; elaboration of calculation and design methods in the field of oil industry; hydraulic cracking of deposits with low permeability. Main works: Mecanica fluidelor (2 volumes, 1952, 1956); Mecanica fluidelor vâscoase (1967); Scurgerea fluidelor prin medii poroase neomogene (1963); Scurgerea fluidelor multifazice prin medii poroase (1966); Transportul petrolului (1985); Transferul de impuls s, i aplicat, ii (1985); Hidraulica s, i transportul produselor petroliere (1966); Colectarea, transportul, depozitarea s, i distribut, ia produselor petroliere s, i gazelor (1985). Organisation memberships: Corresponding Member of the Romanian Academy since 18 December 1991; Member of the International Academy of Astronautics in Paris. PATRAULEA Nicolae (28 July 1916, Târgu Jiu—3 May 2007, Bucharest). Aeronautical engineer. Studies: Military Secondary School at Dealu Monastery; School for Aviation Officers; Superior School of Aeronautics, Paris; Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1943); Doctorate (1967). Technical activity: He took part in the Second World War as a fighter pilot in 1941–1944. Researcher at the Applied Mechanics Institute of the Romanian Academy. Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1951); Associate professor (1952); Professor (1955–1962) at the Technical Military Academy. Research achievements: Research on the aerodynamics of conical motions in supersonic mode. Development of linearized theories of a class of movements ‘with almost straight trails’; modelling the movement of fluids in porous environments and the movement of fluids through permeable surfaces, with applications to the theory of the wing (aerodynamics of permeable surfaces); developed a nonlinearized theory for permeable surfaces with applications to the study of permeable screens; established the aerodynamic theory of the parachute; proposed a method for calculating an airplane with toroidal wing and infinitely long cylindrical fuselage; studied the motion around a system of antagonistic propellers. Main works: Teoria mis, c˘arilor subsonice cu dâre aproape rectilinii (1955); Aerodinamica suprafet, elor permeabile (1956); Zborul cu decolare s, i aterizare scurt˘a sau la

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vertical˘a (1962); Metode iterative pentru calculul aerodinamic al aripii subt, iri în regim subsonic (1972), etc. Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 22 January 1990 (Corresponding Member since 21 March 1963); President of the Aeronautics Commission of the Romanian Academy. Awards and medals: Crown of Romania Order; Order ‘Aeronautical Virtue with Swords, ‘Golden Cross Class’. PAVEL Dorin (31 May 1900, Sebes, —1979). Hydrotechnical engineer. Studies: Andrei S, aguna Secondary School, Bras, ov (1918); ETH Zürich (1923); Doctor of Engineering at ETH Zürich (1925). Technical activity: Engineer at the Romanian Electrica Company (1925–1929); Member of the Romanian Energy Institute (1927–1945); ViceDirector at the construction site of the power plant of Dobres, ti (1929–1934); Technical Director at Bucharest Water Supply Company (Uzinele Comunale) (1934– 1941). His important hydroelectric works: Modernisation of the Sinaia hydroelectric power plant (1926– 1928); taking part in the building of the Dobres, ti power plant (1928–1934); designing the complex system of the Bârzava, Nera, Semenic, Gozna and Timis, rivers (1942–1944); designing and leading the building of the V˘aliug dam and the Pelton and Francis turbines of the Cr˘ainicel power plant (in cooperation with Professor Aurel B˘argl˘azan (1946–1951), etc. Teaching activity: Teacher at the Bucharest School of Aeronautics (1927– 1929); Associate Professor (1929) and Docent (1931– 1938) at the Electrotechnical Institute of the Faculty of Sciences at the University of Bucharest; Professor at the Polytechnic School, later Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest (1935–1970). There he established the first Hydraulics and Hydraulic Machines Laboratory (1938). Positions: Vice-President of the Romanian Physics Society (1936–1937); chief engineer at the Res, it, a Metalworks and Domains (1924–1951); chief engineer and later counsellor at the Bucharest Institute of Hydroenergetic Research and Design; President of the Technical Investment Commission; member of the Scientific Council of the Ministry of Electric Energy (1949–1971); permanent member of the National Water Council (1953). Research achievements: He carried out research on large models of automatic dampers and energy dissipators (Dobres, ti power plant, V˘aliug

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power plant) and on the Pelton and Francis turbines in the Cr˘ainicel power plant; he performed visualizations of flows through various hydrotechnical objects and turbine and pump parts; studied the flow through rotors of turbomachines and profile networks, cavitation and corrosion, the contraction of veins in orifices and spills, etc. Main works: Plan general d’aménagement des forces hydrauliques en Roumanie (1933). Organisation memberships: Corresponding Member since 1934 and Full Member (1936–1949) of the Romanian Academy of Sciences. Awards and medals: State Award First Class (1950); Labour Order First Class (1970); Order of Scientific Merit First Class (1972); Order of the Yugoslav Flag with Golden Star on Cravat. POENARU Petrache (10 January 1799, Benes, ti, Vâlcea County—2 October 1875, Bucures, ti). Engineer, mathematician and inventor. Studies: Obedeanu Church School in Craiova (1811– 1818); Sf Sava Secondary School (1819–1820); University of Vienna (mathematics, physics, 1824–1825); Polytechnic School of Vienna; Applied School of Geographic Engineers in Paris (1826). He specialised in mining and metal industry in Great Britain in 1831. Teaching activity: Teacher of physics and mathematics and Director of the Sf Sava Secondary School (1832); Inspector and Director of the Board of National Schools (1832–1847) (wrote the Regulations of Public Education (1834), the first attempt at an organized public education in Wallachia); held various court offices and ranks [comis (1834), mare culcer (1841), aga (1851)]; Director in the Treasury Service (Postelnic) (1850– 1855). He created the Agronomical Society and the Agricultural School in Pantelimon. As a member of the Technical Commission of Public Works and the State Council, he contributed to the creation of Romanian engineering. He proposed the establishment of the School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest and was one of its organisers. Technical contributions: He patented an invention in Paris, which he called ‘never-ending portable pen, which recharges itself with ink’, which was a predecessor of the fountain pen (1827). He was the first Romanian to have ever registered a patent for an invention. Main works: Elemente de geometrie dup˘a Legendre, (1837); Elemente de algebr˘a dup˘a

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Appeltauer (1841); Vocabular frant, ezo-românesc (2 volumes, 1840–1841). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 10 September 1870; Member of the Academy of Sciences in Paris; Honorary Member of the Transylvanian Association for Romanian Literature and the Culture of the Romanian People (ASTRA); President of the Society for the Education of the Romanian People. PRAGER Emil (18 August 1888, Bucharest—1 February 1985, Bucharest). Construction engineer. Studies: Gheorghe Laz˘ar Secondary School, Bucharest (1907); National School of Bridges and Roads, Bucharest (1912); Doctor of Engineering in Paris (1927). Technical activity: Engineer at the General Directorate of Ports and Waterborne Transport (under the leadership of Anghel Saligny, 1912–1921). He established the first office for research, expert reports and designs for reinforced concrete in Romania (1921– 1925), later transformed into the Emil Prager Constructions Enterprise (1925–1948). Chief engineer and technical counsellor of state companies (after 1948). Technical contributions: Contributed to the development of Romanian technology, mechanising the building sites, using concrete mixers, mechanical and electric lifts (1925), mobile cranes (1929), transporting concrete through compressed air pipes (1936), etc.; he built several monumental buildings in Romania: The Romanian Peasant Museum, the Royal Palace, the AGIR Building on Calea Victoriei, the Elias Hospital, the Military Academy, the Student Community Centre, the Dalles Hall, the Central University Library of Ias, i, the Cathedral in Hunedoara, industrial buildings (Flores, ti thermal power plant, the oil refinery in Brazi, the Victoria tyre factory in B˘aicoi, cereal silos), blocks of flats, etc. Main works: Betonul armat în România (1979).

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PROFIRI Nicolae (19 September 1886, Murgeni, Vaslui County—22 September 1967, Bucharest). Construction engineer. Studies: National Secondary School in Ias, i; National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest; Technische Hochschule of Charlottenburg-Berlin (1911– 1914). Technical activity: Engineer in the Ministry of Public Works. Here he introduced new technology for better project development, established the geometrical elements of roads, renewed methods of calculation and investigation of the quality of materials and execution, finding solutions of modernisation for roads. He had a role in elaborating the Law of roads (1929). In 1938, he managed to save 1200 km of paved road by covering it with bitumen. He drew up a 5–7 year long plan of modernising 5000 km of roads. He elaborated norms and instructions for bitumen works on roads. He initiated the first asphalt laboratory. Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1914) at the National School of Bridges and Roads; Professor at the Polytechnic School (1940) and the Institute of Constructions (1948). Positions: General Director of Roads; Minister of Communications (1946–1951); Head of the Department of Roads of the Institute of Constructions in Bucharest; President of the General Association of Engineers in Romania. Main works: Construct, ia str˘azilor (1916); Sisteme moderne de asfaltaj (1933); Problema drumurilor noastre (1937); Salvarea s, oselelor prin bitumiz˘ari (1938). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 12 August 1948 (Corresponding Member since 1 June 1948); President of the Department of Technical and Agricultural Sciences (1948–1959).

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RADU Elie (20 April 1853, Botos, ani—10 October 1931, Bucharest). Construction engineer. Studies: Academia Mih˘ailean˘a of Ias, i; Polytechnic School of Bruxelles (1872–1877). Technical activity: Engineer at the Ministry of Public Works (1877). He had a rich design and building activity of railways, bridges, roads, water supply, public buildings. Coordinator of: over 600 km of railroad (Ploies, tiPredeal, Câmpina-Doftana, Bac˘au-Piatra, CraiovaCalafat, Focs, ani-Odobes, ti, Pites, ti-Curtea de Arges, , Târgovis, te-Pucioasa, Târgu Ocna-Com˘anes, ti-Palanca, Com˘anes, ti-Moines, ti, Galat, i-Bârlad, Podu IloaieiHârl˘au, Pucioasa-Pietros, it, a, Buda-Sl˘anic (Prahova) and several national roads (Moroieni-Sinaia; Lotru-Câineni; Ploies, ti-Predeal; C˘al˘aras, i-Lehliu); road bridges and railway bridges over the rivers Siret, Olt, Jiu, Arges, , Trotus, , etc. The total length of bridges designed and built by him amount to over 20 km. He coordinated water supply and sewerage works of the towns of Br˘aila, Sinaia, Sulina, Botos, ani, Pites, ti, Ias, i, Târgovis, te, Turnu Severin. He designed the buildings of railways stations in Calafat, B˘ailes, ti, Com˘anes, ti, Curtea de Arges, , Fieni, etc. He also designed the thermal power plant at Groz˘aves, ti. He introduced a type of heavy rail which enhanced the safety and rapidity of circulation. He started the large-scale use of reinforced concrete in road bridge building (1900–1915). He is considered to be the builder of the first roads in Romania. Teaching activity: Professor at the School of Bridges and Roads (1894–1903) and the Polytechnic School (1920–1927) in Bucharest. Positions: Director of the Bridges and Roads Directorate; President of the Polytechnic Society (1897–1898 and 1903–1904); President of the Superior Technical Council (1919–1930). Main works: Alimentarea cu ap˘a a oras, elor (1902); Alimentarea cu ap˘a a capitalei Bucures, ti (1902); Alimentarea cu ap˘a a oras, elor de munte (1903); Istoricul aliment˘arii oras, ului Bucures, ti cu ap˘a potabil˘a (1905); Alimentarea cu ap˘a din Dun˘are a oras, ului Turnu Severin (1909), etc. Organisation memberships: Honorary Member of the Romanian Academy since 5 June 1926.

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˘ RADULET ˘ , Remus Baziliu (3 May 1904, Bradeni, Sibiu County—6 February 1984, Bucharest). Electrotechnical engineer. Studies: Secondary School at Sighis, oara and Bras, ov; Polytechnic School of Timis, oara (1923–1927); Doctorate at ETH Zürich (1929–1930). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1927–1928); Associate Professor (1931–1946); Professor (1946–1951) of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara; Professor at the University of Bucharest (1948–1974), the Railway Institute (1948–1974) and the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest (1951–1974). Positions: Head of the Department of Physics and Electrotechnics of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest; Director of the Energetic Institute of the Romanian Academy (1956– 1970); Rector of the Cultural Scientific University of Bucharest; Vice-President (1961–1964) and President (1964–1967) of the International Electrotechnical Commission. Research achievements: He formulated the General Laws and Material Laws in Electrotechnics; he determined electric and magnetic fields for more general body configurations than those with known solutions, in electronic tubes and technical installations; developed a theory of the behaviour of iron-free induction furnaces; formulated a way to express the power required for the end welding of bars, used and verified in the design of the Taurus in-line welding installation for railway and tram rails; developed theories regarding the force and torque in electric induction brakes with non-ferromagnetic and ferromagnetic discs, in induction clutches, etc. He was the founder of the Romanian school of electrical engineering and energetics. Main works: Transportul energiei electrice s, i curent, ilor slabi (1932); Echipamentul electric al exploat˘arilor de acetilen˘a (1944); Electricitatea s, i magnetismul (2 volumes, 1950–1951); Bazele teoretice ale electrotehnicii (2 volumes, 1953–1954); Mijloace matematice ale electrotehnicii (1958); Metode de prognoz˘a aplicate în energetic˘a (1971); O teorie de câmp structural˘a a unei clase de sisteme lineare (1972); Perspectivele de dezvoltare a energeticii (1974); Proiectarea hidrogeneratoarelor s, i a motoarelor sincrone (1980), etc. He was the chief editor of the Romanian Technical Lexicon (7 volumes in the first edition and 19 volumes in the second edition). Organisation memberships: Full

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Member of the Romanian Academy since 21 March 1963 (Corresponding Member since 2 July 1955); VicePresident of the Romanian Academy (1966–1974); President of the Department of Technical Sciences (1963–1966); member of the Saxon Academy of Sciences of Leipzig; Académie du Monde Latin in Paris; the International Electrotechnical Commission. Awards and medals: Labour Order First Class (1964). ˘ RAU Alexandru (14 March 1900, Bucharest—13 December 1993, Bucharest). Metallurgical engineer. Studies: Secondary school in Bucharest; Polytechnic School in Timis, oara; RWTH Aachen (1927–1930). Technical activity: Engineer at the Metallography Laboratory of the Res, it, a Plants; Chief of the Special Steelworks Department (1934–1941); Director of the Hunedoara Ironworks (1941), establishing the steelworks and rolling mills at Hunedoara, and the ferromanganese production at Târn˘aveni; engineer at the D. Voina Plant in Bras, ov, where he began the production of malleable cast iron. He had a direct contribution to the enhancement of technological processes in steel production, and to researches for the development of electrode production of electric furnaces. He took part at the placement of the Galat, i Steelworks and the development of its general technological project. He patented an invention for a process of direct use of molybdenum in steel production (1942). Teaching activity: Professor at the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest (1950). Positions: Counsellor at the State Metalworks Industry (1947); General Director in the Ministry of Metallurgy and Chemical Industry; Technical Director of the Institute of Siderurgical Research and Refractory Materials (1953); Head of the Department of Siderurgy at the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest (1950). Main works: Elaborarea ot, elurilor (1953); Metode noi de întret, inere s, i reparat, ii la cuptoarele Martin (1954); Fabricarea feromanganului (1955); Elaborarea ot, elurilor de scule (1964); Elaborarea ot, elului în cuptoare electrice cu arc (1967); Incluziuni nemetalice în ot, eluri (1972). Organisation memberships: Honorary Member of the Romanian Academy since 23 March 1993. Awards and medals: Labour Order First Class (1970).

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SALIGNY Anghel (19 April 1854, Serb ¸ anes ˘ , ti, Galat, i County—17 June 1925, Bucharest). Construction engineer. Studies: Secondary school at Potsdam, Germany; University of Berlin (astronomy); Technische Hochschule Charlottenburg (1870–1874). Technical activity: Engineer on the building site of the CottbusFrankfurt-am-Oder railway line (1875); Engineer at the Bridges and Roads Department (building the Ploies, ti-Predeal railway line) (1876). He coordinated the works of the Adjud-Târgu Ocna and Bârlad-Vaslui railway lines (1881). As Head of the Bridges and Roads Department, he built the bridge over the Siret at Cosmes, ti, the first large bridge he designed (a 430 km long double bridge for road and railway transport). This accomplishment consecrated him as a designer and builder of bridges. He coordinated the building of the docks and warehouses in the ports of Br˘aila (1888) and Galat, i (1889), using, for the first time in the world, prefabricated reinforced concrete elements to build the cereal silos. He designed and coordinate the building of the first metal bridges with abutment-free consoles at the Filias, i-Târgu Jiu railway line (1886). His greatest achievement as an engineer was the design (1888) and building of the Cernavoda bridge over the Danube (1890–1895). At that time, it was the longest bridge in Europe (with a central opening of 190 m and other four openings of 140 m) and the third longest in the world. Saligny brought two innovations to bridge building: a new system of beams with consoles for the bridge superstructure and the use of mild steel instead of powdered iron as a building material for bridge decks. He designed and made the silos of the Port of Constant, a, a true work of art, using advanced solutions (reinforced concrete) (1909–1915). Teaching activity: Professor at the National School of Bridges and Roads, Bucharest (1884). Positions: Director of the Department of Bridges and Roads (1881); Director of the Department of Bridges and Railways (1883); Head of the Docks (1884–1901); Director of Works at the Port of Constant, a (1899); General Director of the Railways (1895–1911); Head of the Bridges Department at the National School of Bridges and Roads (1884–1914); Head of the General Directorate of Land Improvement (1911–1917); Minister of Public

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Works (1918–1919); President of the Polytechnic Society (1895–1897 and 1910–1911). Main works: Pod peste râul Siret la Cosmes, ti (1888); Memoriu asupra bazinelor s, i cheiurilor din Galat, i s, i Br˘aila (1888); Podul peste Dun˘are la Cernavoda (1888). Saligny’s engineering work, a work of national pride, is a symbol of the beginnings of Romanian engineering. He demonstrated the ability of Romanian engineering to solve some of the most complex problems, comparable with the engineering standards of countries with highly developed industry. Saligny had a decisive influence on the modernisation of Romania, representative for the end of the nineteenth century. Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 7 April 1897 (Corresponding Member since 31 March 1892); Vice-President of the Romanian Academy (1901–1904); President of the Romanian Academy (1907–1910). Awards and medals: Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour (1908). SOARE Mircea (31 July 1927, Bucharest—24 July 1999, Bucharest). Construction engineer. Studies: Sf. Sava Secondary School, Bucharest; Institute of Constructions, Bucharest (1951); Doctor of Engineering (1963); Docent (1970). Technical activity: Researcher at the Applied Mechanics Institute of the Romanian Academy (1955–1957); Head of Laboratory at INCERC (1957–1970). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1951); Lecturer (1952) at the Railway Institute of Bucharest; Associate professor (1970); Professor (1973) at the Institute of Constructions in Bucharest. Research achievements: plate stability; curved plates; flat plates in the fields of elastic and plastic; orthotropic plates; planar-type spatial structures, etc. Main works: Aplicarea ecuat, iilor cu diferent, e finite la calculul pl˘acilor subt, iri (1959); Paraboloidul eliptic s, i hiperbolic în construct, ii (1964); Calculul pl˘acilor curbe subt, iri (1969); Structuri discrete s, i structuri continue în mecanica construct, iilor (1986); Automatizarea calculelor de rezistent, a˘ în construct, ii (1989). Positions: Rector of the Technical University of Constructions, Bucharest (1990–1996). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy of Technical Sciences (1999). Awards and medals: Doctor Honoris Causa of the University of Liège (1995)

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and of the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca; Senator of the Romanian Parliament (1990–1992). TEODORESCU C. Constantin (22 March 1892, Bucharest—1972, Bucharest). Mechanical engineer. Studies: Ias, i Boarding School (1911); National School of Bridges and Roads, Bucharest (1916). Technical activity: Engineer at the Ministry of Public Works (1916–1919). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1919) at the Polytechnic School of Bucharest; Substitute Professor (1920–1924) and Full Professor (1926– 1939) at the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara; Professor at the Professor at the Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1940–1948); Professor at the Railways Institute of Bucharest (1948–1960). He founded the material testing laboratory of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara. Positions: Director of the Superior School of Post, Telephone and Telegraph (PTT) Timis, oara (1923–1929); Rector of the Polytechnic School of Timis, oara (1934– 1939); Rector of the Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1941–1944). Research achievements: He applied statistical methods and probability theory in material testing; he applied Gauss’s law for two variables in material testing; he showed that the limits imposed on material characteristics are tangent to probability ellipses; he developed a theory of jointless rails subject to temperature variations and showed how stresses are distributed in a continuously welded railway. Main works: Curs de rezistent, a materialelor (1921) (the first course on material resistance published in Romania); Calculul s, i încerc˘arile îmbin˘arilor sudate (1947); Teoria s, inei f˘ar˘a joant˘a supus˘a la variat, ii de temperatur˘a (1965); Îmbin˘ari sudate (1967).

Romanian Personalities in the Field of Engineering

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TIPEI Nicolae (19 April 1913, Cal ˘ aras ˘ , i—16 March 1999, New York). Aeronautical engineer. Studies: Gheorghe Laz˘ar Secondary School Bucharest (1930); Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1936); Doctor of Engineering (1969). Technical activity: Engineer at the Ministry of the Air (1937); Lares Aviation Society Bucharest (1938–1939); Institute of Applied Mechanics and Fluid Mechanics of the Romanian Academy (1949–1971); consulting engineer of Total and Electricité de France companies (1971–1972); researcher at the General Motors Research Laboratories in the USA (1972–1981). Teaching activity: Instructor (1936–1937); Assistant Professor (1937–1946); Lecturer (1946–1948); Associate Professor (1948–1964); Professor (1965–1971) of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest. Research achievements: In aerodynamics, mechanics of airplanes and rockets, mechanics of viscous fluids. Main works: Aérodynamique. Une nouvelle méthode pour le calcul des performances d’un avion (1939); Probleme de aerodinamic˘a s, i mecanica avionului (1942); Hidrodinamica lubrificat, iei (1957); Sur le calcul des ailes rectangulaires en fleche (1957); Asupra mis, c˘arii pe vertical˘a a rachetelor (1957); Lag˘are de alunecare (1961); Asupra mis, c˘arii rachetei în mediu rezistent. Ascensiunea rachetei (1961); Tribologia. Domeniul s, i aplicat, iile sale (1970); etc. Organisation memberships: Corresponding Member of the Romanian Academy since 21 March 1963; Member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers; Member of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Awards and medals: Mayo D. Hersey Award of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) (1980).

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T, UGULEA Andrei (19 August 1928, Untes, ti, Republic of Moldova—14 December 2017, Bucharest). Electrotechnical engineer. Studies: National Secondary School in Ias, i (1938– 1944); Alexandru Lahovary Secondary School, Râmnicu Vâlcea (1944–1947); Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest; Doctor of Engineering (1958); Docent (1974). Specialisations in USSR (1963) and Electricité de France (France, 1971–1981). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1951–1957); Lecturer (1957– 1964); Associate Professor (1964–1968); Professor (1968–1991) of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest. Positions: Head of the Department of Electrotechnics (1972–1976; 1986–1991); Dean of the Faculty of Electrotehnics (1976–1984); Deputy Minister of Education (1990); State Secretary at the Ministry of Education and Science (1990–1991); Senator in the Romanian Senate (1992–1996); Editorial Secretary of the journal Electrotehnica; Deputy Chief Editor of the journal Revue Roumaine des Sciences Techniques, Série Electr. Energ. Research achievements: Development of the method of framing the solutions of Laplace’s equation, which prefigures the finite element method; analysis of quasi-stationary electromagnetic fields in solid conductors with applications to electromagnetic screens; introduction of transient parameters in electric circuits with field effect; applying the thermodynamics of irreversible phenomena to the study of semiconductor transport phenomena; proposing a new theory of power flows in deforming and asymmetrical regimes in electrical systems; establishing two-dimensional propagation equations for microwave planar structures. Main works: Considerat, ii asupra calculului circuitelor magnetice cu fier (1953); Încadrarea funct, ionalei de energie pentru ecuat, ia lui Laplace (1960); A structural field theory of a class of linear system (1972); Câmpul electromagnetic (1983); Bazele electrotehnicii (1994); Power flows under non-sinusoidal and steady-state of power systems (1994); Electrotehnica s, i electronica aplicat˘a (1995); Power flows in distorting electromagnetic fields (1998); Coordinator for theoretical electrotechnics of the Romanian Technical Lexicon. Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 29 January 1999 (Corresponding Member since 18 December 1991); Secretary General

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of the Romanian Academy (1999–2002); Member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers of the USA (since 1991). Awards and medals: Grand Officer of the National Order of Merit. VASILESCU-KARPEN Nicolae (28 November 1870, Craiova—2 March 1964, Bucharest). Engineer, physician and inventor. Studies: Carol I National Secondary School in Bucharest; National School of Bridges and Roads, Bucharest (1891); Superior School of Electricity in Paris (1894–1900); Faculty of Sciences at the University of Paris (1902); Doctorate at the Sorbonne, Paris (1904). Technical activity: Engineer at the Ministry of Public Works (1891–1894). He built the wireless telegraph station at B˘aneasa (1915). Responsible for the electrification of the towns of Câmpina and Constant, a. Teaching activity: Professor at the University of Lille (1904–1905); Professor at the School of Bridges and Roads (from 1920 Polytechnic School) in Bucharest (1905–1940). Positions: Head of the Technical Division of the P.T.T. (Post, telephone, telegraph) (1906–1907); member of the Superior Technical Council (1904– 1938); Minister of Industry and Trade (1931–1932); Rector of the Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1920– 1940). Research achievements: He proposed the use of high frequency carrier currents for long distance cable telephony (1909); he demonstrated that it is impossible to highlight the translational motion of the Earth by measuring the magnetic field of the electrified bodies driven by this motion; he carried out research regarding the internal pressure of liquids and the mechanism of osmotic pressure; he determined the relations between the energies of magnetic and electric fields; he built and patented the Karpen Pile. Main works: Sur la convention éléctrique (1903); Electricitatea (1924); Manual de electrotehnic˘a general˘a (1925, 1927); Electrostatic˘a (1925); Pile électrique utilisant l’énergie d’oxidation de l’alcool (1934); Certains phénomènes physico-chimiques (1939); Electricitate (1942); Pila electric˘a cu clorur˘a de argint (1953); Fenomene s, i teorii noi în electrochimie s, i chimie fizic˘a (1957), etc. Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 6 June 1923, reinvested on 2 July 1955 (Corresponding Membrr since 5 June 1919); Vice-President of the Romanian Academy (1929–1932;

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1941–1944); President of the Science Department of the Romanian Academy (1945–1948); Member of the Society of Electricians in France. Awards and medals: Doctor Honoris Causa of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest (1941). VLAICU Aurel (6 November 1882, Bint, int, i, Hunedoara County—13 September 1913, Banes ˘ , ti, Prahova County). Engineer and pilot. Studies: Secondary school at Or˘as, tie and Sibiu; Technical University of Budapest; Technische Hochschule of Munich. Technical activity: Engineer at the Opel car factory at Rüsselsheim (1908). He designed and built one of the first gliders in Romania, called Vlaicu1909, and two types of monoplane airplanes, Vlaicu I (1910) and Vlaicu II (1911). These airplanes had a series of original solutions: the body of the plane made of one central aluminum tubing which carried all the other elements; low centre of gravity placed under the wings, which gave a good stability; use of two coaxial propellers with counteracting torque; landing gears with independent wheels; variable profile wings; extremely low overall weight. He made several test fights and demonstrations with the Vlaicu II in Bucharest, Blaj, Sibiu, Bras, ov, Ias, i, Ploies, ti, Lugoj, Or˘as, tie, Alba Iulia, Târgu Mures, (1910–1912). He made improvements to the Vlaicu II and designed a new airplane, Vlaicu III, with a metal cooling ring around the engine cylinder. He crashed with the Vlaicu II while attempting to fly over the Carpathians to participate in the ASTRA celebrations in Or˘as, tie (1913). Organisation memberships: Post Mortem Member of the Romanian Academy since 28 October 1948. Awards and medals: Gheorghe Laz˘ar Award of the Romanian Academy (1912).

Romanian Personalities in the Field of Engineering

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VOINEA Radu (24 May 1923, Craiova—11 May 2010, Bucharest). Construction engineer. Studies: Frat, ii Buzes, ti Secondary School, Craiova; Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest (1946); Doctorate (1949); Docent (1963). Teaching activity: Assistant Professor (1947–1949); Lecturer (1949–1951); Associate Professor (1951–1963); Professor (1963–1993) at the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest and the Institute of Constructions in Bucharest; Visiting Professor at the Military Technical Academy of Bucharest (1995–2001), the Mircea cel B˘atrân Naval Academy and the Ovidius University in Constant, a. Positions: Vice-Rector (1964– 1967) and Rector (1972–1981) of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest; Rector of the Ioan I. Dalles Popular University in Bucharest (1984). Research achievements: He developed the method of independent cycles for determining the speed and acceleration of mechanisms; contributed to the study of elastic stability of suspension bridges and pipes for methane gas transportation; contributed to the determination of the tension state and the elastic stability of constructions with the help of their own vibrations; drew up an analogy between the great deformations of a straight beam and some results of the theory of special relativity; demonstrated the sufficiency of the principle of virtual mechanical work. Main works: Mecanica teoretic˘a (1958, 1963, 1968); Rezistent, a materialelor (1958); Metode analitice noi în teoria mecanismelor (1964); Mecanica (1975, 1983); Elasticitate s, i Plasticitate (1976); Vibrat, ii mecanice (1979); Introducere în mecanica solidului cu aplicat, ii în inginerie (1989); Technical Mechanics (1993); Elasticity and Plasticity (1994); Technische Mechanik (1995); Introducere în teoria sistemelor dinamice (2000). Organisation memberships: Full Member of the Romanian Academy since 1 March 1974 (Corresponding Member since 21 March 1963); President (1984–1990) and Secretary General (1967–1974) of the Romanian Academy; President of the Department of Technical Sciences (1983–1984, 1991–1993, 1998– 2008); founding member of the Romanian Academy of

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Technical Sciences (1997); Full member of the European Academy of Arts, Sciences and the Humanities (1987). Awards and medals: Doctor Honoris Causa of the Polytechnic University of Timis, oara (1996), of the University of Craiova (1996), the Gh. Asachi Technical University of Ias, i (1998), the Technical University of Constructions, Bucharest (1998), Petros, ani University (1999), Pites, ti University (1999), Dun˘area de Jos ¸ cel Mare UniverUniversity of Galat, i (2000), Stefan sity of Suceava (2000), Transilvania University of Bras, ov (2002), Ovidius University of Constant, a (2002), Bac˘au University (2003), Technical University of ClujNapoca (2004), and the Military Technical Academy of Bucharest (2004). VUIA Traian (30 August 1872, Surducu Mic, Timis, County—2 September 1950, Bucharest). Inventor. Pioneer of international aviation. Studies: Lugoj state school (1892); Polytechnic School of Bucharest (1892); Faculty of Law of the University of Budapest (1897); Doctor of Law (1901). Technical achievements: Patented the invention he called the ‘aeroplane automobile’ (an airplane-car) in Paris (1903). Designed and built the flying machine Vuia I (nicknamed the Bat) (1904–1906). The flying machine Vuia I flew for the first time on 18 March 1906 at Montesson, near Paris. The machine rose to a height of almost one meter and flew over a distance of 12 m, as the first flight of an object heavier than air, with its own equipment of launching, propulsion and landing. He built the model Vuia II (1907) with which he flew over a distance of 100 m. He patented and built a new model of high pressure steam generator (1925) and two helicopters (1918 and 1922). Organisation memberships: Honorary Member of the Romanian Academy since 27 May 1946.