Historical Dictionary of Norway [2 ed.] 9781538123119, 1538123118

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HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES OF EUROPE Jon Woronoff, Series Editor Greece, by Thanos M. Veremis and Mark Dragoumis. 1995. Romania, by Kurt W. Treptow and Marcel Popa. 1996. United Kingdom: Volume 1, England and the United Kingdom, by Kenneth J. Panton and Keith A. Cowlard. 1997. United Kingdom: Volume 2, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, by Kenneth J. Panton and Keith A. Cowlard. 1998. Hungary, by Steven Béla Várdy. 1997. Ireland, by Colin Thomas and Avril Thomas. 1997. Russia, by Boris Raymond and Paul Duffy. 1998. Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, by Zeljan Suster. 1999. Belgium, by Robert Stallaerts. 1999. Poland, 2nd edition, by George Sanford. 2003. Finland, 2nd edition, by George Maude. 2007. Belgium, 2nd edition, by Robert Stallaerts. 2007. Moldova, 2nd edition, by Andrei Brezianu and Vlad Spânu. 2007. Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2nd edition, by Ante Čuvalo. 2007. Modern Italy, 2nd edition, by Mark F. Gilbert and K. Robert Nilsson. 2007. Contemporary United Kingdom, by Kenneth J. Panton and Keith A. Cowlard. 2008. France, 2nd edition, by Gino Raymond. 2008. Cyprus, by Farid Mirbagheri. 2010. Austria, 2nd edition, by Paula Sutter Fichtner. 2009. Modern Greece, by Dimitris Keridis. 2009. Czech State, 2nd edition, by Rick Fawn and Jiří Hochman. 2010. Portugal, 3rd edition, by Douglas L. Wheeler and Walter C. Opello Jr. 2010. Croatia, 3rd edition, by Robert Stallaerts. 2010. Albania, 2nd edition, by Robert Elsie. 2010. Armenia, 2nd edition, by Rouben Paul Adalian. 2010. Kosovo, 2nd edition, by Robert Elsie. 2011. Lithuania, 2nd edition, by Saulius Sužiedėlis. 2011. Ukraine, 2nd edition, by Ivan Katchanovski, Zenon E. Kohut, Bohdan Y. Nebesio, and Myroslav Yurkevich. 2013. Ireland, new edition, by Frank A. Biletz. 2014. Slovakia, 3rd edition, by Stanislav J. Kirschbaum. 2014. Switzerland, 2nd edition, by Leo Schelbert. 2014. Bulgaria, 3rd edition, by Raymond Detrez. 2015. Georgia, 2nd edition, by Alexander Mikaberidze. 2015. Estonia, 2nd edition, by Toivo Miljan. 2015. Sweden, 3rd edition, by Elisabeth Elgán and Irene Scobbie. 2015. Netherlands, 3rd edition, by J. W. Koopmans. 2015. Iceland, 2nd edition, by Sverrir Jakobsson and Guđmunder Hálfdanarson. 2016. Denmark, 3rd edition, by Alastair H. Thomas. 2016. Contemporary Germany, by Derek Lewis with Ulrike Zitzlsperger. 2016. Latvia, 3rd edition, by Aldis Purs and Andrejs Plakans. 2017. Slovenia, 3rd edition, by Leopoldina Plut-Pregelj, Gregor Kranjc, Žarko Lazarević, and Carole Rogel. 2018. Spain, 3rd edition, by Angel Smith. 2018. Turkey, 4th edition, by Metin Heper, Duygu Öztürk-Tunçel, and Nur Bilge Criss. 2018. Belarus, 3rd edition, by Grigory Ioffe and Vitali Silitski. 2018.

Malta, 3rd edition, by Uwe Jens Rudolf. 2019. Russian Federation, 2nd edition , by Robert A. Saunders. 2019. North Macedonia, 2nd edition, by Dimitar Bechev. 2019. Norway, 2nd edition, by Terje Leiren and Jan Sjåvik. 2019.

Historical Dictionary of Norway Second Edition

Terje Leiren Jan Sjåvik

ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD Lanham • Boulder • New York • London

Published by Rowman & Littlefield An imprint of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowman.com 6 Tinworth Street, London SE11 5AL Copyright © 2019 by Terje Leiren and Jan Sjåvik All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Leiren, Terje I., author. | Sjå vik, Jan, author. Title: Historical dictionary of Norway / Terje Leiren, Jan Sjå vik. Description: Second edition. | Lanham, MD : Rowman & Littlefield, [2019] | Series: Historical dictionaries of Europe | Includes bibliographical references. Identifiers: LCCN 2019018668 (print) | LCCN 2019019570 (ebook) | ISBN 9781538123126 (electronic) | ISBN 9781538123119 (cloth : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Norway—History—Dictionaries. Classification: LCC DL443 (ebook) | LCC DL443 .S63 2019 (print) | DDC 948.1003—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019018668

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.

Contents

Editor’s Foreword

ix

Preface

xi

Acronyms and Abbreviations

xiii

Map

xvii

Chronology

xix

Introduction

1

THE DICTIONARY

23

Appendix A: Norwegian Rulers

323

Appendix B: Norwegian Prime Ministers

327

Bibliography

329

About the Authors

363

vii

Editor’s Foreword

Modern Norway is not only an independent country, but it has remained adequately self-sufficient to not join the European Union, although it is a member of the European Free Trade Association, which has fewer and looser links with its partners. This is partly due to its long coastline for shipping and its rich mineral resources. This updated and expanded second edition of the Historical Dictionary of Norway is considerably larger than the first edition. The biggest changes are to the core dictionary section, which includes many new and updated entries on the politics, economy, and society of the country. Of particular interest are new entries on political parties, foreign affairs, and global warming. The second edition was written by Terje Leiren and is based on the first edition by Jan Sjåvik. Both authors were born in Norway before moving to the United States, where they pursued higher education and ultimately became professors. Terje Leiren has written on Sigurd Ibsen, and his most recent book is on the radical playwright Marcus Thrane. Jan Sjåvik has written on Knut Faldbakken, and he also wrote the Historical Dictionary of Scandinavian Literature and Theater. Between them, they have done an excellent job of presenting Norway, an unusual country that will hopefully continue living up to its reputation as one of the world’s happiest countries. Jon Woronoff Series Editor

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Norway is a small country on the northwestern edge of the European continent with a relatively small population but an international role that belies its size. Historically poor, Norway ranks second only to Ireland for the percentage of people lost to emigration during the 19th and early 20th centuries. During the 20th century, however, due to a confluence of factors such as the discovery of extensive oil and natural gas resources under its continental shelf and the development of an effective and efficient welfare state, Norwegians have become prosperous and happy. It is therefore a genuine honor and a pleasure to have been asked to update this Historical Dictionary of Norway. Building on the excellent earlier efforts of my former colleague, Jan Sjåvik, this volume has been greatly expanded with new as well as updated entries. I extend a special thanks to the historical dictionary series editor, Jon Woronoff, for his trust in me to complete this new edition. I also want to thank my wife, Ingunn, for her support during my work. The entries in the dictionary appear alphabetically according to the English alphabet rather than the Norwegian spelling. Consequently, æ and å are treated as if they were a, and ø is treated the same as o. In the dictionary section of the book, Norwegian-language titles are followed by parentheses that contain the year of publication as well as the English translation. The notation tr. before the title in English signifies that the English translation has been published with that title. Otherwise, titles were translated for the book. When a term has an entry of its own in the dictionary, the term appears in boldface the first time it is mentioned in an entry other than its own. Norway has two recognized official languages: Norwegian and Sami. Sami is a Finno-Ugric language group of 11 languages that are used in parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia. Three forms of Sami are spoken in Norway: North Sami, Lule Sami, and South Sami. Sami is spoken by an estimated 20,000 people, a majority of whom use North Sami. Norwegian is a northern Germanic language closely related to Swedish and Danish. There are two written standards of Norwegian: Bokmål and Nynorsk. They share much in common and are mutually intelligible, but they have two separate written standards. Bokmål is used by a large majority of Norwegians (87 percent) and is the form used in this book.

xi

Acronyms and Abbreviations

AIK

Demokratiske Sosialister (Democratic Socialists)

AKP

Arbeidernes kommunistparti (Workers’ Communist Party)

AUF

Arbeidernes Ungdomsfylking (youth division of the Labor Party)

Comintern

Communist International

DnA

Det norske Arbeiderparti (Norwegian Labor Party)

EC

European Community

ECSC

European Coal and Steel Community

EEA

European Economic Area

EEC

European Economic Community

EFP

Electric Furnace Products Company

EFTA

European Free Trade Association

EPI

Environmental Performance Index

ESA

EFTA Surveillance Agency

ETS

Emission Trading System

EU

European Union

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization

FrP

Fremskrittspartiet (Progress Party)

GATT

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

GNP

gross national product

GPF-G

Government Pension Fund-Global

ISAF

International Security Assistance Force

ISS

International Summer School

ITO

International Trade Organization

IWC

International Whaling Commission

IWW

International Workers of the World

KP

Kystpartiet (Coastal Party)

KrF

Kristelig Folkeparti (Christian Democratic Party) xiii

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

LO

Den faglige Landsorganisasjon (The National Trade Union Association)

MDG

Miljøpartiet de Grønne

MF

Menighetsfakultetet (Norwegian School of Theology)

MRA

Mutual Recognition Agreement

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NFF

Norges Fotballforbund

NIF

Norges Idrettsforbund

NKF

Norsk Kvindesagsforening (Norwegian Women’s Rights Association)

NKP

Norges Kommunistiske Parti (Norway’s Communist Party)

NORAD

Direktoratet for utviklingssamarbeid (Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation)

NRK

Norsk rikskringkasting (Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation)

NS

Nasjonal Samling (Norwegian National Socialist Party)

NSA

Norges Socialdemokratiske Arbeiderparti (Norway’s SocialDemocratic Labor Party)

NTNU

Norges Teknisk-Naturvitenskapelige Universitet (Norwegian Technical and Scientific University)

NUPI

Norsk Utenrikspolitisk Institutt (Norwegian Foreign Policy Institute)

OD

Oljedirektoratet (Oil Directorate)

OECD

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

OEEC

Organisation for European Economic Cooperation

PLO

Palestine Liberation Organization

RU

Rød Ungdom (Red Youth)

RV

Rød Valgallianse (Red Electoral Alliance)

SF

Sosialistisk Folkeparti (Socialist People’s Party)

Sp

Senterpartiet (Center Party)

SUF

Sosialistisk Ungdomsforbund (Socialist Youth Federation)

SUF (m-1)

Sosialistisk Ungdomsforbund (Marxist-leninistene) (Socialist Youth Federation [Marxist-Leninist])

SV

Sosialistisk Venstreparti (Socialist Left Party)

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

UN

United Nations

UNEFI

United Nations Emergency Force I

UNESCO

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNIFIL

United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon

UNTSO

United Nations Truce Supervision Organization

WCED

World Commission on Environment and Development

WHO

World Health Organization

WTO

World Trade Organization

•

xv

Map

xvii

Chronology

PREHISTORY (BEFORE 1030 CE) c. 10,000 BCE The first hunters arrive in Norway. c. 4000 BCE Early agriculture begins. c. 2000 BCE The earliest farms are established. c. 500 BCE Iron is becoming known and mined. c. 100 BCE There is contact between Norway and the Roman Empire. c. 200–600 CE The Migration period and the use of the older runes. 793 8 June: The attack on the monastery at Lindisfarne marks the documented beginning of the Viking period. 834 The date of the burial of the Oseberg ship. c. 872 The Battle at Hafrsfjord, won by King Harald Fairhair, marks the beginning of the unification of Norway. c. 931–33 The reign of King Eirik Bloodaxe. 933-c. 960 The reign of King Haakon the Good. 995–1000 The reign of King Olaf Tryggvason. 997 The town of Nidaros (later known as Trondheim) is established. 1015–28 The reign of King Olaf Haraldsson, later known as Saint Olaf.

FROM SAINT OLAF TO THE KALMAR UNION (1030–1397) 1030 29 July: King Olaf Haraldsson killed at the Battle of Stiklestad. c. 1050 The town of Oslo is established. 1066 25 September: King Harald Hardråde is defeated by Harold Godwinsson in the battle at Stamford Bridge in England. 1070 The town of Bergen is founded. c. 1125 The town of Stavanger is founded. xix

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1134 The Norwegian civil wars begin. 1152–53 Establishment of Norwegian archbishopric. Norway gets its own archbishop, located in Nidaros (Trondheim). 1177 Sverre Sigurdsson is accepted as king by the birkebeiner (birchleg) opposition. 1178 The birth of the Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson. 1184–1202 The reign of King Sverre Sigurdsson. 1196 King Sverre is crowned in Bergen. 1217–63 The reign of King Haakon IV Haakonsson. 1227 The civil wars end. 1257 Magnus Haakonsson is chosen as coruler with his father. 1260 Law on royal succession establishes hereditary monarchy. 1261 The wedding of Magnus Haakonsson and Ingebjørg, the daughter of the Danish king Erik Plogpenning, is held at the recently completed Haakon’s Hall in Bergen. 1262–64 Icelandic chieftains sign the “Old Covenant” and accept the authority of the king of Norway as ruler of Iceland. The end of the Icelandic Commonwealth brings Iceland under the Norwegian crown. 1263–80 The reign of King Magnus IV Haakonsson Lagabøte. 1274 King Magnus IV Haakonsson Lagabøte establishes his national code of law. 1276 King Magnus IV Haakonsson Lagabøte establishes his national code of law for cities. 1299 Completion of Akershus Fortress. As seat of royal residence, Oslo becomes capital of Norway. 1299–1319 The reign of King Haakon V Magnusson. 1302 First national assembly held in Oslo. 1319 Personal union of Norway with Sweden with agreement of common kingship under Magnus Eriksson. 1343 Haakon VI Magnusson becomes king of Norway in agreement between King Magnus Eriksson and the Norwegian council of the realm. 1349 The Black Death (bubonic plague) arrives in Bergen.

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c. 1360 A Hanseatic League trading post is established in Bergen. 1363 King Haakon VI Magnusson marries Margareta, daughter of Danish king Valdemar Atterdag. 1380 King Olaf IV Haakonsson, king of Denmark since 1376, succeeds to the throne of Norway. 1387 King Olaf IV dies without issue. Danish-Norwegian union begins. Margareta effective ruler of Denmark and Norway, but the council of the realm, consisting of Norwegian nobles and bishops, represents Norwegian interests.

THE KALMAR UNION (1397–1536) 1397 The beginning of the Kalmar Union as Margareta’s nephew and heir, Erik of Pomerania, is crowned king of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden. Margareta effective ruler. 1468 Orkney and Shetland Islands transferred to Scotland. 1503 12 August: The future King Christian III is born at Gottorp. 1513–24 The reign of King Christian II. 1520 8–10 November: The “Stockholm Bloodbath,” at which King Christian II has numerous Swedish officials and noblemen killed, effectively marks the end of Sweden’s participation in the Kalmar Union, although the formal end is in 1523. 1523 Olav Engelbrektsson is chosen archbishop of Norway and leader of the Norwegian council of the realm. Christian II removed from the throne, replaced by his uncle, Frederik I who becomes Norwegian king in 1524. 1524 The New Testament is translated into Danish. 1535 Olav Engelbrektsson has Vincents Lunge killed.

FROM THE REFORMATION TO THE END OF THE UNION WITH DENMARK (1536–1814) 1536 29 July: King Christian III takes control of Copenhagen, ending opposition to him in Denmark. 12 August: Three Roman Catholic bishops who are members of the council of the realm are arrested, which marks the begin-

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ning of the Protestant Reformation in Denmark and Norway. The Norwegian council of the realm is abolished, and Norway becomes a province of Denmark. 1537 Olav Engelbrektsson is forced to flee Norway. 1563–70 The Seven Years War of the North. 1588–1648 The reign of King Christian IV. 1611–13 The Kalmar War. 1612 26 August: A Norwegian farmer militia defeats Scottish mercenaries at the Battle of Kringen. 1618 The Thirty Years War begins. 1623 The Kongsberg silver mine is opened. 1624 17 August: Oslo is destroyed by fire, then moved and rebuilt outside the ramparts of the Akershus Fortress under the name Christiania. 1641 The town of Christiansand is established. 1643–45 The Hannibal Affair, a war against Sweden. 1644 Copper mine at Røros is opened. 1645 8 February: By signing the peace treaty at Brømsebro, Christian IV cedes Jemtland and Herjedalen to Sweden. 1648–70 The reign of King Frederik III. 1657–60 The Three Years War with Sweden, also called Carl Gustav wars. 1658 26 February: Treaty of Roskilde signed. Denmark-Norway is forced to transfer to Sweden one-third of its territory, including Skåne (including the island of Ven), Blekinge, Halland, Bornholm, Båhuslen, and Trøndelag (which then included Nordmøre and Romsdal). 1660 27 May: Treaty of Copenhagen signed. Territorial transfers from Treaty of Roskilde are affirmed, except that the island of Bornholm is returned to Denmark-Norway, as is Trøndelag (including Nordmøre and Romsdal). Sweden is exempted from the payment of the Sound Dues. As a consequence, in September, a coup d’état by King Frederik III eliminates the power of the noble council and establishes the absolute monarchy. 1663–66 The first census of Norwegian males is taken. 1665 14 November: The Royal Law (Kongeloven) is signed, codifying the hereditary absolute monarchy with evangelical Lutheranism as the state religion. Norway’s legal status changes from being a province in Denmark to

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being a separate kingdom under the king of Denmark-Norway. Absolute monarchy meant bureaucratic rule as government officials administered the state. 1670–99 The reign of King Christian V. 1675–79 The Gyldenløve Affair, a war against Sweden. 1684 3 December: Ludvig Holberg is born in Bergen. 1699–1730 The reign of King Frederik IV. 1700–1721 The Great Northern War. 1701 A census of all Norwegian males is taken. 1718 30 November: Swedish king Carl XII is killed during the siege of Fredriksten Fortress. Swedish forces subsequently withdraw from Norwegian territory. 1721 30 August: Treaty of Nystad between Sweden and Russia is signed, formally ending the Great Northern War and Sweden’s imperial era. 1730–46 The reign of King Christian VI. 1736 Confirmation is introduced, eventually leading to a system of public education. 1739 First decree relating to the public education of children. 1741 Second decree relating to the public education of children. 1746–66 The reign of King Frederik V. 1754 The last German Hansa merchant leaves Bergen. 1766–1808 The reign of King Christian VII. 1769 First full Norwegian population census carried out. 1786–88 Uprising led by Kristian Lofthus. 1789 Towns of Hammerfest and Vardø established in Finnmark. 1794 The town of Tromsø is established. 1791 Hans Nilsen Hauge begins his lay ministry. 1801 First Norwegian population census in which people are listed by name, age, occupation, and place of residence. 1807 The British destroy the Danish fleet at Copenhagen. Denmark-Norway joins the war on Napoleon’s side.

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1808 War against Sweden. 1808–14 The reign of King Frederik VI. 1811 The decision is made to establish a Norwegian university. 1813 Crown Prince Christian Frederik comes to Norway as viceroy. The Royal Fredrick University (University of Oslo) is opened for instruction.

THE UNION WITH SWEDEN (1814–1905) 1814 14 January: The Treaty of Kiel transfers Norway from Denmark to Sweden. 16 February: A meeting of 21 important citizens is held at Eidsvoll. 19 February: Summons issued for a constitutional assembly to meet at Eidsvoll. 24 March: Carsten Anker arrives in London to advocate for Norway’s independence. 10 April: The constitutional assembly convenes to begin writing a new constitution. 17 May: The completed Norwegian constitution is signed at Eidsvoll, and Christian Frederik is named king of Norway. 26 July: Crown Prince Karl Johan, the head of the Swedish armed forces, orders an attack on Norway. 14 August: An armistice is signed at Moss, preserving Norway’s constitution. 7 October: The Storting (Parliament) meets. 20 October: The Storting votes to enter into a union with Sweden. 4 November: The changes to the constitution necessitated by the union with Sweden are finalized, and the Storting formally accepts Christian Frederik’s abdication. Karl II (Karl XIII) of Sweden is elected king of Norway. 1815 17 May: The first celebration of the Eidsvoll Constitution of 1814 takes place in Trondheim. 15 August: The Act of Union between Norway and Sweden is sanctioned. The act contained 12 provisions dealing with the authority of the king, the relationship between the Norwegian and Swedish legislatures, and the cabinets of the two countries. 1816 14 June: The Bank of Norway is established by an act of the Storting. 1818–44 The reign of King Karl III Johan (Carl XIV Johan in Sweden). 1825 4 July: First organized emigration of 50 people leaves Norway for United States aboard vessel Restaurationen. 1827 Mellomriksloven, the law that governs trade relations between Norway and Sweden, initially established in 1815 and expanded in 1825, is given legal status. It remains in effect until 1897. 1837 Local self-government is introduced, allowing for elected parish councils, town councils, and county councils to deal with local affairs.

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1844–59 The reign of King Oscar I. 1848–51 Marcus Thrane’s trade union movement. 1854 Camilla Collett publishes the first part of Amtmandens Døttre, Norway’s first novel to deal with women’s issues. 1 September: The first public railroad in Norway, from Christiania to Eidsvoll, is opened. 1859–72 The reign of King Karl IV (Carl XV in Sweden). 1861 17 December: The government headed by Fredrik Stang Sr. is established. 1868 21 January: The Norwegian Trekking Association (Den Norske Turistforening) is founded to support tourism and travel in Norway. The association maintains numerous cabins in the Norwegian mountains and forests to aid hikers and campers. 1869 Annual sessions of the Storting are begun. 1872–1905 The reign of King Oscar II. 1873 The position of vice regent (stattholder) is abolished in favor of a prime minister as the head of the Norwegian government. 1875 Norway adopts the metric system of measurement. 1880 9 June: The Storting declares that its vote in favor of a separate Norwegian consular service has the force of law in spite of the king’s refusal to sign it. 11 October: Christian August Selmer’s government is formed. 1883–84 Impeachment proceedings against the Selmer government by the Storting over the issue of the king’s right of veto over an act of the Storting. 1884 28 January: The Norwegian Liberal Party is established. 1 March: Selmer resigns as prime minister after his government is impeached, convicted, and forced to leave office. 3 April: Christian Homann Schweigaard’s “April government” is formed but is forced to resign under threat of new impeachment proceedings. 26 June: Johan Sverdrup appointed prime minister. First government to serve with the support of the majority of the Storting. Principle of parliamentarism is established. 25 August: The Norwegian Conservative Party is established. 1887 21 August: The Norwegian Labor Party is established. 1888 The Moderate Liberal Party is established when low-church, conservative members break away from the Liberal Party. 1889 13 July: Emil Stang’s first government is formed. Seven years of compulsory education for all children is established.

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1891 6 March: Johannes Steen’s first government is formed. The Liberal Party proposes that Norway should have a separate minister of foreign affairs. 1892 22 June: The law establishing a separate Norwegian consular service is presented to King Oscar II, who refuses to sign it, after which the Norwegian government resigns. 26 July: The Storting meets and asks the government to withdraw its resignation. 1893 2 May: Emil Stang’s second government is formed. 1895 11 May: The Swedish parliament rescinds the law (Mellomriksloven) regulating trade between Sweden and Norway, effective in 1897. 17 May: The Swedish parliament allots additional money for the Swedish armed forces, showing that a war with Norway is expected. 7 June: The Storting proclaims its willingness to negotiate with Sweden about the consular service issue. 1898 17 February: Johannes Steen’s second government is formed. Universal suffrage for men is established. 1901 10 December: Norwegian Nobel Committee awards the first Nobel Peace Prize to Jean Henri Dunant and Frederic Passy. 1902 21 April: Otto Albert Blehr’s first government is formed. 1903 The United Party is established. 22 October: Francis Hagerup’s government is formed. 10 December: Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson becomes first Norwegian to win Nobel Prize in Literature. 1905 1 March: The government headed by Francis Hagerup resigns, paving the way for Christian Michelsen’s government. 11 March: Christian Michelsen’s government is formed. 15 March: Michelsen tells the Storting that his task is both to give Norway its own constitutionally authorized consular service and to show that Norway is a sovereign and independent nation. 5 April: Sweden offers to negotiate with Norway. 27 May: The consular service bill is presented to King Oscar II, who refuses to sign it, after which the Norwegian government resigns. King Oscar refuses to accept the resignation, stating that he cannot “now” form a new government. 7 June: The Storting declares that since Norway must have a government and because the king has not arranged for a new government to be formed, he has ceased to function as the king of Norway. Because the union with Sweden is a personal union, with no king, there is no union. The union with Sweden is therefore declared to be dissolved. Along with the announcement of the dissolution and the removal of the king, the Storting invites a younger member of the Bernadotte family to become king of Norway. Sweden rejects the offer. 21 June: The Swedish parliament meets to consider Norway’s actions. 23 July: Sweden

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states its willingness to accept the dissolution of the union subject to a Norwegian referendum and negotiations about the details of the settlement between the two countries. 13 August: The Norwegian people vote overwhelmingly in favor of dissolution. 31 August: Negotiations begin in Karlstad. 23 September: The agreement concerning the details of the dissolution is signed. 18 November: Following a referendum, Prince Carl of Denmark is elected king of Norway by the Storting. 25 November: King Haakon VII arrives in Norway with his family.

FROM INDEPENDENCE TO THE END OF WORLD WAR II (1905–45) 1905–57 The reign of King Haakon VII. 1906 23 May: Playwright Henrik Ibsen dies. 22 June: Haakon VII and Queen Maud are crowned at the Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim. 1906–09 Debates over Concession Laws regarding national control over natural resources such as forests, rivers, mines, and waterfalls. 1907 4 September: Composer Edvard Grieg dies. 23 October: Jørgen Løvland’s government is formed. Great Britain, France, Germany, and Russia sign an agreement guaranteeing the integrity of Norway’s national borders. 1908 19 March: Gunnar Knudsen’s first government is formed. 1909 The Liberal Left Party is formed. Laws concerning the licensing of rights to exploit Norwegian national resources are passed. 27 November: Bergen–Oslo railroad line opened. 1910 2 February: Wollert Konow’s government is formed. 15 September: The Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH) is opened in Trondheim. 1911 4 December: Premier of Norway’s first feature film, Under forvandlingens lov (According to the Laws of Transfiguration), an erotic melodrama. 14 December: Roald Amundsen and his expedition team become the first persons to reach the South Pole. 1912 The Norwegian Theater (Det Norske teatret) is founded in Oslo by Hulda Garborg and Edvard Drabløs. The first official performance is Ludvig Holberg’s Jeppe paa Bjerget (Jeppe on the Mountain). 20 February: Jens Bratlie’s government is formed. 1913 31 January: Gunnar Knudsen’s second government is formed. 7 June: Universal suffrage for women is established.

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1914–18 Norway remains neutral during World War I. 1916 The sale of liquor is prohibited. 1917 The sale of strong wine is prohibited. 1918 The Norwegian Labor Party declares its commitment to revolution as a means of social change. 1920 9 February: Norway is granted sovereignty over Spritsbergen (Svalbard) by the League of Nations. 21 June: Otto Bahr Halvorsen’s first government is formed. The Agrarian Party is formed. The Norwegian Labor Party joins the Communist International (Comintern). Norway joins the League of Nations. 10 December: Knut Hamsun is awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. 1921 22 June: Otto Albert Blehr’s second government is formed. Norway’s Social Democratic Labor Party is formed as a protest to the Labor Party joining the Comintern. 10 December: Norwegian Christian Lange shares Nobel Peace Prize with Swede Hjalmar Branting. 1922 10 December: Fridtjof Nansen awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Oslo. 1923 6 March: Otto Bahr Halvorsen’s second government is formed. 30 May: Abraham Berge’s government is formed. The Norwegian Communist Party is formed. The prohibition against the sale of strong wine is rescinded. 1924 25 July: Johan Ludwig Mowinckel’s first government is formed. 1925 1 January: City of Christiania reclaims its original name and becomes Oslo. 29 April: First radio broadcast in Norway (Oslo) by a private radio corporation, the Broadcasting Corporation (Kringkastingsselskapet). Other local radio stations were established in Bergen (1925), Tromsø (1926), and Ålesund (1927). 14 August: Norwegian sovereignty over the Arctic island group of Svalbard is established as Svalbard Treaty takes effect. 1926 5 March: Ivar Lykke’s government is formed. The prohibition against the sale of liquor is rescinded. 11–14 May: Roald Amundsen becomes the first person over the North Pole in an airship in flight from Svalbard to Teller, Alaska. 1928 28 January: The first Labor Party government is formed, led by Christopher Hornsrud. 15 February: Johan Ludwig Mowinckel’s second government is formed. 10 December: Sigrid Undset is awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for the trilogy Kristin Lavransdatter. 1929 8 May: Norway annexes the North Atlantic volcanic island of Jan Mayen.

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1931 12 May: Peder L. Kolstad’s government is formed. 1932 14 March: Jens Hundseid’s government is formed. 1933 3 March: Johan Ludwig Mowinckel’s third government is formed. 17 May: The National Socialist Party (Nasjonal Samling) is established under Vidkun Quisling. 1 July: The Norwegian National Broadcasting Corporation (NRK) is established as a government-owned broadcasting entity. 24 July: Norwegian Storting (Parliament) grants NRK monopoly on radio broadcasting in Norway. Private broadcasting ends. 4 September: The Christian Democratic Party (Kristelig folkeparti) is formed. 1935 20 March: Johan Nygaardsvold’s government is established. The crisis agreement between the Agrarian Party and the Labor Party is made. 1936 National old-age pension introduced. 13 August: Norwegian national soccer team wins bronze medal at Berlin Summer Olympic Games with a 3–2 victory over Poland. 1937 21 February: First Norwegian-born heir to the throne since the Middle Ages, Prince Harald, is born. 29 May: Sola Airport in Stavanger is opened. 1938 14 January: Norway claims Queen Maud Land in Antarctica. 20 November: Queen Maud dies. 1939 Norway, along with Sweden and Finland, rejects German’s offer of a nonaggression pact. 1 June: Oslo airport at Fornebu is opened. September 1: World War II begins when Germany attacks Poland. Norway declares its neutrality. 1940 16 February: In the Altmark Affair, the German supply ship Altmark is attacked by British forces in Norwegian territorial waters, violating Norwegian neutrality. 8 April: The Norwegian government is notified that the British have laid mines in Norwegian territorial waters. 9 April: Germany invades Norway. Vidkun Quisling declares that he is Norway’s new prime minister and names his first government. April 10: King Haakon refuses to appoint Quisling prime minister. 17 April: An administrative council is established in Oslo. 5 May: Norwegian resistance in southern Norway ceases. 7 June: King Haakon and the government leave Tromsø for England. 25 September: Josef Terboven establishes a provisional government with Quisling as the head. The administrative council is abolished. All political parties except the Norwegian National Socialist Party (NS) are dissolved.

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1941 4 March: British commandos conduct raids on the Lofoten Islands, destroying fish oil tanks at Stamsund, Henningsvær, and Svolvær while capturing 228 German prisoners of war. In addition, a set of rotor wheels for an Enigma cipher machine and codebooks are captured. 10 September: Terboven declares martial law in Oslo. 1942 1 February: Quisling establishes his second government. 13 March: Quisling restores the “Jewish paragraph,” which had been abolished in 1851, to the Norwegian constitution, denying Jewish entry into Norway. 15 April: Norwegian teachers arrested for refusing to teach Nazi curriculum are sent to forced labor camps in Kirkenes. 26 November: Mass deportation of 532 Norwegian Jews sent aboard the SS Donau to Germany. A total of 772 Jews are deported during the war, 767 to Auschwitz. Only 31 survive. Of Norway’s nearly 1,800 Jews, approximately 1,000 escape capture. 1943 27–28 February: In one of the most significant sabotage actions in World War II (Operation Gunnerside), Norwegian saboteurs blow up the heavy water cells at the Norsk Hydro factory in Telemark. 1944 20 April: Dutch ammunition transport ship Voorbode explodes in the inner harbor of Bergen, killing 160 people and destroying homes and public buildings. 25 October: Kirkenes is liberated by Soviet troops. As Germans retreat west through Finnmark to Troms County, they carry out a “scorched earth” policy ordered by Hitler. German fire patrols destroy 11,000 houses, 6,000 farms, 27 churches, 21 hospitals, 106 schools, 306 fish factories, and 350 bridges, laying waste the entire county of Finnmark and displacing more than 50,000 people. 1945 8 May: The German forces in Norway capitulate. 7 June: King Haakon returns after five years in exile. 24 October: Vidkun Quisling is executed at the Akershus Fortress.

THE POSTWAR ERA (1945–2018) 1945 25 June: Einar Gerhardsen’s first government is formed. 5 November: Einar Gerhardsen’s second government is formed. 1945–52 Quotas and rationing are in force. 1946 1 March: The National Housing Bank (Den Norske Stats Husbank) is established. 9 April: The University of Bergen is established.

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1947 Norway joins the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The Kon-Tiki expedition of Thor Heyerdal takes place to prove that preColumbian people from South America could have settled Polynesia. 6 June: State Bank for Educational Loans established. 1948 Norway joins the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC). 1949 4 April: Norway becomes charter member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). 1951 19 November: Oscar Torp’s government is formed. 1952 Norway, Denmark, Iceland, and Sweden agree to form a consultative interparliamentary body which becomes the Nordic Council. The passport requirement between the Nordic countries is eliminated. 14–25 February: Winter Olympic Games are held in Oslo. December: The leftist political weekly paper Orientering (Orientation) is started. Editorial policy is critical of NATO membership and Western capitalism. It is absorbed by Ny Tid in 1975. 1953 13 February: The Nordic Council holds its first session in the Danish parliament. 1955 22 January: Einar Gerhardsen’s third government is formed. 1957 25 March: The Treaty of Rome establishes the European Economic Community (EEC), later renamed the European Union (EU). 1957–91 The reign of King Olav V. 1960 Norway joins the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Private automobiles are no longer rationed. 20 August: Television broadcasting begins. 1961 The Socialist People’s Party is formed. 1962 Norway considers joining the EEC. 7 June: The Nordland Railway line between Trondheim and Bodø is opened. 5 November: The Kings Bay mine accident in Svalbard kills 21 workers. 1963 28 August: John Lyng’s government is formed. 25 September: Einar Gerhardsen’s fourth government is formed. 1964 14 September: Tromsø airport opened. 1965 12 October: Per Borten’s government is formed. 1967 National Social Security Authority (Folketrygden) is established. Norway considers initial application for membership in the EEC.

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1968 The Norwegian Technological and Scientific University (NTNU) is established in Trondheim. The University of Tromsø is founded. 1969 The Socialist Youth Federation breaks away from its mother party, the Socialist People’s Party. Nine years of schooling becomes mandatory nationwide. 24 December: Phillips Petroleum makes first oil discovery in the North Sea. 1970 Norway applies for membership in the European Community (EC). 1972 25 September: In a referendum, Norway votes not to join the EC. The New Left People’s Party is formed. Bronze Age rock carvings at Alta are discovered. 1973 16 October: Trygve Bratteli’s second government is formed. Anders Lange’s Party is formed. The Workers’ Communist Party is formed. 22 November: Oil crisis hits Norway, gas stations closed on weekends. 5 December: Ban on driving cars on weekends in effect. 1975 The Socialist Left Party is formed. Advertising of alcohol and tobacco products is prohibited. 1976 5 January: Odvar Nordli’s government is formed. 1977 The Reform Party (Anders Lange’s Party) is renamed the Progress Party. 1979 Bryggen and Urnes stave churches are designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. 1980 27 March: Norwegian oil platform Alexander Kielland collapses in the North Sea, killing 123 of a crew of 212. Norway population exceeds 4 million. 1981 Norway becomes the first country to enact a law outlawing discrimination against homosexuals. 4 February: Gro Harlem Brundtland’s first government is formed. 14 October: Kåre Willoch’s first government is formed. 1983 8 June: Kåre Willoch’s second government is formed. 1984 1 September: NRK P2 begins radio broadcasts from Trondheim. 1986 9 May: Gro Harlem Brundtland’s second government is formed. 1989 9 October: Opening of the Sami parliament of Norway in Karasjok. 16 October: Jan P. Syse’s government is formed. 1990 3 November: Gro Harlem Brundtland’s third government is formed. 1991 17 January: King Olav V dies. The reign of King Harald V begins.

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1992 5 September: First national commercial television station, TV2, begins broadcasting. 22 November: Norway applies for membership in the European Union (EU). 1994 12–27 February: The Winter Olympics take place in Lillehammer. 28 November: A second referendum rejects Norwegian membership in the EU. 1995 6 March: Brønnøysunds Avis becomes Norway’s first online newspaper. 1996 25 October: Thorbjørn Jagland’s government is formed. 1997 17 October: Kjell Magne Bondevik’s first government is formed. 1999 The Coastal Party is formed. 2000 7 March: Jens Stoltenberg’s first government is formed. 2001 9 October: Kjell Magne Bondevik’s second government is formed. December: Norwegian armed forces attached to the International Security Assistance Force (IASF) join the U.S.-led mission in Afghanistan. 2004 22 August: Two of Edvard Munch’s most famous paintings, Scream and Madonna, are stolen from the Munch Museum in Oslo by armed robbers. 2005 1 January: The University of Stavanger is founded. 17 October: Jens Stoltenberg’s second government is formed. 2006 9 November: The United Nations (UN) ranks Norway as the world’s most livable country for the sixth year in a row. 2007 11 March: The left-wing party Red is formed by an alliance between the former Workers’ Communist Party (AKP) and the Red Electoral Alliance (RV). The constitution is amended to eliminate the bicameral division of the Storting. 2008 26 February: The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is opened near Longyearbyen in the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard. 12 April: Oslo opera house officially opened. 11 June: Same-sex marriage legalized by parliament. 2009 Jens Stoltenberg’s third government is formed. 2010 10 December: The Nobel Peace Prize is awarded by the Norwegian Nobel Committee to Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo. Relations with China are negatively affected.

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2011 22 July: The deadliest attack in Norway since World War II occurs when right-wing terrorist Anders Behring Breivik sets off a car bomb outside government buildings in central Oslo, killing eight people, and, two hours later, carries out the mass murder of 69 young people at a Labor Party summer youth camp on the island of Utøya. 2012 Norway wins four Olympic medals at the London Summer Games, including two gold (women’s handball and men’s 100-meter canoeing). The Church of Norway separates from the State. 2013 16 October: Erna Solberg forms her first government in a Center-Right coalition of the Conservative and Progress political parties. 2014 1 October: Former Norwegian prime minister Jens Stoltenberg is appointed to be secretary general of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). 2015 30–31 January: The inaugural World Woman Festival of Art and Activism is held in Oslo. 2016 12–22 February: Norway hosts the 2016 Youth Winter Olympic Games in Lillehammer. The population of Norway reaches 5.2 million, surpassing the 5 million mark for the first time. 2017 Erna Solberg forms her second government in a Center-Right coalition. Norway is voted the “World’s Happiest Country” by the Sustainable Development Solutions Network for the United Nations. 2018 1 January: The 130-year-old system of a 10-member jury system is replaced with a new judicial structure featuring three professional judges and four lay judges in which at least five of the judges must vote for convictions, including at least one of the professional judges. All seven judges must agree in cases with maximum jail terms longer than six years. A new and larger county of Trøndelag is established with the unification of two previous counties: Sør-Trøndelag and Nord-Trøndelag. 17 January: The Erna Solberg government adds three Liberal Party representatives to the governing ministerial cabinet. 9–25 February: Norway wins 39 medals at the Winter Olympic Games in Pyeongchang, South Korea, setting the record for the most medals won by a country at a single Winter Olympics. 15 March: Tone Wilhelmsen Trøen sworn in as president (Speaker) of the Norwegian parliament (Storting). 21 October: Joachim Rønneberg, the last surviving member of the Telemark heavy water saboteurs during World War II, dies.

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2019 1 January: Renowned Lofoten artist and illustrator Dagfinn Bakke dies. 22 January: Erna Solberg government adds three members of the Christian Democratic Party to the governing ministerial cabinet. The coalition government now consists of four parties: the Conservative Party, the Progress Party, the Liberal Party, and the Christian Democratic Party.

Introduction

One of the smallest countries in Europe, Norway has created for itself a position in the world community that is completely out of proportion to the size of its population. Originally the home of sub-Arctic hunters and gatherers, then of ferocious Vikings, it lost more than half of its population to the Black Death in the years 1349–1351, ended up in a union with Denmark that lasted until 1814, and then became united with Sweden, gaining complete independence in 1905. Over the centuries, the Norwegians eked out a meager living from stony fields and treacherous seas while suffering through hunger, darkness, and cold, but in the summertime, they enjoyed the perpetual light and sunshine of some of the world’s most beautiful natural surroundings. At times they were also blessed with the abundance provided by the sea, their ever-present companion, as migrating schools of herring and other fish provided the food on their tables and commodities that could be exchanged for precious grain. The contrasts between light and darkness, calm and storm, plenty and poverty that characterize traditional life in Norway are also reflected in the historical development of its culture, society, and economy. While struggling toward a level of social and economic justice exemplified hardly anywhere else at the time, Norway produced writers and artists who created some of the most magnificent art and literature ever viewed or read. Works by Henrik Ibsen, Sigrid Undset, Knut Hamsun, Edvard Munch, and Gustav Vigeland are known and loved all over the world. After grasping the opportunity to frame one of history’s most liberal constitutions in 1814, the people of Norway worked hard to combat poverty and ignorance as the freedoms enshrined in the constitution blossomed into a genuinely egalitarian democracy where caring for the weaker members of society seemed as natural as trying to rescue a fellow fisherman from the hull of a capsized boat. Some of the milestones along the road to Norway’s version of the good life are the introduction of parliamentarism in 1884, productive use of such natural resources as hydroelectric power, the creation of a genuine social-democratic alternative to the brutality of unfettered market forces, and the successful defense against the inhuman totalitarian conception of social relations visited upon peace-loving Norwegians during World War II. It is perhaps the personal experience of struggle and hardship that has motivated the people of Norway to seek solutions to common problems and resolve conflicts through diplomatic activity and international cooperation. Since achieving complete independence in 1905, Norway has participated in 1

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and provided leadership to the League of Nations and the United Nations (UN), as well as defense pacts and trade organizations. While not a member of the European Union (EU), Norway makes a sizable contribution to the budget of the EU through its membership in the European Economic Area (EEA), thus showing that they are truly Europeans at heart. To some observers, it has seemed paradoxical that Norway, with its record of involvement in the international community, would show reluctance to join the European Union. Some have explained its lack of enthusiasm for membership with reference to the tremendous wealth of oil and natural gas that Norway has obtained from its traditional fishing grounds along the coast since the 1970s, which has allowed the country to create a gigantic pension fund exceeding $1 trillion. Norway’s negative associations with historically dominant partners in the unions with Denmark and Sweden also appear to have played a role in the lack of enthusiasm to join the European Union. Experience has taught Norwegians the value of caution, and it may well be that their slow approach to European integration is motivated primarily by the value they find in their egalitarian and democratic society rather than the oil that has transformed their economy and made them some of the richest people in the world.

LAND AND PEOPLE Norway is located on the north end and the west side of the Scandinavian Peninsula, bordering on Russia, Finland, and Sweden. The coastline faces the Barents Sea in the Arctic, the North Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, and the Skagerrak off the southern coast. In addition to mainland Norway, the country includes the island groups of Jan Mayen and Svalbard in the North Atlantic, Bouvet Island in the South Atlantic, and Peter I Island and Queen Maud Land in the Antarctic. Mainland Norway covers 385,180 square kilometers and had a population of 5,338,212 as of 1 January 2019, which gives it a population density of approximately 17 individuals per square kilometer. On average, Norwegian women live until they are 84.2 years old, while the average Norwegian male lives to the age of 80.6. Norwegians are highly productive and in 2016 had a gross domestic product (GDP) of NOK 3.113 billion (US$389 billion) or $69,400 per capita (in comparison, the CIA World Factbook estimates the U.S. GDP per capita for 2016 as $57,600). Because Norway is a long, mountainous country, travel has historically been difficult there. The distance from the capital, Oslo, to Norway’s northernmost point is roughly equivalent to the distance from Oslo to Milan, Italy. Travel has historically been even more challenging because the country is broken up by numerous fjords and interior valleys separated by tall mountains. There is a

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good reason the name Norway refers to the ancient maritime way north that was followed by ships, which, owing to Norway’s many skerries and islands, could travel inside a protected passage along most of the coast. The broken-up surface has also had consequences for such features of Norwegian life as settlement patterns and regional and local dialects. Less than 3 percent of Norway’s surface is arable land, and only three regions, eastern Norway, the district of Jæren to the south of the city of Stavanger, and the area around Trondheim, have significant extents of reasonably level farmland. Elsewhere, most farmland is steep or broken up into small fields by numerous outcroppings of bedrock. There are two official languages in Norway, Norwegian and Sami (formerly Lapp). In the northern counties of Troms and Finnmark, Sami is recognized as an official language and is most commonly used by the ethnic Sami, descendants of Norway’s indigenous people. There are two forms of spoken and written Norwegian: Bokmal (book language) and Nynorsk (New Norwegian). Bokmal is used by a large majority of Norwegians, while Nynorsk is most commonly used in the western part of the country. Norwegian has historically been broken up into a large number of dialects, as phonology, grammar, and lexicon changed over time in small and isolated communities. A detailed map of Norwegian dialects reveals that often there will be an isogloss (a boundary line between places that differ in a particular linguistic feature) that runs right through a community with only a few hundred inhabitants. While all Norwegian dialects are mutually intelligible, some differ more from each other than do the national languages Norwegian and Swedish. The great distance from north to south and the differences between coastal and inland climates account for significant variations. Almost half of Norway, in terms of its length, lies north of the Arctic Circle. In the 1990s the average annual temperature in Oslo was 6.4 degrees Celsius, while it was only 2.5 in Tromsø. There is generally more snow in the inland than on the coast and more snow farther north than farther south. It can be much colder in the interior valleys of southern Norway than on the coast of northern Norway, however, as a branch of the Gulf Stream has a significant moderating effect on the coastal climate. Many people think of the midnight sun when they think of Norway. At the Arctic Circle there will be approximately three months during the summer when there is no darkness at night, and there will be roughly four hours of daylight at the time of the winter solstice. The extremes are greater the farther north one goes. Some people also wonder how it is possible to get a good night’s sleep when it is light outside. Natives seem to have no problems getting enough sleep, although it is not necessarily had during the time that most people are habituated to thinking of as the night, and one can always take a nap when it is raining.

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Historically, there have been two broad population groups in Norway, the Sami and the ethnic Norwegians. The Sami are known traditionally as nomadic reindeer herders in the interior of northern Scandinavia, but many Sami people have lived as fishermen, hunters, and small farmers along the fjords of northern Norway. The Sami have been gradually displaced by ethnic Norwegians over the past several hundred years. Norway is also inhabited by a small minority of ethnic Finns. Norway’s immigrant population (immigrants and children born to two immigrant parents) in 2017 consisted of 16.8 percent of the total population. One-quarter of all immigrants and children born to immigrant parents live in Oslo. Norway is increasingly urban, as demonstrated by the fact that 80 percent of Norwegians lived in urban areas in 2017, an increase from 50 percent since the end of World War II.

HISTORICAL SURVEY Ancient Norway The first known Norwegians lived along the coast as far back as 10,000 BCE, when the last ice age was drawing to a close. It is probable that they came from the North Sea continent, the landmass that connected present-day England with Denmark and southern Sweden, and that they reached Norway by crossing the frozen sea between the now submerged continent and the Norwegian coast. They were hunters in pursuit of reindeer but also lived on seals, whales, and fish. As the inland ice in Norway retreated, some of them followed the reindeer herds into the interior plateau, while others spread out along the coast. They were most likely dressed in skins of various kinds and used tools made from bone, flint, quartz, and quartzite. They lived in caves and tents, and some of them built turf huts. A seafaring people, they had boats made from skins and later from hollowed-out logs. Few in number, they most likely traveled in groups consisting of just a few families but probably had frequent contact with other small bands, with whom they intermarried. Their average life expectancy was probably less than 30 years. People buried their dead, and the rock carvings attest to religious beliefs that were closely connected with their need for success in hunting and fishing. As the climate grew warmer, the conditions of life gradually changed, but hunting, fishing, and gathering remained the people’s source of food for the next 6,000 years. As agriculture arrived in Norway in approximately 4000 BCE, growing barley and oats and keeping sheep and cattle functioned as supplements to hunting and gathering. The ground was not properly cultivated, as the early hunter-farmers simply burned off the vegetation in welldrained spots and sowed directly in the ashes, moving frequently as the

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fertility of the fields was quickly exhausted. Two thousand years later, the first primitive farms emerged, as people learned to clear the fields of stones and roots, loosen the soil, and use animal manure as fertilizer. While hunting, fishing, and gathering were still important, they now became supplements to farming and animal husbandry. Changes in social organization accompanied the economic developments, as the population was more firmly tied to their home ground, lived in reasonably stable communities that were larger than those of the earlier hunters, and gradually developed the concept of ownership of land. This agricultural revolution is probably the greatest social and economic change experienced by people living in Norway. The early farmers still used tools made primarily of stone, bone, and wood, while, after approximately 1500 BCE, some objects made of bronze appeared. Iron became known in Norway in approximately 500 BCE, and its source was primarily bogs. A few hundred years later, people learned how to harden it and fashion such iron tools as axes and scythes. By approximately 100 BCE, contact had been established between Norway and the Roman Empire, and the first written sources of information appeared about life among the people in the northern latitudes. Norwegian life most likely continued much as before, but the archeological material attests to increased social stratification, with rich and powerful chieftains occupying strategic places along the coast. While religious beliefs and practices appear to be similar to the fertility cults of the past, there is now also evidence of human sacrifice. During the first centuries CE, there is proof of significant population growth, largely caused by the settlement of migrating Germanic tribes moving into the Nordic region. New farms were established in the outskirts of the older ones, and the fields of the early farms were divided into smaller holdings so that local communities arose. It is generally understood that the settlement patterns established in these centuries, such as the building of the Iron Age longhouses and the introduction of the older Futhark written language, served as a foundation for a growing population. This is also most likely the time of the first local assemblies held for the purpose of administering justice and carrying out public worship. Between 400 and 600 CE, however, there was also much warfare, as whole tribes migrated, and the existing population groups had to band together to defend themselves. As the Migration period waned and the Viking age dawned, the number of both archeological and documentary sources increased. While the former period must be interpreted with caution and the latter may be suspected of bias because they were written mostly by medieval Christians, to whom the ancient Norwegians were people with barbaric beliefs, they nevertheless attest to a complicated religion in which sacrifices to both male and female fertility

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deities played a central role. Human sacrifice was also practiced, as shown by some tapestries found with the Oseberg ship and dating to the decades before the year 834 CE. By the time the Oseberg burial took place, however, the Viking period had already begun, and Norwegians fanned out across northern Europe. The earliest recorded Viking raid occurred on a monastery located on the island of Lindisfarne just off the coast of Northumbria in northeast England. The attack, recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, took place in the year 793 CE and led to much consternation among medieval monks and priests. Largescale expeditions as well as isolated raids followed, particularly in Scotland, Ireland, and England, but there were also voyages that had trade and colonization as their aims. Norwegian Vikings went not only to such islands of the North Atlantic as the Orkneys, Shetland, and the Faroes but also to Iceland, Greenland, and North America. Norwegian Vikings established a strong presence in Ireland, where the most important settlement was Dublin, founded by Vikings around 841 CE. Their ships were long and had a shallow draft, which made them ideal for hit-and-run attacks, as they could easily operate in shallow coastal waters and estuaries, but they were also sturdy enough to carry people and goods across the North Sea and across the North Atlantic. Around the year 874 CE, Norwegian Vikings began the settlement of Iceland where, in the year 930 CE, they established a national assembly (Althing) patterned after the local assemblies with which they were familiar in Norway, most notably the Gulathing. In this same time period, the sagas tell of the efforts of Harald Fairhair to bring the entire country under his control as the first recognized king of a unified Norway. Christian missionaries, mostly from the archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen, were active throughout the Viking age, but with the conversion of several of the kings, Norway was eventually brought into the community of Christian nations. Through the efforts of King Olav II Haraldsson, later Saint Olaf, the organized church began to put down roots, but it was not until after his death at the Battle of Stiklestad on 29 July 1030 that Norway officially became a Christian country. The end of the Viking age is generally set at 1066, when King Harald Hardråde, a half-brother of Saint Olaf, was killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in northern England in the last documented Viking raid outside of Scandinavia. Christianity Arrives The first Norwegian king who is known to have subscribed to the new religion was Haakon the Good, the youngest son of Harald Fairhair. According to the sagas, Harald had fathered Haakon when he was almost 70 years old, and the mother was a young woman named Tara Mosterstong. King Harald saw to it that the boy stayed with his mother while he was little, and

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mother and son moved around with Harald as he traveled from place to place, living on his royal farms and exacting hospitality from the local people. Later King Harald sent Haakon to be fostered by King Athelstan of England, who taught him the Christian religion. When Haakon later returned to Norway, people were drawn to him and helped him drive off his hated older brother, Eirik Bloodaxe, who fled first to the Orkneys and later settled in York in England where he ruled until 954. According to the sagas, King Haakon was friendly and brought good luck to the people. He kept his Christian mind-set, even though he abandoned the faith for political reasons. One of the genuine heroes of the sagas, he is portrayed as a remarkable person who would have liked to introduce Christianity to Norway but was prevented from doing so by the political realities of his time. The sagas present an equally heroic portrait of Olaf Tryggvason, the grandson of King Harald Fairhair, who, according to tradition, was hidden away as a baby because Gunhild, the wife of Eirik Bloodaxe, wanted to have him killed. Sold into slavery, Olaf and his mother were eventually freed and ended up in Russia, where Olaf grew up. After various adventures and a marriage to an Irish princess who died early, the widowed Olaf went to Norway to claim the kingdom for himself. Earl Haakon of Lade, near present-day Trondheim, who had at first shared control of Norway with the Danish king, Harald Bluetooth, had tried to conquer all of Norway from his base in Trøndelag, before he was murdered by a slave. Olaf realized the wisdom of having his headquarters as far from Denmark as was practical and settled down in Nidaros (later known as Trondheim), which he founded in 997. From this power base, he tried to both conquer and Christianize Norway. Although the local people were firm in their pagan beliefs, Olaf used ruthless methods and got many people to accept the new religion, including Leif Erikson, whom he sent to convert the settlers in Greenland. Olaf’s enemies combined against him and waylaid him at a place called Svolder, where he died in the year 1000. While the account of Olaf’s life given in the sagas is perhaps not always strictly accurate, archeological evidence shows that there was a growing Christian presence both in eastern and western Norway during his lifetime. The Christianization of Norway was completed by King Olaf II, Norway’s eternal king and patron saint. Olaf had grown up in eastern Norway and spent his youth on Viking raids, making it all the way to Jerusalem according to the Icelandic saga writer Snorri Sturluson. A dream showed him that he was to return to Norway to claim his kingdom, after which Olaf accepted Christianity and was baptized while in Normandy. Having fought Danish Vikings while in the service of the English king, he returned to Norway in 1015. For the last three generations, the Danish kings had controlled the area around the Oslo fjord and other parts of eastern Norway, while the kings and earls based in Trøndelag had governed northern Norway and the west coast. Through his

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father, Olaf felt that he had a claim on some of the Danish-controlled territory. In 1016, he defeated Earl Svein, whose power was based in Trøndelag and who had the support of the most powerful chieftains in northern and western Norway, at the Battle of Nesjar. After the victory, he gained the support of many of his former enemies, using them as his administrators around the country, as he built up his power according to a pattern he may have observed while abroad. One of his major purposes was to secure the influence of the church among the people, which he did with both political acumen and at times the ruthless exercise of power. Sunday was legally made a day of rest, other ecclesiastical feast days were established, fasting was mandated, and the Roman Catholic prohibition against marriage to close relatives was introduced. The people were made responsible for building and maintaining churches and were obligated to support the priests. Olaf’s administration was politically astute and effective, but there were many local chieftains who did not appreciate his efforts to get rid of the old religion and to extend his own personal power. Some of them supported the Danish king, Knut the Great, who also ruled England and used English silver to buy support for himself in Norway. Olaf was driven from the country in 1028, and when he returned two years later, he was mortally wounded at a battle at Stiklestad in Trøndelag. Miracles were associated with his remains, however, and he was soon considered a saint. His death in 1030 CE marks the victory of Christianity in Norway. From Christianity to the Kalmar Union Saint Olaf’s death had a unifying effect on the various factions in Norway. As Christianity consolidated its position in the country, there was an amalgamation of earlier religious ideas and the new Christian ones. The pagan gods Odin and Thor, for example, became associated with Saint Olaf, whose axe symbolized Thor’s hammer. Beliefs associated with the goddess Freya were transferred to the Virgin Mary. Lesser gods and beings from the pagan panoply of gods also lived on in popular folkloric belief as spirits and trolls, Five years after Olaf’s death, the men who had killed him fetched his son Magnus home from Russia, making him Norway’s king. It was the beginning of a century of peace at home. Through a great victory in the battle at Lyrskog Heath in 1043, Magnus Olafsson, at the age of 18, proved himself both a great warrior and a man who had the protection of his sainted father. When Magnus died in 1047, his half-uncle, Harald Sigurdsson Hardråde, assumed the throne and began an aggressive campaign against Norway’s traditional enemy, Denmark. He sacked and burned the Danish trading center of Hedeby in south Jutland in 1050 CE and was poised to turn his attention on England. The opportunity arrived with the death of English king Edward the Confessor in January

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1066. With a fleet of several hundred ships, Harald landed on the northeastern coast of England, where, on 25 September, he was defeated by the Anglo-Saxon army of Harald Godwinson at Stamford Bridge. Hardråde’s grandson, Magnus Olafsson, expanded his dominion to the Hebrides and the Isle of Man but was killed in a battle at Ulster on 24 August 1103. Sigurd, the second son of Magnus, left on a crusade in 1108, visiting the city of Jerusalem and bathing in the River Jordan in 1110. After conquering the city of Sidon and sparing the lives of its population, he and his men went on to Byzantium. Sigurd’s grandfather, Olaf Haraldsson Kyrre (1066–1093), had been a good Christian as well, but he learned Latin and was bookish and peaceful rather than a crusader. During his time, it became common to write the vernacular language with the Latin alphabet. Sigurd’s brother, Øystein, inherited his propensity for good government. Things changed, however, shortly after the death of Sigurd Jorsalfarer (the Crusader) in 1130. He had a daughter but no legitimate male heir, and a number of pretenders to the throne challenged each other. By 1134, Norway was engaged in a protracted civil war. In order to bring about peace, the church supported Sigurd’s grandson Magnus Erlingsson, who was crowned a boy king in 1163 or 1164, while the real ruler was his father, Erling Skakke. Erling’s most serious challenger was Sverre Sigurdsson, who claimed to be the natural son of King Sigurd Munn (1136–1155) and that he therefore had a legitimate claim to the throne. Leading a rebel group called Birkebeiner (Birchlegs), on 19 June 1177, Sverre won a decisive victory in the Battle of Kalvskinnet in Trondheim, in which Erling Skakke and many other leading men were killed. In 1184, Magnus Erlingsson was killed in a naval battle at Fimreite. Sverre was crowned on 29 June 1194, but the Norwegian archbishop, Eirik Ivarsson, refused to acknowledge Sverre’s claim to authority over the church and had him excommunicated. Those opposing Sverre, mainly clerics, aristocrats, and wealthy merchants, rallied around the leaders of the church, and this party, called baglere, supported a series of pretenders until Sverre’s death in 1202. Sverre’s lineage was victorious in the war against their opponents, however, as his grandson, Haakon IV Haakonsson, managed to organize the country’s secular leaders into a royal hird, a group that supported the king and brought the civil wars to an end. Haakon’s coronation on 29 July 1247 marks a high point in Norwegian medieval history. In addition to Norway, Haakon’s empire included the Shetland Islands, the Orkney Islands, the Hebrides, the Isle of Man, Iceland, and Greenland. Under King Haakon IV Haakonsson, Norway was recognized as a legitimate member of the European family of nations. Diplomatic relations and commercial treaties were concluded with most of the European states. Among these was a trade agreement in 1252 CE with the city of Lübeck, the first opening to Norway by the north German cities of the Hanseatic League. Haakon reorganized the royal admin-

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istration and formalized a consultative group of leading nobles, which became the council of the realm. He built a palace in his capital city of Bergen, Haakon Hall, where his son’s wedding was the first official event in the new building. When he died in December 1263, Haakon was succeeded by his son Magnus VI Lagabøte, a great lawgiver whose most important achievement was the introduction of a new law code for the country. Recognizing the difficulty of maintaining the great expanse of the Norwegian empire, Magnus ceded the Hebrides and the Isle of Man to the Scottish king, Alexander III, in return for an annual payment. Magnus’s son, Haakon V Magnusson, was also a capable and responsible administrator, but when he died on 8 May 1319, the ancient Norwegian royal family lineage came to an end. The Kalmar Union: Norway in Union with Denmark The work of Queen Margareta (1353–1412) of Norway, the Kalmar Union was the result of a series of personal unions that brought Denmark, Norway, and Sweden together under one ruler. The first of these kings, Magnus VII Eriksson (1316–1375), was the grandson of Haakon V Magnusson through Haakon’s daughter Ingeborg, who was married to Duke Erik Magnusson (c. 1282–1318). He was the king of both Norway and Sweden. In 1343, however, he agreed that his younger son Haakon would become king of Norway, while Haakon’s older brother would inherit the crown of Sweden. Haakon VI Magnusson (c. 1340–1380) was married to Margareta, the daughter of King Valdemar IV Atterdag (c. 1320–1375) of Denmark, in 1363 and was for a time co--king of Sweden with his father. In 1370, he and Margareta had a son named Olav, who was in line to succeed his maternal grandfather as Denmark’s king. When Albert III of Mecklenburg (c. 1338–1412) and the Swedish nobles deposed Magnus VII Eriksson in 1364, Haakon lost his claim to Sweden, but his wife claimed the title of queen of Sweden as long as she lived. A political genius, Margareta was at first able to have her son Olav named king of Norway, later also king of Denmark, while she ruled both countries as his guardian. When Olav IV Haakonsson died in 1387, she was elected regent of Denmark, and the following year, she also became regent in Norway. After adopting her sister’s grandson, Erik of Pomerania (1382–1459), Margareta succeeded in making him king of Norway in 1389, with herself as his guardian. Aided by a faction among the Swedish nobility that controlled part of the country, she went to war against its ruler, Albrecht III, who had deposed her father-in-law (as well as her husband) in 1364 and in turn was deposed in 1389. Erik III of Pomerania then became king of both Denmark and Sweden in 1396. This arrangement was formalized by the Treaty of

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Kalmar on 17 June 1397. Erik III and his descendants were to rule the three Scandinavian countries forever, but each country was to be governed separately by its own councils and according to its own laws. Things went reasonably well as long as Margareta was alive, but the union began to disintegrate after her death in 1412. An uprising of Swedish miners in Dalarna province initiated an 80-year-long struggle for the independence of Sweden against Danish rule. Norway remained loyal to the Danish monarch, but Sweden finally broke out of the union in 1523, after Christian II had killed a large number of Swedish nobles in the “Stockholm Bloodbath” in 1520. The decade of the 1520s saw the influx of Lutheran ideas into Scandinavia, challenging the political and religious order while also giving the monarchs new justification for state authority. In 1536, as the Reformation was being pushed through in Denmark and Norway, King Christian III (1503–59) and the Danish council of the realm declared Norway henceforth to be a province in Denmark, thereby marking the formal end of the Kalmar Union. It also marks the end of Norway’s independence and existence as a separate kingdom, as Archbishop Olav Engelbrektsson, who was also the head of Norway’s council of the realm, fled into exile after his failed attempt to defend both the Roman Catholic Church and his country against Christian III’s Lutheran designs. The next king of Denmark and Norway, Frederik II, attempted to regain control of Sweden during the Seven Years War of the North (1563–70) but failed. His successor, Christian IV, was a capable and energetic man but had no more luck fighting the Swedes and paid for it by eventually having to cede two Norwegian provinces, Jemtland and Herjedalen, to Sweden in 1645. A prodigious builder, Christian IV established the Kongsberg silver mine and the town of Christiansand in Norway and, after it was destroyed by fire in 1624, rebuilt the city of Oslo in the shadow of the Akershus Fortress, renaming the new city Christiania after himself. Christian IV’s successor, Frederik III, became first in the line of succession to the Danish throne when his older brother, Christian, died in 1647. Not well regarded by the Danish nobles, however, he was forced to allow his rights as king to be significantly diminished as a condition of being elected to the throne. He also had to fight the Swedes, whose king, Karl X, attacked Denmark in early 1658 by marching his forces across the frozen waters around the Danish archipelago. The attack came as a surprise, and it was only through the intervention of English and French government representatives that the Danish monarchy survived. Considerable territory was transferred to Sweden by the Treaty of Roskilde, including the Norwegian provinces of Båhuslen and Trøndelag, which then included Nordmøre and Romsdal. Shortly thereafter, Karl X attacked again and lay siege to Copenhagen, hoping to gain control of the entire country. Frederik III and Copenhagen’s mayor, however, organized such a valiant defense that the Swedes withdrew

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when a Dutch fleet came to the aid of the Danes. The Treaty of Copenhagen, signed in 1660, saw the reversal of the transfer of Trøndelag, which was returned to Norway. The dual monarchy of Denmark-Norway, however, was in dire financial straits as the royal treasury was depleted. Efforts to get the nobility to help pay for the rebuilding of the country and the economy proved futile. Frederik and his non-noble supporters developed an alternative plan that would mean the reduction of the power of the landed nobility altogether. As a result of his valiance during the siege of Copenhagen, Frederik III gained significant popularity throughout the country. He and his followers were thus emboldened to strike at the Danish nobility through a coup d’état. Eliminating significant noble privileges and completely reforming the national administration, Denmark became an absolute monarchy in 1660, and its constitution, Kongeloven (the Royal Law), was signed by King Frederik III on 14 November 1665. Ironically, the text of the Royal Law referred to Norway as a kingdom, not a province, which had been its official designation since the introduction of the Reformation. Whether a mistake or a deliberate act, it effectively changed the status of Norway from a province of Denmark to a kingdom in the dual monarchy of Denmark-Norway. The only written constitution of a European absolute monarchy, the Royal Law also specified that the only limitations on the power of the king were that he could not depart from Lutheranism and that he could neither divide his kingdom nor diminish his own absolute power. Otherwise, he was subject only to God, his judgments could be appealed only to God, and he had total legislative power. He could declare war, sign peace treaties, and join confederations, as well as compel his subjects to pay any tax or duty. He was also the supreme head of the church and the clergy. The political power of the nobility, locally and nationally, had been essentially eliminated. His successors, Christian V and Frederik IV, also fought wars with Sweden, most notably the Great Northern War (1700–1721). The reign of the latter was a time of significant intellectual flourishing, particularly notable through the work of the Norwegian-born playwright and historian Ludvig Holberg. Both Frederik IV and his successor, Christian VI, had strong interests in religion. Christian VI was a strict pietist who introduced both confirmation and the beginnings of a system of public education in order to enhance biblical literacy and strengthen religious understanding. Like his father, Frederik V managed to keep Denmark and Norway strictly neutral internationally, but his personal life was tragically affected by alcoholism. His son, Christian VII, lived a life of debauchery and was plagued by mental illness, making it necessary for others to govern in his stead. Christian VII’s son, Frederik VI, on the other hand, instituted a number of liberal reforms, but, after losing the Danish fleet in an unprovoked attack upon Copenhagen by England in 1807, he made the fateful decision to support

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Napoleon in the war against his enemies. Even as Sweden and Russia joined the anti-Napoleon coalition led by Great Britain, Denmark remained loyal to the French emperor to the end. Norway’s Constitution and the Union with Sweden Frederik VI’s alliance with Napoleon drove a fatal wedge between Norway and Denmark. First, Norway’s economic interests have traditionally been tied to those of England, which has largely controlled the high seas on which Norwegian trade and shipping have been dependent, and second, Norway became subjected to a merciless British blockade. In 1810, one of Napoleon’s most competent marshals, Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, was elected as Sweden’s heir apparent, adopted by Karl XIII under the name Karl Johan, and given command of the Swedish armed forces. A brilliant strategist, Karl Johan sided with Great Britain and Russia against his former emperor, initiating treaties with Russia and Britain to support Sweden’s claim on Norway in exchange for his support of the war against Napoleon. A surprise military move by Karl Johan against Denmark in late 1813 brought about the Treaty of Kiel, signed on 14 January 1814, in which Norway was ceded to Sweden by Denmark. Frederik VI immediately informed his cousin and heir, Crown Prince Christian Frederik, who was staying in Christiania (Oslo) as viceroy, and the news reached him on 24 January 1814. Offering to lead the opposition to the transfer on the basis of his right of inheritance, Christian Frederik hoped to step in as king of a wholly independent Norway. Following a meeting with a group of influential Norwegian citizens on 16 February, however, he was brought to understand that the Treaty of Kiel meant that Norwegian sovereignty, surrendered to the monarch under the Royal Law of 1665, had devolved back to the people of Norway and that it did not rest with him. Consequently, Christian Frederik, recognized as regent, issued a call for the meeting of a constituent assembly in order to write a new constitution for Norway. He also sent his close friend Carsten Anker to London in order to persuade the British government to support Norway’s bid for independence. As of 10 April 1814, 112 representatives from various parts of the country were gathered for the constitutional convention at Eidsvoll, a short distance north of Christiania (Oslo). There were two factions at the assembly, one of which believed that Norway might indeed succeed in winning its independence, while the other side was more realistic and acknowledged the reality of the politics of the European Great Powers and were resigned to having Norway join in a personal union with Sweden. Following six weeks of deliberation and debate, the group advocating independence prevailed, and the constitution was officially accepted and signed on 17 May 1814. Christian Frederik was elected king of Norway.

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Not without reason, the Great Powers suspected that Christian Frederik’s activities in Norway were taking place at the instigation of the Danish king in order to restore the union between the two countries. It was soon understood, however, that the constitution was the outgrowth of a genuinely popular movement. Because the Great Powers wanted to avoid a war in Scandinavia, Christian Frederik had to sacrifice his personal ambitions in favor of negotiating the best possible terms for Norway within a union with Sweden. When Karl Johan went to war against Norway anyway, he met more resistance than he had expected, so he chose to negotiate, which pleased the Great Powers. An agreement was quickly signed in Moss, Norway, on 14 August 1814, and the Storting (Parliament) subsequently revised the constitution to reflect the personal union with Sweden and elected the Swedish king to Norway’s throne. In 1815, the procedures governing the relationship between Norway and Sweden were enshrined in the Act of Union, which regulated the joint affairs of the two countries for the next 90 years. The relationship between the two union partners was at times rocky, but peace prevailed through negotiations. Karl Johan enjoyed increasing popularity in Norway, and the Norwegians were pleased once again to be enjoying their status as a separate country with their own parliament and government, although sharing the king with Sweden. Great strides were made both economically and culturally during the first several decades of the union. Norwegian literature and art flourished with such writers as Henrik Arnold Wergeland, Johan Sebastian Welhaven, and Henrik Ibsen. Norwegian history, language, and folklife were studied in order to find the true Norwegian identity. A system of local government was introduced in 1837, there was a nascent trade union movement in the late 1840s, and the farm population increasingly asserted itself in national politics, claiming some of the power and influence traditionally held by the embedsmann (public official) class. The Swedish governor in Norway was replaced by a Norwegian prime minister designate who served in Stockholm as the representative of the Norwegian government back in Christiania. The beginning of industrialization manifested itself in the 1840s as roads were improved, and Norway’s first railroad line opened between Christiania and Eidsvoll in 1854. One of the burning issues of the 1870s and 1880s was the question of whether the members of the king’s cabinet should be answerable for their decisions and actions to the Storting. As long as they were not, in keeping with the tradition of the separation of powers, the executive power did not have to be exercised in a manner acceptable to the legislature and according to democratic principles. The king and the conservative public officials, who benefited from the status quo, resisted any call to compel the cabinet members to appear before the Storting; as long as a parliamentary majority felt the same way, there was no way to change the system. As the liberal influence in the Storting increased, however, steps were taken by the leader of the liber-

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als, Johan Sverdrup, to force a confrontation with the government. After the parliamentary elections of 1882, his majority was sufficiently large that he could impeach the government for not following the constitution. The special court that tried the government ministers rendered its decision in 1884, and they were all found guilty and stripped of their appointments. When King Oscar II realized that he would be unable to have any impeachment-proof government formed unless he went along with the wishes of the majority in the Storting, he invited Johan Sverdrup to form a government. With Sverdrup’s appointment, the principle of parliamentarism became the rule in Norwegian politics. A government would henceforth have to act in such a way as to not forfeit the confidence of the majority of the Storting if it wished to remain in power. An important development associated with the events of 1884 was that a system of political parties developed that same year. Sverdrup and his supporters established the Liberal Party first, closely followed by the supporters of the royal prerogative forming an opposition party, the Conservative Party. A Norwegian Labor Party was organized a few years later, in 1887. As the issues that bound them together slowly faded and were replaced by new priorities, over the next few decades the Liberal Party was split and recombined in different ways and at different times, giving Norway a multiparty system. The franchise was also gradually extended to more and more people, until it became universal for males in 1898 and for women in 1913. After 1884, there was also increasing tension in the relationship between Norway and Sweden. Before the system of parliamentarism got its start in 1884, a liberal Storting could not as easily bring its wishes to the attention of the king and his Swedish advisors as afterward, when members of a Liberal government would sit in council with him. In spite of having a separate Norwegian government, the foreign minister was Swedish and primarily served Swedish interests. The consular service, which was under the foreign minister, tended to represent Swedish industrial interests rather than Norwegian trading interests. The tensions between the two countries grew as Norway demanded a separate consular service. The issue was complicated because the constitution specified that Norway and Sweden were to have the same minister of foreign affairs, a common diplomatic corps, and a common consular service directly responsible to the king. The significance of shipping and trade to Norway’s economy made the arrangement problematic, for Norwegian economic interests differed substantially from those of Sweden’s protectionist policies. The Storting repeatedly voted to establish a separate Norwegian consular service, but the king refused to sign the bill into law. In 1895, Sweden had grown increasingly frustrated with the Norwegians and was preparing to go to war against Norway concerning the matter. The Norwegian government, determined to maintain the peace, backed down but began to build up its military capabilities for another day.

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The issue came to the fore again in 1904, when negotiations with Sweden for a separate Norwegian consular service broke down yet again. The matter had become of such great national importance that there was a strong feeling in Norway that this time it was worth going to war over. Under the leadership of Christian Michelsen, the Norwegian government maneuvered King Oscar II into a position where the Storting could claim that he was not performing his functions as Norway’s king to appoint a Norwegian government, and the union was therefore dissolved. Not surprisingly, the Swedish parliament did not share this view, but in the heated debate that ensued, cooler heads prevailed, war was avoided, and the union was dissolved with no blood being spilled. Swedish sentiments were understandably bitter, however, and Oscar II felt personally mistreated. He therefore rejected Norway’s offer that the throne be given to a member of the Swedish royal house. Norway turned to an alternative candidate and offered the throne to the Danish Prince Carl, who became the first king of an independent Norway in modem times as Haakon VII. From Independence to the Present A fully independent country for the first time in more than 500 years, Norway experienced both ups and downs during the first several decades of the 20th century. Norwegian industry grew rapidly, and the loss of population experienced through emigration to America was corning to an end. Norwegian hydroelectric development progressed rapidly, and the merchant marine was modernized. World War I was a difficult experience, however, as Norwegian seamen were being mercilessly torpedoed by German submarines. In spite of Norway’s neutrality, some 2,000 merchant seamen lost their lives during the war. The Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the radicalization of the Labor Party, which for a time associated itself with the Communist International (Comintern). In the early 1920s, the rampant conspicuous consumption during the war years gave way to unemployment and economic crisis. Traditional export markets for fish and forest products were lost, and businesses closed. The deflationary pressure on Norway’s economy led to significant problems, and a major concern during the decade was to reduce public debt by cutting expenditures. When the country was hit by the Great Depression of the late 1920s and 1930s, it became necessary to abandon the liberalist economic principles espoused by both the Conservative Party and the Liberals. Some of the ideas of the British economist John Maynard Keynes were put into practice, allowing for a more successful management of the economy starting in the rnid1930s. Both organized labor and the Norwegian Labor Party made great strides forward at this time, as basic principles of collective bargaining became increasingly accepted in all segments of society, and the Labor Party’s

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share of the seats in the Storting increased dramatically, especially after it had left the Comintern and become a completely social-democratic party. The elections of 1927 saw the Labor Party emerge with the largest number of representatives in the Storting. As a result, King Haakon VII, over the objections of the nonsocialist parties, invited Labor to form a government. Although it survived only a few weeks and fell when a majority of the parliament rejected its budget proposals, King Haakon’s initiative had given the Labor Party a taste of power and an appreciation for the democratic parliamentary system. A watershed in Norwegian political life was reached when Labor entered into an agreement with the Agrarian Party, thereby making a stable Labor Party government a reality in 1935. One of the natural consequences of the election of a Labor Party government was an increased emphasis on social spending and the building of the welfare state. Not surprisingly, following traditional labor suspicion of the military as a tool of capitalist interests, the new government’s deemphasis on defense spending meant that Norway’s military received less funding. This resulted in decreased military preparedness at the same time as Germany was rearming and a European war was becoming a real, albeit still distant, possibility. Even though defense spending was increased in 1938 and 1939, the Norwegian government was convinced that its position of neutrality would keep the country out of any possible conflict. Germany’s attack on Norway on 9 April 1940 came as a complete surprise and led to five extremely difficult years. Owing to the fortuitous sinking of the German warship Blücher and the quick and decisive action of the president of the Storting, Carl Joachim Hambro, the royal family and the government escaped Oslo ahead of the invaders. Hambro had arranged for a train to take the government, the members of parliament, and the royal family from Oslo to Hamar and, subsequently, to Elverum ahead of the invading forces. The gold reserves of the Bank of Norway were also ferried out of Oslo and were eventually transported to the United States, where they were available for use by the Norwegian government-in-exile for the duration of the war. Mobilization of Norwegian forces was sporadic and sometimes confusing. The confusion was amplified when, in the early evening of 9 April, Vidkun Quisling, the leader of the Norwegian Nazi Party (Nasjonal samling), announced on the radio that, since the elected government had fled the capital, he had formed a new government and had issued orders for a cease-fire. His announcement added to the confusion, but it also strengthened the resistance to the invasion. German hopes of using Quisling as a puppet ruler proved illusory, as his presence only steeled Norwegian resistance further. British expeditionary troops came to Norway to assist, but although fighting bravely for several weeks, they were forced to withdraw when needed on the western front to halt the German offensive, which began on 10 May. Fighting in Norway continued, but without direct Allied support, it proved a hopeless

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cause. On 7 June, the government and the king were forced to leave Norway for London, where they would establish a government-in-exile and continue the fight. In the days following the invasion, in order to ensure legitimate government continuity, the Storting, in accordance with the constitution, had transferred the constitutional authority to the government even though it be out of the country. In Norway, it quickly became clear that Vidkun Quisling was being rejected as the “head of government” by the Norwegian people. As a result, an administrative council, composed of prominent government officials, was set up to govern the country. Nevertheless, the real power was Josef Terboven, appointed by Hitler to be “Reichskommisar” for occupied Norway. On 25 September, the administrative council was dissolved. During the war, Norwegian society underwent a radical alteration, as there were as many as 400,000 enemy troops in the country, and attempts to recreate Norwegian institutions in the Nazi image were made. Norwegians were arrested, tortured, and killed, sometimes as reprisals for acts of resistance with which they had no connection. As the top German official in Norway, Terboven, along with the Gestapo, carried out a consistent campaign of oppression and terror. Resistance to the occupation grew and slowly became organized, often in cooperation with the Norwegian government and authorities in Great Britain. Attempts by the Germans to instill Nazi philosophy into various Norwegian institutions proved unsuccessful. Beginning with schoolteachers who refused to become members of a “teachers’ association,” Nazification plans failed. Similarly, members of the Norwegian clergy rejected the policies of the “new order” and were removed from their parishes. Open resistance was forbidden, but a clandestine resistance grew, with illegal newspapers and even sabotage. Illegal traffic across the North Sea to Britain carried refugees one way and trained saboteurs the other. An active Gestapo arrested thousands of Norwegians for a variety of illegal activities, and many were imprisoned, tortured, and even killed. Hundreds were transported to German prison camps. Most notorious was the arrest and deportation of 532 Norwegian Jews sent to Germany and the Auschwitz concentration camp aboard the SS Donau in November 1942. Resistance groups working in coordination with the Norwegian government-in-exile in London and the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) actively engaged in sabotage and preparation for the liberation of the country. One of the most important acts of sabotage of the entire war was the action against the heavy water installations at the Vemork Norsk Hydro factory at Rjukan in February 1943. Fearing that the heavy water production at the factory would provide essential material for a German atomic bomb, it was determined that the facilities needed to be destroyed. On the night of 27–28 February, the small team of 12 saboteurs succeeded in blowing up the electrolysis cells and escaping without incident. Besides the

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military and political struggles, Norwegians faced five difficult years of occupation. Food was scarce, liberty was nonexistent, and neighbors could not always be trusted not to turn people in to the Nazis. After four years of occupation, beginning in October 1944, the northern Norwegian counties of Finnmark and Troms were devastated by German scorched-earth tactics as they withdrew from advancing Russian forces that had been defending Murmansk from German attack. On direct orders from Hitler, structures in every town and village were blown up or burned. The cities of Hammerfest, Honningsvåg, and Kirkenes were flattened to smoldering ashes. When the dark years finally came to an end, Norwegian infrastructure was destroyed or worn out, a large number of collaborators had to be brought to justice, and political and social institutions had to be rebuilt. After seven years of rationing and quotas, most of the work of rebuilding the country was accomplished, however, and the general quality of life could become the primary object of attention. While it was led by a long-serving Labor Party government that operated under the leadership of Einar Gerhardsen, Norway created something close to an economic miracle during the 1950s and 1960s. As a founding member of the United Nations, Norway became a valued and respected member of the international community. Membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) provided for its security needs. Norway also joined such other international organizations as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). The educational system was developed, eventually creating an opportunity for 12 years of schooling for all, as well as a network of universities and regional university colleges. The transportation system was modernized, with standard and short-runway airports dotting the country. The workweek was drastically shortened, the amount of paid vacation for all workers was increased, and the social safety net was substantially strengthened to the point that the effective retirement age has dropped below 60. Roads and bridges were built, tunnels were drilled, and high-speed ferries and catamarans were placed in service. When the offshore oil industry took off during the 1970s and 1980s, government policy prevented the lion’s share of the profits from ending up in the coffers of foreign and multinational concerns. Instead, the very substantial profits from the oil industry were carefully husbanded and invested according to high ethical principles in a national sovereign fund. In order not to affect the Norwegian economy negatively, investments were to be made abroad. The result is that Norway now has a gigantic pension fund that, in 2018, was valued at over $1 trillion. There has, of course, been disagreement concerning these and other policies, but while one political party, the Progress Party, would like to see more of these funds used for immediate consumption in order to reduce taxes,

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there is wide agreement that the funds provided by the oil industry should be invested and held in trust for future generations. A national consensus agrees that contemporary Norwegians need to pay their own way as much as possible and solve their economic and social problems through the resources created by the application of Norway’s traditional work ethic. With their high level of education and careful investments in such long-standing economic sectors as fishing, farming, forestry, and energy-intensive industry, as well as with an emphasis on such knowledge-based industries as telecommunications and data processing, today’s Norwegians enjoy a high quality of life. The most divisive political issue in recent decades is undoubtedly the question of whether Norway should seek to become more fully integrated into the European economic and political order that has been developing since the Treaty of Rome was signed in 1957. The Norwegian government made formal application for membership on several occasions, and twice a referendum has been held in order to determine if the results of negotiations with what has become known as the European Union (EU) were acceptable to the people of Norway. The first referendum was held 25 September 1972 and resulted in a rejection of the agreement that had been worked out. Among the major concerns of those who voted against the agreement were the loss of Norwegian sovereignty and the consequences of membership for Norwegian farmers and fishermen. When the Norwegian Labor Party government led by Gro Harlem Brundtland decided to hold another referendum on the issue on 28 November 1994, Norway had already successfully integrated itself into the European Economic Area. Full membership seemed but a small step away. The voters again said no, however, and their concerns were similar to those felt in 1972. Although Norway’s oil wealth may have made it economically feasible to remain less than completely tied to a more fully integrated Europe, Norwegians have a sense of tradition and independence that most likely also plays a role in their desire to be a bit different from the norm. Strong environmental policies in support of the country’s relatively unspoiled nature, an egalitarian society, and a widely felt sense of social cohesion augur well for Norway’s future. Norway has long been a strong advocate for environmental protection. In 1972, it became the first country to establish a government Ministry of the Environment. Before becoming prime minister in 1981, Gro Harlem Brundtland earned an international reputation as minister of the environment from 1972 to 1979. In 1983, she was appointed by United Nations secretary general Javier Pérez de Cuéllar to chair the World Commission on Environment and Development, most commonly referred to as the Brundtland Commission. The commission’s report, published as Our Common Future (1987), developed the broad concept of “sustainable development” and called for poverty reduction, gender equality, and wealth redistribution as essential

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elements for environmental conservation. Beginning with Brundtland’s leadership, Norway has maintained its leading role as an environmentally aware nation. During her third term as prime minister, in 1993, Brundtland also played a strong supportive role behind Norway’s initiatives to sponsor secret peace talks between the government of Israel led by Yitzhak Rabin and the Palestinian Liberation Organization led by Yasser Arafat, leading to the signing of the Oslo Accords. The accords, organized and facilitated by four Norwegian officials, were an extension of Norway’s recognized role as a neutral peace negotiator and arbitrator. As the home of the Nobel Peace Prize, Norway maintains a strong international profile in peace negotiations as well as environmental concerns. Norwegian public opinion is extremely sensitive to environmental issues, and the government regularly promotes cooperation on issues relating to the environment. An example of positive government incentives to promote renewable energy is the policy of reduced taxes on the purchase of electric automobiles. As a result, more than half of all new automobiles sold in Norway in 2017 were electric or hybrid. There are, of course, some social maladies. The misuse of alcohol has a long history in Norway, but contemporary statistics on alcohol use place Norway as the 65th-highest consumer of alcohol per capita in the world. Illegal drugs have been a significant public health issue since the late 1960s. In 2014, there were 266 drug-related deaths in the country. Cannabis is the most used drug in Norway, with recent statistics indicating that marijuana and hashish have been tried at least once by 23 percent of young people ages 15 to 20 in the Oslo area, while nationally that number is around 12 percent. In 2017, Norway became the first Scandinavian country to decriminalize (but not legalize) drugs to focus on treatment rather than punishment. Norwegian prosperity since the 1960s has made the country attractive to many seeking to escape poverty or war. The high standard of living and its comparable wage structure has resulted in many young people from EU countries, especially Sweden, migrating to Norway as temporary wage immigrants. Immigration, especially from Asia and Africa, has changed the demographic character of the country and, in some cases, has been complicated by the difficulty of successfully integrating into their new society. The Progress Party has generally articulated a policy of restrictive immigration that often seems to focus on immigrants and refugees from Muslim countries, some even claiming that Norwegian cultural and Christian religious traditions are under threat. There have been some unfortunate reactions to recent immigration, none more tragic than the attack by an ethnic Norwegian terrorist in 2011. On 22 July 2011, a right-wing extremist Norwegian terrorist perpetrated the worst act of violence on Norwegian soil since World War II. A car bomb was exploded outside government offices, including those of the prime min-

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ister, in central Oslo, resulting in vast damage and the death of eight people. The perpetrator, Anders Behring Breivik, dressed as a police officer, then drove to a Labor Party youth camp outside Oslo on the island of Utøya, where he proceeded to systematically execute 69 people, mostly teenagers. A manifesto distributed online by Breivik stated his hatred toward Muslim immigrants and the government’s tolerant immigration policies. Breivik was sentenced to a long prison sentence and, although Norwegians of all political stripes have condemned his actions, the underlying issue that sparked his attack remains a sensitive scab on the Norwegian body politic. That it remains an issue still seeking resolution is evidenced by subsequent national elections in 2013 and 2017, which brought to power a Center-Right coalition of the Conservative and Progress parties advocating a carefully articulated, yet deliberately restrictive policy on immigration.

A AASEN, IVAR (1813–1896). Norwegian writer and scholar. The son of a smallholder on the coast of western Norway, Aasen became a self--taught linguist and dialectologist who devoted his life to studying the lexicon and grammar of Norwegian dialects, with special attention to their relationship with the language of Viking-age Scandinavia, publishing a grammar in 1848 and a dictionary in 1850. Steeped in the ideology of national romanticism, he was nevertheless no dreamer but a diligent promoter of the idea that Norway’s written language, which after 400 years of political union with Denmark was strongly colored by Danish, ought to be replaced by a written norm that was founded on Norway’s many different popular dialects. To this end, Aasen single-handedly created a written form of Norwegian called Landsmaal (country language), which he then employed as a medium for both poetry and prose. Perhaps predictably, his poetry is heavily colored by the conventions of Old Norse poetry and shows his fondness for both ancient-sounding vocabulary and grammatical features that had become extinct in most forms of Norwegian, even in Aasen’s own day. His best-known literary works are the play Ervingen (1855; The Heir) and a poetry collection titled Symra (1863; The Anemone). Both of these works are considered classics in Norwegian literature written in Nynorsk (New Norwegian), a less old-fashioned norm that has succeeded Aasen’s own Landsmaal as a contemporary alternative to standard written Norwegian. ABEL, NIELS HENRIK (1802–1829). Norwegian mathematician born on the island of Finnøy in Rogaland County on 5 August 1802. His father, Søren Georg Abel, a Lutheran minister, moved the family to Gjerstad in East Agder County when Niels was two years old. In 1815, he was sent to the Cathedral School in Christiania (Oslo). There, Bernt Michael Holmboe (1795–1850) became his mathematics teacher and recognized Abel’s abilities. Holmboe provided private tutoring and encouraged him to make use of the library of the newly established university. Abel read works by Isaac Newton, Leonhard Euler, and Carl Friedrich Gause, among others. In 1823, he published his first scientific article in the Norwegian journal for natural sciences, Mag23

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azin for Naturvidenskaperne (Magazine for Natural Sciences) and traveled to Copenhagen, where he became interested in Fermat’s general theorem and began studying elliptic functions. Receiving a state grant for his work, he went on to Berlin, where he published several articles in the newly established Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik (Journal for Pure and Applied Mathematics), popularly known as Crelle’s Journal. The first volume of the journal contained several papers by Abel, including his work on calculus, quintic equations, equation theory, and theoretical mechanics. In 1826, Abel went to Paris, then considered to be the center of mathematical studies. There he worked on his so-called Paris treatise, an addition theorem for elliptic integrals, perhaps his most significant work. Failing to gain a university appointment, however, he returned to Norway in 1827, disappointed and suffering from tuberculosis. He continued to work, submitting articles to Crelle’s Journal in Berlin on algebraic equations, elliptic functions, and infinite series, always hoping for an academic position. His tuberculosis worsened, and he died on 6 April 1829. An innovative and original thinker, Abel left a huge legacy, considering his short working life. In 1899, following the official announcement of the Nobel Prizes, which did not include a prize for mathematics, Norwegian mathematician Sophus Lie (1842–99) proposed an equivalent prize in mathematics in honor of Abel. King Oscar II offered to finance it, but with the dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905, the issue died. Lie’s proposal was revived in 2001, and on 3 June 2003 the first Abel Prize “for outstanding scientific work in the field of mathematics” was awarded to Jean-Pierre Serre of the College de France. ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. The idea of absolute monarchy entails the notions that the monarch has absolute sovereignty, that no sovereignty resides with the people or is shared with the nobility, and that society should be governed by the absolute, centralized power that flows from the idea of absolute sovereignty. To some proponents of absolute monarchy, the sovereign is responsible only to God. At a meeting of representatives for the Danish estates in the fall of 1660, the prior system of electing the king—the system was formally one of election, although it was customary to elect the oldest son of the previous king as the next king—was replaced by an inherited monarchy. The revolutionary change in the fundamental constitutional structure of Denmark-Norway resulted from the disastrous war with Sweden and the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658 which transferred the eastern Danish provinces, Skåne, Halland, and Blekinge, to Sweden. Following a renewed attack by Sweden’s King Karl X and a heroic defense of Copenhagen by its citizens, the Danish economy was in shambles and the military exhausted. When the monarchy approached the nobility with a request to help replenish the state

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treasury, they refused, demanding concessions instead. Consequently, supporters of a strong monarchy developed plans for a royal coup whereby the king and the commoners worked in concert to eliminate noble power that required the king to sign a royal charter guaranteeing noble privileges. The coup succeeded in forcing the nobility to accept a new absolutist form of government, and the royal charter Frederik had signed when he became king was ceremoniously returned to him. In 1661, representatives of the various classes in Denmark-Norway agreed to the new form of government, specified in the Enevoldsarveregjeringsakten (The Absolutist Hereditary Governing Act). Under the act, the heir to the throne would automatically succeed to the throne upon the death of the monarch, and no royal charter would be required. In order to formalize the act and specify the powers of the monarch, the Royal Law (Kongeloven) was prepared and presented to the king. The Royal Law, signed by King Frederik III on 14 November 1665 and kept secret until 1709 when it was first printed in a limited edition, specified the rules of succession and was in effect in Norway until 1814 (in Denmark until 1849). It specified that the only limitations to the power of the king were that he could not depart from Lutheranism as expressed in the Augsburg confession, he could not divide his kingdom, and he alone could exercise his absolute power. According to the Royal Law, he was the foremost head on earth, subject only to God; he was the highest judge in both secular and ecclesiastical matters, whose judgments could be appealed only to God; he had total legislative power in that he could promulgate and rescind any law with the exception of rescinding the Kongeloven; he could appoint and fire any public official (this was a major reason the Norwegian constitution of 1814 offered strong protection for the embedsmann class); he could declare war, sign peace treaties, and join confederations; he could compel his subjects to pay any tax or duty; and he was the supreme head of the church and the clergy. While the rule of the king was, in practice, not as draconian as the Kongeloven seems to indicate, the king could control every aspect of life among his subjects through his extensive bureaucracy in both the civil and the ecclesiastical administration. Throughout the absolutist period, the administration was largely honest and exceptionally competent. During the Enlightenment period, the idea of enlightened absolutism arose; in Denmark and Norway, Johann Friedrich Struensee, the personal physician and advisor to King Christian VII, tried to put into effect numerous reforms in the king’s name that were in the Enlightenment spirit. He failed, however, and was accused of usurping royal authority. In the 19th century, the idea of popular sovereignty gradually replaced the idea of the absolute sovereignty of the king. AGRARIAN PARTY. See CENTER PARTY.

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AGRICULTURE. Only 3 percent of Norway’s surface is arable land, and much of that land is steep and divided into small parcels by numerous outcroppings of bedrock, especially in the north and west. Large contiguous fields can be found mainly in the eastern part, the district of Jæren south of the city of Stavanger, and the area around Trondheim in the middle of the country. As long as agriculture was based on cultivating relatively small plots by hand, there was a basis for some kind of agriculture in the entire country. Wheat can be grown in eastern Norway, where it is hot enough for it to ripen successfully, and other cereal grains, such as barley and oats, as far north as the Arctic Circle. However, grains have not been grown that far north in modern times, except during wartime, for northern farmers can expect to receive only about three times the amount of seed when the harvest comes, and the grain fails completely in some years. Throughout history, Norway has therefore been dependent on imported cereal grains. Norway’s rough terrain is well suited to animal husbandry. Sheep and goats make efficient use of grass and browse, and cattle, while requiring large quantities of hay, silage, and grain, are efficient producers of milk and meat. Swine and poultry have also been common. The horse was ever present on Norwegian farms until the post–World War II era, when even the smaller farms converted to tractors. It is arguable that the biggest change to Norwegian farm life came with the introduction of the potato in the 18th century. Well adapted to brief and cool summers and suitable to nonmechanized cultivation, it can be grown all over the country and gradually became a staple in the Norwegian diet. Norway is, however, fundamentally unable to feed its population without imports, being only 50 percent self-sufficient in food and agricultural production. As Norwegian agriculture was mechanized during the second half of the 20th century, many small farms fell into disuse, and the need for imported food continues to grow. See also ECONOMY; FOOD; TRADE. ALTMARK AFFAIR. A World War II clash between British destroyers and the German supply ship Altmark in neutral Norwegian territorial waters on 16 February 1940. The Altmark carried 299 British prisoners of war whose ships had been sunk by the German pocket battleship Graf Spee in the south Atlantic. Confronted by British warships as it was making its way back to Germany along the Norwegian southwest coast, the Altmark was forced into the narrow Jøssingfjord, where it was attacked and boarded by sailors from the British destroyer Cossack. In the skirmish, seven German sailors were killed and 299 British prisoners were freed. Norwegian guard boats that were escorting the Altmark through Norwegian waters refused to join the British action, which the Norwegian government considered a serious breach of their neutrality.

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The Altmark Affair raised British morale while it disappointed the Norwegian government, which feared it might drag Norway into the war. In fact, that seems to have been the case. Earlier, in December 1939, when Vidkun Quisling visited Adolf Hitler in Berlin, he claimed that the British had designs on Norway and that Norwegian claims of neutrality were a sham. If Germany sought to protect important iron ore shipments from the port of Narvik and prevent the British from gaining a foothold in Norway, Quisling insisted that Hitler needed to act. Initially hesitant, Hitler did order plans for a possible invasion (Studie Nord) to be prepared. The Altmark Affair seems to have convinced Hitler that Quisling had been correct, and he subsequently ordered the planning speeded up. He appointed General Nikolaus von Falkenhorst, a veteran of fighting in Finland, to prepare an invasion plan. On 1 March 1940, the invasion, code-named Weserübung (Weser Exercise), was set for the morning of 9 April 1940. AMUNDSEN, ROALD ENGELBREGT GRAVNING (1872–1928). Norwegian polar explorer born in Borge, Østfold County, on 16 July 1872 to Jens Amundsen, a shipowner who died when the boy was 14 years old. By his mother’s wishes, Amundsen began studying medicine, but he left his studies at the age of 21 and joined the crew of a seal-catching ship. He got his mate’s license in 1895 and his skipper’s license 10 years later. His first expedition was as mate on board the Belgica, which wintered in Antarctica in 1898. From 1903 to 1906, he led the first expedition that traveled through the Northwest Passage to Nome, Alaska. His ship was the shallow-drafted Gjøa. During this voyage, Amundsen studied the clothing and use of sled dogs of the Inuit. From 1910 to 1912, Amundsen used Fridtjof Nansen’s ship Fram during an expedition to Antarctica for the purpose of being the first person to reach the South Pole. After carefully establishing and marking depots of food and equipment along the route from their base camp to the pole, Amundsen and four of his men traveled to the pole and back in 99 days, using skis and sled dogs. They reached the South Pole on 14 December 1911. After an expedition through the Northeast Passage from 1918 to 1920, in which Amundsen used his own ship, Maud, he set about reaching the North Pole by air. During a visit to the United States, he had become fascinated with air travel and was the first civilian in Norway to receive a pilot’s license. In 1925, Amundsen and five others tried to reach the North Pole by flying two hydroplanes from Spitsbergen. After landing on the ice at 87 degrees, 44 minutes northern latitude, they found it difficult to take off again but eventually managed to fly one of the planes back.

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The following year, Amundsen and a crew of 15 others flew a dirigible, the airship Norge (Norway), from Spitzbergen across the North Pole on 12 May 1926 and on to Teller, Alaska. While three other expeditions have claimed to have reached the pole earlier, these claims are considered controversial by some scholars. Amundsen returned to the Arctic again in 1928 when his former partner, Umberto Nobile, was reported lost during an expedition with the dirigible Italia. Amundsen was on board the hydroplane Latham, which left Tromsø on 18 June 1928 and disappeared in bad weather somewhere in the vicinity of Bear Island. Some of the wreckage was found and positively identified, but the remains of those on board were never recovered. ANKER, CARSTEN TANK (1747–1824). Norwegian diplomat and official. The son of Erik, Anker was born on 17 November 1747 in Fredrikshald, Østfold County, and spent a significant amount of time traveling in his youth. He also held several responsible government posts. While living in Copenhagen, he became a close friend of Christian Frederik, the cousin of King Frederik VI and, later, heir presumptive to the Danish throne. While Christian Frederik served as viceroy in Norway from 1813 to 1814, Anker was one of his closest advisors. Anker lived at Eidsvoll, an ironworks north of Oslo that he purchased in 1811. He turned it over to the disposition of Christian Frederik, who lived there. The building served as the location of the constitutional convention that resulted in the signing of Norway’s constitution on 17 May 1814. AQUACULTURE. Modern commercial aquaculture in Norway began around 1970 with the development of sturdy cages that allowed better environmental conditions than onshore tanks or various enclosures that had been used earlier, especially in salmon farming. The sheltered coastline of Norway, with its countless inlets and islands along with the temperate waters bathed by the Gulf Stream, provides stable temperatures and sufficient current to support extensive fish farming. The Atlantic salmon is the most important species farmed. In 2017, salmon accounted for more than 90 percent of Norwegian aquacultural production. Rainbow trout made up less than 10 percent of the production. Halibut, char, and shellfish are also produced, while research has suggested the feasibility of farming Atlantic cod and the Atlantic wolffish. The Directorate of Fisheries is responsible for the public management of the aquacultural industry. The main office is located in Bergen, with regional offices in most Norwegian counties. The Aquaculture Act of 1985, as

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amended in 2003, is the main legislation regulating the management, control, and development of fish farming. It set up a licensing system that supports balanced and sustainable development. Norwegian salmon spend the first year of their life in a hatchery tank on land until large enough to be transferred to ocean pens. Norwegian law requires that the salmon not make up more than 2.5 percent of the volume of the pen. The salmon are fed an all-natural diet of raw vegetable and raw marine material such as fish oil and fish meal from wild fish in addition to vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. To ensure the pink color of farmed salmon, they receive a natural oxycarotenoid called astaxanthin, which in nature is received by eating crustaceans. No antibiotics or medication are given preventively or as a promoter of growth. Norway has established a traceability system to closely monitor salmon development and send the information to farmers and their veterinarians. Fully 95 percent of all Norwegian aquaculture production is exported to more than 130 countries. The EU is the most important market, with the largest share going to France and Denmark. In 2016, there were 7,850 people employed in aquacultural production in Norway. ARBEIDERDEMOKRATENE. See LABOR DEMOCRATS. ARBEIDERNES KOMMUNISTPARTI. See WORKERS’ COMMUNIST PARTY. ARBEIDERPARTIET. See LABOR PARTY. ARCHITECTURE. The earliest Norwegians lived in caves, under rock overhangs, and in primitive shelters made with wattle-and-daub. At the time of the Migration period, c. 400–600 CE, there is evidence that at least the better-situated members of society lived in large longhouses with thick walls of sod and stone and roofs that were held up by vertical posts and covered with birchbark and sod. There were several firepits in the middle of the floor in each house, and the smoke drifted out through holes in the roof. In some places, there were clusters of such houses, which apparently gave shelter to several families each. This kind of structure continued to be built during the Viking period and are referred to in the Icelandic sagas as well. The pagan temples, where people worshipped the gods Odin, Tor, and Frey, were most likely wooden structures and may have been adorned with dragon heads. The coming of Christianity led to a significant change in sacred architecture, in that many churches, starting around the year 1000, were built of stone. About 160 of the approximately 300 stone churches that were built have been preserved in whole or in part. But with Norway’s abundant forests,

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wood is the most common building material. Norway’s unique stave churches are wooden structures, built with vertical staves rather than horizontal logs or planks. Some of the stave churches that have been preserved were ornamented with dragon heads as well as crosses. These old churches were small and dark and had no pews, as the people stood during the masses. These structures are seen as Norway’s most unusual contribution to the history of architecture, most notably the Urnes stave church in the inner Sognefjord region of western Norway. It has been placed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. The stone churches were bigger and had windows in the Romanesque or Gothic style. The preferred stone was soapstone, especially around windows and doors; however, sandstone, limestone, and granite were also used for the walls. Starting around 1250, bricks came into use. The largest and most famous of the medieval stone churches is the Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim, which had a reputation for being the most impressive cathedral in northern Europe. Other well-known medieval churches are the Stavanger Cathedral and the Mary Church in Bergen. Some secular buildings were also built with stone, for example, Haakon’s Hall in Bergen, which was completed by 1261, when the wedding feast of King Magnus VI Lagabøte was held there. Olav Engelbrektsson’s fortress at Steinvikholmen in the Trondheim fjord, built in 1525, was built of stone, as was Akershus Fortress, started in the late 1200s. As a rule, only royalty or powerful church leaders were able to build with stone. An early example is Erkebispegarden (the Archbishop’s Residence) in Trondheim, on which construction may have started around 1161. Norway’s rural population mostly lived in arestuer, small windowless log structures, the origin of which goes back to pre-Christian times, with earthen floors that had a fireplace in the middle and a ljore (smoke hole) in the roof, which usually was covered with birchbark and sod as insulation. The hole could be covered when it rained by moving a rod tied to a cover. The threshold was high in order to protect against drafts, and there were dirt-filled benches—the dry dirt was also a protection against drafts—around the walls. Some of these houses had masonry fireplaces without chimneys. Around 1700, the open fireplace was replaced by a masonry fireplace with a chimney, usually placed in a corner of the room. The masonry stored heat that was radiated back into the room when there was no fire. Because it was possible to install a damper in the chimney, the house was also much less drafty than the old arestue and its close cousin, the house with the chimneyless fireplace. Cast-iron stoves are known from written sources as far back as the 1600s but were used to a significant degree as late as the 1700s. They were expensive, and only city dwellers, members of the embedsmann (public official) class, and rich farmers could afford them. As the stoves became less expensive, they were used by more people, but because they gave no light, the

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masonry fireplaces were still in use well into the 1900s, especially in rural areas. When modern petroleum lamps replaced candles and the old fish and whale oil lamps, however, the open fireplace was no longer needed, and building practices were adjusted to fit the new illumination technology. Houses also became larger as it became possible to heat individual rooms. In the 17th century, during the union with Denmark, several new towns and villages were established by the ambitious Christian IV. The most notable of these was the rebuilt city of Oslo, which Christian rechristened as Christiania. Medieval Oslo, situated at the base of the Ekeberg hill, was destroyed by fire in 1624. In order to offer the protection of the Akershus Fortress and make the city more defensible, Christian had it rebuilt several miles to the west where wide streets were laid out in a quadrangle pattern. At the highest point of the area, overlooking the harbor toward the northwest, was the public square surrounded by the official government buildings. Several of these buildings from the middle of the 17th century still stand. Another architecturally significant town is Røros in the county of Trøndelag. Established as a church parish in 1838, the town grew around the exploitation of copper found in the mountains in the area. Much of the town was burned by Swedish troops in 1679 during one of the many wars between DenmarkNorway and Sweden. It was, however, rebuilt and expanded to encompass numerous one- and two-story wooden houses, which have blackened over time to give the appearance of a living medieval village. In 1980, Røros was placed on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. At the beginning of the 20th century, on the night of 23 January 1904, the city of Ålesund in Sunnmøre on Norway’s northwest coast caught fire. With gale-force winds fanning the flames, almost the entire town was destroyed. However, like a phoenix rising out of the ashes, a new, and different, Ålesund emerged. Germany’s Kaiser Wilhelm II, who spent most of his summers between 1890 and 1914 sailing the fjords of western Norway, sent four warships of materials and provided architectural help to redesign and rebuild the town. Popular at the time was the architectural style known as Jugendstil, or Art Nouveau. More than 50 master builders and architects helped to reshape the city to its unique Art Nouveau personality between 1904 and 1907. Throughout the modern period, larger buildings, especially in the cities, were increasingly built with bricks and stone rather than wood. Stone or brick exteriors were sometimes required in the cities in order to reduce the danger of fire. These building materials are of less significance now, as reinforced concrete, combined with steel framing and glass facades, has replaced most other materials in large construction projects. Increasingly, modern architectural designs are reshaping the urban landscapes of Norway. The opera house in Oslo, designed by the Norwegian architectural firm Snøhetta, opened in 2008 and immediately became the iconic building in the city.

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Situated in the restored harbor area of Oslo’s old town, the building, with white Carrara marble surface, large glass windows, and extensive natural wood interiors, gives the appearance of a floating iceberg. Walking access to its roof makes it a public space unmatched in the capital city. Among the latest developments in Norwegian architecture is the establishment of Powerhouse, a collaborative alliance of architects, engineers, designers, and environmentalists to create “energy positive” buildings. The consortium includes five companies: the property company Entra, the entrepreneur Skanska, the architectural firm Snøhetta, the consulting company Asplan Viak, and the environmental organization Zero. In an initiative that began in 2010, Powerhouse seeks to eliminate the carbon footprint of buildings, which, according to the European Commission, accounts for 40 percent of energy usage and 36 percent of CO2 emissions in the European Union. See also ENVIRONMENT; GLOBAL WARMING. ARCTIC COUNCIL. The Arctic Council is the preeminent intergovernmental forum to address issues related to the Arctic region. Established by the Ottawa Declaration in 1996, the members of the Arctic Council include the eight countries with territory above the Arctic Circle (Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and the United States) and six “permanent participants” (PPs), groups representing the indigenous people of the Arctic. These include the Aleut International Association, the Arctic Athabaskan Council, the Gwich’in Council International, the Inuit Circumpolar Council, the Russian Arctic Indigenous Peoples of the North, and the Sami Council. The Arctic Council is not a treaty-based international organization but rather an international forum to provide a means for promoting cooperation, coordination, and interaction among the Arctic states on common issues, in particular, issues of sustainable development and environmental protection in the Arctic. The chairmanship of the Arctic Council rotates every two years between the eight Arctic states. Observer status has been granted to several non-Arctic nations, including France, Germany, Poland, the United Kingdom, Spain, China, Japan, India, Italy, South Korea, Singapore, and Switzerland. Observer status was denied the European Union because several Arctic states do not agree with the EU ban on the hunting of seals. To become an observer state, a nation must recognize the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of the Arctic states and that the extensive legal framework that includes the Law of the Sea applies to the Arctic Ocean. While initially focusing on environmental and sustainability issues, the consequences of climate change in the Arctic region have made security and geopolitical issues matters of increasing concern for the council. As the ice sheets have retreated and islands and rocks have emerged, boundary disputes, such as the conflict between Canada and Denmark over Hans Island, have become increasingly commonplace. Similarly, more open water has led to

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increased ship traffic in the Arctic Ocean, adding further potential for conflict. One such is the issue of the Northwest Passage, a route that Canada claims to be an internal Canadian seaway, whereas other countries consider it to be an international waterway. ART. The beginning of Norwegian art can be found in rock carvings dating back to the Paleolithic era, for example, the “Rødøy Man” from Nordland County, a stylized image of a skier that is approximately 4,000 years old. Rock art is always stylized and often nonfigurative, so it is difficult to assess its precise meaning, but solar motifs and images related to hunting are prevalent. A spectacular example of the latter is a bear hunt depicted as part of a collection of as many as 2,000 carvings in Alta, Finnmark County. Most rock art is found on smooth, sloping outcroppings of bedrock and is known from all parts of Norway. Other examples of prehistoric art are found on utilitarian objects left behind by hunters living in eastern Finnmark during the same period as those who made the Rødøy Man. Various bronze objects with ornamentation have also been found, as well as gold bracteates and other miniature thin gold plates that depict a sacred couple, possibly the fertility god Frey and his consort. These objects are associated with the Migration period and the early Viking age. Animal ornamentation was also common during the Viking period, when the so-called gripping beast style was popular. One of its classic examples is the bow on the Oseberg ship, which was built in 834 and found in a grave mound near Tønsberg, but smaller objects decorated in the same style have also been found. The gripping beast style persisted into the Christian medieval period and can be observed on the north portal of the Urnes stave church, built around 1150. Norway is also known for its folk art, especially wood carving and rosemaling (decorative flower painting). The wood carving traditions can be seen as early as the Viking period and lasted through the centuries, particularly in connection with church architecture and as adornments on altarpieces, pulpits, and baptismal fonts, but also in the homes of farmers. Starting in the 1700s, the acanthus vine became a particularly important motif. Rosemaling dates to approximately 1750 and originated in eastern Norway, but regional styles developed as it spread. Both smaller objects, such as spoons and bowls, and articles of furniture, such as chests and cupboards, were decorated with flower painting. Little is known about religious painting in Norway during the pre-Reformation period, and during the 1600s and 1700s, the relative austerity of the Lutheran church buildings did not promote the development of a specifically Norwegian tradition of religious art. Altarpieces were often painted by foreign artisans who specialized in this craft, and most of the Norwegian paintings known from this period are mainly of historical interest. With the

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rebirth of the Norwegian state in 1814, however, the nationalistic movement known as national romanticism manifested itself in pictorial art as well as in other areas of culture. Improved economic conditions made it increasingly feasible for talented artists to receive quality instruction, usually abroad. Such painters as Johan Christian Dahl, Adolph Tidemand, Peder Balke, and Hans Gude used motifs taken from rural life and Norwegian nature. Brudefærden i Hardanger (The Bridal Journey in Hardanger), painted in 1848, on which Gude collaborated with his colleague Tidemand, is Norway’s most famous painting in the style of national romanticism. It was later parodied as Oljeferden i Hardanger (1975; The Oil Journey in Hardanger) by Rolf Dagfinn Groven (1943–), who, with a landscape of oil tanks and garbage, wanted to show that the Norwegian oil industry was a threat to both nature and traditional Norwegian values. Herman August Cappelen (1827–52), who belonged to the so-called Dusseldorf school, is known for his nature motifs. Thomas Feamley (1802–42), a student of Dahl, unites nature with Norwegian history in his most famous painting, Slindrebirken (1839; The Slindre Birch), which shows an old birch tree growing on the top of an ancient burial mound. Lars Hertervig (1830–1902) painted nature motifs from the area northeast of Stavanger. When national romanticism gave way to a more realistic style, Christian Krohg, a student of Hans Gude, chose to paint motifs from everyday life. As he gradually moved in the direction of the naturalism of the 1880s, he depicted prostitutes and poverty, for example, Kampen for tilværelsen (1888–89; The Struggle for Survival), which shows a group of hungry children tightly bunched together. Norway’s most famous pictorial artist, Edvard Munch, who was Krohg’s student, made the transition from naturalism to impressionism and expressionism. He achieved world renown with Skrik (1893; Scream), Madonna (1894–95), and other works. Another world-famous Norwegian artist is the sculptor Gustav Vigeland, who is much admired for the numerous sculptures located in Frogner Park in Oslo. In the later 20th century, Norway has not produced artists comparable to Munch and Vigeland. The pictorial tradition remained strong, however, with such artists as Per Krohg (1889–1965), who studied with Henri Matisse (1869–1954), was later influenced by cubism, and is known for his large frescoes, including one in the United Nations Security Council chambers. Kaj Fjell (1907–89), who was inspired by Munch’s work, is known for his vitalism and his emphasis on the female elements of existence. Since the 1960s, Karl Erik Harr (1940–) and Dagfinn Bakke (1933–2019) have been among Norway’s foremost painters in a new romantic depiction of landscape and life in northern Norway. Odd Nerdrum (1944–) has rebelled against modernism by creating realistically painted figures, for example, in Mordet pa Andreas Baader (1977–78; The Murder of Andreas Baader), in which the head of the Baader-Meinhof terrorist gang is portrayed as a martyr. Ner-

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drum’s figurative style is strongly influenced by the early modern masters Caravaggio and Rembrandt. Many of the contemporaries of these artists have abandoned painting in favor of installations, which break down the boundaries between various art forms, as well as those that separate the audience from the artwork. ASBJØRNSEN, PETER CHRISTEN (1812–1885). Norwegian folklorist and author. Born in Christiania (Oslo) on 15 January 1812, Asbjørnsen attended a private course that was to prepare him for matriculation at the university, held at Norderhov, where he met his future collaborator Jørgen Moe. While working as a tutor at Romerike, north of Oslo, he started writing down the folktales and legends he heard. Influenced by the ideas of national romanticism, he published many of the legends under the title Norske Huldre-Eventyr og Folkesagn (Norwegian Popular Legends and Stories of the Hidden Folk), which came out in 1845, 1848, and 1870. Asbjørnsen wrote stories set in the milieu where the legends flourished, presenting the tellers in fictional form and including the actual legends within these frame stories, which present rural living in a lifelike manner. Together with Jørgen Moe, he edited and published Norske Folkeeventyr (Norwegian Folktales) in 1843 and 1852. Asbjørnsen’s academic studies centered on botany and zoology, about which he was well informed. For example, he published a popular article about Charles Darwin in 1861 and a widely circulated cookbook. He also worked as a forester and traveled widely. His primary legacy is in the area of folklore, however, and his contributions to Norwegian literature exist primarily in his lively descriptions of nature and his use of oral and popular language. ASTRUP, NIKOLAI (1880–1928). Norwegian painter. Born 30 August 1880, his father, Christian Astrup, was a pious and strict Lutheran minister who, in 1883, moved the family to the Jølster district in Sogn and Fjordane County of western Norway. His family hoped that Nikolai would follow his father into the ministry. For that purpose, he was sent to the Trondheim Cathedral School, where he dreamed of becoming a painter instead. Contemporary artists such as Theodor Kittelsen and Erik Werenskiold stirred his imagination. The majestic Norwegian nature around him inspired him, as did the customs and traditions of the local population, especially such things as the annual midsummer festivals. In 1899, he followed his muse to Kristiania (Oslo) where he enrolled at the Royal Institute of Design (Den Kongelige tegneskole) and in 1900 became a student of Harriet Backer, with whom he studied oil painting. Being awarded a grant to travel abroad, Astrup went to Paris in 1901 where he studied with Christian Krohg, then a professor of art at the Academie Colarossi. In 1902, Astrup returned to Jølster, where he

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married and began a family. He purchased property across from his childhood home on the southeastern shore of the majestic Lake Jølster, Astruptunet. Here he found inspiration and countless motifs for his woodcuts and paintings. Astrup’s neo-Romantic style consists of bold lines and stark colors. With motifs that are most often located in the Jølster area itself, his landscapes express the visual language of national romanticism combined with suggestions of the culture and traditions of western Norwegian life. Considered by some as naive and expressive, Astrup’s work is melancholy and dramatic, sublime and pastoral, with an expressionist distortion. Suffering from attacks of asthma since childhood, Astrup always had difficulty breathing. On New Year’s Day in 1928, he caught a cold that turned into pneumonia, which then resulted in his death on 21 January. See also ART.

B BAALSRUD, JAN SIGURD (1917–1988). Norwegian soldier and World War II commando born in Kristiania (Oslo) on 13 December 1917. He fought against the German invasion of Norway in April 1940 before retreating to Sweden, where he was interned briefly. Following his release, he returned to occupied Norway as a courier between Norway and Sweden for the British legation in Stockholm. Arrested by Swedish police and deported, he made his way through the Soviet Union to Africa and the United States to Great Britain, where he joined the Norwegian Independent Company and was trained as a saboteur. Baalsrud was sent with 11 other men to Norway in March 1943 in order to organize sabotage groups in the Arctic north of the country. While waiting to go ashore from the fishing boat which carried them from Shetland, they were ambushed by a German patrol. Of the 12 men in the group, only Baalsrud escaped death or capture. With the assistance of several individuals who risked their own lives to help him, Baalsrud survived the treacherous mountain terrain, avalanches, freezing temperatures, and frostbite that forced him to amputate several of his own toes before finally reaching Sweden nearly three months after the ordeal had begun. After the war, he helped to establish and actively supported the Norwegian Disabled Veterans Association (Krigsinvalideforbundet), assisting wounded and disabled veterans. Baalsrud’s story was first told by the British writer David Howarth, We Die Alone: A WWII Epic of Escape and Endurance (1955). That book and Baalsrud’s personal account served as the basis for a Norwegian feature film, Ni Liv (1957; Nine Lives) about his nearly three-monthlong ordeal. A second major motion picture about Baalsrud’s escape, Den 12. Mann (The 12th Man), was released in 2017. See also CINEMA. BÅHUSLEN. Part of Norway until the peace treaty signed in Roskilde, Denmark, in 26 February 1658, Båhuslen (the fief of Båhus) was ceded to Sweden by the Danish king Frederik III (1609–70), along with the Norwegian province of Trøndelag (which then included Nordmøre and Romsdal), as well as several Danish possessions. The treaty concluded the first of two wars commonly referred to at the Karl Gustav wars, from the name of Karl X 37

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Gustav (1622–60), king of Sweden. The cause of the war was Denmark’s 1657 attack on the territory belonging to the Duke of Gottorp, one of the political rivals of the Danish king. The Swedes withdrew following the signing of the Treaty of Roskilde but then returned in July 1658 to attack and lay siege to Copenhagen. When Holland, Poland, and Saxony subsequently came to Denmark’s aid, the second Karl Gustav war was concluded through another peace treaty, signed in Copenhagen on 27 May 1660. Most of the Roskilde treaty was allowed to stand, but Trøndelag was returned to Norway. BALKE, PEDER (1804–1887). Norwegian national romantic painter and social activist. Born 4 November 1804 on the island of Helgøya in Lake Mjøsa in the county of Hedmark, Balke was a cotter’s son who early showed talent as a painter, often decorating the homes of wealthy farmers in the district. Born Peder Andersen, he took the name Balke from the farm VesterBalke where he lived as a teenager. He studied art in Christiania (Oslo), Stockholm, and Dresden, and in 1843–44 he was a student of the renowned landscape artist Johan Christian Dahl. Like Dahl, Balke walked across Norway and back studying the landscape. He also traveled to northern Norway, a region that became the subject of many of his best-known paintings, such as Nord Kapp (1840 and 1853; North Cape) and Fyr på den norske kyst (1860; Lighthouse on the Norwegian Coast). Social issues greatly interested Balke, who had grown up in poor circumstances. In 1841, he advocated for stipends for artists, and in the 1850s he was a vocal supporter of establishing an artists’ pension fund. Between 1858 and 1876, he established a workers’ housing development in the outskirts of Oslo that he called “Balkeby.” Located in the area of modern-day Majorstuen, 42 of the 50 houses burned down in 1879, and Balke’s dream was never fully realized. Long considered a minor artist, he has begun to be recognized as a significant talent. In 2014–15, the National Gallery in London organized an international exhibition of 50 of Balke’s paintings, and in 2017 the Metropolitan Museum in New York exhibited 17 of his works in a show titled “Painter of Northern Light.” See also ART. BANKING. Banks are the main actors in Norway’s financial system. They vary from larger full-service banks to small private institutions. The banking system is highly automated and computerized. Online and mobile banking are common. Most financial transactions take place with debit cards issued by local banks. Cash is becoming rare, and checks have ceased to be used. Credit cards, while still extant, are generally used for large purchases, as debit cards are the default method of payment by most Norwegians. The

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Financial Supervisory Authority of Norway (Finanstilsynet) is responsible for the supervision of financial companies in accordance with laws and regulations set by the Norwegian Storting (Parliament). The Central Bank of Norway (Norges Bank) was established by law on 14 June 1816 with the responsibility of ensuring economic stability and a secure monetary policy. Bank headquarters were initially located in Trondheim, with local departments in Christiania (Oslo), Bergen, and Christiansand. The bank moved its headquarters to Oslo in 1896. In 1818, the Bank of Norway began to offer loans secured for the most part by real property. The first savings bank in Norway, Christiania Sparebank, was established in 1822, and in 1848 the first private commercial bank, Christiania Bank og Kreditkasse, was established. Savings banks were subject to some regulations to ensure the safety of the many small depositors. Commercial banks, on the other hand, organized as limited liability companies (LLCs), were allowed to operate without regulations, and funds were deposited “at the depositor’s own risk.” It was not until 1910 that an act of parliament established regulations governing LLCs, including commercial banks. The initial currency in Norway was the speciedaler, supported by silver reserves. Between 1873 and 1875, Norway joined the Scandinavian Monetary Union, abandoned the silver standard in favor of the gold standard, and replaced the Speciedaler with a new currency, the krone (crown). The value of the new currency was set at the rate of one kilogram of pure gold being equivalent to 2,480 kroner (crowns). The gold standard was suspended from 1914 to 1916 and from 1920 to 1928. In 1931, the gold standard was abandoned for good, and the currency was pegged to the British pound, 19.9 kroner to one pound. During the German occupation of World War II, the value of the krone was set in relation to the Reichmark, but it was largely unstable and inflationary because the German authorities had no qualms about printing krone notes whenever they needed more money. Following the war, the krone was again briefly set in relation to the British pound, but from 1949 to 1992, the currency was pegged to the American dollar at a rate of 7.142 kroner to one U.S. dollar. Since 1992, the Central Bank of Norway has abandoned the fixed rate of exchange and allowed the krone to float. In spite of being a member of the European Economic Area (EEA) and a founding member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), Norway twice rejected full membership in the European Union (EU) and chose to retain the krone as the national currency and maintain a measure of independence in setting its monetary policies. Except for Finland, all the other Nordic countries have also remained outside the Eurozone and retained their national currencies. Denmark, following a plebiscite, voted to retain the

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Danish krone in accordance with the Maastricht Treaty of 1992, which allowed member states to opt out. Sweden likewise chose to retain the Swedish krone after a national referendum but may join the Eurozone at a later date. BASTESEN, STEINAR (1945–). Norwegian politician. Born in Dønna, Nordland County, on 26 March 1945, Bastesen qualified for a license to operate coastal vessels (kystskippereksamen) in 1967 and worked in fishing and whaling. A resident of Brønnøysund, he represented the Conservative Party in local politics. He was first elected to the Storting in 1997 on the ticket of a new party called Tverrpolitisk Folkevalgte (Cross-Spectrum Elected) and reelected in 2001 as a representative of the Coastal Party, which he formed in 1999. He lost his seat in 2005. Bastesen was the head of the Coastal Party until 2005, when he was thrown out of office at a turbulent party convention. Many observers believed that his political career was over, but he was a candidate for the Coastal Party again in 2017. During his time on the national stage, he was a colorful presence in Norwegian politics and strongly argued in favor of the whaling industry. He also liked to wear articles of seal-fur clothing at public appearances. BERG, PAAL OLAV (1873–1968). Norwegian legal scholar, politician, and resistance leader. Born in Hammerfest on 18 January 1873, Berg studied law at the University in Kristiania (Oslo) and graduated in 1895. He first served as a judge at a city court and became a Supreme Court justice in 1913. Representing the Liberal Party, he served as minister of social work from 1919 to 1920 in Gunnar Knudsen’s second government and then as minister of justice in Johan Ludwig Mowinckel’s first government starting in 1924. He became chief justice of the Supreme Court in 1929, and in this capacity he led the efforts to establish a provisional government for Norway subsequent to the German attack and occupation in 1940. In 1943, he was asked by the Norwegian exile government in London to assume leadership of Hjemmefronten (Home Front), which conducted Norwegian resistance to the occupiers. It was fully operational by 1944 and was prepared to assume temporary control of Norway after the capitulation of the Germans. See also WORLD WAR II. BERGE, ABRAHAM THEODOR (1851–1936). Norwegian politician. Born on 20 August 1851 in Lyngdal, Vest-Agder County, Berge was a member of the Storting (Parliament) from 1892 to 1894 as well as from 1898 to 1912. He first represented the Liberal Party but left it for the Liberal Left Party when it was formed in 1909. He served as minister of finance under Christian Michelsen from 1906 to 1907 and as minister of ecclesiastical affairs under Jørgen Løvland from 1907 to 1908. He again served as minis-

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ter of finance under Wollert Konow from 1910 to 1912 and in the same position in the second government of Otto Bahr Halvorsen in 1923. When Halvorsen died unexpectedly after less than three months in office, Berge took over as prime minister, serving in that capacity from 1923 to 1924, with a continuing coalition of the Conservative Party and the Liberal Left Party. A vexatious issue in Norwegian politics at the time was how to maintain Norway’s ban on heavy wine and liquor in the face of possible and actual trade sanctions from three traditional exporters of alcoholic beverages, France, Spain, and Portugal. The prohibition against heavy wine had been abandoned by Halvorsen’s government, and Berge also wanted to cancel the ban on liquor and to do it without a referendum, which the Liberal Party preferred. That decision led to a vote of no confidence against his government in the summer of 1924, and it was succeeded by Johan Ludwig Mowinckel’s first government. Berge was later impeached for having provided government support to a bank without consulting the Storting. He was acquitted. BERGEN. The name Bergen comes from the Old Norse name Bjørgvin, meaning “a meadow among mountains.” Founded by King Olav Kyrre (c. 1050–93) in 1070, it was the capital of Norway until 1299, when the king relocated to Oslo. The city is located on the southwestern coast of Norway and is surrounded by seven mountains, which makes it a very rainy place but also gives it a mild climate, at least by Norwegian standards. The annual rainfall is 88 inches, but it is not uncommon to have temperatures above 10 degrees Celsius in the middle of the winter. Bergen has a maritime climate thanks to the Gulf Stream, which brings warm water across the North Atlantic from the Gulf of Mexico. Bergen is a municipality within Hordaland County and is Norway’s second-largest city after Oslo. The population on 1 January 2019 was 281,190. It is governed by an elected city council with 67 members, from which an executive city government, the Byrådet, is selected. The system of government is parliamentary, so the executive council is responsible to the city council. Because Bergen has almost a quarter of a million inhabitants, the city bureaucracy is substantial. Historically dependent on trade, the port of Bergen is the largest port in Norway and a center of coastal traffic, as well as an important port of call for cruise ships visiting the western Norwegian fjords. Bergen is also the home of a significant fishing fleet, and it supplies much of the offshore oil industry. Bergen is served by a major international airport (Flesland) and is the terminus of a railroad line leading to Oslo and from there to other parts of Norway, as well as to Sweden and the European continent. Car ferries run from Bergen to Denmark, Great Britain, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands. Education is also a major activity, as Bergen hosts the University of Bergen

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and the main campus of the Western Norway University of Applied Sciences (HVL), established with the merger of university colleges in Bergen, Førde, Haugesund, Sogndal, and Stord. Bergen is also home to Norway’s leading business school, the Norwegian School of Economics (Norges Handels Høyskolen; NHH). The city is also the center for government administration and health care delivery in western Norway. Bergen was severely affected by the Black Death in 1349. In the wake of the disaster, however, it became one of the most important trade centers for the Hanseatic League, which exploited the early Norwegian fishing industry, buying stockfish from coastal fishermen and exporting it throughout Europe. There was a persistent struggle between the Hansa merchants and the local royal administrators, but the Hansa managed to hold on to their position until the early modern period. Even though they lost their trade hegemony around 1750, the trade with northern Norway remained an important basis for Bergen’s economic life. Bergen retained a royal monopoly on trade with northern Norway until 1789. The largest city in Norway until the 1840s, Bergen grew less rapidly than Oslo during the second half of the 1800s and throughout the 1900s, but its borders were gradually enlarged through annexation of a number of surrounding communities. Before and during World War I, it was a major center for Norwegian shipping. There was, however, a devastating fire in the city center in 1916, which greatly transformed the city landscape. On 9 April 1940, Bergen was occupied by German troops and sustained a great deal of damage during World War II. In the course of the five-year-long occupation, Bergen became the focus for Allied bombing raids on several occasions, especially the massive concrete submarine pens at the entrance to the harbor. On 4 October 1944, British planes planning to bomb the pens at Laksevåg had their bombs go astray and destroy the Holen primary school, resulting in the death of 61 schoolchildren and over 100 civilians in the area. A similar attempt three weeks later damaged another part of the city and resulted in the death of 43 civilians and firemen. Earlier in the spring of that same year, on 20 April 1944, a Dutch ship, the Voorbode—illegally docked in the inner harbor of Bergen and loaded with 273,000 pounds of explosives—caught fire and exploded. Historic buildings from the late Middle Ages were damaged or destroyed as 158 people were killed, mostly civilians, and 4,800 people were injured. The force of the explosion was such that the anchor of the Voorbode was thrown almost two kilometers, coming to rest at 1,300 feet above sea level near the top of Sandviken Mountain, where it remains today, attesting to the force of the explosion. During the postwar period, Bergen has experienced a tremendous amount of growth, both in trade and in higher education, and it remains a forwardlooking and vibrant city of great charm and beauty. Not surprisingly, tourism is a major industry in Bergen. Among its many attractions are Bryggen, the

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old Hanseatic wharf, including its open-air fish market. The Haakon’s Hall was built during the reign of Haakon IV Haakonsson (1217–63), and both the Bergen Cathedral and the Mary Church (Mariakirken) date back to medieval times. The Rosenkrantz Tower was an important part of the old Bergenhus Fortress. Bergen also has a number of museums. Foremost among these is the combination of museums and composers’ homes known as KODE. The KODE complex consists of four museum buildings in the center of Bergen, KODE 1, 2, 3, and 4, and the homes of the composers Edvard Grieg (Trollhaugen), Ole Bull (Lysøen), and Harald Sæverud (Siljustøl). These museums include significant works by Edvard Munch, J. C. Dahl, and Nikolai Astrup, as well as collections of contemporary and decorative arts. To preserve historic and traditional structures representing the cultural and architectural history of Bergen, several buildings were moved from their original site to establish an open-air museum, Gamle Bergen (Old Bergen), in the Sandviken district north of the city center. BERGGRAV, EIVIND JOSEF (1884–1959). Norwegian theologian and bishop. Born in Stavanger on 25 October 1884, Berggrav, whose last name originally was Jensen, then Berggrav-Jensen, and finally just Berggrav, studied theology at the University of Oslo, from which he graduated in 1908. He was later ordained a State Church minister, although he also worked as a teacher and editor of the journal Kirke og Kultur (Church and Culture). During World War I, he worked as a journalist and wrote a book about the psychological effects of war and how to harmonize a religious attitude toward life with being a soldier. Having visited the western front, he was particularly concerned about man-to-man fighting with bayonets. Berggrav served as bishop in the Hålogaland bishopric from 1928 to 1937 and wrote a book titled Spenningens land (1937; Land of Suspense) about his life there. He later served as the bishop of Oslo (1937–51), which entailed being the leader of the college of bishops and the primas (foremost leader) of the church. During World War II, Berggrav led the resistance of the church against the occupiers’ attempted Nazification of Norwegian life, including the church. A highly principled man, Berggrav was interested in cooperation with other groups of believers. He successfully allied the church with the Christian lay movement in Norway during the war years and was the main force behind the statement “Kirkens grunn” (Foundation of the Church), which was read from pulpits throughout Norway on Easter 1942, and he led the ministers to resign the portion of their duties that pertained to their positions as government appointees. Berggrav felt that he had a moral duty to speak out against the refusal of the Nazis to honor freedom of religion; also, they wanted to change the liturgy of the church by deleting the reference to the king from the Common Prayer and substituting the names of Nazi lead-

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ers. Furthermore, the Nazis wanted to remove the priest-penitent confidentiality privilege so as to be able to use ministers as informers. Berggrav was arrested and placed at the Grini concentration camp but was later confined to his cabin for three years, guarded by a detail of Hirdsmenn (Vidkun Quisling’s specially trained soldiers) that was frequently rotated so that none of the soldiers would be influenced by his anti-Nazi beliefs. BERNADOTTE, JEAN-BAPTISTE JULES (1763–1844). French marshal, later king of Norway under the name Karl III Johan and of Sweden under the name Karl XIV Johan. Born the son of a French local administrator on 26 January 1763, Bernadotte rose from private in the French army to one of Napoleon’s most trusted marshals. Successful on the field of battle, he had an outstanding career before being chosen crown prince of Sweden in 1810 and adopted by Sweden’s King Karl II (XIII). At this time, he was also made supreme commander of the Swedish armed forces. At the Treaty of Kiel, he realized one of Sweden’s long-term foreign policy objectives, as Denmark’s King Frederik VI ceded Norway to Sweden as a consequence of being on the losing side in the Napoleonic Wars. When Norway called a constitutional convention and claimed independence from both Denmark and Sweden, Bernadotte, now under the name Karl Johan, conducted a brief war against Norway. A diplomatic realist who knew that Europe’s Great Powers preferred to see the matter settled without additional hostilities, he negotiated a resolution of the conflict that allowed Norway to keep its constitution mostly intact, as only the changes required by the union were made. The king of Norway and Sweden from 1818 to 1844, he was greatly admired in both countries. The main street in Oslo running between the Royal Palace and the central railroad station retains the name Karl Johans gate (Karl Johan Street), after the union king. BJØRNEBOE, JENS INGVALD (1920–1976). Norwegian novelist and dramatist. Born in Kristiansand on 9 October 1920, Bjørneboe was profoundly influenced by the culture of continental Europe. Deeply affected by the experience of World War II, Bjørneboe wrote his first novel, Før hanen galer (1952; Before the Cock Crows) about medical experiments performed by Nazi doctors on concentration camp prisoners. His next novel, Jonas (1955; tr. The Last of These, 1959), offers a portrait of a dyslexic little boy and attacks the Norwegian school system, while Under en hårdere himmel (1957; Under a Harder Sky) portrays Norway’s treatment of Nazi wartime collaborators. Other novels followed, after which Bjørneboe returned to the war experience and its connection with the problem of evil. A trilogy commonly referred to as “The History of Bestiality” discusses crimes committed by the European nations and America, mostly during the 20th century.

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Bjørneboe wrote several dramas, of which Fugleelskeme (1966; tr. The Bird Lovers, 1993) is set in an Italian village and presents the effects of World War II on both the natives and the former German occupiers. See also LITERATURE. BJØRNSON, BJØRNSTJERNE (1832–1910). Norwegian novelist, dramatist, poet, and cultural leader. Born in Kvikne, Hedmark County, on 8 December 1832, Bjørnson was considered Norway’s most important writer during his lifetime. In fact, his significance to Norwegian literature, culture, and society cannot be overestimated, and for half a century, he used his preeminence as a writer to provide both political and artistic leadership. The son of a Lutheran minister, Bjørnson grew up among farmers and became thoroughly familiar with most aspects of rural life. After schooling in Molde and Christiania (Oslo), he started writing cultural journalism for the Christiania paper Morgenbladet (Morning Post) in 1854. He had a tremendous amount of energy and involved himself in a variety of causes, including Norway’s first worker’s movement and the struggle to establish a Norwegian theater, as well as liberal politics in general. Starting in 1857, when he published both the historical drama Mellem Slagene (tr. Between the Acts, 1941) and a bondefortelling (peasant tale) titled Synnøve Solbakken (tr. 1858), Bjørnson produced a series of works influenced by the ideas of national romanticism. In the 1870s, he helped introduce realistic drama to Norway, criticizing contemporary business practices, journalism, and even the monarchy. After abandoning his Christian faith in favor of a worldview inspired by the works of Charles Darwin (1809–82), he wrote an important drama that probes the psychology of faith, Over evne I (1883; tr. Pastor Sang, 1893). He also got heavily involved in the so-called morality debate of the 1880s, in which he argued that men should be held to the same standards as women in matters of sexual conduct. Most of Bjørnson’s works from the latter part of his career have not withstood the test of time, but many of his best poems have become part of Norway’s national patrimony. BLACK DEATH. The Black Death is a highly communicable disease that initially hit Europe from 1347 to 1351 and returned from time to time thereafter. Usually thought of as the bubonic plague because of the apparent abscesses of the lymph nodes that were characteristic of the disease, it appeared in Bergen in the summer of 1349. Although generally thought to have been spread by rats and their fleas, recent research suggests that the disease spread from infected person to person, a conclusion drawn from the evidence of how rapidly the plague actually progressed. While early documentation points to Bergen as the entrepôt of the disease, it may also have arrived

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overland from the east, possibly appearing in Oslo in 1348. Its effects in Norway were devastating, likely killing between one-half and two-thirds of the population. Reliable estimates are difficult to make, but according to tax records, a large proportion of Norwegian farms were still uninhabited as late as around 1520. With the decline in the population, land values fell precipitously and land rents even more so. The Norwegian landed nobility were thus hit particularly hard financially as well as suffering an estimated mortality of more than 70 percent. BLEHR, OTTO ALBERT (1847–1927). Norwegian politician. Born in Stange, Hedmark County, on 17 February 1847, Blehr received a law degree and entered political life as a member of the Liberal Party. He served as a member of the Storting (Parliament) from 1883 to 1888 and again from 1895 to 1900 and was the Norwegian prime minister in Stockholm from 1891 to 1893. This meant that he was in effect Norway’s top representative to its union partner, and it fell to Blehr’s lot to present the consular service bill to King Oscar II in 1892. He also served as Norway’s prime minister from 1902 to 1903 at the height of the struggle that led to the dissolution of the union with Sweden in 1905. Still at issue was the long-standing disagreement about Norway’s demand for its own consular service, and, in addition, Norway wanted its own minister of foreign affairs. Blehr managed to negotiate a possible solution to the conflict in March 1903, according to which each of the two countries was to have its own consular service, but the matter of the minister of foreign affairs was partly left unresolved. Blehr’s government had to resign when the Liberal Party lost the 1903 parliamentary election to the United Party (Samlingspartiet), a combination of the Conservatives and some right-leaning Liberals, and was succeeded by a United Party government led by Francis Hagerup. Blehr next served as a county administrator in Kristiania (now Oslo) from 1905 to 1917 but came back to national politics when Gunnar Knudsen declined the post of prime minister in 1921. Blehr’s government lasted until 1923 but foundered on the question of how to deal with Portugal’s demand that Norway should continue importing its alcoholic beverages in spite of the Norwegian prohibition against heavy wine. This was essentially the same issue that had felled Otto Bahr Halvorsen’s government two years earlier, and the matter was resolved only when Norway abandoned its prohibition against heavy wine later in 1923. BOJER, JOHAN KRISTOFFER (1872–1959). Norwegian novelist. Bojer was born 6 March 1872 in Orkdal, Trøndelag County, but grew up in Rissa next to the Trondheim fjord. A prolific writer, Bojer is remembered for those of his novels that depict the lives of common people from his home

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community, foremost among them Den siste viking (1921; tr. Last of the Vikings, 1923). The story of a group of fishermen from Trøndelag who travel to and participate in the great Lofoten cod fisheries, it is a novel of great cultural and historical significance. The novel Folk ved sjøen (1929; tr. Folk by the Sea, 1931) also has Rissa as its setting. Vor egen stamme (1924; tr. Emigrants, 1925) is a narrative of the Norwegian emigration to America and was written in competition with Ole Edevart Rølvaag’s I de dage (1924) and Riket grundlegges (1925), which were translated by Lincoln Colcord and published together as Giants in the Earth: A Saga of the Prairie (1927). See also LITERATURE. BONDEVIK, KJELL MAGNE (1947–). Norwegian politician. Born in Molde in northwestern Norway on 3 September 1947 as the son of an educator, Bondevik studied theology at Menighetsfakultetet (MF Norwegian School of Theology), a divinity school located in Oslo, earning his degree in 1975. He was ordained a minister in the Norwegian Evangelical-Lutheran Church (the State Church) four years later. A member of the Christian Democratic Party, he was first elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1973, serving until his retirement from politics in 2005, subsequent to the defeat of his coalition government in that year’s parliamentary elections. During five different periods of time, he also functioned as the leader of the Christian Democratic parliamentary caucus and party leader from 1983 to 1995. From 1983 to 1986, Bondevik served as minister of church and education in the government headed by Kåre Willoch, and in 1989–90, he was minister of foreign affairs under Jan P. Syse. In 1997, Bondevik became the prime minister in a minority coalition government consisting of the Christian Democrats, the Center Party, and the Liberal Party, which remained in power until 2000, when its commitment to the clean generation of electricity from natural gas was not supported by a parliamentary majority. It was succeeded by a Labor Party government headed by Jens Stoltenberg, which experienced a setback in the parliamentary elections of 2001 when Bondevik formed a second minority coalition consisting of the Conservative Party, the Christian Democrats, and the Liberal Party. After leaving national politics, Bondevik served as the United Nations secretary general’s special envoy to the Horn of Africa, and he helped to establish the Oslo Center for Peace and Human Rights in 2006. The Oslo Center seeks to promote responsible leadership in order to prevent conflicts and to strengthen democratic practices in the world’s fragile democracies while focusing on human rights, democracy, and interreligious and intercultural dialogue. See also OIL AND NATURAL GAS.

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BORGEN, JOHAN COLLETT MÜLLER (1902–1979). Norwegian author, journalist, and literary critic. Born in Oslo on 28 April 1902, Borgen grew up in Oslo’s wealthy West End, a district which inspired his bestknown work, the autobiographical novel Lillelord (1955). During the decades of the 1950s and 1960s, he was one of Norway’s best-known writers and cultural personalities. In addition to his novels, he wrote short stories, held numerous commentaries on NRK, the national broadcasting network, and served as a book reviewer for one of Oslo’s leading newspapers, Dagbladet. He also served as the editor of one of the leading literary journals, Vinduet (The Window), from 1954 to 1960. Borgen debuted in 1925 with a collection of short stories, Mot mørket (1925; Toward the Dark) and became somewhat of a sensation during World War II when he penned short commentaries for Dagbladet under the pseudonym Mumle Gåsegg (Mumbles Goose-Egg). His ironic style and criticism of the Nazi authorities eventually resulted in his arrest and imprisonment in the Grini Prison Camp. Inspired early by Knut Hamsun, Borgen developed his own voice as a humorist and a lyrical writer of prose. He was especially engaged with questions of identity, such as “who” and “what” am I. This is particularly apparent in his Lillelord trilogy: Lillelord (1955), De mørke kilder (1956; The Dark Sources), and Vi har ham nå (1957; We Have Him Now). His books have been translated into over 30 languages, and he was awarded the prestigious Nordisk Råds Litteraturpris (Nordic Council’s Literary Prize) in 1967 for Nye noveller (New Short Stories). See also LITERATURE. BORTEN, PER (1913–2005). Norwegian politician. Born on 3 April 1913 in Flå, Melhus, in Sør-Trøndelag County, Borten was trained at the Norwegian Agricultural University and later worked as a local agricultural extension representative. He had joined the Agrarian Party, which later became known as the Center Party, and served as mayor of his home community from 1945 to 1955. He became a member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1949, retiring in 1977. From 1955 to 1967, he was also the head of the Center Party and was instrumental when it changed its name from Bondepartiet (Agrarian Party) to Senterpartiet (Center Party) in 1959. In 1965, he became prime minister in a Center-Right coalition but resigned in 1971. The hottest political issue at the time was whether Norway should join the European Economic Community (EEC), later known as the European Union, about which a referendum was held on 25 September 1972. The Center Party opposed Norwegian membership in the EEC, and Borten was accused of having given confidential documents related to the issue to an organization that led the fight against joining. It later became clear that one of Borten’s associates was behind the leak.

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BRANDT, WILLY (1913–1992). Born 18 December 1913 in Lübeck, Germany, his original name was Herbert Ernst Karl Frahm. Brandt was a journalist, politician, statesman, leader of the Social-Democratic Party of Germany, and chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971 for his work of reconciliation between West Germany and Eastern Europe. Brandt was active in German social-democratic political life as a teenager and, when Hitler and the National Socialists took control of Germany, Brandt was forced to leave the country. Through his political activity, he had by then developed strong personal connections with members of the Norwegian social-democratic movement, and in 1933 he chose to move to Norway. In Norway, in addition to becoming active in the Labor Party, he worked as a journalist and assumed the pseudonym Willy Brandt, a name he would use from then on and which would become his official name in 1948. Following the German invasion of Norway on 9 April 1940, Brandt escaped to Sweden, where he lived for the duration of the war. In August 1940, while in Stockholm, he became a Norwegian citizen and received a Norwegian passport. In 1946, Brandt returned to Germany as a Norwegian citizen in a Norwegian military uniform. Although his Norwegian social-democratic colleagues urged him to remain in Norway, he chose to return to Germany, joined the German Social-Democratic Party, and regained his German citizenship. Brandt, however, never forgot his Norwegian years or his professional and personal connections with the country. He was married to a Norwegian, Rut Hansen Brandt, from 1948 to 1980, and they had three children. Brandt maintained close connections with Norway for the rest of his life, often returning to the country for visits. Winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971 confirmed his special personal bond with Norway. See also WORLD WAR II. BRATLIE, JENS KRISTIAN MEINICH (1856–1939). Norwegian politician, legal scholar, and military officer. Born on 17 January 1856 in Nordre Land, Oppland County, to the lawyer and sheriff Erik Bratlie (1814–90), Bratlie’s conservatism was of rural rather than urban origin. After graduating from the Military Academy in 1880, Bratlie studied law at the university in Christiania (Oslo), then served in the Ministry of Defense and as the chief legal officer of the Norwegian army. As a young man, Bratlie belonged to the wing of the Conservative Party that was friendly toward the union with Sweden and believed that the Norwegian army should be a mobile force that could assist Sweden in defending the Scandinavian Peninsula. Elected to the Storting (Parliament), Bratlie had a powerful influence on the changes that were made to the organization of the Norwegian army in 1909. He served as the leader of the Conservative Party from 1911 to 1919 and became prime minister in 1912, when Wollert Konow had to resign because of his positive comments about Nynorsk (New Norwegian), which gave the Christiania

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Conservatives in his government a pretext to oppose him publicly. Bratlie’s rural background meant that he did not have the same animosity toward Nynorsk as his urban colleagues, and he wanted to unite the conservative and centrist forces in Norwegian political life. He resigned when the election in 1912 gave the Liberal Party a majority in the Storting and Gunnar Knudsen took over as prime minister. BRATTELI, TRYGVE (1910–1984). Norwegian politician. The son of a small farmer and born on 11 January 1910 in Nøtterøy, Vestfold County, Bratteli worked on a whaling vessel while yet in his teens and later did construction work. He served in several positions in Arbeidernes Ungdomsfylking (the youth division of the Labor Party) and as an editor of the Labor press in Kirkenes and Oslo. After engaging in resistance work, he was arrested by the Germans during World War II and sent to the concentration camps Sachsenhausen and Natzweiler, weighing a scant 103 pounds when he was released in 1945 as part of a humanitarian mission led by the Swede Folke Bernadotte. A member of the Storting (Parliament) from 1949 to 1981, he led the Labor Party caucus during three periods, 1964–71, 1972–73, and 1976–81. Bratteli was also vice chair of the Labor Party from 1945 to 1965, as well as its leader from 1965 to 1975. He served as minister of finance under Oscar Torp and in Einar Gerhardsen’s third government, as well as minister of transportation in Gerhardsen’s third and fourth governments. When Per Borten resigned as prime minister in 1971, Bratteli was the obvious choice to form the Labor Party minority government that served until shortly after the European Union referendum on 25 September 1972. Bratteli was strongly in favor of Norwegian membership and had been conducting negotiations in Brussels. The 1972 victory of the anti-EU forces was a serious political blow. He formed a second minority government subsequent to the parliamentary elections of 1973 and remained prime minister until he was succeeded by Odvar Nordli, also of the Labor Party, in 1976. Bratteli has also served as both a longtime member and president of the Nordisk Råd (Nordic Council). Bratteli’s strength as a politician was his command of the issues and his ability to find practical solutions to problems associated with the management of Norwegian society, including its economy. He was a superb communicator, and his integrity was never in question. Once the more pressing social and economic problems of postwar Norway had largely been solved, however, he had a perhaps less-than-perfect understanding of the nonmaterial and values-related considerations that informed those who opposed his drive toward Norwegian membership in the EC.

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BREIVIK, ANDERS BEHRING (1979–). Norwegian right-wing terrorist who killed 77 people in two separate terrorist acts in Norway on 22 July 2011. Born in Oslo, he grew up in a dysfunctional family. Diagnosed with mental problems as a youth, he developed a strong nationalistic antipathy toward immigrants to Norway, especially Muslims. On 22 July 2011, he detonated a homemade car bomb in central Oslo outside the government buildings housing the offices of the prime minister and the Ministry of Justice. The explosion killed eight people. Dressed as a policeman, he then proceeded to an island in a rural lake northwest of Oslo, Utøya, where a Labor Party summer youth camp was being held. There he proceeded to rampage around the island killing 69 people, mostly teenagers. He surrendered meekly to police when they finally arrived on the scene. Prior to the attacks, Breivik posted online a long anti-immigrant, white supremacist manifesto. Following a trial, on 24 August 2011 he was convicted of mass murder and sentenced to the maximum penalty possible under Norwegian law, 21 years, with the possibility of extension as long as he is deemed a danger to society. BRUNDTLAND, GRO HARLEM (1939–). Norwegian politician. Known simply as “Gro” by most Norwegians, Brundland was born in Bærum on the outskirts of Oslo on 20 April 1939 to Gudmund Harlem, a member of Einar Gerhardsen’s third and fourth governments. Brundtland became a very popular prime minister of Norway, first for a brief stint in 1981 and then during two additional periods, 1986–89 and 1990–96. She was educated as a medical doctor at the University of Oslo (1963) and also received a master of public health degree from Harvard University (1965). A lifelong member of the Labor Party (she joined its children’s organization at age seven), she served as party chairperson from 1981 to 1992 and as minister of the environment from 1974 to 1979. As prime minister, her ability to further her party’s political agenda was hampered by the fact that none of her governments had the support of a parliamentary majority. One of her most significant setbacks came when a proposal for Norwegian membership in the European Union, which she strongly supported, was voted down in a 1994 referendum. Brundtland has also had a distinguished international career. She chaired the World Commission on Environment and Development, generally known as the Brundtland Commission, which was established by the United Nations in 1983 and the report of which, Our Common Future, was published in 1987. Charged with examining the increasing deterioration of the world’s human environment, including the depletion of natural resources and its consequences for the social and economic future of the planet, the commission defined the concept of “sustainable development” and outlined policy changes that would make it possible. Brundtland was also named director

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general of the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1998, serving until 2003. She stressed the significance of violence as a public health issue and received much praise for her coordination of the world’s response to the SARS epidemic. She served as a United Nations special envoy for climate change from 2007 to 2010 and serves actively as deputy chair of “the Elders,” a nongovernmental organization of noted public figures, such as statesmen, peace advocates, and human rights activists, who use their political prominence to resolve some of the world’s most pressing problems. See also GLOBAL WARMING. BRUUN, CHRISTOPHER ARNT (1839–1920). Norwegian theologian and educator. Born in Christiania (Oslo) on 23 September 1839, Bruun studied theology and enlisted as a private in the Danish army, fighting the Prussians in 1864. A man of strong emotions, his life was changed when he became acquainted with the ideas of the Danish clergyman Nicolaj Severin Frederik Grundtvig (1783–1872), whose form of Christianity emphasized the uniqueness of every single human being and who had developed a perspective on life that allowed him to hold the history of his country and Christianity in a single vision. Bruun was particularly taken with Grundtvig’s folk high school, which emphasized the students’ native tongue and history in its curriculum and where oral interaction and singing often took the place of reading as a form of study. When he returned to Norway, Bruun started a school in the Grundtvigian spirit at Raamundgard in Sel parish in Norway’s central valley, Gudbrandsdalen, in 1867. He dressed and lived like a farmer and wanted to renew Norwegian society by drawing strength from rural life and the written form of Norwegian called Nynorsk (New Norwegian), the language of Ivar Aasen and Aasmund Olafsson Vinje. In 1875, his school was moved to Vonheim, close to the home of Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Aulestad, in Gausdal, not far from Lillehammer. Bruun systematized his ideas in his book Folkelige Grundtanker (1878; Fundamental Popular Ideas). BRYGGEN. (The Wharf.) The wharf area in the inner harbor (Vågen) of Bergen consisting of wooden houses dating from the period of the Hanseatic League around which the city grew and developed to be a major administrative and commercial center on Norway’s west coast. As a working port, the area was first built up around 1070 CE, but it was in the years 1350–1536 that it was at its height of importance. The Bergen office of the German league of merchants, the Hansa, served as middlemen for the stockfish trade from northern Norway to the continent in return for all manner of goods, including grains and textiles, brought into Norway. The area of Bryggen was strictly off-limits to Norwegians, as it was dominated by the German merchants and their employees. It has been estimated that medieval Bergen had a

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population of around 10,000 people, one-third of whom were foreigners, many of them young men associated with the Hansa merchants. In 1754, the last German merchant at Bryggen left, as by then the trading had been largely taken over by Norwegians, some descended from the earlier German merchants. Descendents of Hansa families, such as the Kahr, Ameln, Meltzer, Meyer, and Marten families, continued to live and work in Bergen, overwhelmingly lawyers rather than merchants in subsequent generations. The Hanseatic system and trading privileges continued even under Norwegian control, until it was finally eliminated during the rise of liberalism in the 19th century. In 1979, Bryggen was entered on the list of World Heritage Sites by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for the outstanding cultural value it represents to Norway and the world. The Hanseatic heritage of Bryggen is documented most profoundly by the buildings of the wharf area. Although only about one-quarter of the original wooden buildings survive, the medieval urban structure has been maintained, with the elements necessary to demonstrate how Bryggen functioned. Long, narrow passages run back from the harbor, with gabled facades toward the dock. The houses are built in a traditional timber log construction with horizontal wooden cladding. Behind the houses facing the harbor are small stone warehouses or storerooms for protection of special goods against fire. Fires have ravaged the wooden houses of Bryggen over the years, the most recent major fire being in 1955. The rebuilding followed old, traditional methods and patterns, thereby preserving the main structures as relics of medieval northern European wood construction. BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (1810–1880). Norwegian violinist and composer. The son of a Bergen druggist, born on 5 February 1810, Bull was a highly gifted violinist and Norway’s first internationally known musical performer. His father wanted him to study theology at the university in Christiania (Oslo), but he was unable to focus on his studies, as he was obsessed with the ideas of national romanticism and promoted Norwegian folk music. He was also a leading light in creating the first theater in Norway, Det norske Theater (the Norwegian Theater) in Bergen, at which the actors spoke Norwegian rather than Danish. The communal socialist ideas of his day also attracted his interest, and he tried to establish a colony named Oleana in Pennsylvania. He was greatly admired by many of his contemporaries and had tremendous success as a concert violinist, especially in the United States. Many of his compositions have been lost because he memorized them and did not write them down. He is, however, remembered for Seterjentens Søndag (The Sunday of the Dairymaid), the musical setting of a poem by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, and I ensomme Stunde (In Solitary Moments), for

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which the philosophy professor Marcus Jacob Monrad wrote the lyrics. He is also remembered as a mentor of Edvard Grieg. See also EMIGRATION FROM NORWAY TO AMERICA; MUSIC. BUNAD. A wide range of rural and traditional clothes worn in preindustrial Norway, and clothes based on traditional costumes with a regional identity that have come to be regarded as national folk costumes in Norway. Folk costumes came about as a result of local rural traditions, external influences, and individual tastes and differed from the styles in urban areas where general European fashion was more influential. Although the term bunad has come into common usage, a distinction can be made between the folk costume (folkedrakt) and the bunad. Historically, folk costumes were made on the farm by the people themselves from homemade wool rather than the more expensive silk or other imported material commonly used in urban areas. Regional differences in style and decoration emerged based on the strength of outside influences and economic status. Folk costumes became the object of great interest beginning in the 1840s and the period of national romanticism. As Norwegians looked to define a national identity in art, literature, music, and politics, rural folk culture came to be seen as a unique expression of the national soul. So, too, its clothes. Folk costumes became a popular theme for artists, especially evident in the paintings of Adolph Tidemand. Theater performances and dance groups with characters dressed in folk costumes became popular, exhibitions were arranged, and folk costumes were often modified to appeal to urban tastes. A reaction to the urbanization of folk costumes came about at the turn of the century during the debates over the dissolution of the union with Sweden. There emerged a desire to return to a style that was uniquely Norwegian and to do so by re-creating the preindustrial clothing tradition that was slowly vanishing. Out of this movement, the folk costume became a bunad. The central figure in this development was Hulda Garborg, who popularized the use of folk costumes through their use by folk music and dance group performers at the beginning of the 20th century. Worn most commonly by women in Norway, the bunad tradition is shared by men and children as well. A full bunad today has the status of full formal wear in Norway and is especially popular dress for weddings, birthday celebrations, and, most notably, Norway’s national holiday, the Seventeenth of May.

C CAPPELEN, ANDREAS ZEIER (1915–2008). Norwegian politician. Born in Vang, Hedmark County, on 31 January 1915, Cappelen was trained as a lawyer and served as prosecuting attorney during the trials of Nazi collaborators after World War II. He began his government career as the minister of local government and labor under Einar Gerhardsen from 1958 to 1963 and served as Gerhardsen’s minister of finance from 1963 to 1965. When the Labor Party returned to power in 1971, Trygve Bratteli named Cappelen his minister of foreign affairs, and from 1979 to 1980 he served as Odvar Nordli’s minister of justice. In 1972, Cappelen experienced a major political setback when the Labor government’s proposal for Norwegian membership in the European Community was defeated in a nationwide referendum. CARLMAR, EDITH MARY JOHANNE (1911–2003). Norwegian actress and film director. Born in Kristiania (Oslo) on 15 November 1911, Edith grew up with music in the home and debuted as a dancer at the age of 15. In 1930, she married Otto Carlmar, a theatrical producer whom she met while performing at the Casino Theater in Oslo. Otto worked as finance director for the Oslo Nye Teater, where Edith made her acting debut in 1936. Here she also met Tancred Ibsen, son of Sigurd Ibsen and grandson of Henrik Ibsen, who was preparing to film Gjest Baardsen (1939) and invited Edith to work on the script. Ibsen subsequently became her inspiration and mentor as she worked on two other Ibsen films, including Den hemmelighetsfulle leiligheten (The Mysterious Apartment) in 1948. That same year she began plans to make her own films and, in February 1949, established Carlmar Film A/S, with Otto as producer and herself as director. The first film of the new company, Døden er et kjærtegn (Death Is a Caress), began a 10-year-long run of successful films for Carlmar and has become a Norwegian film noir classic. Over the course of the next decade, Edith directed 10 films, including the highly successful situation comedy Fjols til Fjells (Fool in the Mountains), a 1957 film in which Liv Ullmann first appeared on screen in a noncredited role. Having discovered Ullmann, Carlmar cast her in the lead role of her 10th film, Ung Flugt (The Wayward Girl), in 1959. After 1959, 55

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Carlmar worked primarily with short films and as a screenwriter, taking occasional acting roles. In 1994, she was awarded the Norwegian equivalent of the Oscars, the Amanda Prize, by the Norwegian Film Institute for her pathbreaking contributions to Norwegian cinema. CASTBERG, FREDE (1893–1977). Norwegian legal scholar, jurist, and professor of law. Born in Vardal, Oppland, on 4 July 1893, he was the son of Johan Castberg, a Norwegian politician and legal scholar. Castberg earned his juris doctor degree in 1921 and was appointed professor of jurisprudence at the University of Oslo in 1928. He wrote several important works on international law and presided over the curatorium of The Hague Academy of International Law from 1962 to 1976. CASTBERG, JOHAN (1862–1926). Norwegian politician and legal scholar. Born in Brevik, Telemark County, on 21 September 1862, Castberg served as a representative in the Storting (Parliament) for the Labor Democrats, a nonsocialist liberal party with strong ties to the Liberal Party, during the periods of 1901–9, 1913–21, and 1924–26. He served as minister of justice in Gunnar Knudsen’s first government from 1908 to 1910, as well as both minister of trade (1913) and minister of social affairs (1913–14) in Knudsen’s second government. Somewhat to the left of the Liberal Party, Castberg argued in favor of a republican rather than a monarchical form of government in 1905. In Norwegian history, his name is associated with two groups of laws, the concession laws and the child laws. The former, originally passed in 1906, then expanded in 1909 and 1917, regulated access to, and ownership of, natural resources in the development of hydroelectric power and applied to both Norwegian and foreign interests. A major point was the doctrine of escheat, the rule that the ownership of waterfalls, power stations, and electrical distribution networks was to revert to the state after a certain period of time. The child laws, passed in 1915, specified that children born out of wedlock were to have the right to inherit from their paternal relatives and established the rules used for how support payments were collected from their fathers. CENTER PARTY. Senterpartiet (Sp) dates to 1920, when it was formed at the behest of the Norges Bondelag (Norwegian Farmer Association) as its political arm under the name Bondepartiet (Agrarian Party). During the first years of its existence, it fought for issues that were of interest to the agrarian class, such as better conditions for Norwegian grain producers, support for the cultivation of new farmland, lower taxes for the farmers, and protective tariffs for agricultural products. The party garnered 15 percent of the popular vote in the 1921 parliamentary election, the first election in which it

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participated. During the 1920s and 1930s, the Agrarians continued to receive significant support, possibly because the party departed from the classic economic liberalism that had been the mainstay of its two primary rivals, the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party. Some of the ideas of the British political economist John Maynard Keynes found resonance among the Agrarians, who came to favor a mixed economy with significant state intervention. There was, therefore, a basis for cooperation between the Agrarians and the other Norwegian class-based party, Labor, and in 1935, the two parties made a crisis agreement, according to which the Labor Party government, headed by Johan Nygaardsvold, would receive the support of the Agrarians, who in turn received Labor’s support for some of their farm policies. This event is of significance as the beginning of the Labor Party’s overwhelming dominance in Norwegian politics, which lasted well into the years after World War II and went virtually unchallenged until 1965. During the years leading up to World War II, while fascism and Nazism were on the march in Europe, there were some Agrarians who were taken with these ideologies. One of them was Vidkun Quisling, who served as minister of defense in Agrarian Party governments headed by Peder Kolstad (1931–32) and Jens Hundseid (1932–33). Hundseid later joined the Norwegian National Socialist Party (NS). After World War II, the Agrarians increasingly distanced themselves from the Labor Party, demanding economic equality between the rural and the urban portions of the population while resisting Labor’s call for capital-intensive industrialization and its corresponding centralization, including the depopulation of the countryside. The party changed its name to Senterpartiet (Sp) in 1959 as a reflection of the fact that it was no longer a party just for farmers but one that wanted to maintain a stable population throughout the entire country. In 1965, the party supplied the prime minister in a broad Center-Right coalition government that, for the first time since 1935, showed that Norway had a genuine alternative to government by the Labor Party. The flagship issue of the Sp since 1970 has been opposition to Norwegian membership in the European Union (EU), an organization that was earlier known as the European Community (EC) and the European Economic Community. The success of the “No to EC” faction at the time of the 1972 referendum did not show up at the ballot box in the 1973 parliamentary election, however, as the Sp gained only one additional seat in the Storting (Parliament). In October 1975, flush from the victory in the referendum, the Sp joined with the Christian Democrats and the Liberal Party and established a Center coalition led by Lars Korvald of the Christian Democrats. This government lasted for only one year. During the 1970s, the Sp shifted its focus significantly, adopting environmental protection as its new focus. Environmentalism went well with the party’s old emphasis on decentralization and the quality of rural life. During

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the 1970s, the early years of Norway’s oil bonanza, it warned against materialism and wanted to slow down the country’s economic growth. This issue cost the party dearly in the 1977 parliamentary election, when it lost 10 seats. In the 1980s, it participated in two Center-Right coalitions led by the Conservative Party, and its support eroded until the next battle about Norway’s relationship with Europe arrived, the referendum about membership in the EU held in 1994. Speaking for those opposed to membership, the party came through the 1993 parliamentary election as the secondlargest party in the Storting. After the opponents had won the 1994 referendum, however, support for the Sp declined again as it participated in the Center coalition led by Kjell Magne Bondevik of the Christian Democratic Party. From 2005 to 2013, it joined with the Labor Party and the Socialist Left Party in a socalled Red-Green coalition, which represented both a return to its collaboration with Labor in 1935 and a departure from many of its policies since World War II. The party’s strong stance in support of Norwegian farmers has led to a policy of high tariffs on imported food products such as hard cheeses and lamb. CHRISTIAN II (1481–1559). King of Denmark and Norway. Last king of the Kalmar Union, Christian ruled from 1513 to 1523. The eldest son of King Hans (Johannes), Christian was born on 1 July 1481 at the historic Nyborg Castle on the Danish island of Fyn. He was early and often in conflict with the Danish nobility, most often over interpretations of monarchical versus noble rights. Challenges by Sweden to Denmark’s central role as the dominant power in the Kalmar Union resulted in ongoing conflicts between the two counties. Capturing the city of Stockholm in November 1520, Christian decided to deal with his enemies once and for all. Swedish officials, clergy, and noblemen were rounded up and executed in the main square in what came to be known as the Stockholm Bloodbath. Rather than subdue Sweden, Christian’s actions enflamed opposition led by Gustav Vasa Eriksson, who was proclaimed king of an independent Sweden in 1523. At the same time, Danish nobles rose against Christian and replaced him with his uncle, Fredrick I. Christian went into exile in the Netherlands, which was ruled at the time by his brother-in-law, King Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. An abortive attempt to regain the throne in 1533 resulted in his arrest and confinement until his death in 1559 in the Kalundborg Castle. CHRISTIAN III (1503–1559). King of Denmark and Norway. The son of King Frederik I of Denmark and Norway, Christian III was born on 12 August 1503 in Gottorp, Denmark. His earliest teachers were of the Lutheran faith, and Christian became impressed with Martin Luther, whose defense before the Diet of Worms in 1521 he witnessed. His religious convictions

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were strongly at variance with the Roman Catholicism still subscribed to by most Danish noblemen and royals. When his father, King Frederik I, died in 1533, the Catholic-controlled council of the realm was reluctant to name Christian III king because of his Lutheran beliefs, and he refused to accept the offer of the throne from the council’s Lutheran minority. However, when the city of Lübeck, a key member of the Hanseatic League, attacked Denmark in 1534 in order to restore to the throne King Christian II, who had been deposed in 1523, Christian allowed himself to be named king by the Danish nobles on 4 July 1534. He fought the Lübeck forces successfully, gradually bringing all of Denmark under his control and finally taking Copenhagen on 29 July 1536. He had fought with the aid of hired German mercenaries, however, and needed money to pay them, and these funds could be obtained if he were to confiscate the properties of the church. So, on 12 August 1536, King Christian arrested three Catholic bishops who were members of the council of the realm, thus in effect both carrying out a coup d’état and bringing about the Danish Reformation. CHRISTIAN IV (1577–1648). King of Denmark and Norway. The grandson of King Christian III and the son of King Frederik II, Christian IV was born on 12 April 1577 and reigned as king of Denmark and Norway from 1588 to 1648. A man of great energy and capacity for work, he is known to Norwegian history chiefly as the founder of Christiania (Oslo), which he located close to the fortress of Akershus after a devastating city fire in 1624. He also carried out an adventurous foreign policy, for which he was ill suited, conducting hostilities against Sweden during the Kalmar War (1611–13), German Catholics during the Thirty Years War (1618–48), and the Netherlands during another war with Sweden (1643–45). When a peace treaty was signed at Brømsebro on 8 February 1645, Christian IV had to cede parts of his Danish possessions as well as two Norwegian provinces, Jemtland and Herjedalen. In Norway, he also established the city Christiansand (now Kristiansand) and the mining town Kongsberg. See also COPENHAGEN. CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1768–1810). Prince of the house of Augustenborg and military commander in Norway. Born at Augustenborg, Als, Denmark, on 9 July 1768, Christian August was named major general and commander of Fredriksten Fortress in eastern Norway on 10 June 1803, and in 1807 he became the head of a separate Norwegian provincial government. When England captured Denmark’s fleet in 1807 and Denmark entered the Napoleonic Wars on Napoleon’s side, the British blockade made it impossible to administer Norwegian affairs from Copenhagen. A temporary government commission was therefore established in Christiania (Oslo), followed by

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separate financial and judicial institutions. It was the first time since the council of the realm had been disbanded in 1536 that Norway had its own national governing bodies. Christian August served as the president of the government commission from its first meeting on 1 September 1807 until 28 December 1809. During the hostilities with Sweden in 1808, he was the successful commander of the Norwegian troops and became very popular among Norwegians as well as highly respected by the Swedes. In 1809, the Swedish Riksdag (national assembly) elected him crown prince of Sweden, and he accepted on the condition that there was to be an end to the hostilities between Sweden and Denmark. One reason for his election was that the Swedish leaders hoped his popularity in Norway might lead the Norwegians to want to become united with Sweden, which some Norwegian patriots, for example, Herman Wedel Jarlsberg, had been advocating. Christian August was adopted under the name of Karl August by Sweden’s childless king, Karl XIII, but he died on 28 May 1810. CHRISTIAN DEMOCRATIC PARTY. The Kristelig folkeparti (KrF) was founded in Hordaland County in 1933, mostly by former Liberal Party voters who were concerned about the erosion of traditional Christian values, and has been viewed by some as a successor to the Moderate Liberal Party. An expression of pietistic and low-church perspectives abundantly present in western Norway at the time, before World War II, its operations were limited to the county in which it had been founded. With 0.8 percent of the popular vote in the 1933 parliamentary election, it nevertheless secured one seat in the Storting (Parliament), and it was held by the leader of a small Bible school. In 1936, 1.3 percent of the popular vote gave it two seats. The parliamentary elections of 1945, however, provided its national breakthrough, as the party garnered almost 8 percent of the vote and received eight seats in the Storting, in spite of its lack of a national apparatus. Its popularity peaked in 1987, when it got 13.7 percent of the popular vote and 25 seats. Since 1963, it has participated in seven Center and Center-Right governments, and it has supplied Norway’s prime minister for a total of almost eight years. Its Christian heritage and commitment to the inviolable dignity of human beings gives it a strong conservative slant, but it differs from most conservative parties in its commitment to families, particularly children, the disadvantaged, and the poor. The Christian Democrats are opposed to a woman’s right to choose to have an abortion, except in cases of rape, and want strict legislation governing biomedical research. In 2011, the party elected 39-year-old Knut Arild Hareide as its leader. Hareide has taken the party in a more progressive direction, especially in matters concerning climate change and the environment. Following the parliamentary elections of 2013, the Christian Democrats gave parliamentary support to the conservative governments of Erna Solberg but were unwilling to accept a ministerial

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position. In the wake of the 2017 elections, however, the executive committee of the party agreed to formally accept cabinet positions. Because of this decision, Hareide resigned as party leader on 17 January 2019. In addition, several members announced their resignation from the party. The electoral popularity of KrF continues to decline, as seen in the 2017 election results, when it polled 4.2 percent, thereby reducing their number of seats in the Storting to eight. CHRISTIAN FREDERIK (1786–1848). Norwegian king in 1814, and later king of Denmark, born in Copenhagen on 18 September 1786 to heir presumptive Frederik, the half-brother to Denmark’s mentally ill King Christian VII. Christian Frederik was sent to Norway as viceroy in 1813, during the height of the Napoleonic Wars. Fearing Swedish designs on Norway, Frederik wanted to ensure the loyalty of the Norwegians to the Danish crown. After the signing of the Treaty of Kiel on 14 January 1814, in which Frederik VI was forced to cede Norway to Sweden, Christian Frederik became the focal point of a movement to establish Norwegian independence and write a constitution. He sent out a decree that people in all districts in Norway should elect representatives to a constituent assembly to meet at Eidsvoll on 10 April in order to write a new constitution for the country. Following six weeks of deliberation, the constitution was completed, and it was signed on 17 May 1814. Christian Frederik was elected king of Norway. A man with a romantic and artistic personality, Christian Frederik was a valuable source of inspiration for the Norwegian patriots. He was also a skilled negotiator who did much, including sacrificing his personal claim to Norway’s throne on 14 August 1814, in order to ensure that Norway was given the best possible terms in its union with Sweden. He succeeded his cousin, Frederik VI, as king of Denmark in 1839, ruling until his death in 1848. CHRISTIANIA. See OSLO. CHRISTIE, WILHELM FRIMANN KOREN (1778–1849). Norwegian politician and legal scholar. Born in Kristiansund on 7 December 1778, Christie studied law at the University of Copenhagen, earning his degree in 1799. He first worked for the Danish chancery, after which he became a regional government administrator in Norway. During the political ferment of early 1814, he participated in discussions about how the Norwegian constitution should be shaped. Christie was in favor of the constitutional form of government found in the United States, Great Britain, and France. Elected to the constitutional assembly held at Eidsvoll in the spring of 1814, Christie preferred Norwegian independence rather than a union with Sweden; but he

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wanted a strong and effective government and to leave legislation in the hands of experts, so he preferred to give the Storting (Parliament) solely an advisory role. Christie’s most significant contribution, however, was made during the extraordinary meeting of the Storting in the fall of 1814, when the details of the union with Sweden were being negotiated. As the president of the Storting, Christie provided clear and insightful presentations of the issues, showing the members what was at stake and how to proceed. He is credited with preventing other changes to the constitution than those that had been made necessary by the union. He also insisted that the Treaty of Kiel should not be considered the basis for the union with Sweden and that it was essential that Christian Frederik be recognized as Norway’s legal king from his election on 17 May 1814 to his abdication, which had been accepted by the Storting later that year. Highly respected as a statesman, Christie declined King Karl Johan’s invitation to join his cabinet. After a few more years of service as a member of the Storting, his health forced him to withdraw from politics, and he returned to his adopted hometown of Bergen. There, he was a member of the Bergen city council from 1837 to 1841, and he served as customs inspector until his death. CINEMA. Norwegian cinema dates from the early years of the 20th century. The first film known to be shown widely for Norwegian audiences was a filmed account of the arrival and coronation of King Haakon VII in 1905–6. Similarly, filmed events from the funeral of Norwegian author Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson in 1910 drew large audiences. The first feature film to be made in Norway was Under forvandlingens lov (By the Laws of Transfiguration) in 1911, an erotic melodrama of love, marriage, and jealousy. With the arrival and growing popularity of cinema, in 1914 the Storting (Parliament) decreed control of the new medium to the local municipalities (kommuner), authorizing them to operate their own theaters and allowing them to retain the earnings from film showings. The arrangement meant less income for the filmmakers, thereby hindering the development of a national film industry. In 1919, the National Association of Municipal Theaters (Kommunale Kinomatografers Landsforbund) established the Municipal Film Central (Kommunernes Filmcentral) as a clearinghouse for the acquisition of films, most from the international market. More importantly, however, the center was also authorized to help provide financing for films made in Norway, six of which were funded in the 1920s. Meager though the initiative was, it proved to be a significant beginning of the professionalization of Norwegian cinema. Stirred by the film Terje Vigen (1917) by Swedish filmmaker Victor Sjöstrom (1879–1960), based on Henrik Ibsen’s epic poem and filmed in Norway, Norwegian cinema turned to national romantic themes with Norwegian stories set in rural villages. One such, Fante-Anne (1920; Gypsy-

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Anne), directed by Rasmus Breistein (1890–1976), was the first feature film made in Norway to use professional actors. The revolutionary introduction of sound in Norwegian films first occurred in 1931 in Tancred Ibsen’s Den store barnedåpen (1931; The Great Christening), a romantic comedy. A grandson of both Ibsen and Bjørnson, Tancred Ibsen (1893–1978) had traveled to the United States where he worked briefly in the script department at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios in Hollywood before returning to Norway to make his directorial debut with Den store barnedåpen. The decade of the 1930s is considered by some to be the golden age of Norwegian cinema. It saw the establishment of the Norwegian Film Institute (Norsk Film A/S) in 1932, with a mandate to aid in financing Norwegian film. Two years later, it built film studios at Jar, a suburb west of Oslo. Influenced by the economic depression of the 1930s, Norwegian films began to feature themes about the harsher side of life while continuing to offer popular national romantic films. Tancred Ibsen directed both types. To levende og en død (1937; Two Living and One Dead) was a crime thriller about a man’s struggle with his conscience, while Fant (1937; Gypsy) told the story of a happy-go-lucky gypsy scalawag’s adventures along the Norwegian coast. The German occupation of Norway during World War II changed the tone, mood, and style of Norwegian cinema. Politics and overt national display were forbidden, while comedy and farce seemed to lighten the spirits of Norwegian audiences. Approximately half of all films screened during the war were produced in Germany, and most were intended to serve propagandistic purposes. No Norwegian-made films premiered between the autumn of 1943 and the end of the war. In the postwar period, the war and occupation became popular themes in Norwegian film, especially stories about the resistance. Among the most popular was Kampen om tungtvannet (1948; The Struggle over Heavy Water), which actually featured several of the Telemark saboteurs playing themselves in the film. Two other significant films of this genre were Shetlandsgjengen (1954; tr. Suicide Mission), which told the story of the boat shuttles across the North Sea and included Leif Larsen (1906–90), the captain of the “Shetland Gang,” and Ni Liv (1957; Nine Lives), the incredible survival story of the resistance fighter Jan Baalsrud. This story is retold in a critically acclaimed 2017 film directed by the Norwegian filmmaker Harald Zwart, Den 12. Mann (2017; The 12th Man). In the postwar years, Norwegian cinema took major steps to reach an international audience. Notably, the period saw the emergence of Norway’s first major woman film director, Edith Carlmar, who began a decadelong run of 10 films with Døden er et kjærtegn (1949; Death Is a Caress), Norway’s first film noir production. In the last of her 10 films in 1959, Carlmar introduced a young Liv Ullmann to the screen in Ung flukt (tr. The Wayward

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Girl) in her first speaking role. The postwar years also brought Norwegian film to the Academy Awards when Norwegian explorer Thor Heyerdahl released a feature-length documentary film about his sail across the Pacific Ocean in 1947 to prove his theory that people from South America could have sailed to, and settled in, the South Pacific islands of Polynesia. The film, Kon-Tiki, released in 1950, was awarded the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature Film in 1951. Following the introduction of television broadcasting in Norway in 1960, Norwegian film attendance dropped, even though attempts were made to shore up the industry by reduced taxes paid by theaters. Although American films came to dominate the country, it was a domination that also served to inspire young Norwegians to enter the industry. Social and political themes emerged in the late 1960s and 1970s, as political documentaries were especially popular. Among the young filmmakers who sought to focus on social and political issues of the day was Anja Breien (1940–), whose film Hustruer (1975; Wives) served as a provocative feminist response to the 1970 American film Husbands by John Cassavetes. Wives follows three women who abandon their household duties for a day of freedom. Breien also directed two sequels, following the same women one and two decades later: Hustruer 10 År Etter (1985; Wives—10 Years After) and Hustruer III (1996; Wives III). On the political side, a taut political thriller, Orions Belte (1985; Orion’s Belt), directed by Ola Solum (1943–96), presented the deep anxiety felt by some Norwegians as they saw themselves caught in the middle of the Cold War conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1980s. A new generation of actors and directors emerged in the late 1980s and 1990s. Among the most significant was the Sami filmmaker Nils Gaup. Inspired by an old Sami legend, Gaup wrote and directed the film Ofelaš (1987; Pathfinder), the first Sami-language film ever made. Given the Norwegian title Veiviseren (Pathfinder), it was filmed in the north Norwegian county of Finnmark, where the legendary events were purported to have taken place. Reforming its financial support policy in 2001, the Norwegian government placed the Norwegian Film Fund (Norsk filmfond) under the Ministry of Culture in order to ensure consistent support and responsible reporting of film, television, and interactive projects. Following up on that initiative, in 2009, Norway joined the Council of Europe’s European Convention on Cinematographic Cooperation with the aim of supporting coproductions with foreign countries. It was an initiative that followed on the success of the Danish Poet, a Canadian-Norwegian coproduction directed by Torill Kove (1958–). The Danish Poet, narrated by Liv Ullmann, was awarded the Academy Award for Best Short Film (Animated) in 2006.

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CLIMATE CHANGE. See GLOBAL WARMING. COASTAL PARTY. The Kystpartiet (KP) is a regional party with most of its support in the counties of Nordland and Troms. While it has considerable influence in local politics in northern Norway, on the national level it has had only one representative in the Storting (Parliament), Steinar Bastesen. He was first elected to the Storting in 1997 on the ticket of a new party called the Tverrpolitisk Folkevalgte (Cross-Spectrum Elected), which for a time included the Frihetspartiet mot EF-unionen (Freedom Party Opposed to the Union with the European Community [EC]), started in 1992 under the name of an older minor party, the Frie Folkevalgte (Free Popularly Elected), until its name change in 1993. The KP was started in 1999, and Bastesen was reelected on its ticket in 2001; however, the party got no seats in the Storting in the 2005 election. The KP stresses traditional Christian values and environmental protection. It has been plagued by internal dissent and a very harsh tone and turbulent proceedings at many of its meetings. In 2008, Bastesen was expelled from the party, and its electoral support has dropped to less than 1 percent. COLLABORATION TRIALS. When Germany attacked Norway on 9 April 1940, some Norwegians were already members of the Norwegian National Socialist Party (Nasjonal Samling; NS). Others joined during the five years Norway was occupied by the Germans. Some Norwegian men fought for the Nazis on the Eastern Front (frontkjempere [front fighters]), while some women served as Nazi military nurses. Other Norwegians (for example, Vidkun Quisling) committed treason through acts that were primarily political rather than military. Others, like Henry Rinnan, worked with the Gestapo and actively tortured and murdered Norwegian resistance workers. Many Norwegians made money working for the occupiers. After the war, approximately 90,000 individuals were charged with various crimes related to their activities during the occupation. Approximately 46,000 received some kind of punishment, ranging from the death penalty to simple fines. One of those who was fined was the Nobel Prize–winning author Knut Hamsun. Approximately 17,000 individuals received prison sentences. Membership in the NS after 9 April 1940 was considered a punishable offense, but most ordinary business dealings with the Germans were not. Many Norwegians felt that those who had made money dealing with the Germans were not punished severely enough. On the whole, the collaboration trials are considered “victor’s justice,” a problematic chapter in Norwegian history. See also WORLD WAR II.

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COLLETT, CAMILLA (1813–1895). Norwegian novelist and early feminist. Born in Kristiansand on 23 January 1813, Collett was the daughter of the theologian and cultural leader Nicolai Wergeland (1780–1848) and sister of the well-known Norwegian poet Henrik Wergeland (1808–45). After receiving a traditional education for upper-class girls, Camilla fell in love with the poet Johan Sebastian Welhaven (1807–73), an enemy of her brother and father, who rejected her. Her literary efforts were encouraged by her husband, Peter Jonas Collett, whom she married in 1841. Widowed in 1851, she focused increasingly on her literary work and soon published Amtmandens Døttre (1854–55; tr. The District Governor’s Daughters, 1992), which, based on her personal experience, depicted the familial and social oppression suffered by women at the time. Collett followed up the success of Amtmandens Døttre with a book of memoirs, I de lange Nætter (1862; During the Long Nights), which tells about her youth and offers vivid portraits of her father and brother. Most of her other writings from her later years were highly polemical; a representative title is Fra de Stummes Leir (1877; From the Encampment of the Mute), which criticizes what she sees as the almost universal denigration of women by male writers. See also LITERATURE. CONCESSION LAWS. A series of laws passed by the Norwegian Storting (Parliament) between 1906 and 1917 regulating access to, and ownership of, the natural resources, such as waterfalls, rivers, and mines. With the growth of industry in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the opportunity for various industries to take advantage of Norway’s abundant water resources was becoming obvious to entrepreneurs and investors alike. Farmers, unaware of the potential, often sold the rights to the resources, not infrequently to foreign investors. In the wake of the dissolution of the union with Sweden in 1905, Norwegian politicians were especially sensitive to foreign control of Norwegian resources. Most strongly engaged in the adoption of the concession laws were two of the leading Liberal Party politicians in Norway, Gunnar Knudsen and Johan Castberg. The 1906 law sought to set up a system of controls so that foreign corporations or individuals had to apply for and be granted a concession in order to purchase development rights. In 1907, legislation introduced the principle of “escheat,” where the development and ownership of resources in private hands reverted to the state without compensation after a period of 60 to 80 years. A decade later, in 1917, the law set the outside limit of the concession to 60 years, at which time the property reverted to public ownership.

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CONSERVATIVE PARTY. The Høyre was formed on 25 August 1884 under the name of De Conservative Foreningers Centralstyre (Executive Committee of the Conservative Associations). Formed as a response to the Liberal Party, which had successfully pushed through the beginning of parliamentarism in 1884 by impeaching the king’s conservative cabinet, it was Norway’s second political party. During the earliest decades of its existence, it did well in parliamentary elections, particularly in 1894, when it got almost half the votes cast. The party declined during the interwar period, however, when other parties, including the Agrarian Party and the Christian Democratic Party, were established. When not in opposition, it often supplied the “Right” portion of a Center-Right coalition, usually in cooperation with the Christian Democrats and the Center Party, and sometimes also with the Liberal Party. An exception to this rule was Kåre Willoch’s first government (1981–83), which was a minority government staffed by the Conservatives alone. Willoch also served as prime minister from 1983 to 1986, but in a coalition with the Christian Democratic Party and the Center Party. Other Conservative Party prime ministers since World War II include John Lyng (briefly in 1963) and Jan P. Syse (1989–90). The Conservative Party has attracted true conservatives, who, when faced with problems, are disposed to seek solutions by looking to tradition, prefer gradual change rather than sudden upheavals, and stress established institutions as a means of promoting social stability. Other Conservatives have been market liberalists who have promoted relatively unfettered capitalism but tempered by the programs of the welfare state. Civil liberties, democracy, and property rights are central to the philosophy of the Conservative Party. Since 1973, when the Progress Party (FrP) was formed, it has been the custodian of some of the liberalist thought formerly associated with the Conservatives. Erna Solberg was chosen as both the party leader and the head of the Conservative parliamentary caucus in 2004. With 14.1 percent of the popular vote in the 2005 parliamentary election, the party received only 23 seats and was overtaken by the Progress Party. The election result was the poorest ever for the Conservatives. Under Solberg, the party revived its political fortunes and in 2013 won 26.8 percent of the vote. Joining to form a government in coalition with the right-wing Progress Party, Solberg became prime minister. The 2017 parliamentary election saw a slight reduction of the electoral vote for the Conservatives to 25.1 percent, but the Center-Right, four-party coalition held and Solberg initially formed her second government with members from the Progress Party and the Liberal Party. Initially refusing to join the government, the Christian Democrats reversed their earlier position and accepted three cabinet positions on 22 January 2019.

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CONSTITUTION. Norway’s constitution, as the supreme law of the land, was signed in Eidsvoll on 17 May 1814 and was changed on 4 November 1814 in order to allow for Norway’s union with Sweden under a common king. Those changes were undone at the dissolution of the union with Sweden on 7 June 1905. Other changes have since been made, such as when, in 2014, it was translated from the formal 1903 version of Riksmaal Norwegian into the two official languages of Norway (Bokmal, book language, and Nynorsk, New Norwegian). The 1814 constitution had been written in Danish, which was the official written language of Norway at the time. The constitution was originally founded on the basic principles of the sovereignty of the people, a separation of powers, and human rights. Recent changes include the formal recognition of parliamentarism, a practice that has been the convention since 1884, and the constitutional separation of church and state in 2012. The Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Church remains the Norwegian national church and is partially supported by the state, but all religious and philosophical communities in Norway have been given equal status. In 2014, several articles on human rights were also enshrined in the constitution. The Norwegian constitution was inspired by the American Declaration of Independence of 1776, the Constitution of the United States of 1787, and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man of 1789. Originally, the ideas of Charles-Louis de Secondat Montesquieu (1689–1755) concerning the separation of powers between three equal branches of government was a fundamental principle, but since the establishment of parliamentarism, the legislative body (Storting) has been the leading constitutional institution. As the supreme source of law in Norway, the constitution stipulates that the foundational values of the country are its “Christian and humanist heritage” and that the constitution guarantees democracy, a nation of laws, and human rights. COPENHAGEN. The capital city of Denmark since 1416 CE and of the dual monarchy of Denmark and Norway between 1416 and 1814. Copenhagen was established in 1167 when King Valdemar the Great (1131–82) granted Bishop Absalon (1128–1201), his closest advisor and friend, control over the small coastal village of Havn (Harbor). After building a fortified wall around the village, Absalon turned it over to the bishopric of Roskilde, which he controlled, in 1186. The growing commercial importance of Havn, which after 1170 became known as Købmandshavn (Merchants’ Harbor), is evident in that it was attacked and plundered several times by the forces of the Hanseatic League. Granted official town status with commercial privileges in 1254, Købmandshavn’s name was changed to København, the Danish name it still holds today. With the establishment of the Kalmar Union by Queen Margareta I (1153–1412) in 1397, Sweden joined Norway, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and Greenland under the Danish crown. Margareta’s suc-

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cessor, King Eric of Pomerania (1381–1459), usurped the rights of the Bishop of Roskilde, taking over Copenhagen and making it the capital of the Kalmar Union. In 1479, the University of Copenhagen was established. Subsequent monarchs affirmed Copenhagen’s central status by extending to its merchants exclusive commercial privileges in Norway and Iceland. In the 17th century, King Christian IV (1577–1648) developed a major building program for the city. Helped financially by the extensive natural and mineral resources of Norway, including its huge tracts of timber, the silver extracted from the Kongsberg mines, and the copper from the Røros mines, Christian reshaped Copenhagen. He built the iconic Stock Exchange (Børsen), the Rosenborg Palace, the Round Tower observatory, and the Holmen Church. As a result of Christian’s building program in the first half of the century and the establishment of the absolute monarchy in 1660–65, Copenhagen became a royal showcase with an increasingly prosperous merchant class. Even the great fires of 1728 and 1795, devastating as they were, could not diminish its status. For Norwegians it was a fabled city where the absolute king resided and where those who could sent their children for a university education. It was the city where power over Norwegian lives was exercised, in both their religious and the secular worlds. That is, until 1814, when the Treaty of Kiel transferred Norway to Sweden and Norwegians realized that, since they could no longer be Danish, they had to learn to be Norwegian. CURRENCY. See BANKING.

D DAHL, JOHAN CHRISTIAN KLAUSSON (1788–1857). Norwegian painter. Also known as I. C. Dahl and J. C. Dahl, Dahl was born the son of a Bergen fisherman and rower on 24 February 1788. As his talent unfolded, he received financial assistance that allowed him to study art at the University of Copenhagen. He later moved to Dresden in Germany, where he became a professor at the art academy. Norway’s first painter of international stature, he is known for his landscape paintings in the mode of national romanticism, which he pioneered in pictorial art. Two of his best-known paintings are Fra Stalheim (1842; From Stalheim) and Bjerk i storm (1849; Birch in a Storm). DASS, PETTER (c. 1647–1707). Norwegian poet. The son of Peiter Dundas and born in Herøy, Nordland County, in 1647 (possibly 1646), Dass is Norway’s most significant writer of the Baroque period and is known chiefly for his long descriptive poem Nordlands trompet (1739; tr. The Trumpet of Nordland, 1954). He attended the cathedral school in Bergen and studied theology at the University of Copenhagen, later serving as a minister in the Helgeland district of northern Norway. He also wrote religious poetry designed to edify his parishioners, most notably Katechismus-sange (1714; Catechism Songs). With their down-to-earth presentation of religious doctrines, Dass’s songs reached a large audience. Dass was thoroughly acquainted with life among the fishermen and small farmers of Helgeland, and although educated both at the cathedral school in Bergen and at the University of Copenhagen, he never lost touch with his origins. Much loved and respected by the people to whom he ministered, he was regarded as a leader spiritually, economically, and socially. See also LITERATURE. DENMARK. Norway’s closest neighbor to the south, Denmark has for centuries served as Norway’s gateway to continental Europe. In Viking times, when Danish chieftains vied with their Norwegian counterparts for control of southern Norway, there was little difference between Danes and Norwegians, who all spoke the same language. Medieval politics and a drastic decline in 71

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Norway’s population due to the Black Death led to a union of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden in Kalmar in 1397, but there were still hostilities, particularly involving Danes and Swedes. After Sweden left the Kalmar Union in 1523, the numerous wars between Denmark and Sweden often involved Norwegians as well. As the Protestant Reformation was introduced in Denmark and Norway in 1536, King Christian III of Denmark and Norway abolished the Norwegian council of the realm, which also meant that Norway ceased to exist as a separate country and became a province of Denmark. As the Danish kings ruled Norway from Copenhagen, the Norwegian rural population showed a great deal of loyalty to them, accepting their laws while generally resisting changes in taxation. Before the events of 1814, most Norwegians did not wish to be separated from Denmark, although there were some who realized that Denmark’s and Norway’s strategic needs and mercantile interests were fundamentally different. Norway’s suffering, largely a result of an English naval blockade preventing the importation of grain supplies, during the Napoleonic Wars made that quite clear. Near the end of the Napoleonic Wars, in January 1814, the Treaty of Kiel transferred Norway from Denmark to Sweden. Norway had essentially no choice in the matter but used the opportunity to declare its independence and to write its own constitution. Failing to achieve full independence, Norway entered into a personal union with Sweden, a union in which the two countries shared the monarch and foreign affairs. Even after the union between Norway and Sweden had solidified, however, the cultural connections with Denmark were not completely severed. Throughout most of the 1800s, the written language used in Norway was largely the same as that used in Denmark, books by Norwegian writers were published in Copenhagen, and to a great extent the two countries comprised a single intellectual marketplace. Denmark experienced significant political and economic progress during the decades following the events of 1814, culminating in the establishment of a free constitution on 5 June 1849, when it abolished the absolute monarchy and became a constitutional monarchy. There was a flowering of Danish cultural life as well, with such important figures as the philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–55) and the writer Hans Christian Andersen (1805–75). Known as Denmark’s golden age, the first half of the 19th century was a period of exceptional creativity, especially in art, with such figures as Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg (1783–1853), Martinus Rørbye (1803–48), and Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770–1844). War returned in 1864, however, when Prussia and Austria forced Denmark to cede the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. This defeat in the Second Schleswig War led the Danes to both embark on a policy of neutrality and to turn more of their remaining territory into exceptionally productive agricultu-

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ral land. Both efforts were successful as Denmark made rapid economic progress and managed to stay out of World War I. In 1920, northern Schleswig was restored to Denmark following a popular plebiscite. As part of the same offensive onslaught that brought Norway into World War II on 9 April 1940, Denmark was invaded by Germany and remained occupied until 1945. It then became a founding member of both the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the United Nations (UN) and joined the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1973. It has since become the home of a sizable immigrant population that has been only partially integrated into Danish society. Even though the close cultural connections between Norway and Denmark became much looser during the 20th century, many Danes still have a sense of kinship with Norway. Norwegians see Denmark both as an important trading partner and a wonderful place to go on vacation. DET NORSKE ARBEIDERPARTI. See LABOR PARTY. DISSOLUTION OF THE UNION WITH SWEDEN. When Norway entered into a union with Sweden in 1814, it was the result of the wishes of the European Great Powers rather than any kind of desire on the part of the Norwegians. Once the union was a fact of life and had proven relatively benign, in that Norway seemed to develop just fine both economically and culturally—for example, Henrik Ibsen’s fame as a dramatist did not seem to be rivaled by any Swedish writer—many Norwegians were mostly unconcerned about it. Predictably, those who had something to gain from the union liked it more than those who did not. Most members of the embedsmann (public official) class, which tended to be conservative, very likely felt some degree of kinship with their Swedish counterparts and were generally friendly toward the union, while cottagers and small farmers, who were opposed to the privileged position and relative opulence that characterized the lives of the officials, were usually more critical of it. There was, however, a difference of opinion between Norwegians and Swedes about what the union entailed. The Norwegians tended to see it only as a personal union, in which the same individual happened to be the king of both countries, while the Swedes regarded it as a real union, in which the two countries were, so to speak, joined at the hip. There was some reason to hold the latter view inasmuch as foreign affairs, including the consular and diplomatic services, were firmly under the control of the king in his capacity as king of Sweden. He appointed the Swedish cabinet, including its minister of foreign affairs, who supervised the Foreign Office for both countries. The consular service, a division of the Foreign Office, was controlled by a body jointly representing the Norwegian and the Swedish governments and had as

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its primary responsibility looking after Norwegian and Swedish business interests abroad, particularly interests related to shipping. The members of the diplomatic corps, on the other hand, were appointed by a Swedish government body called the ministerial cabinet. After 1835, a Norwegian cabinet member was to be present when matters related to Norway were being discussed. While Norwegians and Swedes had equal access to appointments as consuls, most diplomats were Swedish aristocrats. In addition, all reports to the Foreign Ministry by consular representatives abroad were required to be written in Swedish, even those submitted by Norwegians. As long as Norway was governed by a cabinet appointed by the king and generally consisting of members of the embedsmann class, this arrangement did not seem to pose too big a problem. Between 1814 and 1884, most of the disagreements between Norway and Sweden relating to the union were about symbolic matters, as for example the flags used in the two countries or how to formulate the title of the king used on Norwegian coins. In the 1860s, there was even a movement, known as Scandinavianism, toward greater ties between all three of the Scandinavian countries, including a strengthening of the union between Norway and Sweden. When parliamentarism was introduced in Norway in 1884, however, and the control of cabinet appointments was vested in the Storting (Parliament), the situation changed. The radical forces had long had their eye on questions concerning the union—for example, Johan Sverdrup and Ole Gabriel Ueland’s Reform Association had greater equality with Sweden on their agenda as early as 1859, but they had not had the power to do anything meaningful about it. After Sverdrup’s great electoral victory in 1882, and especially after the successful impeachment of the government of Christian Selmer in 1884, they had at least enough power to attempt to bring about change. The union issue first came to the fore in 1885, when the Swedes changed the procedures for supervising the diplomatic service. The ministerial cabinet, the body that made the appointments, was enlarged by one member (from two to three, plus the Norwegian representative when invited) and put under the supervision of the Swedish parliament. This clearly made it look like the Swedish parliament was running Norwegian affairs, which was considered demeaning to members of the Storting, as well as to other patriotic Norwegians. Sverdrup’s government entered into negotiations with the Swedes, and it was agreed that the number of Norwegian representatives in the ministerial cabinet would be increased to three. This decision was to be codified as part of the Act of Union (Riksakten), which governed the relationship between Norway and Sweden. Then Sverdrup and his ministers in Stockholm agreed that they would also demand that this change be included in the Norwegian constitution by the Storting. This was, of course, totally unacceptable to the Swedes, who maintained that the Storting had no power to unilaterally change the parts of the constitution that related to the union. In

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addition, Sverdrup tried to renege on a concession he had earlier made to get his three members of the ministerial cabinet. This concession was that the minister of foreign affairs would always be a Swede, which was a point that deeply hurt Norwegian national pride. It was unacceptable to the Storting, and the negotiations came to an end in 1886 without any changes to a system that the Norwegians felt to be humiliating. Sverdrup resigned as prime minister in 1889, and Emil Stang of the Conservative Party became his successor. Stang wanted to improve relations with Sweden, which had recently changed its thinking about the free trade between the two countries. The trade law was weakened against Norway’s interests—Sweden was becoming protectionist, while the shipping nation Norway still held on to the idea of free trade—and this was by itself perceived as a threat to the union. When Stang reopened the negotiations about the constitution of the ministerial cabinet, the provisional agreement reached was still deemed unacceptable to the Storting, and Stang resigned in 1891. His successor, Johannes Steen of the Liberal Party, had been obligated by his party’s program to press for a separate Norwegian minister of foreign affairs, while the Conservatives hoped for a joint minister of foreign affairs who could be either a Norwegian or a Swede. Leading figures in Swedish political life, however, began to talk about the possibility of using military power against Norway, so Steen moved in a different direction by proposing that Norway should establish its own separate consular service, which made sense in view of Norway’s significance as a shipping nation. The Liberals regarded this move both as a step toward a separate Norwegian Foreign Office and, perhaps, even as a means eventually to dissolve the union. The Storting passed the consular service bill in 1892, but King Oscar II refused to sign it into law. The mood in Sweden was becoming increasingly bellicose, and on 11 May 1895, the Swedish parliament canceled the free trade arrangements with Norway. The Swedes also increased their military expenditures and seemed to be preparing for war. Norway thus had a choice between a war with Sweden, for which it was not prepared, or the humiliation of having to continue negotiating. On 7 June 1895, the Storting took a vote that amounted to eating humble pie, promising to continue the negotiations with Sweden, but Norway also started building up its defenses. Over the course of the next few years, several warships were acquired, new cannons were installed, and a series of forts along the Swedish border were strengthened. There was also continued growth in Norway’s democratic development. Universal male suffrage was introduced in 1898, the school system was reformed, and the people as a whole were becoming better informed and increasingly united in favor of significant changes in the relationship between the two countries. As a reinforcement of Norwegian national pride, the union marker was removed from the national flag.

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Negotiations continued on and off between 1895 and the winter of 1904–5, when the Swedish demands were rejected as unacceptable. On 8 February 1905, the Storting was informed that the negotiations had collapsed. The sitting government of Francis Hagerup resigned, paving the way for a government headed by Christian Michelsen. On 18 May 1905, the Storting passed legislation to establish a separate Norwegian consular service, and the bill was presented to King Oscar II in Stockholm for his signature on 27 May. The king refused to sign it into law, and the cabinet submitted its resignation. Recognizing that he was not able to form a new government that would have support in Norway, the king refused to accept the resignation, stating that he was unable to form a new government “at this time.” With Michelsen as the primary strategist, the plan of the Norwegians was that the cabinet would turn its power over to the Storting, which would then request that it continue to function in a caretaker role. On 7 June 1905, based on the failure by the king to appoint a government, Michelsen announced the dissolution of the union. The Norwegians argued that King Oscar II had, in effect, abdicated as king. Therefore, since there was no king, there was no union. Through this logical ploy, the 91-year-old union between Norway and Sweden was dissolved. Sending a message to Sweden announcing this Norwegian action, the Storting simultaneously requested that King Oscar II allow a prince of the Swedish royal family to become Norway’s new king. The purpose of this move was to make the dissolution of the union look like a less radical act than it in fact was and to make it possible for the Conservative Party to support the dissolution by retaining the monarchy. The Swedish parliament met in an extraordinary session on 21 June 1905, and King Oscar II expressed his dismay at Norway’s unilateral decision, which the king considered to be a violation of the Act of Union. He discouraged the use of military force, however, and the Swedish government expressed its desire to find terms of dissolution that would prevent hostilities. Certain segments of the Swedish population, on the other hand, wanted Sweden to respond forcefully, but other groups—for example, the socialists— were vocal in their demand for reason and peace. The Swedes did, however, demand that Norway conduct a referendum on the dissolution. The referendum was held on 13 August, and the result was overwhelmingly in favor of the dissolution. Less than 200 of the almost 370,000 voters opposed the action. The Swedish government also insisted that the union was not just a personal one but a real one and that the Swedish parliament needed to abolish the Act of Union before the dissolution would be official. During the negotiations conducted in the Swedish town of Karlstad in September 1905, Norway agreed to demilitarize its forts along the border, and an agreement was signed on 23 September 1905. The Swedish parliament voted to rescind the Act of

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Union, and King Oscar II formally relinquished the Norwegian throne. The dissolution of the union was official. Only the form of government was yet to be settled. Secret negotiations between Prince Carl of Denmark and Fridtjof Nansen, on behalf of the Michelsen government, took place in Copenhagen during several months in the summer of 1905. When Prince Carl was offered the throne of Norway, he accepted on the condition that an advisory plebiscite be held so the Norwegian people could express their will. In November, a 79 percent majority voted in favor of Prince Carl to be king, and the Storting voted to make him king of Norway. Carl chose a new name, Haakon VII, and renamed his three-year-old son Olav. Haakon VII, his wife Queen Maud, and Crown Prince Olav arrived in Oslo on 25 November 1905. DØRUM, ODD EINAR (1943–). Norwegian politician. Born to Odd Werge Dørum and Edith Donner on 12 October 1943, Dørum first lived in a middleclass home in Oslo and then in Bergen and Trondheim, where he attended secondary school and later studied history at the university. As a youth, he was exposed to the ideas of the Liberal Party, enthusiastically participated in its youth organization, and gradually rose through the party ranks. He was also trained as a social worker while simultaneously serving on the Trondheim city council. He has since taught social work at the postsecondary level and worked as a consultant in this field. He served as the leader of the Liberal Party from 1982 to 1986 and from 1992 to 1996. He was first elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1977, serving until 1981, and was elected a second time in 1997 and again in 2001 and 2005. He left electoral politics following the conclusion of his fourth term in parliament in 2009. Dørum served as minister of transport and communications in a coalition government headed by Kjell Magne Bondevik from 1997 to 1999, when he became Bondevik’s minister of justice, serving until 2000. He also served as minister of justice in Bondevik’s second government from 2001 to 2005. As a young political activist, Dørum is noted for his participation in the Mardøla protest in 1970, when a group of environmentalists tried to stop a hydroelectric project and in which he was arrested for civil disobedience along with the philosopher Arne Næss and others. “DRAUMKVEDET”. The greatest of the Norwegian medieval ballads collected in the 19th century. “Draumkvedet” (the Dream Ballad) is an example of both the traditional ballad and medieval visionary literature. Recorded mostly in the county of Telemark starting in the late 1830s, it exists in a number of reasonably complete variants. Telling about a young man named Olav who falls asleep on Christmas Eve not to awaken until the 13th day of Christmas, the ballad gives details of the journey of his soul through the

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afterlife, where it observes the condition of both the righteous and the wicked. The need to show charity in this life if one’s soul is to escape torment after death is the most important theme of the ballad. For example, those who have cared for the poor will be given shoes by the Virgin Mary as protection against brambles, those who have given grain to the poor will not have to face ferocious bulls while crossing the bridge into the afterlife, and those who have given bread to the poor will themselves be provided for. Rather than being an expression of an Old Testament ethics of retribution and reward, however, the ballad emphasizes the idea of grace found in the New Testament. As Olav watches, Michael the archangel weighs the souls of the dead, and grace is added where needed to qualify them for salvation. It becomes clear that the ballad’s central message is one of healing and reconciliation. DUNKER, CARL CHRISTIAN HENRIK BERNHARD (1809–1870). Norwegian lawyer. Born in Germany in 1809 to Wilhelm and Conradine Dunker, née Hansteen, Bernhard Dunker earned a law degree at the university in Christiania (Oslo) in 1834. Dunker was considered one of Norway’s most effective trial lawyers. As a young man he belonged to politically conservative circles around Johan Sebastian Welhaven and Anton Martin Schweigaard, favoring the union between Norway and Sweden and opposing the expansion of such democratic institutions as trial by jury. Later in his life, his social and political views became substantially more liberal as he advocated a jury system and defended the radical labor agitator Marcus Thrane, who organized the first labor movement in Norway.

E ECONOMY. With a combination of free market capitalism and government involvement, the Norwegian economy is in exceptionally good health. Endowed with plentiful natural resources, including hydroelectric power, fish, farm and forest land, minerals that can be mined, and oil and natural gas, Norway has sustained high levels of employment, a favorable balance of trade, and a high per capita gross domestic product (GDP). According to the CIA World Factbook, the Norwegian GDP for 2017 was estimated at $375.9 billion, which translates into a per capita GDP of $70,600. The GDP real growth rate was an acceptable 1.4 percent. With a labor force of 2.79 million workers, the unemployment rate stands at 4.0 percent, below what most economists consider full employment. In spite of such indicators of a high level of economic activity, the rate of inflation stands at 1.6 percent. Almost three-fourths of all Norwegian workers, or 79 percent, were employed in the service sector, which accounts for 63.5 percent of the GDP. Industry employed 18.3 percent of the workforce and accounted for 34.7 percent of the GDP, while the corresponding numbers for the agricultural sector were 2.07 percent of the labor force and 1.6 percent of the GDP. The industrial production growth rate was 0.5 percent. Coupled with Norway’s very high investment rate of 29.8 percent of GDP, such numbers presage a healthy economy for years to come, and it is no wonder that the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) tends to be complimentary of Norway in its annual economic assessments. Norway’s population is aging. According to OECD estimates, the population over 65 will increase to 60 percent by the year 2050. The effective retirement age for Norwegian workers is above OECD averages and stands at 64.2 years of age for men and 64.3 years of age for women, although the official age of retirement is 67 years. Also, the economy is heavily dependent on oil and natural gas, which accounted for 47 percent of all Norwegian exports in 2016. Norway is thus highly sensitive to international petroleum prices. The health of the oil and gas sector is still very good. Norway has placed a large amount of its excess oil and gas revenues in the Government 79

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Pension Fund–Global, the value of which, in 2018, is above $1 trillion ($1,000 billion). The fund invests globally in international equities, fixedincome investments, and real estate. It holds investments in 77 different countries, with purchased shares in more than 9,000 companies worldwide. With proven oil reserves of 6.6 million barrels and natural gas reserves of 1.922 trillion cubic meters, Norwegians have every reason to continue to trust that the fund will maintain a steady growth rate. In 2016, public revenues stood at $327.1 billion, with a surplus estimated at $200 billion. The public debt was 35.6 percent of the GDP, and the external debt was $642.3 billion; however, Norway is a net external creditor. Norway’s foreign exchange and gold reserves were $60.45 billion. In addition to the oil and gas sector, hydroelectric power is significant to Norway’s economy. In 2013, 133.975 billion kilowatt hours of total power were generated, and 96.1 percent of it was hydroelectric power. Consumption stood at 128.970 billion kilowatt hours. The Norwegian merchant shipping fleet remains significant; in 2016 there were 1,402 ships in the fleet, accounting for 5.6 percent of the gross tonnage of the world fleet. See also EUROPEAN INTEGRATION; GLOBAL WARMING. EDUCATION. In pre-Christian Norway, what little education there was took place in the home. If the parents knew how to read and write, they would pass these skills on to their children if they were able. After the coming of Christianity, those who entered the priesthood would have an opportunity for some learning, perhaps especially those who were intellectually gifted. During the High Middle Ages, cathedral schools were started in some of the most important population centers: Nidaros (Trondheim) in 1152, Oslo in 1153, Bergen in c. 1153, Hamar in 1153, and Stavanger in 1260. These schools originally had as their chief mission the preparation of their students for the priesthood. Three of them—those in Bergen, Trondheim, and Hamar—were founded by Nicolaus Breakspeare, later Pope Hadrian IV, when he visited Norway on behalf of the pope in 1152–53. The Black Death, striking Norway in 1349, affected all aspects of life in the country, including education. A large part of the educated portion of the population died, including over 70 percent of the medieval Norwegian nobility. When the Reformation took place starting in 1536, some education could still be had at the cathedral schools, but most people had to make do with whatever scant private instruction was available. In the 1500s, the cathedral school in Bergen was the most important one in the country, and for a time, it had on its faculty a very talented lecturer, Absalon Pederssøn Beyer (1528–75), who had studied in Copenhagen and Wittenberg. Other Norwegian theologians had studied in Rostock or Co-

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logne, but they were exceptions to the rule. Not even the great humanist Peder Claussøn Friis (1545–1614), who taught at the cathedral school in Stavanger, ever traveled outside the country. The most important event in the early history of education in Norway was the Reformation. Lutheranism emphasizes the individual’s personal relationship to God, and reading the Bible and other godly books is considered essential to developing one’s relationship to him, thereby securing one’s salvation. Lutheran ministers were made responsible for seeing to it that young people were taught the fundamental truths of the church before they were allowed to go to communion. Motivated by the pietism of the early 1700s, confirmation was introduced in 1736. Two laws about education, promulgated in 1739 and 1741, established usually ambulatory schools in every parish, and both the financing and the control of these schools was local. Even though the local population was often opposed to the time and expenses associated with the schools, there was some progress over the following decades. Poor children benefited more than those from a more prosperous background, as their opportunity to learn to read and write was no longer a function of whether their parents could afford to provide them with instruction. The principles enshrined in the laws of 1739 and 1741, that children had a duty to attend school and the community was obligated to provide it, continued in force after the union between Norway and Denmark came to an end in 1814. A new elementary school law was passed in 1827, but the school was still ambulatory. There were few school days per year, and the teachers were poorly paid and often ill prepared. There was an improvement in the later 1830s, when teacher training courses were instituted. The biggest problem was where to get the money for the schools. As the modernization of social and economic life in Norway accelerated after 1850, there was a widely shared understanding that the system of primary education needed to be improved. In 1848, a law concerning primary schools in the cities was passed, and a corresponding law for rural areas took effect in 1860. While reading, writing, and religion had been the traditional elementary school subjects, the subject coverage was now increased. The school should not normally be ambulatory, so schoolhouses were to be built. Some state funds could be used, but local funds were still predominant. The philologist Ole Hartvig Nissen (1815–74) and Grundtvigian Ole Vig (1824–57) were driving forces behind these improvements. There was also a modernization of the old Latin school, which had traditionally been used to prepare the sons of the embedsmann (public official) class for university studies and careers in state administration. A law passed in 1869 established a system where students attended middle school from ages 9 to 15, followed by gymnasium (high school) for another three years. There were two tracks, one that emphasized the study of Latin all the way

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through and one that emphasized the study of English on the middle school level, followed by mathematics and science in high school. Both of the tracks qualified a person for study at the university. The 1869 reform also opened the lower secondary schools to girls, although fewer hours of math and more hours of handicraft were required of them. In 1896, the upper secondary schools became coeducational. The 1896 law also stipulated that women were to be given equal opportunity for appointments as principals and teachers. Folk high schools established according to religious ideas or, as in the case of Christopher Bruun, Grundtvigian principles, provided additional education but did not lead to higher education. This was also the case with the so-called amtsskoler (county schools). The next series of significant school reforms were instituted after the Liberal Party had gained control of the government by instituting the beginnings of parliamentarism in 1884. Laws relating to both urban and rural schools were passed in 1889, and the basic principle was that children from the different social classes should all attend the same schools together. Elementary school was divided into two grades, for younger and older children, respectively, and was to be suitable preparation for secondary school, which again was to prepare students for university study. Such additional subjects as history, geography, and natural science became mandatory, while drawing, woodworking, and physical education were considered desirable. Elected local government representatives were to choose the members of the school boards. The secondary school system was further reformed through legislation passed in 1896 and 1920. Latin was no longer to be taught in middle school, while such subjects as Norwegian, German, English, and practical mathematics were given increased attention. This made the middle school a suitable basis for various practically oriented educational programs, including vocational schools. With the exception of a few high schools aimed at future theologians, Latin was excluded from the preparation for university study. Also in 1920, the high school part of secondary education was expanded by a year. The educational structure was further refined in the 1930s. A sevenyear elementary school was to be followed by either a three-year middle school that prepared students for further vocational training or a fiveyear curriculum of university preparation; however, the first two years were identical in the two sequences. The elementary school curriculum was strengthened, but the school year was still shorter in rural areas than in the cities, where English was introduced as a subject in elementary school. On all levels, competition among the students became increasingly fierce. The next big step forward came in 1959, when a nine-year elementary school was made elective, and in 1969 when it was made mandatory. A law that took effect in 1974 gave all youth the right to three years of further schooling in a program of their choice, be it vocational or preparatory for

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university studies. There was broad consensus in the country that investments in education were both worthwhile and necessary. While Labor Party governments tended to view public education as a way to promote social equality, the nonsocialist parties saw it as a way to promote economic development and supply business and industry with an effective and reliable workforce. Higher education in Norway also made giant strides forward throughout the 20th century. The Royal Frederik University had been established in Christiania (Oslo) in 1811 (it changed its name to the University of Oslo in 1939). While theology and law had been its major subject areas, the growth in Norwegian secondary education, as well as the departure from the study of the classics, meant that there was an increasing demand for graduates in foreign languages, natural sciences, and social studies. There was also a significant growth in the study of medicine, as the national health care delivery system was being strengthened. Higher education in the areas of agriculture, engineering, business, and teacher training were made available in specialized institutes outside the university. The Norwegian School of Economics (formerly the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration), was founded in Bergen in 1936. Known as Norges Handelhøyskole (NHH), it is the oldest and most prestigious business school in the country. Norway’s second university was established in Bergen in 1946, with the scientific milieu at Bergen’s museum as its nucleus. In 1968, a university in Trondheim was established when its already-existing polytechnic graduate school was combined with a graduate teacher training academy. The same year, a university was established in Tromsø. Located in the northern Norwegian city of Tromsø, the University of Tromsø changed its name to the University of Tromsø–The Arctic University of Norway to reflect its geographical location, but also to emphasize its expanded role in Arctic studies after Finnmark University College in Alta, Norway, was integrated into the university in 2013. In its expanded mission, the Arctic University of Norway supports research and teaching in multicultural and multilingual fields, especially Sami life and culture. The Center for Sami Studies offers interdisciplinary research and teaching across disciplines and in collaboration with scholars who study Sami and other indigenous people. Norway’s fifth university, located in Stavanger, came into existence on 1 January 2005, based on an already-existing university college. The same year, Norway’s graduate agricultural college was given university status as the Norwegian University of Life Sciences at Ås. The University of Agder was created on 10 August 2007 when an existing university college, located in Kristiansand, was given university status. In January 2016, the Nord University was established through the merging of Bodø University College, Nesna University College, and Nord-Trøndelag University College. A similar regional merger in 2017 es-

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tablished the Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, with the merger of five university colleges in Bergen, Førde, Sogndal, Haugesund, and Stord. In May 2018, the University of Southeast Norway (USN) was established with the amalgamation of eight university college campuses in Vestfold, Porsgrunn, Drammen, Notodden, Kongsberg, Bø, Rauland, and Ringerike. The beginning of the regional university colleges dates to 1969, when an attempt was made to reduce the pressure on the universities by establishing smaller and less expensive additional institutions that would offer coverage of the most common subjects but without the same faculty research requirements or a doctoral program. Faculty hiring and increased research expectations pushed the university colleges to become more like the traditional universities in deed and thus also to become universities in name. As part of this same trend, traditional normal schools were expanded to offer instruction in additional subject areas and were given the status of university colleges. When a university college has grown to the point that a certain number of stable doctoral programs has been established, the institution may be changed into a university. Supple and flexible, the higher education system in Norway rests on a solid foundation of elementary and secondary education and is well equipped to provide for the country’s educational needs. Other specialized schools continue to offer instruction in a wide variety of subject areas. EGEDE, HANS (1686–1758). Norwegian missionary to the native Greenlanders. Born in Harstad in northern Norway on 31 January 1686, Egede served as a State Church minister in the district of Lofoten from 1707 to 1718. Fascinated with the history of Old Norse settlements in Greenland, he contacted the bishop of Bergen, who had ecclesiastical jurisdiction over Greenland, about traveling there in order to convert the Norsemen possibly still living there from Roman Catholicism to the Lutheran faith. Nothing came of this suggestion, but in 1717, Egede resigned from his living and, with the permission of King Frederik IV, traveled with his family to Greenland in 1721. Founding the colony Godthaab (now Nuuk), he started missionary work among the Inuit, remaining in Greenland for 15 years. Although he found no surviving descendants of the original Norsemen, he gathered much valuable information both about the language and culture of the natives and about the local geography and natural history. He was named bishop of Greenland in 1740. EIRIK BLOODAXE (c. 895–954). Norwegian Viking king. The oldest son of King Harald Fairhair, Eirik most likely received his nickname from killing several of his brothers. He also went on Viking raids in northern

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Russia, sailing down the northern Dvina River. He married Gunhild, daughter of the Danish king Gorm the Old and who has a reputation in the sagas for being a very powerful witch. Eirik was driven out of Norway in 934 when his youngest brother, Haakon the Good, who had been raised in England, organized the Norwegian chieftains in opposition to the very harsh Eirik. Eirik fled to the Orkney Islands, later settling in York in England, where he was to defend Northumbria against the marauding Scots and Irish on behalf of King Athelstan. Eirik was seemingly unable get along with anybody, however, and he was betrayed and killed in 954. EMBEDSMANN. Essentially a public official, an embedsmann is a person who occupies a position to which he or she has been appointed by the king in one of his regular meetings with the cabinet. Such an appointee can only be fired by court order and is thus free to speak and act without fear of reprisals. Owing to the memory of royal abuses during the period of absolute monarchy in Denmark and Norway—for example, the Kongeloven (Royal Law) of 1665 was kept secret until 1709—the embedsmann was given considerable protection by the Norwegian constitution. Many of Norway’s political leaders in the 1800s and early 1900s belonged to this class of people, which included government officials, State Church ministers, and university professors. As a group, this segment of the population had interests in common with large landowners and businessmen. Their families tended to intermarry, they were usually conservative, and they jealously guarded their social position. Until the introduction of parliamentarism (1884), their political influence was grossly out of proportion to their numbers. EMIGRATION FROM NORWAY TO AMERICA. Prior to 1825, only a few individual Norwegians traveled to America. One of them was a man from Tysvær parish in southwestern Norway named Klein Pedersen Hesthammer, who was later to be known as Cleng Peerson (1783–1865) and who was associated with a group of Quakers in Stavanger. Acting as their scout, he secured land for them in Kendall, New York, and then went back to Norway, only to lead a group of 52 emigrants, who left Stavanger on 4 July 1825, to New York City on board the sloop Restaurationen. They settled in Upstate New York but later moved west to Illinois, establishing a settlement in the Fox River Valley southwest of Chicago. Their initial emigration was largely motivated by a desire for greater religious freedom than what they were granted by the form of religion practiced in Norway at the time. Additional emigrants followed the Sloopers, as they are called, particularly after the middle of the 1830s. Early Norwegian emigration statistics are incomplete, but it is generally believed that approximately 15,000 Norwegians emigrated prior to 1850. By 1893, roughly 500,000 people had emi-

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grated, which is approximately one-fourth of Norway’s population in 1875, when a nationwide census was taken. By 1915, about 300,000 more had made the journey. More people emigrated from Norway between 1800 and 1923 than lived in Norway in 1801. Only Ireland gave a larger percentage of its population to emigration than Norway did. Traveling to America was expensive, especially in the beginning of the period of emigration, so the very poor did not leave. As the Norwegian immigrant population in the United States grew, there was a flow of both information and money going back to the old country. An American relative would provide a ticket that the emigrant would work for after his or her arrival. Norwegian immigrants settled mostly in the Upper Midwest, although Cleng Peerson himself spent the last years of his life in Bosque County, Texas. Most Norwegian immigrants worked on farms or found work in such cities as Chicago and Minneapolis. Many of them acquired farms under the Homestead Act, and others became newspapermen, preachers, or educators. Shortly before and after 1900, many of them traveled to the West Coast, particularly Seattle, Washington. Many of these immigrants worked in fishing or logging. After World War I, Norwegian emigration to America slowed to a trickle, and the descendants of earlier immigrants gradually became assimilated. Many of these second-, third-, and fourth-generation immigrants still celebrate their Norwegian roots, however. Some of them learn some Norwegian, research their family history, belong to Norwegian American cultural or fraternal organizations, visit Norway occasionally, and enjoy various dishes associated with the old country. In 1925, the Norwegian-American Historical Association was founded in Northfield, Minnesota, to encourage and support the scholarly study of the emigration as well as the cultural heritage of the immigrants themselves. ENGELBREKTSSON, OLAV (c. 1480–1538). Norwegian archbishop. After studies at the university in Rostock, Engelbrektsson came to Norway in 1515 and became dean of the priests associated with the cathedral in Nidaros (Trondheim). He was chosen as archbishop in 1523, at a time when the Reformation had already started in northern Europe. In this position, he was also the head of the Norwegian council of the realm, and he saw it as his task to preserve both the Norwegian independence provided for within the Kalmar Union and to protect the Roman Catholic Church against loss of position and property. In 1525, he built a fortress at Steinvikholmen in the Trondheim fjord, but it was militarily obsolete by the time it was completed. Engelbrektsson was strongly opposed to Christian III, who believed in Lutheranism, had become the king of Denmark in 1534, and was the choice of the Danish nobles as the king of Norway. As the head of Norway’s council of

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the realm, Engelbrektsson wanted a king who would consent to the same terms as the previous king, Frederik I (1471–1533), who had agreed that only Norwegian-born individuals were to command fortresses and receive high administrative appointments in Norway. Engelbrektsson therefore conspired with Christian III’s enemies and arranged for the killing of Christian III’s representative, Vincents Lunge (c. 1486–1536), who acted for Christian III during negotiations conducted in Nidaros at the end of 1535. Engelbrektsson had hoped for a popular rebellion against Christian III, but this rebellion did not come to pass, and Engelbrektsson had to flee Norway for the Low Countries, where he died. ENVIRONMENT. Norwegians have traditionally been very close to nature, which played a major role in the nation-building project of the 19th century through the ideology of national romanticism. Whether they are outdoor enthusiasts, avid skiers, fishermen, or hunters, Norwegians tend to agree that the natural environment should be preserved and restored through the conservation of natural resources and actions aimed at preventing or reducing pollution. In 1972, Norway became the first country in the world to establish a cabinet-level appointment in environmental protection when the botanist Olav Gjærevoll (1916–94) was named minister of the environment. In a 2017 “Sustainable Governance Indicators” study of environmental policies by the Bertelsmann Stiftung in Germany for the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the European Union (EU), Norway was deemed to be among the best nations worldwide, with a well-developed regulatory system and a high rate of use of renewable resources. The air and water quality is among the best in the world, largely due to the country’s low population density. As a consequence of being a major oil and gas producer, however, Norway contributes directly and indirectly to global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. In order to ameliorate the conditions of global warming, Norway has supported projects to save forestland in Africa, Asia, and South America. Environmental activism has often been linked to the causes of indigenous peoples. Norway’s Sami population has fought valiantly for control of its traditional lands and waters, some of which were restored to them through the Finnmark Act passed by the Storting (Parliament) in 2005. The spirit of this law represents a significant departure from the way the Sami population of Finnmark County was treated as recently as the 1970s and the early 1980s, when the Norwegian authorities moved to push through a hydroelectric project in the Alta River against the wishes of 10,000 demonstrators. Another major environmental battle took place at Mardøla in Møre and Romsdal County in 1970, when civil disobedience was used to prevent hydroelectric development of a scenic river and waterfall. One of those arrested was the philosopher Arne Næss, who was known as one of the most

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significant theoreticians behind the environmental movement, not only in Norway but throughout the world. His concept of “deep ecology” entails that all species have a right to continue their existence and that human beings should be considered on a par with other living things. Norway has a number of environmental organizations. The oldest one, the Norges Naturvernforbundet (Friends of the Earth Norway), was founded in 1914 and is moderate in its approach by promoting a healthy balance between human activities and the need for environmental protection. The Norges Miljøvernforbund (Green Warriors of Norway), on the other hand, was established in 1993 and takes a more radical approach; for example, it warns against the dangers of Wi-Fi networks and cell phones. The Bellona, established in 1986 and with a long record of direct action against “environmental criminals,” a concept it pioneered and succeeded in having written into Norwegian law, has a strongly scientific and interdisciplinary approach to environmental protection. According to the Ministry of Climate and Environment, Norway is committed to a policy to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions by 30 percent of the 1990 level by the year 2020 and 40 percent by 2030. At home, 50 percent of Norwegian emissions are regulated through Norway’s participation in the EU Emission Trading System (ETS). The political parties of Norway vary greatly in their attitude toward environmental protection, although all the major parties state that they are in favor of the concept. The Progress Party claims to have a commitment to reasonable environmental protection but is especially conscious of its costs. The Conservative Party finds that environmental protection is necessary but believes it can be done without significantly affecting established patterns of consumption. The Christian Democratic Party is willing to make significant economic sacrifices in order to preserve the earth, which it views as a divine creation. The Center Party has environmental protection as one of the major planks in its platform. The Liberal Party has a strong pro-environmentalist stance and a long record of supporting environmental causes. The Labor Party is in principle in favor of environmental protection but would like to balance the needs of the environment against those of working men and women. The Socialist Left Party wants Norway to be a pioneer in environmental protection and to set an example for the rest of the nations of the earth. Norwegian politicians can be counted on to hew close to the party line with regard to the environment, and specific disagreements usually come to the fore only when concrete issues are being discussed. For example, all major parties are in favor of maintaining a reasonable population of such large predatory animals as bears and wolves, but disagreements tend to surface when it is a question of how to practically manage their populations, especially vis-à-vis the farm animals on which they prey.

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ERIKSEN, STEIN (1927–2015). Norwegian alpine skier and Olympic medalist. Born in Oslo on 11 December 1927, Eriksen grew up in a family of athletes. His father, Marius, competed as a gymnast at the Stockholm Olympic Games of 1912, and his brother, Marius Jr., was an alpine skier. Eriksen won the bronze medal in slalom in the 1950 World Championships in Aspen, Colorado, but it was two years later that he achieved his greatest success. At the 1952 Oslo Olympic Games, Eriksen won the gold medal in the giant slalom and the silver medal in the slalom. Shortly after the Oslo games, which helped to make him skiing’s first major celebrity, he emigrated to the United States, where he became a ski instructor, ski school director, and popular advocate for the sport of skiing. In 1997, he was knighted with the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit for contributions to Norway by King Harald V of Norway. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY (EC). See EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY (EEC); EUROPEAN UNION (EU). EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AREA (EEA). The EEA is the result of an agreement between the European Union (EU) and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) that makes three of the remaining four members, Iceland, Norway, and Lichtenstein, full participants in the EU single market without being members of the EU. The single-market program was first established in 1986 for the purpose of removing barriers to the free movement of goods, services, capital, and labor among its participants, while the Maastricht Treaty, which in 1992 established the EU, formally made the European Community a single market and established a common currency, the euro. The agreement creating the EEA was signed on 2 May 1992 and ratified by the Norwegian Storting (Parliament) on 16 October 1992. It formally went into effect on 1 January 1994. The EEA agreement entails some transfer of sovereignty to the EFTA Surveillance Agency and the EFTA Court of Justice, which investigate and adjudicate claims that the EEA agreement may have been violated. Two Norwegian political parties, the Center Party and the Socialist Left Party, opposed Norwegian EEA membership, partly because of a concern about loss of sovereignty. The EEA agreement brings together the 28 EU member states and the three EEA/ EFTA states in the internal market governed by the same basic rules. See also EUROPEAN INTEGRATION; TRADE. EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY (EEC). The EEC was the first name for a trade organization that resulted from the Treaty of Rome in 1957 and has since developed into the European Community in 1967 and then the European Union (EU) in 1994. It was preceded by the European Coal

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and Steel Community, established by the Treaty of Paris in 1951 and in which the future EEC states created a common market for their coal and steel. In 1972, after a bitter political struggle that preceded the referendum of 25 September, Norway chose not to join the community. See also EUROPEAN INTEGRATION. EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION (EFTA). The EFTA was organized in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1960. Founded by Great Britain, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Austria, Switzerland, and Portugal, it was later joined by several other states, including Finland, Iceland, and Lichtenstein. Beginning in the 1990s, EFTA has actively pursued trade relations with other countries around the world, including ones in Europe, Central America, and Asia. As of 2019, there are 29 free trade agreements in force or awaiting ratification. There is no vision of political integration, and the EFTA does not issue any legislation. Importantly, the EFTA secretariat assists Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway in managing the European Economic Area (EEA) agreement. EFTA members have all engaged in bilateral discussions with the United Kingdom (UK) for the purpose of maintaining close economic and trade relations should the country leave the European Union (EU). The UK is an important trading partner of the EFTA states. Regardless, the three EEA/EFTA states agree that it is important to safeguard the EEA agreement and to continue a well-functioning internal market after Brexit. See also EUROPEAN INTEGRATION; TRADE. EUROPEAN INTEGRATION. Norway has always been dependent on free international trade, and its most important trading partners have been other European countries, including the rest of Scandinavia. For this reason, Norway joined the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in 1947, as well as the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) in 1948 (the OEEC became the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 1961). When the Treaty of Rome was signed in 1957, creating what was then known as the European Economic Community (EEC), it meant that the EEC countries—France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg—had entered into a trade alliance that excluded Norway, but also that there was a possibility that the group of “the inner six,” as they were sometimes called, or the common market, would be enlarged and perhaps include all of Europe. Norway’s immediate need, however, was to protect its free trade interests in the face of the newly formed block, so Norway happily participated in the 1960 negotiations in Stockholm that led to the formation of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Consisting of seven countries, the EFTA’s founders were Great Britain, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Austria, Switzerland, and Portu-

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gal, which were sometimes referred to as “the outer seven.” Most of the Norwegian political parties, including the Labor Party and the Conservative Party, were hoping that the two trade blocks would unite into one association, and this wish was expressed as a plank in the platforms of both parties prior to the parliamentary election in 1961. Norway considered EEC membership in 1962 and 1967, but the concern was over what would happen to Norwegian farmers and fishermen if they had to compete with farmers who could grow food in more favorable climates and with European fishing vessels with more advanced, and also more expensive, equipment. There was a split within the Labor Party concerning these issues as early as 1961. On the other hand, Labor Party policy was to transfer workers from less productive industries to more productive ones, thus increasing the Norwegian gross national product. This was important to Labor, which saw as its mission to make Norwegians materially better off while downplaying such intangible values as family roots and other longterm social relations. Those values were dispensable in Labor’s quest for material progress. When Britain, Ireland, and Denmark expressed an interest in joining the European Community (EC) in the early 1970s (the former EEC became known as the EC as of 1967), the Norwegian government entered into negotiations about possible Norwegian membership. The government had earlier made it clear that there would be no Norwegian membership in the EC unless the people as a whole, through a referendum, expressed their support. The purpose of negotiations with the EC was to allow the people to know precisely what to expect if Norway became a member. Most Norwegian business leaders, newspaper editors, and economic experts had already made up their minds that it was essential to Norway’s future welfare to join the EC. The referendum was set for 25 September 1972, and for a period of about six months prior to this date, Norway experienced more political tension than ever before in the post–World War II era. The only parties that clearly opposed membership were the Center Party and the Socialist People’s Party (Sosialistiske Folkeparti). Separate organizations opposing and promoting membership were formed, and the rhetoric of their exchanges was very heated. The opponents accused the proponents of wanting to sell Norway for money, and the proponents accused the opponents of being foolish and naive. The vote went against joining, and it revealed some interesting divisions within the country. Northern Norway was strongly opposed, while Oslo and the surrounding area were strongly for EC membership. On the whole, the cities were in favor, while the rural areas were opposed. It is telling, however, that if the three northernmost counties had not been part of Norway, the rest of the country would have voted to join the EC in 1972. In some cases, the issue divided families and also served to splinter the Liberal Party.

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After the referendum, there was general agreement that EC membership could not be placed on the public agenda for many years to come. When Britain, Ireland, and Denmark left the EFTA for the EC in 1973, however, there was an obvious need for some mechanism of cooperation between the EFTA and the EC. Negotiations resulted in an agreement between the EFTA, the EC, and the individual members of the EC (or European Union [EU], as it was called after the Maastricht Treaty of 1992) that created the European Economic Area (EEA) on 2 May 1992, which the Storting (Parliament) ratified on 16 October 1992. The EEA agreement gave the EU significant influence over Norwegian policy decisions; however, it did not amount to a transfer of national sovereignty to the EU. When the Norwegian Labor Party government led by Gro Harlem Brundtland decided to hold another referendum on Norwegian membership in the EU on 28 November 1994, the successful conclusion to the EEA negotiations was a major source of motivation. This second referendum is referred to as an omkamp, or rematch. The timing of the referendum was very carefully chosen, for it was held shortly after both Finland and Sweden had voted to join the EU, but the arguments for and against were largely the same as in 1972, and the resulting vote was almost the same as well, essentially postponing another consideration of EU membership for quite some time. As a result of the so-called Brexit vote of 2016 that Great Britain leave the European Union, there has been considerable talk that Norway should be the model for Britain to follow. The “Norway model” would mean that Britain would become a member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and the European Economic Area (EEA), effectively taking advantage of an existing framework. Should the EU offer Britain arrangements that Norway does not currently have, it is likely that Norway would demand similar consideration. In spite of Brexit, European integration has been moving forward. Norway’s remarkable oil wealth is perhaps the major reason it has been able to remain outside the EU this long. Britain’s exit from the EU may well change the dynamics and the debate in Norway regarding its membership. See also AGRICULTURE. EUROPEAN UNION (EU). The EU was established by the Maastricht Treaty of 1992. It grew out of the European Economic Community (EEC), which was created by the Treaty of Rome signed in 1957. The EEC, which subsequently became the European Community (EC) in 1967, was a trade organization consisting of France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. Often known as the common market, it was also called the “six” and later on the “inner six” as it began to expand. In 1958, President Charles de Gaulle of France refused to consider a British proposal that the EEC should be integrated into an extended European free trade area,

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and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) was subsequently formed in Stockholm in 1960. Originally consisting of seven states, it was later expanded with additional members. Two EFTA countries, Great Britain and Denmark, joined the EC in 1973 (other EFTA countries joined later). Ireland joined the EC with the United Kingdom (UK) in 1973; Greece in 1981; Spain and Portugal in 1986; and Austria, Finland, and Sweden in 1995. An additional 10 countries—Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia—were admitted to the EU in 2004. Bulgaria and Romania joined the EU in 2007, and Croatia became a member in 2013. Under the direction of the Norwegian government and with the strongest possible encouragement of Norwegian business interests, Norway sought to join in both 1972 and 1994, but on both occasions the negative result of a referendum halted the process. Although not a member of the EU, Norway accepts European Union rules and regulations as a member of the EEA. Norway’s position on EU membership is not likely to change as a result of the June 2016 vote in the United Kingdom to leave the EU. A majority of 51.89 percent voted to leave the EU in what has been called “Brexit” (British exit), but the subsequent treaty agreements between the EU and the UK may affect how Norway and its fellow EEA states approach the regulatory requirements imposed on them by the EU. See also EUROPEAN INTEGRATION. EVANG, KARL (1902–1981). Norwegian physician and health care administrator. The primary architect of the Norwegian public health system, Evang was born in Kristiania (Oslo) on 19 October 1902. He held radical political views throughout his life and was a communist in his youth. Later he became a member of the left wing of the Norwegian Labor Party and finally ended up in the Socialist Left Party. Led by the insight that doctors should treat not only individual patients but address illness and health from a social perspective as well, Evang tirelessly promoted the dissemination of health-related information, with a special emphasis on sex education. Motivated by his concern that working-class women were getting worn out by too many pregnancies, he championed family planning, even to the point of performing illegal abortions. As the head of the Norwegian Directorate of Health from its establishment in 1938 until his retirement in 1972, his influence on Norwegian health policy was profound and included an early emphasis on treatment rather than incarceration of drug addicts. Evang’s international service included participation in efforts during World War II that led to the founding of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in 1945. After the war, he was one of the founders of the World Health Organization.

F FALKBERGET, JOHAN (1879–1967). Norwegian novelist. Born in Rugelsjøen near Røros on 30 September 1879, Falkberget spent much of his childhood and youth working in the copper mines at Røros. His numerous novels and stories are centered on the history of mining in the area, as well as the conflicts between the various segments of its population. A careful researcher, Falkberget created a body of literature that has both historical and artistic value. Falkberget’s first book of any significance was the novel Svarte Fjelde (1907; Black Mountains), which combines detailed descriptions of mining life with expressions of his love of the mountain landscape. Many other novels about hardworking people and their economic struggles, as well as their trials in various love relationships, followed, one of the more notable being Lisbet paa Jarnfjeld (1915; tr. Lisbeth of Jarnjjeld, 1930). His first truly significant novel, however, was Den fjerde nattevakt (1923; tr. The Fourth Night Watch, 1968), which is a novel centered on sin, guilt, and redemption. Its protagonist is the proud and ambitious minister Benjamin Sigismund, who serves as the Røros community’s pastor early in the 19th century. Two multivolume series of novels, both dealing with mining life, are considered Falkberget’s greatest achievement. Christianus Sextus (1927–35), in six volumes, gets its title from a copper mine that is the unifying element in an otherwise episodic narrative. Nattens brød (1940–59; Bread of the Night), in four volumes, is centered on An-Magritt, a strong-willed woman of the people who leads a life of suffering and toil. FALSEN, CHRISTIAN MAGNUS (1782–1830). Norwegian statesman. The son of Enevold de Falsen (1744–1808), born in Christiania (Oslo) on 14 September 1782, Falsen studied law and then served as a circuit judge. Elected to the constitutional assembly held at Eidsvoll in 1814, Falsen brought with him a proposed constitution modeled on the French constitution adopted in 1791. He chaired the constitutional committee starting on 12 April 1814 and at times also chaired the assembly itself. Known as the father 95

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of the constitution, Falsen was the leader of the faction that wanted complete independence rather than a union with Sweden. When Falsen was elected to the Storting (Parliament) in 1821, however, he wanted to change the constitution so as to reduce the growing influence of the farmers in Norwegian political life, thus protecting the interests of the embedsmann (public official) class, to which he belonged. Falsen served as amtmann (district governor) in western Norway starting in 1814 and as the country’s attorney general from 1822 to 1825, when he became prefect in Bergen and was named head of Norway’s Supreme Court in 1827; however, illness prevented him from serving. FEUDALISM. A somewhat controversial concept among modern historians, feudalism as a means of social organization during medieval times presupposes the existence of lords, vassals, and fiefs. In return for military service or other types of aid, a lord provides a fief to a vassal, who swears allegiance to the lord. Vassals may then in turn act as lords to a lower level of vassals who are given smaller fiefs. This feudal system of organization and government was not well suited to conditions in Norway. During the Viking period, Norwegian society had a strong tradition of equality, as kings and other leaders were largely elected and sustained by the consent of those whom they led. This practice was contrary to the ideas of the church; for example, the church quite consistently pressed for a system of royal succession that honored the principles of legitimacy and primogeniture, with the king’s oldest son being the automatic heir to the throne. Some elements of feudalism can be detected in the Danish state administration from the High Middle Ages down to the early modern period. Terms like len (fief), lensherre (lord of the fief), and lensmann (fiefman; vassal) were used. A len could be given by the crown on the condition that military service was rendered in return, it could be given in exchange for a specific annual payment, or the recipient could be responsible for rendering a financial accounting, being able to cover his expenses but also being obligated to turn over whatever profit was left from the management of the len. Those who held a len were responsible for collecting the rents and fixed taxes owed to the crown as well as duties and fines. These forms of income were collected in kind as well as in money, so the holder of a len would ideally be a gifted manager. The system came to an end in the 1550s, when royal appointees were allowed to keep only a certain amount of their collections to cover expenditures and as wages for themselves.

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FINLAND. The Republic of Finland is a sovereign state located north of the Gulf of Finland and east of the Gulf of Bothnia. It shares a border with Sweden in the northwest, Russia in the east, and Norway in the far north. Artifacts found from the earliest human habitation dating from the years after the last Ice Age show characteristics shared with people in Estonia, Russia, and Norway. A common Finnic language is believed to have been spoken around the Baltic region 2,000 years ago and is distantly related to the Sami language, which survives in the northern areas of Finland, Sweden, Norway, and Russia, an area known as Sápmi. During the Viking and Christian Middle Ages, Finnish tribes and their descendants dominated the interior regions of Finland while Swedes settled the coastal areas. Christian Crusaders from the Catholic countries around the Baltic were active in Finland in the 12th and 13th centuries, including a Norwegian army around 1241. As Finland was gradually assimilated into the kingdom of Sweden, contacts with Norway continued largely in the northern part of the country. Norwegian and Finnish history mirrored each other significantly during the Napoleonic Wars in the early 19th century when Sweden, after losing Finland to Russia in 1809, forced a personal union with Norway as compensation. National movements focusing on the creation of an independent national identity emerged in both Finland and Norway during the first half of the 19th century, although these efforts did not fully bear fruit until the early 20th century. After more than a century as a grand duchy of Russia, and with Russia in the throes of revolution and civil war, Finland declared its independence on 6 December 1917. Danish and Norwegian tax records show that northern Norway has been a migration destination for rural Finns since the 1500s. Political and economic circumstances in the 19th century, such as the Finnish famine in the 1860s, resulted in large groups of Finns migrating to northern Norway in these years. Finnish migrants and their descendants in northern Norway, known as the Kven, constitute a population today of between 10,000 and 15,000 people. The Kven were formally recognized by the Norwegian government as a national minority in 1998, while their language was recognized as an official “minority language” in 2005. For centuries, the Kven, and the Finns generally were considered to be a cultural, political, and even a military threat to Norway. Prior to Finnish independence, the so-called Finnish threat (Finsk fare) centered on a fear of the expansive Russian Empire. During the Cold War years, with Finland’s close cooperation with the Soviet Union, the fear was simply repackaged. It quickly dissipated, however, with the end of the Soviet Union. While diplomatic relations between Finland and Norway were established soon after the Finnish declaration of independence in 1917, both countries developed and maintained a policy of neutrality through the interwar years. When the Soviet Union invaded Finland on 30 November 1939, the Winter

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War put new pressure on the Norwegian-Finnish relationship. A plan by Winston Churchill, the First Lord of the Admiralty in Great Britain, to send British and French troops through Norway to aid Finland was rejected by the Norwegian government as a violation of its neutrality. Officially, Norway proclaimed itself neutral in the Winter War as well as in the larger World War II, which had broken out in September 1939, but unofficially and covertly the Norwegian government provided field guns and artillery to the Finns. Similarly, although they would not allow Norwegian military officers to volunteer to join the fighting, the government did not prevent Norwegian civilian volunteers from enlisting. In all, some 725 Norwegians volunteered to fight for Finland, 125 of whom were active on the Salla Front in Karelia. There were also several nonmilitary initiatives of support for the Finnish cause. On 7 December 1939, barely one week after the start of the Winter War, the organization Norsk Folkehjelp (Norwegian People’s Aid) was established to aid the Finns. More than 30 doctors and 140 nurses volunteered their services. Meanwhile, a fund-raising campaign, Finlandssamlingen (the Finnish Collection), was started. It resulted in the collection of more than 2 million Norwegian kroner and the purchase of several aircraft and rifles. Even the writer Sigrid Undset joined in the spirit of the campaign when, on 25 January 1940, she donated the medal she had been awarded with the 1928 Nobel Prize for Literature. Nordic cooperation following World War II witnessed the creation of several institutions, including the Nordic Council in 1952, of which Norway, Sweden, and Denmark are charter members. Finland joined in 1955. Following the establishment of a Nordic labor market in 1954, a Nordic Passport Union was founded in 1958, thereby allowing citizens of one Nordic country to travel and reside in another Nordic country. This policy was subsequently instituted by the expanded European Union. The border between Finland and Norway today stretches some 457 miles (736 km) from the Russian-Norwegian-Finnish tripoint to the Swedish-Norwegian-Finnish tripoint in a more or less east-to-west direction. The border is open, as both countries are members of the Schengen Agreement. According to population statistics, today some 2,000 Norwegian citizens are resident in Finland, while approximately 6,300 Finnish citizens live in Norway. FISHING. Norway’s earliest coastal population made fishing a part of its livelihood as early as shortly after the Pleistocene, and coastal Norwegians have fished pretty much continuously ever since. The trade in fish and such fish products as fish oil and cod roe took off during the medieval period, however, when the Hanseatic League, through its trading station in Bergen,

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exported stockfish throughout Europe. When the power of the Hansa traders declined in the 16th century, Norwegian merchants based in Bergen gradually gained control of this trade. Stockfish was cod that had been caught with hand lines, long line, or nets, both during the great winter fisheries in the Lofoten area and elsewhere along the coast; hung to dry during the cold part of the year, when flies would not infest it with maggots; and freighted to Bergen on board locally owned and generally small vessels. Some of the cod was also salted before it was dried. Herring was another major product; it was cured with salt and transported by the barrel. Herring was caught with gill nets and seines, which were strung across shallow bays or inlets, preventing the fish from escaping. The 1860s and 1880s were especially good years for the herring fisheries. The purse seine was not used in Norway until the 1890s, when it became possible to catch herring with a seine far from land. Drift nets had earlier been used for this purpose, however. Until the latter part of the 1800s, fishing was done with open square-rigged boats that were rowed when there was no favorable wind. As the steam engine was developed, however, larger and more capital-intensive vessels were used, and the availability of the internal combustion engine gradually caused the entire fishing fleet to become motorized. A vivid portrait of the Lofoten cod fisheries, including the early use of motorized vessels, is given in Johan Bojer’s novel Den siste viking (1921; tr. Last of the Vikings, 1923). Costly fishing boats and equipment were a significant threat to most coastal fishermen, who could not afford them. After World War II, there was rapid technological change in the Norwegian fishing industry. Such vessels as deep-sea factory trawlers and large purse-seine boats with power blocks (kraftblokk) rather than dories made fishing so efficient that the stocks were seriously threatened. They also enabled Norwegian fishermen to fish in international waters. As the industry was further capitalized, the number of coastal fishermen decreased, however, and many formerly vibrant fishing communities experienced a significant loss of population. In the 1980s and 1990s, fishing quotas and licenses were introduced to prevent overfishing, and although most Norwegian vessels obeyed the regulations, others did not always do so, and the Norwegian Coast Guard has had to impound vessels and catches to bring about compliance with national and international regulations. Since its beginning in the 1970s, the Norwegian aquaculture industry (fish farming) has grown exponentially. In 2010, Norway was responsible for 65 percent of the world’s production of Atlantic salmon. In 2016, Norwegian fish farming was producing more than 1.2 billion tons annually, exporting 95 percent. See also ECONOMY.

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FIVE, KARIN CECILIE (KACI) KULLMANN (1951–2017). Norwegian politician and member of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. Born in Bærum on 13 April 1951, Five studied law, the French language, and political science at the University of Oslo, graduating in 1981. She served as a member of the Storting (Parliament) from 1981 to 1997 and was the leader of the Conservative Party from 1991 to 1994. Leaving active politics in 1997, she became the managing director of Aker RGI and served on several company boards, including Statoil, the Norwegian national oil company. In 2003, the Storting elected her to be a member of the Norwegian Nobel Committee, which annually chooses the recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. After 12 years as a committee member, she was chosen to be its chair in 2015, a position she held until her death. FJORD. Geologically, a long, narrow inlet of the ocean, generally formed when a glacially carved U-shaped valley is inundated by the sea. Fjords are distinctive geological features along the west coast of Norway, but are also found prominently in Iceland, Greenland, New Zealand, Washington State in the United States, and British Columbia in Canada. The usually shallow threshold entrance to a fjord is the result of glacial moraines built up by material that was pushed forward when the ice advanced. As a result, the waters in the fjords are much calmer than the open sea and frequently form natural harbors. The longest fjord system in the world is the Scoresby Sound (350 km) in eastern Greenland, followed by the Sognefjord (203 km) and the Hardangerfjord (179 km) in western Norway. Two western Norwegian fjords, the Geirangerfjord and the Nærøyfjord (both are extended arms of the Sognefjord) are recognized by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as World Heritage Sites for their unique fjord landscapes and natural scenic beauty. The sheer, narrow, crystalline rock walls of the two fjords rise to approximately 4,500 feet above sea level. According to a statement by UNESCO, “Along the steep walls of the fjords are numerous waterfalls while free-flowing rivers run through deciduous and coniferous forest to glacial lakes, glaciers and rugged mountains. There is a great range of supporting natural phenomena, both terrestrial and marine such as submarine moraines and marine mammals. Remnants of old and now mostly abandoned transhumant farms add a cultural aspect to the dramatic natural landscape that complements and adds human interest to the area.” FLAG. Medieval Norwegian rulers used a variety of symbols, including an eagle and a lion holding an ax. The latter is now displayed on the royal standard of Norway and is similar to the lion found on Norway’s coat of arms. A national flag, as such, did not exist in the Middle Ages, but when

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they came into use around 1500, Norwegians used the Danish flag. During the brief period of Norwegian independence in 1814, a Danish flag with the lion from the coat of arms in the upper left field, next to the hoist, was introduced. After the union with Sweden became official, however, the Swedish flag was used, with a white cross against a red background in the upper left field as the military flag and the merchant flag used in distant waters. The current Norwegian flag was designed by Fredrik Meltzer (1779–1855), a member of the Storting (Parliament), and adopted by the Storting on 21 July 1821. According to Scandinavian tradition, it featured a Christian cross, but Meltzer also used the colors red, white, and blue to signify democracy. The colors red and white maintained the connection with the Danish flag, while the color blue was found on the flag of Sweden. For constitutional reasons, it could not be used in military contexts. In 1844, both Norway and Sweden introduced flags that combined the respective national flags with a union badge consisting of the Norwegian and Swedish colors. Placed in the upper quadrant next to the hoist, the badge was nicknamed “the herring salad.” This flag, which emphasized the equality of the two countries within the union, was initially well liked in Norway. But in 1898, when the union had become very unpopular, the Storting removed the union badge from the Norwegian merchant flag, although it remained on the military flag. The union badge was completely removed following the dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905. FLAGSTAD, KIRSTEN (1895–1962). Norwegian opera singer (soprano) born in Hamar, Hedmark County, Norway, into a musical family on 12 July 1895. Her father was a violinist and conductor, while her mother was a pianist and chorus master. A precocious musical talent, she made her operatic debut at the age of 18 with the National Theater in Oslo. With her popularity growing, in 1928 she joined the Stora Teatern in Gothenborg, Sweden, where she had great success in the title roles of Aida and Tosca. In 1929, at the National Theater in Oslo, she sang the role of Elsa in Richard Wagner’s Lohengrin, and in 1932 she debuted the role perhaps most identified with her, that of Isolde in Wagner’s Tristan and Isolde. Her performances earned her a contract for 1933–34 at the Bayreuth Festival Theater in Germany, where she sang the role of Sieglinde in Wagner’s Die Walküre (The Valkyries), and in 1935 she made a spectacular debut at New York’s Metropolitan Opera as Sieglinde. It was reported that the opera public was struck with “Flagstad fever.” In addition to performing in New York, she first sang Brunnhilde with the San Francisco Opera in the autumn of 1935, and in 1936 she debuted at Covent Garden in London. With her success in New York and London, she began a series of concert tours where, in addition to Wagner, she sang songs by Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, Brahms, and Mahler. In

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1941, Flagstad’s contract with the Metropolitan Opera ended, and she chose to return to Norway and her husband, the Norwegian businessman Henry Johansen, whom she had married in 1930. Her decision to return to her German-occupied homeland was controversial, especially since her husband had become a member of the Quisling political party, Nasjonal Samling. Nevertheless, after World War II, she was able to reestablish her international career, appearing initially in London in 1950 and then returning to the Metropolitan Opera in New York in 1951. On 12 December 1953, on the 40th anniversary of her debut at the National Theater in Oslo, Flagstad held her farewell concert on the same stage where she began. In 1958, she was appointed to be the first opera director for the newly established Norwegian National Opera and Ballet. She resigned in 1960 due to her declining health and died in 1962. FLØGSTAD, KJARTAN (1944–). Norwegian novelist, poet, and short story writer. Fløgstad was born on 7 June 1944 in the industrial town of Sauda in Rogaland County and is the most significant postmodernist in Norwegian literature. His first two published books were poetry collections, but he soon found his narrative voice. Writing in Nynorsk (New Norwegian), Fløgstad’s books were written to be read by common people and were not just for specialists in literature. Kjartan Fløgstad’s first postmodern work, the novel Dalen Portland (1977; tr. Dollar Road, 1989), became his definitive literary breakthrough and also garnered him the Nordic Literary Prize. The book mixes features of popular literature with the conventions of belles lettres, intermingles oldfashioned literary conventions with modernist ones, alternates segments of realistic narration with outlandish fantasy, and tells its story of industrialization in western Norway through a veritable chorus of sometimes competing voices. Many other novels, set in the fictional industrial community of Lovra, deal with similar themes, for example, Fyr og flamme (1980; Fire and Flame) and Kniven pa strupen (1991; The Knife to the Throat). The latter offers a portrait of life under late capitalism, when factory workers have mostly been replaced by machines and the traditional work ethic of the people has given way to greed and crime. Fløgstad returned to the industrial heritage of Lovra/ Sauda in Grand Manila (2006). Fløgstad’s political engagement is evident in his historical novels Grense Jakobselv (2009) and Nordaustpassasjen (2012; Northeast Passage), as he examines issues around the continued presence of Nazi and communist ideologies in the modern world. With vibrant language, a strong sense of history, and a love for the pun, Fløgstad continues to serve as a social and political critic while maintaining a significant role in the contemporary Norwegian literary scene.

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FOLKEPARTIET NYE VENSTRE. See NEW LIBERAL PEOPLE’S PARTY. FOOD. Food and food culture in Norway carry a long tradition influenced by the country’s marginal agriculture, long coastline, and arctic and subArctic climate. With only 3 percent arable land in Norway and a short, if sometimes intense, growing season, agricultural production required strategies for preparing and preserving foods for the long winter months. Similarly, the traditional fisheries such as herring and cod were seasonal, allowing for an abundance during the season and the need to preserve for the rest of the year. Preservative techniques also allowed for storage and shipping of great amounts of fish, especially dried cod, which served as the principal product delivered to the merchants of the Hanseatic League and distributed all over Europe. The traditional food culture in Norway was essentially self-sustaining, with individuals on each farm producing and preparing food for their own consumption. Social distinctions and regional differences throughout the country resulted in varying food traditions, but there were common features and shared traditions that remained relatively stable for centuries. An expanding population, along with the economic and industrial changes of the 19th century, opened Norway to the importation of such things as coffee, margarine, syrup, and sugar. Changes in food making and diet were encouraged through the growing popularity of cookbooks, which began to infiltrate the country in the 1840s. Among the most influential were Maren Elisabet Bang’s Husholdnings-Bog, indrettet efter den almindelige Brug i norske Huusholdninger (1831; Book on Housekeeping, in Accordance with Common Practices of Norwegian Housekeeping), Hanna Winsnes’s Lærebog i de forskjellige Grene af Huusholdningen (1845; Textbook of the Various Types of Housekeeping), and Peter Christen Asbjørnsen’s Furnuftigt Madstel. En tidsmessig Koge- og Husholdningsbog av Clemens Bonefacius (1861; Reasonable Foodmaking: A Contemporary Cookbook and Housekeeping Book by Clemens Bonefacius). Cookbooks not only offered recipes, but they also served to strengthen national traditions while subtly encouraging cultural change. Historically, farm animals were culled and slaughtered in the fall. This was the only time fresh meat was eaten. Most of the meat was preserved by drying, salting, or smoking. In coastal fishing districts, herring, cod, and pollack were common in great numbers and regularly fished. These would ordinarily be salted, dried, or smoked for personal use or for sale. Winter regularly brought cod to the Lofoten waters to spawn. Here they were fished in great numbers, hung to dry on large drying racks, and then sold as stockfish to the Hanseatic merchants in Bergen. In addition to beef and fish, the Norwegian menu has historically also featured lamb and pork. Lamb meat in

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various forms is popular as an everyday food, as well as being a festive food for special occasions. Pork is likewise extremely popular, either fresh or smoked. Ribs of lamb (pinnekjøtt), specially prepared and salted, serves as one of the most popular Christmas foods in western Norway, while a side of pork (svineribbe), baked and broiled with the skin on, is a main Christmas dish in eastern Norway. The south and southwestern region of the country served fresh cod as its traditional Christmas dish. Common throughout the country was a dried cod dish, reconstituted and tenderized in a mild lye solution, then rinsed out and cooked before serving, called lutefisk. The lutefisk tradition was carried by Norwegian emigrants to the United, States where it remains a special dish and heritage food for Norwegian Americans today. Milk was seldom consumed fresh in Norway until well into the 20th century. Traditionally, it was conserved and used as butter and for various kinds of cheese. In addition to standard cow’s milk, goat milk was common, but it was often used to make brunost (brown cheese). Officially not a cheese, brown cheese is made from the whey, a by-product of standard cheese making. Rather than discard the whey, Norwegians slowly cooked it until it caramelized and developed a brown appearance, when it was then placed in cheese forms and allowed to set. This unique Norwegian food has a ubiquitous presence on the Norwegian breakfast and lunch table. Fruits and vegetables were not a standard part of the Norwegian diet until the 18th century, although berries and herbs have been cultivated since the Middle Ages. The potato was introduced into Scandinavia in the 1650s but was not commonly cultivated until the early 19th century. Barley and oats are the most common grains grown in Norway, but wheat and rye are also cultivated. Historically, Norwegians made a flat, round bread of flour, salt, and water, fried on a stone or iron board. This cake, called brauðiskr (bread plate), was about 12 inches in diameter. Porridge is one of the most common traditional foods in Norway. Until the early 1900s, barley or oatmeal porridge was among the most important parts of the everyday diet. For special occasions, a rice-cream porridge (risengrynsgrøt) or sour cream porridge (rømmegrøt) is often prepared. Since the 1960s, Norwegians have experienced and developed broad eclectic tastes and incorporated numerous international food traditions into their diet, complementing their traditional foods. FOREIGN AFFAIRS. Norway’s foreign affairs include actions that relate to the promotion of Norway’s interests abroad, politically, economically, and culturally. From the establishment of the Kalmar Union in 1397 until 1905, Norwegian foreign affairs and policy were determined by the dominant union partner, Denmark or Sweden. The Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs was officially established on 7 June 1905, the same day that Prime Minister Christian Michelsen announced the dissolution of the union with Sweden.

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Jørgen Løvland was appointed the first minister of foreign affairs on 15 June 1905. Successfully navigating the dissolution, Norway’s proclamation of neutrality formed the foundation of the new country’s emergence on the international stage. The outbreak of World War I challenged Norway’s neutrality, especially as to the principal concerns about the security of the food supply and the protection of the country’s extensive merchant fleet. Although suffering severe shipping losses, the two decades after the Great War saw Norway firmly committed to support the League of Nations and the concepts of collective security and international cooperation. The work of Fridtjof Nansen as high commissioner for refugees and the establishment of the “Nansen passport,” the refugee travel documents that allowed stateless Russians, Armenians, Turks, and Assyrians to escape their war-torn homelands, embodied the international posture Norway sought to establish in the interwar years. For their efforts, Nansen was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1922, and the Nansen International Office for Refugees was awarded the prize in 1938. The belief that neutrality would keep Norway out of any future war, coupled with the economic hardship of the 1930s and a philosophical commitment to social spending over military spending, embraced by the Labor Party government of Johan Nygaardsvold in 1935, left Norway’s antiquated defenses vulnerable when the forces of Nazi Germany invaded the country on 9 April 1940. Putting up a valiant but futile struggle, after two months of fighting, the government and the king were forced to seek exile in England for the duration of the war. At the outbreak of World War II, Norway had over 1,000 ships and more than 25,000 merchant mariners at sea or in ports around the world. British authorities recommended that they be placed under the British flag, but the Norwegian government rejected this proposal and instead established the Norwegian Shipping and Trade Mission (NORTRA). Norwegian ships carried a substantial percentage of the oil and other material supplies across the Atlantic between 1940 and 1945. An estimated 570 Norwegian ships were lost, as well as more than 4,000 merchant mariners, during the five-year conflict. Recognizing the failure of its policy of neutrality, Norway became a founding member of the United Nations (UN) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) after the war. Participation in international organizations became a fundamental pillar of Norway’s foreign affairs, especially since the end of the Cold War. Norway is a firm advocate for international cooperation and the peaceful resolution of conflict. Additionally, Norway pursues policies of social, cultural, and economic cooperation, most importantly with the other Nordic countries. Emphasizing democratic values and peaceful resolution of conflicts, Norway has emerged as an important international mediator. Four Norwegians, Johan Jørgen Holst, Marianne Hei-

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berg, Terje Rød Larsen, and Mona Juul, were instrumental in crafting the Oslo Accords in 1993 between the government of Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), and Norwegian diplomats have also been actively involved as mediators in Guatemala, the Sudan, and Bosnia, among other places. At the 73rd annual session of the UN General Assembly in 2018, the government of Norway articulated its priorities for the coming decade, stating its intention to safeguard and strengthen multilateral cooperation, the international legal order, human rights, and gender equality. Additionally, Norway would contribute to the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, especially as it relates to the oceans, education, health, and domestic resource mobilization. See also EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AREA (EEA); EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION (EFTA); EUROPEAN UNION (EU); GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT); ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT (OECD); ORGANISATION FOR EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COOPERATION (OEEC); UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (UNESCO). FOSSE, JON OLAV (1959–). Norwegian dramatist and novelist. Born 29 September 1959 in Haugesund, Rogaland County, Norway, Fosse studied sociology, philosophy, and comparative literature, graduating from the University of Bergen in 1987. He served on the faculty of the Skrivekunstakademiet i Hordaland (Writer’s Academy of Hordaland) and was a coeditor of the journal of literature and literary theory, Bøk (Beech). Fosse uses Nynorsk as his written language. One of Norway’s most prolific writers since his debut with the novel Raudt, svart (1983; Red, Black) in 1983, Fosse has written more than 50 novels, plays, poems, essays, and books for children. Best known as a playwright, his works have been translated or performed in more than 40 languages, and his name is regularly mentioned as a serious candidate for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Fosse is one of the most performed contemporary playwrights in the world. In 2015, his alma mater, the University of Bergen, honored him with an honorary doctorate of arts and letters. Fosse’s debut play, Og aldri skal vi skiljast (1994; And We Shall Never be Separated), performed at Den Nasjonale Scene (The National Stage) in Bergen, presents a dreamlike exploration of the meaning of human relationships. Critics have occasionally claimed that Fosse’s plays were “boring” for their lack of action. However, what has regularly captivated his readers and his audience is his use of poetic forms to create even minor conflicts and tension. As a result, Fosse’s work has been described as an exceptional example of “postdramatic theater.”

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FOYN, SVEND (1809–1894). Norwegian whaling pioneer. Born in Tønsberg on 9 July 1809, Foyn started out as a seal hunter but made a name for himself in the whaling industry. Hunting large whales off the coast of Finnmark in the 1860s, he perfected the harpoon cannon, which shot a harpoon attached to a line and caused a grenade to penetrate into the body of the whale, where it exploded. Foyn’s invention, patented in 1870, enabled the development of large-scale whaling in the open sea, made Norway the foremost whaling nation on earth, and created tremendous wealth for his home district, particularly the towns of Tønsberg and Sandefjord. FREETHINKER. The word fritenker (freethinker), borrowed from English, was a term of abuse popular with Norwegian conservatives during the turbulent 1870s and 1880s, particularly with reference to those who questioned the doctrines and dogmas of received religion. It was often treated as synonymous with vantro (unbeliever/unbelieving) and had a political as well as religious aspect, as some of the people on the Left who helped form the Liberal Party in 1884 objected to the use of religion as a means whereby socioeconomic power could be maintained or enhanced. The conservatives, in turn, associated freethinking (jritenkeri) with everything that they objected to in early modernity, be it government (parliamentarism), science (Darwinism), literature (Bjørnson and Ibsen), or society (feminism). The writer Arne Garborg has detailed the social and emotional force of the concept in his first significant literary effort, the short novel Ein Fritenkjar (1878; A Freethinker), in which he shows what kind of prejudice meets a sincere individual who wants to build his personal worldview on reason rather than dogma. By 1900, there were several freethinker associations in Norway, first and foremost the Fritcenkerklubben (Freethinker Club) in Bergen. FREMSKRITTSPARTIET. See PROGRESS PARTY. FRISINNEDE VENSTRE. See LIBERAL LEFT PARTY. FRYDENLUND, KNUT (1927–1987). Norwegian politician. Born in Drammen on 31 March 1927, Frydenlund studied law at the University of Oslo, from which he received his degree in 1950. In 1952, he entered the Norwegian Foreign Service and had several significant assignments. He served as the personal secretary of Halvard Lange, the long-serving minister of foreign affairs. Elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) on the Labor Party ticket in 1969, Frydenlund was chosen by Prime Minister Trygve Bratteli to serve as the minister of foreign affairs in 1973, continuing until 1981, and served under Odvar Nordli and in Gro Harlem Brundtland’s first government as well. He also served as minister of foreign affairs

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in Brundtland’s second government, from 1986 until his death. Frydenlund thus had a rare opportunity to contribute to the shaping of Norwegian foreign policy, including security policy, which at times was at variance with the interests of the United States, particularly under Republican administrations. Frydenlund was also strongly in favor of Norwegian membership in the European Community (European Union) and was a particularly vocal supporter of the failed membership campaign that culminated in the 1972 referendum. His views of Norway’s place in the international community were expressed in numerous books and articles.

G GARBORG, ARNE (1851–1924). Norwegian novelist and poet. Born on 25 January 1851 in Time in the district of Jæren south of Stavanger as the oldest son and thus the allodial heir to Eivind Aadneson, Garborg grew up with an extreme form of rural religious pietism that long soured him on both religion and rural life. After leaving home to become a teacher, he learned at the age of 18 that his father had committed suicide. This gave him deep and lasting feelings of guilt, for he feared that his own rejection of his ancestral farm had contributed to the depression that led to his father’s death. After a period of teaching, Garborg went to Oslo to qualify for admission to the university, and he reached this goal in 1875 with superior marks. Around the same time, he abandoned all traces of the conservative religiosity with which he had been raised, becoming increasingly radical in his thinking and writing. One aspect of that radicalism was his choice of literary medium; for most of his writing, he chose Landsmaal (later known as Nynorsk, or New Norwegian) rather than the Danish-colored standard Riksmaal (later known as Bokmal) of his day. Along with Ivar Aasen (1813–96) and Aasmund Olafsson Vinje (1818–70), Garborg is credited with creating the Nynorsk literary tradition. Garborg’s first significant literary effort was the short novel Ein Fritenkjar (1878; A Freethinker), which details the prejudice that meets a sincere individual who wants to build his personal worldview on reason rather than dogma. During the 1880s, he produced a series of novels and stories in which he championed the progressive causes of his day. Particularly attuned to the experiences of rural youth who had come to the capital in search of higher education, he became well known for his novel Bondestudentar (1883; Peasant Students), which has been required reading for generations of Norwegian secondary school students. He also intervened in the so-called morality debate of the 1880s, offering a literary diagnosis of the relationship between economics and sexual expression both inside and outside of marriage. After his marriage to Hulda Garborg (1862–1934) in 1887, he spent time in Germany, where he had faithful translators and a considerable audience. In

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the 1890s, Garborg increasingly turned his attention toward religious themes, which he treated with great insight. He also wrote poetry about the landscape and the people of Jæren in his childhood and youth. Garborg is one of Norway’s finest essayists and offers incisive commentary on the cultural and political issues of his day. See also LITERATURE. GARBORG, KAREN HULDA BERGERSEN (1862–1934). Norwegian author and folklorist. Born Karen Hulda Bergersen in Stange, Hedmark, she grew up in Hamar and Kristiania (Oslo). She married Norwegian author Arne Garborg in 1887. Hulda Garborg was a central figure in the cultural life of Norway for more than three decades, especially noted for her work on Norwegian bunads (traditional folk costumes), which she advocated and popularized. She founded Det norske spellaget (1899; the Norwegian Musical Association) and was a cofounder of Det norske teatret (1912; the Norwegian Theater), which produced plays in the Nynorsk (New Norwegian) language. In addition to several novels and plays, Garborg edited a book of Norwegian folk songs, Norske folkevisor (1903; Norwegian Folk Songs) and in the same year published one of her most influential books on the Norwegian folk costume tradition, Norsk klædebunad (1903; Norwegian Folk Costumes). GAUP, NILS (1955–). Norwegian actor, screenwriter, and film director, born in Kautokeino, in Finnmark County, on 12 April 1955. Gaup developed an interest in theater as a teenager, and, following the completion of his studies at the National Drama Academy in 1978, he performed at several local theaters in Norway. He debuted as a film actor that same year. In 1981, he cofounded the Sami-language Beaivváš Sámi Theater in Kautokeino and made his professional debut as a screenwriter and director in 1987 with the film Veiviseren (The Pathfinder). The film was based on an old Sami legend of a boy who saved his people from violent outsiders. Filmed entirely with North Sami dialogue, the film earned Gaup an Academy Award nomination for Best Foreign Language Film as well as the Amanda Prize for the best Norwegian film. The success of the film brought him to Hollywood, where he made several films, including a Disney film, Shipwrecked (1990), and Head above Water, a 1996 English-language remake of his successful Norwegian film, Hodet over vannet (1993). Gaup returned to a north Norwegian location and a Sami story in 2008 when he wrote and directed Kautokeino opprøret (2008; The Kautokeino Rebellion) telling the story of a Sami uprising against the oppressive Norwegian authorities in 1852. See also CINEMA; MEDIA.

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GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT). GATT was created in 1947 in order to help the world recover from the effects of World War II by reducing barriers to international trade. GATT was solely an agreement, and an intended organization called the International Trade Organization did not materialize because its charter was not ratified. In 1995, the functions of GATT were superseded by the World Trade Organization (WTO). Norway has been a member of GATT since 10 July 1948 and continues as a member of the WTO. In 2017, Norway donated $1.4 million to WTO trade-related programs to help the least-developed countries participate in global trade. See also EUROPEAN INTEGRATION. GERHARDSEN, EINAR (1897–1987). Norwegian politician. The son of a minor public official, Gerhardsen was born on 10 May 1897 in Asker near Oslo and rose from errand boy and laborer to the position of prime mover behind the development of the Norwegian welfare state. Active in both his labor union and the youth organization of the Labor Party, by the outbreak of World War II, he had had several responsible assignments also in the national Labor Party itself, including the position of secretary in 1923 and the post as secretary in the Oslo Labor Party from 1926 to 1936. During World War II, when the occupying authorities forbade him to engage in politics, he briefly served as acting chairman of the Labor Party and mayor of Oslo for 10 days in August 1940 before he was forced by the Germans to resign. After working in the Resistance, he was arrested, tortured, and imprisoned by the Germans, first in Norway and then in Germany, including in the concentration camp Sachsenhausen. Later transferred back to a Norwegian prison, he was released at the time of the German capitulation. After the war, Gerhardsen was made chairman of the Labor Party. He played a leading role in establishing Norway’s first postwar government, which included representatives of all major political parties, and served as prime minister in this government from 25 June 1945 until the fall general elections. These elections gave the Labor Party a majority in the Storting (Parliament), and he continued to serve as prime minister in this Labor government until 1951. By then, he had shepherded Norway into membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Gerhardsen resigned his post as prime minister in 1951, stating that he was worn out from both his wartime imprisonment and his postwar leadership responsibilities. He became the leader of the Labor Party caucus in the Storting, trading places with the new prime minister, Oscar Torp, and was able to both smooth over tensions in the relationship between the government and the parliamentary Labor caucus and resolve some disagreements between the Labor Party and the trade unions. These internal conflicts in the Labor Party were mostly related to the question of which defense policy to pursue and how to deal with inflationary pressures in the economy.

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In 1955, Gerhardsen again took over as prime minister after Torp’s resignation, and this government lasted until 1963. During the parliamentary elections of 1961, however, the newly formed Socialist Left Party (SF), consisting mostly of voters who had broken away from the Labor Party, had elected two representatives to parliament. The Labor Party and the opposition had 74 representatives each, so Gerhardsen depended on the continued support of SF to remain in power. A tragic coal-mining accident at Kings Bay, Spitsbergen, led to a no-confidence vote against the Gerhardsen government on 23 August 1963, and the two SF representatives voted with the opposition. A coalition government headed by John Lyng of the Conservative Party was formed, but it lasted for only about one month. Gerhardsen’s fourth government took over on 25 September 1963 and lasted until the fall of 1965, when it was replaced by a coalition government headed by Per Borten of the Center Party. Gerhardsen continued as a member of the Storting until 1969, however, when he retired from active participation in politics. He remained a beloved and trusted elder statesman, though, and continued to be influential in Labor Party affairs. He is considered one of Norway’s foremost political leaders of all time. GLOBAL WARMING. Global warming refers to the rise of the earth’s average temperature as an aspect of climate change since the preindustrial period. It is a matter of special concern because science has largely determined that its effects are exacerbated by human activity. Global warming and its effects, which are keenly felt in Norway, include such things as changes in regional precipitation, the rise of sea levels, and ocean acidification. The Arctic region is understood to be especially vulnerable, with the retreat of glaciers, reduced winter sea ice, and permafrost degradation. With a large portion of its territory lying within the Arctic region, Norway is especially sensitive to the effects of global warming and the impact it is likely to have in the long term. In the course of the 20th century, the annual mean temperature in Norway increased by 0.9 degrees Celsius (1.62 degrees Fahrenheit), according to the Norwegian Ministry of Climate and Environment. Regional differences show increased temperatures overall having ranged from 0.5 degrees to 1.1 degrees Celsius. Annual mean temperature increases by the year 2100 are projected to be between 2.3 and 4.6 degrees Celsius. Prevailing westerly winds bring moist air masses over most of Norway, but areas along the west coast get the most precipitation. Among the wettest in Europe, several areas of western Norway receive more than 3,500 millimeters (138 inches) of precipitation annually. Norwegian coastal glaciers, which were stable or expanded slightly until the 1990s, are rapidly decreasing as a result of less winter precipitation and increased summer melting. The Arctic sea region north of mainland Norway is projected to be ice free in summer by the 2050s,

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and the snow season is expected to become shorter. On land, ground temperature measurements taken by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute show significant permafrost melting in the Arctic regions. Melting permafrost caused some flooding of the Svalbard Global Seed Vault in 2016. Other changes caused by global warming have also manifested themselves in the natural environment, most notably the expansion of Norwegian forests. Coniferous trees are spreading farther north and to higher altitudes. Birch forests, common in Norway, are expected to expand as well. A temperature increase of two degrees Celsius could mean the tree line would move as much as 300 meters further up the mountainsides and even encroach into the northern tundra ecosystem. The growth of forests, however, can also have an ameliorating effect on climate change because, according to the Ministry of Climate and Environment, forests in Norway absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere that is equivalent to 60 percent of Norwegian greenhouse gas emissions. The Environmental Performance Index (EPI), produced jointly by Yale University and Columbia University in collaboration with the World Economic Forum, ranks 180 countries in 24 indicators to determine environmental performance, best practices, and sustainability. In its 2018 report, the EPI listed Norway as the 14th-ranked country in the world, with an index score of 77.49. In spite of this high EPI ranking, Norway is among the largest oil and natural gas exporters in the world. Norwegian oil production covers only approximately 2 percent of the world’s demand but provides 25 percent of the natural gas demand of the European Union (EU) and is the third-largest exporter of natural gas in the world. Nearly all the gas and oil produced in Norway is exported and accounts for almost half of all Norwegian goods exported. Although an oil producer, Norway is less reliant on oil and gas domestically than most countries. Fully 98 percent of Norway’s electricity demands are supplied by renewable energy sources, 95 percent of which is in the form of hydroelectric power. As a result, domestic energy costs are relatively low, while Norwegian consumption of electricity is approximately three times the average consumption of the rest of Europe. Norway has undergone major societal changes since World War II, but none has been more significant, perhaps, than the increased income from the oil and gas sector. While it has allowed the country to achieve immense wealth and develop a generous welfare state, it is also the main cause for the increase in Norway’s carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. As a result, in recent years, Norway has committed itself to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 40 percent by the year 2030 compared to 1990 levels. In the National Transport Plan 2019–29, which the Ministry of Transport and Communication presented to the Norwegian Storting (Parliament) in 2016, it is noted that nearly half of all CO2 emissions in the country comes from the transportation sector. As a result, efforts are being made in road, rail, and air transportation

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to reduce emissions in these areas. The Norwegian government has incentivized and actively encouraged the purchase of electric and hybrid automobiles. Of the 2.5 million automobiles registered in Norway in 2018, 140,000 are all electric. Public bus and ferry transportation is also beginning to shift to electric operation. With its scientific community and political leaders publicly supportive of its emission-reduction goals, Norway has committed itself to becoming a carbon-neutral country by the year 2050. See also ARCHITECTURE. GODAL, BJØRN TORE (1945–). Norwegian politician. Born in Skien on 20 January 1945, Godal studied political science, sociology, and history at the University of Oslo and received a bachelorlevel degree in 1969. For the next several years, he held various positions in the Labor Party and its youth organization and acted as a substitute member of the Storting (Parliament), serving in the place of Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland from 1986 to 1989. He then was a regularly elected member of the Storting from 1989 to 2001. From 1991 to 1994, he served as minister of trade and shipping in Brundtland’s third government and, from 1994 to 1996, as Brundtland’s minister of foreign affairs. He also served in the same position under Prime Minister Thorbjørn Jagland from 1996 to 1997 and then as minister of defense in Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg’s first government from 2000 to 2001. Godal has also been Norway’s ambassador to Germany. A loyal and versatile Labor team player, Godal is noted for his dissent from party orthodoxy at the time of the 1972 referendum concerning Norwegian membership in the European Community, when he was the most vocal Labor opponent of membership. From 2007 until 2010, Godal served as a special advisor to the Norwegian Foreign Ministry on issues relating to climate and energy. Since 2010, Godal has been a member of the Board of Equinor ASA (formerly Statoil), serving on the Compensation and Executive Development Committee as well as the Safety, Sustainability, and Ethics Committee. He is also vice chair of the board of the Fridtjof Nansen Institute, an independent research foundation headquartered in Lysaker, Norway. GOVERNMENT PENSION FUND–GLOBAL (GPF-G). Also known as the Oil Fund (Oljefondet), the Government Pension Fund–Global was established by the Norwegian Storting (Parliament) in 1990 with the specific purpose of investing the surplus revenues from the Norwegian offshore petroleum sector. In 2018, this fund had assets of more than $1.1 trillion. It is the world’s largest sovereign wealth fund. The fund was established in order to benefit the Norwegian population after the oil reserves run out by safeguarding and building wealth for Norway’s future generations. Of the assets,

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in 2018 approximately 65 percent were in equities, with the rest in real estate and fixed-income investments around the world. The government can withdraw up to 3 percent of the value of the fund annually. According to the ethical guidelines established for the fund, it cannot invest money in companies that contribute directly or indirectly to killing or torture, or that deprive individuals of their freedom or violate their human rights. Seventeen tobacco companies were excluded from the fund in 2010, and in 2014 the fund divested from 53 coal companies around the world. Decisions are made following a screening process conducted by a Council on Ethics and a global research firm, which monitor the companies in the pension fund’s portfolio for issues such as human rights violations, child labor, forced labor, environmental degradation, and corporate corruption. As such, the fund tends to reflect the ethical standards, cultural customs, and soft diplomacy of the Norwegians themselves. See also OIL AND NATURAL GAS. GRANDE, TRINE SKEI (1969–). Norwegian politician and leader of the Liberal Party (Venstre) since 2010. Grande was born on 2 October 1969 in Overhalla, Trøndelag. She served in the Storting (Parliament) from 2001 to 2018, when she became the minister of culture in the second Center-Right government of Erna Solberg. Grande studied economics at the university in Trondheim and political science at the University of Oslo. She taught briefly at the Levanger University College (1993) and has been active in Liberal Party politics since 1987. After moving to Oslo in the mid-1990s, she served on the Oslo city council (1997–2003) and became a member of parliament in 2001. In 2010 she succeeded Lars Sponheim as the leader of the Liberal Party, and following the national election of 2017, she has held the position of minister of culture in Solberg’s coalition government. GREAT NORTHERN WAR. Lasting from 1700 to 1721, the Great Northern War was indirectly a result of Sweden’s position as a European Great Power during the decades after the end of the Thirty Years War (1618–48). In control of a Baltic empire, Sweden ruled a large territory centered on the Gulf of Finland as well as several German--speaking provinces. For most of the period of the war, Sweden was led by the great warrior-king Karl XII (1682–1718), and the opposition forces were made up of coalitions consisting of Denmark-Norway, Prussia Sachsen-Poland, Russia, and Hanover. Even though Karl XII had initial successes with his well-trained army, the opposition was eventually too much for him. Led by Tsar Peter the Great, Russia defeated the Swedes decisively at the Battle of Poltava in 1709, and Karl’s campaign in Germany went from bad to worse. Having lost his possessions in Germany and the Baltic, Karl went into exile for five years.

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Upon his return, he set his sights on Norway, however, which was to be compensation for his losses and which he invaded in 1716. Having initially captured Christiania (Oslo), he was unable to capture the Akershus Fortress and was forced to withdraw, taking the town of Fredrikstad on his way back to Sweden. The townspeople set fire to their houses, and Karl withdrew, having been unable to take its fortress, Fredriksten. At this time, Peter Wessel Tordenskjold captured or destroyed the Swedish resupply fleet, depriving Karl of the guns and ammunition he needed to retake Fredrikstad. When he again attacked in 1718, a portion of his army invaded Trøndelag, while the bulk of his forces went into southeastern Norway, laying siege to Fredriksten Fortress. On 30 November, while inspecting the trench work associated with the siege, Karl was killed, possibly by a musket ball fired from the fortress. Speculation and rumor, however, have suggested that the fatal shot may have been fired by someone in the Swedish trenches. When word of the king’s death reached the army attacking Trøndelag, it withdrew, and many soldiers froze to death during its retreat. Elsewhere, Danes and Russians continued their attacks along the Swedish coast, and a peace treaty was eventually signed in the town of Nystad in 1721, bringing the conflict to a formal conclusion. GREEN PARTY. The Miljøpartiet de Grønne (MDG) is a Center-Left political party in Norway that focuses on environmental protection and ecological sustainability. Founded 29 October 1988, the Green Party is affiliated with the European Green Party and the Global Greens. Among its founders are the ecology philosopher Arne Næss and the political scientist Johan Galtung. With 95,000 votes in the 2017 national election, the Greens were awarded a single representative in the Norwegian Storting (Parliament). Members of the party have also been elected as representatives to sit on regional county (fylke) councils and local municipal (kommune) councils. The Green Party’s political program advocates a “humanitarian society in ecological balance,” where economic issues are subordinated to healthy ecological principles along with the advancement of peace and justice locally and globally. The party is profiled much as other European Green parties, which emphasize feminism, pacifism, and cultural diversity, in addition to ecological thinking. In order to counter the growing threat of climate change globally, the Green Party also advocates a reduction in the extraction of petroleum from Norwegian oil reserves, with a complete stop of production by 2033. The party has no leader in the traditional sense but is governed by an executive committee of seven persons, two of whom are chosen to be national spokespersons, one female and one male. In 2018, Une Aina Bastholm and Arild Hermstad were designated to be the spokespersons for the Green Party.

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GREENLAND. The world’s largest noncontinental island, Greenland is situated in the North Atlantic Ocean east of Canada’s Arctic archipelago and northwest of Iceland. Comprising an area of 836,330 square miles and a population of 55,877 (2018), Greenland is an autonomous country of the Kingdom of Denmark. Granted home rule in 1979, Greenland retains a close connection with Denmark, as two Greenlandic representatives sit in the Danish parliament. Since the formalization of the Self-Government Act in 2009, the government of Greenland, called the Naalakkersuisut, controls all aspects of governing, with the exception of foreign affairs, defense, and monetary policy, which Denmark controls. The population of Greenland is 88 percent Greenlandic Inuit. In 2009, Greenlandic was made the official language, although most Greenlanders also speak Danish, while English is also broadly understood. The capital city of Nuuk has a population of approximately 17,000 people. Archeological finds in Greenland attest to human habitation back to prehistoric times, estimated to about 2,500 BCE. Around the year 986 CE, Greenland was settled by Norwegians and Icelanders led by the Viking chieftain Erik the Red. At its height, the Eastern and Western Settlements on Greenland’s west coast had an estimated population of 2,500 people. Medieval Icelandic and Norwegian texts occasionally reference life among the descendents of Vikings in Greenland, who thrived for some 500 years until the end of the 15th century when they disappeared. The combination of a worsening climate, deteriorating soil conditions, and conflict with the native Inuit people may have contributed to their demise. Greenland was a part of the Norwegian empire during the Middle Ages until the formation of the Kalmar Union in 1397, when, although formally still a territory of Norway, it came under the rule of Denmark. The Treaty of Kiel in 1814, which transferred Norway to Sweden, also stipulated that Greenland, along with Iceland and the Faroe Islands, remained integral parts of the Danish state. Along with Denmark, Greenland joined the European Economic Community (EEC) as a territory in 1973 but, in 1985, after having been granted home rule by the Danish government, voted to withdraw. The status of Greenland being outside the European Union (EU) but still subject to an EU member state has created a possible model for areas of the UK that voted in favor of remaining in the EU in the June 2016 plebiscite. GREPP, KYRRE (1879–1922). Norwegian politician. Born in Brønnøy, Nordland County, on 6 August 1879, Grepp studied literature and medicine. He was the leader of the revolutionary opposition in the Labor Party during World War I and succeeded Christian Holtermann Knudsen as the leader of the Labor Party in 1918. In 1919, under his leadership, the Labor Party

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joined the Communist International (Comintern), and Grepp served as the conduit receiving and disseminating revolutionary literature from Moscow. Grepp died in 1922 from pulmonary tuberculosis. GRIEG, EDVARD (1843–1907). Norwegian composer. Born on 15 June 1843 in Bergen and of Scottish descent, Grieg received piano lessons from his mother and later, on the recommendation of the violinist Ole Bull, studied at the conservatory in Leipzig, Germany. He became an excellent pianist but is better known as a composer in the romantic vein who was strongly influenced by Norwegian folk music. As a result, he sought to shape a new Norwegian sound by using folk melodies as his inspiration. Grieg debuted as a pianist in Karlshamn, Sweden, in 1861, but his major breakthrough came in Bergen the following year when he played several of his own compositions. He continued his studies in Copenhagen from 1863 to 1865, influenced most notably by the great composer of the Danish golden age, Niels Wilhelm Gade. At a concert in the Tivoli Gardens in 1864, he premiered his first major orchestral work, Symphony in C Minor. Grieg moved to Oslo in 1866 and in the following year married Nina Hagerup (1845–1935), his cousin. A soprano, Nina became his companion, musical shadow, and inspirational muse as she interpreted his songs and lyrical pieces. Some of his best-known musical pieces are selections drawn from the incidental music he composed for the 1876 Christiania performance of Henrik Ibsen’s drama Peer Gynt (1867). Two suites, Opus 46 and Opus 55, contain such classics as “Morning Mood,” “Solveig’s Song,” and “In the Hall of the Mountain King.” Grieg also wrote songs with texts by the Norwegian writers Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Arne Garborg, and Aasmund Olafsson Vinje. His Lyric Pieces, written for piano, are also well known, and his three violin sonatas have an honored place in the standard chamber music repertoire. In addition to the music of the Peer Gynt Suite, arguably Grieg’s most performed composition is his Piano Concerto in A Minor, composed in 1868. It is the first piano concerto ever recorded, by Wilhelm Backhaus in 1909, and the concerto has filtered through popular culture ever since. The first movement is played in the 1939 motion picture Intermezzo, starring Leslie Howard and Ingrid Bergman, and it is also featured in the 1945 film The Seventh Veil, starring James Mason and Ann Todd. See also CINEMA. GRIEG, NORDAHL (1902–1943). Norwegian author, dramatist, poet, and war correspondent, born in Bergen and named for his great-great-grandfather, Johan Nordahl Brun, former bishop of Bergen. He was the younger brother of Harald Grieg, director of the Norwegian publishing house Gyldendal Norsk Forlag, a longtime leader in the Norwegian book industry. Nordahl Grieg is perhaps best known for his poetry, especially the poem he

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wrote and read over the Norwegian radio after the German invasion in 1940, 17. Mai 1940 (17 May 1940). The poem articulated the perfect tone of patriotism and resistance against the Nazi invaders at a time when it was needed most, reminding Norwegians of what they had lost, but also that regaining it was worth the fight. Grieg debuted in 1922 with a collection of poems, Rundt Kap det gode haab (Around the Cape of Good Hope). It was followed two years later with Skibet gaar videre (The Ship Continues), a novel about the lives of intrepid Norwegian sailors. A screenplay he cowrote in 1923, Bergenstoget plyndret inat (The Bergen Train Was Robbed Tonight), filmed in 1927, became a sensation as Norway’s first crime fiction film. Although a professed communist and radical anti-Nazi, his poetry and his dramatic production emphasize Norwegian patriotism, pacifism, and nonviolence. His 1936 poem “Til ungdommen” (For Young People), commonly known as “Kringsatt av fiender” (Surrounded by Enemies), was set to music by Danish composer Otto Mortensen in 1952 and has come to be regarded almost as an anthem of the Norwegian labor and peace movements. Escaping from Norway following the German invasion in April 1940, Grieg assisted in the transport to keep the Norwegian gold supply from falling into the hands of the invaders. He followed it to Tromsø and then to England, where he joined the Norwegian forces and participated as a war correspondent on several air raids over enemy territory. On 2 December 1943, the plane in which he was flying was shot down over Berlin. See also CINEMA; LITERATURE; WORLD WAR II. GRINI PRISON CAMP. Grini was a Nazi German concentration camp located northwest of Oslo in the municipality of Bærum. Initially constructed as a women’s prison in 1938, for a short time following the German invasion of Norway on 9 April 1940, Grini became a detention center for captured Norwegian officers. It was then used briefly as barracks to house German soldiers, until June 1941, when it became a concentration camp. Several Norwegian politicians and cultural personalities were imprisoned at Grini, as well as Soviet soldiers captured during the German invasion of Russia. Many Norwegian political prisoners were held there before being shipped to concentration camps in Germany. Among the best-known prisoners were Odd Nansen, son of Fridtjof Nansen, and Francis Bull, a literary scholar and professor at the University of Oslo. Bull often held secret lectures for the prisoners. Some of these lectures were published in 1945 as Tretten taler på Grini (1945; Thirteen Lectures at Grini). After the war, the prison was renamed Ilebu Prison, and in 2002 it became the Ila Detention and Security Prison. Today, Norway’s most dangerous prisoners are kept there. See also WORLD WAR II.

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GUDE, HANS (1825–1903). Norwegian painter. Born in Christiania (Oslo) on 13 March 1825, Gude was a child prodigy and began studying art in Dusseldorf, Germany, at the age of 16. He was an immensely influential landscape painter who found inspiration in both the mountains and along the coast of Norway and celebrated the greatness of Norwegian nature. His bestknown work is Brudefærden i Hardanger (Bridal Journey in Hardanger), painted in 1848, on which he collaborated with his colleague Adolph Tidemand. Gude painted the landscape, Tidemand the figures. This work is regarded as a high point of Norwegian national romanticism and was accompanied by a song written by Andreas Munch (1811–84) with music by Halfdan Kjerulf (1815–68) when it was exhibited publicly for the first time. In addition to painting, Gude was an especially influential and popular teacher. He taught at the Academy of Art in Dusseldorf from 1857 to 1863 before moving to the Baden School of Art in Karlsruhe. At Karlsruhe, Gude attracted several of Norway’s most important 19th-century painters to study with him, including Christian Krohg, Kitty Kielland, Eilif Peterssen, and Frits Thaulow. In 1880, Gude accepted an appointment at the Berlin Academy of Art, where he worked until retiring in 1901. GUSTAVSEN, FINN RUDOLF (1926–2005). Norwegian journalist and politician. Born in Drammen on 22 February 1926, Gustavsen was a factory worker in his youth before he became a journalist in 1947, working for the Labor Party press. When the weekly newspaper Orientering (Orientation) was started as a forum for left-wing socialist critique in late 1952, Gustavsen and others, including Karl Evang, resisted making the paper a forum primarily for the views of Norway’s Communist Party. For several years, Gustavsen was the paper’s only full-time employee and was named editor in 1959. A critic of Norway’s membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and other aspects of Labor Party foreign policy, Gustavsen was excluded from the party in 1961. This led to the formation of the Socialist People’s Party (SF), and Gustavsen was elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1961, representing the SF until 1969. From 1973 to 1977, he served as a member of the Storting as a representative of the SF’s successor party, the Socialist Left Party (which had grown out of the Socialist Electoral Alliance, on whose ticket Gustavsen was elected in 1973). Gustavsen is known for his role in the Kings Bay affair, when a series of mining accidents led to a vote of no confidence against the government of Einar Gerhardsen, the legendary leader of the Labor Party during the years after World War II. The SF had gotten 2 seats in the Storting in the 1961 election, while Labor and the nonsocialist parties had 74 seats each. When Gustavsen and his SF colleague Asbjørn Holm sided with the nonsocialists in the no-confidence vote, the Labor Party government was briefly replaced by one led by John Lyng of the Conservatives. (Labor returned to power when

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Gustavsen and Holm later sided with it in a vote of no confidence against Lyng’s government.) This was the first non-Labor government in the postwar era and showed that the nonsocialists could work together and offer a realistic alternative to Labor. Gustavsen also opposed the Labor Party during the struggle about Norwegian membership in the European Community in 1972. While many of his fellow opponents did not appreciate his socialist commitments, he was highly respected for his courage and intellectual honesty. After the end of his political career, Gustavsen did development work in Africa and returned to journalism, working for the weekly paper Ny Tid (New Age), which succeeded Orientering in 1975.

H HAAKON IV HAAKONSSON (1204–1263). Born in Østfold, Norway, the illegitimate son of King Haakon Sverresson and Inga of Varteig, he was the grandson of King Sverre Sigurdsson (1177–1202) and was the king of Norway from 1217 to 1263. His father was the leader of the Birkebeiner (Birchlegs) faction in the long-standing civil war until his death in 1204. As a child and potential heir to the throne, Haakon was carried to safety and brought to Nidaros (Trondheim), where he was recognized as king by the Birkebeiner faction in 1217. Seeking to bring an end to the civil war, a national assembly of clergy, nobles, and high-ranking individuals met at Bergen in 1223 and recognized Haakon as king. With the death of Skule Bårdsson, the last claimant to the throne, in 1240, the civil war ended, and Haakon IV Haakonsson was recognized as the sole ruler. He was officially crowned by a papal representative in 1247. Haakon IV Haakonsson consolidated the power of the monarchy in his hands, reconciled with the church, and ruled over Norway during a period that is considered to be its golden age. He extended the Norwegian empire, which already included the Isle of Man, the Hebrides, the Orkney Islands, Shetland, and the Faroe Islands, to include Greenland and Iceland. He received diplomatic representatives from such disparate lands as Castile, Novgorod, and Tunis. He had sections of the Bible translated into Old Norse, introduced the courtly literature of the continent to Norway, and organized several major building projects, including the majestic Haakon’s Hall in Bergen, which he had built for the wedding of his son and heir, Magnus VI Lagabøte. Anticipating the extensive legal reforms of his son, Haakon had the traditional blood feud eliminated. HAAKON VII (1872–1957). King of Norway. Born Christian Carl Georg Valdemar Axel on 3 August 1872 as the second son of the future King Frederik VIII of Denmark, Prince Carl, as he was known in his youth, was the brother of the future Danish king Christian X, the paternal grandson of King Christian IX of Denmark, and the maternal grandson of King Karl IV of Norway, also known as King Karl XV of Sweden. Christian Frederik, 123

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who was briefly the king of independent Norway in 1814, was his greatgranduncle. Prince Carl married his first cousin Princess Maud, the daughter of the future King Edward VII of Great Britain, in 1896. Their only child, Prince Alexander, who later succeeded his father as Olav V of Norway, was born in 1903. With family connections such as these, Prince Carl was well suited to bring a sense of legitimacy to newly independent Norway after the dissolution of the union with Sweden in 1905. The fact that he already had a young son and that he was married to a member of the British royal family was viewed as particular advantages when Norwegian political leaders considered various candidates for the throne of Norway. He accepted after a Norwegian referendum overwhelmingly approved the government’s choice and was crowned in Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim on 22 June 1906. In spite of speaking Norwegian with a heavy Danish accent, Haakon VII became extremely popular with the Norwegian people. He was particularly admired for his strong stand and leadership against Nazism when Norway was invaded by Germany in 1940. When the invaders demanded concessions, from the Norwegian Storting (Parliament) and government, especially the appointment of Vidkun Quisling to be prime minister, the king stated in no uncertain terms that he would abdicate if the government yielded to the German ultimatum. Failing to convince the king to cooperate with the invading forces, they tried to kill him, bombing Nybergsund, the place where he was believed to be staying at the time. Gradually making his way north as the invaders moved in from the south, Haakon VII and Crown Prince Olav remained elusive, with a defiant attitude that inspired the Norwegian opposition against the German invaders. By the time the king and the government were eventually conveyed to Tromsø by a British cruiser and ultimately taken to safety in Britain on board the HMS Devonshire on 7 June 1940, King Haakon had become the central symbol of the Norwegian resistance and would remain so for the next five years. Working closely with the Norwegian government-in-exile and the Allied powers, Haakon retained the belief that Norway would soon be liberated. His return to Norway on 7 June 1945 was a day of great rejoicing. When he died on 21 September 1957 at the age of 85 (two years after he had fallen and broken his hip, thereafter being confined to a wheelchair), a deep sorrow was felt throughout the entire country. See also WORLD WAR II. HAAKON MAGNUS (1973–). Crown prince of Norway. Born 20 July 1973 to King Harald V and Queen Sonja, Haakon Magnus is heir apparent to the Norwegian throne. Following the completion of studies at the Norwegian Naval Academy in Bergen and active service on a missile torpedo boat, Haakon spent three years at the University of California, Berkeley, where he earned a BA degree in political science in 1999. In 2003, he received his

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MSc degree in development studies from the London School of Economics and Political Science. With a special interest in international development, the crown prince was appointed a goodwill ambassador for the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) in 2003. He was an active participant in the Young Global Leaders network helping to establish the “Dignity Days” initiative, for which he is an advisor. In 2001, he married Mette-Marit Tjessem Høiby, a single mother, in Oslo. Haakon is stepfather to MetteMarit’s son, Marius. Haakon and Mette-Marit also have two children together, Princess Ingrid Alexandra, second in line to the throne, and Prince Sverre Magnus. HAAKON THE GOOD (c. 920–961). Norwegian king. The youngest son of Harald Fairhair, Haakon was brought up by King Athelstan of England, who taught him the Christian religion. After his father’s death, Haakon went to war against his older brother, Eirik Bloodaxe. Enlisting dissatisfied Norwegian chieftains and promising tax relief, he drove Eirik away but later had to fight his sons. He died from a wound he received at the Battle of Fitjar in western Norway. See also VIKINGS. HAAVARDSHOLM, ESPEN (1945–). Norwegian novelist and short story writer. Born on 10 January 1945 in Oslo, Haavardsholm started out with a focus on modernist themes. A semidocumentary collection of seven texts, Zink (1971; Zinc), directly argues in favor of a Marxist-Leninist revolution in Norway, however. Grip dagen (1973; Seize the Day) centers on Norway’s European Community referendum of 25 September 1972 and argues that Norwegian society is sacrificing its traditional values of liberty and equality in favor of economic growth at any price. Historiens kraftlinjer (1975; The Power Lines of History) offers Albania as an example of an ideal society. Like many other radical writers in Norway at the time, however, Haavardsholm began to depart from orthodox Marxism-Leninism in the 1980s and has since produced less ideologically strident work. See also LITERATURE. HAGEN, CARL IVAR (1944–). Norwegian politician. Born on 6 May 1944 in Oslo, Hagen was educated as an economist and spent his early career with the sweetener company Tate and Lyle (1970–74). His influence on Norwegian political life has frequently been felt to be acerbic, however, and Hagen has often been tarred with the right-wing nationalist brush. As the chair of the ultraconservative Progress Party from 1978 to 2006, Hagen has been a highly controversial figure in Norwegian politics. He was first elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) on the Reform Party ticket in 1974, having earlier served as a deputy representative for the Reform Party’s parent party, Anders Lange’s Party. The Reform Party/Anders Lange’s Party

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changed its name to the Progress Party in 1977, and Hagen represented it in the Storting from 1981 to 2009. He ultimately rose to the position of parliamentary vice president. While Hagen never succeeded in becoming prime minister or a cabinet member, he led his party to a position of great strength; at times, the Progress Party has been Norway’s second-largest party, as only Labor has received more votes. While the conservative and centrist parties refused to enter into any kind of close cooperation with his party during his time as its leader, in 2013 the Progress Party did join a coalition with the Conservatives to form Erna Solberg’s first government. Parliamentary support from the Liberal and Christian Democratic parties kept it in power through the 2017 parliamentary elections, when the second Solberg government was formed by a governing coalition that added several representatives from the Liberal Party to the government. During his political career, Hagen was often accused of inflaming domestic fears against immigrants, especially Muslims. He has also been praised as a supporter of cultural integration, as in 2009 when he was awarded a “bridge builder” award by the Norwegian-Pakistani committee. Hagen’s rhetoric, however, remains frequently provocative. He has rejected the idea that human activity may contribute to climate change, referring to the claim as a “climate hoax.” Further, he was an outspoken proponent of Donald Trump for president of the United States in the 2016 election campaign. HAGERUP, GEORG FRANCIS (1853–1921). Norwegian politician and legal scholar. Born in Horten on 22 January 1853, Hagerup studied law at the university in Christiania (Oslo), receiving a doctorate in 1885, and was professor of law from 1887 to 1906. A member of the Storting (Parliament) representing the Conservative Party from 1901 until 1906, he served as the minister of justice under Emil Stang from 1893 to 1895. He first served as prime minister from 1895 to 1898, when the crisis in the relationship with Sweden brought about by the proposal of an independent consular service made it desirable to have a Norwegian prime minister who was capable of successfully carrying out the delicate negotiations concerning the matter. Hagerup again served as prime minister in a Unity Party government from 1903 to 1905, but he was a man of negotiations and careful deliberation rather than decisive action and was replaced by Christian Michelsen on 11 March 1905, just as the struggle over the dissolution of the union with Sweden was entering its concluding phase. Hagerup’s talents were put to use later during his many years as a diplomat and legal scholar. He was deeply interested in international law, particularly the law of the sea, and in 1920 he led the Norwegian delegation to the first meeting of the League of Nations.

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HALVORSEN, OTTO BAHR (1872–1923). Norwegian politician and legal scholar. Born on 28 May 1872 in Christiania (Oslo) to Otto Hellen Halvorsen (1840–1921), Halvorsen got his matriculation certificate in 1890 and received a law degree from the university in Christiania in 1896. He then practiced law and was active in the Conservative Party, both locally and nationally. Elected to the Storting (Parliament) in 1913 and serving until his death, he became caucus leader in 1919. He first served as prime minister from 1920 to 1921, when he had the unpleasant experience of trying to enforce Norway’s prohibition against alcohol in the face of strong pressure from France, Spain, and Portugal to continue importing wine and spirits at pre–World War I levels. There was little confidence in Halvorsen’s ability to successfully protect Norwegian exports against the wine producers’ trade retaliation, so his government was voted out in the summer of 1921, and Otto Albert Blehr led a Liberal Party government for the next two years. Halvorsen formed his second government in 1923 but died in office after three months. HAMBRO, CARL JOACHIM, SR. (1885–1964). Norwegian politician. Born in Bergen to Edvard I. Hambro on 5 January 1885, Hambro received a university degree in 1907 and went to work as a journalist for the conservative daily Morgenbladet (Morning Post) in Oslo. Elected to the Storting (Parliament) in 1919, he served as a member until 1957, much of the time as its president. It was in that capacity that Hambro seized the mantle of leadership and organized the escape of King Haakon VII, the royal family, and the government from Oslo, first to Hamar and then to Elverum, after the early morning invasion by German armed forces on 9 April 1940. Understanding more clearly than most of his contemporaries what Germany’s true intentions were, he also made certain that the Storting acknowledged the continuing sole authority of the government, even if it should it be forced to abandon the country, so that there would be a solid legal basis for the Norwegian exile government during World War II. Hambro spent the war years in Sweden, Great Britain, and the United States, furthering Norway’s cause. As a rebuttal to the criticism that Norway had meekly acceded to the German invasion and occupation, Hambro wrote I Saw It Happen in Norway (1941). During the postwar era, Hambro was a clearheaded observer and commentator; for example, he understood that Einar Gerhardsen’s notion of cooperation during the period of postwar reconstruction was not cooperation among the various political parties but cooperation between the government, on the one hand, and trade and industry on the other. He also perceived that the Nordic Council, established in 1952, would most likely bring about much practical cooperation among the Nordic countries. His service to international organizations included working with the League of Nations and serving as a delegate to the United Nations General Assembly.

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HAMSUN, KNUT (1859–1952). Norwegian novelist. Born on 4 August 1859 in Lom, Oppland County, to Peder Pedersen Garmostrædet, Hamsun is one of the few Norwegian writers who truly belong to world literature. When he was a young boy, his family moved to Hamarøy in northern Norway, where they lived on a farm called Hamsund, the name of which, minus its final letter, gave him the name under which he is known. Many of his early experiences, including hard work in a variety of jobs, are reflected in his long and varied oeuvre. Early in his life, Hamsun decided that he wanted to become a writer, and he self-published his first story at the age of 18. Success long eluded him, however, and it was only after a very difficult winter in Christiania (Oslo) and two stints in America that he had his first literary success, the psychological and autobiographical novel Sult (1890; tr. Hunger, 1899). Other novels in a similar vein followed, the best known of which are Mysterier (1892; tr. Mysteries, 1927) and Pan (1894; tr. 1920). While his early works were groundbreaking not only in Norwegian letters but in European literature as a whole, Hamsun later made a reactionary turn as he embarked on such themes as industrialization and the evils of modernization. For example, his novel Markens grøde (1917; tr. Growth of the Soil, 1920), for which he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1920, tells about a homesteader whose virtuous ways are threatened by encroaching modernity. Other works from the 1920s and 1930s show indications of what became the major tragedy of Hamsun’s life, his assent to Nazism before and during World War II. After the war, he was convicted of collaboration and given a heavy fine. True to form, however, these experiences were used as material for his final book, the autobiographical narrative Paa gjengrodde stier (1949; tr. On Overgrown Paths, 1967), the artistic qualities of which show that the aged Hamsun had not lost his creative touch. Hamsun remains the enigmatic literary giant in Norway, loved for his literary artistry and shunned for his association with Nazism. HANSEATIC LEAGUE. A federation of German trade guilds, the Hanseatic League had its headquarters in the town of Lübeck, but its interests extended across the Baltic and North Sea areas from Russia in the east to England in the west. Its interests in Norway were centered at Bryggen in Bergen, where a kontor (office) or trading center was established in 1360. This was shortly after the ravages of the Black Death, when the loss of a large segment of the population perhaps gave the Hansa traders an opportunity for expansion. Approximately 1,000 Germans settled in Bergen and took over most of the warehouses along the wharf. They kept mostly to themselves, even to the point of having their own dispute resolution system and prohibiting intermarriage with Norwegians. Their extensive network of international trade gave them a decided competitive edge with regard to imported

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goods, and their strong capital base made it possible for them to make their Norwegian suppliers dependent on them through the extension of credit. Their most lucrative trade in Norway was the stockfish trade. During the spring and early summer, fishermen from northern Norway would bring their dried fish and other fish products to market in Bergen and return home with grain, salt, and other necessities. The Hansa merchants also used their strong capital position to get control of the local trade. By the 1560s, however, the German merchants and craftsmen in Bergen were brought in under regular Norwegian administration and, although the Hanseatic office continued to function, Norwegian merchants in Bergen gained increasingly greater control over the trade with northern Norway. There can be no question that the presence of the Hanseatic League in Norway furthered the development of the Norwegian economy, but it is also a fact that their dominant position retarded the growth of an indigenous middle class. They had a reputation for ruthlessness and jealously guarded their position, even to the point of using force against would-be competitors. The long-lasting dependencies established through their extension of credit also worked against the interests of the individual fishermen who got caught in their web of economic power. HANSEN, GERHARD HENRIK ARMAUER (1841–1912). Norwegian physician and researcher. Born in Bergen on 29 July 1841, Hansen studied medicine at the university in Oslo, receiving his degree in 1866. He dedicated his entire life to research on leprosy. Following his graduation, an internship in Oslo, and a two-year stint as physician in the Lofoten islands in northern Norway, Hansen returned to Bergen, where he soon took a position as assistant physician at St. Jørgen’s Hospital. There, he worked with Daniel Danielssen, the chief physician and an early pioneer in leprosy research. At St. Jørgen’s, Hansen began research on leprosy, performing autopsies on patients who had died of the disease and traveling in the districts around Bergen where the disease was widespread and thought to be hereditary. In the course of his research, it became apparent to Hansen that leprosy was likely caused by a bacterium. In 1873, he announced the discovery of Mycobacterium leprae as the cause of leprosy and became convinced that it was contagious. Hansen’s work as a physician and scientist eventually led to a notable decline of leprosy, which, as a result of his work, is also known as “Hansen’s disease.” St. Jørgen’s Hospital in Bergen is today a museum commemorating the work of Armauer Hansen, and its archives are part of UNESCO’s “Memory of the World” program.

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HANSEN, MAURITS CHRISTOPHER (1794–1842). Norwegian novelist and short story writer. Born in Modum, Buskerud County, on 5 July 1794, Hansen is one of Norway’s earliest prose writers in modern times. Often forced to write under pressure in order to supplement his income as a teacher, however, few of his works are of lasting value. He was influenced by German romanticism, and some of his stories are reminiscent of the Gothic novel. The short story “Luren” (1819; The Shepherd’s Horn) inaugurated the peasant tale that was later popularized by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson. It exhibits many of the characteristics of national romanticism, such as a focus on Norwegian nature and the connections between the rural people of Hansen’s day and the virtues of Viking-age Norway. Hansen was the most widely read Norwegian author during his lifetime and influenced several later authors, including Camilla Collett, Jonas Lie, Henrik Ibsen, and Arne Garborg. Henrik Ibsen is believed to have acquired his retrospective narrative technique from Hansen’s texts. While influenced by the national romantic tradition, Hansen is also recognized as an early exponent of literary realism and social criticism in his novels. This is most significantly presented in what may well be the first detective crime novel ever written. While Edgar Allan Poe’s The Murders in the Rue Morgue (1841) is considered to be the first crime fiction novel, Hansen published Mordet paa maskinbygger Roolfsen (1839; The Murder of Machine Builder Roolfsen) two years before Poe. Hansen’s novel contains all the features of a traditional detective novel, including murder, suicide, skeletons in the closet, and the inevitable punishment of the guilty. Had he written in a major language and not in Norwegian, Hansen might well be recognized as a more significant author than is the case today. See also LITERATURE. HARALD FAIRHAIR (c. 850–c. 933). Norwegian king and the son of Halfdan the Black, a regional king in the area of Vestfold County, Harald is credited with uniting many small local chiefdoms and earldoms into one national kingdom through various battles as well as his great victory at the Battle of Hafrsfjord near Stavanger. Traditionally, the date of that battle was said to be 872 CE, but recent historical scholarship suggests that it was probably somewhat later, between 880 and 900 CE. Because there are but two contemporary sources that mention Harald, both of them skaldic poems, most information comes from later and less reliable writings, for example, the sagas of Snorri Sturluson. The precise extent of Harald’s realm is unknown, but it was probably limited to the coastal areas of southeastern and western Norway. He is reported to have had a large number of children, to whom he assigned administrative responsibilities, but his favorite son and intended successor was Eirik Bloodaxe. See also VIKINGS.

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HAREIDE, KNUT ARILD (1972–). Norwegian politician, leader of the Christian Democratic Party from 2011 to 2019, and member of the Storting (Parliament) since 2013. Born 23 November 1972 in Bømlo, Hordaland, Norway, he earned a degree in business administration from the Norwegian School of Economics (NHH) and studied sociology at the University of Bergen. Hareide has intermingled his political career with positions in private business. He served as an advisor to the minister of education in Kjell Magne Bondevik’s first government and was minister of the environment from June 2004 to October 2005. He was elected the party leader of the Christian Democrats in 2011. The party has supported the Center-Right coalition governments of Erna Solberg in the Storting (Parliament) but refused to accept a ministerial position. In January 2019, the party’s executive committee voted to join the coalition government, and Hareide, who opposed the decision, resigned as party leader. HAUGE, HANS NILSEN (1771–1824). Norwegian pietist religious leader. Hauge was born at the Hauge farm in Østfold County on 3 April 1771. While working in the fields one day in 1796, he had a spiritual experience that made him conscious of his personal need for divine grace. Although given a religious upbringing, he did not have a deeply personal relationship with the divine. In the Norwegian Lutheran State Church, rationalism was the order of the day, and most people found little nourishment for their souls there. Hauge immediately began sharing his insights with others and encouraged them to develop a personal relationship with God. He traveled around, holding meetings in the homes where he was given shelter. This kind of activity was illegal, for there was an ordinance called the Konventikkelplakaten (Conventicle Notice) that regulated religious assemblies and stated that no meeting could be held without the express permission of the local State Church minister. Having traveled continually from 1797 to 1804, he was arrested for violating the religious assembly ordinance, and it surely did not help that he kept attacking the ministers, both orally and in writing. Hauge’s pietism simply could not look the other way when confronted with the rationalism of the State Church. The movement founded by Hauge was a typical peasant-class movement and did not appeal to the rich or the educated. In addition, Hauge was a man of practical talents who started many and varied business ventures that were financed with monetary contributions from his believers and managed by some of his most trusted associates. His business and mercantile activities also violated the laws that favored the existing merchant class. As his movement spread throughout the country and he became Norway’s best-selling writer, he was frequently mocked and criticized by those whose interests were threatened by his success.

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After his arrest, he was kept imprisoned for many years without being charged with any crime but was eventually sentenced to two years of hard labor. His movement flourished, however; for example, there were three Haugianere (Haugeans) present at the constitutional convention in 1814. The Haugeans remained a strong force in Norwegian politics throughout the 19th century, making a significant contribution to the struggle that eventually eviscerated the power of the embedsmann (public official) class, many members of which had been among Hauge’s most severe critics. See also EMIGRATION FROM NORWAY TO AMERICA. HEALTH CARE. The Norwegian state is responsible for providing publicly financed health care to all residents in Norway in accordance with the policy of equal access regardless of age, race, gender, income, or place of residence. Coverage is universal for all residents, financed through national and municipal taxes. National health care covers acute and planned primary, hospital, and ambulatory care, rehabilitation, and outpatient prescription drugs. Dental care for children up to age 18 is covered, as well as for some people with chronic diseases, chronic mental illness, and patients in nursing homes. Should hospitals in Norway not be able to treat a patient, treatment is arranged abroad free of charge. Annual cost caps are set by the Storting (Parliament) for out-of-pocket, cost-sharing expenses. In 2016, the annual cost-sharing ceiling was set at NOK 2,185 (approximately $240). In the aftermath of World War II, under the leadership of the Labor Party, the decision was made to include a national health care system as part of the developing welfare state. It was decided that the state should be responsible for providing health care for everyone. The state, along with regional and local governments, shares the responsibilities for the functioning of the system. All public hospitals have been state-owned entities since 2002. There are a few private hospitals, but the for-profit sector accounts for less than 0.2 percent of somatic hospital stays and 7 percent of daytime stays, mostly outpatient surgery. A Directorate of eHealth was established in 2016 to help health care authorities implement new services incorporating telecare. Telecare is becoming an important part of delivering health care in Norway. Cameras, personal alarms, and patient monitors are connected to help meet the challenge of providing care for a growing population with fewer health personnel available. The Norwegian Institute of Public Health provides the Ministry of Health with advice on public health and is responsible for monitoring infectious diseases. Patient advocacy is also ensured by “user boards” at all hospitals and through patient ombuds in all counties.

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HEIMSKRINGLA. An Old Norse history of the Norse kings written in the 13th century by the Icelandic scholar, historian, and lawspeaker Snorri Sturluson (1178–1241). The title comes from the first two words of the text, kringla heimsins (the orb of the home we inhabit). Heimskringla is a collection of sagas about the kings of Norway in the Viking age (750–1100), from the legendary beginnings with the arrival of Odin in the North to the emergence of Sverre Sigurdsson in 1177. Individual kings from Halvdan the Black to Magnus V Erlingsson are included, with the most comprehensive saga being that of Saint Olaf. In addition, the exploits of Olaf Tryggvason and Harald Hardråde from Constantinople to England are detailed in the narrative. In compiling Heimskringla, Sturluson used older manuscripts and relied heavily on the poetic tradition of the Viking age. Historians have debated whether Heimskringla is a factual history or a literary creation, when in fact it is probably a mixture of both. Translated from the Old Norse to other European languages beginning in the 17th century, it became a cultural touchstone for Norwegians in the 19th century as they sought to create an independent nation after centuries of being a lesser partner in union with Denmark and then Sweden. Heimskringla gave the Norwegians an epic account of their heroic age and thereby helped to define their national identity. HENIE, SONJA (1912–1969). Norwegian figure skater and film actress born in Kristiania (Oslo) on 8 April 1912. Her father, Hans Wilhelm Henie, was a successful businessman and, in his youth, an active speed skater and cyclist; he won the 100 kilometer world cycling championship in 1894. Sonja began to skate at the age of six and, although she was active in several sports, her skating talent was encouraged. Her father arranged for ballet lessons in order to bring dance artistry into her figure skating routines. She entered skating competition and, at the age of 11 years, placed eighth at the 1924 Winter Olympic Games in Chamonix. She won a silver medal in figure skating at the 1926 World Skating Championship, which she followed by winning 10 world championships in a row from 1927 to 1936. During the same period, she won gold medals at the 1928, 1932, and 1936 Winter Olympic Games. She began a series of skating shows that brought her to the United States, where she came to the attention of the head of the 20th Century Fox studios, Darryl F. Zanuck, who initially offered to cast her in a musical. Henie had already appeared on film at the age of 15 in a small role in a Norwegian silent film and in a 1929 documentary film, Se Norge (See Norway), in which she played herself. Rather than a musical, however, Henie’s Hollywood debut (One in a Million) featured her as a figure skater, with scenes from her 1936 Olympic performance. The film, also starring Don Ameche and Adolphe Menjou, was a box-office success. Other films followed, including Thin Ice (1937), Happy Landing (1938), and My Lucky Star

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(1938). Following the occupation of Norway by the Germans in 1940, Henie’s films featured war-related themes. Among these, perhaps her best film is Sun Valley Serenade (1941), in which she plays a Norwegian refugee who falls in love with the publicity manager (John Payne) of the Glenn Miller Orchestra performing at the Sun Valley winter resort. In addition to Henie’s skating numbers, the film features several performances by the Glenn Miller Orchestra, including “Chattanooga Choo Choo,” “Moonlight Serenade,” and “In the Mood.” By the time Sun Valley Serenade was released, Henie had become one of the top-paid film stars in the world, earning over $150,000 per film. By the time she married her third husband, the Norwegian shipping magnate Niels Onstad, in 1956, however, her film career was over. Both Onstad and Henie were ardent collectors of modern art, and in 1961 they established a foundation to build the Henie-Onstad Art Center at Høvikodden, outside of Oslo, to house their collection. Henie’s many awards and medals are also displayed there. The center opened in September 1968, and around the same time Henie was hospitalized with pneumonia. Blood tests confirmed that she suffered from leukemia. Sonja Henie died on an airplane flying home to Oslo from Paris, where she had visited with her husband, on 12 October 1969. Sonja Henie was awarded the Knight of St. Olav Order, First Class, in 1938 and was elected to the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame in 1976. See also CINEMA. HEYERDAHL, THOR (1914–2002). Norwegian explorer, adventurer, ethnologist, and experimental archeologist. Born in Larvik on 6 October 1914, Heyerdahl early became fascinated with zoology, which he later studied at the University of Oslo. He also read everything he could find about the islands of the Pacific and developed a strong interest in anthropology. His first expedition was a stay with his wife, Liv, in the Marquesas Islands in 1937–38; most of the time was spent studying animal life on the island of Fatu Hiva. In 1939–40, he spent time among the Native Americans on the coast of British Columbia, Canada. World War II got in the way of further scientific work, however, and Heyerdahl was trained as a paratrooper, serving in the Norwegian brigade in Scotland and attaining the rank of lieutenant. Heyerdahl became famous for his theory that the islands of the Pacific had been populated by migrations from the American continent. The Kon-Tiki expedition, which in 1947 sailed a raft made from balsa logs 4,300 miles from Peru to the Tuamotu Islands, was undertaken to demonstrate that such prehistoric migrations were possible. While there is some evidence that supports Heyerdahl’s theory, it remains controversial in the scientific community, where it is generally held that the Pacific islands were populated by migrations from Asia. Heyerdahl’s later expeditions to the Galapagos Islands

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(1952) and Rapa Nui (Easter Island) from 1955 to 1956, while groundbreaking in their own right, did little to influence general scientific opinion about the origins of the Polynesians. The two Ra expeditions, undertaken in 1969 and 1970, similarly had as their purpose to show that prehistoric crossings of the Atlantic Ocean were possible. Built according to ancient drawings found in Egypt, Ra I and Ra II were reed boats similar to those used in many ancient cultures. While Ra I broke apart, Ra II sailed from Morocco and landed in Barbados 57 days later. A voyage with another reconstruction of an ancient vessel, the Tigris, was undertaken in the Gulf of Persia and the Indian Ocean in 1977. Its purpose was to demonstrate that it had been possible to engage in long-distance trade in ancient times. In his later years, Heyerdahl carried out archeological excavations in several places, including the Maldive Islands in the Indian Ocean, Tucume in Peru, Tenerife in the Canary Islands, and Azov near the Black Sea. All of these investigations had as their purpose to demonstrate that ancient cultural similarities were the result of migrations rather than parallel independent developments. The Azov project was particularly controversial, as its aim was to show that Snorri Sturluson was correct when claiming that the ancient Scandinavian gods were in reality people who had migrated from Asia Minor to Sweden. While considered largely unscientific by specialists, Heyerdahl’s expeditions caught the attention of large numbers of people. His book, Kon Tiki ekspedisjonen (1948; tr. The Kon-Tiki Expedition: A Raft across the South Seas, 1950), on the Kon-Tiki expedition was published in Norwegian and English. A 1950 documentary motion picture, Kon-Tiki, won the 1951 Academy Award for best documentary film. A feature-length motion picture, KonTiki, produced in Norway in 2012, was nominated as best foreign-language picture for both the Oscar and the Golden Globes but failed to win the prize. See also CINEMA. HOEM, EDVARD (1949–). Norwegian novelist, playwright, and poet. Born on 10 March 1949 in Fræna, Møre and Romsdal County, Hoem studied philosophy and literature at the University of Oslo. Considered one of the foremost stylists in contemporary Norwegian literature, he started out as a poet but has devoted most of his energy to the theater and the novel. A Marxist-Leninist in the 1970s, he early wrote a novel titled Anna Lena (1971) that depicted the exploitation of low-paid workers in the Norwegian countryside. Capitalism’s push for centralization of the rural population is the related theme of Kjærleikens ferjereiser (1974; tr. The Ferry Crossing, 1989), which is highly critical of the policies of the Norwegian government. As in Dag

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Solstad’s Arild Asnes, 1970, published three years earlier, the book ends as the Marxist-Leninist paper Klassekampen (Class Struggle) is being sold door to door. The play Tusen fjordar, tusen fjell (1977; A Thousand Fjords, a Thousand Mountains) argues in favor of maintaining the rural population, even in small communities. The historical play Der storbiira bryt (1979; Where the Big Wave Breaks), set at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, depicts people’s reactions to the new ideas of liberty. Among many other themes, Hoem’s later works express his disenchantment with Marxism-Leninism. In 1997, Hoem took the initiative to establish the Norwegian Shakespeare Society (Det norske Shakespeareselskap) and translated several of Shakespeare’s plays into Nynorsk, including Macbeth, Hamlet, and Henry IV. To commemorate the centennial of the birth of Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson in 2010, Hoem published a masterful four-volume biography of the great writer, which appeared over a four-year period, Vilskapens år, 1832–1875 (2009; The Passionate Years); Vennskap i storm, 1875–1889 (2010; Friendship in Storm); Syng mig hjæm, 1890–1899 (2011; Sing Me Home); and Det evige forår, 1899–1910 (2013; The Eternal Spring). HOLBERG, LUDVIG (1684–1754). Norwegian Danish author, dramatist, essayist, and historian, born in Bergen on 3 December 1684. His father died when he was one year old and his mother when he was nine. He was sent to live with relatives in eastern Norway but returned to Bergen to attend the Latin school there. Following the fire of 1702, when much of the city was destroyed, Holberg left Bergen for Denmark and enrolled at the University of Copenhagen. He studied theology but was more interested in language and history. Considering travel and international experience to be an important aspect of education, Holberg spent two years in England, mostly at Oxford University from 1706–8. Subsequently, he traveled to Germany, France, and Italy before his return to Copenhagen, where, in 1718, he was appointed professor of metaphysics. He was appointed professor of history in 1730 after he had acquired a reputation as a playwright. Holberg wrote in Danish, the language of education and administration in the dual monarchy of Denmark-Norway, and he was well versed in German, English, and French. Well educated and widely traveled, Holberg was inspired by the many ideas of the European Enlightenment, emphasizing empiricism, reason, and critical analysis. Through his philosophical and historical writings, but especially his amazing production of dramas, Holberg is considered to have been the founder of modern Norwegian and Danish literature and a prime influence in bringing Enlightenment ideas to Denmark and Norway.

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Holberg’s reputation rests, more than anything, on the results of a meteoric flash of creativity between 1720 and 1727, when he wrote 27 plays and poems, satirical and often poignant. He referred to this period as a time of “poetic rapture” (den poetiske raptus). The years 1722–23 were the most productive, and the plays he wrote in this short period are considered his masterpieces. These include Den Politiske Kandestøber (The Political Tinkerer), Jeppe paa Bjerget (Jeppe on the Hill), Jean de France (Jean de France), Erasmus Montanus eller Rasmus Berg (Erasmus Montanus or Rasmus Berg), and Den Stundesløse (The Fidget). With the disastrous fire in Copenhagen in 1728 and the emergence of a strict religious pietism in Denmark, Holberg turned from writing satirical comedies to history and philosophy. In 1729, he published a historical topographical study, Dannemarks og Norges Beskrivelse (A Description of Denmark and Norway), which he revised in 1749. It was followed by the threevolume Dannemarks Riges Historie (History of the Kingdom of Denmark) published in 1732–35. In 1735, he published a personal and largely descriptive homage to his hometown, Bergens Beskrivelse (A Description of Bergen). On the occasion of the bicentennial of his birth, on 3 December 1884, a statue of Holberg was unveiled in the center of Bergen. That same year, to honor his fellow Bergenser, Edvard Grieg wrote his inventive musical tribute, the Holberg Suite (Opus 40). HOLST, JOHAN JØRGEN (1937–1994). Norwegian politician and political scientist. Born in Oslo on 29 November 1937, Holst received his secondary schooling there and studied Russian in the Norwegian military. He then attended Columbia University, where he obtained a BA in 1960. During and after graduate studies in political science at the University of Oslo, he held various research appointments, including one at Harvard University (1962–63). He was also the head of research at the Norsk Utenrikspolitisk Institutt (Norwegian Foreign Policy Institute), a think tank devoted to issues regarding politics and economics, from 1969 to 1976, as well as its director from 1981 to 1986. He used his academic background for the benefit of the Labor Party as speechwriter and advisor, as well as through his work as a government employee in both the Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Holst served as minister of defense in Gro Harlem Brundtland’s second government from 1986 to 1989, in the same position in Brundtland’s third government from 1990 to 1993, and then as minister of foreign affairs, also in Brundtland’s third government, from 1993 to his death in 1994. Both through his academic work and on account of his public service, Holst had an extraordinary influence on the development of Norwegian foreign policy under these Labor Party governments. He was also strongly in favor of Norwegian membership in the European Community (EC), serving as head of the Europabevegelsen (Europe Movement), an or-

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ganization devoted to securing Norwegian membership in the EC, from 1982 to 1986. His foremost political accomplishment is undoubtedly his contribution to the Oslo Accords in 1993, the confidential negotiations that resulted in an agreement between the State of Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization to acknowledge one another as valid parties in peace negotiations. HORNSRUD, CHRISTOPHER (1859–1960). Norwegian politician. Born in Øvre Eiker, Buskerud County, on 15 November 1859, Hornsrud was a farmer active in local politics and served as mayor of Øvre Eiker. After service on the Oslo city council, he was an elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1912 until his resignation in 1936. Subsequent to the reunification of Det norske Arbeiderparti (the Norwegian Labor Party) and Norges Socialdemokratiske Arbeiderparti (Norway’s Social-Democratic Labor Party) in 1927, Labor won a considerable victory—it received 37 percent of the votes—in that year’s parliamentary elections, and Hornsrud formed a Labor government that lasted for a little more than two weeks. It was the first Labor Party government in Norwegian history. HØYRE. See CONSERVATIVE PARTY. HUNDSEID, JENS (1883–1965). Norwegian politician. Born on 6 May 1883 in Vikedal, Rogaland County, Hundseid represented the Agrarian Party (see CENTER PARTY) in the Storting (Parliament) from 1924 to 1940 and was also the Agrarians’ caucus leader (1931–33 and 1934–40). His political life changed when Peder Kolstad, who had been the leader of a weakly supported Agrarian Party government from 1931 to 1932, died while in office. King Haakon VII then asked Hundseid if the Agrarians were willing to continue as the party providing the government. Hundseid reported to the party leadership that the king had asked him to become the new prime minister and then told the king that the party wanted him to be the new government’s head. This intrigue set the tone for his time in office, which was characterized by much internal squabbling, especially between Hundseid and Vidkun Quisling, Kolstad’s minister of defense, who continued in the same position under Hundseid. When in 1933 the Storting accepted a proposal from Johan Ludwig Mowinckel that departed from the traditional liberalist principle of cutting expenses in order to keep the government from meddling in economic life, Hundseid resigned and was succeeded by a government headed by Mowinckel. Two years later, however, the Agrarian Party, still under Hundseid’s leadership, entered into an agreement with the Labor Party that entailed precisely the kind of thinking that Mowinckel had suggested.

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In 1940, Hundseid joined the Norwegian National Socialist Party, possibly to protect himself from retaliation by his old nemesis, Quisling. After the war, he received a 10-year prison sentence but served only until 1949, when he was pardoned. HURTIGRUTEN. Originally the name of the coastal sailing route along the west and north coasts of Norway where ships carried cargo, passengers, and mail to communities large and small. The coastal route subsequently gave its name to the Norwegian cruise company Hurtigruten, also known as the Norwegian Coastal Express. The name in Norwegian means “the fast/express route.” Hurtigruten was established in 1893 by Captain Richard With in order to serve the coastal communities from Trondheim to Hammerfest. The route was extended to go from Bergen to Hammerfest in 1898, and in 1914 Kirkenes became the turnaround port in the north. With regular state subsidies, Hurtigruten served as an important lifeline for 34 communities along the Norwegian coast, especially before expanded air transportation after World War II. In the 1980s, Hurtigruten expanded its offerings to include tourism and also featured expedition sailing to the Antarctic. New and more luxurious ships entered the fleet, and the two independent shipping companies that operated the route, Ofotens og Vesteraalens dampskipsselskap (Ofotens and Vesteraalens Steamship Company) and Troms Fylkes Dampskipselskap (Troms County’s Steamship Company), merged in March 2006 to form the Hurtigruten Group, later Hurtigruten ASA. In 2015, Hurtigruten ASA was acquired by a private equity firm in Great Britain but maintained its Oslo headquarters and Norwegian management. In June 2011, a revolutionary public relations step was taken as the Hurtigruten ship, Nordnorge, was featured in a minute-by-minute continuing live broadcast on Norwegian national television (NRK2) following the route from Bergen to Kirkenes over a period of six days. The live documentary became a public sensation as Norwegians followed the cruise as though they were on board the ship. Edited versions of the cruise were broadcast in several other countries, including PBS in the United States. Uninterrupted multiday television coverage of an event, such as the Hurtigruten sailing, was subsequently trademarked and has come to be known as “Slow TV.” Complementing the company itself is the Hurtigruten Museum (Hurtigrutemuseet) in Stokmarknes in Nordland County. Run by a private foundation, the museum was officially opened on the centennial anniversary of Hurtigruten, 2 July 1993. The central exhibit in the museum is the MS Finnmarken, decommissioned and presented to the museum in 1994 by Vesteraalens Dampskibsselskab (Vesteraalens Steamship Company). The ship was placed on land in 1999.

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In 2018, the Norwegian Ministry of Transportation and Communication announced that the formerly exclusive contract with Hurtigruten, beginning 1 January 2021, was to be shared with another Norwegian company, Havila Shipping. Havila announced plans to build four new ships to make four regular coastal sailings every 11 days. Hurtigruten will reduce its coastal sailings but with additional expedition cruises to other ports. In addition to its Norwegian coastal cruises, Hurtigruten has developed extensive Arctic and Antarctic expedition cruises that include Iceland and Greenland as well as the Canadian Arctic. Repositioning of ships between the Arctic and the Antarctic includes ports of call along the North and South American coasts as well. Expanding and modernizing its fleet while also responding to environmental concerns, Hurtigruten introduced two new hybrid vessels into the fleet, Roald Amundsen and Fridtjof Nansen, in the 2019–20 season. HYDROELECTRIC POWER. With its long coastline and tall mountains facing the North Atlantic, Norway receives abundant rainfall. Hydropower has been the basis for Norwegian industry since the late 19th century. Fully 98 percent of Norwegian electricity comes from renewable resources, and 95 percent of that is derived from hydropower. After the modern water turbine had been developed in 1849, it became possible to attach it to an electric generator, thus producing electric current. Norway’s first hydroelectric power plant that provided electricity to subscribers was built by Gunnar Knudsen in Skien in 1885. As foreign interests bought up and developed Norwegian waterfalls with hydroelectric potential, Knudsen and Johan Castberg took the lead in introducing the concession laws between 1906 and 1917. While these laws were not always strictly enforced (for example, in the 1920s there was concern that they might prevent foreign investment necessary to modernize Norwegian society), they specified that after a certain time, ownership of the resources would revert to the state. An important early industrial use of electricity was in the production of nitrogen, for which the raw material was basically just air. After World War II, there was rapid development of Norwegian hydropower, which was needed for the aluminum industry and in the production of various alloys. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the production of electricity increased almost fourfold, and aluminum plants were built all over the country. Some aspects of this development have been chronicled by the novelist Kjartan Fløgstad. Foreign capital provided most of the investments and reaped the largest share of the profits in a manner reminiscent of classic colonialism. Raw materials (ore) were imported from third-world countries and smelted by the use of Norwegian power, after which the metals were used in production in other industrialized countries.

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With a growing awareness of the need to preserve scenic areas from development, however, resistance against government-mandated hydroelectric development manifested itself. The first major incident took place in 1970 in Mardøla, Møre and Romsdal County, where civil disobedience was used as a tool to keep a power plant from being built. The philosopher Arne Næss and the future minister of justice Odd Einar Dørum were among those arrested. Later in the same decade, there was also significant resistance to the development of hydroelectric power in the Alta River in Finnmark County, where 10,000 people demonstrated against the government decision. The government won the battle, however. The traditional rule in Norwegian hydroelectric development has been that bigger is better. During recent years, however, small power plants producing less than 10 megawatts have become increasingly common, with some of them producing less than 100 kilowatts. These power plants are usually built by the landowner, and the power is primarily for his or her own use, while the surplus is sold to local utility companies. See also ENVIRONMENT.

I IBSEN, HENRIK JOHAN (1828–1906). Norwegian dramatist and poet. Born on 20 March 1828 to Knud Ibsen in the town of Skien, Telemark County, Ibsen is recognized as one of the world’s greatest dramatists. During his lifetime and especially in his native Norway, he was considered a notable poet as well. While his family belonged to the upper middle class, Ibsen lost the social and economic advantages of his birth through his father’s financial reversals while yet a small boy. Education beyond elementary school was out of the question, and at the age of 16, he left home to earn a living as a druggist’s apprentice in the nearby town of Grimstad. While in Grimstad, Ibsen fathered an illegitimate child by one of his employer’s maids, a woman 10 years his senior, which brought him both social and pecuniary embarrassment. Perhaps through his work for the druggist, he also hit on the idea of pursuing a career in medicine. This necessitated passing his university matriculation examinations, for which he prepared by self-study. He also wrote poetry, and when studying his Latin curriculum, he came across the account of the Roman rebel Catiline and was so taken with this story that he shaped it into a play, Catilina (1850; tr. Catiline, 1900). In 1851, Ibsen was given an appointment at the newly founded Norwegian theater in Bergen. One of his duties was to provide an original play each year, and Ibsen’s time in Bergen became an ideal opportunity for him to thoroughly learn his craft. First in Bergen and later at the Norwegian Theater in Christiania (Oslo), Ibsen wrote a long series of plays on historical, mythological, and folkloric topics, most of which are now read only by scholars. After leaving Norway for Italy in 1864, however, he wrote two verse dramas, Brand (1866; tr. 1891) and Peer Gynt (1867; tr. 1892), which together catapulted him to fame. His improved income allowed him to remain abroad, and he lived in Italy and Germany until 1891. A series of dramas followed, Ibsen’s own favorite being the nine-act play Kejser og Galileen (1873; tr. Emperor and Galilean, 1876).

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Ibsen’s international reputation rests on 12 modern prose dramas, beginning with Samfundets støtter (1877; tr. The Pillars of Society, 1888) and including such titles as Et dukkehjem (1879; tr. A Doll’s House, 1880), En folkefiende (1882; tr. An Enemy of the People, 1888), Vildanden (1884; tr. The Wild Duck, 1890), Hedda Gabler (1890; tr. 1891), and Bygmester Solness (1892; tr. The Master Builder, 1893). His prose plays were critical of contemporary social life and castigated all manner of hypocrisy and deception. On the cultural and political Right, Ibsen was regarded as a dangerous radical, while the more liberal saw him as a leader in the struggle for social justice. It is a testimony to the power and enduring value of his plays that they continue to be performed all over the world and have affected the public debate, not only in Europe and North America, but in such places as China, Japan, Bangladesh, and Africa as well. See also LITERATURE. IBSEN, SIGURD (1859–1930). Norwegian politician, diplomat, and pioneering sociologist. Born to Suzannah Ibsen and the dramatist Henrik Ibsen in Christiania (Oslo) on 23 December 1859, Sigurd Ibsen spent his childhood and youth in Italy and Germany. After earning a doctorate of law degree in Rome in 1882, Ibsen had a significant career as a politician and diplomat. From 1885 to 1889, he served in the Swedish-Norwegian Foreign Service, being stationed in Stockholm; Washington, D.C.; and Vienna. While in the United States, Ibsen traveled to New England and the southern states, where he experienced, and wrote about, the harshness of race relations. His experiences as a Norwegian in the Swedish-dominated foreign service radicalized him significantly, and he returned to Norway a strong proponent of an increased role for Norway in the union with Sweden, if not an outright dissolution. From 1902 to 1903, he had a ministerial appointment in the Liberal Party government of Otto Albert Blehr, serving in Stockholm. Ibsen had the privilege of being the first to inform his father-in-law, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, that he had been awarded the 1903 Nobel Prize for Literature. He served as the Norwegian prime minister in Stockholm under Francis Hagerup from 1903 to 1905, which meant that, in essence, he was the Norwegian government’s top representative to Sweden, its union partner. In a series of newspaper articles, and a book, Unionen, in 1891, Ibsen argued that Norway should have its own minister of foreign affairs and its own diplomats. This was a radical proposal, as the two union partners had always had a single, and always Swedish, minister of foreign affairs and a foreign service from which Norwegian nationals were largely excluded. By 1898, Ibsen fully supported a breakup of the union. Realizing that such a move would inspire republicanism and would thereby fail to gain support from Conservatives, he proposed that Norway remain a monarchy with its own “national monarch.” His argument, which appeared in the cultural magazine Ringeren,

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persuaded several Norwegian cultural leaders, most notably Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, and Fridtjof Nansen that they should support a monarchical form of government with a monarch that was not shared with Sweden. It was not typical of Ibsen to be that daring, though, as he preferred negotiation to drastic action. For example, while Christian Michelsen, Norway’s prime minister during the dissolution of the union with Sweden in 1905, presented the Swedes with a situation where they would either have to go along or go to war, Ibsen wanted to dissolve the union by having the Storting (Parliament) vote to withdraw under the terms of the Act of Union, which specified the terms of the relationship with Sweden, and then request that the Swedish parliament do the same. This path, however, would have taken at least six years if followed, and most Norwegians favored immediate action. Ibsen was also a significant thinker and essayist who published several collections of philosophical, political, and sociological essays. He also tried his hand at writing a play, Robert Frank (1914), which was performed by the National Theater in Oslo. Reviews, however, tended to compare him unfavorably with his father. His intellectual background and interests suited him very well for a professorship in sociology at the Royal Frederik’s University (now the University of Oslo), and he was invited to give a series of lectures that were essentially an extended job talk. For political reasons, several conservative professors were opposed to the appointment, however. One of them, Marcus Jacob Monrad, stated that he found the term sociology to be in bad taste. Perceived as too friendly to the Swedish monarchy in 1905 and taking a position that was overly critical of Christian Michelsen’s actions, Ibsen became largely persona non grata in Norway after the dissolution of the union with Sweden. He turned his attention to editing his father’s papers with the historian Halvdan Koht, after Henrik Ibsen’s death in 1906, and to the writing of philosophical essays while living abroad. ICELAND. An island nation in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean lying atop the mid-Atlantic ridge, Iceland’s permanent settlement dates from 874 CE, in the middle years of the Viking age. With its numerous volcanoes, Iceland’s history is filled with accounts of hardships due to its geologically active position at the meeting point of two tectonic plates, the Eurasian plate and the North American plate. With a mix of Nordic and Celtic settlers, Icelanders in the Viking age looked primarily to Norway as their ancestral homeland. An independent commonwealth with a national assembly, the Althing, founded in 930 CE, Iceland sustained its independent status until the middle years of the 13th century, when it was forced to acknowledge the sovereignty of the Norwegian crown. With the establishment of the Kalmar Union in 1397, Iceland followed Norway into the union with Denmark and Sweden. Under Danish rule from Copenhagen, the Reformation was intro-

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duced under Christian III in 1555 following the death of Iceland’s last Catholic bishop, Jon Arason. Historically, Iceland has depended on fishing and agriculture, and in the 17th and 18th centuries, it became increasingly dependent on the restrictive mercantilist policies of the Danish government. Volcanic eruptions, smallpox epidemics, plague, and famine often resulted in a fluctuating population, which had grown only slightly since the age of settlement. The rise of national consciousness in Europe in the 19th century also saw a growing demand for Icelandic independence. Led by Jon Sigurdsson, nationalist historian and specialist on the Icelandic sagas, Icelanders were granted a constitution in 1874 allowing for limited autonomy in internal affairs. Expanded in 1904 to give Iceland its own minister in the Danish cabinet, an Act of Union in 1918 further expanded Iceland’s home rule to full sovereignty and the establishment of a personal union with Denmark. As a consequence of the German occupation of Denmark during World War II, Iceland declared full independence as the Republic of Iceland on June 17, 1944. Iceland became a charter member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949 and the European Economic Area, along with Norway, in 1994. Following a period of economic boom and bust in the early 21st century, Iceland has revived its economic position through a major increase in tourism, which has replaced fisheries as the most important segment of the economy in Iceland. IHLEN, NILS CLAUS (1855–1925). Norwegian politician. Born in Christiania (Oslo) on 23 July 1855, Ihlen received an advanced degree from the university there in 1873. Later the owner of a foundry, he was elected to the Storting (Parliament) on the Liberal Party ticket in 1906. He first served as minister of work in Gunnar Knudsen’s first government from 1908 to 1910. Starting in 1913, he became the minister of foreign affairs in Knudsen’s second government, serving until 1920. Ihlen’s significance in Norwegian history is that he helped Norway navigate the treacherous waters presented both literally and figuratively during World War I. While Ihlen’s personal sympathies lay with the Allies, he kept his opinions mostly to himself and was a clever negotiator. It fell to his lot to inform the German government about Norwegian policy decisions that were just barely within the bounds of the neutrality that Norway successfully claimed for itself during the war. While under pressure from the Allies to withhold from selling Germany fish and copper ore that would help the country weather the British blockade, Ihlen had to find a way to offer the Germans enough concessions to keep them from attacking Norway while simultaneously maintaining Norwegian access to commodities necessary to Norwegian life. He is remembered for succeeding on both counts, thus managing to maintain Norwegian neutrality and keep Norway out of the war.

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IMMIGRATION. According to official Norwegian government statistics, the immigrant population of Norway in 2018 was 916,625 people. This included 746,661 first-generation immigrants and 169,964 children born to two immigrant parents. The five most common countries of origin for immigrants living in Norway, but not born in Norway, in 2018 were Poland (98,212), Lithuania (38,371), Sweden (35,813), Somalia (28,754), and Pakistan (20,000). Historically, Norway has received immigrants since it became a country during the Viking age. With the expansion of trade in the Middle Ages, organizations such as the Hanseatic League helped to develop economic opportunities and brought immigrants to Norway, especially to Bergen as one of the most important offices of the Hansa. The development of shipping and mining industries in the 17th century further enticed immigrants to Norway, especially from Germany and the Netherlands. In the 20th century, the decade of the 1960s saw an influx of immigrants to the secondary labor market, primarily from Pakistan. In the late 1970s, a second wave included primarily family members of earlier immigrants, while the 1980s witnessed a third wave consisting of refugees from conflicts in Iran, Vietnam, Chile, and Sri Lanka. As a member of the European Economic Area (EEA) and a signatory to the Schengen Agreement, Norway allows immigrants from European countries to become residents relatively easily, while the Norwegian Immigration Act of 2008 stipulates four acceptable reasons for immigration to Norway: education, employment, protection, and family reunification. A Lutheran country since the Reformation in the 16th century, the religious demography of Norway has changed significantly as a result of immigration from such predominantly Catholic countries as Poland, Lithuania, Chile, and the Philippines, and from predominantly Muslim countries such as Somalia, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, and Syria. In 2016, there were 148,000 Muslim residents in Norway. On the whole, opinion polls have shown that Norwegians have a relatively positive attitude about the country’s immigration policies. Data published by the Norwegian Bureau of Statistics (SSB) for 2018 show that 29 percent of the Norwegian population support stricter controls on immigration, while 15 percent support laws to make immigration easier. A majority, 52 percent of the population, think that the laws should remain the same. Although 67 percent of the Norwegian population either support current laws or favor less restrictive laws, the right-wing Progress Party strongly advocates for stricter controls based primarily on the pressure that immigrants put on public services and integration policies. Some Progress Party politicians have taken extreme anti-immigrant stands, such as the outspoken Christian Tybring-Gjedde (1963–), a member of the Storting (Parliament) since 2005, who has argued that the Labor Party’s immigration policy threatened to “tear Norway apart” and that immigration would bring

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Norway “cultural ruin.” This general anti-immigrant position has served to enable a rise in nationalistic anti-immigrant sentiment, especially as it targets immigrants from Muslim-majority countries. The Progress Party, however, officially rejects any suggestion that it has fostered a climate that has given rise to attitudes and actions such as those carried out by Anders Behring Breivik when, on 22 July 2011, he killed 77 people, 69 of whom were attending a Labor Party summer camp. INDUSTRY. In ancient times and throughout the Middle Ages, most commodities produced in Norway were made at home. During the reign of King Christian IV, however, some efforts were made, through the granting of privileges, to encourage production in primitive factories. Sawmills as well as glass and iron works operating throughout the 1700s and early 1800s may also be regarded as industrial enterprises. True industrialization began to take off only in the 1840s, however. Steam-powered sawmills and planers improved the quality of the lumber produced, and wood pulp mills were established. Textile mills were built, for example, Hjula Veveri (the Wheels Textile Mills), which was established in 1849 and in 1916 became part of De forenede Ullvarefabrikker (United Woolen Mills). Foundries and engineering workshops also arose. Most of the machinery was imported, but thousands of jobs were created. Data provided by the 1875 census show that there were 5,000 factory jobs in the textile mills alone. The forest products industry expanded at a tremendous rate in the 1880s, and Norwegian paper products became among the best in the world and accounted for a large share of Norwegian exports. The development of hydroelectric power furthered such power-hungry industries as the production of nitrogenous fertilizer, the foundation for Norsk Hydro, established in 1905. Because electrical power was lost when transmitted to locations far from where it was generated, factory towns were established near the generating plants. The dislocations associated with World War I and the economic downturn during the 1930s significantly hampered the nation’s industrial development. After World War II, there was an urgent need for commodities, however, and because import controls limited what could be brought into the country, the demand led to an unprecedented industrial expansion in such areas as the food and drink industry, textiles, shoes, electronics, and home furnishings. There was also significant growth in such export-oriented industries as aluminum works, the state-owned Steel Works (Jemverket) in Mo i Rana, and an ammonia plant in Glomfjord, Nordland. The Labor Party had as its policy moving workers from low-value employment in rural areas to the large and capital-intensive factories located in what often amounted to company towns, where they could make a greater contribution to Norway’s gross national product, thus increasing the general standard of living. Mo i

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Rana serves as a good example of what this policy resulted in. Like a magnet under a sheet of paper sprinkled with iron filings, the Mo i Rana Steel Works pulled people in from the surrounding areas, depopulating some and diminishing social life in most of them. An even more graphic example can be found in the history of Sauda in southwestern Norway, where the Electric Furnace Products Company, a wholly owned subsidiary of Union Carbide, used both locally generated hydroelectric power and local labor to refine imported ore. The industrial and social conditions present in Sauda have been superbly analyzed and re-created in the fictional works of Kjartan Fløgstad and Tor Obrestad. The industrial expansion came to a halt in the early 1970s, partly caused by the oil crisis of 1973 but also because of increasingly automated production processes. The development of the offshore oil industry occupied some of the displaced manpower, but a strong knowledge-based economy has emerged, partly replacing the country’s earlier reliance on industry.

J JAABÆK, SØREN PEDERSEN (1814–1894). Norwegian politician. Born on 1 April 1814 in Holum, Vest-Agder County, Jaabæk was the oldest son of a poor farmer with nine children. He was intellectually gifted and read voraciously, and at the age of 16, he determined that he would become a schoolmaster. He also assisted the local State Church minister as a sexton, got involved in local politics and served as mayor of his community. He was elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1845 and served until 1890, which makes him Norway’s longest-serving member of parliament. In his ideology, Jaabæk was a classic economic liberalist in the spirit of Adam Smith (1723–90) and Frederic Bastiat (1801–50). He believed that Norway’s economy suffered from excessive regulation, and he wanted the government to get out of the way and allow people to manage as best they could. Restrictions on buying, selling, and occupational choice left over from the Danish absolute monarchy needed to be done away with. Taxes, many of them paid by Jaabæk’s constituents, the small farmers, should be drastically lowered, and Norway’s public indebtedness reduced or eliminated. This could only be accomplished if the Storting, empowered to allot funds for all government projects, would act decisively to eliminate waste and make saving its watchword. Jaabæk was perceived as stingy, especially by members of the embedsmann (public official) class, whose lives he considered frivolous, whose salaries he wanted to keep low, and whose pensions he tended to vote against. The reduction in prices and general economic crisis that hit Norwegian farmers toward the end of the 1860s made his ideas music to the ears of many and catapulted him into a position of national leadership. When he started his paper Folketidende (People’s News) in 1865, he laid the foundation for a national movement known as bondevennene (friends of the farmers), with local associations or chapters. According to a table published in Folketidende on 12 July 1871, there were a total of 271 associations in every county except Finnmark. Jaabæk was elected leader of the movement in 1868, and Folketidende garnered a higher circulation than any other Norwegian publication at the time. 151

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Jaabæk’s greatest historical significance, however, lies in his support of the policies of Johan Sverdrup and his role in the development of Norwegian political parties, particularly the Liberal Party. Sverdrup pushed for annual sessions of the Storting and jury trials. At first, Jaabæk was wary of these proposals because of their potential costs, but the improvements in Norway’s economy that took place in the 1870s allowed him to set his misgivings aside, and he remained Sverdrup’s loyal supporter for the rest of his political career. JAGLAND, THORBJØRN (1950–). Norwegian politician. Born in Drammen on 5 November 1950 and educated as an economist, Jagland held a number of positions of trust in the Labor Party and its youth organization before being elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1993. He was the leader of the Labor Party from 1992 to 2002, when Jens Stoltenberg took over after an acrimonious struggle. After Gro Harlem Brundtland resigned as prime minister in 1996, Jagland formed a minority government based on the 67 Labor Party representatives in the Storting out of a total of 165. He resigned after the parliamentary elections of 1997, when support for the Labor Party declined relative to the elections four years earlier, and Kjell Magne Bondevik took over as the prime minister in a minority coalition government consisting of the Christian Democrats, the Center Party, and the Liberal Party. He also served as minister of foreign affairs in Stoltenberg’s first government (2000–2001). He served as president (Speaker) of the Storting from 2005 to 2009. In 2009, Jagland was elected secretary general of the Council of Europe and reelected in 2014 for a second five-year term. He also sits on the Nobel Peace Prize Committee, for which he served as chair from 2009 to 2015. While Jagland has had an outstanding career as a politician, he has, like other Labor leaders, failed to reach one of his foremost goals, Norwegian membership in the European Union. JAN MAYEN. A Norwegian Arctic island located in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean, 340 miles northeast of Iceland and 620 miles west of the Norwegian mainland. It has been recognized as Norwegian territory since 1930 after the Norwegian Meteorological Institute established a weather station there in 1921. There is no record of any visit to Jan Mayen island in the Viking age, although that is possible. The first seaman to give the island a name was the English captain John Clark in 1614, who called it “Isabella.” That same year, three whaling ships from the Netherlands landed on the island and gave it the name of one of the captains, Jan Jacobsz May van Schellinkhout, shortened to Jan Mayen. Jan Mayen is administratively under the county of Nordland. It is occupied by a small military garrison of approximately 14 people and four to six people from the Meteorological Institute of

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Norway. Jan Mayen is a volcanic island lying atop the mid-Atlantic ridge. Its highest point is the Beerenberg volcano, the most recent eruption of which occurred in 1985. The island has a rich bird life with thousands of seabirds, including auks, eider ducks, fulmars, guillemots, and seagulls. JENSEN, SIV (1969–). Norwegian politician. Born in Oslo on 1 June 1969, Jensen was trained as an economist. She was elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) on the Progress Party ticket in 1997 after serving as a substitute representative the previous four years. She also served on the Oslo city council from 1995 to 1999. Well known for her strongly conservative views and friendliness toward the policies of the United States, she has a long record of service in her party and succeeded Carl I. Hagen as caucus leader in 2005. She became party leader in 2006, when Hagen declined reelection. In 2013, the Progress Party joined with the Conservative Party to form the new government of Erna Solberg, and Jensen was appointed minister of finance, a position she continued to hold in the second Solberg government elected in 2017. JEWS. There is no evidence in literary sources of a Jewish presence in Norway in the Viking age or in the Christian Middle Ages. With the introduction of Christianity under King Olaf II (Saint Olaf), it was required that all Norwegians should be Christian. In accordance with the law code of King Magnus VI Lagabøte (Lawmender) in 1274, Norwegians were compelled to be Christian, but there was no specific mention of prohibition against Jews. However, as Christian literature and sagas of saints’ lives appeared, these works occasionally included disparaging references to Jews, even though there seem to have been no Jews in Norway at the time. Typical of such instances is the Saga of the Virgin Mary, written in Iceland but known in Norway. It served as the source of medieval ballads about Jews (Jødeviser) that often characterized them as economic exploiters. In a provincial statute of the church issued in Oslo on 26 December 1436 by Archbishop Aslak Bolt, there is a prohibition against celebrating the Sabbath on a Saturday, “in the Jewish manner.” This prohibition is included in Diplomatarium Norvegicum, a manuscript collection of medieval documents in their original language, dated 24 August 1438. With the establishment of the Kalmar Union, Norway came under the control of the Danish monarchy in Copenhagen. When the Lutheran Reformation was introduced in 1536 and the king replaced the pope as the head of the church, laws of strict adherence to the official state religion were passed. In 1559, King Frederik II (1534–88) issued a law requiring that all foreigners wishing to settle in Denmark and Norway swear to their acceptance of the Lutheran Articles of Faith. Christian IV (1588–1648) became the first king

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of Denmark-Norway to allow a Jew to settle in his territory when he issued a letter of safe conduct to Albert Dionis, a wealthy Sephardic (Portuguese) Jew from Hamburg who sought to live in the Danish-controlled town of Gluckstadt. Safe conduct passes for Jews to travel and conduct business in Denmark and Norway were regularly given by the king. The policy was confirmed in the national law of Christian V (1670–99). Hostility toward Jews and general anti-Semitic views are evident through various sources from the 18th century. Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754), considered the founder of Danish and Norwegian literature as well as the person who introduced the Enlightenment to Denmark-Norway, often presented unflattering portraits of Jews, largely in accord with stereotypes of the day. When Norway was transferred to Sweden under the terms of the Treaty of Kiel in 1814, Norwegians declared their independence and established a constituent assembly to write a new constitution. Following a vigorous debate about religious freedom, the Evangelical Lutheran religion was institutionalized in paragraph 2 of the constitution, while Jesuits, monastic orders, and Jews were excluded from the kingdom. In an 1844 statement by the Norwegian Ministry of Justice, “Portuguese [Sephardic] Jews,” in spite of the exclusionary paragraph, were entitled to live in the country. Even with the constitutional prohibition, there were at the time several Jews living in Norway in 1814, including Ludvig Mariboe and Edvard Isach Hambro, two well-regarded merchants. The ban on Jewish immigration remained a political issue until the paragraph was finally amended in 1851, largely through the efforts of Norway’s national poet, Henrik Wergeland (1808–45). Influenced by romantic and revolutionary ideals, in 1839 Wergeland presented a constitutional amendment to the Storting (Parliament) to eliminate the Jewish ban. He joined a growing list of prominent individuals arguing for a change, but ultimately it was Wergeland who most influenced the decision to give Jews rights equal to those afforded to all dissenters to Lutheran religious orthodoxy. Although their numbers were modest, Jews from eastern and central Europe began to settle in Norway in the latter half of the 19th century. In 1892, a congregation was established in Oslo, and a synagogue was built in 1920. A second Jewish community was established in Trondheim where a synagogue was opened in 1899. Jewish life consisted of numerous religious, secular, and charitable organizations. A youth society was established in Oslo in 1909, a children’s home and burial society were formed in 1914, and a Zionist organization was started in Oslo in 1912 with a subchapter in Trondheim. A Zionist newspaper, Jødisk tidende (Jewish Times), was published from 1918, and several magazines appeared prior to the outbreak of World War II.

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At the time of the German invasion on 9 April 1940, the number of Jews in Norway has been estimated to have been between 1,400 and 2,100. The higher figure includes Jews who entered Norway earlier as war refugees. In spite of a growing Nazi pressure following the invasion, the Jewish communities were largely left alone for most of the first year. In the early months of the occupation, however, congregations were required to submit the names of all members to the Nazi authorities, and several people fled the country for Sweden, a neutral neighboring state. In April 1941, the Jews in Trondheim were evicted from their synagogue, and the building was subsequently vandalized by German soldiers. In May, orders were given that all Jews had to turn in their radios. The collaboration regime of Vidkun Quisling, with his Norwegian National Socialist Party (Nasjonal Samling) faithful and a wellorganized police force, along with the German occupation authorities, infiltrated most layers of civilian and government life in Norway, affecting Jews and non-Jews alike. Attempts to Nazify schools, the church, the legal system, and sports organizations were, on the whole, however, unsuccessful. At the same time, pressure against Norwegian Jews intensified. In October 1941, Norwegian state police were requested by German security police (Gestapo) to prepare a law that would require the identity cards of all Jews to be stamped in red ink with a J. Throughout 1942, actions against Norwegian Jews intensified after Quisling reinstituted the original anti-Jewish paragraph in the constitution. On 26 October, all Jewish men over the age of 15 years were arrested and Jewish property confiscated. On 26 November 1942, the MS Donau, a German transport ship, left Oslo for the port of Stettin with 532 deported Jews on their way to the Auschwitz concentration camp, 188 women and 42 children included. One week earlier, another ship, the MS Monte Rosa, had carried 21 Jews to the same destination. During the war, of the 772 Jew deported from Norway, 741 were killed in Auschwitz or other death camps. Only 31 survived to return to Norway after the war. The first postwar census of Jews in Norway, taken in November 1946, showed a total of 559 people. Many families had been wiped out, but in spite of the losses, there was a determination to survive and rebuild. Fiftytwo years after the war ended, in June 1997, a committee appointed by the Norwegian government to investigate what happened to Jewish property reported that Jewish property losses were estimated to have been more than NOK 400 million. The Storting voted on 15 March 1999 to pay NOK 450 million in restitution, payable partly to the collective and partly to individuals. Compensation was subsequently paid to individuals and their survivors in the amount of NOK 200,000 each. An additional NOK 150 million was paid to the Jewish community in Norway; NOK 60 million went to support development outside Norway, such as to the World Jewish Congress; and NOK 40 million went to establish the Norwegian Center of Studies of the

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Holocaust and Religious Minorities (HL-senteret) in Oslo. The center is located in the Villa Grande on Bygdøy, the wartime residence of Vidkun Quisling. There are two synagogues in Norway in 2019, one located in Oslo and the other in Trondheim. Norwegian Jews are well integrated into Norwegian society, being active in the political, social, cultural, and economic life of the country. While there are still elements of anti-Semitism in Norway, it is marginalized and opposed by government policy and the overwhelming majority of the Norwegian people. JOHANSEN, JAHN OTTO (1934–2018). Norwegian journalist, television commentator, foreign correspondent, and author. Born in Porsgrunn, Norway, on 3 May 1934, Johansen was a familiar voice and ubiquitous face in Norway’s media scene from the 1960s to the 1990s. Following his studies at the University of Oslo, he worked as a journalist in several newspapers, including Varden, Porsgrunns Dagblad, and Morgenposten, as well as the periodicals Credo and Epoke. In 1961–62, he was awarded a Rockefeller fellowship to study Soviet and Eastern European affairs in Warsaw, Moscow, and Washington, D.C. In 1966 he began a long association with the Norwegian broadcasting company NRK. He was the NRK foreign correspondent in Moscow from 1975 to 1977 and in Washington, D.C., from 1985 to 1990. Between those postings, he served as the managing editor of Dagbladet, one of Oslo’s leading newspapers, from 1977 to 1984. Johansen is the author of more than 60 books on such diverse issues as Jewish and Gypsy cultures, American and European society and politics, the history of food cultures, and studies of Norwegian art and artists, as well as collections of his own essays. In a 1991 newspaper poll conducted by Dagbladet, Johansen was voted Norway’s most trusted media personality. His interview style was considered by critics to be the best in Norwegian media. JOHNSON, GISLE CHRISTIAN (1822–1894). Norwegian theologian. Born in Halden on 10 September 1822, Johnson grew up in Kristiansand and studied theology at the university in Christiania (Oslo), earning his degree in 1845. He was a brilliant student and was early marked for a scholarly career. After a year in Germany, he became a lecturer at the university, and in 1860 he became a professor. He taught systematic theology, dogmatic history, and church history. A personal crisis of faith had caused him to develop a strong pietistic and darkly serious view of his relationship with God, and his work as an evangelist dovetailed nicely with the low-church tradition of Hans Nilsen Hauge. Riding the wave of the religious awakening of the 1850s, he organized the Christiania Indremissionsforening (Christiania Society for the Inner Mission)

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in 1855. In 1868, he founded Den norske Lutherstiftelse (the Norwegian Luther Foundation), which in 1891 changed its name to Det norske lutherske Indremisjonsselskap (the Norwegian Lutheran Society for Inner Mission), commonly known as just the Inner Mission. He also founded the periodical Luthersk Kirketidende (Lutheran Church News) in 1863. Both these institutions and his academic position gave Johnson a power base from which to turn popular pietistic beliefs into the doctrine of the church as a whole. His teachings were strict and particularly opposed to the Grundtvigianism found in the Norwegian folk high school movement as represented by Christopher Bruun. He felt that people should avoid everything that did not directly lead them to God, not just those things that might lead them astray. Johnson therefore condemned the theater, joking, luxuries, and card games, and he had a special talent for making the punishments of hell seem both frightening and realistic. He had a puritan outlook and advised parents to keep their children in ignorance about anything related to procreation. JURY LAW. Passed in 1887 and taking effect on 1 January 1890, the jury law (juryloven) provided for a system of trial partly by lay judges. It thus transferred some of the responsibility for criminal justice from the embedsmann (public official) class to the people and was therefore a significant step in Norway’s process of democratization. The absolute monarchy had been founded on the understanding that sovereignty rested with the monarch, who in all areas, including the dispensation of justice, ruled through his appointed representatives. While the establishment of the constitution of 1814 shows that the concept of the absolute sovereignty of the monarch had been replaced by the idea of popular sovereignty, Norway’s administrative and legal system had not yet caught up with the new understanding. Social development in Norway was hampered by the power of the embedsmann class, whose representatives were largely in control of the state administration until the introduction of parliamentarism in 1884. Like parliamentarism, the jury law was part of Johan Sverdrup’s efforts to reform and modernize Norwegian society. On 1 January 2018, the 130-year-old system of a 10-member jury was replaced by a new appeals court of two professional judges and five lay judges. At least five of the seven judges must vote for conviction, including one of the professional judges. In cases where the prison sentence would exceed six years, such as in capital cases, all seven judges must agree.

K KALMAR UNION. The work of Queen Margareta of Norway, the Kalmar Union was a series of personal unions that brought Denmark, Norway, and Sweden together under one head of state. Margareta, the daughter of King Valdemar IV Atterdag (c. 1320–75) of Denmark, had been married to King Haakon VI Magnusson of Norway (c. 1340–80). At first, she was able to have her son Olav named king of Norway, later also king of Denmark, while she ruled both countries as his guardian. When he died in 1387, she was elected regent by the Danish council of the realm, and the following year she was also recognized as regent in Norway. After adopting her sister’s grandson, known in Scandinavian history as Erik of Pomerania (1382–1459), she managed to have him made king of Norway in 1389, with herself as his guardian. She gained control of Sweden by enlisting the aid of a major faction among the Swedish nobility, which controlled part of the country, and going to war against its ruler, Albrecht of Mecklenburg (c. 1338–1412), who was deposed in 1389. Erik of Pomerania then became king of both Denmark and Sweden in 1396. The Treaty of Kalmar formalized the arrangement on 17 June 1397, stating that Erik and his descendents were to rule the three Scandinavian countries forever. While each country was to be governed separately by its own councils and according to its own laws, the foreign policy was to be in the hands of the king. The result was a growing conflict between Denmark and Sweden until Sweden finally broke out of the union in 1523. In 1536, when the Reformation was being introduced in Denmark and Norway, King Christian III (1503–59) and the Danish council of the realm declared Norway henceforth to be a province of Denmark. This event marks the formal end of the Kalmar Union. Although Sweden had established its independence, Norway and Denmark remained united until 1814. KARL JOHAN. (1763–1844).

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KIEL, TREATY OF. Treaty signed on 14 January 1814 between Sweden and Great Britain on one side and Denmark-Norway on the other. The treaty, also referred to as the Peace of Kiel, ended the fighting between the parties during the Napoleonic Wars. A principal feature of the treaty was the transfer of Norway from Denmark to Sweden. Denmark-Norway had joined an alliance with France in 1807 while Sweden entered into an alliance with Britain in 1813, following Napoleon’s unsuccessful invasion of Russia. Sweden’s crown prince, Karl Johan, formerly Jean-Baptiste Jules Bernadotte, a former French general under Napoleon, joined the anti-French alliance on condition that Sweden be granted control of Norway in lieu of having lost the province of Finland to Russia in 1809. The anti-Napoleon coalition agreed to support the transfer of Norway to Sweden, and it became the central feature of the treaty. For purposes of the transfer, Norway was defined to be the area of the bishoprics of Christiansand, Bergen, Akershus, and Trondheim, in addition to the coastal islands and northern regions of Nordland and Finnmark. Greenland, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands, which had been part of the Norwegian kingdom when Norway entered the Kalmar Union in 1387, remained in Danish hands. The Norwegian fortresses of Fredriksten, Kongsvinger, Fredrikstad, and Akershus were to be turned over to Swedish control. In the Dano-British agreement under the treaty, sovereignty over the Danish island of Heligoland, in the North Sea, was transferred to Britain. News of the treaty reached Christiania (Oslo) and the Danish-Norwegian governor of Norway and heir to the throne of Denmark-Norway, Christian Frederik, on 24 January. As heir to the thrones of Denmark and Norway, Christian Frederik took the opportunity to place himself at the head of a Norwegian independence movement justifying his action on his right of inheritance. Although supporting his leadership, prominent Norwegians rejected Christian Frederik’s claim of inheritance, stating that by transferring Norway to Sweden, the Danish monarchy had abrogated the Royal Law of 1665 and Norwegians were now free to establish a new constitution and to choose their own king. Christian Frederik was convinced not to claim the throne as his by inheritance but rather to assume the regency and call for a constituent assembly to write a new constitution for Norway. The assembly met at Eidsvoll from 10 April to 17 May when it completed and signed the new constitution and elected Christian Frederik to be king. Their actions and the failure to accept the transfer to Sweden resulted in a short war with Sweden, a war which Norway was unable to sustain. An agreement signed at Moss on 14 August ended the conflict. Sweden agreed to recognize the new constitution while Norway agreed to enter into a personal union with Sweden after making the necessary, relatively minor, changes to the constitution. On 4 November, the Norwegian Storting elected King Carl XIII (Karl II in Norway) as King in Norway, thereby establishing the union with Sweden. See also ABSOLUTE MONARCHY.

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KIELLAND, ALEXANDER LANGE (1849–1906). Norwegian novelist, dramatist, and social critic. Kielland was born on 18 February 1849 into a wealthy merchant family in Stavanger. He earned a law degree at the university in Christiania (Oslo), married, and purchased a brickworks near his hometown. Dissatisfied with his life, however, he read widely, and in 1878, he left Stavanger for Paris, hoping to become a writer. Encouraged by the Danish critic Georg Brandes, Kielland wrote a novel, Garman & Worse (1880; tr. 1885), in which he drew heavily on his own family history; the book combines biting satire with a realistic portrait of Stavanger life in a bygone age. Kielland’s purpose was not to write cultural history, however, but to castigate numerous social ills: class distinctions, hypocrisy, the abuse of power by State Church ministers and other religious leaders, the stupidity of the school system, and the lack of integrity in business and industry. A number of novels placed him among the foremost of the politically radical writers of his time, but he was also a consummate stylist, for example, in a slender volume of short stories titled To Novelletter fra Danmark (1882; tr. in Norse Tales and Sketches, 1896). In 1884, Kielland applied for a public grant in support of his creative work. The timing seemed opportune. Johan Sverdrup, representing the newly organized Liberal Party supported by Kielland and the rest of the radical Norwegian intelligentsia, had just taken over as prime minister after the culture wars of the late 1870s and early 1880s that culminated in the introduction of parliamentarism in Norway in 1884. When it turned out that Sverdrup was not quite as liberal as his supporters had assumed and Kielland’s request was denied after an acrimonious debate in the Storting (Parliament), Kielland felt a strong sense of betrayal, as did most of the other radicals. The negative decision in the Kielland case, as it was called, did much to bring about the internal divisions in the Liberal Party that plagued it for the rest of Sverdrup’s time as prime minister. Three of Kielland’s next novels are set in Stavanger. One of them, Sankt Hans Fest (1887; St. John’s Festival) excoriates religious bigotry and takes to task the clergyman Lars Oftedahl, who had been instrumental in getting his grant application denied. Another personal attack is made in the play Professoren (1888; The Professor), which is notable for its unflattering portrait of the ultraconservative philosophy professor Marcus Jacob Monrad. KINGS BAY AFFAIR. A political issue that came to the forefront of Norwegian politics in 1963, the Kings Bay Affair concerned a series of accidents in a Svalbard (Spitsbergen) coal mine operated by the Kings Bay Coal Mining Company, which had been wholly owned by the Norwegian government since 1933. After the loss of a total of 71 lives between 1945 and 1963, a commission appointed by the Storting (Parliament) placed blame on the

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Norwegian government, headed by Einar Gerhardsen. A nonsocialist parliamentary minority of 74 (out of 150, 74 of whom represented the Labor Party and 2 represented the Socialist People’s Party) demanded that Gerhardsen’s minister of industry, who had had direct oversight of the matter, should resign. Gerhardsen countered that the Storting had no jurisdiction in the case, and the result was a no-confidence resolution proposed by the nonsocialists. When the two Socialist People’s Party representatives, Finn Gustavsen and Asbjørn Holm, also expressed their lack of confidence in Gerhardsen’s government, it was replaced by a coalition government headed by John Lyng of the Conservative Party. The incident is significant because it led to the first nonsocialist government in Norway since the end of World War II, a government that served as a harbinger of things to come in Norwegian politics in the next four decades, when Labor Party and nonsocialist governments alternated. KITTELSEN, THEODOR SEVERIN (1857–1914). Norwegian artist, painter, and illustrator, born 27 April 1857 in Kragerø, a coastal town in Telemark County. After his father’s death, Kittelsen was apprenticed to a painter in Christiania (Oslo) and a watchmaker in Arendal, where he came to the notice of the head of a local art association, Diderich Maria Aall, who, impressed with his talent, became his financial benefactor. Aall provided scholarship support for Kittelsen’s study in Christiania and, subsequently, three years of training at the Royal Academy of Art in Munich. Here Kittelsen met several noted contemporary Norwegian artists, including Christian Skredsvig, Harriet Backer, and Erik Werenskiold. In Munich, Kittelsen studied oil painting and, in 1879, completed one the earliest naturalistic paintings in Norway, Streik (Strike). While his work in oil was well received, it was his drawings and illustrations that brought him the most acclaim, especially his work in illustrating Norwegian folk and fairy tales, such as the three-volume Eventyrbog for Børn (1883–87; Folktales for Children) by Petter Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe. He illustrated several other works of other authors as well as his own publications. Among these are the two-volume Fra Lofoten (1880–81; From Lofoten) and Har Dyrene Sjæl? (1894; Do Animals Have a Soul?). One of his most evocative works is Svatedauen (1900; The Black Death), the illustrations of which capture the eerie and foreboding atmosphere of the anthropomorphic personification of the plague itself. These illustrations by Kittelsen, just as the many illustrations of trolls that he created for the Asbjørnsen and Moe Folk Tales, have imprinted themselves into the imagination of every Norwegian such that it is Kittelsen’s drawings that have become the visual representation of the Black Death and trolls themselves.

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Kittelsen built his family home Lauvlia in Sigdal in 1899 where he spent his most productive decade until economic circumstances forced him to sell in 1910. Here he produced several series of paintings and illustrations for publications such as Soria Moria Slott and Tirilil Tove, featuring some of his most inspirational characterizations of Norwegian nature, especially the mountain Andersnatten, which he portrayed over and over in his works. Because of Kittelsen and his paintings and illustrations, all Norwegians know exactly what trolls look like and how they act. Kittelsen imagined them and drew them. In doing so, he created a Norwegian literary, artistic, and cultural treasure. KNAUSGÅRD, KARL OVE (1968–). Norwegian writer and editor. Born 6 December 1968 in Oslo, Knausgård grew up in Arendal and Kristiansand. He spent a year at the Writer’s Academy in Bergen (Skrivekunstakademiet I Hordaland) where one of his teachers was the noted dramatist, Jon Fosse (1959–), and at the University of Bergen, where he studied art history and literature. He served as coeditor of the literary journal Vagant from 1999 to 2003, after having debuted with his first novel, Ute av Verden (1998; Out of the World). A successful debut, he was awarded the Norwegian Critics Literary Prize (Kritikerprisen) and the Norwegian Bookseller’s Prize (Bjørnsonstipendet). His second novel was En tid for alt (2004; tr. A Time for Everything, 2009). Translated and published in the United States as A Time for Everything, in Great Britain the book title was the same biblical quotation as in the Norwegian original: A Time for Every Purpose under Heaven. In this novel, Knausgård explores the connections between science and religion as the book’s narrator decides to write a history of angels. In 2006, En tid for alt was listed as one of the 25 best novels of the last 25 years by the Norwegian newspaper Dagbladet after having been nominated for the International Dublin Literary Award. With his literary reputation growing, Knausgård unleashed a media storm with the publication of a six-volume autobiographical series titled Min Kamp (My Struggle) in the years 2009–11. The books have been translated into 22 different languages but, because of the title, some confusion and controversy arose. Knausgård has generally refrained from commenting on the similarity of his title to that of Adolf Hitler’s original Mein Kampf, preferring, perhaps, to reclaim the literary right of one’s own struggles. An interesting scenario has, nevertheless, arisen as a result. In Norwegian, the title Min Kamp (My Struggle) is used for all six volumes: Min Kamp 1, Min Kamp 2, Min Kamp 3, etc. In English translation, however, different titles are used for the six volumes, for example, Man in Love: My Struggle Book 2, Some Rain Must Fall: My Struggle Book 5, The End: My Struggle Book 6. In Germany, not surprisingly, the publishers chose to avoid the reference to struggle altogether, choosing titles such as Streben

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(2013; To Die) for volume 1, Lieben (2013; To Love) for volume 2, and Kämpfen (2017; To Struggle) for volume 6. Knausgård said he understood the decision and had no objections to it. Deeply personal and autobiographical, the novels outline the pleasures, the dark thoughts, and the humiliations of the narrator’s/author’s life. Critics and literary scholars alike have marveled at Knausgård’s literary achievement. One critic likened it to opening someone’s diary and “finding your own secrets” therein. Theatrical performances of Min Kamp played in various theaters in Norway in 2016, including Kristiansand and Oslo. KNUDSEN, CHRISTIAN HOLTERMANN (1845–1929). Norwegian politician and printer. Born on 15 July 1845 in Bergen, Knudsen was a printer who was the leader of the Norwegian Printers’ Union in Christiania (Oslo) starting in 1876. He is credited with giving the impetus to a nationwide federation of printers’ unions in 1884. The year 1885 saw the organization of Den socialdemokratiske forening (Social-Democratic Association) in Christiania, of which Knudsen was the head and which was an important precursor of the Labor Party. When the party was formed in Arendal in 1887, Knudsen again was one of the prime movers. He led the Labor Party during three periods, the last time in 1918, when he was replaced by Kyrre Grepp. He also served as a member of the Storting (Parliament) from 1906 to 1915 and was a member of the Oslo city council from 1898 to 1925. A confirmed social democrat, he opposed joining the Communist International. KNUDSEN, GUNNAR (1848–1928). Norwegian politician, statesman, and engineer. Born in Saltrød by Arendal on 19 September 1848 to shipowner Christen Knudsen, Knudsen studied engineering in Gothenburg, Sweden, completing his degree in 1869. His early career was primarily in shipping and industry, and he built and operated Norway’s first hydroelectric generating plant in Skien. In 1891, he was elected to the Storting (Parliament) on the Liberal Party ticket and served in several governments, including as minister of finance for Christian Michelsen in 1905. He resigned his position in October 1905 because of his opposition to the government’s decision to remain a monarchy. Knudsen served as Liberal Party leader from 1909 to 1927. He was the president of the Storting in 1906–9, 1913–15, and 1919–21. He was also the prime minister in a Liberal Party government from 1908 to 1910 and again from 1913 to 1920, including the difficult years of World War I. Although fundamentally a liberalist, Knudsen recognized the need for state intervention in the economy during the war and used price supports in order to shield wage earners from some of the worst consequences of increased prices and shortages of certain commodities.

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A pragmatist as well as a very strong leader, Knudsen realized that the government had to assume increased control over many aspects of social and economic life. This was especially so because Norwegian access to commodities on the world market, as long as the crisis of the war lasted, went through the governments of the countries where these commodities were available. For example, coal and coke could not be purchased from individual suppliers in Great Britain except through agreements involving the British government. Another example is electrolytic copper, which was crucial to the development of Norwegian hydropower and which could be obtained in Britain only on the condition that Norway prohibited the export of copper ore to Germany. Knudsen’s own practical experience in shipping and industry was undoubtedly valuable when he had to assume the ultimate supervision and management of trade relationships that had earlier been the exclusive province of the private sector. Some of the restrictions imposed surely seemed drastic, as when the sale of liquor and wine was prohibited because the raw materials used to produce them were needed as food and only weak beer was allowed to be brewed. The need to avoid any kind of waste meant that only whole-grain flour could be used for bread. The Norwegian population was largely supportive of these and other policies with similar intent, for it was widely acknowledged that in a time of war, everybody had to work together to survive with a minimum of discomfort. Knudsen’s willingness to depart somewhat from strict liberalist economic principles also showed up in his attitude toward the permitting process that was established for hydroelectric development, where he favored restrictions on the owner-developers. Understanding the potential of Norway’s many waterfalls, Knudsen wanted the government to buy some of them for future use. This was a good idea because, as early as 1906, three-fourths of Norway’s developed waterfalls were owned by foreign interests, which had usually purchased them from their owners for next to nothing. As a statesman, Knudsen was a practical and pragmatic leader who managed to look beyond traditional ways of thinking as he sought the solutions that would further Norway’s true interests. KOHT, HALVDAN (1873–1965). Norwegian politician and historian. Born in Tromsø on 7 July 1873, Koht grew up in the family of a high school teacher in Tromsø and Skien. A highly gifted and prolific historian, he became professor at the University of Oslo in 1910 and joined the Labor Party in 1911. In the debate over Norway’s position in the union with Sweden up to 1905, Koht supported separation and a republican form of government for Norway. Following the completion of his university studies, he received a grant to visit the United States in order to research “the future.” Traveling extensively, although he was impressed by much of modern America in the

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pre–World War I years, he was critical of the stark class differences he saw and returned to Norway with a new understanding of the role of class conflict in world history. Most significantly, he came to understand farmers and agricultural workers as members of the laboring class, not to be excluded as Marxists had traditionally done. This epiphany would guide his interpretation of Norwegian history in most of his subsequent scholarship. His works span Norwegian history from the early Middle Ages to the 20th century and are written from the perspective of class struggle as a driving force in historical development, but he also articulates a view of history as an organic process where newer forms of social organization grow out of older forms. Koht also wrote several biographies, including one on Henrik Ibsen, and edited the letters and papers of both Ibsen and Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson. From 1935 to 1940, he served as minister of foreign affairs in the Labor government of Johan Nygaardsvold, and he has been criticized for failing to take the German threat of invasion sufficiently seriously. Koht spent most of the years of World War II in the United States, speaking on Norway’s cause and conducting historical research on a wide variety of issues. Throughout his long career, he was also an active participant in the Norwegian language debate, and although he wrote in Nynorsk (New Norwegian) and served as the head of Noregs Mållag (Norway’s Language Society), an organization that promoted the use of Nynorsk, from 1921 to 1925, he wanted to establish a single written form of Norwegian that was based on both urban and rural dialects. Many of Koht’s ideas are reflected in the language reform of 1938. KØLLE, CATHARINE HERMINE (1788–1859). Norwegian painter, writer, and early adventurer born 29 February 1788 in Bærum, Norway. Her father, Christian Kølle, was a theologian by training but was never called to the clergy. He became a teacher and linguist, even introducing the feminine grammatical gender into the written language. Used in Norwegian dialects, the feminine gender was, however, nonexistent in Danish, the written language of Norway at the time. When Catharine was 18 years old, her family settled in Ulvik in the inner Hardanger fjord region of western Norway. Although she would live the rest of her life in Ulvik, between the years 1826 and 1858 she traveled extensively, mostly walking and hiking. More than 50 extended walking tours took her around southern Norway and down to the European continent, where she twice walked all the way to Italy, including visits to Venice and Genoa. She kept an extensive account of her travels and, overall, painted hundreds of watercolors from places she visited. She made notes on the weather, drew charts and maps, painted quaint landscape scenes, and seems to have been infected with a compulsive wanderlust. At one point in her extensive accounts, she noted that she was “escaping, quickly over the mountains.” Painting in a naive style, Kølle used bright watercolors with

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compelling and exciting results. Over 250 paintings have survived, along with numerous sketches. Her journals encompass no less than 1,850 pages. See also ART. KOLSTAD, PEDER LUDVIK (1878–1932). Norwegian politician. Born in Borge, Østfold County, on 28 November 1878, Kolstad was prime minister in the first of two Agrarian Party (see CENTER PARTY) governments that were in office during the turbulent early 1930s, serving from 1931 to 1932. At the time, the Agrarians were inspired by Keynesian ideas about a mixed economy in which the government was an active participant, but Kolstad’s minority government had weak support in the Storting (Parliament), where the Agrarians held only 25 seats. His government was allowed to remain in power largely because no other party wanted to assume the burden of governing the country under the difficult economic conditions of the time. Kolstad’s government is otherwise notable for the fact that its minister of defense was Vidkun Quisling. Kolstad became ill and died while in office and was succeeded by Jens Hundseid. KONOW, WOLLERT (1845–1924). Norwegian politician. Born in Fana near Bergen to Dr. Wollert Konow on 16 August 1845, Konow received his matriculation certificate in 1864, passed the examen philosophicum at the university in Christiania (Oslo) the following year, and spent some time traveling in Europe. An admirer of the Danish folk high school movement, he led two Norwegian folk high schools between 1868 and 1873. Starting in 1880, he served more than 25 years in the local government of Fana, and between 1880 and 1888, he was a member of the Storting (Parliament), representing the Liberal Party. Having left the national political scene for approximately 20 years, he again served in the Storting from 1910 to 1912, this time representing the Liberal Left Party, which was closer to the Conservative Party than the Liberal Party. Even though the Liberal Left Party wanted to establish its independence vis-à-vis both the Conservatives and the Liberals, pressure from Christian Michelsen resulted in a coalition government, with the Conservative Party as its partner and Konow as prime minister (for a month he also served as minister of agriculture). Having excluded some of the most experienced and capable members of the Conservative Party from the cabinet, Konow was less supportive of the Conservatives’ flagship issues than they liked; for example, he did not seem interested in weakening the concession laws pushed through by Johan Castberg between 1906 and 1917. The Conservatives found a reason to rebel in 1912 when Konow gave a speech in which he spoke positively about Nynorsk (New Norwegian), the written norm established by men like Ivar Aasen and Aasmund Olafsson

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Vinje but in 1912 most strongly associated with the name of Arne Garborg, a man who was anathema to the Right, both because of his language and because of his history as a leader of the Norwegian radicals. The ministers from the Conservative Party resigned and Konow was unable to replace them, so he too had to resign, and his government was succeeded by one from the Conservative Party alone under the leadership of Jens Bratlie. KORVALD, LARS (1916–2006). Norwegian politician. Korvald was born on 29 April 1916 in Mjøndalen, Buskerud County, and had his origins in the pietistic segment of Norwegian society, from which many members of the Christian Democratic Party have traditionally been recruited. After doing advanced work in agriculture, he became a teacher at and later head of a local agricultural school. He was elected to the Storting (Parliament) in 1961, retiring from political life in 1981. He served as the caucus leader for the Christian Democrats during two periods (1965–72 and 1973–74) and as party leader from 1967 to 1975 and 1977 to 1979. When the 1972 European Community (EC) referendum resulted in a stern rebuke to the pro-membership Labor government led by Prime Minister Trygve Bratteli, Korvald formed a minority coalition government consisting of the Christian Democratic Party, the Center Party, and the Liberal Party. This government was succeeded by another government headed by Bratteli approximately a year later, subsequent to the parliamentary elections of 1973. Korvald was Norway’s first Christian Democratic prime minister, and his short-lived government proved that the country had available a viable centrist alternative to a Labor Party government. Korvald thus paved the way for Kjell Magne Bondevik, whom he mentored and recruited to his administration. It also fell to Korvald’s lot to negotiate a trade agreement, short of full membership, with the EC after the 1972 referendum and to formulate Norway’s first oil policy. After his retirement from national politics, Korvald served as the county administrator in Østfold. KRINGEN, BATTLE OF. The Battle of Kringen was fought on 26 August 1612 by a Norwegian peasant army against Scottish mercenary soldiers in the service of the Swedish king Gustavus II Adolphus during the Kalmar War between Sweden and Denmark-Norway. The events entered Norwegian folklore in song and legend while the site of the battle became a pilgrimage site for British, especially Scottish, visitors in the 19th century. Led by Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Ramsey and Gordon Sinclair, the Scottish army sailed for Norway in early August and landed at Isfjorden near Åndalsnes on 19 August, then made its way up the Romsdal valley to Gudbrandsdalen where it turned south. Word of the approaching Scottish army had been sent out to the Norwegian farms in the upper Gudbrandsdalen, and

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farmers mobilized from the areas from Vågå to Lesja, Fron, and Ringebu. As the Scots advanced into the narrowest part of the valley, with the Gudbrandsdalslågen river on one side and a steep rocky cliff on the other, 500 Norwegian farmers fell on the 300 invaders. Sinclair and more than 150 Scots were killed, while 134 were taken prisoner and transported to the nearby village of Kvam where all but 18 were executed the next day. The expedition leader, Colonel Alexander Ramsey, and three others were taken to Oslo and later to Copenhagen before being repatriated. The other survivors were put to work on several of the local farms before they were conscripted into Danish military service. Based on place-names in the area and local folklore and legend, it is thought that some settled in Norway. Captured Scottish weapons and other memorabilia from the events are on display at the Gudbrandsdal War Museum in Kvam, and a monument to Sinclair, who became the symbol of the vanquished army, stands on the steep hillside above the battle site. KRISTELIG FOLKEPARTI. See CHRISTIAN DEMOCRATIC PARTY. KROG, JØRGINA (GINA) ANNA SVERDRUP (1847–1916). Norwegian feminist, politician, and women’s rights activist. Born 20 June 1847 in Flakstad in Lofoten, North Norway. Her father died before she was born, and her mother moved the family to Christiania (Oslo) in 1855. Krog attended the Fur Autenrieths School for Girls and continued her education with tutors and self-teaching, since women were not admitted to the university until 1882. In 1880, she traveled to England and came into contact with the women’s rights movement there. When she returned to Norway in 1884, she began a journalism career, writing articles for several newspapers before joining with Hagbard Emanuel Berner to found the National Association for Women’s Rights (Norsk Kvinnesaksforening) in 1884. The following year, she helped to establish the Association for Women’s Suffrage (Kvindestemmeretsforeningen) and worked cooperatively with leaders of the Liberal Party to present the first parliamentary proposal for women’s right to vote in 1890. Although initially unsuccessful, and universal male suffrage was not granted until 1898, women did finally get the right to vote in 1913. In her own lifetime, Gina Krog was recognized as being the undisputed leader of the women’s movement in Norway. When she died in 1916, she became the first Norwegian woman to be honored with a state funeral. KROHG, CHRISTIAN (1852–1925). Norwegian painter and author. Born 13 August 1852 in Christiania (Oslo), he studied law while also attending art school. Following graduation, he went to Karlsruhe, Germany, where he studied under one of Norway’s leading national romantic painters, Hans

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Gude. Through his friendship with the Danish literary critic Georg Brandes (1842–1927) and a critical understanding of contemporary political issues, he developed his art to depict social and cultural engagement. After spending the summer of 1879 in Skagen in northern Denmark, Krohg returned to Oslo, where political and cultural issues came to dominate his thinking and his art. At the same time that he began to choose motifs from everyday life, he also became increasingly engaged in the cultural debates of the decades of the 1880s and 1890s. His painting Syk pike (1880–81; Sick Girl) depicts the scourge of tuberculosis and served as an inspiring motif for other painters such as Edvard Munch, who produced several works of the “sick girl” genre. In 1886, Krohg gave a lecture to the Liberal Student Association of the University of Oslo wherein he insisted that art was a central element of any cultural movement and that painters should present contemporary life in all its unpleasantness. As a result, two of Krohg’s best-known works, Albertine i politilægens venteværelse (1886–87; Albertine in the Police Surgeon’s Waiting Room) and Kampen for tilværelsen (1888–89; The Struggle for Survival), are considered masterpieces of naturalism. In the same year that he began his Albertine painting, Krohg also wrote his novel Albertine, about prostitution and the seamier side of life in Oslo. The book created a scandal when published and was subsequently confiscated by the police as immoral. While continuing to paint, he also contributed regular commentary to Verdens Gang, one of Oslo’s leading newspapers of the day. In 1909, Krohg became the director of Statens Kunstakademi (the Norwegian Academy of Arts), a position he held until his death. Christian Krohg was married to Oda Krohg (1860–1935), a feminist free spirit and painter in her own right. KROHG, OTHILIA (ODA) PAULINE CHRISTINE LASSON (1860–1935). Norwegian painter, member of the so-called Christiania-Bohemian circle. Born 11 June 1860 in Åsgårdstrand, Oda Krohg had little formal education but developed into a respected landscape and portrait painter. Her debut work, Ved Christianiafjorden (Japansk lykt) in 1886 shows a soft, neoRomantic view of a woman under a Japanese lantern, gazing out over the Oslofjord. Though best known for her landscapes, her keen eye for personality shines through in her portraits, especially that of her husband and fellow artist, Christian Krohg, from 1888 as he is crossing a street in Oslo. Oda Krohg lived the life of a late 19th-century “bohemian” woman, married three times, and reputedly engaged in numerous affairs, some extramarital. Her lifestyle seems to have created a layer of fog over her otherwise remarkable work as an artist. KYSTPARTIET. See COASTAL PARTY.

L LABOR DEMOCRATS. The Arbeiderdemokratene was a regional party that had its center of gravity among small farmers and rural laborers in Oppland and Hedmark. While at times officially known by other names, among them De forenede norske Arbeidersamfund (the United Societies of Norwegian Workers) and Det radikale Folkeparti (the Radical People’s Party), the Arbeiderdemokratene was its common appellation. While not a social-democratic party, the Labor Democrats belonged to the left wing of the Liberal Party, with whom it often collaborated. Their most important leader was Johan Castberg, the central figure in the natural resource legislation— including the concession laws—passed between 1906 and 1917. Some members of the party leaned toward the ideas of the American political economist Henry George, who argued that it should not be possible to profit solely from the ownership of land, and this kind of thinking resonated with the poorer classes in the countryside. The Labor Democrats played a minor role in Norwegian politics in the 1920s and 1930s, and the party was formally dissolved in 1940. LABOR LAW. The Norwegian Working Environment Act (Arbeidsmiljøloven) is the law that regulates the relationship between employers and employees in Norway. It requires that a written contract be established for permanent and temporary employees. The normal working time in Norway, according to the act, is 40 hours per week, but 37.5 hours has been established by collective agreement. Saturdays are considered to be working days. The framework for annual holidays in Norway is set by the Holiday Act (Ferieloven). All employees are entitled to five weeks’ paid vacation each calendar year. Employees past the age of 60 years are entitled to one additional week. Vacation dates are negotiated by employer and employee or the employee’s trade union representative, but employees are expected to take three weeks during the main vacation period between 1 June and 30 September. The remaining two (or three) weeks may be taken at another time in a single period or broken up into days or weeks. 171

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Employees who are ill may stay home for three days without a medical certificate; however, daily cash benefits require a medical certificate and are then paid from the first day of illness for a period of 120 days. The employer pays the first 16 days, the national health insurance after that. Employees who have worked for the last six months before the birth of a child are entitled to leave with pay for 43 weeks at the full daily rate or 53 weeks at a reduced daily rate. The leave may be shared between the mother and father, but the mother alone is eligible for the first six weeks. Benefits for 14 weeks are reserved for the father. Dismissal from employment must be justified objectively and given in writing unless regulated by law. One month’s notice is required by either party. In any dismissal, the employer must inform the employee of the right to demand negotiations and to institute legal proceedings. Employers are required to safeguard the health and safety of all employees. The employer is obligated to provide systematic training on health and safety issues. LABOR PARTY. Although the full name of the party is Det norske Arbeiderparti (DnA; the Norwegian Labor Party), it is commonly known simply as Arbeiderpartiet (Ap; the Labor Party). The party arose several decades after the first attempts to organize workers in the late 1840s by Marcus Thrane had been suppressed. The first union was that of printers, formed in 1872, and a national federation of trade unions, Den faglige Landsorganisasjon (LO; the National Trade Union Association), was organized in 1899. The party was formed on 21 August 1887 in Hisøy near Arendal and has grown from its infancy to become Norway’s largest political party. It started out working for the extension of the franchise to all adults, a legal limit to the length of the workday, direct taxation, and support of justified strikes. It presented itself as a socialist party from the beginning. During the turbulent years of the 1890s, prior to the dissolution of the union with Sweden, there was a strong nationalistic tenor in the Labor Party, as it was militantly opposed to the union as well as the monarchy. The party’s appeal was limited to urban workers, however, because the rural population did not like its ideas about the collectivization of farmland. People like Christopher Hornsrud, the later Labor Party prime minister, understood that the party needed to become more pragmatic in order to appeal to small farmers and farmworkers. The parliamentary election held in 1903 gave the party its first four representatives in the Storting (Parliament). Progress was made on many of its issues; for example, voting rights for women were granted in 1913. Around this time, there was a faction within the party, led by Martin Tranmæl, which argued that revolutionary means were needed to affect social change. At a labor meeting held in Trondheim in 1911, Tranmæel expressed opposition to making long-term agreements with employers and

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supported the use of strikes as well as sabotage to discourage scabs. Tranmæl also wanted the Norwegian economy to be nationalized and for control of the means of production to be turned over to the workers. These ideas, associated with what was called the “Union Opposition” within the party, appealed especially to its younger members, and after the Russian Revolution in 1917, there were some attempts to organize workers’ councils and soldiers’ councils throughout the country. At the party convention in 1918, the Union Opposition won a decisive victory, and the Labor Party identified as a revolutionary proletarian party, which in 1919 joined the Third International, also known as the Communist International (Comintern), headquartered in Moscow. The Soviet Communist Party considered the Norwegian Labor Party one of its many bridgeheads in capitalist territory. The moderate members of the Labor Party were unhappy about the party’s association with the Comintern and formed a splinter party named Norges Socialdemokratiske Arbeiderparti (NSA; Norway’s Social-Democratic Labor Party) in 1921. When the Labor Party left the Comintern in 1923, its left wing, remaining loyal to the Moscow connection, splintered off and formed Norges Kommunistiske Parti (NKP; Norway’s Communist Party). When in 1927 the Labor Party and the NSA merged, the NKP remained a separate party. The 1927 parliamentary election made the new and revisionist (rather than revolutionary) Labor Party Norway’s largest political party, with 37 percent of the popular vote and 59 representatives in the Storting. The sitting coalition government, under the leadership of Prime Minister Ivar Lykke of the Conservative Party, resigned in early 1928, and King Haakon VII invited Christopher Hornsrud to form a Labor Party minority government. This initiative by the king was in line with the tradition of parliamentarism that had been established in 1884. However, it surprised and shocked the leaders of the Labor Party because one of the principles of Labor was to eliminate the monarchy and establish a Norwegian republic. Haakon’s adherence to strict parliamentary procedure proved to the leaders of the Labor Party that, not only could they achieve power through nonrevolutionary means, but they could accept a constitutional monarchy as well. This acceptance and positive view of the king as head of state would be reinforced by Haakon’s actions in April 1940 when he stood resolutely and became the symbol of resistance to the German invasion and occupation. Hornsrud’s program reflected the concerns of Labor’s left wing by declaring that his government’s intention was to prepare Norway to become a socialist state, but opposition to the new budget led to a vote of no confidence two weeks later, thereby making Hornsrud’s government the shortest one in Norwegian history. The worldwide economic crisis in the late 1920s and throughout the 1930s pulled the Labor Party further away from its revolutionary past as it opted for a mixed economy managed according to certain Keynesian principles. In

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1935, the Labor Party formed a minority government with Johan Nygaardsvold as the prime minister. A week later, the caucuses of Labor and the Agrarian Party made an agreement that was much to the benefit of both, as it gave the Agrarians support for the farmers and gave the Labor government what amounted to a majority in the Storting and allowed it to begin the building of the welfare state through its social legislative program. While Nygaardsvold’s government has been criticized for Norway’s lack of military preparedness in 1940, it was a stable government that, while in exile in London, took care of Norway’s interests during World War II. During the 20 years between 1945 and 1965, the Labor Party continually governed Norway, except for a four-week hiatus in 1963, when John Lyng was the prime minister in a minority coalition government. For most of the time, Einar Gerhardsen served as prime minister. Labor led the reconstruction made necessary by the war and more fully developed the Norwegian welfare state. Now firmly a social-democratic party, it even supported Norwegian membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which led to a schism in 1961, when the Sosialistisk Folkeparti (SF; Socialist People’s Party) was founded. In 1963, the two SF votes in the Storting both brought Lyng’s government into power and threw it out again. The struggle over Norwegian membership in the European Community, culminating in the referendum held in 1972, led to less than the usual stability in Norwegian political life between the mid-1960s and the mid-1980s, when Labor Party governments alternated with Center and Center-Right coalitions. The year 1986 saw the beginning of another Labor era, however, as Gro Harlem Brundtland presided over Labor governments for most of the next 10 years. When Brundtland’s successor, Thorbjørn Jagland, received less support than hoped for in the 1997 parliamentary election, the Labor government gave way to another Centrist coalition, which fell in 2000, leading Jens Stoltenberg to form a Labor government until the 2001 parliamentary election. Receiving its lowest vote total since World War II, a mere 24.3 percent, Labor stepped down in favor of a Center-Right coalition under Kjell Magne Bondevik of the Christian Democratic Party. In 2005, voters returned to the Labor Party with 32.7 percent of the vote, and Stoltenberg formed his second government, this time a coalition government consisting of Labor, the Socialist Left Party (SV; a successor to Sasialistisk Folkeparti), and the Center Party. Reelected in 2009, the government was rocked by a deadly attack in Oslo on 22 July 2011, when a lone terrorist, Anders Behring Breivik, set off a car bomb at the entrance to the offices of the prime minister and the Ministry of Justice, killing eight people. The terrorist then drove to a Labor Party youth summer camp on the small island of Utøya where, dressed as a policeman,

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he proceeded to massacre 69 people, most of them teenage activist supporters of the Labor Party. It was clearly an attack aimed at a generation of future Labor Party leaders. Although winning 35.4 percent of the electoral vote in the 2013 parliamentary election, Labor lost its majority to a Center-Right coalition. Former foreign minister Jonas Gahr Støre was chosen to be the new leader of the Labor Party, as Stoltenberg stepped down and would assume the position as secretary general of NATO in 2014. Although far from being the power it had been in the post–World War II years, the Labor Party remains a significant force in Norwegian political life. LAGTING. The Storting, the Norwegian parliament, was largely a unicameral body, but for the purpose of considering legislative matters, it divided into two chambers. The Lagting (literally, an assembly that considers laws) functioned as a type of upper house in that it consisted of one-fourth of the members of the Storting, elected by their colleagues shortly after a new Storting had been chosen by the voters. The Lagting received bills from the Odelsting (literally, an assembly of those who possess allodial rights to farmland, consisting of the remaining three-fourths of the Storting) and gave them further consideration before voting on them. Its members could not themselves propose bills. The Lagting was also the body that, together with the Supreme Court justices, served as a panel of judges in impeachment proceedings. The Lagting and the Odelsting were eliminated by a constitutional amendment in 2009. Now the full Storting meets to consider all bills in plenum. LANDSSVIKOPPGJØRET. See COLLABORATION TRIALS. LANDSTAD, MAGNUS BROSTRUP (1802–1880). Norwegian folklorist. Son of the State Church minister Hans Landstad, born on 7 October 1802, Landstad studied theology at the university in Christiania (Oslo), earning his degree in 1827. After a series of appointments in various parts of the country, he succeeded his father as the minister at Seljord, Telemark County, in 1839. Telemark was an area with a rich folkloristic tradition, and Landstad started collecting ballads, collaborating with Olea Crøger (1801–55), who recorded ballads and folk melodies in the area of Heddal, Telemark. Landstad published Norske Folkeviser (Norwegian Ballads) in 1852, approximately the same time as the famous publication of legends and folktales by Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe. Landstad is also noted for a significant revision to the Norwegian State Church hymnal. See MUSIC.

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LANGE, CHRISTIAN LOUS (1869–1938). Norwegian diplomat, political scientist, and peace advocate born in Stavanger, Norway, who graduated from the University of Oslo with a degree in philology. Elected to the InterParliamentary Union in 1899, he was secretary general from 1909 to 1933. He was appointed secretary to the Nobel Peace Prize Committee in 1900, serving until 1909. As such, he established the Nobel Institute and its library in Oslo, writing reports on the candidates for the prize. A strong proponent of internationalism and the concept of collective security, Lange’s book Historire de l’internationalisme (1919; History of Internationalism) is credited as being a significant ideological pillar for the League of Nations. In 1921 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, which he shared with the Swedish politician Hjalmar Branting. His son, Halvard Lange, served as foreign minister of Norway from 1946 to 1965 (with the exception of one month in 1963). LANGE, HALVARD MANTHEY (1902–1970). Norwegian politician. The son of the noted pacifist and Nobel Peace Prize winner Christian Lous Lange (1869–1938), Lange was born in Oslo on 16 September 1902, earned a university degree in 1929, and worked as a teacher and university lecturer during the 1930s. A member of the Labor Party since 1927, he was arrested by the Germans in 1942 and spent the rest of World War II in several concentration camps, including Sachsenhausen. In 1946, he became the minister of foreign affairs in Einar Gerhardsen’s second government and had the same position under Oscar Torp, as well as in Gerhardsen’s third and fourth governments. In all, he served as minister of foreign affairs until 1965, with the exception of a one-month-long hiatus in 1963, when Erling Wikborg (1894–1992) of the Christian Democrats had the post during the administration of Prime Minister John Lyng. He was an elected representative to the Storting (Parliament) from 1950 to 1968. Lange’s greatest historical significance relates to the change in Norwegian security policy during the postwar years. Lange understood clearly that Norway’s traditional neutrality, which had kept the country out of World War I but had not kept it from being attacked by Germany in 1940, was of no value during the Cold War. In contrast to some other Labor Party politicians, he insisted that Norway, which because of its strategic location had little hope of remaining neutral in an armed conflict between East and West, should consider aligning itself with Great Britain and the United States by joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Lange kept to his resolve in the face of significant pressure from the Soviet Union, which offered Norway a nonaggression pact in place of NATO membership. When Norway joined NATO as one of its charter members in 1949, the foundation was laid for its peace and complete independence during the Cold War era. Lange had an

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outstanding international reputation as a statesman and was among those who facilitated additional cooperation among the NATO countries, in addition to the primary security mission of the alliance. LANGUAGE. Together with Danish, Faroese, Icelandic, and Swedish, Norwegian belongs to the Nordic side of the northwest branch of the Germanic language family. Close to the literary language found in the medieval Icelandic sagas, Old Norwegian is known from both manuscript sources and runic inscriptions and came into being as a separate language during the Viking period. Old Norwegian was quite stable until about 1350 but changed considerably during the centuries following the Black Death. Phonology, grammar, and the lexicon were all affected, and it is believed that the decline in population as well as extensive contact with the traders of the Hanseatic League may have been part of the reason. The spoken form of Old Norwegian ceased to exist and was replaced by a number of different dialects. As the distance between daily speech and the written norm increased, the written language also changed. Furthermore, the union with Denmark led to the use of Danish by government officials, and the Reformation made Danish the language of the church. Danish also became the language of the law in Norway, starting with the reign of King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway. Danish remained Norway’s written language also after the union with Sweden had come into existence in 1814. The constitution established at Eidsvoll in 1814 was itself written in the Danish language. While farmers and fishermen spoke their local dialects, members of the embedsmann (public official) class and other upper-class people generally spoke Danish, but with more or less Norwegian pronunciation. Keeping Danish as Norway’s written language was incompatible with the nationbuilding project of the 19th century, however, and the language debate centered on the question of whether one should quickly create a new national language or opt for a more gradual development that would lead Norwegian to increasingly become different from Danish. The main spokesperson for the idea that Norway needed a new language right away was the dialectologist and linguist Ivar Aasen, who singlehandedly created a written form of Norwegian called Landsmaal (country language) that was based on the more archaic dialects of western Norway. Influenced by the ideas of national romanticism and in order to promote democracy and education, Aasen wanted the rural population to have a written language that was similar to the speech of the people. The teacher Knud Knudsen, on the other hand, wanted to gradually create a Norwegian written language on the basis of how members of the upper classes in Norway actually pronounced Danish in their daily speech. While perhaps equally nationalistic as Aasen’s project, this way of thinking was

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both much less democratic and less likely to further popular education. Knudsen’s form of written Norwegian was called Riksmaal (national language), and later it became known as Bokmal (book language). While most Norwegian writers, including Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson and Henrik Ibsen, hewed close to Knudsen’s line of thought, Aasmund Olafsson Vinje and Arne Garborg consciously worked to develop Landsmaal, later known as Nynorsk (New Norwegian), as a literary language. In 1885, the Storting (Parliament) voted to give Riksmaal and Landsmaal equal status as written forms of Norwegian in all government-related contexts. In 1892, each school district was empowered to determine which form should be used in the local schools. Consequently, educational materials are available in both forms of Norwegian, and all Norwegian children are taught to read texts in both forms of the language. During the first half of the 20th century, government policy, under the leadership of the Liberal Party and the Labor Party, was focused on uniting Nynorsk and Bokmal (the two terms were introduced in 1929) into one form of Norwegian called Samnorsk (Common Norwegian). Several language reforms were introduced, most notably in 1907, 1917, and 1938. The changes made in 1938 were met with strong resistance, however, as they offended users of both Nynorsk and Bokmal, who came to regard Samnorsk as a common enemy. The government therefore backpedaled significantly during the second half of the 20th century, and reforms in 1959 and 1981 brought back forms of spelling and grammar that had earlier been outlawed, meaning that the idea of Samnorsk became a thing of the past. The most recent reform took place on 1 July 2005, when a time-honored distinction between “main forms” and “allowable forms” of spelling and grammar was largely abandoned. Also, the spelling of the Norwegian word for neither, which had been verken since 1959, was again allowed to be the traditional hverken. Since the end of the Samnorsk project, Norwegian language planning has focused on what to do about new loanwords, especially those borrowed from English. Under the leadership of the Norsk Språkråd (Norwegian Language Council), established in 1972, the spelling of loanwords is often changed to reflect Norwegian orthographic conventions. A major spelling reform for loanwords took place in 1996. Another current issue in the Norwegian language debate concerns the status of education in Nynorsk for users of Bokmal. The various Sami languages used in Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia comprise a separate language group within the Finno-Ugric language family. Northern Sami is used as a language of administration in several municipalities in Finnmark County. It is estimated that there are between 25,000 and 30,000 speakers of the Sami languages. In Norway, Sami has

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official status in the northern counties of Finnmark and Troms and in the municipalities of Kautokeino, Karasjok, Kåfjord, Nesseby, Porsanger, Tana, Tysfjord, Lavangen, and Snåsa. LARSEN, LEIF ANDREAS (1906–1990). Norwegian sailor and most decorated naval officer of World War II, also known as “Shetlands Larsen.” Born in Bergen, Norway, he served as a volunteer in the Finnish Winter War (1939–40) fighting the Soviet Union in the Gösta Benckertz Company, which also saw action in Norway following the German invasion on 9 April 1940. In February 1941, he escaped from Norway and became a central figure in the so-called Shetland bus, which were Norwegian North Sea fishing vessels carrying resistance fighters between occupied Norway and the Shetland Islands. He made 52 trips across the North Sea in fishing boats and, after 1943, as commander of the faster submarine chasers. He received numerous decorations, including the British Distinguished Service Cross, the Norwegian War Cross with Two Swords, and the American Medal of Freedom. A statue of Larsen stands in the inner harbor of Bergen, his hometown. Larsen played himself in the feature film Shetlands Larsen (1954), which was released in the United States as Suicide Mission (1956). See also WORLD WAR II. LEAGUE OF NATIONS. The League of Nations grew out of the Versailles Treaty following World War I and was primarily the brainchild of U.S. president Woodrow Wilson. Its purpose was to promote disarmament, prevent war through collective security, seek diplomatic solutions to conflicts, and promote the general welfare among the nations. Both Germany and Russia were excluded, however, and the United States refused to ratify the agreement. Some nonsocialist Norwegian political leaders were skeptical regarding an organization that had so little support from the major players in the international community, while others were in favor of joining. The Labor Party, which was still in its revolutionary phase, regarded the league as a capitalist plot. The biggest problem for Norway was the part of the agreement that stated that member states were to cancel all trade relations with an aggressor state and otherwise support those attacked, for this was viewed as a threat to Norwegian neutrality. When Norway joined in spite of its reservations, it consistently advocated in favor of German membership, which was eventually approved in 1926, and promoted agreements among states to submit to the binding arbitration of conflicts. Among the most notable success stories of the League of Nations was the work of Fridtjof Nansen as the league’s high commissioner for refugees. He worked for the repatriation of more than 500,000 prisoners of war, more than half of whom were stranded in a Russia racked by revolution and civil war.

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He worked to resettle more than 2 million Russian civilian refugees. To deal with so many people lacking identification papers, Nansen devised the “Nansen passport,” which came to be accepted by over 50 countries. Beginning in 1925, he worked to help Armenian refugees who had been caught up in the “Armenian genocide” by the Ottoman Empire during World War I. In 1930, following Nansen’s death, the league set up the Nansen International Office for Refugees to continue his work. In 1933, it arranged to repatriate some 10,000 Armenians to Yerevan in Soviet Armenia and more than 40,000 in Syria and Lebanon. In 1938, it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for its work. While the league had some remarkable successes, it had no power of its own with which to back up its resolutions. Depending on the member states for enforcement and particularly on the Great Powers, it proved unable to prevent fascist and Nazi aggression in the 1930s. After World War II, it was replaced by the United Nations. LIBERAL LEFT PARTY. Formed on 1 March 1909, the Frisinnede Venstre answered to needs similar to those that had been met by the United Party (Samlingspartiet) six years before. Its prime mover was Christian Michelsen, and it drew away a large part of the less radical members of the Liberal Party. Politically quite successful during the 1910s and 1920s, it cooperated closely with the Conservative Party. In 1933, it changed its name to the Liberal People’s Party (Frisinnede Folkeparti) but received little support and was formally discontinued in 1945. LIBERAL PARTY. Venstre, Norway’s Liberal Party, was formed in early 1884 during the political struggle that, under the leadership of Johan Sverdrup, led to the introduction of parliamentarism through the impeachment of the sitting cabinet. After King Oscar II repeatedly refused to sign into law a bill that obligated his cabinet members to attend parliamentary meetings and that had been passed three times by the Storting (Parliament) in 1873, 1876, and 1879, a vote in the Storting on 9 June 1880 simply declared that the bill was to be considered law. During the extraordinary political turmoil that took place both before and after the vote on 9 June, Venstreforeninger (Liberal associations) were formed all over Norway, and in early 1883, Sverdrup’s supporters in the Storting got together and formed their own Venstreforening. This did not mean that a national party had been organized, however, as the event should properly be considered the organization of a caucus. The national party was formed in late January 1884, when representatives for the local organizations met in Christiania (Oslo), and Sverdrup was selected as its first leader. There was a schism in the party starting in 1888, when it

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split into the Moderate Liberal Party (Moderate Venstre) and the Pure Liberal Party (Rene Venstre). Sverdrup continued as the leader of the former, while Johannes Steen was the leading light in the latter. In the late 1800s, Venstre wanted to extend the right to vote to all men, and this goal was achieved in 1898. In order to reduce the power of the embedsmann (public official) class, it successfully introduced jury trials in 1887. Somewhat in opposition to the State Church, it promoted full freedom of religion. The party also wanted to discontinue the union with Sweden, which had been in place since 1814, and this goal was reached in 1905. Venstre was also the party that spoke in favor of women’s rights, including the right to vote, which was granted in 1913. In general, in its earlier years Venstre represented the interests of farmers, cottagers (husmenn), day laborers and other workers, and the proponents of Nynorsk (New Norwegian), the written form of Norwegian first championed by the writers Ivar Aasen, Aasmund Olafsson Vinje, and Arne Garborg. Venstre was thus the party of the poor and the downtrodden in their struggle against the powerful and the rich. The party enjoyed significant success and formed a number of governments, supplying the prime minister six times. For all intents and purposes, Norway had a two-party system during the early years of Venstre. The formation and growth of the Labor Party, organized in 1887, cut heavily into the support for Venstre, which received an absolute majority in the Storting for the last time in the 1915 parliamentary election. The Agrarian Party (Bandepartiet), later renamed the Center Party, was formed in 1920 and took away many of the Liberal Party’s rural voters. When the Christian Democratic Party was established in 1933, many low-church people for whom Venstre had been the natural home (lowchurch people relied more on lay preachers than on State Church ministers, whose economic and political interests coincided with those of the rest of the embedsmann class) voted Christian Democratic rather than Liberal. After the formation of these two parties, Venstre has had cabinet members only through its participation in coalition governments. In the five parliamentary elections held in the 1950s and 1960s, Venstre averaged 9.7 percent of the popular vote and held an average of 15 seats in the Storting. A low point in its history came in 1972, however, when the struggle over Norwegian membership in the European Community (EC), later renamed the European Union, caused the party to split yet again. The dissenters, favoring EC membership, formed a new party named the New Left People’s Party, which was renamed Det Liberale Folkeparti (the Liberal People’s Party) in 1980. Both the party leader, Helge Seip, and 9 of its 13 representatives in the Storting left Venstre at the split in 1972, and it got only 2 seats in the 1973 parliamentary election (the breakaway party received 1 seat). The two parties merged in 1988, but the damage to Venstre was largely done, and between 1985 and 1993, it held no seats in the Storting. Lars

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Sponheim, the colorful head of Venstre from 1996 to 2009, became its lone member of parliament in 1993, and its representation increased to six in 1997. That number decreased to 2 in 2001, Sponheim and Odd Einar Dørum, but in 2005, Venstre recovered some of its pre-1972 position, as it got 5.9 percent of the popular vote and received 10 seats in the Storting. The 2009 election was a catastrophe for the Liberal Party, as it lost eight of its 10 seats, including that of its party leader, Lars Sponheim. One of the two surviving representatives, Trine Skei Grande, was elected the new leader of the party in April 2010. Its parliamentary vote increased to 5.2 percent in the 2013 elections, and the Liberal Party agreed to join a coalition with the Conservative and Progressive Parties to support the new Center-Right government of Erna Solberg. Following the 2017 elections, the Liberal Party joined the second Solberg government with three members appointed to cabinet posts, including Grande who became minister of culture. Both socially liberal and centrist, the core values of the contemporary Venstre are civil liberties, environmental protection, and the interests of small business. The party wants Norwegian society to be less complex, more diverse, and more hospitable to a broader range of human self-realization. Its traditional distrust of big business has diminished over time as it has focused more on environmental concerns, presenting itself as the “green” alternative. The decision to join the Center-Right coalition government of Erna Solberg following the 2017 elections suggests a growing emphasis on traditional social liberalism as well. LIE, JONAS LAURITZ IDEMIL (1833–1908). Norwegian novelist, playwright, and poet. He is considered to be one of “de fire store” (the Four Greats) of Norwegian literature, along with Henrik Ibsen, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, and Alexander Kielland. Born in Hokksund, Øvre Eiker, he lived in Tromsø until age 11. He attended the Bergen Cathedral School and studied law at the university in Christiania (Oslo). Lie wrote 20 novels as well as several poems and plays. His best-known novel, Familien på Gilje (1883; The Family at Gilje), depicts the ordinary life of a family of state officials and is considered an early representation of the “Modern Breakthrough” in European literature. His grandson and namesake, Jonas Lie (1899–1945), was a member of Vidkun Quisling’s Norwegian National Socialist Party (Nasjonal Samling; NS) and minister of police in German-occupied Norway from 1941 to 1945. LIE, TRYGVE (1896–1968). Norwegian politician and diplomat. Born in Oslo on 16 July 1896 as the son of a carpenter, Lie studied law at the University of Oslo, receiving his degree in 1919. He had joined the Labor Party six years earlier and quickly rose in the ranks, serving as its national

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secretary and as one of its representatives to the Storting (Parliament). In 1935, he was named minister of justice in the Labor government formed by Johan Nygaardsvold, and he subsequently served in other cabinet posts, including that of minister of foreign affairs in the Norwegian exile government in Great Britain during World War II. He also held cabinet posts in the early 1960s. The leader of the Norwegian delegation to both the United Nations (UN) conference in San Francisco in 1946 and the General Assembly of the UN in the same year, Lie was chosen as the first secretary general of the UN, serving until 1952. During the 1947–48 conflict in Palestine, he supported the founding of the state of Israel, but he failed to find a diplomatic solution to the Berlin blockade of 1948–49. His support for UN intervention in the conflict on the Korean Peninsula in 1950 earned him the enmity of the Soviet Union, and he was succeeded by Dag Hammarskjöld in 1953. LINDBÆK, LISE (1905–1961). Norwegian author and Norway’s first female war correspondent. Born Elise Aubert Lindbæk in Copenhagen on 1 January 1905, the love of journalism seems to have been imprinted in her at an early age. Her father, Johannes Lindbæk, was a war correspondent during World War I and a specialist in church history. Her mother, Sofie Aubert, was an educator and author. Lise grew up in Copenhagen and Roskilde, but after her father’s death in 1919, the family moved to Kristiania (Oslo), where Lise graduated from Frogner Gynmas in 1922. She pursued study in classical literature and archeology and traveled to Italy and Greece where she met a Swedish archeologist and writer, Sanfrid (Sasha) Neander-Nilsson. They were married in 1927, the same year Lise earned her master’s degree in archeology. They had a daughter, Jannike (Janka), in 1929, but the marriage ended over personal as well as political differences. As a result of several visits to Germany, Lise had developed strong anti-fascist feelings, while her husband sympathized with Hitler and the Nazis. With the support of historian Halvdan Koht, Lindbæk received a research grant from the Fridtjof Nansen Foundation to write a dissertation on the work of the League of Nations. With a young daughter in tow, Lindbæk moved to Geneva in 1933, where she met Max Hodann, an exiled German physician, socialist, and controversial sex educator. As kindred spirits, they traveled to Palestine and engaged in the issue of Jewish resettlement from Europe. Traveling extensively throughout the region, they published Jødene vender hjem (The Jews Return Home) in 1935. Noting the influx of Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany, Lindbæk pointed out that the Palestinians were wondering how long it would be before they became a minority in their own country. Around the same time, she and Max settled in Norway. However, with the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, Lise couldn’t resist the call to action. Her anti-fascist political persuasion gave her access to the

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republican ranks, where she met, worked, and drank with some of the leading writer–war correspondents of the day, including Ernest Hemingway, Nordahl Grieg, John Dos Passos, Arthur Koestler, and Martin Andersen Nexø, among others. Lindbæk’s reporting of the fighting at the bridge at Jarama in February 1937 was shared with her colleague Ernest Hemingway, who was writing For Whom the Bell Tolls at the time and incorporated accounts of the battle into his novel. Her stories were sent back to Norway and published in Oslo’s liberal newspaper, Dagbladet. As a result of her reporting during the fighting in Spain, she gained intimate access to the anti-Franco forces, especially the Thälmann Brigade, international volunteers fighting for the republican government. In 1938, she published Bataljon Thälmann, an eyewitness history of the 11th International Brigade. Lindbæk was in Paris when Germany invaded Norway on 9 April 1940. With the subsequent invasion of France, she fled to Casablanca and Lisbon before sailing for the United States, where she spent the rest of the war years. Arriving in New York in August, 1941, she made her way to the offices of the Norwegian-language newspaper Nordisk Tidende (The Nordic Times) and introduced herself to its colorful editor, Carl Søyland. Writing for Nordisk Tidende, she also found time to compile and edit a book on the wartime contributions of the Norwegian merchant marine and, in 1943, published Tusen norske skip (One Thousand Norwegian Ships). The book’s success brought her speaking engagements around the country, and she was especially well received in Norwegian America. Returning to Norway after the war, Lindbæk went on a lecture tour, her book and her time in America being of special interest to Norwegians. She continued to work as a freelance writer, including four years as a journalist for the United Nations. Always a free spirit and living the life of a wandering journalist, constantly looking for the next story and without any permanent income, Lise’s unsettled life finally caught up with her. Something built up inside her. Walking along the seashore in Kiel, Germany, on 13 March 1961, she quietly slipped into the cold waters of the Baltic, an apparent suicide. LITERATURE. Norway’s earliest literature consists of runic inscriptions made on stone during the Viking age as well as alliterative poetry that was mostly orally transmitted and is known in writing only from later Icelandic manuscripts. The Icelandic sagas of the 13th century also indicate that there was a Norwegian oral prose tradition that continued among the Norwegian settlers in Iceland. As Christianity arrived in Norway, missionary monks and priests brought with them both the writing technology and the alphabet that enabled large-scale creation of texts. During the High Middle Ages, there were writing traditions associated both with the royal court and the residences of religious leaders; for example, King Sverre Sigurdsson arranged

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to have a saga of his life composed. The finest literary text from medieval Norway is a handbook for kings called Konungs skuggsjå (The King’s Mirror), which may have been composed around 1250 and seems to have influenced the legislative work of Magnus VI Lagabøte. With the arrival of the Black Death, however, Norway lost so much of its population that the native literary tradition dwindled to almost nothing. The medieval representatives of the church used Latin as a medium of writing, but this changed with the coming of the Lutheran Reformation. Lutheranism privileges the individual’s relationship with God, and reading sacred scripture is a primary means by which that relationship can be developed. The New Testament was translated into Danish as early as 1524, and the entire Bible was available in Danish by 1550. The Danish Bible translation was also used in Norway, which had entered into the Kalmar Union with Denmark in 1397. Many Lutheran ministers studied abroad and brought intellectual impulses with them when they returned home. Thus such general European movements as the Renaissance and humanism came to play a role in Norway as well, where there was a resurgence of interest in the literature of the Viking period as well as an outpouring of topographical descriptions. During the Baroque period, Norway had a great poet in Petter Dass (1647–1707), who wrote within a general European aesthetic. By the time of the Enlightenment figure Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754), there were established conduits of artistic and literary communication between Norway and the rest of Europe; however, the flow was generally northward rather than the opposite way. The influence of neoclassicism can be observed in Johan Herman Wessel’s comedy Kierlighed uden Strømper (1772; Love without Stockings). The northward migration of ideas is even more clearly visible during the period in literary and intellectual history that is referred to as national romanticism. Such figures as Charles-Louis de Secondat Montesquieu (1689–1755), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–78), and Albrecht von Haller (1708–77) laid the groundwork for the ideas and attitudes that inform this movement. Some of these ideas, further developed by the German philosophers Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762–1814) and Friedrich Schelling (1775–1854), made it possible to regard the literary artist as a kind of prophet who communicated with the divine found in nature. Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803) emphasized both the role of the nation and of language and its connection to this divine spirit, thus giving romanticism a national slant. Although somewhat belatedly, a number of Norwegian writers were affected by national romanticism’s emphasis on nature, the rural population, and the nation’s glorious past. An early example is a story by Maurits Hansen (1794–1842) titled “Luren” (1819; The Shepherd’s Horn), in which the narrator tells about a visit to a Norwegian farm family in the interior of

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the country. The farmer, named Thor, is said to be a direct descendant of the ancient king Harald Fairhair, and special mention is made of his expressive dialect. Perhaps the greatest exponent of the national romantic theme was Henrik Wergeland, whose poetic depictions of nature gave a musical lyricism to the Norwegian identity. His political engagement included attempts to purge Norwegian culture of Danish influence in favor of national Norwegian themes. He was also a strong advocate of religious tolerance, advocating for the elimination of the constitutional prohibition of Jewish immigration to Norway. A rival to Wergeland over the issue of Danish versus Norwegian cultural influences, the poet Johan Sebastian Welhaven also wrote exquisite nature poetry as well as folklore poems. The search for a unique Norwegian cultural norm inspired the self-taught linguist Ivar Aasen to singlehandedly create a separate written form of Norwegian called Nynorsk (New Norwegian), based on the dialects spoken in western Norway. A number of both men and women, led by Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe, collected, edited, and published folktales, legends, and ballads. In the early part of his career, Henrik Ibsen wrote plays that used material from history and folklore, as did his later drama Peer Gynt (1867; tr. 1892), which satirizes the preoccupations of the national romantics. The period of national romanticism was succeeded by realism, which also came from outside of Norway, particularly France. The term realism in literary studies denotes a literary style that tries to describe life as it is, without the idealization and subjectivity of the romantics. Here it also refers to Norwegian prose and drama written from around 1855 through the 1880s, but particularly in the 1870s. Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson wrote peasant stories and novels with a contemporary setting, while Camilla Collett’s seminal novel, Amtmandens Døttre (1854–55; tr. The District Governor’s Daughters, 1992), inaugurated feminist literature in Norway. Influenced by the Danish critic Georg Brandes (1842–1927), who wanted modern literature to discuss current issues, Ibsen wrote a number of plays critical of contemporary culture. The novelist Jonas Lie (1833–1908) depicted family life, business affairs, and other current topics. Lie’s colleague Alexander L. Kielland (1849–1906) was the master satirist of his generation. Implicit in the realist literary program was the sense that advocacy of social causes was efficacious, but when realism turns toward naturalism, such optimism largely disappears. Influenced by the ideas of the French critic Charles-Augustin Sainte-Beuve (1804–69), the novelist Émile Zola (1840–1902), and natural science as practiced by Charles Darwin (1809–92), the naturalists adhered to the doctrine of determinism. Truth was to be found in nature rather than, as for the romantics, in some kind of transcendental reality, and the task of the naturalist writer was to imitate the scientist as far as possible. Stories were told in great detail, almost approaching that of a lab

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report, as in the works of Amalie Skram (1846–1905). Her male colleague Arne Garborg (1851–1924) similarly offers numerous details in his naturalist works, for example, the novel Hjaa ho Mor (1890; At Home with Mother), which is partly based on the life of his wife, Hulda. In other works, Garborg further explored contemporary sex roles. Around 1890, Norwegian literature turned to a greater concern with the individual and with human consciousness; the early works of Knut Hamsun (1859–52) are its best example of this type of writing. Norwegian literature in the first half of the 20th century is marked by the influence of Karl Marx (1818–83) and Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), as well as by the experience of the two world wars. The change in social conditions brought about by World War I was chronicled in the novel Lillelord (1955; tr. 1982) by Johan Borgen (1902–1879), the first volume of a trilogy that concludes during World War II. Wartime profiteering is the theme of the play Vår ære og vår makt (1935; tr. Our Power and Our Glory, 1971), by the poet and dramatist Nordahl Grieg (1902–43). Marxism and Freudianism left their mark on the novelists Aksel Sandemose (1899–1965) and Sigurd Hoel (1890–1960); the latter probed the causes of Nazism in his novel Møte ved milepelen (1947; tr. Meeting at the Milestone, 1951). The effects of World War II can be observed with particular poignancy in the work of novelist and playwright Jens Bjørneboe (1920–76), who wrote about medical experiments performed by Nazi doctors on concentration camp prisoners and Norway’s treatment of Nazi wartime collaborators at the close of the war. Postwar Norwegian literature reflects people’s concern about the realities of the Cold War and the tension between the superpowers. The novelists Tor Obrestad (1938–), Espen Haavardsholm (1945–), and Dag Solstad (1941–) were influenced by Maoism in the 1960s and wrote with the hope of furthering the cause the MarxistLeninist revolution. In the 1980s, they tried to come to terms with their youthful selves. Existential questions were likewise of interest, as in the work of the novelist Alfred Hauge (1915–86). Many writers have also shown an interest in metafiction, fabulation, and other aspects of literary postmodernism, foremost among them Kjartan Fløgstad (1944–) and Jan Kjærstad (1953–). Fløgstad has written a series of novels that use antirealist techniques to depict the process of industrialization in western Norway, starting with Dalen Portland (1977; tr. Dollar Road, 1989). Kjærstad’s novel Forføreren (1993; tr. The Seducer, 2003) is the first volume in a trilogy about a television personality. The author and playwright Jon Fosse has developed an international reputation as a dramatist that is second only to Henrik Ibsen. His plays, such as Eg er vinden (2007; I am the Wind) and Draum om hausten (1999; Dream of Autumn) have received international praise. Nordic crime fiction has become widely popular in the 21st century, with several Norwegian authors of the genre. Among the most notable are Karin Fossum, Jo Nesbø, Unni Lindell, Gunnar Staalesen, Jørn

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Lier Holst, Anne Holt, and Kjell Ola Dahl. See also HOEM, EDVARD (1949–); RØLVAAG, OLE EDEVART (1876–1931); UNDSET, SIGRID (1882–1949); VINJE, AASMUND OLAFSSON (1818–1870); WERGELAND, NICOLAI (1780–1848). LOCAL GOVERNMENT LAWS. Passed by the Storting (Parliament) in 1837, the local government laws (jormannsskapslovene) constitute a cornerstone in the development of Norwegian democracy. Under the absolute monarchy as well as for the first couple of decades after 1814, government on the local level had been the province of members of the embedsmann (public official) class. The local government laws, supported by the rural members of the Storting under the leadership of Ole Gabriel Ueland, provided that locally elected representatives should make local government decisions. This system of local governance established an important training ground for citizen legislators on all levels, including the national one, and enabled especially rural dwellers with little access to advanced education an opportunity to gain experience in democratic life. LOFTHUS, KRISTIAN JENSSØN (1750–1797). Farmer and rebel. The prime mover behind Norway’s largest peasant rebellion during its union with Denmark, Lofthus was christened on 15 May 1750 and inherited his father’s farm in the district of Vestre Moland near Lillesand. By personal experience, he knew how badly the merchants in cities like Arendal and Kristiansand exploited the farmers, who by law were forced to trade only with specific merchants to whom they were usually indebted. He was also aware that the various public officials in the area often charged the farmers higher fees than what they were entitled to for various services. In a long tradition of bringing such grievances to the attention of the king in Copenhagen, Lofthus traveled there in 1787 and met with the crown prince. Because he was asked to bring proof of his accusations, he went back home and started meeting with groups of farmers at a time, obtaining their signatures on letters of complaint. Such assemblies were illegal, so Lofthus was ultimately arrested in spite of the huge gatherings of farmers, at one time 800, that came to his assistance. Because the authorities were afraid of the consequences if he were to be found guilty of rebellion and punished, his case was postponed until 1792, when the anger among the farmers had subsided. Lofthus was sentenced to life imprisonment, kept in chains, and died at the fortress of Akershus in 1797. LØVLAND, JØRGEN GUNNARSSON (1848–1922). Norwegian politician and newspaper editor. Born in Evje, Setesdal, Aust-Agder County, on 3 February 1848, Løvland was the son of a farmer and completed the basic

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course for teachers in 1865. After working as a teacher and newspaper editor in Kristiansand until 1885, he was elected a Liberal Party member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1886–88, 1892–97, and 1913–15. From 1898 to 1903, he was minister of public works under Johannes Steen and Otto Albert Blehr and was assigned to the portion of the government located in Stockholm from 1899 to 1900. In 1905, he was for a time the Norwegian prime minister in Stockholm under Christian Michelsen, and he also served as Michelsen’s minister of foreign affairs from 1905 to 1907. He was prime minister and head of the Norwegian government from 1907 to 1908. Between 1915 and 1920, he served as minister of ecclesiastical affairs in Gunnar Knudsen’s second government. Løvland had a central position during the dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905, when he was part of the delegation that negotiated the final settlement. While prime minister in 1907, he oversaw the signing of the treaty in which Norway’s territorial integrity was guaranteed by Great Britain, France, Germany, and Russia. Løvland resigned in 1908 because he felt that a plurality of the members of the Storting did not have full confidence in him. LUND, KRISTIN (1958–). Major general in the Norwegian armed forces, head of mission and chief of staff of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO). Born 16 May 1958, Lund joined the Norwegian army in 1979 and has had a distinguished military career. She is the first female officer in the Norwegian army to be promoted to the rank of major general and was the first woman ever to serve as force commander in a United Nations peacekeeping operation when she was appointed to head the Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus in 2014. Following her promotion to major general in 2009, Lund was appointed as chief of staff of the Norwegian Home Guard. Previously, she held various assignments with UN forces in Lebanon and Saudi Arabia, and at the headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) International Assistance Force in Afghanistan. Major General Lund graduated from the Norwegian Defence University College and holds a master of strategic sciences degree from the United States Army War College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. On 6 October 2017, Lund was appointed head of mission and chief of staff of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization by UN secretary general Antonio Guterres. UNTSO consists of personnel from 25 different nations with a total of 142 observers. LYKKE, IVAR (1872–1949). Norwegian politician. Born in Trondheim on 9 January 1872 to the merchant Peder Tangen Lykke, Lykke studied business and joined his grandfather’s grocery firm in 1892, assuming ownership of it in 1910. Active in local politics, he represented the Conservative Party on

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the Trondheim city council from 1905 to 1936. He was elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1916 and served as the president of the Storting at times during the 1920s, starting in 1919. Lykke was party leader for the Conservatives from 1923 to 1926 and served as prime minister from 1926 to 1928, while also being in charge of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. This was a minority coalition government made up of the Conservative Party and the Liberal Left Party, which was positioned in between the Conservatives and the Liberal Party in the political landscape. This government emphasized cost cutting and was quite unpopular, especially among workers, because it pushed through a series of laws that were designed to prevent strikes, one of which gave special protection to scabs. The Conservatives therefore lost 24 seats in the 1927 election. Lykke is fondly remembered for having suggested the name “Trondheim” during the battle that raged from 1928 to 1930 over what the city formerly known as Nidaros and Trondhjem was to be named. During the summer of 1940, he had the misfortune of being one of the representatives from the Storting that negotiated with the German occupiers and eventually requested of King Haakon VII that he should abdicate the throne. After World War II was over, he was heavily criticized for his actions during the negotiations. LYNG, JOHN DANIEL FURSTENBERG (1905–1978). Norwegian politician. Born in Trondheim on 22 August 1905, Lyng studied law and held a number of important administrative appointments. During World War II, he spent time first in Stockholm and then in London, where he was associated with the Ministry of Justice of the Norwegian government-in-exile. Having first affiliated with the Liberal Left Party, he joined the Conservative Party in 1945, was elected to the Storting (Parliament) several times, and served as the leader of his party’s caucus from 1958 to 1965. A natural coalition builder, he became the prime minister in the Center-Right coalition that replaced Einar Gerhardsen’s third government in 1963, following a noconfidence vote in which the coalition parties were joined by the two representatives of the Socialist People’s Party. Lyng’s government lasted for only about four weeks, after which it was succeeded by Einar Gerhardsen’s fourth government, but it showed that the nonsocialist parties in the Storting were capable of setting their individual differences aside and working together as a viable nonsocialist alternative. Lyng’s government, Norway’s first nonsocialist government after World War II, thus prepared the ground for the coalition government headed by Per Borten that took over in 1965. Lyng served as minister of foreign affairs in this government from 1965 to 1970.

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LYSBAKKEN, AUDUN (1977–). Norwegian politician, head of party, and parliamentary leader of the Socialist Left Party (SV). Born 30 September 1977, Lysbakken was first elected to the Norwegian Storting (Parliament) from Hordaland County in 2001 after having served as a member of the Bergen city council in 1999–2000. In October 2009, shortly after being elected to the Storting for a second time, he was appointed minister of children, equality and social inclusion in Jens Stoltenberg’s second government. He resigned that position in 2012 following charges that he had violated internal rules when he failed to recuse himself in financial matters under his jurisdiction as minister. In 2012, Lysbakken was chosen as head of SV and is considered to be on the left wing of the party ideologically.

M MAGNUS VI LAGABØTE (1238–1280). Norwegian king and lawgiver. Born on 1 May 1238, Magnus was the son of King Haakon IV Haakonsson (1204–63) and great-grandson of Sverre Sigurdsson. Also known as Magnus the Lawmender. He was named king in 1257, ruling with his father, who on his deathbed certified that Magnus was his only living son, and Magnus was crowned in 1263. Magnus was politically astute and focused both on diplomatic activity and consolidating his domestic power, entering into an agreement with the Scots by which the Isle of Man and the Hebrides were sold to Scotland while the Orkneys and Shetland were confirmed as Norwegian possessions. In 1269, he made a pact with England that guaranteed mutual free trade. In Norwegian history, Magnus is remembered mostly for his legal reforms. Like other European countries, Norway had a legal system that emphasized regional differences within the country. Each of the major regional ting (assemblies), Eidsivating, Frostating, and Gulating, had its own code of law. At first, Magnus worked to have each of these codes revised and improved, but in 1274, all three assemblies voted to accept a common code proposed by the king. A corresponding code for the cities appeared in 1276. MANUS, MAXIMO (MAX) GUILLERMO (1914–1996). Norwegian resistance fighter born 9 December 1914 in Bergen. His father changed the family name from Magnussen to Manus. Max grew up in the southern suburbs of Oslo and lived the life of a vagabond until he enlisted as a Norwegian volunteer in the Finnish army during the Winter War in 1939. At the conclusion of the fighting in Finland, he returned to Norway on the day of the German invasion, 9 April 1940. With several other Norwegian and Swedish volunteers led by Gösta Benckert, Manus fought against the German invaders in the area around Kongsvinger. With the end of the fighting and the beginning of the occupation in early June, Manus became involved with the distribution of illegal newspapers until he was arrested by the Gestapo in January 1941. Attempting to escape by throwing himself out of a secondstory window, Manus was hospitalized but escaped with the aid of hospital personnel and the Norwegian underground. By March 1943, he had made his 193

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way to Britain where he joined the Kompani Linge, a Norwegian resistance group training for sabotage action in Norway. He became a member of the so-called Oslo Gang led by Gunnar Sønsteby and participated in several sabotage actions until the end of the war. His best-known act of sabotage was the 16 January 1945 sinking of the German transport ship DS Donau, notorious as the ship that carried the deported Jews from Oslo to Germany in November 1942. In the weeks following the end of the war, Manus served as the personal guard to King Haakon VII and the royal family during public events. He eventually helped to establish a small electronics company selling office machines, and he appeared often on Norwegian television as an acknowledged war hero and popular personality. A successful feature film about his wartime exploits was released in 2008. See also CINEMA; WORLD WAR II. MARSHALL PLAN (EUROPEAN RECOVERY PROGRAM). An American program of economic assistance to help Western European countries rebuild their economies and infrastructure after the devastation of World War II. A four-year program initiated by American secretary of state George Marshall in 1948, it was intended to rebuild and modernize European industry, rebuild infrastructure, remove trade barriers, and serve as a bulwark against expansive communism. Over a period of four years, $17 million (approximately $195 billion in 2018 currency) was provided for economic and technical assistance. The greatest amount of aid was provided to Great Britain and France ($3 billion and $2 billion, respectively). Norway received aid totaling $372 million over the four-year period. MEDIA. For a country with a relatively small population, Norway is highly literate, with an active and historically important media culture. The first newspaper published in Norway was Norske intelligenz-seddeler in Christiania (Oslo), a weekly information and advertising paper that first appeared in May 1763. Several similar regional papers were subsequently established in Bergen, Christiansand, and Trondheim. The first Norwegian daily, featuring political news, literary reviews, and commercial ads, was Morgenbladet, established in Christiania in 1819 by Niels Wulfsberg (1775–1852), an editor and book publisher. By the decade of the 1830s, with the rise of economic liberalism and the elimination of guilds, book printers found it advantageous to also establish newspapers. Local papers, such as the Christiansands-Posten, emerged, which was the first newspaper in Norway regularly to feature editorials. Technological advances in newspaper production as a result of the industrial revolution in Scandinavia, along with an enlivened political culture and the growth of political parties, further encouraged the growth of newspapers after mid-century. In 1860, the Christiania Adresseblad, which in

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1861 changed its name to Aftenposten, was established by Christian Schibsted. Initially a nonpolitical publication, when his son Amandus Schibsted became its editor in 1879, Aftenposten represented decidedly conservative editorial positions but combined them with a strong policy of investigative journalism. The newspaper Dagbladet, founded in 1869 by Hagbard Berner, an outspoken liberal reformer, became the principal organ of the Liberal Party. Initially a weekly, the original Verdens Gang was established in 1868 as a radical advocate for political and cultural enlightenment. (The newspaper published in Norway today as VG [Verdens Gang], established in May 1945, is unrelated to the earlier Verdens Gang, except in name.) Several significant regional papers associated with political movements or parties were established at the end of the 19th century. These included Bergens Tidende (1868), Tønsberg Blad (1870), Varden (1874), Fædrelandsvennen (1875), Sunnmørsposten (1882), and Lofotposten (1896). In 1849, the labor movement organized by Marcus Thrane (1817–90) published Arbeiderforeningernes Blad (the Labor Associations’ Paper) in support of its reform agenda. Although Thrane’s movement was considered dangerously radical and was put down in 1851, by the 1880s, socialist ideals and radical reform reemerged as a political force in Norway, this time finding more fertile ground. In 1884, Christian Holtermann Knudsen, head of the Typographers Union and a dedicated socialist, established Vort Arbeide (Our Labor) and, after helping to form the Social-Democratic Association, renamed his paper Social-Demokraten in 1886. With the founding of the Norwegian Labor Party in 1887, Social-Demokraten became its official organ. In 1923, the name of the paper was changed to Arbeiderbladet (the Labor Paper), a name it would hold until 1991 when the Labor Party turned control of the newspaper over to the organization of Labor newspapers, Arbeiderpresse (the Labor Press). Ownership of the paper was subsequently turned over to a private foundation and renamed Dagsavisen (the Daily News), although it retained its social-democratic editorial policy independent of the Labor Party. While Norwegian newspapers represent a wide range of views and opinions, three companies dominate the media landscape: Schibsted Media Group, Amedia AS, and Polaris Media. Weekly publications in Norway are primarily magazines that feature articles, heartwarming features, interviews with celebrities, and extensive photojournalism. In the years 1835 to 1891, this field was dominated by SkillingMagazine, but in the 20th century, several popular specialty and family magazines emerged. Among these are Allers, Hjemmet, Familie-Journal, Kvinner og Klær, and Norsk Ukeblad. In the 1980s, Se og Hør (See and Hear), with a focus on the international jet set, entertainment figures, and the Norwegian celebrity culture, regularly prints around 2 million copies per week.

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About 220 specialty magazines are published monthly or quarterly in Norway by various organizations, including those that have religious, scholarly, humanitarian, or political interests. The automotive magazine Motor prints over 400,000 copies monthly. Samtiden, founded in 1890, and Syn og Segn, established in 1894, are two major cultural and intellectual publications that have held their popularity since their founding in the late 19th century. Founded after World War II, Vinduet (1947; The Window) and Nytt Norsk Tidsskrift (1991; New Norwegian Journal) have followed in the tradition of providing strong cultural content to the broad public. There are both electronic and print media producing material for the Sami in Norway. Started in 1991, NRK Sapmi produces radio and television programming as well as internet content in Sami and Norwegian. NRK Sapmi has produced a wide variety of programs, including ones for children, from its main offices in Karasjok as well as local offices in Tromsø, Tana, Kautokeino, Snåsa, Tysfjord, Skånland, and Manndalen. The only daily newspaper published in Sami is Ávvir, begun in 2007 with the merger of Min Áigi and Áššu. A daily Norwegian-language Sami newspaper, Ságat, was first published in Vadsø in 1956 but has had its editorial offices in Lakselv since 1981. A Christian Sami-language newspaper, Nuorttanaste, continues to publish since it was first established in 1898. More recent is the magazine Š, published five times a year and sent free of charge to all schoolchildren in the eighth grade and above with Sami as a subject. Prior to the establishment of television in Norway, radio served as the most important media outlet in the country, politically and culturally. Unlike newspapers, radio had the advantage of reaching large segments of the population at the same time with the same message. As such, it served to break down regional differences and, not least, influence the numerous dialects extant in Norway. Only five years after the establishment of the first radio station in the United States (KDKA Pittsburgh), the first regular radio broadcast in Norway was made by a private broadcasting company, Krinkastingselskapet A/S (the Broadcasting Company Inc.) on 1 April 1925. It was a small 500-watt station authorized by the Norwegian Ministry of Commerce to broadcast in the Oslo area. Broadcasting concessions were also granted for Rjukan in Telemark County, Fredrikstad, Bergen, Tromsø, and Ålesund. As of 1 January 1933, the Norwegian Storting established a broadcasting monopoly for Norsk Rikskringkasting (NRK) for all “music, the spoken word, and pictorial matters.” By the end of the decade, transmitters had been installed throughout the country so that everyone could receive the radio signals. FM broadcasting was added and reached the entire country by the end of the 1960s. Because of the mountainous terrain of the country, it proved to be an expensive and time-consuming endeavor supported by state subsidies and listener license fees. As a result of the cost of FM broadcasting, the Norwegian government made the decision to eliminate FM broadcasting

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and switch all national broadcasting to digital audio broadcasting (DAB). The elimination of national broadcasts on the FM band was largely completed by the end of 2018, but local stations can continue to use the FM band until 2022. Developments in preparation for television broadcasting, building on much of the same technology as FM broadcasting, were begun in 1954, with regular television broadcasting opening officially in 1960. The NRK broadcasting monopoly slowly diminished and eventually dissolved with the introduction of cable television in 1982 and the expansion of regional channels and satellite television in 1986. In 1992, a second national free-to-air channel (TV2) was launched with great fanfare as a commercial endeavor. NRK remains a commercial-free network. Cable and satellite television have opened the Norwegian market to scores of channels from around the world, many broadcasting in English, French, or German. English-language channels dominate. Social media in Norway has grown from being a marginal phenomenon for a select few to being a fully established, if not completely accepted, media for the masses. The expansion in Norway dates largely from the availability of Facebook after 2007, but it is also built on the ubiquitous mobile phone and the development of so-called smartphones. Even before the existence of the term social media, SMS-based messages were available as text on Norwegian television sets. Two Norwegian social network services predated Facebook: Blink, a Dagbladet-sponsored discussion platform, and Nettby (Web City), an internet-based community owned by VG (Verdens Gang). Both eventually lost subscribers to Facebook and ceased operations as Norwegians joined the worldwide internet social networks. See also LANGUAGE. MICHELSEN, CHRISTIAN (1857–1925). Norwegian statesman. Peter Christian Hersleb Kjerschow Michelsen was born in Bergen on 15 March 1857 and was educated as a lawyer, a profession that he practiced while acquiring a significant merchant fleet. Involved in local politics, he became the mayor of Bergen and joined the Liberal Party. Elected to the Storting (Parliament) in 1892, he soon became central to the debate about establishing a Norwegian consular service separate from that of Sweden and became the head of the committee that studied this issue. His consular service bill was passed by the Storting on 10 June 1892, but King Oscar II refused to sign it, which precipitated a crisis that had the potential to lead to war between the two countries. Withdrawing from active national political life for a while, Michelsen wanted to create a centrist alternative to both the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party. Called the United Party and appearing at the parliamentary elections in 1903, it consisted of moderate members of the Liberal

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Party and the Conservative Party and was opposed to both the socially radical wing of the Liberal Party and the socialism represented by the Labor Party, which had been formed in 1887. Persuaded to stand for election as a United Party candidate in 1903, Michelsen won and soon became a member of the government headed by Francis Hagerup. Michelsen precipitated Hagerup’s fall as prime minister by resigning in early 1905, after which he became the head of the new government. Through his levelheadedness, sound political instincts, gregariousness, and skills as a negotiator, Michelsen was then able to successfully shepherd Norway through the final stages of the dissolution of the union with Sweden. When the consular service bill was again passed by the Storting on 18 May 1905 and presented to King Oscar II for his signature on 27 May 1905, the king declined to sign it, and the entire cabinet resigned on the spot. The king refused to accept their resignation because he knew that he would be unable to put together a new cabinet. Less than two weeks passed, and no new cabinet was formed. Then, on 7 June 1905, Michelsen announced that King Oscar II had ceased to function as king of Norway for failing to appoint a new government. Since the king had failed to do his constitutional duty to provide a government for Norway, he had abdicated as king. Since the union with Sweden was a personal union, with no king there could be no union. Therefore the union was dissolved. Michelsen’s political instincts also manifested themselves in his attitude toward the form of government Norway should have after the dissolution of the union. While personally a believer in a republican form of government, Michelsen knew that a constitutional monarchy would be more easily accepted by both the Norwegian people and the European powers. The choice of Prince Carl of Denmark, who was married to the English princess Maud, was a brilliant strategic move, as it helped secure Norway’s position in the international community. Tired of partisan squabbling, Michelsen resigned as prime minister on 23 October 1907. In 1909, he was the prime mover behind a new political party called the Liberal Left Party, which consisted of the right wing of the Liberal Party, cooperated closely with the Conservative Party, and was a significant force in Norwegian political life in the 1910s and 1920s. He left a large portion of his substantial fortune to a foundation that was to promote cooperation and harmony between peoples and cultures through scientific and intellectual inquiry. His home outside of Bergen, Gamlehaugen, was donated to the Norwegian state and serves as the royal residence when the king and queen are in Bergen. MINING. Paleolithic Norwegians mined greenschist rock (greenstone) at Bømlo in western Norway, and their Iron Age successors produced bog iron, but mining is not known from historical sources until around 1500. By the

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first half of the 17th century, actual mining was taking place, with the Kongsberg silver mine established by King Christian IV as the most outstanding example. There were also copper mines, first and foremost at Røros and elsewhere in Trøndelag and Rogaland Counties; the Røros mines have been memorialized in the novels of Johan Falkberget, while the Visnes copper mine in Rogaland County was found by a chemical spectrographic analysis of the copper by Bell Laboratories to be the source of the copper in the Statue of Liberty in New York. A total of about 20 ironworks were also in operation. The central government was heavily involved in the mining activities, particularly in the Kongsberg silver mine, which provided the metal needed for coins. Copper was also valuable with increasing prices and contributed to what was considered the country’s real wealth in the age of mercantilism. Most of the people working in the mines had to be brought in from abroad, particularly from Germany, and the language of mining in Norway became mostly German. All the mining operations needed firewood and charcoal, and in some cases the king ordered the farmers within a certain area to deliver these commodities to the mines, however they were to receive payment. The ironworks, which were usually owned by individuals and located mostly in eastern Norway, provided many work opportunities for those living close by. After the union with Denmark had come to an end in 1814 and with it the privileges given to the ironworks by the king, the works simply could not compete for long with cheaper iron from England, where coke rather than charcoal was used in its production. Times were good for the copper works, however, and the Kongsberg silver mine became a great asset in the late 1830s. While mining was still a significant part of Norway’s economy throughout the rest of the 1800s, it was clearly declining in importance. There was a significant breakthrough in Norwegian mining during the years after 1900. An open-pit iron mine was started at Bjørnevatn close to Kirkenes in eastern Finnmark County in 1907, and Kirkenes became the mine’s shipping port. There was also a major iron mine in the Dunderland Valley in the vicinity of Mo i Rana, Nordland County. Pyrites, including copper and zinc, were mined at Sulitjelma in Nordland County starting in 1888 and exported to Germany, which became a major bone of contention with Great Britain during World War I. The mines at Sulitjelma were Norway’s second-largest industrial concern. Norway also has a molybdenum mine located at Sirdal in the southwestern part of the country; it was the only mine of its kind in Europe. Other minerals and ores continue to be mined as well, including nickel and titanium.

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MODERATE LIBERAL PARTY. Founded in 1888, Moderate Venstre was Norway’s third political party. The most important issues on its agenda were religion, morality, and temperance, and the party had a distinct lowchurch flavor. For a while, Lars Oftedal was its central figure. While similar to the Conservative Party in outlook, the Moderate Liberal Party was in favor of increased Norwegian autonomy within the union with Sweden. As the Conservatives became increasingly in favor of autonomy, too, the Moderate Liberals collaborated with them, and they supported the United Party in 1903. The Moderate Liberal Party combined with the Conservative Party in 1906, and some have regarded it as a precursor to the Christian Democratic Party. MODERATE VENSTRE. See MODERATE LIBERAL PARTY. MOE, JØRGEN ENGEBRETSEN (1813–1882). Norwegian folklorist, poet, and clergyman. Born on 22 April 1813 in Hole in the area of Ringerike north of Oslo, Moe early became a close friend of Peter Christen Asbjørnsen, with whom he edited and published two collections of popular tales, Norske Folkeeventyr (Norwegian Folktales), in 1843 and 1852. For generations of Norwegians, these cultural treasures have simply been known as “Asbjørnsen and Moe.” Moe studied theology and served as a minister in the Norwegian State Church in Drammen and Christiania (Oslo), ending his career as a bishop in Kristiansand. He also published a collection of mostly religious poetry titled Digte (1849; Poems), as well as a book for children that has become a Norwegian classic of its kind, I Brønden og i Tjærnet (1851; In the Well and the Pond). Moe’s Samlede Skrifter (Collected Works) was published in two volumes in 1877. MONRAD, MARCUS JACOB (1816–1897). Norwegian philosopher and critic. Born on 19 January 1816 at Nøtterøy, Vestfold County, Monrad grew up in rural Telemark as the son of a Lutheran minister, attended Latin school in the town of Skien, and studied theology at the university in Christiania (Oslo). After study and travel in Germany and Italy, he was given a position in philosophy at his alma mater, where he became a professor in 1851. The most significant representative of right Hegelianism in Norwegian academic life, Monrad is known for his book Tankeretninger i den nyere Tid (1874; Intellectual Currents in the Recent Age), as well as works on ethics, aesthetics, and the philosophy of religion. He was also a prolific literary critic and frequent participant in public debate. Though in his youth he strongly supported the nationalist position taken by Henrik Wergeland, he later became very conservative and defended the values of aesthetic idealism against the exponents of realism, naturalism, and early modernism.

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MOWINCKEL, JOHAN LUDWIG (1870–1943). Norwegian politician. Born in Bergen on 22 October 1870, Mowinckel studied languages and business in Germany, England, and France before becoming a major shipowner in his native city. The leader of the Liberal Party in Bergen, he was elected to the city council in 1899 and served as mayor in 1902–6 and 1911–13. He was a member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1906–9, 1912–18, and after 1921. He served as the president of the Storting from 1916 to 1918 but could not serve in the government because he was not a member of the Lutheran State Church. The point in the constitution that prohibited him from serving was changed in 1919, and Mowinckel became minister of foreign affairs under Otto Albert Blehr in 1922, serving until 1923. He served as prime minister from 1924 to 1926 while also serving as the head of the Foreign Ministry and again had both positions from 1933 to 1935, when a crisis agreement between the Labor Party and the Agrarian Party allowed Johan Nygaardsvold to form a Labor government. During his first government, Mowinckel proposed holding the referendum that ended Norway’s liquor prohibition. While he was a classic principled liberalist in economic matters and preferred that the government not intervene in the economy, even during a time of crisis, Nygaardsvold’s reformist and pragmatic policies were supported by the voters. Mowinckel was, however, a capable businessman and administrator who negotiated several trade agreements and reorganized the Norwegian Foreign Service. In the late 1920s, he presided over the League of Nations, and in 1940 he served in Johan Nygaardsvold’s expanded unity government following the German invasion. MUNCH, EDVARD (1863–1944). Norwegian painter. The son of Christian Munch, born on 12 December 1863 in Ådalsbruk, in Løten, Hedmark County, Munch grew up in Christiania (Oslo) and became acquainted with death at an early age. In 1868, his mother died from tuberculosis, and in 1877, he lost his older sister, Johanne Sophie, to the same disease. The Munch household was marked by religious austerity as well as by the loss of loved ones, as Munch’s father, who died in 1889, drummed into his children a very dark pietistic variety of Christianity that emphasized the ubiquity of sin and the certainty of its punishment. When Munch started painting, he first chose the naturalist style of his teacher, Christian Krohg, but later, his subject matter became symbolistic, and his canvases and lithographs acquired the stylization and simplicity of postimpressionism. Munch’s earliest major work was a series collectively titled Livsfrisen (the Frieze of Life), which was finished around 1900. Many of Munch’s works are known and recognized all over the world. Foremost among these is Skrik (1893; Scream)

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and Madonna (five versions painted in 1894 and 1895). Munch died childless and willed a large quantity of his artistic works to the city of Oslo, where they are available to the public at the Munch Museum. See also ART. MUNCH, PETER ANDREAS (1810–1863). Norwegian historian and nation builder. Born on 15 December 1810, Munch was the son of State Church minister Edvard Storm Munch, grew up at Gjerpen, and attended Latin school in Skien, where Anton Martin Schweigaard was one of his fellow students. He earned a law degree at the university in Christiania (Oslo) in 1834 but wanted to make history his life’s work. He became a lecturer in 1837 and a professor of history at the university in Christiania in 1841. Given access to the archives at the Vatican, he produced an eight-volume history of Norway. Thoroughly familiar with the language, literature, and culture of medieval Norway, he encouraged Ivar Aasen’s dialectological research. Munch’s work was of great importance to 19th-century nation building in Norway. MUSIC. Music in Norway manifests several different genres, from classical to folk to popular rock and black metal. Norwegian musicians and composers find inspiration in the international music scene as well as traditional resources, such as folk music. Norwegian music is most at home in Norway, but occasionally it also finds an audience abroad. Archeological and literary sources tell us about music in the Viking age. A pipes of pan instrument was uncovered in the archeological excavations of the Viking city of Jorvik (York) in northern England, while runic picture stones have been found that display hornlike instruments. Several poems in the Elder Edda, including the Voluspa, tell of harp playing. An Arab visitor to 10th-century Denmark recorded that Viking singing, while pleasing to the Vikings, sounded to him as dogs howling. Church music and Gregorian chants were introduced to Norway following the conversion to Christianity in the 11th century. The medieval ballad, Draumkvedet, although recorded in the 19th century, is believed to have originated in the Middle Ages and may have been a typical folk expression of musical and poetic piety and compassion. In the 18th century, the Norwegian-born Baroque composer Johan Henrik Freithoff (1682–1767) was appointed “Extraordinary Court Violinist” by King Christian VI. In addition to his musical duties for the royal court, he also composed music for dramatic performances at Copenhagen’s Royal Theater. A contemporary German-born musician, Johan Daniel Berlin (1714–87), composed symphonies, sonatas, and dances and authored Nor-

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way’s first music primer, Musikalske Elementer (Musical Elements), in 1744. He was also one of the cofounders of the Learned “Royal Norwegian Society of Science and Letters” in Trondheim in 1760. In the early 19th century, there developed a strong interest in musical theater, which also served to introduce folk themes into the more formal classical music style. Among the most noted composers was Waldemar Thrane (1790–1828), who wrote the music for the Romantic drama Fjeldeventyret (Mountain Adventure) in 1824. A few years later, in 1831, the young violinist Ole Bull met a popular Hardanger fiddle (violin) player from the Telemark district of Norway, Torgeir (Tarjei) Augundsson (1801–72), known commonly as “Myllarguten.” As a result of this meeting and their subsequent lifelong friendship, Bull introduced Norwegian folk music elements into his own concerts around the world. The eight-string Hardanger fiddle continues to be used and remains a totally unique instrument, providing a sound unmistakably Norwegian. Four top strings are played while four strings just beneath the played strings vibrate sympathetically, giving the instrument a haunting, echo-like drone. Bull would subsequently also play an influential role in the musical development of the young Edvard Grieg, encouraging him to look to Norwegian folk melodies to find his own unique musical voice. By mid-century, Norwegian folk melodies, which had become an important element in the national romantic movement, inspired musicians and composers alike to create a unique Norwegian sound. Providing a common foundation for this development was Ludvig Mathias Lindeman (1812–87), the organist for the Oslo Cathedral. He published a collection of folk melodies for piano in 1841, which further inspired him to arrange two extensive research trips through rural Norway. The resulting publication, Ældre og nyere norske Fjeldmelodier (1853–64; Older and Newer Norwegian Mountain Melodies), appeared in 12 volumes with over 600 melodies. The decade of the 1840s also witnessed the emergence of a new musical genre in Norway, the male chorus movement. The first male chorus, Frimurernes Sangforening (the Free Masons Singers Association), was founded in Oslo in 1842. This was followed by the establishment of Den norske Studentersangforening (the Norwegian Student Singers Association) in 1845. Johan Diederich Behrens (1820–90) conducted the student chorus for 40 years while also arranging song festivals throughout the country and compiling several choral songbooks, which he published from 1845 to 1869. Another significant composer of songs for the male choruses was Halfdan Kjerulf (1815–68), best known for his melodies to the texts of Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson. The rural folk-dancing traditions in Norway, most often combined with the music of the Hardanger fiddle, varies between regions. The pols and springleik are common in eastern Norway. The dances include walking and slow

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turns and variations in rhythm that echo the energy of the dance. The rull from western Norway is danced to music with two beats per measure, combining fast clockwise pivots with slower polka-type turns in either direction. The springer and ganger, traditionally danced to the music of the Hardanger fiddle, varies greatly from region to region. The most artistic folk dance is probably the halling, a solo man’s dance combining athletic prowess and dancing skill, culminating with a hat kicked off the end of a stick held high above the dancer’s head, a move called a hallingkast. Edvard Grieg composed several pieces for the halling dance in his Lyric Pieces, as well as the accompanying music to Henrik Ibsen’s play Peer Gynt in 1875. The play premiered in Christiania (Oslo) in 1876. Perhaps the most productive Norwegian composer in the 20th century was Eivind Groven (1901–77). Born in the Telemark region of central Norway, Groven was legendary for his ability with the Hardanger fiddle and for his compositions, which ranged from folk tunes to piano concertos. Norway’s first opera company, Opera Comique, was established in Oslo in 1918 but survived only three years. Among the singers who appeared with this company was Kirsten Flagstad, later to become one of the world’s foremost Wagner interpreters and the first head of the Norwegian Opera in 1958. Among the foremost classical music performers in Norway after World War II are the pianists Eva Knardahl (1927–2006), Kjell Bækkelund (1930–2004), and Leif Ove Andsnes (1970–), as well as the violinist Arve Tellefsen (1936–) and cellist Truls Mørk (1961–). Norway has contributed to the troubadour tradition with one of the most compelling songwriters in the middle years of the 20th century. Extremely popular throughout Norway, Alf Prøysen (1914–70) wrote some of the most endearing songs the country has, especially when sung in his Hedmark dialect. Contemporary popular music generally has a broad national audience, but few performers have achieved recognition abroad. Exceptions to this since the 1980s are the pop group a-ha; the singer Sissel Kyrkjebø (1969–), known professionally as Sissel; and singer-songwriter Sondre Lerche (1982–). Though not originating in Norway, “black metal” is a subgenre of heavy metal music that has come to be identified with Norway. The name comes from the title of the second album by the British heavy metal band Venom. The Norwegian bands that largely defined the genre, Mayhem, Emperor, Burzum, and Gorgoroth, projected dark, high-pitched guitar tones with heavy distortion. Vocals were often high-pitched screams and shrieks. Lyrics generally dealt with darkness, depression, Satanism, and Viking paganism. Extreme violence was encouraged by the music, and several church fires were set as a result, one such being the destruction of one of Norway’s historic stave churches, the Fantoft stave church, built around 1150 CE.

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Norway’s indigenous people, the Sami, have a long history of musical expression in song, called joik, and with traditional instruments such as the fadno (a reedpipe), the drum, the lur (a long horn), the harpu (a kind of zither), and the willow flute. Contemporary Sami music also incorporates instruments such as the violin and accordion. The most characteristic Sami song is the joik, a song with few lyrics and no definite structure. The first commercial recording of Sami joiking was that of Nils-Aslak Valkeapää (1943–2001) in 1968. The most famous Sami joik performer is Mari Boine, born in 1956 in Karasjok, Finnmark County. In 2008, Boine was appointed a professor of musicology at Nesna University College, which merged with several other university colleges to become the Nord University in 2016. See also EDUCATION.

N NANSEN, FRIDTJOF WEDEL-JARLSBERG (1861–1930). Norwegian scientist, explorer, and diplomat. Nansen was born in Vestre Aker near Christiania (Oslo) on 10 October 1861 to Baldur Frithjof Nansen, a lawyer. Although interested in natural science as early as secondary school, he wanted to become a navy officer. His father persuaded him to study zoology, however, which he did at the Royal Frederik’s University (now the University of Oslo). He also studied medicine and worked as a curator at the Bergen Museum. Working on the neurology of worms, he made significant contributions to the understanding of neurons and synapses, earning a doctorate in 1886. He became a professor of zoology at the university in Oslo starting in 1887 (from 1908 as professor of oceanography), serving until his death. Between 15 August and 29 September 1888, Nansen and five other men traveled on skis across the interior ice field of Greenland. His book about the experience, Paa ski over Grønland (1890; tr. The First Crossing of Greenland, 1890), is a classic in Norwegian literature of adventure. Soon after this expedition, Nansen had a ship, Fram, specially constructed with a rounded hull for sailing through polar ice. In the summer of 1893, he traveled eastward from the town of Vardø) in the extreme northeast of Norway and along the Northeast Passage until Fram got stuck in the ice in late September. The expedition drifted westward for the next three years. After the second winter, Nansen and his shipmate Hjalmar Johansen left Fram in order to ski to the North Pole with the aid of a team of sled dogs. Having gotten farther north than any other human beings (84 degrees, 4 minutes, northern latitude), they tried to return to Fram but had to build a shack and winter on Franz Joseph’s Land, living on blubber and polar bear meat. The next summer, they ran into a British expedition and secured passage back to Norway, arriving in Vardø on 13 July 1896. Remarkably, Fram and the rest of its crew made it back home a few weeks later. Nansen also had a significant diplomatic career. During the dissolution of the union with Sweden in 1905, he was initially in favor of a republican form of government but was persuaded to support the proposal that the Danish prince Carl should be offered Norway’s throne. Nansen spent much 207

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of the summer of 1905 negotiating with Prince Carl to convince him to come to Norway. Following a favorable plebiscite, Prince Carl became king under the name of Haakon VII, and Nansen became one of his closest friends. This was very much in Norway’s interest, in part because the new Queen Maud belonged to the British royal house, and Norway needed to secure Britain’s support in order to secure its territorial integrity. This was facilitated by Nansen’s service as Norway’s ambassador to Great Britain from 1906 to 1908. Toward the conclusion of World War I, Nansen worked with the Allies to get them to allow necessary supplies of food to be brought through their blockade of the Central Powers, and after the war, he became involved in the work of the League of Nations, helping to bring prisoners of war back home. As the league’s high commissioner for refugees, he originated the so-called Nansen passports, travel documents for stateless individuals that became widely recognized. During the famine in Russia in 1921–22, he administered help to millions of people. This and other humanitarian work garnered Nansen the Nobel Peace Prize in 1922. NANSEN, ODD (1901–1973). Norwegian architect, humanitarian, and author. Born 6 December 1901 in Bærum, Norway, to Fridtjof Nansen and his wife Eva Sars Nansen, Odd Nansen was the youngest of Nansen’s five children. He studied architecture at the Norwegian University of Technology (NTNU) in Trondheim, and following graduation he traveled to the United States. In New York, Nansen worked as an architect for four years, placing third in a competition to design a new airport in Pennsylvania, before returning to Oslo in 1931 and opening his own architectural firm. In Oslo, he designed several important buildings in the new functional style, including the terminal building at the new Oslo Fornebu airport. In addition to his work as an architect in the 1930s, Nansen followed his father’s example of international humanitarian work, beginning with the establishment of Nansenhjelpen (the Nansen Aid Organization) in 1936, helping Jews fleeing persecution in Hitler’s Germany. Following the German occupation of Norway, Nansen continued his activity but was arrested in January 1942 and sent to the Grini Prison Camp and later the Sachsenhausen Concentration Camp in Germany. During his imprisonment, he kept a secret diary written on thin sheets of paper and hidden from the German authorities. Published in Norwegian in 1947, Fra dag til dag: 13. januar 1942 til 28. April 1945 was translated into English and published in the United States in 1949 as From Day to Day, thereby providing an in-depth, firsthand account of life in Nazi concentration camps during World War II. The American poet Carl Sandburg wrote that the Nansen diary was an “epic narrative and a tribute to the human spirit to rise above torture, terror, and death.”

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Following the war, Nansen returned to his work as an architect while also continuing his humanitarian efforts. He served as president of the One World humanitarian assistance organization from 1947 to 1956. NASJONAL SAMLING. See NORWEGIAN NATIONAL SOCIALIST PARTY. NÆSS, ARNE DEKKE EIDE (1912–2009). Norwegian philosopher and environmental activist. Born in Oslo on 27 January 1912, Næss is Norway’s best-known philosopher and was appointed professor at the University of Oslo at the age of 27. Through his widely used textbooks in logic and the history of philosophy used in a mandatory course, he powerfully affected the thinking and style of argumentation of generations of Norwegian students. Næss was influenced by the logical empiricism of the Vienna Circle in the 1930s and strongly supported the idea that scientific inquiry, as opposed to metaphysical speculation, is the only path to true knowledge. Also touched by the thought of the British philosopher Bertrand Russell (1872–1970), Næss may be regarded as Norway’s first exponent of analytic philosophy. He is perhaps best known, however, for his concept of “deep ecology,” including the views that all species have a right to continue their existence and that human beings should be considered on a par with other living things. An accomplished mountaineer, Næss has been associated with the movement of environmentalism both in Norway and elsewhere. In 1970, he was among those arrested for using civil disobedience in the Mardøla protest, when a group of environmentalists tried to stop the building of a hydroelectric power plant in western Norway. NATIONAL ROMANTICISM. Many Norwegian writers, artists, and scholars were greatly influenced by the ideas of the German thinker Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803), who emphasized the role of the nation and its language, as well as its connection to the divine spirit that could be found in nature. Norway came into its own as a country with its own constitution in 1814, albeit in a union with Sweden. In the area of culture, the national breakthrough took place around 1840, when there was a concerted effort to collect folktales, legends, and ballads that were deemed expressions of the true spirit of the people. The people were seen as descendents of the Norwegians who lived during the Viking period, and they were intimately linked to Norway’s nature. Many educated city dwellers, whose personal acquaintance with rural life was perhaps less than ample, had a considerable emotional investment in this nationalist mythology.

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Among the writers who were influenced by the ideas of national romanticism are Johan Sebastian Welhaven, who wrote both exquisite nature lyrics and folklore poetry; Henrik Wergeland, whose poetry, essays, and plays contributed, perhaps more than anyone else, to the development of a Norwegian national identity; Ivar Aasen, who constructed a new form of written Norwegian built on the most archaic dialects he could find and resuscitated ancient Scandinavian meter in many of his poems; Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, whose prose style, especially in his peasant tales, was heavily influenced by the style of the ancient sagas; Henrik Ibsen, many of whose early plays dealt with historical and folkloristic topics; and Aasmund Olafsson Vinje, who gave suppleness and soul to a slightly different version of the written language that Aasen had created. Aasen was a great scholar as well as a passable creative writer, whose work on the lexicography and grammar of the dialects of western Norway is a major contribution. Among the many individuals who collected folklore texts are two whose names have been known by generations of Norwegians, Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe, who together gave Norway an edition of its folktales and legends that are simply referred to as “Asbjørnsen and Moe” and that constitute one of Norway’s greatest cultural treasures. Similar treasures are found among the many ballads, some of which are thought to go back to medieval times, which were collected and edited by Magnus Brostrup Landstad. Norway’s greatest ballad, “Draumkvedet” (the Dream Ballad), is a visionary poem of great religious and ethical significance as well as a work of superior literary value. Many painters and composers were also powerfully affected by the ideas of national romanticism. J. C. Dahl, Peder Balke, Hans Gude, and Adolph Tidemand were inspired by both Norwegian nature and rural life. The work of Edvard Grieg and Ole Bull was strongly affected by Norwegian folk music. See also ART; HANSEN, MAURITS CHRISTOPHER (1794–1842); STURLUSON, SNORRI (1178–1241). NESBØ, JO (1960–). Musician and internationally renowned crime fiction author born in Oslo 29 March 1960 and raised in Molde in the western Norwegian country of Møre-Romsdal. Torn knee ligaments cut short a promising soccer career at the age of 18, and he returned to school, earning an economics and business administration degree from the Norwegian School of Economics in Bergen. Working as a stockbroker by day while playing music with his rock band Di Derre in the evenings, Nesbø took a break and traveled to Australia for a few months, where he developed the idea for and wrote his first novel, Flaggermusmannen (1997; tr. The Bat, 2013). The book proved a success and was awarded the Riverton Prize for the best work of Norwegian crime fiction as well as the Glass Key award for the best Nordic crime fiction novel. The Bat began a series of novels, each featuring the bedraggled but

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tough Oslo detective Harry Hole. Among the subsequent novels of the Hole series are Kakerlakkene (1998; tr. The Cockroaches, 2014), Rødstrupe (2000; tr. The Redbreast, 2011), Sorgenfri (2000; tr. Nemesis, 2012), Snømannen (2007; tr. The Snowman, 2016), and Politi (2013; tr. Police, 2014). The Snowman sold over 160,000 books in Norway in the first week of its release and was made into a major motion picture in 2017, directed by Tomas Alfredson and starring Michael Fassbender as Harry Hole. The publication of Tørst (2017; tr. The Thirst) in 2017 marked the 11th book in the Harry Hole series, one more than the founders of the modern form of the Scandinavian crime fiction genre, Maj Sjöwall and Per Wahlöö, produced in their Martin Beck series. Nesbø has also had success writing books that do not feature his famous detective. Among them is Hodejegerne (2011; The Headhunters), which also became an international film success starring the Norwegian actor Aksel Hennie. In 2018, Nesbø joined other well-known writers, including Canada’s Margaret Atwood, in the Hogarth Shakespeare Project, reimagining William Shakespeare. Nesbø contributed a novel, Macbeth (2018), the main character of which is the leader of a late 20th-century SWAT unit fighting a biker gang known as the Norse Riders. One of the best-selling crime fiction writers in the world, Jo Nesbø has sold over 36 million books worldwide. See also CINEMA. NEW LIBERAL PEOPLE’S PARTY. The Folkepartiet Nye Venstre, which was renamed Det Liberale Folkepartiet (the Liberal People’s Party) in 1980, was formed in a split from the Liberal Party in 1972 in a dispute over Norwegian membership in the European Community (EC; see EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY (EEC)). The dissenters, favoring EC membership, included the party leader, Helge Seip, and nine of the Liberal Party’s 13 representatives in the Storting (Parliament). In the 1973 parliamentary election, Folkepartiet Nye Venstre received one seat but has since not had parliamentary representation. It was discontinued as it merged with Venstre in 1988. In 1992, some of the old members of Det Liberale Folkepartiet brought the party back to life and were joined by some disaffected members of the Progress Party. The new iteration of Det Liberale Folkepartiet is extremely libertarian, particularly in economic matters, and garnered a mere 213 votes in the 2005 parliamentary election. NIDAROS. See TRONDHEIM. NIDAROS CATHEDRAL. Historically the most important church in Norway, the Nidaros Cathedral was built on the site of the grave of Saint Olaf, who was killed at the Battle of Stiklestad on 29 July 1030. Construction on

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the original church began in the late 11th century under King Olav Kyrre, and the remains of Saint Olaf were placed behind the high alter. When Norway was granted an archbishopric in 1152, it was designated a cathedral and became the seat for the Archbishop of Nidaros (Trondheim). Due to its association with Saint Olaf, the cathedral became one of the most important pilgrimage sites in northern Europe prior to the Reformation and also contributed to the growth of the city of Trondheim. The early construction of the cathedral was in the Romanesque style, but in 1183, Archbishop Øystein ordered further construction to be in the new Gothic style. It was completed around 1300 CE. Although associated with Saint Olaf, the cathedral was dedicated to the Holy Trinity. The authority of the Archbishop extended throughout the Norwegian territories in the Middle Ages, which at its height under King Haakon IV Haakonsson included Iceland, Greenland, Shetland, the Orkney Islands, the Hebrides, and the Isle of Man, as well as Norway itself. After the Reformation, it became the cathedral of the Lutheran bishop for the Trondheim diocese, while the king in Copenhagen was the head of the Lutheran church itself. The original church on the site was built of wood, which was soon replaced by stone. Parts of the cathedral burned on several occasions, with one of the most devastating fires occurring in 1708. The major project to restore the cathedral began in 1869, in anticipation of the millennium year of the unification of Norway under Harald Fairhair in 871 CE. The restoration officially concluded in 2001. Although there was little documentation as to the appearance of the western facade and the main entrance to the cathedral, it was thought that a “rose window” was there. The reconstructed window facing the setting sun in the west was themed to represent the day of judgment. Like the rose window, all the stained glass in the cathedral dates from the latest restoration. Windows along the cathedral’s north side depict scenes from the Old Testament, all with a blue background, while the south side windows with their red background show representations from the New Testament. In addition to the rose window, the west front of the cathedral features 76 statues, including five that are preserved from the Middle Ages, lined in three rows extending across the entire facade. One row features statues of saints of the Roman Catholic Church who had some connection with Norway. Many of the figures were modeled by the sculptors from the faces of recognized individuals in contemporary life. Saint Klemens, for example, is said to be modeled after the Norwegian poet Olav Aukrust (1883–1929), while the bronze statue of the Archangel Michael, sculpted by Kristoffer Leirdal, bears a striking resemblance to the American folk music icon and 2016 Nobel Prize winner for literature, Bob Dylan (1941–).

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A significant pilgrimage site throughout the Middle Ages, the Nidaros Cathedral is today a Lutheran church, but it is also a major tourist attraction. Each year on the anniversary of the Battle of Stiklestad (29 July), a religious and cultural festival is celebrated at the cathedral, and the sculptured statue of Saint Olaf is draped with a floral wreath. Some visitors who attend have followed the 400-mile-long pilgrim’s route from the medieval old city section of Oslo to the burial place of Saint Olaf, the Nidaros Cathedral. NOBEL PEACE PRIZE. The most prestigious award in the world, the Nobel Peace Prize was instituted as one of five prizes through the will of the Swedish inventor and industrialist Alfred Nobel (1833–96). Amassing a large fortune over a long career of scientific work, most notably the invention of dynamite, Nobel established the prizes for physiology or medicine, chemistry, physics, literature, and peace. In 1968, the Bank of Sweden established the “Swedish National Bank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel.” Although not an original Nobel Prize, it is regarded as of equal significance. With the exception of the peace prize, awards are given by Swedish institutions. Nobel, however, directed that the peace prize was to be awarded in Norway, which at the time was in a personal union with Sweden. The recipient of the prize is selected by a five-member Norwegian Nobel Committee, appointed by the Norwegian Storting (Parliament). The award ceremony takes place at the Oslo City Hall on 10 December each year, the anniversary of Nobel’s death, and a special concert, the Nobel Peace Prize Concert, is held the following day and attended by a large number of dignitaries. As one of the best-known prizes in the world, the peace prize is also often controversial. It has been awarded to statesmen, leading political figures, activists for the environment and disarmament, and important international institutions such as the United Nations. Two individual Norwegians have been recipients of the Nobel Peace Prize, Christian Lange (1921) and Fridtjof Nansen (1922). NORDIC COUNCIL. Formed in 1952, the Nordisk Råd consists of 87 representatives from the parliaments of the Nordic countries. Norway and Sweden have 20 members each, Finland has 18 members, and Denmark has 16. Iceland is represented by seven members, and the Faroe Islands, the Åland Islands, and Greenland are associate members with two representatives each. Schleswig-Holstein, the northernmost state of Germany, also has observer status by virtue of its historic connections with Denmark. Since their independence from the Soviet Union, the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania have been granted observer status. The Nordic Council is headquartered in Copenhagen, has an annual plenary session, and arranges meetings devoted to specific subjects throughout the year. A forum for coop-

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eration among the parliaments of the Nordic states, the Nordic Council has no legislative power of its own, so the individual parliaments must act to implement its recommendations. During the early years of its existence, the Nordic Council was intended to bring about a high level of Nordic integration, but these hopes were not realized. Many of its intended functions are now carried out within the framework of the European Union. Five Norwegians have served as secretaries general: Emil Vindsetmoe (1971–73), Helge Seip (1973–77), Gudmund Saxrud (1977–82), Jostein Osens (1990–94), and Frida Nokken (1999–2007). See also EUROPEAN INTEGRATION. NORDLI, ODVAR (1927–2018). Norwegian politician. Born in Tangen, Hedmark County, on 3 November 1927, Nordli was educated as a certified public accountant and spent many years as an auditor. Active in Labor Party politics, he had several significant leadership positions and was elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1961, serving until 1985. While he was considered for the post of chair of the Labor Party, he lost this appointment to Reiulf Steen and was instead chosen to serve as the Labor candidate for prime minister. In 1976, he formed a minority government that was in power until 1981, when Gro Harlem Brundtland took over as prime minister, serving for approximately nine months. Nordli served as fylkesmann (chief administrator) of Hedmark County from his resignation as prime minister until his retirement in 1993. As prime minister, Nordli presided over the significant expansion of oil production from the oil fields along the coast of Norway and had to deal with how to best make use of this bonanza without wrecking the Norwegian economy. He was a strong supporter of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), even alienating the Labor Party’s left wing with his decision to allow the United States to store heavy weapons in Norway’s far north near the Soviet border. His administration was also marked by one of the most significant political controversies in recent Norwegian history, the resistance to the plan to build a hydroelectric dam across the salmon-rich Alta River in traditional Sami reindeer-herding territory in Finnmark County. For a time, Nordli successfully calmed these troubled waters by initiating a review of the decision made by the Storting. Although the dam was eventually built after its opponents lost their case before Norway’s Supreme Court, the controversy united Norwegian environmentalists and placed the question of Sami rights on the public agenda. NORGES KOMMUNISTISKE PARTI. See NORWAY’S COMMUNIST PARTY.

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NORGES SOCIALDEMOKRATISKE ARBEIDERPARTI. See NORWAY’S SOCIAL-DEMOCRATIC LABOR PARTY. NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO). At the conclusion of World War II, it was clear to the Norwegian government that maintaining the prewar policy of neutrality was no longer a realistic possibility. Norway’s strategic position was such that there was simply no hope of remaining outside a major European conflict, so some kind of defensive alliance was clearly necessary. One option was a Nordic alliance, and in 1948 and early 1949, this possibility was discussed by Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Sweden had managed to remain neutral in both World War I and World War II and had a significant domestic armaments industry, so it did not feel a strong need for an alliance that involved countries outside of Scandinavia. Norway had no armaments industry of its own and therefore was dependent on being able to purchase weaponry on the world market, which, in practical terms, meant either from Great Britain or the United States, so it felt that it needed security guarantees far beyond those required by Sweden. Norway believed that a Nordic alliance simply had to have some kind of tie to Great Britain and the United States, while Sweden did not want to see a pretense of Nordic neutrality while Scandinavia had in reality already sided with the Western alliance. The differences between the Norwegian and the Swedish perspectives were thus simply too great to make a Nordic alliance a realistic option. In the meantime, the Cold War was becoming a reality and, with it, the need for a strong Western defense. The communists had taken power in Czechoslovakia in 1948, and Russia broke off all landbased connections between West Germany and Berlin. The Norwegian Labor government headed by Einar Gerhardsen long debated whether to seek an alliance with Britain and the United States, while the nonsocialist parties were strongly in favor of one. As the groundwork for NATO was being laid by the United States and Britain, it was clear that Norway would be invited to participate if the Norwegian government so wished. The Labor Party finally concluded that there was no better option, and on 29 March 1949, the Storting (Parliament) voted that Norway would participate. The treaty was signed in Washington, D.C., on 4 April 1949, and the Norwegian minister of foreign affairs, Halvard Lange, was present to sign it on Norway’s behalf. NATO’s basic premise was that an attack on any member would be considered an attack on all of them. Norway early made it clear, however, that no foreign military bases would be established on Norwegian soil in peacetime, meaning if Norway had not been attacked or was not threatened by an imminent attack. It is likely that this declaration was necessary to keep the Labor Party from splitting apart because of its internal disagreements over NATO. The United States ex-

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pressed no concern about Norway’s seeming reluctance, however, possibly because Washington realized that it would have been unwise to establish an American outpost so close to Soviet territory, as it would surely have been regarded as a major provocation. With the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War in 1991, NATO’s original goal was gone, and there was a need for a redefinition of the organization’s purpose. NATO still exists primarily in order to defend member states, but it may now intervene in a conflict even though a member country has not been directly attacked. Furthermore, it may do so whether there is United Nations (UN) authorization for the action or not. For example, in 1999, NATO intervened in the war between Serbs and Kosovo-Albanians without UN authorization, while its intervention in Bosnia in 1995 had been authorized by the UN. NATO also leads the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan; the mandate of this force is underwritten by the UN Security Council, and Norwegian troops are part of the force. By 2019, NATO’s original 12 members had been expanded to 30, including a number of former East Bloc countries. In 2014, former Norwegian prime minister Jens Stoltenberg was chosen to serve as secretary general of NATO. His term was extended in 2017. NORWAY’S COMMUNIST PARTY. Norges Kommunistiske Parti (NKP) was formed in 1923, when the Labor Party decided to withdraw from the Communist International (Comintern). Labor had joined the Comintern in 1919, and its moderate wing had become concerned about the required fealty to Vladimir Ilyich Lenin’s Moscow theses, which presented Soviet communism’s expectations of what it, in effect, viewed as its daughter parties. Initially, NKP had a strong position in Norwegian political life, with 13 of Labor’s existing representatives in the Storting (Parliament) leaving the mother party and joining the NKP. The support dwindled throughout the 1920s and 1930s, and the party had no parliamentary representation from 1930 to the end of World War II. The NKP’s resistance to the occupiers during the war was strong, however, and the 1945 parliamentary election gave it 11.9 percent of the popular vote and 11 seats in the Storting. The Labor Party was quite hostile toward the NKP, and its support again dwindled. Some of its political positions were doctrinaire and unpopular— for example, it opposed the Marshall Plan—and internal strife, followed by the exclusion of centrally placed members, took its toll. Its opposition to Norwegian membership in the European Community in 1972 was popular with voters, however, and when a leftist coalition was organized in preparation for the 1973 parliamentary election, the NKP’s leader from 1965 to 1975, Reidar T. Larsen, was one of the 16 persons elected on the coalition ticket. Otherwise, the NKP has had no parliamentary representation since 1957, and its representation in local government is minimal.

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NORWAY’S SOCIAL-DEMOCRATIC LABOR PARTY. Norges Socialdemokratiske Arbeiderparti (NSA) was started in 1921 by members of the Labor Party who were concerned about the radical developments in the mother party during and after World War I. When the party accepted the Moscow theses and joined the Communist International (Comintern), thus essentially making itself a tool of Soviet communism, the split was unavoidable. The result was that in the 1921 election, the Labor Party lost 10 percent of the popular vote, compared with the previous election, while the NSA gained 9 percent. The two parties were combined in 1927, however, after the Labor Party had largely moved to the position of the NSA and had withdrawn from the Comintern, and the extreme left wing splintered off by forming Norway’s Communist Party in 1923. NORWEGIAN NATIONAL SOCIALIST PARTY. Nasjonal Samling (NS). Founded by Vidkun Quisling on 17 May 1933, and modeled after the German Nazi Party, the Norwegian National Socialist Party (NS) advocated “social order and justice” with a “national rebirth” while opposing liberalism, communism, and parliamentarism. With Quisling as the “Leader” (Fører), the party called for a reorganization of society along fascist lines. Party symbols echoed Norwegian Viking traditions, including the main party banner, a golden encircled Saint Olaf cross against a red background. A hardcore uniformed corps similar to the German SA was formed as the “Hird,” an elite paramilitary force harkening back to the personal guards of medieval monarchs. Initially emphasizing Norway’s rural and religious roots, the party drew early support from the church and religious groups in the Norwegian population, especially low-church fundamentalists. Although not a founding principle of the party, anti-Semitism became an increasingly significant element of the party’s ideology as the influence of the German Nazi Party grew through the decade of the 1930s. By 1939, the party was also receiving clandestine financial support from Germany. In a meeting between Quisling and Adolf Hitler in Berlin in December 1939, Quisling advocated for direct German action in Norway to counter what he claimed was Great Britain’s intention to occupy the country. Hitler was hesitant to accept the argument, but he did instruct his military to develop provisional plans for a German invasion of Norway should future events so dictate. When the invasion came on 9 April 1940, Quisling jumped at the opportunity to insert himself and his party into the events. At 7 p.m. that evening, in a radio address to the country, Quisling announced that, because the legal government of Johan Nygaardsvold had abandoned the capital, he was assuming the reins of power. After five months of trying to convince the Norwegians to accept the occupation, the German occupation authorities, led by Reich Kommisar Joseph Terboven, declared all political parties, except the Norwegian National So-

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cialist Party, to be illegal. Quisling and the party continued to work closely with the German Nazi occupation authorities throughout the rest of World War II. Prior to the German occupation, the party drew minimal support in the 1933 and 1936 national elections. Membership in the party prior to 1940 did not exceed 2,000. In 1943, however, during the height of German power, membership topped out at 43,000 people. On 15 December 1944, the Norwegian government-in-exile in London declared membership in the party to be illegal. At war’s end, on 8 May 1940, all party members were considered to have been traitors or collaborators and were to be prosecuted as such. Some 90,000 Norwegians were investigated for collaboration, 46,000 received some sort of sentence, and 23,000 were imprisoned. Twenty-five individuals were tried for war crimes and subsequently executed, including Vidkun Quisling. NYGAARDSVOLD, JOHAN (1879–1952). Norwegian politician. Born the son of a tenant farmer in Hommelvik near Trondheim on 6 September 1879, Nygaardsvold started working in a lumber mill while still in his childhood. In 1902, he immigrated to Canada and worked there and in the western United States as a lumberjack and an agitator for the International Workers of the World. Back in Norway in 1907, he joined the Labor Party, serving as one of its representatives in the Storting (Parliament) from 1916 to 1949. He first served as minister of agriculture in the short-lived Labor Party government formed by Christopher Hornsrud in 1928, and in 1935 he established the second Labor Party government in Norwegian history. Although technically a minority government, it had the support of the Agrarian Party and thus enjoyed great stability, similar to that of a government based on a parliamentary majority. Including its years in exile in London during World War II, when it was a unity government, this government lasted until 1945. Nygaardsvold’s chief task in the 1930s was to find ways of mitigating the effects of the Great Depression, and he was sufficiently successful that European fascism received little support among the common people in Norway. Less attention was paid to Norwegian defense, however, and it has been argued that Nygaardsvold bears some responsibility for the lack of readiness of the Norwegian military forces when Germany attacked Norway on 9 April 1940. NYNORSK. Usually referred to as New Norwegian in English, Nynorsk is a written form of Norwegian that since 1885 has had the same legal status as the more commonly used form, Bokmal (book language). Nynorsk was originally created by Ivar Aasen as Landsmaal (country language) and was first cultivated as a literary language by him as well as by Aasmund Olafsson

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Vinje and Arne Garborg. Although less than 15 percent of the Norwegian population use it as their primary written language, some of the foremost Norwegian writers, including Kjartan Fløgstad, Edvard Hoem, and Tor Obrestad, have used it as their written medium during the second half of the 20th century.

O OBRESTAD, TOR (1938–). Norwegian novelist, poet, and short story writer. Born on 12 February 1938 in Hå, close to the city of Stavanger, Obrestad writes in Nynorsk (New Norwegian). After publishing several collections of poetry and prose, he turned to the ideology of Marxism-Leninism associated with the Socialist Youth Federation. Obrestad’s revolutionary fervor is on display in his documentary novel Sauda! Streik! (1972; Sauda! Strike!), which tells the story of a strike in the industrial community in western Norway that Kjartan Fløgstad has memorialized as Lovra. Other volumes in praise of revolution are the poetry collections Sauda og Shanghai (1973; Sauda and Shanghai) and Stå saman (1974; Stand Together). Like many other writers of his generation, Obrestad became less strident in the 1980s and has written many other volumes of poetry and prose, as well as biographies of such canonical Norwegian writers as Arne Garborg and Alexander Kielland and the politician Einar Førde (1943–2004). Obrestad has been an active essayist and translator into Norwegian of such diverse writers as William Blake, Mao Zedong, Robert Bly, and Raymond Carver. See also LITERATURE. ODELSTING. The Storting, the Norwegian parliament, is a unicameral body, but prior to 2009 it comprised two chambers: the Lagting and the Odelsting. The Odelsting (literally, an assembly of those who possess allodial rights to farmland) functioned as a type of lower house in that it consisted of three-fourths of the members of the Storting, the parliamentary representatives who have not been elected by their colleagues to sit in the Lagting (literally, an assembly that considers laws) shortly after a new Storting had been chosen by the voters. The Odelsting received bills from the government or legislative proposals from its members, which, after they were debated and when passed, were submitted to the Lagting for further consideration. Prior to the constitutional changes on 1 October 2009, the Odelsting was also the body that considered whether to carry out impeachment proceedings or not. The previous functions of the Odelsting have been assumed by the full Storting meeting in plenum. 221

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OFTEDAL, LARS (1838–1900). Norwegian politician, newspaperman, and evangelist. Born in Stavanger on 27 December 1838, Oftedal studied theology and was ordained a minister in the Norwegian State Church. He was an exceptionally gifted evangelist who started his career by traveling around and holding meetings under the auspices of the Inner Mission (Indremisjon). His message was simple. People should not only believe passively in Christianity but actively strive for repentance and sanctification. Similarly to Hans Nilsen Hauge before him and Ole Hallesby in the 1950s, Oftedal managed to paint the tortures of hell in such vivid colors that the minds of his listeners were deeply affected. His speech was simple, and his outward appearance was not much different from that of the ordinary man, so people felt like he was truly one of them and understood their concerns. Oftedal was also an organizational genius who built chapels and schools, as well as homes for widows, orphans, “fallen women,” and the children of “fallen women.” He helped people with money and found them places to live. While appointed to a parish in Stavanger, he founded his paper Vestlands-Posten (West Norway Post), which lasted from 1878 to 1916 and was published three times a week. It expressed the views of the farmers who belonged to the Liberal Party and had a significant impact on the region’s level of political awareness. Oftedal was also a Liberal Party representative to the Storting (Parliament) in two periods, 1883–85 and 1889–91. He was one of those who led the opposition to giving the writer Alexander Kielland governmental support, because to Oftedal, Kielland was a freethinker and a dangerous person. He resigned his position in the church in 1891, when he announced that he had been living in an immoral relationship with a woman. He kept building his network of religious and charitable institutions, however, and founded the paper Stavanger Aftenblad (Stavanger Evening Post), which became one of Norway’s foremost regional papers. Both Kielland and Knut Hamsun have provided literary portraits of Oftedal. OIL AND NATURAL GAS. Exploratory drilling started in the Norwegian part of the North Sea in 1966, but it was not until late 1969 that the first significant discovery was made. In 1971, the first quantity of oil was shipped to Stavanger, and by 1980, the production of oil and gas amounted to 50 million metric tons per year. By 1990, it had increased to 120 million tons, of which 90 million tons was oil. In 1963, the Storting (Parliament) had passed a law that made natural resources located on the Norwegian continental shelf state property, and the oil companies that wanted to conduct explorations in Norwegian territorial waters had to be licensed to do so by the government. Licenses were issued in three rounds between 1965 and 1975 and permitted drilling south of the

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62nd parallel only. There has been considerable pressure on Norwegian authorities to allow exploration north of this line as well, and significant finds have been made as far north as the Barents Sea. The development of the oil industry was a boon to Norway’s economy. By 1975, enough oil was being pumped to supply Norway’s own needs, and since then, Norway has become one of the world’s major exporters of oil and gas. While the oil was transported to shore by ship in the early years, gas is transported from the North Sea to the Netherlands in underwater pipelines, and oil is similarly brought ashore in Great Britain. Oil and gas from northern finds are piped to shore in Norway. While many of the earliest workers in the Norwegian oil industry were Americans and other foreigners, Norwegian nationals gradually took over the work and built up significant expertise. Even as early as 1980, the oil industry employed twice the number of those involved in fishing. Most of the workers came from southwestern Norway and were former industrial laborers, seamen, fishermen, and farmers. The industry was plagued by accidents, particularly in the early years, when the American leaders on the drilling rigs showed a general disregard for security measures. The sinking of a single platform in 1980 claimed 123 lives, three helicopter accidents killed a total of 34 people, diving accidents killed another 14, and 8 people lost their lives in two major fires. These accidents led to the institution of strict safety measures that gradually changed the earlier culture on board the platforms. Recognizing that the resource is limited and wanting to keep the income generated from flooding the domestic economy, the Storting established a national sovereign fund know as the Government Pension Fund–Global (formerly the “Oil Fund”; Oljefondet). In 2018, the fund was valued at more than US$1.1 trillion. See also GLOBAL WARMING. OIL FUND. See GOVERNMENT PENSION FUND–GLOBAL (GPF-G). OLAV V (1903–1991). King of Norway. Born in England to the later King Haakon VII and Queen Maud on 2 July 1903, Olav was given the name Alexander Edward Christian Frederik and was a Danish prince, as was his father. When his father became the king of Norway in 1905, he was given the Norwegian name Olav. As crown prince, Olav attended public school in Oslo, receiving his matriculation certificate in 1921. He spent the next three years at the Norwegian Military Academy, after which he studied economics and law at Oxford. He was also a superb athlete and competed in ski jumping and sailing, winning a gold medal in the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. In 1929, he married his cousin, Princess Martha Sofia Lovisa Dagmar Thyra of Sweden, and they became the parents of a son, Harald, and two

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daughters, Ragnhild and Astrid. As crown prince, Olav received extensive military training throughout the 1930s. He was considered to be one of the most experienced military officers in Norway. In 1939, he was appointed an admiral in the Royal Norwegian Navy and a general in the Norwegian army and was a valued advisor to King Haakon VII and the government-in-exile during World War II. In 1944, he was appointed chief of defense, the head of all Norwegian military forces, Olav succeeded to the throne following the death of his father in 1957. Like his father, he became extremely popular and was often referred to as folkekongen (the people’s king) because he was so close to his people. For example, during the 1973 oil crisis, when weekend driving was prohibited in Norway, the king walked from the palace to the nearest subway station, where he took a train in order to go skiing, just like everybody else. He remained physically active, enjoying skiing and sailing until late in his life. In 1991, his son succeeded him as King Harald V. Fifteen years after his death, he was voted the “Norwegian of the century” in a vote that drew 400,000 participants. See also SPORTS. OLEANA. Colony founded by the Norwegian violinist Ole Bull in 1852 in Potter County, northern Pennsylvania, which today is the site of the Ole Bull State Park. Ole Bull purchased 11,144 acres of land for $10,388 on 24 May 1852 with the intention of establishing a utopian colony, “New Norway,” for Norwegian immigrants in America. Four towns were planned, including one named Oleana, after the founder. Several hundred settlers arrived in 1852–53, purchasing land and building cabins, a hotel, and schoolhouses. The heavily forested land, however, proved to be extremely poor for farming, and by the winter of 1853, money began to run out and the project faltered. Some immigrants returned to Norway with stories of the failed project. Rumors abounded, and before long opponents of emigration back in Norway began to satirize the venture. By 1854, most Norwegians had largely abandoned the colony. Ole Bull returned to concert touring to recoup the financial losses he suffered. Meanwhile, in Norway on 5 March 1853, a satirical ballad, Oleana, written by Ditmar Meidell, a Norwegian magazine editor, was published. The ballad, mocking Bull and the entire venture, thus began a life of its own. Published initially in Norwegian in Meidell’s magazine Krydseren (1853; The Cruiser), a literal English translation by Martin Ruud was published in Theodore Blegen’s Norwegian Emigrant Songs and Ballads in 1936. In 1944, Blegen published his own translation of the song, which American folksinger Pete Seeger reworked and subsequently published in Sing Out! magazine in 1955. In addition to Seeger, who recorded the song for Folkways Records, various versions were also recorded by Theodore Bikel, the Gateway Singers, and the Kingston Trio. “Oleana” was a true Norwegian

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folk song that found its way into the American folk songbook, much like the Norwegian immigrants themselves found themselves integrated into the American nation. OMBUDSPERSON. Also called “ombud.” Of Old Norse origin, the word ombud essentially means “to appeal.” An ombudsperson, or ombud, is an independent government official appointed to receive and investigate complaints by individuals of abuse or capricious acts by public or government officials and to attempt to resolve them. Common in all the Scandinavian countries, the concept of an ombudsperson dates from the Middle Ages and appears in the Danish law of Jutland in 1241 CE and throughout the Scandinavian region by the 16th century. Sweden incorporated the concept into its constitution of 1809. In its modern context, it is a fundamental part of society in the Scandinavian countries and has found its way into much of the rest of the world, where it is also used by nongovernmental agencies and companies. ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT (OECD). The OECD was formed in 1961 as a successor organization to the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC), when non-European countries were admitted. Its purpose is to promote free trade, foster the development of strong market economies in its member countries, and help improve the efficiency of the economies of both industrialized and developing nations. While its instruments are nonbinding, the organization covers all economic, environmental, and social issues; collects data; issues forecasts; and provides performance evaluations. Norway was a member of the OEEC from the time of its founding and remains a member of the OECD. See also EUROPEAN INTEGRATION. ORGANISATION FOR EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COOPERATION (OEEC). The OEEC was formed in 1948 for the purpose of administering aid from the United States and Canada under the Marshall Plan. It was succeeded by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1961. Norway has been a member since the beginning. See also EUROPEAN INTEGRATION. OSCAR II (1829–1907). King of Norway-Sweden from 1872 to 1905 (Sweden until 1907) until the dissolution of the union with Sweden. Grandson of Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, who had forced the union of Norway with Sweden in 1814 and became King Karl III Johan (Carl XIV Johan in Sweden). The third son of Oscar I, Oscar II came to the throne in 1872 following the death of his older brother, Karl IV (Carl XV of Sweden), who had no surviv-

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ing children. Oscar’s middle brother had died of typhoid fever in 1852, leaving him the heir presumptive. Upon assuming the throne, Oscar adopted the motto Brödrafolkens väl (the Welfare of the Brother Peoples) as a gesture to friendship and cooperation with his Norwegian subjects. It was his hope that the tensions that were just beginning to strain the bonds of the union would not be fatal to it. Although it was ultimately not to be, Oscar did dedicate himself to be a Norwegian, as well as a Swedish, monarch. He was fluent in both written and spoken Norwegian and, although residing primarily in Stockholm, he frequently visited Norway. Not only was he a patron of the arts; he was also a published author and helped to sponsor Fridtjof Nansen’s polar expedition on the Fram in 1893. In 1881, he established the world’s first open-air museum on Bygdøy in Christiania (Oslo) that would, in 1907, become part of the Norwegian Museum of Cultural History (Norsk Folkemuseum Oslo). A firm believer in the separation-of-powers system established in the Norwegian constitution of 1814, Oscar opposed the growing claims of the Norwegian Storting for increased power in the 1870s and 1880s. When the Norwegian government of Christian Selmer was impeached in 1884, however, Oscar recognized that parliamentarism was inevitable in Norway and reluctantly appointed Johan Sverdrup to be prime minister. He took a hard line, however, on the growing movement for the dissolution of the union, even to the point of threatening to lead the Swedish army into Oslo in 1895 if the Norwegian parliament did not withdraw its proposal to establish a separate Norwegian foreign minister. By 1905, Oscar was ill, and with his son, Gustav, serving as regent, Christian Michelsen was appointed prime minister. Three months later, Oscar refused to sanction a parliamentary bill establishing a separate Norwegian consulate service. Refusing to sign the bill or accept the resignation of the Norwegian government, the Storting on 7 June 1905 passed a declaration that King Oscar had ceased to function as king and that, as a consequence, the union itself was dissolved. Following months of tension and uncertainty but avoiding a military confrontation, on 26 October, Oscar accepted the inevitable and officially renounced his claim to the throne of Norway. The Norwegians subsequently elected Prince Carl of Denmark to be the new king, and he took the name Haakon VII. OSLO. Oslo, in the past also known as Christiania and Kristiania, is generally thought to have been founded in approximately 1000 CE, although Snorri Sturluson claims it was about 50 years later. Recent archeological discoveries indicate that he may have been correct, but Oslo celebrated its millennial jubilee in 2000. The name Oslo is of Old Norse origin and may signify a level meadow located in close proximity to an elevated ridge. Oslo is the name that was used in medieval times, but after a city fire in 1624 destroyed the city, King Christian IV had it moved to the opposite side of the bay

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Bjørvika, close to the Akershus Fortress, and renamed it Christiania (since 1877, the spelling Kristiania was generally used, but the change of name was never made legally). The old site of the city was still known as Oslo, but it remained outside of the new city limits until 1859. In 1925, the name of the city was officially changed back to Oslo by the city council, and the medieval part of town was henceforth referred to as Old Town (Gamlebyen). Oslo’s nickname is Tigerstaden (“City of Tigers,” alluding to the predatory nature of urban life), first used in writing by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson and very popular in mystery stories set in Christiania/Oslo written from the late 1800s to the middle of the 20th century. Oslo is located at the end of the Oslo fjord and sits in a bowl surrounded by hills and lakes. The climate is chilly, especially in the fall and winter, when cold air and fog have a tendency to collect in the bowl (Oslo-gryta). During the coldest months, January and February, the average maximum temperature is slightly below ˗1 degree Celsius, while the average minimum temperature is below ˗5 degrees Celsius. The average maximum temperature during the summer is around 20 degrees Celsius. Oslo gets a fair amount of snow during the winter months, which is a boon to skiers, especially because there are some excellent cross-country skiing areas close to town; these areas are even accessible by streetcar. The average annual precipitation is 75 centimeters. An important center of trade, education, health care, and public administration, Oslo has a population of 681,081 inhabitants, while 1.7 million live within Oslo’s metropolitan area. Oslo is both a county and a municipality (kommune) and is governed by a city council (Bystyret) with 59 members, headed by a mayor with largely ceremonial functions. However, the form of government is parliamentary, so there is also a small executive body called the Byrådet, whose leader corresponds to a prime minister in a parliamentary democracy. For the purpose of local administration, Oslo is also divided into 15 areas that have their own local councils responsible for such functions as health care delivery and other social services. Archeological evidence indicates that there was a significant population in the Oslo area as early as the Stone Age, and there is also archeological evidence dating to the Viking period. The first king who spent much time in Oslo was Sigurd Jorsalfarer (1090–1130). With an important harbor and as an early center of trade, Oslo became the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop for eastern Norway, who was associated with the Saint Hallvard Cathedral. Other churches and several cloisters were also built, as well as fortified residences for both the king and the bishop. When the Black Death swept across the country in 1349–50, Oslo lost much of its population and declined to the point that only one church was still in operation. The city remained relatively insignificant during the early centuries of the union with Den-

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mark, especially after the Reformation, when it was merely a provincial town. It experienced 14 major fires, and in 1567, it was burned down in an invasion by Swedish troops during the Seven Years War of the North. After the 1624 fire and subsequent move to the vicinity of the Akershus Fortress, Christiania developed a number of suburbs outside the city walls. The city grew slowly, however, until the union with Denmark ended in 1814, and Christiania regained its status as Norway’s capital. Several important public buildings were erected, for example, the university buildings in the city center, completed in 1852, and the royal residence, Slottet, completed in 1849. The parliament building (Stortingsbygningen) was finished in 1866, with earlier sessions of the Storting having been held in Gamle Festsal (Old Celebration Hall) at the university. The National Theater, situated between the Storting and the palace and across the main street from the university, was not finished until 1899. Starting in the 1840s, the development of the city’s industry led to a large increase in the population but also to a division between the west side, where people lived in single-family homes and nice apartment buildings, and the east side, where workers who needed to be close to their jobs were crowded together into tenements. The economic expansion in the 1880s and the 1890s further increased both population and building construction. The increased size meant that new means of transportation had to be developed, and horsedrawn streetcars were used starting in 1875. The surface light-rail system was electrified in 1894. Long-distance transportation was handled by ship and train. Knut Hamsun depicts life in Christiania in the late 1880s in his novel Sult (1890; tr. Hunger, 1899) as that of a city that is on its way to becoming a modern European metropolis, and by 1900, that process had largely been completed. The city had monumental architecture, a large and effective network of streetcar lines, electricity, and the beginnings of a modern sewer system. With 250,000 inhabitants in 1905, Oslo again became the seat of a complete state administration, including a royal family. A large-scale financial reversal in 1899 led to a serious downturn in construction and other economic activity, and little expansion took place prior to World War I. Most of the new apartments were built with public financing. The interwar period was characterized by reduced economic activity across the board, and it was not until 1946 that large-scale annexation took place and the city again began to expand. During the post–World War II era, many large apartment houses were built away from the city center. Oslo also changed from being an industrial city to being a center for administration and various services. Starting around 1970, there was a large influx of immigrants from Asian and African countries, and this trend shows few signs of slowing down. Seventy percent of the population remains ethnic Norwegian.

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Oslo has been Norway’s capital since 1299, and the Storting (Parliament) and government offices are located there. The city also hosts a number of military installations; large hospitals, including the research-oriented Rikshospitalet (National Hospital); and educational institutions, including the University of Oslo, which was founded in 1811. It is also the center of private business and trade in Norway, although most industrial production has now been discontinued. Housing in Oslo is generally more expensive than in other major cities in the country, and the city has been undergoing rapid growth and expansion in recent years. Through an initiative by the European Commission, Oslo was chosen as the “2019 European Green Capital” for its sustainable urban development. Proclaimed as “the world’s electric vehicle capital,” at the end of 2018, 60 percent of all new vehicles sold in the city were electric. Additionally, 56 percent of all public transport journeys are powered by renewable energy on zero-emission trains, trams, and metro. Tourists find Oslo an interesting city to visit. The Frogner Park Vigeland sculptures have achieved world renown, and there are a number of art galleries and museums, including the new National Gallery, the new harborside Edvard Munch Museum, the Viking Ship Museum, and the Kon-Tiki Museum, which houses crafts used by the explorer Thor Heyerdahl. The Fram Museum memorializes the explorations of Fridtjof Nansen and Roald Amundsen. There is also a small museum devoted to Henrik Ibsen, located in his former residence on Henrik Ibsen Street across from the Royal Palace. To commemorate the centennial of Ibsen’s death, in 2006, quotations from Ibsen’s plays were inscribed into the sidewalk going from the Ibsen Museum to the Grand Hotel Café, a walk Ibsen took regularly after his return to Norway in 1891. In addition to the new National Gallery and Munch Museum, Oslo is experiencing a significant building boom in the area of Bjørvika and Sørenga. The new opera house, bedecked in Carrara marble, stands like a glacier in the inner fjord at Bjørvika and has become an icon in the city’s exciting architectural renewal. OTTAR (OHTHERE) OF HÅLOGALAND (LATE NINTH CENTURY). Viking-age Norwegian merchant and seafarer who visited the AngloSaxon court of King Alfred the Great in the latter part of the ninth century. He is known for his apparently dictated travel account, recorded in the Old English translation by Alfred of a fifth-century Latin historical work, The Universal History, by Paulus Orosius. This manuscript contains the earliest written documentary reference to the names of the countries of Norway (Norðweg) and Denmark (Denamearc). Ottar claimed that he lived “the northmost of all Norwegians,” probably in the Troms region of North Norway. He tells of his travels north into the White Sea and south along the coast of Norway to Denmark. He further

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claimed to own 600 tame reindeer as well as sheep, cattle, and horses. He traded with the Sami and had significant connections with the Anglo-Saxon court of Alfred the Great in Anglo-Saxon England.

P PARLIAMENTARISM. In the Norwegian context, parliamentarism means that cabinet ministers are obligated to appear before the Storting (Parliament) to answer questions and to justify their actions, and that no cabinet may remain in power against the wishes of a parliamentary majority. The year 1884 is usually thought of as the time when parliamentarism was established in Norwegian political life, and the process by which this change in Norway’s government structure came about is strongly linked to the name of Johan Sverdrup, one of Norway’s great statesmen and the father of its Liberal Party. The story of these events is one of the most gripping chapters in Norwegian political history. A man with great charisma and considerable leadership ability, Sverdrup became a member of the Storting in 1851. He quickly became one of the leaders of those who opposed the king and his conservative cabinet, which worked to further the interests of a ruling class of government officials, included State Church ministers, university professors, large landowners, and wealthy businessmen. The opposition consisted primarily of farmers, lawyers, intellectuals, tradesmen, and fishermen, along with religious people who relied mostly on the ministry of lay preachers for their spiritual needs rather than solely on the state’s version of Christianity as promulgated by its clergy. Some members of the opposition were freethinkers as well; they questioned the traditional view of authority as located in God and his servants on earth, first among whom were the king and his appointees, and believed that human beings were themselves responsible for creating their sense of life’s meaning. The Storting had by law convened only every three years, which meant that most of the work associated with the actual governance of the country was done by the members of the king’s cabinet. The Storting was thus truly a citizen legislature, and there was little opportunity for its members to develop into a class of professional politicians. The cabinet ministers were not truly professional politicians either, but they were largely drawn from the class of the embedsmann, or public officials, whose profession it was to govern the country as representatives of both the church and the state. This was a class 231

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of people who felt that they were more or less born to rule and that they were superior to most other members of society. While Norway had no nobility, certain families supplied a large number of the embedsmann, and this group of people had a clear sense of entitlement as well as class allegiance. Religion, law, and custom all supported this view, which was thus considered proper and just. The constitution of 1814 provided for a political system where there was a division of power between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the government. In practice, the king’s cabinet, the state administration, and the judiciary, including the Supreme Court, were firmly in the hands of the conservatives, while the influence of the opposition was limited to the arena provided by the periodic meetings of the Storting, which, however, had the power to authorize expenditures. The farmers who were members of the Storting, under such leaders as Ole Gabriel Ueland and especially Søren Jaabæk, tended to focus their resistance to the government of the embedsmann on limiting government expenditures, thus keeping the tax burden, which rested heavily on the farmers, as low as possible. The political struggle in Norway between 1814 and 1884 was thus primarily between the king and his administration on the one hand and the opposition, which mostly worked through the Storting, on the other. As long as the supporters of the administration controlled the Storting, it made sense to the conservatives that cabinet ministers should be able to appear before this body, as this would facilitate communication between parliament and cabinet. The cabinet’s supporters in the Storting also realized that such an arrangement would strengthen the administration, which would be able to participate in debates and thus put persuasive pressure on the people’s elected representatives (it is important to note here that the distinction between members of the Storting and the cabinet ministers is that the former were elected while the latter were not). Sverdrup was originally against giving the members of the cabinet access to the Storting, for he realized that this would shift the balance of power between the parliament and the cabinet in favor of the latter. Such a change would also violate the constitutional principle that there should be a division of power between the three branches of government. Once the Storting was largely in the hands of the opposition, however, Sverdrup’s opinion changed, for he realized that it would be easier to hold the cabinet responsible for its actions if its members could be summoned to appear before the Storting to answer questions and to hear expressions of lack of confidence. Another constitutional change had recently increased the power of the people’s elected representatives, for in 1869, King Carl XV signed the law that provided for annual Storting sessions. While the cabinet wanted to engage in some political maneuvering, its desire was that the cabinet should be given the right to dissolve the Storting, thus forcing new elections to be held, in exchange for consenting to annual Storting sessions.

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In 1870, the Storting voted to bring the cabinet ministers into parliamentary deliberations in order to promote their willingness to act according to the will of the people. On the advice of his cabinet, King Carl XV refused to sign the bill into law, arguing that too little time had passed since the 1869 change to annual Storting sessions and that one should avoid too rapid constitutional changes. In 1872, Sverdrup formulated the goal that drove his political activity for the next 12 years: all political power in Norway was to be located in the Storting, which would turn Norway into a truly modern democracy unfettered by the lingering traditions of the absolute monarchy. Norway’s constitution specifies that bills become law when passed by the Storting and signed by the king, or if they are passed three times by the Storting and if parliamentary elections are held between each of these votes, regardless of whether they are signed by the king. This is referred to as an utsettende veto (suspensive veto), as opposed to an absolute veto, which means that the king could prevent a bill from ever becoming law by vetoing it every time it was passed. When King Carl XV was succeeded by Oscar II as king of Norway and Sweden in 1872, he modified his cabinet structure somewhat, adding a second prime minister located in Christiania (Oslo) to the one whose office was in Stockholm, Sweden. This necessitated a slight modification of the text of a constitutional amendment passed in 1870, which, however, passed the Storting handily in 1873, after which King Oscar II refused to sign it. The same thing happened in 1876 and 1879, which meant that the bill had now met the criteria for becoming law regardless of the king’s veto. The bill was, however, in effect a constitutional amendment, and the administration, under the leadership of Prime Minister Frederik Stang, argued that the veto of postponement only applied to ordinary bills, not amendments to the constitution, where the king had an absolute veto. This conservative argument could be made only because the constitution was silent regarding the matter. Sverdrup and his supporters maintained that this silence indicated that no veto was allowed in the case of constitutional amendments or at least that there was to be no distinction between amendments and regular bills as far as the king’s right to veto was concerned. The class-based argument made by the embedsmann would essentially disable the democratic process by allowing a minority of the voters to hold constitutional amendments hostage. In 1879, when the amendment had been passed three times, the majority of the Storting was in a very difficult situation. If King Oscar II’s veto were allowed to stand unchallenged, that would in essence mean that the Storting had accepted as law the idea that the king had an absolute veto in matters relating to the constitution. Challenging the veto would bring about a constitutional crisis, as it would seriously abrogate the principle of division of power, a cornerstone of Enlightenment thought that had been cherished by the framers of the Norwegian constitution of 1814. To those of a conserva-

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tive bent, this and other Enlightenment ideas were expressions of decency and order, while Sverdrup’s progressive thought was seen as an example of the tyranny of the majority and a refusal to play by existing rules. Committed to what he felt was the true spirit of the Norwegian constitution, Sverdrup therefore proposed that the Storting should formally declare that the bill that was essentially a constitutional amendment passed in 1873, 1876, and 1879 was thus the law of the land. His proposal passed on 9 June 1880 after three days of debate, with 74 votes in favor and 40 against. Stang, exhausted and disgusted with the turn of events, followed the wish of King Oscar II and resigned as prime minister, after which the king appointed Christian Selmer in his place. The Selmer government refused to accept the vote of 9 June 1880 as valid, and the question was now what Sverdrup and his people could do to bring them into compliance with the popular will. The constitution allowed for impeachment (riksrett or “national court” in Norwegian), and specified that the decision to impeach was to be made by the Odelsting, a body consisting of three-fourths of the members of the Storting, while the panel of judges deciding the case was to be comprised of the members of the Lagting, a body made up of one-fourth of the members of the Storting, together with the justices on the Supreme Court. In order to mount a successful impeachment, Sverdrup would therefore need a large enough Storting majority that he could pack the Lagting and still have a comfortable majority in the Odelsting, for it was taken for granted that the Supreme Court justices would side with the cabinet ministers being impeached. Sverdrup did not feel that his parliamentary majority in 1880 was sufficient to impeach the cabinet, and his situation was complicated by the fact that there were not yet any formally organized political parties in Norway. He therefore moved to make the 1882 parliamentary elections a referendum on the vote on 9 June 1880 and the need for impeachment. Norway was in political turmoil, as religious leaders and other conservatives equated Sverdrup’s policies with religious apostasy, political tyranny, and the abandonment of all traditional values. Liberal political associations were formed across the country, and there were rumors that the king was preparing for a coup d’état. These rumors were well founded, for King Oscar II and his prime minister, Selmer, were planning to not adhere to a possible negative decision of the impeachment panel but to allow the cabinet to continue in power with the support of the military. Some conservatives also formed gun clubs, training to defend themselves if necessary. This led to the establishment of a large number of liberal gun clubs that could form the basis for a militia in support of Sverdrup and the majority of the Storting. The 1882 Storting elections were a huge success for Sverdrup, who got the large majority he needed to successfully impeach the cabinet. The main question was what kind of punishment the ministers were to receive. Were

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they simply to lose their posts, or should they also be declared to be without honor and unfit for public service? Sverdrup argued for the latter, but when the decision was made—one minister at a time, beginning with Selmer on 27 February 1884—the sanction was simply loss of position. Sverdrup had nevertheless won on all fronts, and after a briefly serving government headed by Christian Schweigaard, which Sverdrup threatened to also impeach, King Oscar II had to resign himself to naming Sverdrup, the leader of the detested new Liberal Party, prime minister. This happened on 26 June 1884, and the new cabinet met with the Storting for the first time on 2 July 1884. It took some time before the consequences of the events of 1884 were fully understood and accepted. Sverdrup proved unwilling to abide by the political rules that he had helped to establish and remained in power in spite of flagging parliamentary support. In 1889, he resigned after a vote of no confidence had been proposed by the Conservative Party but before the vote was actually taken. Even though 1884 is usually considered the year of parliamentarism’s breakthrough in Norwegian political life, it remained an unwritten rule until incorporated officially into the revised constitution in 2010. PETERSEN, JAN (1946–). Norwegian politician and diplomat. Born in Oslo on 11 June 1946, Petersen earned a law degree at the University of Oslo in 1973 and spent several years in a leadership position in the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation. He served as mayor of the Oppegard municipality from 1975 to 1981, when he was elected a member of the Storting (Parliament), representing the Conservative Party, and was the head of the Conservative Party’s parliamentary caucus from 1994 to 2001. He became the minister of foreign affairs in Prime Minister Kjell Magne Bondevik’s second government, serving from 2001 to 2005. During his tenure, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was heavily criticized for its slow response to the aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. Petersen served as Norway’s ambassador to Austria from 2009 to 2014. PIETISM IN NORWAY. Derived from the Latin word for piety, pietism denotes an emphasis on personal righteous living as opposed to orthodox beliefs. Originating in Germany in the second half of the 17th century, it was a reaction to the ravages of the religious wars. It stresses the individual’s relationship with God and deemphasizes the church as a custodian of salvation. Simultaneously, however, it upholds the idea of the fellowship of believers, but this fellowship tends to be democratic rather than authoritarian. Starting with the ascension of Christian VI (1699–1746) to the throne of Denmark and Norway in 1730, pietism had a strong position in the public life of the two countries; for example, Ludvig Holberg suspended his writing of comedies for many years. A second wave of pietism swept across

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Norway starting in 1796, when Hans Nilsen Hauge had the religious experience that set the tone for his life. The Haugeans, as his followers were called, became very influential, both politically and economically. Pietism often allied itself with those who opposed the use of alcoholic beverages, and in western Norway, there has been an association between pietists and users of Nynorsk (New Norwegian), the written language first created by Ivar Aasen. Some aspects of pietism can be observed in the charismatic movement in 20th-century Norwegian religion. POLITICAL PARTIES. See CHRISTIAN DEMOCRATIC PARTY; COASTAL PARTY; CONSERVATIVE PARTY; GREEN PARTY; LABOR DEMOCRATS; LABOR PARTY; LIBERAL LEFT PARTY; LIBERAL PARTY; MODERATE LIBERAL PARTY; NORWAY’S COMMUNIST PARTY; NORWAY’S SOCIAL-DEMOCRATIC LABOR PARTY; NORWEGIAN NATIONAL SOCIALIST PARTY; PROGRESS PARTY; RED; RED ELECTORAL ALLIANCE; SOCIALIST LEFT PARTY; SOCIALIST PEOPLE’S PARTY; UNITED PARTY; WORKERS’ COMMUNIST PARTY. POPPE, ERIK (1960–). Norwegian film director, producer, screenwriter, cinematographer, and news photographer, born in Oslo, 24 June 1960. Following a short career as a news photographer, he applied to study filmmaking at the Stockholm University of the Arts (Dramatiska Institutet) and graduated as a cinematographer in 1991. A filmmaker with a strong theoretical and academic eye, he earned a PhD in 2015 from the Norwegian Film School at the University College Inland, Lillehammer, Norway, on a dissertation titled Objektivets Subjektivitet (The Subjective Objective). The study examines how a narrative film can increase an audience’s emotional empathy for a protagonist by providing a strong personal point of view. He applied the technique in several of his films, most notably the 2013 production A Thousand Times Goodnight, his first English-language film, a partially autobiographical film based on Poppe’s experience as a war photographer. Poppe made his directorial debut with the film SCHPAAA in 1998. Filmed in a documentary style, SCHPAAA examined the youth gang milieu in Oslo. Along with two other films on urban subcultures, Hawaii, Oslo (2004) and deUSYNLIGE (tr. Troubled Water, 2008), critics have labeled the three films as Poppe’s “Oslo Trilogy.” In 2016, Poppe further explored his theory of subjectivity with a film based on three days in April 1940 at the outbreak of World War II, Kongens Nei (tr. The King’s Choice). The film focuses on the role of King Haakon VII as he is faced with the ultimatum from the invading German army to accept the occupation and appoint Vidkun Quisling as prime minister. With

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the German forces hunting him down following his harrowing escape from Oslo in the early morning hours of 9 April 1940, the king, his family, his advisors, and the legal government of the country are faced with an existential dilemma of surrender or resist the overwhelming power of the German Wehrmacht. The film set attendance records in Norway and made the short list for the best foreign-language film for the 2017 competition of the American Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, the Oscars. Less uplifting but no less subjective is Poppe’s unique film from 2018, UTØYA 22. Juli, based on the horrific terrorist events of 22 July 2011 on the island of Utøya, when a Norwegian terrorist exploded a bomb in downtown Oslo, then attacked the Labor Party youth camp in the outskirts of Oslo, killing 77 people. The film presents the stark reality of a young woman at the camp as she struggles to stay alive while looking for her sister as the massacre unfolds around her. A daring, yet highly regarded filmmaker, Erik Poppe has been awarded the Norwegian Film Critics Prize four times for Hawaii, Oslo, Troubled Water, A Thousand Times Goodnight, and The King’s Choice. Each of these films was also chosen as the best feature film in the year it was nominated. See also CINEMA. PROGRESS PARTY. Fremskrittspartiet (FrP) was established in 1973 as Anders Langes Parti til sterk nedsettelse av skatter, avgifter og offentlige inngrep (Anders Lange’s Party for Strong Reduction of Taxes, Fees, and Public Involvement), which was known simply as Anders Lange’s Party. Carl I. Hagen led a splinter group named Reformpartiet (Reform Party) in 1974; however, the two factions united in 1975. The party adopted its current name in 1977. In 1985, it got two representatives in the Storting (Parliament) and used them to help provide a vote of no confidence against Kåre Willoch’s coalition government in 1986. Hagen became the head of the Progress Party in 1978, but it was only in 1987 that he chanced on the issue that was to propel him and his party to stardom in the Norwegian political firmament. The issue was immigration from non-European countries, and Hagen diligently fanned the flame of xenophobia, suggesting that Muslim immigrants were threatening Norway’s Christian religious foundation. While support for the party has fluctuated a great deal, Hagen made it a force to be reckoned with, and it came through the 2005 parliamentary election as Norway’s second-largest party, only behind Labor. Typically, Progress Party advances have taken place in tandem with Conservative Party decline, and there is reason to believe that, initially, the two parties competed, in part, for the same group of voters. Hagen retired as party head in 2006 and was succeeded by Siv Jensen. Under Jensen’s leadership, the party joined the governing coalition with the Conservative Party in 2013, and Jensen was appointed minister of finance in the

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government of Erna Solberg. The Progress Party remained in coalition with the Conservatives following the 2017 election and the reconstituted Solberg government. Siv Jensen continued as finance minister while five other Progress Party members were appointed to cabinet positions. These included health and care services; justice and public security; petroleum and energy; trade, industry, and fisheries; and transport and communications.

Q QUISLING, VIDKUN ABRAHAM LAURITZ JONSSØN (1887–1945). Norwegian politician and military officer. Born on 18 July 1887 in Fyresdal, Telemark County, to the clergyman Jon Lauritz Quisling, Quisling attended Latin school in Drammen and the War College of the Norwegian army (Krigsskolen), from which he graduated in 1911 as its top student of all time, later rising to the rank of major. In the 1920s, he assisted Fridtjof Nansen in his efforts to save millions of starving people in the Soviet Union, after which he served as minister of defense in the Agrarian Party governments of Peder Kolstad (1931–32) and Jens Hundseid (1932–33). On 13 May 1933, he was one of two organizers of the Norwegian National Socialist Party (Nasjonal Samling; NS), of which he became the leader (Fører) modeled after the German Fuhrer, the title used by Adolf Hitler. While initially garnering some support, NS lost most of it as it became increasingly proGermany and anti-Semitic. When Germany attacked Norway on the morning of 9 April 1940, Quisling attempted a coup d’état, which he announced on the radio that evening, arguing that the Norwegian government headed by Prime Minister Johan Nygaardsvold had abandoned the city and abdicated its responsibilities. He also unsuccessfully ordered the Norwegian armed forces to stop their resistance to the invasion. Quisling had the support of Hitler, with whom he had met on 18 December 1839. The civilian leadership of the German invasion did not support Quisling’s coup, however, instead trying to establish an appearance of political legitimacy by acknowledging the authority of an administrative council established by the Norwegian Supreme Court under the leadership of Paal Berg. When Josef Terboven was named commissioner for Norway by Hitler on 24 April 1940, there was a protracted power struggle between him and Quisling, although Terboven named him the political leader of a new provisional government on 25 September 1940. On 1 February 1942, Terboven accepted a change that made Quisling ministerpræsident, or prime minister, in a permanent government that consisted mostly of members of the NS, which was the only legal political party in Norway at the time. Quisling served in this 239

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role until his arrest on 9 May 1945 and governed with considerable independence, even though Terboven retained control. Most of Quisling’s actions were completely in line with German policy, although he had hoped to have Norwegian national sovereignty transferred from the occupants to his government, but this did not happen. Quisling was found guilty of treason, sentenced to death, and executed by firing squad on 24 October 1945.

R RED. Rødt is a political party formed in 2007 by an alliance between the former Workers’ Communist Party (AKP) and the Red Electoral Alliance. Red considers itself a revolutionary, democratic, and socialist party seeking to replace capitalism with a socialist society and the nationalization of large business. Its youth organization is Red Youth, formerly the youth organization of both the Socialist People’s Party and the AKP. The party received 2.4 percent of the national vote in the 2017 parliamentary election, giving them a single seat, which is held by the party leader Bjørnar Moxnes (1981–). The party supports a green agenda, a more egalitarian society, and a six-hour workday in order to expand employment opportunities. RED ELECTORAL ALLIANCE. The Rød Valgallianse (RV) was combined with the Workers’ Communist Party in 2007, with Red being the name of the new party. RV had a single representative in the Storting (Parliament) between 1993 and 1997 and also had some influence in local politics. A revolutionary, democratic, and socialistic party, RV was particularly concerned about the dominance of Microsoft products in the high-tech industry and actively promoted the operating system Linux as a democratic alternative to those provided by Microsoft. REFORM ASSOCIATION. Established by Johan Sverdrup and Ole Gabriel Ueland in 1859, the Reform Association (Reformforeningen), in which rural representatives could work together with liberal city members of the Storting (Parliament), was not a political party but helped pave the way for the development of parties in the 1880s. It is the first significant attempt at developing a caucus-like forum for cooperation among like-minded members of the Storting. Some of the most important issues of common interest that the Reform Association promoted were Norwegian equality with Sweden within the union, annual sessions of the Storting, a jury law that would allow lay judges in criminal cases, and improvement of the local government system. Sverdrup had hoped that the members of the Reform Association would commit to vote according to the will of the group’s majority, but this kind of 241

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party unity was too much for many members, and the group was short lived. Many points on its agenda resulted in pathbreaking legislation, however. For example, annual sessions of the Storting were held starting in 1869, the jury law was passed in 1887, and the dissolution of the union with Sweden was achieved in 1905. REFORMATION. When the Roman Catholic Church was raising funds for the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome early in the 16th century, one of the tools it used was the sale of indulgences, certificates of sin cancellation, which assured their purchasers that they would not have to spend time after death in purgatory, there to be cleansed of the sins they had committed subsequent to purchasing the indulgences. The German Roman Catholic monk Martin Luther objected to this practice, and in 1517 he formulated his objections in 95 written theses, or statements, that he affixed to the door of the castle church in Wittenberg, Germany. This event marked the beginning of the Lutheran Reformation in northern Europe. The tremendous changes brought about by the Reformation were not just caused by the thinking of a single individual, however. The church had managed to not only consolidate its power as an institution that existed separately from the worldly state but even to claim power over the various heads of state in Europe according to the basic principles of feudalism. Along with the church’s victory over the state, there was a general relaxation of spiritual discipline, and many people felt that the church needed to reform itself from within. As Luther’s original demand for an internal self-reformation of the church went unheeded, the heads of state in northern Europe, including Denmark and Norway, saw an opportunity for temporal and political advancement. In Norway, ownership of and income from some of the monasteries were soon turned over to men appointed by the king, although with the proviso that they had an obligation to support the resident monks and nuns. In 1536, the Lutheran Reformation was introduced officially in Denmark and Norway as the Danish council of the realm and a meeting of the estates determined that bishops were to be imprisoned and their offices abolished. Roman Catholic bishops were replaced with government appointees, so-called superintendents; farmland and other properties of the church were transferred to the crown; and the liturgy and other practices of the church were changed. Objects of value were taken from individual churches, and icons were destroyed. While outwardly the Reformation could be imposed by force (e.g., through the power of King Christian III), it took two or three generations before the mentality of the people was changed significantly. Most of the Catholic priests were allowed to continue in their positions and were only gradually replaced by trained Lutheran clergymen. While the organizational superstructure of the church had changed, on the parish level, things went on much

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as before. Gradually, however, married priests with families replaced the celibate Catholic clergy. Sermons were preached in Danish, a language that Norwegian farmers could mostly understand, rather than in Latin. The idea that forgiveness of sin comes through a specific ecclesiastical process was replaced by a sense that personal faith was the crucial element of religious life. The Reformation undoubtedly led to a reduced sense of social and spiritual stability and a general slackening of moral life. There were fewer priests than before, and as family men, the new ones had personal and economic responsibilities that demanded much of their attention. The greatest cultural advance associated with the Reformation, however, was no doubt that it led to an increase in general literacy. Lutherans are taught to read the scriptures, so the New Testament was translated into Danish in 1524, while the entire Bible was available by 1550. Other religious and secular books soon became available, and thus the Reformation led to the kind of widespread literacy that is a foundation for the development of a true democracy. RELIGION. Judging from petroglyphs found throughout the country, Paleolithic Norway may have had a simple religion in which various forces of nature, including human and animal fertility, were worshipped. While some conclusions can be drawn from archeological finds and information provided by such writers as Tacitus and Ibn Fadlan, the best sources of Viking-age religion do not appear until the 13th century, when Snorri Sturluson composed his Prose Edda. At that time, Norway had been at least nominally a Christian country for more than 200 years. Snorri’s work and other written sources from the same time period make it clear, however, that Viking Norway knew a large number of gods as well as other supernatural beings and that there were established local and regional cults where these deities were worshipped. Norwegian farmers were particularly fond of Thor, who, as the lord of thunder and lightning, also had power over the weather. Odin was the god of war and poetry, while Frey and his sister Freya were the most important fertility deities. The coming of Christianity brought not only a belief system that had been known for centuries throughout Europe prior to its arrival in Norway but also a strong central church organization and a literary tradition that is one of Christianity’s major contributions to Norwegian life. Many of the old religious ideas persisted, however. The white Christ was seen as a warrior king whose enemies were both the devil and evil in general, while the early Norwegian conception of the devil shows that he had taken on some of Odin’s characteristics. Some of the roles played by Freya in pre-Christian times were transferred to the Virgin Mary, for example, assistance in childbirth. While Christianity became Norway’s official religion soon after the death of Saint Olaf in 1030, it took considerable time before the popular

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belief system caught up with the doctrines of the church. As that process advanced, people gradually gained a sense of stability in their lives as they qualified for the salvation of their souls by taking part in the rituals and other practices of the church. While the power of the state, embodied in that of the king, had clearly played an important role when Norway made the transition from paganism to Christianity, the Reformation in Norway was largely accomplished through royal fiat. As King Christian III in 1536 looted the wealth of the church in order to pay off his mercenaries, there was little concern with the religious feelings of common men and women. Because the former Roman Catholic priests were in most cases allowed to keep their positions, however, the spiritual dislocation was probably less than what might have been the case under a harsher policy toward the priests. Lutheran theology only gradually replaced Roman Catholic teachings in the services and practices of the new State Church, and it took even longer before popular religious conceptions were significantly affected. Gradually, Roman Catholic doctrine was relegated to the category of the superstitious and could be used only clandestinely, as, for example, in the chants and charms used by wise women and other popular healers. Still, by the end of Norway’s union with Denmark, there is no question that Norway had truly become a Lutheran country. This is demonstrated, for example, by the paragraph in the 1814 constitution that prohibited Jesuits and Jews from entering the realm. The danger to the Lutheran State Church was no longer residual Roman Catholic belief but the possibility that common men might take the word of God into their own hands, thus diminishing the power of the professional clergy. This had happened in 1797, when Hans Nilsen Hauge set out to spread his pietistic gospel of sin, redemption, and the individual’s need to develop a close personal relationship with the deity. In spite of the persecutions and imprisonments to which he was subjected, his movement gained such force that it became literally unstoppable. Hauge did not advise his followers to leave the State Church, but other religious enthusiasts did, becoming dissenters from the true faith. Among them were Norwegian prisoners of war who had been befriended by English Quakers while in captivity during the Napoleonic Wars and brought the faith with them when they returned home. Norwegian Quakers were given permission to organize themselves in 1818 but were still legally obligated to be christened, confirmed, married, and buried according to the rituals of the State Church. This situation created obvious problems, and individual exceptions were made. However, the question of religious freedom was debated by the Storting (Parliament) throughout the 1830s. The year 1842 saw the repeal of the law called Konventikkelplakaten (Conventicle Notice), which regulated religious assemblies and stated that no religious meeting could be held without the

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express permission of the local State Church minister. In 1845, the Storting passed the Dissenter Act, according to which all Christian churches and groups, not just the Lutheran State Church, had the right to free exercise of religion. On the other hand, it was leading State Church theologians who would serve as expert witnesses when the courts had to determine which groups were Christians and which were not. Hauge’s activity as a lay preacher was connected with the rationalist spirit that held sway in the State Church around 1800 and caused its leaders to be critical of popular pietism. Later Lutheran theologians, on the other hand, worked to make pietism a characteristic of the church itself. This is, to some extent, the case with ministers like Lars Oftedal and even more so with Gisle Johnson, the professor of theology who in 1855 organized the Christiania Indremissionsforening (Christiania Society for the Inner Mission) and founded Den norske Lutherstiftelse (the Norwegian Luther Foundation) in 1868. In 1891, the latter changed its name to Det norske lutherske Indremisjonsselskap (the Norwegian Lutheran Society for Inner Mission), commonly just known as the Inner Mission, and was enormously influential all over Norway, sending its emissaries to hold meetings in even the most out-of-theway and hard-to-reach communities. The spirit cultivated by the Inner Mission was put on display in 1907 when the appointment of a liberal theologian to a professorship at the Royal Frederik’s University (now the University of Oslo) School of Theology precipitated the organization of a conservative educational institution, Det teologiske Menighetsfakultetet (MF; the Norwegian School of Theology; literally, the School of Theology of the Congregations), which became a guardian of both Lutheran orthodoxy and the spirit of pietism. A similar degree of commitment informed the many Norwegian missionary activities in foreign lands. Det Norske Misjonsselskap (the Norwegian Mission Society) had been started as early as 1842, Den Norske Santalmisjon (the Norwegian Santal Mission) was formed in 1867, and Det Norske Kinamissionsforbund (the Norwegian China Mission League) was formed in 1891. These organizations operated within the bounds of Lutheran theology. The increasing secularization of Norwegian society throughout the 20th century led to both less public support for the State Church and an increase in the number of, and support for, dissenter groups. Den Evangelisk Lutherske Frikirke (the Evangelical Lutheran Free Church), a Lutheran church where each congregation is led by a pastor and governed by a council of elders, had been formed in 1877 because of dissatisfaction with the control and practices of the State Church. The first Norwegian Baptist congregation was organized in 1860, while the first Norwegian congregation of the Seventh-day Adventists was formed in Christiania (now Oslo) in 1879. The Pentecostal movement established itself in Norway in 1907, and gradually other charismatic groups came into being, including Det Norske Misjonsforbund (the Norwe-

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gian Mission League), which does not require its members to leave the State Church. The Salvation Army began its work in Norway in 1888. These groups did their work partly in cooperation with the State Church but mostly in opposition to it. As much of the religious energy in Norway went to the dissenter organizations rather than to the State Church itself, attendance at Sunday services declined, even though nonattending members would still come to it for christenings, confirmations, marriages, and funerals. There was also an increasing number of agnostics and atheists in the country, and some of them organized themselves into such associations as the Human-Etisk Forbund (League of Secular Humanists), which got its start in 1956, and Det norske Hedningesamfunn (the Norwegian Society of Heathens), formed in 1974. In the 1960s, there were two major changes to the legislation governing the exercise of religion in Norway. Complete freedom of religion for all, not just Christians, was constitutionally guaranteed in 1964, and state financial support of all registered churches and livssynssamfunn (philosophy of life societies) was established in 1969. This leveling of the playing field has led to increased pluralism and tolerance in religious matters, especially as other world religions, including Islam, have made themselves increasingly visible in Norwegian society. On 1 January 2017, the Church of Norway was formally separated from the state and established as an independent institution. More than 70 percent of Norwegians, however, remain as members of the Lutheran Church. Other religious organizations that practice their faiths freely in Norway are Catholics, Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs, Mormons, Jews, and Buddhists. Approximately 13 percent of Norwegians are not members of any religious community. Secularization and religious pluralism seem to get along well in Norway. See also FREETHINKER. RINNAN, HENRY OLIVER (1915–1947). Norwegian war criminal. Born in Levanger, Trøndelag County, on 14 May 1915, he became a German agent soon after the invasion on 9 April 1940. Having established a group, the socalled Rinnanbanden (Rinnan Gang), he infiltrated Norwegian resistance activities and turned the names of the participants over to the Germans. Later, he got authority to carry out his own questioning of suspected resistance workers, several hundred of whom were tortured, while as many as 80 were killed. Rinnan was arrested while trying to flee to Sweden shortly after the German capitulation. Sentenced to death for his murders during the war, he was executed by firing squad on 1 February 1947. See also WORLD WAR II. RØD VALGALLIANSE. See RED ELECTORAL ALLIANCE.

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RØDT. See RED. RØISELAND, BENT (1902–1981). Norwegian politician. Born in Holme, Vest-Agder County, on 11 October 1902, Røiseland was the first farmer to become the head of the Liberal Party and Norway’s first politician to become a media celebrity. He served as a member of the Storting (Parliament) between 1945 and 1973 and was the leader of the Liberals from 1952 to 1964. He was a spiritual heir to the low-church movement and was deeply committed to matters of religion, particularly the Inner Mission, as well as to abstinence from alcohol and the use of Nynorsk (New Norwegian). Very popular even among those who did not share his political views, he was a candidate for prime minister in 1965, when the Conservative Party, the Christian Democratic Party, the Center Party, and the Liberal Party agreed to form a coalition government. While the Conservatives had approximately twice as many seats in the Storting as any of the other three parties, the other three agreed that the prime minister should not come from the Conservatives. When they could not agree which of the three parties should supply him, however, the two prime candidates were Røiseland and Per Borten; the Conservatives threw their support behind Borten, whom they considered more reliably conservative than Røiseland. Røiseland was one of the members of the Liberal Party who broke away and formed the New Left People’s Party in 1972. RØLVAAG, OLE EDEVART (1876–1931). Norwegian novelist. Born on 22 April 1876 in Dønna, Nordland County, Rølvaag lived in the United States while writing novels in Norwegian. His work thus belongs to both Norwegian and American literature and is studied and taught in both countries and in their respective languages. While growing up, he worked as a fisherman for many years before immigrating to South Dakota. After attending Augustana Academy and St. Olaf College, he did graduate work at the University of Oslo and then returned to St. Olaf as a teacher of Norwegian. As an immigrant himself, Rølvaag was in a unique position to both understand and interpret the experience of his fellow Norwegians in America, and several novels written between 1912 and 1921 offer insights into both their material and emotional struggles. His masterpiece, however, was written on the occasion of the centenary of organized emigration from Norway to America, commemorated in 1925. Titled I de dage (1925; tr. In Those Days), it was followed by Riket grundhegges (1925; tr. The Kingdom Is Founded); the two volumes were translated by Lincoln Colcord and published as Giants in the Earth: A Saga of the Prairie (1927). Two additional volumes in the series, Peder Seier (1928; tr. Peder Victorious, 1929) and Den signede dag (1931; tr. Their Fathers’ God, 1931) were completed before the author’s

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untimely death from heart disease. Rølvaag also wrote short stories as well as a book of essays that argued for cultural preservation, Omkring fædrearven (1922; tr. Concerning Our Heritage, 1998). RØNNEBERG, JOACHIM HOLMBOE (1919–2018). Norwegian army officer and resistance fighter in World War II. He led the sabotage team of Operation Gunnerside, which blew up the heavy water production equipment at the Vemork hydroelectric plant in Telemark, Norway, during the night of 27–28 February 1943. Having escaped from Norway to Britain following the occupation by German forces, Rønneberg joined the Norwegian Independent Company 1, also known as the Linge Company, named for its founder Martin Linge. As a result of his wartime exploits, Rønneberg was awarded Norway’s highest decoration for military gallantry, the War Cross with Sword. In addition, he was awarded the St. Olaf Medal with Oak Branch. Following the war, he joined NRK, the Norwegian Broadcasting Company, where he worked as a broadcaster, program secretary, and editor. He was the last surviving member of the sabotage team known popularly as “the heroes of Telemark.”

S SAINT OLAF (995–1030). Norwegian king, later canonized. Also known as King Olaf II Haraldsson of Norway, Olaf was the son of Harald Grenske, the great-grandchild of Harald Fairhair. After several years’ absence as a Viking warrior in England and France, he returned to Norway in 1015 to claim the throne, supported by several local kings in the area to the north of Oslo. In 1016, he defeated Earl Svein, who was based in Trøndelag and was the ruler in a large part of the country, in the Battle of Nesjar in the Oslo fjord. He later successfully gained control both of the coast and some of the interior valleys, ruling the entire land of Norway in a more real sense than any of his predecessors and Christianizing the inhabitants by force. He also asserted his dominion in the islands to the west and carried out a successful raid against Denmark. In 1028, he had to flee Norway for Russia, however, as the Norwegian chieftains, whose power he had curtailed, overthrew him with the support of the Danish-English king Knut the Great. When Olaf returned two years later, crossing the border from Sweden and marching down through Verdalen in the area of Trøndelag, he was met by a large army of peasants. According to the sagas written by Snorri Sturluson, a battle between Olaf’s 3,600 men and the 7,000-man-strong peasant army took place at Stiklestad, and Olaf died from wounds received there. His body was secretly buried in Nidaros (Trondheim), and when it was exhumed a year later, it was claimed that both his hair and his fingernails had grown. Soon miracles associated with his remains were reported, and he was beatified a year after his death, becoming Norway’s eternal king, the rex perpetuum Norvegiae, as well as Scandinavia’s most important saint. Olaf was canonized by the Eastern Orthodox Church shortly before the Great Schism in 1054, and his canonization in the Western church was confirmed by Pope Alexander III in 1164. He thus became both a central symbol of Norwegian national unity as well as a major figure in the medieval Roman Catholic Church. Adam of Bremen writes in his Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclasia Pontificum (1070 CE) that pilgrimages to Saint Olaf’s shrine in Nidaros (Trondheim) were already being undertaken by pious Christians. Numerous churches were dedicated to him in Norway, Sweden, and Russia. Churches dedicated to Saint Olaf were also built in 249

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York (mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 1055 CE), in London, and in Rome, where there is a chapel of Saint Olaf in the basilica of Sant’Ambrogio e Carlo al Corso. SAMI. Previously known commonly as Lapps. The Sami people have traditionally lived in the interior of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia, as well as next to the fjords of northern Norway. Although comprising parts of four countries today, Sami lands traditionally covered a wide area called Sápmi. The Norwegian Sami population is usually divided into two groups, the northern Sami, who have inhabited all of northern Norway, and the southern Sami, whose territory historically stretched from Trøndelag to Hedmark. There are two additional groups, a very small number of Skolte-Sami people living in the community of Neiden at the end of the Varanger fjord in eastern Finnmark, and a Lule Sami population in Tysfjord, Nordland County. The Sami language is not a single language but a language group that encompasses 11 languages across Sápmi. Most Sami speak the national language of the nation-state in which they live. Three Sami languages are spoken in Norway: North Sami, Lule Sami, and South Sami. Of the three Sami languages spoken in Norway, North Sami is the most common. The Sami have typically made a living from reindeer herding, hunting, fishing, and (in the case of the fjord Sami) smallscale agriculture. Modern genetic research has indicated that the ancestors of the Sami hail from the Iberian Peninsula, not from Siberia as was earlier believed, and that they are more closely related to other Europeans than to any other population group. Their core cultural area of Sápmi was long claimed simultaneously by Norway, Sweden, and Russia, and the Sami were at times taxed by all three states. As the national borders were established, Norway’s Sami population was put under great pressure to give up its language, religion, and unique way of life. While Thomas von Westen, the great Christian missionary to the Sami, believed that they should be taught the true religion in their own language, his successors did not, and Christianity was used as a tool to make the Sami Norwegian. As Norway’s educational system developed, Sami children were compelled to attend schools at which they were taught in a language they could not understand. It was only as late as 1959 that the law was changed so as to permit Sami children to be taught in their native tongue. The Norwegian government’s policy vis-à-vis the Sami has changed significantly during the post–World War II era. The Sami are now recognized as an aboriginal people, an elected Sami assembly (Sametinget) has been established, and their traditional rights to the land they have inhabited for thousands of years has begun to become codified. In 1986, a Sami flag was designed as the common symbol for all Sami people. With the vibrant colors red and blue forming the field and divided by a green and a yellow stripe, these are overlaid by a circle in red and blue symbolizing the sun and moon.

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The Norwegian government recognized the flag in 2003, although it is not a national flag. When the Storting (Parliament) passed the Finnmark Act in 2005, property rights to land and water in Finnmark County were legally transferred back to the Sami people, which it recognized, through “protracted traditional use,” as having “acquired individual and/or collective ownership and right to use lands and waters in Finnmark County.” Sami life and culture have deep roots and rich traditions. The traditional art of the Sami is called duodji. A traditional cultural expression, it includes artistic and regular handicraft, with finished products such as knives, bowls, and ornamental objects made from reindeer antlers, bone, birchwood, fur, and sealskin, among other materials. Political changes in the 20th century also encouraged cultural opportunities in Norway. Sami studies at universities and colleges have expanded scholarship and encouraged education, allowing for traditional Sami culture to find expression in modern life. Traditional Sami music, especially the joik, has always been a conscious marker of Sami identity. Among other things, the joik is a way of remembering friends and loved ones. Since the 1970s, the joik has also served as an inspiration for modern musical expression. Among the most prominent exponents of the joik in Norway are Mari Boine (1956–) and Nils-Aslak Valkeapää (1943–2001). Valkeapää was awarded the Nordic Council’s Prize for Literature in 1991 for Beaivvi Áhčážan (The Sun, My Father). Sami oral literature has a long tradition in legends, tales, and joik lyrics. Johan Turi (1854–1936) was the first author to publish a secular work in the Sami language, Muitalus sámiid birra (1910; An Account of the Sami). Sami history and culture were also the focus of two feature films by Sami filmmaker Nils Gaup. In 1987, he wrote and directed the film Pathfinder, based on an old Sami legend about attacks by the robber people, the Tjudes, on the Sami. In 2008, he also wrote and directed the story of a Sami uprising in 1852, against the unjust treatment by merchants and Norwegian authorities, The Kautokeino Rebellion. See also CINEMA; MEDIA. SAMLINGSPARTIET. See UNITED PARTY. SCANDINAVIANISM. Prominent around the middle of the 19th century, the movement of Scandinavianism emphasized the similarities in language, culture, and origin among Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Some of its roots can be traced back to the ideas of national romanticism, when the movement’s proponents sought to strengthen the ties that already bound the three countries to each other. For example, there were some who hoped that Denmark would join the already-existing union between Norway and Sweden and that this expanded union would increase the security of the three countries vis-à-vis Germany and Russia. This hope had much currency dur-

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ing the years of conflict between Denmark and Prussia, but Denmark’s defeat in 1864, after a war in which Denmark received no assistance from the governments of Norway and Sweden, brought it to an end. Norway’s dissolution of the union with Sweden in 1905 also created bitter feelings. Intellectuals and students were generally among the more ardent proponents of Scandinavianism; these included, for example, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Henrik Ibsen, and Marcus Jacob Monrad. SCHWEIGAARD, ANTON MARTIN (1808–1870). Norwegian politician and legal scholar. Born in Kragerø on 11 April 1808, Schweigaard became an orphan at the age of 10 and as a youth worked in a variety of jobs. His great academic ability soon became evident, however, and he attended the Latin school in Skien, from which he graduated with the highest marks ever given in Norway. A member of Johan Sebastian Welhaven’s circle in the 1830s, he argued in favor of maintaining strong cultural connections with Denmark, which he regarded as Norway’s gateway to European culture. After earning a law degree at the university in Christiania (now Oslo) in 1832, he studied abroad for two years, became a lecturer and later professor of law at the university, and wrote on political economy and jurisprudence. A strong believer in economic liberalism and capitalism, he nevertheless believed that the state must actively regulate the economy for the betterment of society as a whole. Through these ideas, he had a great impact on the development of Norwegian economic and social life. Schweigaard was elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1842, serving until 1869. Conservative by nature, he believed that the embedsmann (public official) class needed to take the lead in society in cooperation with the middle class and that these leaders had a paternalistic responsibility vis-àvis the farmers and the rest of the population. An optimist, he believed in social, economic, and technological progress through wise management and the appropriate deployment of resources, but also that social discipline was necessary to promote the common good. He took a middle position in the struggle between free trade and protectionism, holding that free trade should in principle be maintained but that pragmatic exceptions must be made. For example, the state was to receive a monopoly in the areas of telegraph and mail, while Norway’s first railroad, opened in 1854, was a joint publicprivate venture. At the time of his death on 1 February 1870, Schweigaard enjoyed perhaps greater respect and admiration than any of his Norwegian contemporaries. Shortly thereafter, the poet and journalist Aasmund Olafsson Vinje wrote a lengthy essay in which, in the context of a survey of the cultural struggle in Norway from 1830 to 1870, he summed up Schweigaard’s contribution. Vinje’s judgment was that Schweigaard had not been sufficiently idealistic. This may very well be true, at least from Vinje’s point of view, but one of

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Schweigaard’s main contributions to Norwegian intellectual development in the 19th century was surely his ability to move beyond idealism to a pragmatism that presages the political choices made by Norway in the 20th century. SEIP, HELGE LUNDE (1919–2004). Norwegian politician and newspaper editor. Born in Surnadal, Møre and Romsdal County, on 5 March 1919, Seip was educated at the University of Oslo, receiving a degree in economics in 1941 and a law degree in 1942. After holding government positions in the Department of Trade and the Central Bureau of Statistics, he became political editor of the Oslo daily Dagbladet (Daily Paper), which was then affiliated with the Liberal Party, in 1954 and served as its editor in chief from 1958 to 1965. He represented Oslo in the Storting (Parliament) on the Liberal Party ticket in 1954–61 and 1965–73. Between 1970 and 1973, he also chaired the Liberal Party parliamentary caucus. From 1965 to 1970, he served as minister of local government in the coalition government headed by Per Borten, in which the Conservatives, Christian Democrats, and Liberals participated, along with Borten’s own Center Party. Both as an editor and as a politician, Seip was a spokesperson for the culturally radical wing of the Liberal Party, which has traditionally had its center of gravity in the capital city and in eastern Norway. The west coast wing, which traces its roots to lowchurch movements, opposition to the use of alcohol, and a historical commitment to the use of Nynorsk (New Norwegian), Seip found, at times, to be exasperating. When Norwegian participation in the European Community became a major issue in 1972, Seip came out in favor of full membership. As party chair from 1970 to 1972, he bucked the majority of his own party, which vehemently opposed joining. At an extraordinary party convention held at Røros in 1972, Seip led a group of prominent Liberal Party members who broke with the party and formed the Folkepartiet nye venstre (New Liberal People’s Party), later known as Det Liberale Folkepartiet (the Liberal People’s Party), that supported Norwegian EC membership. This split, which actually went deeper than just the EC issue, as there was disagreement about whether the Liberal Party should have participated in the coalition government, proved a disastrous event for both parties. The mother party quickly lost most of its influence in Norwegian national politics. For example, the party went without a single representative in the Storting for a period of eight years, and the daughter party never gained any influence, eventually joining forces with the Liberals again in 1988. Seip, however, was a very colorful figure who later served as a muchappreciated TV election commentator. He worked for the Nordic Council from 1973 to 1977, served as editor in chief for the newspaper Norges Han-

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dels- og Sjøfartstidende (Norwegian Commerce and Shipping News) from 1977 to 1980, and was the founding director of Datatilsynet (the Data Inspectorate), which guards people’s right to privacy in the digital age. SELMER, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1816–1889). Norwegian politician. Born in Fredrikshald, Østfold County, on 16 November 1816, Selmer served as a Conservative Party member of the Storting (Parliament) from 1871 to 1874 and as a cabinet minister from 1874 to 1880, heading the Department of Defense and the Department of Justice. When Frederik Stang resigned as prime minister in 1880, King Oscar II selected Selmer to take his place. Selmer was a competent administrator but lacked the flexibility and breadth of vision necessary for him to successfully deal with the political challenges of the early 1880s. Johan Sverdrup, the leader of the opposition in the Storting, was preparing to impeach the cabinet, thus laying the groundwork for the introduction of parliamentarism in Norwegian political life. Selmer, like his predecessor Stang, stubbornly refused to yield to the wishes of a substantial popular and parliamentary majority. He and the rest of his government were impeached and convicted, beginning with Selmer himself on 27 February 1884. SENTERPARTIET. See CENTER PARTY. SHIPPING. Norway has been a seafaring nation at least since Viking times, and the coastal population has been thoroughly familiar with boats of various sizes used for fishing and transportation. The Vikings even had a particular type of vessel, the knarr, that was wider and deeper than the longship and that was thus very well suited to activities involving trade and transport. Norway’s lengthy decline after the arrival of the Black Death manifested itself in its shipping traditions as well as in all other areas of national life. In the early 1600s, most trade involving Norway was carried on foreign ships. The city of Bergen had an oceangoing fleet, but it was not until 1670 that a national fleet can be seen, and it consisted of only approximately 240 ships. By 1696, the fleet had quadrupled in size, and most of the new ships had been built in Norway. There soon was a decline, however, as trade conditions worsened, followed by another upswing between 1750 and 1800. Another significant change took place at this time, too, for Norwegian ships no longer carried goods only to and from Norway but between third-party countries as well. The shipping fleet grew rapidly starting in the 1820, and by 1878 it was the third-largest in the world. The British repeal of the Navigation Acts in 1849 led to golden times for Norway’s merchant fleet, and so did the steady growth in world trade and the gradual spread of free competition. Norwegian

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ships were usually owned by several individuals together, and a single individual might have an interest in many different ships. Most of the ships continued to be sailing vessels, except for those based in Bergen; the Bergen fleet was largely converted to steam by the end of the 1870s. At the beginning of the 20th century, the general conversion to steamships was speeding up, and an increasing number of ships were owned by limited liability companies rather than being held by groups of individuals owning a ship together. The large shipping firm was a far more efficient business model, and long-term charter agreements made the shipping business increasingly stable. The ability to safely predict future earnings was also one of the reasons Norwegian shipowners were rapidly able to make the transition from steamships to motor ships in the 1920s and 1930s. The Norwegian merchant fleet was a significant asset to the Allies during World War II, as it was the most modern in the world and was particularly strong in the area of oil tankers. After the war, there was a large increase in container ships as well as larger and more efficient tankers that required smaller crews. By the end of the 1950s, Norwegian ships increasingly hired foreign crew members; however, the officers tended to remain Norwegian. This development continued during the second half of the 20th century. As of 2017, the Norwegian shipping fleet consisted of 1,400 registered ships, totaling 16.42 million gross tons, which was 4.6 percent of the gross tonnage of the world fleet. Approximately 880 of the ships were dry cargo vessels, almost 382 were passenger ships and ferries, and 316 were tankers. In 2016, 659,000 passengers traveled by cruise ship to Norway. With tourism growing, there were 33 million overnight stays registered in 2016, an increase of 5 percent over the previous year. The Norwegian coastal cruise line, Hurtigruten (literally, “the fast/express route”), has achieved world renown and operates 365 days a year along the coast between Bergen and Kirkenes. Originally a transport lifeline for the coastal population, Hurtigruten now serves mostly tourists. In recent years, it has expanded its operations to the Arctic and the Antarctic, as well as the North and South American coasts. In addition, Color Line and Viking Cruise Lines are two well-known Norwegian cruise ship operators. SNØHETTA. A Norwegian architectural and design firm established in 1987, best known for its work in designing the new library in Alexandria, Egypt, and the Norwegian opera house in Oslo. The firm has also designed the new Paris headquarters for Le Monde and Calgary’s new Central Library. Named for the highest mountain in the Dovre mountain plateau region of central Norway, Snøhetta was founded by a group of architects and landscape architects with an environmentally friendly philosophy of integrating the built environment with the landscape in a sustainable manner. The design process is said to be “poetic and pragmatic, where high design works in

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conjunction with sustainable building performance.” Establishing a strong international reputation, Snøhetta’s projects have included the pedestrianized redesign of Times Square in New York; the University of Bergen’s Faculty of Fine Art, Music and Design; and the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art. The firm also won the competition to design the entrances of the new “Stad Ship Tunnel” on Norway’s west coast, which when completed will allow coastal shipping traffic to avoid the dangerous open waters off the coast of the Stad peninsula in stormy weather. In 2010, Snøhetta joined a consortium of architects, engineers, designers, and environmentalists to form Powerhouse, an alliance for building energy-positive projects around the world. SOCIALIST LEFT PARTY. The Sosialistisk Venstreparti (SV) was formed in 1975 after an alliance consisting of the Socialist People’s Party, Norway’s Communist Party (NKP), the Democratic Socialists, and a number of independent socialists gained 16 seats in the Storting (Parliament) in 1973. This alliance was named the Sosialistisk Valgforbund (Socialist Electoral League). During negotiations held in 1975 and aimed at uniting the partners into a single party, however, the NKP broke away and left those remaining to form the SV. The SV is in favor of socialism, environmental protection, and solidarity with the world’s poor. It advocates the repeal of Norwegian membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and increased state ownership of means of production. Representatives of the SV have been accused of making irresponsible statements, for example, that the United States is a terrorist nation and that Israel is a Nazi state. During the parliamentary elections in 2005, SV received 8.8 percent of the popular vote and 15 seats in the Storting. Following the 2005 elections, SV became a member of the government for the first time as it joined with the Labor Party and the Center Party to form a “Red-Green” coalition cabinet headed by Jens Stoltenberg. Kristin Halvorsen, who had headed the party since 1997, was appointed minister of finance, the first woman to ever hold that position. Under Halvorsen, the party maintained a strong socialdemocratic profile with increased emphasis on education and the environment, while opposing expanded oil drilling along the coast of North Norway. In the 2009 parliamentary elections, support for SV declined to 6.2 percent, resulting in the loss of four seats in the Storting. The Red-Green coalition held, however, and Halvorsen became minister of education. SV was also given the portfolio of the environment ministry. Opinion polls began to show further decline of support for SV after the 2009 elections, and in 2012, Halvorsen stepped down as party leader, succeeded by Audun Lysbakken, a former journalist and party activist who also served in the Jens Stoltenberg coalition government as minister of children and equality from 2009 to 2012 when he became party leader. Popular decline continued with the 2013 elec-

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tion, as the party suffered its worst election ever, with 4.1 percent of the vote. SV lost four seats in the 2013 election but retained three, with an additional three seats captured following the 2017 Storting election, when popular support increased to 6 percent of the vote. SOCIALIST PEOPLE’S PARTY. The Sosialistisk Folkeparti (SF) was formed in 1961 by some members of the Labor Party who were unhappy with its foreign policy, particularly its supportive attitude toward the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The 1961 parliamentary election gave the SF two representatives in the Storting (Parliament), Finn Gustavsen and Asbjørn Holm, both of whom were reelected in 1965. The SF used its power to bring down the minority Labor government in 1963, but four weeks later, they voted against the Center-Right coalition that replaced it. The Socialist Youth Federation was the party’s more radical youth group. SOCIALIST YOUTH FEDERATION. The Sosialistisk Ungdomsforbund (SUF), originally named Sosialistisk Ungdomsfylking (Socialist Youth Array), was the youth organization of the Socialist People’s Party. In the middle of the 1960s, its members became increasingly enamored with revolutionary Marxism, being inspired by both Mao Zedong’s China and Enver Hoxha’s Albania, and the SUF broke away from the mother party in 1969. Shortly thereafter, the SUF changed its name to Sosialistisk Ungdomsforbund (Marxistleninistene) (Socialist Youth Federation [Marxist-Leninist]; SUF [m-l]), some of whose members published the paper Klassekampen (Class Struggle). The SUF (m-l) was thus a precursor of the Arbeidernes kommunistparti (Workers’ Communist Party). It changed its name to Rød ungdom (RU; Red Youth) in 1973. SOLBERG, ERNA (1961–). Norwegian politician, prime minister. Born in Bergen on 24 February 1961, Solberg studied political science and economics, graduating from the University of Bergen in 1986. She served in a number of positions in student organizations, the youth organization of the Conservative Party, the women’s organization of the Conservatives, and the Conservative Party itself. She was a member of the Bergen city council from 1983 to 1991, having spent four years before that as a substitute member, and was elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1989. She served as vice chair of the Conservative Party from 2002 to 2004 and became party leader in 2004, succeeding Jan Petersen. She was appointed minister of local government and regional development in the government headed by Kjell Magne Bondevik in 2001, serving until 2005, when a Red-Green coalition, consisting of the Labor Party, the Socialist Left Party, and the Center Party, assumed power. Solberg chaired the Conservative Party par-

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liamentary group from 2005 to 2013 when, following the national elections, she became prime minister, forming her first government in coalition with the Progress Party. Following the election of 2017, Solberg formed her second government. A strong-willed and combative personality somewhat in the mold of the long-serving British prime minister Margaret Thatcher, Solberg earned the nickname “Jern-Erna” (Iron Erna). Although Conservative, the Solberg government pursues a social liberal policy of support for gay adoption rights and same-sex marriage. The coalition with the Progress Party, however, has led to a policy of increased restrictions on immigration, spearheaded by Sylvi Listhaug (1977–), formerly minister of justice, public security and immigration. SOLSTAD, DAG (1941–). Norwegian novelist. Born on 16 July 1941 in the whaling town of Sandefjord, Solstad is recognized as one of the foremost Norwegian writers of his generation and a chronicler of life in the Norwegian welfare state. Having started out as an exponent of literary modernism, he soon turned to a kind of socialist realism that was intended to help bring about a Marxist revolution in Norway. When the revolution did not materialize, Solstad’s writing style changed to a rather traditional psychological realism. Around the time of the student revolt of 1968 and while a student at the University of Oslo, Solstad and some other young writers, including Tor Obrestad and Espen Haavardsholm, affiliated with the Socialist Youth Federation, which later became part of the Workers’ Communist Party. This party served as Solstad’s ideological home for the rest of the decade. Solstad’s transition from late modernist to committed Marxist is described in his novel Arild Asnes, 1970 (1971), at the end of which the first-person protagonist goes door to door to sell the socialist newspaper Klassekampen (Class Struggle). His next book, the novel 25. september-plassen (1974; The 25th of September Square), named for the date of the European Community referendum in 1972, explicates social-democracy in postwar Norway from a thoroughgoing Marxist perspective and argues that the Norwegian working class was betrayed by the leaders of the Labor Party, who collaborated with American capitalism and steered Norway toward membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). A similar perspective governs a trilogy about working-class life in the late 1930s and during World War II, in which Solstad again wants to show that social democracy is incompatible with the true needs of the workers. By 1980, it was becoming increasingly difficult to maintain any hope for a Marxist revolution in Norway, and Solstad began a process of self-examination carried out in several novels. He also wrote books without a strong ideological bias, in which he analyzed contemporary Norwegian life and society. See also LITERATURE.

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SONJA (1937–). Queen consort of Norway, wife of King Harald V. Queen Sonja was born 4 July 1937 to Oslo merchant and businessman Karl Haraldsen and his wife, Dagny Ulrichsen. Sonja was the first commoner in Norwegian history to become queen. Born and raised in Oslo, Sonja studied dressmaking and tailoring at the Ecole Professionnelle des Jeunes Filles (a finishing school) in Switzerland and earned an undergraduate degree in art history from the University of Oslo. Although initially opposed to her marriage to Crown Prince Harald, King Olav V supported the union of his son with a commoner. When King Olav died in 1991, Harald became King Harald V and Sonja his queen consort. Sonja engaged herself actively in various issues, from work with the Norwegian Red Cross to support for refugees, and she became a spokesperson for disabled children. With her love of the outdoors and the Norwegian mountains, she has come to be recognized as an untiring advocate for the environment. She regularly takes summer hikes in the Norwegian mountains, especially in the western Norwegian fjord country. In 2005 she was instrumental in the establishment of the Queen Sonja School Award for those who have demonstrated excellence in promoting inclusion and equality in Norwegian society. SØNSTEBY, GUNNAR FRIDTJOF THURMAN (1918–2012). Decorated Norwegian resistance fighter and saboteur during World War II, Sønsteby was the leader of the so-called Oslo Gang of saboteurs and is the most decorated Norwegian soldier in history. He is the only person to receive the War Cross with Three Swords, Norway’s highest military decoration. Sønsteby was born in Rjukan, Norway, on 11 January 1918. His father, Gustav Sønsteby, worked at the Norsk Hydro plant in Rjukan. Gunnar became involved with the underground resistance soon after the German invasion and occupation of Norway on 9 April 1940. In 1943, as Agent #24, with the British Special Operation Executive (SOE), he became the main contact for SOE agents in eastern Norway and leader of the Oslo Gang. As such, he led many acts of sabotage against German targets and became one of the Gestapo’s most sought-after saboteurs. He used numerous aliases and claimed to never have slept in the same place two nights in a row. Following the end of the war, he became a successful businessman and, in 1965, published Report from #24, a remarkable firsthand account of his activities during the war. The book remains in print, the most recent edition being published in 2017. Sønsteby traveled throughout Norway and to North America and lectured about his wartime work. In 2001 he was awarded the American Scandinavian Foundation Culture Award, and in 2013 the annual “Gunnar Sønsteby Prize” was established to honor the “brave” individuals who have defended “the founding values of our democracy” and “kept the spirit of defense alive.”

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SOSIALISTISK FOLKEPARTI. See SOCIALIST PEOPLE’S PARTY. SOSIALISTISK UNGDOMSFORBUND. See SOCIALIST YOUTH FEDERATION. SOSIALISTISK VENSTREPARTI. See SOCIALIST LEFT PARTY. SPONHEIM, LARS (1957–). Norwegian politician. Born in Halden, Østfold County, on 23 May 1957, Sponheim was educated as an agronomist and worked in that profession in Ulvik in western Norway. He also taught agriculture from 1984 to 1993. Sponheim was active in local politics and was the mayor of Ulvik from 1987 to 1991, after which he served in the county assembly. He was elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1993, representing the Liberal Party, which at that time had been without parliamentary representation for eight years. In 1996, while still the single Liberal representative in the Storting, Sponheim was elected head of the Liberal Party against the opposition of a significant segment of its membership. He was reelected rather uneventfully until 2002, when he won only after a tough fight. He was again challenged in 2004, when Olaf Thommessen was the candidate of the opposition, but was reelected. He was reelected unanimously in 2006 after he had led the Liberals to a significant victory— the party received 5.9 percent of the popular vote and 10 representatives—in the 2005 parliamentary elections. In 1997, Sponheim became minister of industry and commerce in the coalition government headed by Kjell Magne Bondevik, serving until 2000. He next served as minister of agriculture in Bondevik’s second government, serving from 2001 to 2005. In the 2009 elections, the Liberal Party suffered an overwhelming defeat, losing 8 of its 10 seats in the Storting, including Sponheim’s in his home county of Hordaland. Sponheim stepped down as leader of the Liberal Party in 2010 when he was appointed the county governor (fylkesmann) of Hordaland. He was reappointed in 2016 and is expected to continue to serve as the country governor for the newly established county of Vestland (The West) created when Hordaland and Sogn og Fjordane counties formally merge on 1 January 2020. Sponheim has been a colorful presence in Norwegian public life. Relentlessly advocating for the Liberal Party’s core values of civil liberties, environmental protection, and the interests of small business, Sponheim wants Norwegian society to be less complex, more diverse, and more hospitable to a broader range of human self-realization. He drew considerable ire, however, with a proposal—made while serving as the minister of agriculture—that Norwegians living close to the Swedish border should not buy agricultural products in Sweden, where prices are generally lower. Some people were

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also provoked when in 2007 he suggested that in the interest of lowering carbon emissions, people should voluntarily refrain from taking more than one vacation trip to southern climes per year. SPORTS. Norway has an active and lively sports culture. Competitive sports attract extensive participation and large audiences, especially football (soccer) and skiing. The Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sports (Norges Idrettsforbund; NIF) is the umbrella organization that oversees all national sports in Norway. The organization has a membership of more than 2 million people in approximately 70 national and regional federations, 366 sports councils, and over 12,000 sports clubs. It is the country’s largest volunteer and membership-based organization. Sports clubs form the foundation of NIF and are independent units. Sports for children are organized in accordance with the physical and mental development of the child, avoiding early specialization. Competition is deemphasized, thereby allowing the child to develop her or his own specific and personal skills. Norway is governed by a national “sports policy” directed by the Department of Civil Society and Sport in the Ministry of Culture (Kulturdepartementet). The objective of the sports policy is to ensure that all Norwegians have access to a wide range of local sports activities on the club or individual level. The Ministry of Culture has articulated the belief that sports and physical activity have positive effects on individuals and society in general. As a result, the ministry has the responsibility to invest in sporting activities, which it does by administering the profits generated by Norway’s national lottery and gaming system, Norsk Tipping (Norwegian Betting). Municipalities and country authorities have been delegated by the ministry to channel the funds into sports facilities and physical activities, thereby benefitting the athletes and the sports programs. The Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Conference of Sports (NIF) is the largest grant recipient of these funds. The Norsk Tipping system awards the lottery winner 50 percent of the available funds for each drawing. The rest is profit, which is then distributed as 64 percent to sporting activities, 18 percent to cultural activities, and 18 percent to humanitarian organizations not associated with NIF. The national sports policy and comprehensive government support builds the foundational structure for what is often referred to in Norway as “elite-level sports,” that is, the level of sports that includes wide international competition, both summer and winter. Elite-level sports in Norway are funded by government allocations as well as outside sponsors and businesses. A poor showing at the 1984 Summer Olympic Games in Los Angeles and a relatively poor showing at the Winter Games that same year in Sarajevo initiated the establishment of the organization intended to improve performances of, and support for, elite-level ath-

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letes, Olympiatoppen. The organization has the responsibility of developing elite athletes, focusing largely on the Olympic Games. Located in the outskirts of Oslo near the Norwegian School of Sports Science (Norges Idrettshøyskole), Olympiatoppen facilities include an all-weather running track, a soccer field, a basketball court, and facilities for skating and luging. Norwegian elite athletes have had remarkable international success in winter sports—cross-country and downhill skiing, ski jumping, speed skating, and biathlon. At the 2018 Winter Olympics in South Korea, Norway collected a Winter Olympic record of 39 medals for a single Olympic Games, including 14 gold medals. Since the inception of the Winter Games, by 2018, Norway has won 368 medals, more than any other country. A professional basketball league was established in Norway in 2000 and currently consists of 11 teams, but the sport is also widely played on the local club level. More popular, however, is ice hockey. Norwegian hockey players compete in Norway’s premier ice hockey league, the GET-League, organized by the Norwegian Ice Hockey Association. Founded in 1934, it currently comprises nine teams that play a winter season schedule from September to March. Although the Norwegian national hockey team has had limited success internationally, several individual players, such as Mats Zuccarello-Aasen of the Dallas Stars in the National Hockey League, have played on the elite international level. Summer sports are also popular in Norway and are an important part of the national sports scene. Football (soccer) is clearly the most popular and widespread nonwinter sport in Norway, both in terms of general participation and as a spectator sport. The Norwegian Football Association (Norges Fotballforbundet; NFF) was founded in 1902 and is the sport’s governing body. There are almost 2,000 registered football clubs and more than 20,000 teams in Norway. Approximately 25 percent of the registered players are girls or women. The Norwegian women’s football team is among the most successful of any sport in the country. It competes regularly on the elite international level. The women’s team won the Olympic gold medal in 2000. It became affiliated with the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) in 1908. The top rung of the men’s professional football leagues is the Elite Series (Eliteserien) consisting of 16 clubs. Five tiered levels of play see teams promoted or relegated each year. It is the betting on football which provides the bulk of the funds raised in the Norwegian lottery system. Another popular sport played by men and women’s teams is team handball. Founded in 1937, the Norwegian Handball Federation (Norges Håndballforbund; NHF) has governed the sport, which has also seen significant success with its women’s team. Norway’s women’s handball team won the Olympic championship in 2008 and 2012; the European Championship in 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2014, and 2016; and the World Championship in 2011 and 2016.

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Extreme sports have become popular in recent years, and Norway plays a central role in these events. Each summer, an Extreme Sports Festival is held at Voss, Norway, with participants engaged in such extreme sports as paragliding, ski diving, rafting, kayaking, rock climbing, and speed flying, among others. An extreme triathlon called “the Norseman” includes a 3.8 km swim in the Hardanger fjord, then a 160 km bike ride over the Hardanger mountain plateau, followed by a 42 km marathon from Geilo to Rjukan, with the race ending on the top of Mount Gaustatoppen, 1,883 meters above sea level. STANG, EMIL, SR. (1834–1912). Norwegian politician. Born the son of Frederik Stang on 14 June 1834, Stang studied law at the university in Christiania (Oslo). He was actively involved in the organization of the Conservative Party in 1884 and became its first head, serving in 1884–89, 1891–93, and 1896–99. He succeeded Johan Sverdrup as prime minister in 1889, serving until 1891, and again served as prime minister from 1893 to 1895. Stang was known for his realism and complete intellectual honesty and acted as a counterweight to those who wanted to pursue independence from Sweden at any cost. As the Conservative Party was making its transition from being mainly a party for the embedsmann (public official) class to a party that represented the interests of large landowners, factory owners, wholesale merchants, and other members of the upper middle class, Stang’s wisdom and political savvy helped keep the Conservatives from experiencing the kinds of schisms that plagued the Liberals. STANG, FREDERIK (1808–1884). Norwegian politician. Born in Stokke, Vestfold County, on 4 March 1808, Stang began studying law at the university in Christiania (Oslo) in 1824, receiving his degree in 1828 when he was but 20 years old. Two years later, he started teaching law at the university, specializing in constitutional law and publishing a highly regarded book about Norway’s constitution in 1833. The year after that, he went into private practice and became known as a superb trial lawyer. Stang was also in favor of the idea that the cabinet ministers should meet with the Storting (Parliament) in order to offer reasons for their choices and actions. Christian Magnus Falsen had made a suggestion along this line as early as 1818, but the reform did not happen until 1884. From 1846 to 1856, Stang served as minister of the interior, and he was a driving force behind many practical reforms. The postal system, for example, was modernized, and the cost of sending a letter within Norway became the same regardless of distance. The infrastructure, roads, canals, and harbors were improved, lighthouses were built, and Stang strongly supported the building of a railroad. He was named førstestatsråd (first minister) in 1861 and became the leader of the Norwegian government in Christiania (three ministers in the Norwegian cabinet

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served in Stockholm, including the associate first minister). In 1873, the position of first minister was changed to prime minister, and Stang continued his service with this title until 1880. STAVANGER. Stavanger is located on a peninsula at the northern end of the agricultural district of Jæren, Rogaland County, in southwestern Norway. It measures 72 square kilometers and consists of an area mostly on the mainland, with an additional 15 inhabited islands. It has a mild climate, with very little snow during the winter and an early spring, and its growing season is the longest in Norway. The terrain is relatively flat and low lying, and there are several lakes within the city limits. Throughout most of its history, Stavanger has served as a market town for the farmers surrounding it and for people living along the fjord and on the islands northeast of town. Founded around 1125, it became the seat of the Roman Catholic bishopric of an area stretching from Haugesund to Eidanger. It received the privileges of a market town in 1425, but numerous city fires and some outbreaks of the plague kept it from flourishing. After a fire in 1684, a governmental decision was made to abandon the town, and some administrative offices were moved to Kristiansand farther south and east. In 1695, 15 percent of the population died in an epidemic of spotted typhoid. Five major city fires followed, the last one in 1860. At this time, the herring fisheries were exceptionally lucrative, however, and a large number of canneries were later established when the brisling fisheries developed. Stavanger sardines canned in olive oil were exported all over the world, and the city was a major industrial center into the 1950s. To some extent, shipbuilding replaced the old fish-based industry. When exploratory drilling in the North Sea was conducted in the 1960s and significant discoveries of oil and natural gas were made, Stavanger found itself in the right geographical location to become Norway’s oil city. Its excellent airport and existing industrial infrastructure, along with its proximity to the Ekofisk oil fields, made it the obvious choice both for the location of oil company headquarters and district offices and for supply and support bases. Norway’s leading oil company, Equinor, the oil company formerly known as Statoil, has its headquarters in the Stavanger area, and the Norwegian oil directorate is headquartered there as well. Stavanger is also the location of Norway’s fifth university, the University of Stavanger, established on 1 January 2005 as the next step in the development of Stavanger University College. A highly internationalized and multicultural city, Stavanger has also been recognized for its efforts in cultural preservation, particularly of the Gamle Stavanger (Old Stavanger), which is the best-preserved collection of wooden structures in any city in northern Europe. Stavanger has become a popular tourist destination, especially for

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cruise ships on the way to Lysefjord and one of Norway’s most spectacular scenic attractions, Preikestolen (Pulpit Rock), located an hour’s sail from the city center. STAVE CHURCHES. Medieval wooden churches of post-and-lintel construction built around large load-bearing wooden posts called staves, thus giving the structures the name. Common in Northern Europe in the Middle Ages, it has been estimated that more than 1,000 such churches were built up to approximately 1350 CE, when the Black Death reduced the population and lessened the demand. All but two of the 25 surviving medieval stave churches are found in Norway, and these survived in isolated, sparsely populated areas of western Norway and in the interior valleys of east-central Norway. Originally, the staves (posts) were simply placed in the ground, but this made them susceptible to moisture, and they rotted within a matter of several decades. By placing large stones under the posts as a kind of foundation, the wood was protected, and the buildings survived, in some cases for a millennium. The stave churches were often built with raised roofs and freestanding interior posts, thereby creating large basilica-type rooms. Around the outside, many had outer galleries or ambulatories to protect the central part of the structure and also to allow for processions around the church. Of the surviving stave churches, the most visited and most iconic is the Borgund State Church near Lærdal in the Sogn region of western Norway, built around 1180 CE. Although most stave churches are found in situ, some were dismantled and moved to outdoor folk museums, such as the Gol stave church, which was reassembled in the Norwegian Folk Museum in Oslo. Similarly, the Garmo stave church is today situated in the Maihaugen Folk Museum in Lillehammer. The builders of the Urnes stave church, erected around 1130 CE at Ornes in the inner Sogn region, used material from an earlier church, even incorporating the former door portals into the still-existing north wall of the church. The largest stave church, which was first described in an 1834 essay by Johannes Flintoe, is the Heddal stave church in the Notodden municipality of eastern Norway. The layout of stave churches is thought to mimic the design of pagan temples from the pre-Christian pagan era. Placement of the churches near large natural formations suggests an association with pagan belief and symbolism. The use of dragon heads on the roofs further suggests a blending of pagan symbolism with Christian belief, not surprising as the churches were built in the years of cultural transition from paganism to Christianity. Although accepting the new religion, old traditions and beliefs remained strong cultural forces for centuries in Norway.

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STEEN, JOHANNES VILHELM CHRISTIAN (1827–1906). Norwegian politician. Born in Christiania (Oslo) on 22 July 1827, Steen studied at the university in Christiania, graduated in 1848, and became a teacher and headmaster at the grammar school in Stavanger. He was first elected to the Storting (Parliament) in 1859 and served as a member on and off until 1900. He was considered brilliant and an excellent speaker and supported Johan Sverdrup at first but later was too radical for Sverdrup’s tastes. He served as prime minister twice, in 1891–93 and 1898–1902. He served as president of the Storting and wrote the articles of impeachment against the cabinet of Christian Selmer in 1883. Steen was the leader of the Pure Liberal Party (Rene Venstre), which in 1888 split off from Sverdrup’s Moderate Liberal Party (Moderate Venstre). Steen was thus prominent in the events that led to the dissolution of the union with Sweden. Steen retired from government and politics in 1902 but was a public advocate for Norway becoming a republic after the dissolution of the union in 1905. STEEN, REIULF (1933–2014). Norwegian politician. Steen was born in Hurum, Buskerud County, on 16 August 1933 and entered politics early, when at the age of 14 he became the head of his local Labor Party organization. As a teenage factory worker and later as a journalist in the Laboraffiliated press, he had formative experiences that prepared him well for a career as a full-time politician, starting in 1958 and ending in 1992 when he was appointed to be Norway’s ambassador to Chile. After occupying a number of positions of trust in the Labor Party, he became its head in 1975, serving until 1981, when Gro Harlem Brundtland took over. He was a member of the Storting (Parliament) from 1977 to 1992 and served in the government twice, once as minister of transport (1971–72) and once as minister of trade (1979–81). Steen was Norway’s ambassador to Chile from 1992 to 1996. Steen’s sharp and incisive intellect made him a frequent participant in Norway’s public debate. One of his many areas of expertise was educational policy, to which a committee led by him contributed substantially by furnishing a report that formed the basis for a significant reform of secondary education in 1974. He has also been one of the best-known proponents of Norwegian membership in the European Union and has written a number of books on various political subjects, foremost among them Ørnen har landet: Om Arbeiderpartiets strateger (2003; The Eagle Has Landed: On the Strategists of the Labor Party). Having suffered from endogenous depression, Steen, who was past the age of 60 when his illness was finally diagnosed and treated, with great courage used his status as a public figure to encourage awareness of this and other mental conditions.

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STIKLESTAD. A parish in the municipality of Verdal in Trøndelag County, Norway, and the site of the Battle of Stiklestad on 29 July 1030 CE, in which King Olaf II (Saint Olaf) was killed. Contemporary sources, such as Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum (History of the Archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen), writing around 1070 CE, does not mention a battle, claiming instead that the king was killed in an ambush. The story of the death of King Olaf in a battle developed over the next two centuries, and it came to be seen as the turning point of Norwegian history as Norway became a Christian nation. Considered a martyred saint after his death, Olaf was beatified in 1031 and officially canonized in 1164 when Norway’s archbishopric was established at Nidaros (Trondheim). A Viking warrior, Olaf converted to Christianity and claimed the throne of Norway in 1015 CE on the grounds that he was a descendent of Harald Fairhair, the first king to unify the country. Olaf defeated the local Earls of Lade, who had allied themselves with the Danish-English king Knud the Great, in the Battle of Nesjar in 1016 CE. During his reign, Olaf systematically reorganized the royal administration and actively worked to convert the people to the new Christian religion. According to saga sources, an uprising against the king forced him to flee the country in 1028 CE, but after two years in exile in Russia, he returned to Verdal with an army of nearly 4,000 men. A peasant army of more than 14,000 men led by local chieftains allied with Knud the Great met Olaf’s army on 29 July 1030 CE. According to Snorri Sturluson’s saga of Saint Olaf, the fierce battle raged for hours and ended with the death of Olaf after suffering three blows: to a knee, the stomach, and the throat. The king’s body was carried from the battlefield and secretly buried in the bank of the Nid River near Nidaros. A year later, the body was exhumed and found to be uncorrupted. The hair and nails had grown as though he were alive. Shortly thereafter, a church was built on the site of the battle at Stiklestad where the king had fallen. A century later, the Nidaros Cathedral was built on the site of Olaf’s secret burial, and his body was enshrined in a reliquary behind the high alter. After the Lutheran Reformation, his remains were removed from the reliquary and are believed to have been reburied somewhere in the church. In death, Olaf became the unifying symbol for the nation and the church. Since 1954, an outdoor theater performance, Spelet om Heilag Olaf (The Saint Olaf Play), takes place annually on the anniversary of the Battle of Stiklestad on the very field where the battle is supposed to have been fought. STOLTENBERG, JENS (1959–). Norwegian politician. The scion of a family known for its public service and the son of the former minister of foreign affairs Thorvald Stoltenberg, Jens Stoltenberg was born on 16 March 1959 in Oslo. He had served in several responsible positions in the Labor Party as well as in the Labor Party Youth League before being

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elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1993. Trained as an economist, Stoltenberg served as minister of trade and energy under Gro Harlem Brundtland from 1993 to 1996 and as minister of finance and customs under Thorbjørn Jagland from 1996 to 1997. He first served as prime minister in a Labor Party minority government from 2000 to 2001, and the controversial and seemingly illiberal policies of this government led to a bitter but successful battle with Jagland for the leadership of the Labor Party in 2002. Stoltenberg formed his second government in 2005 and served as prime minister until 2013. He was party leader until 2014 when he became the general secretary of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Following the parliamentary elections in 2005, when the Labor Party took 61 out of 169 seats, Stoltenberg formed his second government, a majority coalition in which the Labor Party joined forces with the Socialist Left Party (SV) and the Center Party. Stoltenberg served as head of the Labor Party from 2002 to 2014 and as prime minister from 2005 to 2013. During his second government, on 22 July 2011, the terror attacks by Anders Behring Breivik took place. Stoltenberg’s public response struck a sympathetic chord in the Norwegian people as he pledged to strengthen democracy and to increase openness and humanity in Norwegian society. The attack, however, was a serious blow to the self-image of Norwegians and stirred fears about the social and cultural changes taking place in Norway and Europe more broadly. In the subsequent election of 2013, the Norwegian electorate turned away from the Center-Left coalition and brought to power the Erna Solberg–led coalition government. Stoltenberg was chosen to be the secretary general of NATO in October 2014. STOLTENBERG, THORVALD (1931–2018). Norwegian Labor Party politician and diplomat. Born in Oslo on 8 July 1931, Stoltenberg studied law at the University of Oslo before becoming employed by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1958. After a number of significant assignments at home and abroad, he became minister of defense in 1979, serving under Prime Minister Odvar Nordli. Nordli resigned in 1981, and Stoltenberg next served as minister of foreign affairs from 1987 to 1989 in Gro Harlem Brundtland’s second government. He served in the same position from 1990 to 1993 in Brundtland’s third government. Stoltenberg’s influence on Norway’s foreign policy under Nordli and Brundtland cannot be overestimated. He had a strong commitment to alleviating the plight of refugees and personally assisted people fleeing Hungary in 1956. In 1990–91, he served as the United Nations high commissioner for refugees, and in 1993 he was appointed special representative of the UN secretary general for the former Yugoslavia and UN cochairman of the Steering Committee of the International Conference on the former Yugoslavia. He was the official UN witness to the signing of the Erdut peace agreement between Croatia and Serbia in

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1995. In 1992, following the breakup of the Soviet Union, Stoltenberg initiated talks on regional cross-border cooperation in the north, which led to the signing of the Kirkenes Declaration outlining the framework for cooperation between nations in the Barents Sea region, Norway, Russia, Finland, and Sweden. The Barents Cooperation led to the establishment of an infrastructure supporting people-to-people contacts as well as increased economic and cultural cooperation in the region. In recognition of this contribution, he was appointed honorary doctor of the Northern Federal Arctic University of Arkhangelsk, Northern Russia, in 2011. Stoltenberg was a member of the nongovernmental Trilateral Commission, and he served three terms as the president of the Norwegian Red Cross. His son, Jens Stoltenberg, followed him into politics and became the prime minister of Norway, first in 2000 and then again in 2005, serving until 2013, when he became secretary general of the North Atlantic Treaty Association (NATO). STØRE, JONAS GAHR (1960–). Norwegian politician and head of the Norwegian Labor Party. Born in Oslo on 25 August 1960, Gahr Støre graduated from a prestigious college preparatory school and was educated as an officer for the Royal Norwegian Navy at the Sjøkrigsskolen (Naval Academy) in Bergen, completing his training in 1981. From 1981 to 1985, he studied political science, including political economy and history, at the elite Institut d’etudes politiques de Paris, after which he enrolled as a doctoral student at the London School of Economics. After a stint as a teaching fellow at Harvard Law School, he became a researcher at the Norwegian School of Management (Bedriftsøkonomisk Institutt; BI) from 1986 to 1989. From 1989 to 1995, Gahr Støre was a special advisor at the office of the prime minister, mostly under Gro Harlem Brundtland, finally joining the Labor Party in 1995. From 1995 to 1998, he was director general (ekspedisjonssjef) for international affairs at the office of the prime minister, and from 1998 to 2000, he was Brundtland’s chief of staff at her office and director general of the World Health Organization (WHO). After a period at a Norwegian think tank, he became the head of the Norwegian Red Cross, serving from 2003 to 2005, when he was selected minister of foreign affairs by Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg. Støre served as foreign minister from 2005 to 2012 and as minister of health from 2012 to 2013. Following the electoral defeat of Labor in 2013 and the resignation of Jens Stoltenberg as party leader, Støre was elected to be the leader of the Labor Party in 2014. He also serves as a member of the Storting’s parliamentary Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and Defense.

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STORTING. The Storting (Parliament) is Norway’s national assembly. When it was first established according to the Constitution of 1814, it met every three years. Annual sessions were introduced in 1869, and until 1921, the number of members varied from 77 to 126. From 1921 to 1973, it had 150 members, and the number has since been gradually increased to 155, 157, 165, and 169 (since 2005). Although a unicameral body, for purposes of legislation it originally divided into two chambers, the Lagting and the Odelsting. However, with a constitutional change that went into effect in 2009, both the Lagting and the Odelsting were discontinued. The second reading of legislative proposals, previously done in the Lagting, is now performed by the Storting as a whole (in plenum) subsequent to a first reading in which legislative proposals may be amended (if amendments are made during the second reading, a third reading will be necessary). In addition to the legislative function of the Storting, it also approves the state budget and supervises the government, which according to the principles of parliamentarism serves at its pleasure. The 169 members of the Storting are elected every four years, and 150 of them serve as representatives of Norway’s 19 counties, which are electoral districts in which the various parties are given proportional representation. The number of seats in the Storting allotted to each county depends on the geographical size and the population of the county and is adjusted every eight years. The remaining 19 seats are divided among all parties that receive 4 percent or more of the national popular vote and are allotted in such a manner that each party’s percentage of the seats in the Storting is as close as possible to the percentage of the popular vote received by that party. Each county gets 1 of the 19 utjevningsmandater (equalization seats) in the Storting. Representatives are elected for four years and, unlike most other parliaments, serve the full fouryear term. The constitution does not allow for prorogued parliaments or interim elections. Much of the work of the Storting is done in one of its 12 standing committees, and each representative is a member of one committee. There are four additional parallel committees, two of which are extensions of the Foreign Affairs Committee. The Storting is led by a president, five vice presidents, and two secretaries. STRAY, SVENN THORKILD (1922–2017). Norwegian politician. Born on 11 February 1922 in Arendal, Stray studied law at the University of Oslo, earning a degree in 1946. He was active in the leadership of student organizations as well as in the youth organization of the Conservative Party and later in the party itself. He also served as a member of the Moss city council from 1959 to 1979. After serving as a substitute, he was first elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1958, serving until 1985. He was caucus leader for the Conservatives from 1965 to 1970. He was chosen

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minister of foreign affairs by Prime Minister Per Borten in 1970, serving until the following year, and again by Prime Minister Kåre Willoch in 1981, serving in both Willoch’s Conservative government and in his coalition with the Christian Democrats and the Center Party. When Labor took over the government subsequent to the 1981 elections, Stray was succeeded by Knut Frydenlund. From 1971 to 1981, Stray was the leader of the Europabevegelsen (Europe Movement), which advocated for Norwegian membership in what later became the European Union. STURLUSON, SNORRI (1178–1241). Icelandic historian. The greatest man of letters in medieval Iceland, Snorri was educated in a literary tradition that combined medieval European scholarship with native Icelandic learning and was well equipped to provide a reasonably critical history of the old Scandinavian kings. Having first compiled a history of the Norwegian king Saint Olaf, he added shorter histories, or sagas, that dealt with the preceding rulers back to mythological times. Sagas of the kings that succeeded Saint Olaf were also added until 1177, when the reign of King Sverre Sigurdsson began, for Sverre had already arranged for the history of his reign to be written during his lifetime. Snorri’s great historical work came to be known as Heimskringla, after the first two words of his text, kringla heimsins (the orb of the home we inhabit). Snorri also composed a handbook for young poets that came to be known as The Prose Edda (also known as The Younger Edda and Snorra-Edda), in which he surveyed the ancient myths that had served as source material for the poetic imagery and diction of the court poets of the past. His historical work was well known in translation in Norway and strongly influenced Norwegian national romanticism and the development of the modern Norwegian monarchy. See also VIKINGS. SUNDT, EILERT LUND (1817–1875). Norwegian sociologist. Born in Farsund in southwestern Norway on 8 August 1817, Sundt earned a degree in theology at the university in Christiania (Oslo) in 1846 but turned to the study of the common people instead of becoming a minister. His first book, Beretning om Fante-eller Landstrygerfolket i Norge (An Account of the Gypsies or Traveling People of Norway), was published in 1850. Sundt was particularly interested in the historical factors, manners, and customs that helped shape the individual human being. Early on, he viewed people’s mode of existence from a moral and Christian point of view, but gradually he turned away from moralistic explanations and adopted a more rational view of causation. Between 1851 and 1869, he received grants from the Storting (Parliament) in order to study the conditions under which Norway’s common people lived. He examined cleanliness, illegitimacy, public health, the use of alcohol, and other subjects. When studying instances of illegitimate birth, for

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example, he used statistical methodology and compared parts of the country, reserving his greatest sense of dismay for the northern districts of Gudbrandsdalen, Norway’s central interior valley, where two-thirds of all children were born out of wedlock. When studying lack of hygiene, he emphasized the connections between the constraints placed on people by their daily work and other circumstances, refusing to see filth as a manifestation of an inferior sense of morality, which at the time was the common perception by the members of the embedsmann (public official) class. The lack of latrines in most farming areas, for example, was seen as a counterpart to the way animal manure was handled on the farms. Sundt also realized that many young men did little to get rid of scabies because this condition was grounds for exemption from military service. He also disagreed with the standard medical opinion of his time that leprosy resulted from a lack of proper hygiene, and this view was later vindicated by the research of the medical doctor Gerhard Armauer Hansen. SVALBARD. An island group in the Arctic consisting of several islands situated approximately halfway between the Norwegian mainland and the North Pole. It includes the large islands of Spitsbergen, Nordaustlandet, Barentsøya, Egdeøya, and several smaller islands. The Norwegian Central Bureau of Statistics (SSB) lists the 2019 population at 2,310 people. Of these, 68 percent are ethnic Norwegians and 16 percent are Russians or Ukrainians. The administrative center for Svalbard is Longyearbyen, but additional settlements include Ny-Ålesund and Barentsburg. The island group served as a base for whaling in the 17th and 18th centuries. In 1901, the American mining developer and founder of the Arctic Coal Company, John Longyear, visited Svalbard and bought the Trondhjem-Spitsbergen Kulkompani (Trondheim-Spitsbergen Coal Company). He developed a settlement called Longyear City, now known as Longyearbyen. The Arctic Coal Company mined coal on Spitsbergen until World War I, when it was sold to the Norwegian company Det Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani (the Great Norwegian-Spitsbergen Coal Company). Signed in February 1920, the Svalbard Treaty gave Norway sovereignty over the island group, and in 1925 it became an official part of the kingdom of Norway. Norway governs Svalbard; however, all signers of the international treaty have the right to fish, hunt, and exploit the natural resources, such as coal. With the climate changing and the Arctic becoming more accessible, tourism has become a major industry on Svalbard. An estimated 60,000 tourists visit Svalbard annually to experience polar bears, the northern lights, and the midnight sun.

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SVALBARD GLOBAL SEED VAULT. Also called the “Doomsday Seed Vault,” this seed bank was built by the Norwegian government in order to preserve the world’s plants in the event of a global catastrophe. Located on the Arctic island of Spitsbergen, near Longyearbyen, the vault is built into an abandoned coal mine, under the permafrost, and is intended to duplicate seeds from national seed banks around the world. Opened in 2008, by 2017, the vault contained 930,000 samples of seeds. The facility operates like a bank safe-deposit system. Norway owns the facility, and the depositing national gene banks own the seeds. Seeds are kept in three-ply packages and stored at ˗4 degrees Fahrenheit (˗18 degrees Celsius). In October 2016, there was a large intrusion of water into the vault tunnel, but it did not reach the seeds. Understood to be caused by the effects of global warming, this event led to security measures to strengthen the vault. The Norwegian public works company Statsbygg took steps to secure the vaults from any possible effects of the melting tundra or rising sea level in the foreseeable future. SVERDRUP, GEORG (1770–1850). Norwegian academic, politician, founder of the library of the Royal Frederik University (now the University of Oslo). Born Jørgen Sverdrup in Nærøy, Nor-Trøndelag, on 25 April 1770, he was the uncle of Johan Sverdrup, member of the Storting (Parliament) and prime minister, 1884–89. He graduated with a degree in philology from the University of Copenhagen in 1798 and was appointed professor of Greek at the University of Copenhagen in 1805. When the new university in Norway opened in 1813, he transferred to Christiania (Oslo). Sverdrup was one of 22 participants at the so-called Meeting of Notables at Eidsvoll on 16 February 1814, where he convinced the young Danish crown prince Christian Frederik that he could not claim the Norwegian throne by virtue of his hereditary rights following the transfer of Norway to Sweden by the terms of the Treaty of Kiel. According to Sverdrup, the sovereignty of the absolute monarch that King Frederik VI gave up as a result of the transfer reverted to the Norwegian people, and it was up to them to choose who they wanted to be king. When the constitutional convention convened at Eidsvoll on 10 April 1814, Sverdrup was a member of the assembly having been elected to represent the city of Christiania. As such, he presided over the final meetings of the assembly on 17 May when the constitution was signed and Christian Frederik was elected king. Sverdrup was twice elected to serve as a member of the Storting, in 1818–20 and 1824–26. SVERDRUP, JOHAN (1816–1892). Norwegian politician. Born on 30 July 1816 in Sem, close to Tønsberg, as the son of the agricultural innovator Jakob Sverdrup, Sverdrup studied law at the university in Christiania (now Oslo) and received his degree in 1841. After working as a lawyer, he was a

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member of the Storting (Parliament), representing the towns of Larvik and Sandefjord from 1851 to 1858, while from 1858 to 1885 he represented Akershus County. A man with great charisma and considerable leadership ability, he quickly made his mark politically, enjoying a series of substantial political victories. These victories include the 1859 establishment of the Reformforeningen (Reform Association), an organization of progressive members of the Storting; the change to annual sessions of the Storting in 1869; and, above all, the events associated with the introduction of parliamentarism in Norwegian political life. Sverdrup’s achievements came at a considerable cost, however. Sverdrup is Norway’s first example of a professional politician who was not primarily an embedsmann, a public official who served the king, often with little consideration for the interests of the people who were governed. Because members of the Storting were not well compensated for their work, his attention to political matters took a terrible toll on his finances, and his health suffered because of overwork and worries. He was unable to make payment on his financial obligations and was threatened with foreclosure. His financial situation was so bad, in fact, that his friends, many of them fellow members of the Storting, issued a public plea for donations. His health was at times extremely poor; he was plagued by both a persistent and painful winter cough and rheumatism. On 9 June 1880, the evening of one of his most decisive parliamentary victories, when the Storting took the crucial vote that cemented his greatest achievement, he was so ill that he could barely sign the minutes of the meeting. He was a sick and worn-out old man when he was finally appointed prime minister by King Oscar II on 26 June 1884 after a bitter political struggle that ended in the impeachment of the previous conservative cabinet and led to the organization of Norway’s first political party, the Liberal Party, in 1884. Sverdrup was, however, less successful as a prime minister than he had been as the leader of the opposition. Not nearly as radical and forward thinking as some of his adherents had assumed, he disappointed many intellectuals when his government refused to grant Alexander Kielland a writer’s stipend. The Liberal Party was split between a smaller but vocal faction that opposed most of his proposals and a larger but less influential segment consisting of religious people and teetotalers. Leaning for support on his old opponents in the Conservative Party, which had been founded in 1884, his cabinet hung on to its political life in spite of the lack of support from many Liberals. However, in 1889, it was voted out of power by a combination of Conservatives and disaffected members of his own party.

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There is no question, however, that Sverdrup left an important political legacy. He has been credited with the formation of political parties as a force in Norwegian political life, and he made considerable contributions to the development of Norwegian parliamentarism, whose father he is recognized as being. SVERRE SIGURDSSON (c. 1145/1151–1202). Norwegian king. Sverre Sigurdsson was born in Bergen and grew up in the home of a foster father, Bishop Roe, in the Faroe Islands. When he was in his mid-20s, his mother, Gunnhild, told him that he was actually the illegitimate son of Sigurd Munn, one of a number of kings claiming the throne and ruling Norway for a while during the turbulent years of the civil wars between 1130 and 1240. Modern historians consider it highly improbable that this claim was accurate, but there is no doubt that Sverre and many of his contemporaries believed it and that it motivated their actions in the years to come. In early 1177, after returning to Norway to claim his rightful inheritance, Sverre became the leader of a ragtag band of rebels referred to as Birkebeinere (Birchlegs), whom he led in a number of victorious actions. In June 1177, he was proclaimed king at the Øreting regional assembly in Trondheim, which meant that he had a legitimate claim to rule all of Norway. Magnus V Erlingsson (1156–84), the son of Erling Skakke, and his wife, Kristin, who was the daughter of King Sigurd Jorsalfare (1090–1130), was, however, the recognized king of Norway, having been crowned by Archbishop Øystein in 1164. Seeking to establish the rule that a king’s oldest son born in wedlock was the only legitimate ruler, the church sought to delegitimize all offspring of concubines as lawful pretenders to the throne, and Sverre was precisely the type of person the clergy sought to exclude. The church vehemently opposed Sverre’s claim even after the death of King Magnus at the Battle of Fimreite in 1184, when Sverre won a decisive victory and no other serious pretenders to the throne were left. In 1194, Archbishop Eirik received authority from the pope to excommunicate Sverre as a usurper. In 1196, several Norwegian noblemen from southeastern Norway, in support of the church’s opposition to Sverre, formed the Bagler party and raised an armed resistance. When the new pope, Innocent III, placed an interdict on Norway in 1198, Sverre was at the nadir of his fortunes. In response, Sverre wrote, or had written, the “Speech against the Bishops,” a remarkable document supporting the concept of the national monarch’s sovereignty over the representatives of the church as well as arguing that the interdict on Norway and the excommunication of Sverre were unjust and illegal. An important step in the propaganda campaign to justify his royal claim was Sverre’s Saga, a contemporary, or near contemporary, saga account of Sverre’s reign written by a supporter of the embattled king. Continuing the

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fight against the Bagler opposition, in 1202 Sverre fell ill, but, before dying, he encouraged his son and heir, Haakon, to make peace with the Bagler party. Although reigning for only two years, Haakon III had Norway released from the interdict, and his illegitimate son, born in 1204, would subsequently be recognized as King Haakon IV Haakonsson, who ruled Norway during the country’s golden age, from 1217 to 1263. SVOR, ANDERS (1864–1929). Norwegian artist and sculptor. Born 14 December 1864 in Hornindal, Norway, Svor grew up on his parents’ western Norwegian farm. As a boy, he developed a significant talent for wood carving, which led to a position as wood carver for a Christiania (Oslo) piano manufacturing company at the age of 17 while also studying at the Royal School of Design. Four years later, he enrolled as a student at the Copenhagen Academy of Art, where he began to work with marble. He entered several competitions, including one in 1891 for a statue of the 18th-century Norwegian naval hero Peter Wessel Tordenskjold. Full-size castings of this statue stand today at the Naval Military Society in Horten and the Naval Academy at Haakonsvern in Bergen. Svor’s professional breakthrough came when he was awarded the gold medal at the Berlin Art Exhibition in 1891 for his sculpture David. Anders Svor’s sculptures are placed throughout Norway, but his most evocative are found in public spaces in the Oslo area. These include Etter Badet (After the Bath), near the Bislett Stadium, and Havfruefontenen (The Mermaid Fountain), in Skillebekk. A bronze bust of Fridtjof Nansen is placed at the Fram Museum on Bygdøy. A monumental statue of the whaling pioneer Svend Foyn, considered to be his most important work, is located in the city of Tønsberg. A small museum in his birthplace at Grodås, Hornindal, exhibits a wide range of his work, including busts of Christian Michelsen, Roald Amundsen, and Henrik Ibsen. An exceptional sculptor and artist, Anders Svor had the misfortune of being a contemporary of Gustav Vigeland, Norway’s most prominent sculptor, who cast a large shadow over everyone else. SWEDEN. As Norway’s neighbor to the east, Sweden has played a major role in Norwegian history from medieval times to the present. In 1319, a common Swedish-Norwegian kingship was established under Magnus VII Eiriksson (1316–74), and in 1397, a union among Denmark, Norway, and Sweden was established in Kalmar. Sweden had effectively left this union as of 1521, leaving Norway united with Denmark. The following centuries saw a series of wars between Sweden and Denmark-Norway. The Seven Years War of the North raged between 1563 and 1570 and led to considerable destruction in Norway, including the burning of Oslo. The Kalmar War lasted from 1611 to 1613 but, except for the Battle of Kringen, did not

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involve direct hostilities in Norway. From 1643 to 1645, there was a war between Norway and Sweden that is usually referred to as the “Hannibal Affair”; it resulted in the loss of Jemtland and Herjedalen to Sweden through the Treaty of Brømsebro in 1645. The Three Years War was fought between 1657 and 1660 and resulted in Norway’s loss of Båhuslen to Sweden. The Gyldenløve Affair was fought against Sweden from 1675 to 1679, and the Great Northern War took place from 1700 to 1721. Denmark-Norway and Sweden were on opposite sides during the Napoleonic Wars, and there were direct hostilities between Norway and Sweden in 1808. In 1814, the European Great Powers transferred Norway from Denmark to Sweden at the Treaty of Kiel, and there was a brief war later that year as the recalcitrant Norwegians were compelled to accept a union with Sweden. During the decades that followed, Sweden’s agriculture grew rapidly, and its population expanded. A large number of Swedes emigrated to the United States, however, and the process of industrialization did not take off until approximately 1870. This change also brought about major demographic change as Swedes were also migrating from the countryside to the cities. The relationship between Norway and Sweden was at times tense during the 1880s and 1890s, but disagreements between the two countries were settled with political and diplomatic weapons, culminating in the dissolution of the union with Norway in 1905. Through a series of political maneuvers that left Swedish political leaders, including King Oscar II, with a great deal of bitterness, Christian Michelsen managed to break the union, while the Swedes resisted the temptation to resort to force. During the following decades, most of the bitterness dissipated. Sweden had become a modern industrial democracy by the time of World War I, when it managed to stay neutral. It also maintained its neutrality during World War II, becoming a haven for many Norwegian and Danish refugees. While in no position to resist Germany by force, Sweden used its neutrality to carry out significant diplomatic and humanitarian efforts that saved many lives, most significantly the work of Raoul Wallenberg to rescue Hungarian Jews and Folke Bernadotte’s efforts in organizing the white buses to bring Norwegians home from several of the German concentration camps. With an intact industrial base, Sweden developed rapidly during the postwar years, creating a strong welfare state and an affluent society. Strictly neutral during the Cold War, it joined the European Union on 1 January 1995. Sweden remains an important trading partner for Norway and a favorite destination for a large number of Norwegian tourists, while many Swedish young people, taking advantage of the higher pay offered, have sought employment in Norway, especially in the service sector.

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SYSE, JAN PEDER (1930–1997). Norwegian politician. Born in Nøtterøy, Vestfold County, on 25 November 1930, Syse studied law at the University of Oslo. Firmly anchored in conservative thought but of an equally strong moderate bent, he was a prominent student leader and later held leadership positions in both the Conservative Party and its youth organization, rising to the position of party chair in 1988. From 1963 to 1971, he was a member of the Oslo city council. He was first elected to the Storting (Parliament) in 1973, having earlier acted as a substitute representative. From 1983 to 1985, he was the minister of industry in the government headed by Kåre Willoch, but he left this position to become the caucus leader for the Conservative Party. After the parliamentary elections in 1989, Syse formed a minority coalition government consisting of the Conservative Party, the Christian Democrats, and the Center Party. Negotiating this coalition was a considerable feat, and much of the credit for its existence should be given to Syse, a very likable man whose personal qualities of moderation, fairness, and humor were greatly appreciated. The struggle over possible Norwegian membership in the European Union caused the Center Party to leave the government in 1990, and Syse resigned as prime minister. In addition to his involvement in Norwegian political life, Syse was also deeply committed to cooperation within the Scandinavian and Baltic areas, serving the Nordic Council in various capacities, including as its chair in 1993. He served in the Storting until his death two weeks before the end of his term in 1997.

T TAJIK, HADIA (1983–). Norwegian politician born to Pakistani immigrant parents on 18 July 1983 in Bjørheimsbygd in Strand, Rogaland County, Norway. She studied journalism at Stavanger Regional College (now the University of Stavanger) and earned a master’s degree in human rights from Kingston University (London) and a second master’s degree in law from the University of Oslo. In 1999, she became active in the Labor Party Youth Association (AUF). She was appointed as political advisor in the Ministry of Labor and Social Inclusion in 2006 and, after having served as political advisor to Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg and Minister of Justice Knut Storberget, Tajik was elected to the Storting (Parliament) in 2009. She was reelected in 2013 and again in 2017. In 2012, following a cabinet reshuffle, she was appointed to be the minister of culture, serving out the final year of Stoltenberg’s second government. At age 29, she was the youngest person to hold a cabinet position in Norway as well as being the first Muslim ever to serve in a ministerial post. In 2015, she was chosen as a deputy leader of the Labor Party and had come to be considered one of its rising stars. Hadia Tajik is not afraid to take controversial positions, including announcing in 2016 that she favored the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of a republican form of government for Norway. TERBOVEN, JOSEF ANTONIUS HEINRICH (1898–1945). German commissioner in Norway during World War II. Born in Essen, Germany, on 23 May 1898, Terboven served as a military officer during World War I, after which he studied political science and law. Joining the Nazi Party in 1923, he quickly rose through the ranks and became known for his ruthlessness. Named commissioner for Norway by Adolf Hitler on 24 April 1940, Terboven became one of the most hated men in Norway during the war. He reluctantly acted in some degree of concert with Vidkun Quisling, who became the country’s political leader under Terboven’s control. Terboven used the secret police (Gestapo) to ferret out, torture, and execute resistance workers; he also carried out acts of extremely cruel reprisal against Norwe-

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gian civilians, such as the Telavåg tragedy in April 1942. On 8 May 1945, the day of the formal German capitulation in Norway, Terboven committed suicide by blowing himself up with a large quantity of dynamite. THRANE, MARCUS MØLLER (1817–1890). Norwegian Labor leader. Born on 14 October 1817 in Christiania (Oslo) to David Thrane, a merchant and managing director of the Bank of Norway, Thrane obtained his matriculation certificate in 1840, after which he briefly studied theology. He married Josephine Buch and lived for a time in Lillehammer, where he established a small theater group. He taught school at the Modum cobalt works briefly before settling in Drammen in 1848, where he edited a newspaper. Inspired by the ideals of the 1848 revolution, he was fired because of his radical opinions. Influenced by the organizational ideas of the French February revolution, he invited the workers in Drammen to attend a meeting that resulted in the formation of a trade union. The movement spread, other unions were formed, and Thrane started the newspaper Arbeiderforeningenes Blad (Paper of the Trade Unions), in which he vehemently attacked both the embedsmann (public official) class and the rural members of the Storting (Parliament). A petition to the king, signed by 13,000 persons, laid out the program of the trade unions. They wanted universal voting rights, a requirement of both rich and poor to do military service, removal of protective tariffs (thus making food less expensive), better elementary schools, and stronger restrictions on the sale of liquor. Arable but as yet uncultivated land was to be expropriated by the government and made available at low cost to the cottagers, who were economically dependent on the owners of larger farms. Because there was no response to the petition from the king, it was forwarded to the Storting, which declined to put it on its agenda. A convention of representatives from the various trade unions was held in Christiania, and the revolutionary rhetoric used at this convention made the authorities uneasy. Some union members had also behaved disorderly, and this was enough to get Thrane and other leaders arrested. He and several others were found guilty of crimes against the state, and Thrane was sentenced to four year in prison. Following his release in 1858, Thrane worked for a while as a photographer but emigrated to the United States in 1863. After nearly three years in New York, Thrane moved to Chicago, where he established a short-lived newspaper, Marcus Thranes Norske Amerikaner (Marcus Thrane’s Norwegian American), in 1866. He revised many of his radical ideas from Norway, but rather than attacking the political authorities, Thrane focused his ire on the Norwegian American clergy, which he believed exploited Norwegian immigrants. Thrane alienated many religious believers, and the newspaper ceased publication later in 1866. He sold the subscription list of his newspaper to Skandinaven, a new Norwegian-language newspaper

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in Chicago edited by Knut Langeland, and established the first Norwegianlanguage theater in America. Theater for pleasure and for enlightenment had been a part of Thrane’s thinking since his years of political activity in Norway. Thrane wrote several of the plays and the accompanying music, as well as directing many of the performances. The theater also served as a family venture, as his children, Vasilia, Mally, Camilla and Arthur, often performed in the plays. Vasilia was so highly regarded as an actress that she also appeared in several plays for the English-speaking audience in Chicago. While continuing to write plays and musicals, he established a monthly freethinker newspaper, Dagslyset (Light of Day) in 1869. Dagslyset became another forum for Thrane’s attacks on the clergy, but he also aligned himself with the growing labor movement in the United States. In 1883, Thrane traveled back to Norway, where he had hoped he might still find support and old friends. Unfortunately, he arrived in the middle of the constitutional struggle between the Storting and the king and was still seen as a radical threat by the Norwegian establishment. Although he was able to reconnect with some of his former acquaintances, he was denied venues for speeches he had planned, and in the end he returned to Chicago a somewhat embittered man. Thrane retired from active political and cultural life in 1884 and moved to Eau Claire, Wisconsin, where he lived with his son, Arthur, a physician in that city. He died on 30 April 1890. In 1949, his body was exhumed, taken to Norway, and ceremoniously reburied in Vår Frelsers gravlund (Cemetery of Our Savior) in Oslo, with full honors befitting a champion of the working classes. Former foreign minister and historian Halvdan Koht, who had met Arthur Thrane during his research tour of the United States in 1909, spoke eloquently at the reburial ceremony about the injustices Thrane had suffered at the hands of officials of the Norwegian government. TIDEMAND, ADOLPH (1814–1876). Norwegian painter. Born in Mandal on 14 August 1814 as the son of customs inspector and member of the Storting, Christen Tidemand, Tidemand studied art in Copenhagen from 1832 to 1837, after which he traveled to Dusseldorf, Germany, remaining a student at the art academy there until 1841. He traveled widely in Norway and painted a number of works with motifs from rural Norwegian life. These works typified the sentimentality of national romanticism. Together with his colleague Hans Gude, he collaborated on several paintings; Gude painted the landscapes and Tidemand the figures, Brudeferden i Hardanger (1849; The Bridal Journey in Hardanger) being the best known of these. Another well-known painting is Haugianerne (1852; The Haugeans), which depicts a group of the followers of Hans Nilsen Hauge. Tidemand also taught at the art academy in Dusseldorf.

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TORDENSKJOLD, PETER WESSEL (1691–1720). Norwegian naval hero. Born in Trondheim to Jan Wessel on 28 October 1691, Peter Wessel distinguished himself by his service to the Dano-Norwegian king Frederik IV (1671–1730) during the Great Northern War (1700–21). An audacious adventurer, he rose through the ranks in the Dano-Norwegian navy, ending up as vice admiral. His most daring exploit took place at the Battle of Dynekilen on the west coast of Sweden on 8 July 1716. With a small flotilla, Tordenskjold captured or destroyed the Swedish fleet, with a total of 76 casualties to his own force. Also a hotheaded young man, Tordenskjold died in a duel that he was tricked into fighting without a proper weapon. TORP, OSCAR (1893–1958). Norwegian politician. Born in Skjeberg near Sarpsborg, Østfold County, on 8 June 1893, Torp was trained as a smith and an electrician. He led the Labor Party in Sarpsborg from 1918 to 1923 and was the national Labor Party chair from 1923 to 1945. He was elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1936 and held cabinet posts under Johan Nygaardsvold and in Einar Gerhardsen’s first government. After leading the Labor Party caucus in the Storting from 1948 to 1951, he traded places with Gerhardsen and became Norway’s prime minister until 1955. Torp’s career was characterized by an exceptional ability to engage people in fruitful cooperation in order to reach common goals. TRADE. Norwegians have engaged in trade at least as far back as the Migration period, and trade was an important aspect of Viking times. During the Middle Ages, Norway was dependent on imported grain and salt, which were paid for with stockfish and furs. The history of the Norwegian shipping fleet is a reflection of not only the country’s seafaring traditions but also of its need for imported commodities. According to the CIA World Factbook, the value of Norwegian exported goods in 2017 amounted to $108.2 billion, and the exports consisted mainly of oil and natural gas as well as other petroleum products, machinery, equipment, metals and chemicals (especially those refined through the use of hydroelectric power), ships, and products of the fishing and aquaculture industries. The value of Norwegian imported goods, on the other hand, totaled $79.9 billion, and the imports consisted mainly of chemicals, machinery, metals, and foodstuffs. The trade surplus is the result of the sale of oil and natural gas, which makes up for a major imbalance in the trade of traditional goods. But Norway’s sensitivity to the international market price of oil and natural gas also means that the trade surplus tends to fluctuate with the oil price.

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In part, the trade imbalance in traditional goods has been a function of the increased success of the Norwegian economy. As the gross domestic product has risen, the demand for imported goods has increased. Because the Norwegian economy depends strongly on the service sector, in which 78.6 percent of the Norwegian workforce was employed in 2016, many imports are ultimately paid for with oil money. Norway’s most important export partners in 2016 were the United Kingdom (21 percent), Germany (14.4 percent), the Netherlands (10.6 percent), France (6.9 percent), Sweden (6.5 percent), Belgium (4.4 percent), and the United States (4.3 percent). Imported goods came from Sweden (12.2 percent), Germany (12.2 percent), China (11.2 percent), and Denmark (5.7 percent). Norway has a long history of promoting free trade and is a member of the European Economic Area (EEA), thereby contributing considerably to the budget of the European Union, which it has chosen not to join but to whose inner market it has access through the EEA. See also EUROPEAN INTEGRATION. TRANMÆL, MARTIN OLSEN (1879–1967). Norwegian politician and Labor leader. Born on 27 June 1879 in Melhus, Trøndelag County, Tranmæl was the son of a farmer, worked in construction, and actively participated in the Labor Party. He became a journalist in the worker paper Ny Tid (New Time) in Trondheim starting in 1899 and became the editor in 1906, serving until 1918. Under his leadership, the paper became an effective tool for socialist agitation. Tranmæel also rose quickly in the party ranks. In 1911, he supported a group of trade union activists who formed the Labor Party’s Union Opposition, arguing that the party needed to use revolution to reach its socialist goals. This group wanted to nationalize Norway’s economy and managed to take control of the Labor Party at its 1918 convention. Tranmæl was not the party’s formal leader, but he was possibly its most powerful member. Partly at his instigation, the party accepted Vladimir Ilyich Lenin’s 21 “Moscow theses” and joined the Communist International (Comintern) based in Moscow, thus essentially making itself a tool of international Soviet communism. By 1923, Tranmæl had second thoughts about this decision, and the Labor Party left the Comintern. Through these actions, Tranmæl became partly responsible for two schisms within the Labor Party. The first one took place in 1921, when Norway’s Social-Democratic Labor Party split off (it returned to the mother party in 1927) because of the Comintern membership, and the second one in 1923, when Norway’s Communist Party, which consisted of people loyal to the goals of the Comintern, was formed. In the 1930s, Tranmæl, who in 1921 had become the editor of the Social-Demokraten (Social-Democrat), Norway’s most important Labor Party newspaper, supported the reformist goals of the party. He spent World War II in exile in Stockholm, working

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for Norway’s National Trade Union Association, and after the war, he was one of Labor’s supporters of Norwegian membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). In 1949, he retired as editor of the Arbeiderbladet (Worker’s Paper), the successor of Social-Demokraten. TREATY OF KIEL. See KIEL, TREATY OF. TROMSØ. The largest city in northern Norway, Tromsø is located close to 70 degrees north latitude on the landward side of the island Tromsøya (Troms Island). The municipality, which has a population of 76,649 inhabitants (2019), consists of several islands as well as part of the mainland connected to Tromsøya by the majestic, 1,016-meter-long Tromsø brua (Tromsø Bridge). The climate is surprisingly mild for a place located so far to the north, as it is moderated by a branch of the Gulf Stream. The summer is cool but light, with a period of more than three months without any darkness. During the winter, on the other hand, there are a few days on either side of the winter solstice when there is no appreciable daylight. Judging by the archeological record, people lived in the area as early as 9,000 years ago, and there is some evidence of the presence of ethnic Norwegians during the Iron Age. The Norse Viking-age chieftain Ottar (Ohthere), as recorded in a ninth-century Anglo-Saxon source, lived in the Troms region and claimed to live the “furthest north of all Norwegians.” He describes travel along the coast and his interaction with the indigenous people of the north, the Sami. King Haakon IV Haakonsson (1204–63) had a church built in Tromsø in 1252. Nothing remains of it, but a turf rampart that is still in existence may have been built around the same time. Medieval Tromsø was just a place where people gathered to attend church, although some minor trade may have taken place there. When the Bergen trade monopoly came to an end in 1789, however, three cities in northern Norway were given city charters, and Tromsø was one of them. The city slowly grew from about 80 inhabitants in 1789, as trade along the coast all the way to the Russian border developed and fishing became the basis for significant economic activity. In the 1820s, Tromsø also became an important base for hunting in the Arctic, and three decades later, it was the leading outfitter in Norway for this very profitable work. By the end of the 1800s, Tromsø had become Ishavsbyen (Arctic City), the world’s most important gateway to the north. Men with experience working and living in cold climates were to be found there, and it is no wonder that Tromsø was used as a base during Roald Amundsen’s Arctic exploration and the attempted rescue of Umberto Nobile in 1928.

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The king and the government stayed in Tromsø for three weeks during the military campaign in Norway in the beginning months of World War II until they left for Great Britain on 7 June 1940. Tromsø saw little serious action during the war but hosted numerous evacuees from the German scorched-earth tactics used in Finnmark in 1944–45. The city languished during the first part of the postwar era, but growth took off again in the 1960s. In 1964, Tromsø municipality was combined with several of its neighbors for a combined population of approximately 32,000, which had doubled four decades later, giving Tromsø the highest rate of growth of all Norwegian cities. The Tromsø airport, located at Langnes, was opened in 1964, and the University of Tromsø–The Arctic University of Norway was established by law in 1968 and opened in 1972; it and other educational institutions bring more than 12,000 students to the town annually. During recent years, industry has been of limited significance in Tromsø and, while the biggest employers are the regional hospital and the university, marine bio-prospecting, sustainable aquaculture, and satellite services are some of the city’s recent areas of innovation. The city has a number of museums, some of them related to its Arctic location. Tromsø markets itself as the “gateway to the Arctic” and, as such, is the place with the highest probability of seeing the northern lights. TRONDHEIM. Trondheim is Norway’s third-largest city, with 196,159 inhabitants in 2019. The only Norwegian city to have experienced near-riot conditions because of a change in its name, it was known as Nidaros (the mouth of the river Nid) and Kaupangen (the Marketplace) in Viking times, when it was supposed to have been established by King Olav Tryggvason (c. 960–1000) in 997 CE. The population in the sheltered area at the end of the Trondheim fjord where the city now stands, however, goes back to the Stone Age, according to archeological evidence, and there was already a population center in place when Olav Tryggvason chose the place for his residence. From 1152 to 1537, Trondheim was the seat of the Catholic archbishop of Nidaros. The Nidaros Cathedral, built over the burial site of Saint Olaf Haraldsson, was the cathedral of the archdiocese of Nidaros until the Reformation in 1537, when it became the cathedral of the Lutheran bishops. Although damaged over the years by war and neglect, it has been restored to much of its medieval glory and is the northernmost cathedral in the world. During the union between Denmark and Norway, the name of the city was spelled Trondhjem, and it was during an ill-fated attempt by the Norwegian Storting (Parliament) in 1930–31 to reintroduce the name Nidaros that the natives became exercised to the point that a subtle compromise, Trondheim, was the result.

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Trondheim’s sheltered location gives it a relatively mild climate, tempered by the Gulf Stream off the coast. It can be very cold, however, when the wind blows from the east during the winter. Byåsen (City Ridge) provides an excellent cross-country skiing area. The agricultural areas close to the city have traditionally provided Trondheim with its commercial basis, and it also has a history of rendering different types of services to the maritime industry. The home of several educational institutions, including Norway’s secondlargest university, the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim’s local economy also benefits from these institutions as well as from the spin-offs that occur when new technology is commercialized. In 2016, the university merged with three regional university colleges at Gjøvik, Ålesund, and Sør-Trøndelag while retaining its name as NTNU. Trondheim was the capital of Norway until 1070 and experienced rapid growth during the first decades of its existence. It was the center for the cult of Saint Olaf, and the construction of the first church on his grave site was started in approximately 1070. In 1152, the city became the seat of Norway’s archbishop, whose residence was built adjacent to the Olaf Church, where Nidaros Cathedral is now located. Many other churches and several cloisters were also built. The city was plagued by periodic fires, however, and at the time of the Reformation in 1536–37, Trondheim lost much of its earlier luster. In 1658, Trondheim, together with its surrounding area, was briefly part of Sweden. The increase in trade in the early modern period was a significant benefit to Trondheim, but the city was again devastated by fires in 1599, 1651, and 1681. After the fire in 1681, the city was given wider streets and rectangular blocks, but there was another major fire in 1708. Wooden structures were still built, however, and more fires followed, until 1845, when people were compelled to use brick and stone in building construction. At this time, many suburbs were annexed, the harbor was improved, and Trondheim was connected to Christiania (Oslo) by rail in 1877. The population grew rapidly around 1900, and industrial zones were established. Trondheim was occupied by the Germans as of 9 April 1940, and the invaders held it until 8 May 1945. During the post–World War II era, Trondheim has developed into a modern city with an emphasis on the service economy as well as education and high technology. Its modern airport at Værnes, less than an hour’s drive away, offers frequent flights to other major Norwegian cities, with connections to Europe and the rest of the world. Tourists find the natives open and friendly, there are many interesting museums and historical places to visit, and the long summer evenings with little or no darkness at night for a period of about two months make Trondheim one of the most intriguing cities anywhere.

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TRONDSTAD, LEIF HANS LARSEN (1903–1945). Norwegian scientist, professor, resistance fighter, and intelligence officer, born 27 March 1903 in Sandvika, Bærum, Norway. An honors graduate of the Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTNU) in Trondheim in 1927, Trondstad received his doctoral degree in 1931 and was appointed professor of technical inorganic chemistry in 1936. He was a guest scientist in Berlin in 1928–29 and at Cambridge University in 1931–32. He authored or coauthored over 80 scientific papers, 14 of which deal with “heavy water,” deuterium, and deuterium derivatives. A few months after the 1932 discovery of deuterium by American chemist and Nobel Prize winner for chemistry Harold Urey, the first heavy water production occurred. Heavy water would become an essential component of early nuclear research after the 1938 discovery of nuclear fission. Working with a colleague, Jomar Brun, the head of Norsk Hydro at Rjukan, Trondstad in 1933 helped to create a plan for the industrial-scale production of heavy water in Norway, where large amounts of electrolyzed water was already available as a result of the ammonia production for nitrogen fertilizer. A plant, in accordance with the plans of Trondstad and Brun, was built by Norsk Hydro at Vemork, a short distance from Rjukan. When German forces invaded and occupied Norway in April 1940, Trondstad, who had also completed a military education and reached the rank of second lieutenant in 1927, joined the Norwegian underground resistance. In the underground, Trondstad sent messages to Britain about developments at the Vemork plant and, in 1941, one of the messages noted that the Germans had significantly increased the production of heavy water. Subsequently getting word that he was wanted by the Gestapo, Trondstad escaped to Sweden and made his way to England in September 1941. Already known for his scientific work, Trondstad convinced the British and American allies that the Norsk Hydro plant had to be a top priority. Trondstad was given the responsibility for training commando units for operations in Norway, focusing on industry and coastal shipping, as well as providing technical information for potential sabotage targets. The increased production activity at the heavy water plant was of growing concern for the Allies, and Trondstad opposed the initial proposals to bomb the plant. He insisted that commandos sent in to sabotage the production would spare Norwegian lives and be just as effective. The first attempt, using gliders to carry commandos to Norway, failed tragically as the planes crashed and the soldiers were either killed in the planes or captured and executed by the Gestapo. Trondstad developed a new plan that would send a small team of Norwegian saboteurs familiar with the terrain, believing they would be more likely to succeed. Code-named “Gunnerside,” on the night of 27 February 1943, six saboteurs led by Joachim Rønneberg destroyed the final-stage concentration cells and the heavy water in them. Although production was resumed a few month later, after Americans bombed the plant in November, the Ger-

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man authorities decided to move production out of Norway. All the remaining heavy water was to be shipped to Germany, first by ferry across Lake Tinn, then by rail to the south coast of Norway, and eventually on to Germany. To prevent the shipment, saboteurs sank the ferry carrying the material in February 1944, thereby ending the threat that the heavy water from Vemork would be used by the Nazis to develop an atomic bomb. Trondstad, who was active in the intelligence and planning of the Telemark sabotage action, was finally granted his wish to return to Norway to work with the resistance to secure the hydroelectric industrial plants against possible German scorchedearth destruction as the war was coming to an end. On 11 March 1945, while he waited in a mountain cabin to interrogate a local official working with the Germans, Trondstad and a fellow resistance fighter were taken by surprise and killed in a resulting skirmish. He was buried two months later with full military honors on 30 May 1945 in the Vestre Gravlund cemetery in Oslo. Trondstad was awarded the Norwegian War Cross with Sword, the British Distinguished Service Order and the Order of the British Empire, the French Legion of Honor and the Croix de Guerre, and the United States Medal of Freedom with Bronze Palm. See also WORLD WAR II.

U UELAND, OLE GABRIEL (1799–1870). Norwegian politician. Ueland was born into limited economic circumstances on 28 October 1799 in the Dalane district in southwestern Norway. He married the daughter of the farmer at Ueland in the community Heskestad, however, and owned and operated this farm starting in 1825. Before his marriage, he worked as an itinerant schoolmaster from 1817 to 1825 and then as a schoolmaster and sexton in Heskestad from 1827 to 1852. He was the local sheriff (lensmann) from 1852 to 1856 and was involved in local politics as well, serving as mayor in 1837–51 and 1856–59. He was elected to the Storting (Parliament) in 1833, serving until 1869. The year 1833 was an auspicious start of a parliamentary career, for elected for the first time that year were a large number of representatives with rural backgrounds and an improved outlook for farmers, while the representation of the embedsmann (public official) class declined proportionally. Ueland was a man with great intelligence and sound political instincts, and he quickly became a leader among the farmers elected to the Storting. Like Søren Jaabæk a few years later, he was a liberalist who wanted to get rid of government restrictions on trade and choice of occupation, and he strongly supported legislation concerning occupations (1839) and commerce (1842) that furthered this end. He wished to reduce the tax burden on the rural people by encouraging steep reductions in public expenditures, and he wanted to offer the people living in rural communities greater opportunities for political self-development. He also wanted people to take increased responsibility in religious matters. A religious man, he admired the work of Hans Nilsen Hauge. While Ueland was not formally a Haugean and did not disparage the work of the ministers of the State Church, he wanted common people to participate in the governance of the local parishes. With his own background and service record, he was a sterling example of the kind of commitment to and participation in public life that he was hoping to make increasingly common.

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Ueland therefore strongly backed the local government laws (jormannsskapslovene) that were passed in 1837. Members of the embedsmann class had previously been in charge of local governance, but after 1837, delegates to local governing councils were selected through local elections. The formannsskapslover provided a local political training ground that made Norway’s modern democracy possible. Ueland is also credited with helping to establish the first forum for organized cooperation among members of the Storting, the so-called Reformforeningen (Reform Association), which Johan Sverdrup and Ueland organized in 1859. An association in which rural representatives could work with liberal city members of the Storting, it was not a political party but helped pave the way for the establishment of the Liberal Party in 1884. While Ueland is remembered mostly for his contributions to Norway’s democratic development, his instincts were not always on the side of democracy. He resisted the constitutional change that allowed Jews access to Norway, and he wanted to keep legislation that restricted the freedom of worship for religious dissenters. He was against prison reform but wanted to get rid of debtors’ prison and make it harder for creditors to collect debts. Conservative by temperament, he looked out for the interests of his own constituents, thus contributing mightily to the modernization of Norwegian life and society. ULLMANN, LIV JOHANNE (1938–). Norwegian actress and film director born on 16 December 1938 in Tokyo, Japan, where her father, Erik Viggo Ullmann, was working as an aircraft engineer. In 1940, with Japan allied with Germany and Norway occupied by German armed forces, the family moved to Toronto, Canada, where her father worked at the Norwegian air force base, Little Norway. At the end of the war, following the death of her husband, Liv’s mother moved the family back to her hometown of Trondheim, where Liv became enamored with acting, even appearing in a children’s play with the Trøndelag Theater. She began her acting career at Det Nye Teater in Oslo and at the age of 19 at the Rogaland Theater in Stavanger, where she received critical acclaim in the role of Anne Frank. Following her role in Edith Carlmar’s Ung Flugt (1959; The Wayward Girl), she had become a Norwegian star. Appearing in several plays with the Norwegian Theater in the early 1960s, she was noticed by Swedish filmmaker Ingmar Bergman, who cast her in the role of a mute actress in Persona (1965). In addition to acting in several of Bergman’s films, with great critical success, Ullmann began a relationship with the director and gave birth to their daughter, Linn, in 1966. In the 1970s, Ullmann appeared in several American films in addition to Swedish ones. She was nominated for a Best Actress Oscar for her performance in The Emigrants in 1971 and for Face to Face in 1976. In 1975,

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Ullmann debuted on the New York stage in Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll House as well as appearing in Ghosts and a musical version of I Remember Mama. In 1992, Ullmann debuted as a film director with a Danish drama, Sofie, featuring her costar from several Bergman films, Erland Josephson. In 1995, she directed Kristen Lavransdatter, based on the Sigrid Undset Nobel Prize–winning novel, and in 2000 she directed the Ingmar Bergman–scripted Faithless, which brought her a Best Actress nomination at the Cannes Film Festival. Ullmann has been honored with numerous awards and prizes, both at home in Norway and internationally. In 1977, she was named Knight First Class in the Order of Saint Olav, and in 2005 she made Commander with Star. She is a cofounder and honorary chair of the International Rescue Committee’s Women’s Refugee Commission and a goodwill ambassador for the United Nations International Children’s Fund (UNICEF). See also CINEMA. UNDSET, SIGRID (1882–1949). Norwegian novelist. Born on 20 May 1882 in Kalundborg, Denmark, to the Norwegian archeologist Ingvald Martin Undset, Sigrid Undset is the third Norwegian writer to be awarded the Nobel Prize (after Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson and Knut Hamsun). Her worldwide reputation rests on her trilogy Kristin Lavransdatter (1920–22), which has been translated into more than 70 languages. Undset early on developed a love for the Middle Ages, but on the advice of the editor that rejected her first work of fiction, a story with a medieval setting, she at first published works that were set in her own time. Great examples of the neorealism of the early 20th century, these books deal both with social issues and the existential situation of their protagonists, particularly their love relationships. Throughout her long career, Undset published a large number of novels with both medieval and modern settings. While the tenor of her works is significantly at variance with the feminism of her age, Undset wrote with great insight into the female psyche. She discussed her views on the relationship between the sexes in a collection of articles titled Et kvindesynspunkt (1919; A Woman’s Point of View). Her interest in religion came to the fore after her own conversion to Roman Catholicism. She escaped following the German invasion of Norway on 9 April 1940 and spent World War II in the United States as an unofficial cultural ambassador for Norway. While she published no more works of fiction, she wrote articles, speeches, memoirs, and biographies of saints. Following the war, she returned to Norway and her home in Lillehammer, where she died in 1949. See also LITERATURE.

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UNION WITH SWEDEN IN 1814. From an early 21st-century perspective, the union that Norway entered into with Sweden in 1814 appears as a necessary step toward Norway’s democratic development in the 20th century. At the time when the union was introduced, however, many Norwegians viewed it as the disappointing conclusion of a valiant struggle for complete selfdetermination. The Napoleonic Wars overshadow all other events in early 19th-century European history. The Scandinavian countries, which had maintained neutrality during the conflicts of the late 18th century, could no longer hold on to that policy. Sweden sided with England in 1805, and after England’s 1807 attack on Copenhagen and the confiscation of the Danish fleet, King Frederik VI maintained a steadfast alliance with France. This fateful Danish foreign policy decision drove a wedge between Norway and Denmark, however, for Norway’s true interests had traditionally been tied to those of England, which has largely controlled the high seas on which Norwegian trade and shipping have been dependent. The year 1807 marked the beginning of a difficult period of time for Norway, its coast subjected to a merciless British blockade, especially the importation of grains. Cut off from a major food supply, many Norwegians starved. Accounts of the widespread use of the famine food “bark bread,” made from mixing the phloem scrapings from tree bark with minimal amounts of grain or vegetables to produce an edible type of bread, were common. In addition, eastern Norway was attacked overland from Sweden, and this attack abated only as the Swedish troops had to be turned toward Russia, which was allied with France and used the opportunity to wrest Finland away from Sweden. As Russian troops threatened Sweden itself, a coup d’état by Swedish officers dethroned their king, Gustaf IV Adolf, replacing him with his uncle, the childless Karl XIII. The Norwegian military commander, Christian August of the house of Augustenborg, was invited to be the heir apparent and was adopted by Karl XIII, changing his name to Karl August. The new crown prince died in 1810, however, thereby creating an opening for one of Napoleon’s most controversial marshals, Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, to be elected as Sweden’s heir apparent and adopted by Karl XIII under the name Karl Johan. A brilliant strategist, Karl Johan realized that his throne and Sweden’s future fortunes were more assured by an alliance with England and Russia, in spite of Russia being a traditional enemy of Sweden. Anticipating Napoleon’s attack on Russia in 1812, Karl Johan made a treaty with the Russian czar that promised support for the transfer of Norway to Sweden in exchange for Sweden’s support for the war against Napoleon. Great Britain also agreed that Sweden should be given Norway once it had been separated from Denmark.

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In October 1813, the Swedish army joined the allies fighting against Napoleon at the Battle of the Nations near Leipzig and helped force his army to retreat back into France. Rather than join the pursuit of the retreating French army, however, Karl Johan made an unexpected move, marching northward toward Jutland and threatening to invade Denmark itself. Facing the prospect of a Swedish invasion, the Danes agreed to negotiations to be held in the city of Kiel. In the Treaty of Kiel signed on 14 January 1814, Karl Johan’s plans finally came to fruition. Norway was ceded to Sweden. Frederik VI informed his cousin and heir, Crown Prince Christian Frederik, immediately, and the news reached him in Christiania (Oslo), Norway, on 24 January 1814. Christian Frederik had a somewhat romantic disposition and immediately offered to step in as regent of a wholly independent Norway, united with neither Denmark nor Sweden. This proposal was in line with nationalistic sentiments present in Norway and partly a result of the country’s suffering due to miscalculations and direct blunders in Denmark’s foreign policy. Christian Frederik was quickly brought to understand, however, that to the Norwegians, the Treaty of Kiel meant that Norwegian sovereignty, turned over to the king in the Royal Law (Kongeloven) of 1665, had reverted back to the people of Norway and that sovereignty did not rest with him. On 19 February 1814, a proclamation signed by Christian Frederik was sent to Norwegian parishes with instructions that it be read from the pulpit. The members of all the congregations were to take an oath that they would defend Norway’s independence and elect representatives to a constitutional convention. Christian Frederik also sent his close friend Carsten Anker to London, hoping to persuade the British government to support Norway’s bid for independence. His mission was largely unsuccessful, but at least it brought the Norwegian popular desire for independence to the attention of the British. As of 10 April 1814, 112 representatives from various parts of the country were gathered for the constitutional convention at Eidsvoll, a short distance north of Oslo. These men divided themselves into two factions. One side fervently believed that Norway might indeed succeed in winning its independence and that it should be defended with arms if necessary. The other side was of a more realistic bent and acknowledged the reality of the politics of the European Great Powers. The convention voted to limit its work to writing a constitution and electing a king of Norway, and a constitutional committee was established on 12 April. Its draft was complete on 2 May, and the constitution was officially accepted and signed on 17 May 1814. Christian Frederik was also elected to the throne. Not without reason, the Great Powers suspected that Christian Frederik’s activities in Norway were taking place at the instigation of the king in Copenhagen, who would someday yield the Danish throne to Norway’s new king, and that it was an attempt to circumvent the Treaty of Kiel and prevent the transfer of Norway to Sweden. When representatives of the European

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powers traveled to Denmark, though, they understood that this was not the sole reason for the drive toward independence. A British government representative sent to Norway came to the same conclusion and realized that opposition to the transfer to Sweden and the constitution were the outgrowth of a genuinely popular movement. The purpose of all these emissaries, however, was to see to it that the union between Norway and Sweden was effected, but they had little concern about exactly what kind of union it was going to be. Christian Frederik sacrificed his personal ambitions in favor of negotiating the best possible terms for Norway, arguing that whatever was done had to be done in accordance with the new Norwegian constitution and that the Storting (Parliament) needed time to meet and participate in the negotiations with Sweden. By effectively giving up its demand for complete independence, Norway showed that it was willing to yield to the demands of the Great Powers and left the next step in the process up to Karl Johan. When Karl Johan chose to go to war against Norway and was met with more resistance than what he had probably expected, he chose to negotiate, and this was a choice that pleased the Great Powers, as there was no desire for further military conflict that might spread to parts of the continent. An agreement was signed in Moss, Norway, on 14 August 1814, and peace was restored between the two countries. Under the terms of the Convention of Moss, Norway was allowed to keep its new constitution. When the Storting met in session starting 7 October 1814, the revisions to the constitution made necessary by the union with Sweden were begun and finalized by 4 November, and the Swedish king Karl XIII was elected to Norway’s throne. These constitutional revisions make it reasonable to think of the November constitution as a different constitution than the one signed on 17 May, but the changes were far from radical and generally weakened the position of the king in favor of that of the Storting. In 1815, the procedures governing the relationship between Norway and Sweden were enshrined in the Act of Union, which regulated joint affairs of the two countries for the next 90 years. UNITED NATIONS (UN). The purposes of the UN include promoting international peace and security, as well as friendship among nations; cooperating in finding solutions to international problems; and promoting international law and respect for human rights. It is a successor organization to the League of Nations as well as to the organized group of Allies that signed the UN declaration on 1 January 1942. The declaration was, in turn, descended from the Atlantic Charter signed by Great Britain and the United States on 12 August 1941, which expressed the principles they were to follow during World War II as well as their ideas about what the world would look like after the war. The Atlantic Charter was later ratified by a number of states, including the Norwegian exile government in London, which signed the UN declaration as well.

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The UN charter was signed on 26 June 1945, and Norway was one of the original 50 signatories. Norway attempted to remain neutral during the first three years after the end of World War II, and the Norwegian minister of foreign affairs, Trygve Lie, was chosen to serve as the UN’s first secretary general in January 1946. When Norway joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949, the attempt at being neutral was abandoned, and Norway actively supported the United States and Great Britain. Over the years, Norway has been a staunch supporter of the mission of the UN as well as of the organization itself. Norway has also actively participated in UN peacekeeping forces, providing troops to 30 different missions, including the UN Emergency Force I in Gaza from 1956 to 1957, with the loss of 9 troops, and from 1978 to 1998 the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), with the loss of 21 troops. Beginning in 2001 with the U.S.-led invasion of Afghanistan, Norway has had as many as 500 troops there attached to the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), but by 2018, that number had been reduced to 50. See also EUROPEAN INTEGRATION. UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (UNESCO). An international agency of the United Nations with headquarters in Paris, the purpose of which is to secure peace and security by promoting international cooperation through educational, scientific, and cultural cooperation. Projects supported by UNESCO include, but are not limited to, literacy, teacher training, international science programs, promotion of an independent media, freedom of the press, regional cultural history projects, international cooperation, and securing, protecting, and preserving cultural and natural heritage sites. Norway has seven sites listed on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites since the inception of the designation in 1977. UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Norway include Bryggen, the medieval wharf area of the Hanseatic League from the 14th to the 16th century; Urnes stave church, built in the early 12th century, an example of traditional Norwegian wooden architecture; the Røros mining town, linked to the 17th-century copper mines in use for over 300 years, as an example of an industrial-rural cultural landscape; the Rock Art of Alta, Bronze Age petroglyphs demonstrating the human environment on the fringes of the far north in prehistoric times; the Rjukan-Notodden Industrial Heritage Site, exemplifying industrial assets in a natural landscape; the Vega Archipelago, reflecting the way fishermen-farmers have maintained a sustainable lifestyle over the centuries in a harsh seascape near the Arctic Circle; and the West Norwegian fjord landscape of Geirangerfjord and Nærøyfjord, considered archetypical of fjords everywhere, with their majestic nature and supporting flora and fauna.

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UNITED PARTY. Formed in 1903 by Christian Michelsen, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, and Wollert Konow, the Samlingspartiet (United Party) was designed to be an alternative for those who had traditionally voted with the Liberal Party but who were uncomfortable with the ideas of its left wing. The United Party also appealed to conservative voters and cooperated closely with the Conservative Party. Together, in the 1903 parliamentary election, the United Party and the Conservatives jointly won 63 seats in the Storting (Parliament), while the Liberal Party won 49. Because the focus of the United Party was negotiations rather than military conflict with Sweden during the dissolution of the union between the two countries, it was rather short lived and was succeeded by the Liberal Left Party (Frisinnede Venstre) a few years later. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. On the whole, Norway has had a cooperative and productive relationship with the United States, politically, economically, and culturally. The American Revolution of 1776–83 had a significant impact on Norway, especially the ideals of the U.S. Constitution, which influenced the authors of the Norwegian constitution of 1814. Between 1825 and 1940, approximately 850,000 Norwegians immigrated to the United States, and their descendants and other interested individuals maintain a number of cultural and fraternal associations. Many of these groups provide scholarships that allow American students to study in Norway. When the International Summer School at the University of Oslo started in 1947, it was primarily aimed at American students. Many Norwegian students also study in the United States, either at major American universities or at institutions that have links to Norway, for example, Saint Olaf College in Northfield, Minnesota, and Pacific Lutheran University in Tacoma, Washington, both of which were founded by Norwegian immigrants. The United States is Norway’s most important trading partner outside of Europe, and trade is roughly in balance. According to official U.S. government statistics for 2016, Norway is the 46th-largest trading partner for the United States, with 2016 exports totaling $4.4 billion and imports $3.9 billion. The Norwegian goods trade surplus of $484 million, however, was nearly offset by a $321 million deficit in the trade of services. Most of Norway’s exports to the United States consist of mineral fuel and oil, nickel and nickel products, and seafoods (especially Atlantic salmon). Norwegian imports from the United States include automobiles, aircraft (military and civilian), optic and medical instruments, and computer equipment. The United States also provides approximately one-fourth of the foreign investment in Norway, much of it in the oil and gas sector. The United States has a mutual recognition agreement with Norway in the areas of telecommunications and marine equipment, as well as other trade pacts.

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Norway has historically been one of the staunchest allies of the United States since diplomatic relations were established on 30 October 1905. Norway considers the United States to be its most important ally. A close relationship to the United States is vital for Norway. Although neutral, Norway did much to support the Allies during World War I, and during World War II, Norway relied heavily on the United States. After the war, the Marshall Plan was a boon to Norwegian reconstruction. Since Norway became a charter member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949, Norwegian and U.S. troops have trained together and worked together in the cause of peace. As NATO allies, the United States and Norway are partners in crisis areas around the globe. Norway is a key contributor to the NATO-led Resolute Support Mission that mentors the Afghan National Security Forces and has worked to remove chemical weapon agents from Syria. Approximately 500 Norwegian military personnel, including pilots, train in the United States each year. The Norwegian business sector has strong ties with the United States. Several Norwegian companies have established operations in the United States, not only in the traditional shipping sector, but also in oil, energy, and several new technologies. The state of Texas and the city of Houston are home to more than 150 Norwegian companies, while New York and California are also important for Norwegian business interests. Norway’s Government Pension Fund–Global, the sovereign wealth fund established in 1990 to invest the surplus revenues of the petroleum sector, had a 2018 value of $1.1 trillion, of which more than 40 percent is invested in the United States in equities, stocks, and real estate. Norwegians tend to be very interested in and informed about U.S. social and political issues but often prefer Democratic administrations to Republican ones. Many have a particularly strong sense of admiration for President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882–1945), who with his wife, Eleanor, showed much kindness toward Crown Princess Martha, the wife of the later King Olav V, when she lived in exile in Washington, D.C., with her children during World War II. Roosevelt had spoken with admiration about the Norwegian resistance to the Germans on 13 April 1940, and on 16 September 1942, he delivered his famous “Look to Norway” speech, which became a source of inspiration to Norwegian freedom fighters. Like the rest of the world, Norway has also been strongly influenced by American popular culture. American country singers have been very popular; for example, Jim Reeves (1923–64) was the first American artist to have a gold record in Norway, where he gave a famous concert shortly before his death. American films, particularly westerns, have been popular in Norway, and translated American western and detective fiction has sold very well.

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Partly because of the historical and cultural connections between the two countries, the United States is an important destination for Norwegian tourists. See also EMIGRATION FROM NORWAY TO AMERICA. URNES STAVE CHURCH. Built c. 1130 CE, the Urnes stave church, standing on its original site at Ornes in the Lusterfjord arm of Norway’s inner Sognefjord, is the oldest building of its kind, combining Viking age and Christian architecture. It is listed as a World Heritage Site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). It is believed that over 1,000 wooden stave churches were constructed in Scandinavia at the end of the Viking age and the beginning of the Christian Middle Ages. The Urnes stave church is the oldest of the surviving 25 original stave churches, and in its exterior north wall there are intricate animal wood carvings, believed to be from the portal of an even older church that stood on the site. UTØYA. A small island in Lake Tyrifjorden in Buskerud County, 24 miles northeast of the city of Oslo. The island is owned by the Norwegian Labor Party’s Youth Association (Arbeidernes Ungdomsfylking; AUF), which received it as a gift in 1950. The island is the site of an annual four-day summer camp of young Labor Party activists, many of them teenagers. On 22 July 2011, the island became the scene of horrific violence as a “lone wolf” right-wing terrorist, Anders Behring Breivik, after setting off a car bomb in the center of Oslo, systematically walked around the island dressed as a policeman shooting the campers. Eight people died in the bombing in the city, and 69 people, mostly teenagers, were killed on Utøya. Members of AUF have sought to reclaim the idyll of the island, but it remains a deep wound in the psyche of those who experienced the tragic events there and for the Norwegian people themselves.

V VÅRVIK, DAGFINN (1924–2018). Norwegian politician. Born on a farm at Leinstrand, Trøndelag County, on 8 June 1924, Vårvik was educated as an economist and began his political career as the secretary of the Center Party’s parliamentary caucus. He was the political editor of the Nationen (Nation), the major daily newspaper of the Center Party, when he became the minister of finance in the short-lived government headed by John Lyng in 1963. From 1965 to 1971, he was the minister of wages and prices under Prime Minister Per Borten, and from 1972 to 1973, he was the minister of foreign affairs in the government headed by Lars Korvald. He was head of the Center Party from 1973 to 1977, after which he became the editor in chief of Nationen. VENSTRE. See LIBERAL PARTY. VESTLAND. Western Norwegian County formally established 1 January 2020 with the consolidation of Hordaland County and Sogn og Fjordane County. Vestland consists of 43 kommuner (municipalities). The administrative and political center of the enlarged county is Bergen, and the official administrative language is Nynorsk (the New Norwegian variant of Norwegian). VIGELAND, GUSTAV (1869–1943). Norwegian sculptor. Born in the town of Mandal, Vest-Agder County, on 11 April 1869, Vigeland was a gifted and highly prolific sculptor. He was educated primarily in the capital city of Christiania (Oslo), where he learned the art of wood carving, and later studied in Berlin, Copenhagen, Florence, and Paris. Engaged to work on the restoration of the Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim, he also created famous portrait busts of such leading Norwegian cultural figures as Camilla Collett, Henrik Ibsen, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, and Nils Henrik Abel. Vigeland’s best-known work, however, consists in the monumental sculptures found at the Frogner Park in Oslo. Strongly vitalist in tenor, many of these works deal 299

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with the relationship between the male and female elements of existence as well as the continuity of the human family. An all-time favorite is the Sinnataggen (Spitfire), a sculpture of a foot-stomping, angry little boy. VIKINGS. The term Viking may refer both to the inhabitants of Scandinavia during the time from approximately 750 CE to 1100 CE and more specifically to those Scandinavians who traveled abroad primarily in search of adventure and plunder. The origin of the term is unclear, but it may be etymologically related to the word vik, meaning “an inlet or a bay.” Fritz Askeberg, a Swedish philologist, suggested that its etymology most likely derives from the Old Norse word vikja, meaning to turn away or to leave and that it was used as a verb in connection with departure and sea travel. The term fara i viking may have referred to a sea journey that came to be associated with sea pirates and warriors and thereby served as the basis for the name for those who went “a-viking.” The Vikings are famous for their ferocity and courage, as well as for their shallow-drafted longships, which afforded them easy maneuverability in coastal waters and estuaries. It is generally accepted that Norwegian Vikings were responsible for the earliest documented raids on England, such as the infamous attack of the Lindisfarne monastery on Holy Isle off the coast of Northumbria in 793 CE. Norwegian Vikings traveled mostly north and west, reaching the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, and North America, but also the Orkneys, the Shetland Islands, the Hebrides, Scotland, and the Isle of Man. They also operated in the Five Buroughs area of northeast England and in Ireland, where there was a durable Viking kingdom centered in Dublin. Vikings established the first towns in Ireland, including Dublin, Cork, and Limerick. The most successful, and most enduring, Viking colony was that of Iceland, which was settled beginning around 874 CE. Some 60 years later, the Vikings of Iceland established a national assembly, the Althing, which has been considered the earliest parliament but is understood to be based on the regional assemblies that had been established throughout the Scandinavian countries. Although Viking raids subsided as Christianity penetrated Scandinavia, including Norway, it was not religion that ended Viking raiding. By the time of the final great Viking onslaught on England led by Denmark’s King Svein Forkbeard and his son, Knut the Great, beginning in 1002 CE, the Danes had already converted to Christianity. When Knut the Great succeeded in becoming king of England in 1016, it was as a devout Christian king that he ascended the throne. Similarly in Norway, the Viking way of life was largely unaffected by the acceptance of the new religion. King Olaf II Haraldsson (later Saint Olaf) forced Christianity on a reluctant people, but after his death at the Battle of Stiklestad on 29 July 1030, Christianity became the official religion of Norway and Olaf its patron saint. Saint Olaf’s half-brother, King Harald Hardråde, also a Christian, likewise continued his

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Viking ways as he led a Norwegian army in an attempt to capture the throne of England 36 years later. Following 15 years of Viking activity in Russia and the Byzantine Empire, Harald returned to Norway to claim a share of the throne. By 1066, he set his sights on the largest prize of all, the throne of England, which had become vacant with the death of the Anglo-Saxon king Edward the Confessor. On 25 September 1066, the last documented Viking raid ended with the Battle of Stamford Bridge and the death of Hardråde at the hands of another claimant for the English throne, a descendant of Danish Vikings, Harold Godwinson. Godwinson, too, in a manner of three weeks, would himself be defeated by another descendant of Vikings, William of Normandy, at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066. Although the fateful year of 1066 can technically be considered the end of the Viking age, much of the culture and many of the customs of the Viking age prevailed. The mixture of pagan and Christian beliefs, the conflicts over royal succession, and the struggle to maintain an overseas empire were all part of the continuing inheritance from the Viking era, in Norway lasting well into the 13th century. Archeological excavations have revealed a host of treasures from the Viking age in Norway, most notably two nearly complete Vikingage ships, the Gokstad and the Oseberg. The Gokstad ship was discovered in 1880 and the Oseberg ship in 1903. Both ships date from the middle decades of the ninth century and served as burial vessels for their owners. The Gokstad ship held the remains of a 40-year-old man, the skeleton of whom showed signs of fatal battle wounds. The Oseberg ship, on the other hand, contained the remains of two women, aged 80 and 50 years respectively, one of whom apparently died of cancer. A host of personal items were buried on both ships, thereby giving significant insight into the lives of people in the Viking age. VINJE, AASMUND OLAFSSON (1818–1870). Norwegian writer. Born on 6 April 1818 to Olav Aasmundsen in Vinje, Telemark County, Vinje adhered to many of the ideas of national romanticism. He felt particularly strongly that Norway, independent from Denmark since 1814 and in a union with Sweden during his entire lifetime, should develop a separate written language based on popular dialects rather than the Danish-inspired written norm that had evolved in the course of the 400-year-long union with Denmark. Vinje did not share Ivar Aasen’s love of archaic grammar and vocabulary, however, and instead based his form of Landsmaal (later renamed Nynorsk or New Norwegian) on the dialect of his native district. Although educated in Dano-Norwegian, Vinje used his own form of Landsmaal when in 1858 he started his newspaper Dølen (Dalesman), in which he commented on the social, political, and cultural issues of his day. He was the first person to extensively use the new alternative to Dano-Norwegian in prose. Along with Aasen and Arne Garborg, Vinje is regarded as one of the founders of the

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Nynorsk written form of Norwegian. A substantial essayist and gifted poet, he is remembered particularly for a number of poems that were given musical settings by Edvard Grieg. VOLLEBÆK, KNUT (1946–). Norwegian politician and diplomat. Born in Oslo on 11 February 1946, Vollebrek is the son of a State Church minister and provost and is a member of the Christian Democratic Party. After completing secondary school, he studied economics and received his degree in 1972. Having spent a year studying political science at the University of California, he joined the Norwegian Foreign Service in 1973. He served as minister of foreign affairs from 1997 to 2000. His many diplomatic assignments include service as Norway’s ambassador to the United States from 2001 to 2007. From 2007 to 2013, he was the high commissioner on national minorities for the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), and in 2013, he was elected to the Board of Commissioners of the International Commission of Missing Persons headquartered in The Hague. VON WESTEN, THOMAS (1682–1727). Norwegian missionary to the Sami people. Born in Trondheim, von Westen studied theology at the University of Copenhagen starting in 1697. While a State Church minister at Veøy, Romsdal, he led a group of ministers that worked toward beginning missionary work among the Sami people of northern Norway. The mission organization was established with the support of King Frederik IV in 1714, and von Westen became its leader in 1716. After studying the Sami language, he made three significant missionary journeys among the Sami between 1716 and 1723, teaching them Christianity and recording information about their traditional beliefs. Both a church and a school were established at Mo i Rana, a center for the Sami population in the district of Helgeland, and many other schools as well. A school for missionaries was organized in Trondheim. Von Westen believed that the language of the Sami people should be respected, but he viewed their belief system as merely a collection of superstitions.

W WEDEL JARLSBERG, JOHAN CASPAR HERMAN (1779–1840). Norwegian politician and nobleman. Born in Montpelier, France, as the son of Anton Fredrik Wedel Jarlsberg on 21 September 1779, Wedel Jarlsberg studied law and political science at the University of Copenhagen, receiving a law degree in 1801. Like his father, he was the Count of Jarlsberg near Tønsberg. He understood that Norway’s interests during the Napoleonic Wars were very different from those of Denmark because Norway was particularly dependent on a good relationship with England. Arguing for a Norwegian union with Sweden as early as 1809, he regarded Christian August of Oldenborg, the popular Danish military commander in Norway who was elected crown prince of Sweden in 1809, as a future king of Norway as well as Sweden. When the constitutional convention was held at Eidsvoll in 1814, Wedel Jarlsberg was the leader of the group that pushed for a union with Sweden. In 1822, he became Norway’s minister of finance. He was elected a member of the Storting (Parliament) in 1824, serving until 1830, and was repeatedly elected president of the Storting. He was the first Norwegian to represent the Swedish king as stattholder (vice regent) in Norway, serving from 1836 to 1840, as he was highly trusted and enjoyed great respect. While he was ineligible for the title of visekonge (viceroy), which could only be given to the crown prince or his son, Wedel Jarlsberg served as stattholder with the formal authority of a viceroy. WELHAVEN, JOHAN SEBASTIAN CAMMERMEYER (1807–1873). Norwegian poet and critic. Born in Bergen to Johan Ernst Welhaven on 22 December 1807, Welhaven is one of Norway’s most significant poets of the national romantic era. While he was supposed to study theology at the university in Christiania (Oslo), he spent much of his time reading aesthetics and literature instead, paying particular attention of the activities of his Danish second cousin, the critic Johan Ludvig Heiberg (1791–1860). In 1830, he became well known for his attack on the work of Henrik Wergeland (1808–45), whose poetry he found undisciplined and formless. A cycle of sonnets, Norges Dæmring (1834; Norway’s Dawn), argued in favor of 303

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maintaining Norway’s cultural ties with Denmark, which Wergeland’s followers wanted to reemphasize in favor of a focus on the culture of the Norwegian rural population. His poetry is centered on both personal memories and, especially in the latter half of his career, the cultural memory of his people as expressed in popular tales and legends. Many of his folklore poems are also among Norway’s finest examples of nature poetry. Appointed lecturer in philosophy at the University in Christiania (Oslo) in 1840, Welhaven became a professor in 1843, after which he married a Danish woman, Josephine Bidoulac, in 1845. While not having much impact on his academic subject, he was a popular lecturer and also made significant contributions to the budding literary historiography of the time. WERGELAND, HENRIK ARNOLD (1808–1845). Norwegian poet, dramatist, and essayist. Born in Kristiansand to Nicolai Wergeland on 17 June 1808, Wergeland is recognized as Norway’s greatest poet. His father was a significant political and cultural leader and a delegate to the constitutional convention at Eidsvoll in 1814. Henrik’s sister was the early Norwegian feminist writer Camilla Collett (1813–95). A writer of tremendous talent, Wergeland was politically progressive and spearheaded the drive to publicly observe Norway’s Constitution Day on 17 May. After earning a theology degree in 1829, his undisciplined personal life disqualified him from receiving an appointment as a pastor, and he was plagued by financial problems. He nevertheless stood at the center of Norway’s public discourse for most of his short life. Those who opposed Wergeland in the cultural debate of the day interpreted his focus on liberty in both art and politics as a lack of personal restraint. While Wergeland claimed complete freedom for his own genius, his enemies saw his effusive style as evidence of both bad taste and lack of responsibility. The debate between Wergeland’s friends and his opponents became particularly bitter, both because it took place within a relatively young nation (the Norwegian constitution dates only to 1814) and because Christiania (Oslo) was a rather small town where events, however minor, could be quickly blown out of proportion. At issue were the related questions of whether political power in Norway should rest with the upper middle class, consisting mostly of the embedsmann class (public officials), large landowners, and merchants, or if it should be shared with farmers and other previously disenfranchised groups. A related issue was the cultural question of whether the new nation should emphasize the creative potential of the indigenous population, particularly the farmers, or foster continuity with the literary culture of Denmark, the political union with which had been severed in 1814. A subissue of the latter was the extent to which Norway should accept the political leadership of

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Sweden in the recently established union with that country. In all these matters, Wergeland and other progressives were bitterly opposed by the traditionalists. Wergeland’s youthful poetry celebrates Norway’s potential for social and political change and led to a bitter feud with his contemporary and rival poet, Johan Sebastian Welhaven, who prized the classical qualities of balance, organization, and adherence to established form. When Welhaven attacked Henrik Wergeland for violating the dictates of reason, his father, Nicolai Wergeland, came to his aid, and a bitter and long-lasting feud ensued. Wergeland’s political radicalism joins his disdain for conventional poetics in his major work, a world-historical poem titled Skabelsen, Mennesket og Messias (1830; Creation, Man, and the Messiah), which both offers a ringing defense for the ideas of the Enlightenment and establishes a cosmic context for human life. Among Wergeland’s other works are great quantities of educational materials written for the common people, many of them published in his paper For Arbeidsklassen (1840–45; For the Working Class), and the imaginative and lyrical Jan van Huysums Blomsterstykke (1840; tr. Jan van Huysum’s Flower Piece, 1960), a great poetic cycle about the nature of art and the connection between art and life. His concern with justice was expressed in a campaign to have the Norwegian constitution amended so as to allow Jews entrance into Norway. When the parliament debated this issue in 1842 and 1844, he published two collections of poetry designed to influence public opinion, Jøden (1842; The Jew) and Jødinden (1844; The Jewess). Largely due to Wergeland’s initiative, the constitution was amended in 1851 and Jews were give the same religious rights as Christian dissenters in Norway. WERGELAND, NICOLAI (1780–1848). Norwegian theologian and cultural leader. Born in Hosanger, Hordaland County, on 9 November 1780, Wergeland’s family hailed from the farm Verkeland in the district of Sogn in western Norway. After earning a theology degree with superb marks, Wergeland worked as a teacher, assistant minister, parish priest, and ecclesiastical provost. He first made his mark on Norwegian cultural life with the book Mnemosyne (1811), in which he argued persuasively in favor of establishing a separate Norwegian university (until that point, the University of Copenhagen had served the needs of both Denmark and Norway). Wergeland was a leading figure in the constitutional convention held in 1814, but after the establishment of the constitution and the ensuing union with Sweden, his collaborative attitude toward the Swedes kept him from becoming a representative in the newly established Norwegian parliament, the Storting. Wergeland also wrote a book about what he perceived as Denmark’s political and cultural crimes against Norway and forcefully defended the work of his son, the poet Henrik Wergeland, who had been attacked by the rival

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poet Johan Sebastian Welhaven. The elder Wergeland in turn attacked Welhaven’s cycle of sonnets, Norges Demring (1834; Norway’s Dawn), which argued in favor of maintaining Norway’s cultural ties with Denmark. WHALING. Whales have been caught and eaten along the coast of Norway at least since the beginning of historic time, providing both protein and fat. There is evidence that harpoons were used as early as around 1200 CE. Commercial whaling, however, is an invention of the early modern period, when whales were caught at sea but processed at land-based whaling stations. In the late 1860s, Svend Foyn’s invention and commercialization of the whale harpoon cannon increased the efficiency with which whales could be caught and killed. A harpoon, outfitted with a grenade and connected to a line, was fired by a cannon, and the grenade was timed to explode after the harpoon had entered the body of the whale. Foyn and his later competitors whaled with steam-driven vessels along the coast of Finnmark, in the Arctic Ocean, and in the area close to Iceland, and their rendering plants were located along the coast of Finnmark. In 1904, the Norwegian government set a 10-year moratorium on whaling in northern Norway. Norwegian whaling in the Southern Ocean began in the 1890s, and the first whaling station on South Georgia Island was established in 1904. Whaling with floating processing plants began in the Antarctic in 1905, but the processing ships did not yet have the tools to bring large whales on board, so they had to operate close to land. That changed in the 1930s with the invention of equipment that allowed whalers to hoist large whale carcasses on board. The processors were then able to operate in the open sea, which enabled a huge expansion of the industry during the years after World War II. Whale oil was used in a large number of products, for example, margarine, soap, and explosives, and whaling created tremendous wealth in the two Norwegian cities where it was concentrated, Sandefjord and Tønsberg. It gradually became apparent, however, that several species of whale were facing extinction. As the Norwegian fishing fleet was motorized in the 1920s, small-scale whaling became an increasingly important part of life among the coastal population. While Foyn had hunted large whales, Norwegian fishermen took mostly the smaller minke whales, which were comparatively plentiful. When the International Whaling Commission in 1982 introduced a moratorium on whaling, effective as of 1986, the Norwegian government placed an objection to it but temporarily stopped whaling in 1987, wanting to learn more about the size of the stocks. Small-scale Norwegian whaling was begun again in 1993, with quotas based on scientific estimates of the whale population in areas where whaling is carried out, the northeast and central Atlantic Ocean. Based on a 2004 estimate of 107,000 minke whales, the 2005 total quota for Norwegian whalers was set at 670, of which 639 were taken. The 2016 quota

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was set at 880, and the total catch was 591. The hunting methods used by Norwegian whalers are comparable to those used in other forms of big-game hunting. It is estimated that 80 percent of the whales die or lose consciousness immediately, and 10 percent die soon after being shot, while 10 percent survive the first shot and have to be shot a second time. The crew members on Norwegian whaling vessels receive mandatory training in the use of both harpoon cannon and rifle. Although the 1986 IWC moratorium on whaling does not apply to Norway, whaling makes a negligible contribution to the national economy of the country. The whale harvest has fallen short of the quotas set for several years as the demand for whale meat and related products is clearly diminishing. WIDERBERG, FRANS GUSTAV (1934–2017). Norwegian painter, lithographer, sculptor, and graphic artist. Born in Oslo on 8 April 1934, Widerberg debuted in 1963 and became the best-known artist of his generation. Perhaps the most characteristic aspect of Widerberg’s work is his stark use of primary colors, red, yellow, and blue. His figurative expressionism hints at the abstract but retains a familiarity that suggests inspiration from the early Edvard Munch. Thematically, Widerberg’s art is said to roam “between the inner and the outer landscape where the metaphysical and the transcendental join in a sun-filled nature.” Widerberg has a broad appeal and is represented in many private and public collections, in Norway and internationally. WILLOCH, KÅRE (1928–). Norwegian politician. Perhaps the most brilliantly articulate conservative in recent Norwegian political life, Willoch was born in Oslo on 3 October 1928 and is credited with moving Norwegian society markedly toward the right end of the political spectrum in the late 1970s and the 1980s. Trained as an economist at the University of Oslo, he was both personally and professionally opposed to the Keynesian policies promoted by the Labor Party during the early decades of the postwar era. Willoch’s first significant political experience was gained as a member of the Oslo city council from 1952 to 1959. He was elected to the Storting (Parliament) in 1957 and remained a member until 1989. He served as minister of trade in John Lyng’s brief government in 1963 and in Per Borten’s government in 1965–70. He was then the leader of the Conservative Party until 1974, when Erling Norvik took over. Willoch led the Conservative Party’s parliamentary caucus from 1970 to 1981, when he became the prime minister in a Conservative minority government. Norway’s nonsocialist parties gained a parliamentary majority in the 1981 elections, and the Conservative government was supported by the Christian Democrats and the Center Party, which joined the government in 1983, thus creating a majority coalition government. In the parliamentary

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elections held in 1985, however, Willoch’s government was again relegated to minority status and had to seek the support of the two representatives of the Progress Party, whose views were generally to the right of the Conservatives. When the Progress Party supported a vote of no confidence advanced by the Labor Party and the Socialist Left Party in 1986, Willoch was forced to resign, after which Gro Harlem Brundtland took over as prime minister and formed a minority government. Willoch’s neoliberal economic views had great influence on Norwegian society, and one of Labor’s core values, government control over many aspects of social and economic life, was largely abandoned. The monopoly of the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK) was ended, and a second national television channel was established as TV2 went on the air in the autumn of 1992. Stores were allowed to stay open much later in the evening than what had been previously legal, and private medical clinics were permitted. Government control of credit markets was relaxed, which led to a significant increase in private consumption. The strident nature of Willoch’s public rhetoric undoubtedly galvanized his supporters, but it also led to a less civil political culture in Norway. His debates with Gro Harlem Brundtland are legendary for their acrimony. This aspect of Willoch’s public involvement has not lessened since his retirement from national politics. Especially after his service as county governor of Oslo and Akershus (1989–98), he has been very outspoken in his criticism of the state of Israel and supportive of the Palestinians, as well as publicly opposed to greed, selfishness, and the exploitation of natural resources. WILSE, ANDERS BEER (1865–1949). Norwegian photographer born in Flekkefjord, West Agder County, southern Norway. He went to sea at age 13 but returned to study at the Horten Technical School before emigrating to the United States in 1884. He worked on the railroad and got a job as a mapmaker with the United States Geological Survey. Through his survey work, he became interested in photography and bought his first camera in 1886. Determined to make a career with the camera, he opened his first photography studio in Seattle in 1887, in time to document the rebuilding of the city after the great fire of 1889 and the Klondike gold rush years. A large collection of Wilse photographs documenting the Pacific Northwest are kept at the Museum of History and Industry in Seattle, Washington. Wilse returned to Norway in 1901, where he opened a photography studio in Oslo and began to travel around the country documenting the people and the landscape. He photographed the Norwegian royal family, members of the cultural elite, and ordinary citizens throughout the length and breadth of the country. He left behind him more than 200,000 images, the negatives of

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which are mostly preserved in museums in Norway and the United States. His work created a cultural treasure and remains among the most significant pictorial documentations of the first half of the 20th century in Norway. WOMEN. Women played an important role in traditional Norwegian society, where their labor was urgently needed. For example, in medieval times the woman was in charge of the household and supervised servants who worked in the family and with the farm animals. The menfolk were sometimes absent for long periods at a time because of business, fishing expeditions, or hunting, and the wife had to manage largely on her own. A woman’s position in traditional society was therefore one of respect and authority. This relative equality between men and women was reflected in the religious beliefs and practices of pre-Christian Norway. The ancient Nordic pantheon had room for several female deities, and women appear to have been central to the cults of home and hearth. Their legal status was also superior to that of women in other contemporary European societies. The position of women changed significantly with the arrival of Christianity. The inferiority of women was attested to by ancient philosophy, Roman law, biblical teachings, and the doctrines and practices of the medieval church. At the time of the Enlightenment, hardly anybody doubted that the sex roles that were in place were the proper ones. During the revolutionary ferment in France in the late 1700s and early 1800s, though, the idea arose that just as all men were created equal, so were all human beings, including women. A classic statement of this kind of thinking is Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792). These ideas gradually migrated to Norway and influenced thinking men and women, including the novelist Camilla Collett, who soon after being widowed in 1851 published Amtmandens Døttre (1854–55; tr. The District Governor’s Daughters, 1992), a novel that, based on her personal experience, depicted the familial and social oppression suffered by women at the time. Collett portrays oppression that was a matter of custom rather than law, but there was plenty of the latter, too, for women lacked the right to vote, the right to higher education, and equality before the law (e.g., inheritance rights equal to those of men). The rights to work and education were therefore the principal issues when the Norsk Kvindesagsforening (NKF; Norwegian Women’s Rights Association) was established by Gina Krog (1847–1916) and Hagbard Emanuel Berner (1839–1920) in 1884. This association gave birth to the Kvindestemmeretsforeningen (Norwegian Women’s Voting Rights Association) the following year; it was to work specifically for women’s voting rights. Krog and Berner had different views of what kind of strategy would take them to that goal, however, as Berner was cautious and perhaps overly so. After Krog’s proposal for general voting rights for women had been rejected

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by the Storting (Parliament) in 1890 and the Kvindestemmeretsforeningen had decided to try Berner’s proposal instead, which was to get voting rights for women only in local elections, Krog formed a splinter organization called the Landskvindestemmeretsforeningen (Norwegian Women’s National Voting Rights Association) in 1898. Krog, the editor of the NKF’s journal Nylcende (New Land), had become acquainted with the suffragettes while visiting England in 1880 and did not believe that half a loaf is better than none, or at least not when it was a matter of the franchise. The Norske Kvinders Nationalraad (National Council of Women) was established by Krog in 1904; it was to coordinate the work of 17 local and 9 national women’s organizations that had been established by then. In the early years of the struggle for equal rights for women, only the Liberal Party was supportive, and mostly the support came from its left wing. Gradually, however, the NKF received broader support from the Liberals as well as some support from moderate members of the Conservative Party. After all men had been given voting rights in 1898, women received the franchise in 1913. In 1884, very few women received higher education in Norway. A law that gave women the right to take the examen artium (the degree conferred on students passing the university entrance examination) and the examen philosophicum (a preliminary general education degree offered at the university) had been passed overwhelmingly by the Storting and had taken effect on 15 June 1882. The first woman to sit for the examen artium, Ida Cecilie Thoresen, had done so the same year and matriculated at the university on 8 September 1882. She had had to prepare for her examen artium on her own, however, for there was still no college preparatory school that admitted women as students. The first such coeducational school was opened by Ragna Nielsen in 1885, and female university students gradually joined the ranks of their male colleagues. The women who joined the associations coordinated through the Norske Kvinders Nationalraad largely had their background in the middle class. Women from the working class found them unresponsive to their concerns, so they were organized according to the pattern of male factory workers and gave their political allegiance to the Labor Party. A spontaneous strike at two match factories in Christiania (Oslo) in 1889 had the effect of making the public increasingly aware of both the unsanitary and dangerous conditions in this particular industry and the conditions under which women in general worked. The most important result of the strike, however, was that it led to the organization of a trade union, and soon other female workers in other industries—brewery workers, tobacco products workers, and seamstresses—organized their own unions as well. These unions cooperated with unions formed by male workers and saw the Labor Party as the natural home for their members.

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As Norwegian society was gradually modernized during the closing decades of the 1800s and on into the 20th century, legal discrimination against women was gradually reduced. Women in Norway have had the same inheritance rights as men since 1854, and the right to own and control property gradually became the same as well. (Two exceptions are that women had no allodial rights to farmland until 1974, and a woman could not inherit the throne of Norway until 1990.) Except for the work that was being done by the women’s organizations that had been formed between 1884 and 1904, there was little feminist activity during World War I. The personal freedom of women had increased significantly by the 1920s, so the need for further reforms did not appear to be as great as before. During the Depression years and World War II, most people were focused on the crises at hand, and during the years of reconstruction that followed the war, everybody was simply very busy helping the country get back to normal again. When the women’s liberation movement arrived in Norway in the late 1960s and early 1970s, many of the impulses came from the United States. Women wanted to control their own bodies. As more reliable means of contraception made the sexual revolution possible, women could be sexually active without the constant threat of an unwanted pregnancy. Abortions were made legal in 1978, but a woman only has the right to choose to have one until the end of the 12th week of the pregnancy; later abortions must be approved by a medical commission. The Storting just barely passed the abortion law of 1978, but the most protracted battle has had to do with what Norwegians refer to as likestilling, equality of position in the home and society. Norwegian sex roles long kept women in the kitchen and certain women’s occupations and excluded them from boardrooms and high government positions. The Likestillingsloven (the Equality Act), passed in 1978 and revised in 2005, has as its purpose to bring about real equality between men and women on all levels of society. Neither direct nor indirect discrimination is allowed. For example, a woman can in no way be disadvantaged at work because of pregnancy or childbirth. Employers must actively promote equality in the workplace; it is not enough simply to avoid discrimination. Compensation levels must be established according to the principle of comparable worth. It is not sufficient to adhere to the principle of equal pay for equal work within the same employment category, but the level of compensation for one type of employment must be in line with the wage level in jobs that are of similar social value. Governing boards must have at least 40 percent women and 40 percent men among their members. Norway was the first country in the world to pass an equality act, and the government has followed through by applying its principles to itself, including the establishment of a cabinet-level ministry responsible for ensuring equality. When Gro Harlem Brundtland, as Norway’s first female prime

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minister, formed her government in 1981, 8 of its 18 members were women. Under Erna Solberg’s second government elected in 2017, 9 of 20 members were women, including the prime minister. Women lead some of the most important government ministries, including Finance, Foreign Affairs, Culture, Justice, and Labor, as well as occupying positions of responsibility and trust on all levels of the state administration. In other fields, women have long made a mark on Norwegian culture, especially in literature and the arts (e.g., the writers Cora Sandel and the painters Kitty Kielland and Harriet Backer) and social affairs (e.g., the psychologist Ase Gruda Skard and the educator Margrethe Vullum). See also JENSEN, SIV (1969–); LUND, KRISTIN (1958–); UNDSET, SIGRID (1882–1949). WORKERS’ COMMUNIST PARTY. The Arbeidernes kommunistparti (AKP) was formed in 1973 under the name AKP (marxistleninistene) (AKP [m-l]; the Workers’ Communist Party [MarxistLeninist]). It participated in elections in cooperation with the Rød Valgallianse (Red Electoral Alliance), with which it was combined in 2007 under the name Rødt (Red). It had dropped the contents of the parenthesis from its name already in 1990. WORLD WAR I. Serbian nationalism, expressed through the murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife in Sarajevo, Bosnia, on 28 June 1914, led to a protracted war that pitted the Central Powers—AustriaHungary, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire—against an alliance consisting of France, Great Britain, and Russia. In 1917, the United States declared war against Germany for having violated its neutrality, thus effectively joining the Allies. Even though officially neutral, Norway was deeply affected by this conflict. Since the dissolution of the union with Sweden, Norway had followed a policy of strict neutrality. There had been significant international tension in the years between 1905 and 1914, but in 1907, Great Britain, Germany, France, and Russia had signed an agreement with Norway that guaranteed the integrity of Norwegian territory. Because its long coastline gives Norway a strategic position in any European war, the Norwegian government had also prepared militarily to defend Norway’s neutrality. The warships acquired in the run-up to 1905 were still in good repair, and significant additional improvements had been made to both the navy and the army. Although the war did come as a surprise to the Norwegian authorities, both the navy and the coastal artillery were mobilized on 2 August 1914, the day after Germany’s declaration of war against Russia. Most Norwegians were friendly toward the Allies, and only three years before (1911), there had been an incident in which the German fleet had come into Norwegian fjords, which showed that Germany’s guarantee of Norwegian territorial integrity

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might not offer much protection. Norway was also concerned about the Swedish foreign policy, for some leading Swedes wanted to join the Central Powers with the hope of reclaiming Finland from Russia (Sweden had ruled Finland until 1809, and there was a significant Swedish linguistic minority in Finland). Any such Swedish adventure would bring the war to the Scandinavian Peninsula, and the Norwegian attempt to maintain its neutrality would become precarious at best. Norway’s most difficult issues during the early part of the war had to do with international trade, which Norway insisted had to remain unfettered by both sides in the war. The Norwegian merchant fleet was very large and of tremendous economic significance. Britain’s most effective weapon against Germany was its naval blockade, however, and the question was how to deal with Norwegian ships that carried fish and other supplies, particularly copper ore, to Germany. Britain could not prevent Norwegian ships from entering international waters, but they claimed the right to search them in British ports if their cargo was bound for the enemy, confiscating the cargo if it was deemed significant to Germany’s war effort. This was not necessarily bad for Norwegian shipowners, however, for the delays and other troubles caused the shipping rates to increase astronomically. Britain also wanted Norway to stop German vessels from buying fish directly from Norwegian fishermen and attempted to accomplish this by buying up the fish themselves, which caused the price of fish to rise dramatically. When this policy proved too difficult and expensive, Britain threatened to withhold from Norway the oil and coal that the Norwegian fishing fleet needed. Norway had to walk a fine line between giving in to British demands, thus increasing the risk of a German invasion, and offending the British to the point that the Norwegian economy would become paralyzed by their sanctions. So Norway promised to allow Germany to buy only a very small quantity of fish, which deeply angered the Germans. The trade in copper ore was another sore spot. Germany depended on Norwegian copper ore for its armaments industry, but Norway needed to buy electrolytic copper from Great Britain. Not surprisingly, Britain resented having to sell Norway highly refined copper only to see Norway turn around and sell its own copper ore to the enemy. Britain therefore committed to both buy Norwegian copper ore and supply its need for electrolytic copper in exchange for a ban on the export of copper ore from Norway to Germany. This arrangement, too, angered the Germans. As the war progressed, Norway grew increasingly friendly toward the Allies because of Germany’s submarine warfare, which was Germany’s answer to the British blockade. At first Germany sunk neutral merchant ships only after searching them for contraband, warning the crew of their intentions and allowing the seamen time to get into the lifeboats and away from the scene. The torpedoes were fired from a surface position. This procedure

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was according to international law and comparatively humane, as the purpose was to prevent the cargo from getting to the enemy, not to needlessly waste lives. As Germany’s situation grew increasingly desperate, however, this policy changed to one of sinking without warning. Submarines fired their torpedoes while submerged, and lives were lost and injuries sustained when they hit their targets and exploded. Other sailors drowned in the icy sea or froze to death on the lifeboats. The conditions of the war were such that it was difficult to distinguish neutral ships from enemy ships, and Norwegian ships were often treated the same as identified enemy ships. In response to this cruel and illegal strategy, the Norwegian government issued a statement in which foreign submarines were barred from Norwegian territorial waters, which greatly upset the German government. Norway experienced considerable freedom of choice during the first two years of the war. Later, and especially after the entrance of the United States into the conflict in 1917, the situation became more difficult both at home and abroad. Germany was sinking Norwegian merchant ships in an increasingly brutal manner, even firing on the crew members when they were trying to get into the lifeboats. It appeared that the purpose was to frighten Norwegian seamen into refusing to man the ships, but this strategy did not work; the Norwegians were not easily intimidated. Supplies on which Norway was dependent and which were furnished by the Allies were more difficult both to obtain and to transport home than before. The result was rationing of some essential commodities. During the war, the primary burden of leadership in Norway rested on the shoulders of two men, Prime Minister Gunnar Knudsen and the minister of foreign affairs, Nils Claus Ihlen. Both represented the Liberal Party, and no significant effort to form a unity government was made, but the crisis of the war meant that partisan political bickering declined. The government was blamed, though, for not having had the wisdom to stockpile food and other commodities in anticipation of the war, but most people had expected any war to be short lived and not lead to long-term disruptions in the supply of such necessary commodities as flour, sugar, and coffee. Knudsen wanted to keep the government from interfering with the economy as much as possible, but the shortage of commodities and the rise in prices hit wage earners and the poor particularly hard, so some price supports were instituted. But the tax receipts did not keep up with the expenditures, and after the end of the war, it became apparent that the national debt had increased substantially. On the other hand, shipowners and other businessmen and investors lived through a golden age that made it possible to quickly accumulate great fortunes but also led to a display of consumption and luxury that had been quite uncommon in Norway. The war profiteers and the common people experienced the war very differently, and those hardest hit were the 2,000 seamen who lost their lives in war-related incidents.

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The Norwegian people for the most part kept their heads cool throughout the war years. Initially, there was some panic that manifested itself in hoarding of food and distrust in paper money, but that soon passed. While carrying out a campaign of intimidation against Norwegian sailors and, to some extent, against the government itself, Germany never managed to break Norway’s determination to keep its neutrality reasonably intact. Facing the Atlantic Ocean, Norway is a natural ally of Great Britain, and one of the main reasons Norway managed to keep its neutrality is surely that this was in Britain’s interests. The Norwegians were undoubtedly just as relieved as everybody else when the armistice between Germany and the Allies was signed on 11 November 1918. WORLD WAR II. The greatest military conflict in world history, World War II is usually considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Germany invaded Poland, after which Great Britain and France declared war. The two sides in the war are known as the Axis, comprised primarily of Germany, Italy, and Japan, and the Allies, consisting mainly of Great Britain, Canada, the United States, the Soviet Union, France, and China. The roots of the war are generally thought to lie in the conditions Germany was forced by the Versailles Treaty to accept at the end of World War I and that rankled German nationalists, helping to set the stage for Germany’s territorial expansionism, typified by the annexation of Austria on 12 March 1938. The German attack on Norway on the morning of 9 April 1940 came as a surprise to the Norwegian government. Norway had seen no hostile action for 125 years, Norwegian neutrality had proven effective during World War I, and it was simply unimaginable to the Norwegian authorities that Germany would attack. The Norwegian lack of vigilance was in part the fault of the minister of foreign affairs, Halvdan Koht, who in hindsight did not take the threat of German invasion as seriously as he should have, although there were a number of warning signs. Warships were observed leaving Baltic ports and heading northwest, and the survivors from a German ship, Rio de Janeiro, which was sunk off the coast of southern Norway on the evening of 8 April 1940, reported that they were headed to the city of Bergen to protect the Norwegians against a British invasion. The attack hit all of the most important coastal cities at the same time: Oslo, Kristiansand, Stavanger, Bergen, Trondheim, and Narvik. The most significant resistance offered initially was in the Oslofjord, where the coastal fort at Oscarsborg near Drøbak had sufficient warning to prepare for resistance. As the German heavy cruiser Blücher passed the fort heading north with no lights, it was fired upon. The ship was first hit with grenades from

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the land-based batteries and then with torpedoes. The engine room took a direct hit. As Blücher was sinking, German men were heard screaming while they were swimming through the burning oil that covered the sea. The sinking of the Blücher was probably the most significant event in the early days of the German campaign in Norway in 1940. It gave the Storting, the government, and the royal family sufficient time to flee the capital and frustrated the German plan to take Norway’s king and political leaders captive. Meeting at Elverum north of Oslo, the Storting charged the government with taking control and carrying out the parliament’s normal duties. This act made it possible to establish a legitimate Norwegian government-in-exile in London during the next five years; it also made it impossible for the German occupants to claim that they were in Norway simply for its protection against the British and that they were acting in concert with duly constituted Norwegian civil authorities. Although the Norwegian forces in Norway eventually capitulated in the face of overwhelming German numbers, the capitulation only concerned action on Norwegian soil. Norwegian troops could later be organized in Sweden and Britain, and the Norwegian merchant marine, which was one of the largest such fleets in the world, as well as the most modern, could be enlisted in the Allied war effort. Norway’s King Haakon VII took a strong stance against the invaders during the early days of the war. As representatives of the German government attempted to bully the Norwegians into negotiating a peace settlement with them and appointing Vidkun Quisling to be prime minister, the king stated in no uncertain terms that he would abdicate before doing so. After that, the Germans began to bomb the places where the king was believed to be located. The seriously undersupplied and undermanned Norwegian forces acted with great courage during the 1940 campaign. Help from British and French troops was substantial and important in slowing down the German advance in the interior of the country. Lacking well-trained officers and decent equipment, however, the Norwegian troops fought to absolute exhaustion. There were some treasonous acts as well, for some of the officers were friendly toward the Nazi ideology. For example, during the initial attack on the northern Norwegian town of Narvik, through which Swedish iron ore vital to the German war effort was shipped to Germany, a local commander with Nazi sympathies turned the city over to the Germans after limited resistance. Allied forces came to assist the Norwegian troops, and Narvik was retaken; but, following the German attack on the western front on 10 May, the British and French governments determined that their forces had to be withdrawn. On 7 June 1940, the Norwegian king and government fled to Great Britain on board the British cruiser Devonshire.

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Norway spent the next five years, until the formal German capitulation on 8 May 1945, under occupation. At times, there were as many as 400,000 German troops in the country. These soldiers were well trained and mostly behaved well. The Norwegian population, however, endured many heavy burdens, as resources and labor power were commandeered to help with the German war effort. Some Norwegians saw an opportunity for financial gain by working for the enemy. The Norwegian National Socialist Party, the Nasjonal Samling (NS), under the leadership of Vidkun Quisling, saw its membership increase dramatically. At the time of the invasion, Quisling had declared himself Norway’s new prime minister; he had secretly conspired with the Germans prior to the invasion and expected to receive his reward. The German government appointed Josef Terboven Reichskommisar (commissioner) of Norway on 24 April 1940, however, and he set up his headquarters in the parliament building in Oslo, ruling Norway virtually as a dictator, although he did not have authority over all the German troops in the country. Quisling eventually headed a puppet government, but Terboven had little confidence in him. The first weeks after the end of the military campaign were characterized by confusion and fear, as well as an economic crisis. The Storting had turned its power over to the government, which had fled the country. Under the authority of the Norwegian Supreme Court, an administrative council was appointed and charged with keeping the Norwegian economy going. Their main tasks were to keep Norwegian society functioning with as much normalcy as possible, to facilitate employment, to procure necessary supplies, and to secure markets for Norwegian exports. The Norwegian economy became increasingly tied to that of Germany. The general Nazi policy in Norway is usually referred to as “Nazification.” The occupiers wanted to replace Norwegian democratic institutions with a corporate state and also gain control over the various institutions and organizations that comprised civil society. After they had unsuccessfully pressured the Supreme Court, whose leader was Paal Berg, and the members of the Storting to declare that King Haakon VII was no longer the Norwegian king and that the exile government in London was illegitimate, all political parties except Quisling’s NS were dissolved. NS members were appointed to every public position of significance, excepting a few cabinet posts where there was need for capable leadership if the economy were to keep functioning. The newspapers became tools of Nazi propaganda. Firearms were confiscated, as were radios so that people could not listen to the Norwegian broadcasts from London. Teachers and other public employees were asked to sign loyalty oaths. Elected local officials were replaced by Nazi appointees. The leadership of private organizations, for example, trade unions, was also placed in Nazi hands. Similarly, the police were controlled by Norwegians loyal to the Norwegian Nazi Party and often worked in concert with Germany author-

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ities. The Norwegian Karl Martinsen, head of the Statspolitiet (State Police) and Sikkerhetspolitiet (Security Police), was considered one of the most notorious collaborators during the war and became the victim of a successful assassination carried out by the “Oslo Gang” in February 1945. There was a strong and broad-based resistance to both the occupiers and their Norwegian fellow travelers, however. Members of the Nazi Party were shunned. Schoolteachers mounted massive resistance to the Nazification of the curriculum, and large numbers of them were arrested, out of which hundreds were severely mistreated. The State Church, under the leadership of Bishop Eivind Berggrav, took a strong position in defense of the freedom of conscience. Its statement “Kirkens grunn” (Foundation of the Church) was read from pulpits across the country, after which the ministers resigned the portion of their duties that pertained to their positions as government appointees while expressing their desires to continue serving as pastors. When Quisling introduced occupational associations according to the patterns of the fascist corporate state, people canceled their memberships by the tens of thousands. Such symbols as a paperclip worn on a lapel or a comb stuck in a breast pocket signaled solidarity and passive resistance. As time passed, a network of active civil resistance was established and coordinated in concert with the Norwegian government in London. Information from Allied radio broadcasts was communicated through various illegal newspapers. Workers did their best to lessen the value of what was produced for the benefit of the occupiers. In addition to the public attempts at resistance, however, there was a hidden military organization that in part dated to the days of the invasion and military campaign in 1940. Some of the soldiers who had managed to hide their weapons formed groups that became the nucleus of Milorg, a secret military organization that gradually came under the leadership of a common council. At first, the thinking was that these groups of potential partisans would rise up and assist the Allies during a hoped-for invasion, but later it was understood that they could also be used to keep order in the country subsequent to a German capitulation that seemed increasingly likely. As the Gestapo, the German secret police, increased its size and investigative power in Norway, some Milorg members were discovered and arrested, imprisoned, tortured, and executed. For example, when a group of commandos were sent from Britain to organize and outfit a resistance group at Majavatn near Mo i Rana, 24 individuals were shot as the network was uncovered by the Germans. Similar incidents took place in other parts of the country as well, including the killing of Norwegians as reprisals and in order to frighten the population into complying with Nazi demands. Many resistance workers had to escape to Sweden to evade arrest, and others fled to Shetland on board fishing boats. Some of these returned to Norway as commandos and saboteurs. The North Sea traffic, known infor-

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mally as the “Shetland bus,” played a significant role in underground activity during the war. One celebrated sabotage incident involved an assault on a plant that produced heavy water at Vemork near the town of Rjukan in Telemark. Heavy water was essential to the production of atomic bombs, and it was thought that the German nuclear research program depended on the heavy water (Deuterium oxide) produced at Vemork. Attempts were made to sabotage the plant, and a ferry that contained barrels of heavy water was sunk in Lake Tinn. Other highly dangerous work in Norway involved operating radio transmitters along the coast by which information guiding attacks on warships and cargo vessels was sent to England. One such location was the Jon cave at Onøya, just barely south of where the Arctic Circle crosses the coastline of northern Norway, from which the resistance worker John Kristoffersen transmitted messages. His location was eventually discovered by the Germans. An example of the significance of this kind of resistance work is an incident that took place on 4 October 1943, when aircraft from the USS Ranger attacked German war and cargo ships along the coast of northern Norway under the code name “Operation Leader.” One of the ships hit was La Plata, attacked when crossing the Rødøy fjord just barely north of the location of Kristoffersen’s radio transmitter. As the tide of war gradually turned against Germany, planning for its inevitable capitulation increasingly became a priority. Training of underground forces in Norway was intensified, and a force of 14,000 police troops was established among the Norwegian refugees in Sweden. The goal was to have sufficient forces to keep order in the country and to deal with Nazi Party members with a minimum of assistance from Allied troops. When Finland, which had been fighting on Germany’s side, capitulated in September 1944, the German troops stationed there withdrew through Finnmark with specific orders from Hitler to carry out scorched-earth tactics, thereby making the area as uninhabitable as possible. With Russian troops close behind them, however, their destruction of homes and infrastructure in the eastern part of the county was not complete, but the damage was still substantial. Although the Russian pursuit stopped, German forces carried out an almost total destruction in western Finnmark, and the civilian population was forcefully evacuated or managed to evade capture by hiding in the mountains and forests. The towns of Kirkenes, Honningsvåg, and Hammerfest were almost completely destroyed. Only a few buildings remained. The infrastructure was rendered unusable. Docks and piers were ripped apart. The suffering of the population was terrible. The German forces, however, which were intended for further action on the continent, were unable to completely retreat from northern Norway before the German capitulation. Another concern was what to do about the many thousands of Norwegians who were being held prisoner in German concentration camps. Through skilled diplomacy, the Swedish diplomat Folke Bernadotte received permis-

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sion to gather Danish and Norwegian prisoners in a special camp near Hamburg. The sickest among them were taken directly to Sweden, and later, Bernadotte received permission to bring the others as well, transporting them to Sweden on board his white buses marked with the Red Cross. When the German forces in Norway finally capitulated formally on 8 May 1945, the Norwegian home front forces and police took control and did an exemplary job keeping order in the country. The German troops withdrew from the cities and towns, organizing their own disarmament, and were gradually provided with transportation back home. The Norwegian government returned from exile on 13 May, and on 7 June, King Haakon VII returned. For the next several years, Norwegians went about rebuilding their warravaged country. See also RINNAN, HENRY OLIVER (1915–1947); RØNNEBERG, JOACHIM HOLMBOE (1919–2018); SØNSTEBY, GUNNAR FRIDTJOF THURMAN (1918–2012); TRONDSTAD, LEIF HANS LARSEN (1903–1945).

Z ZUCCARELLO AASEN, MATS ANDRE (1987–). Norwegian professional ice hockey player with the National Hockey League’s Dallas Stars, Zuccarello Aasen grew up in Løren, a suburb of Oslo. Beginning as a fulltime player in Norway’s premier hockey league at age 18, Zuccarello Aasen played two years as a professional in Sweden before signing a free agent contract with the New York Rangers in 2010. As of 2018, of the eight Norwegians who have played in the National Hockey League, Zuccarello Aasen has had the most successful career, playing in more than 480 games.

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Appendix A Norwegian Rulers

When dates overlap, it indicates that the kingship was shared between two individuals during the period in question. Usually the co-regents were father and son or brothers. Harald (I) Fairhair

c. 872–c. 933

Eirik Bloodaxe

c. 931–c. 933

Haakon (I) the Good

933–c. 960

Harald (II) Grafell

c. 960–c. 970

Haakon Sigurdsson, Earl of Lade

c. 970–995

Olaf (I) Tryggvason

995–1000

Eirik and Svein Haakonsson, Earls of Lade

1000–1012

Haakon Eiriksson and Svein Haakonsson

1012–1015

Olaf (II) Haraldsson

1015–1028

Haakon Eiriksson, Earl of Lade

1028–1030

Svein Knutsson

1030–1035

Magnus (I) the Good

1035–1047

Harald (III) Hardrada

1045–1066

Magnus (II) Haraldsson

1066–1069

Olaf (III) Kyrre

1067–1093

Haakon Magnusson

1093–1095

Magnus (III) Berrføtt

1093–1103

Olaf Magnusson

1103–1115

Øystein (I) Magnusson

1103–1123

Sigurd (I) Jorsalfar

1103–1130

Magnus (IV) Blinde

1130–1135

Harald (IV) Gille

1130–1136

Sigurd (II) Munn

1136–1155 323

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Inge Krokrygg

1136–1161

Øystein (II) Haraldsson

1142–1157

Haakon (II) Herdebrei

1159–1162

Magnus (V) Erlingsson

1161–1184

Sverre Sigurdsson

1177–1202

Haakon (III) Sverresson

1202–1204

Guttorm Sigurdsson

1204

Inge (II) Baardsson

1204–1217

Haakon (IV) Haakonsson

1217–1263

Magnus (VI) Haakonsson Lagab te

1263–1280

Eirik (II) Magnusson

1280–1299

Haakon (V) Magnusson

1299–1319

Magnus (VII) Eiriksson

1319–1355

Haakon (VI) Magnusson

1343–1380

Olaf (IV) Haakonsson

1380–1387

Queen Margareta Valdemarsdaughter

1388–1412

Erik of Pomerania

1389–1442

Christoffer of Bavaria

1442–1448

Karl (I) Knutsson Bonde

1449–1450

Christian I

1450–1481

Hans

1483–1513

Christian II

1513–1523

Frederik I

1524–1533

Christian III

1537–1559

Frederik II

1559–1588

Christian IV

1588–1648

Frederik III

1648–1670

Christian V

1670–1699

Frederik IV

1699–1730

Christian VI

1730–1746

Frederik V

1746–1766

Christian VII

1766–1808

APPENDIX A

Frederik VI

1808–1814

Christian Frederik

1814

Karl II

1814–1818

Karl III Johan

1818–1844

Oscar I

1844–1859

Karl IV

1859–1872

Oscar II

1872–1905

Haakon VII

1905–1957

Olav V

1957–1991

Harald V

1991–

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Appendix B Norwegian Prime Ministers

1873

Stang, Fredrik

1880

Selmer, Christian August

1884

Schweigaard, Christian Homann

1884

Sverdrup, Johan (Liberal)

1889

Stang, Emil (Conservative)

1891

Steen, Johannes (Liberal)

1893

Stang, Emil (Conservative)

1895

Hagerup, Francis (Conservative)

1898

Steen, Johannes (Liberal)

1902

Blehr, Otto Albert (Liberal)

1903

Hagerup, Francis (United)

1905

Michelsen, Christian (Liberal)

1907

Løvland, Jørgen (Liberal)

1908

Knudsen, Gunnar (Liberal)

1910

Konow, Wollert (Conservative)

1912

Bratlie, Jens (Conservative)

1913

Knudsen, Gunnar (Liberal)

1920

Halvorsen, Otto Bahr (Conservative)

1921

Blehr, Otto Alberg (Liberal)

1923

Halvorsen, Otto Bahr (Conservative)

1923

Berge, Abraham (Liberal Left)

1924

Mowinckel, Johan Ludvig (Liberal)

1926

Lykke, Ivar (Conservative)

1928

Hornsrud, Christopher (Labor)

1928

Mowinckel, Johan Ludvig (Liberal)

1931

Kolstad, Peder (Agrarian) 327

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1932

Hundseid, Jens (Agrarian)

1933

Mowinckel, Johan Ludvig (Liberal)

1935

Nygaardsvold, Johan (Labor)

1945

Gerhardsen, Einar (Unity Government)

1945

Gerhardsen, Einar (Labor)

1951

Torp, Oscar (Labor)

1955

Gerhardsen, Einar (Labor)

1963

Lyng, John (Conservative)

1963

Gerhardsen, Einar (Labor)

1965

Borten, Per (Center)

1971

Bratteli, Trygve (Labor)

1972

Korvald, Lars (Christian Democratic)

1973

Bratteli, Trygve (Labor)

1976

Nordli, Odvar (Labor)

1981

Brundtland, Gro Harlem (Labor)

1981

Willoch, Kåre (Conservative)

1986

Brundtland, Gro Harlem (Labor)

1989

Syse, Jan Peder (Conservative)

1990

Brundtland, Gro Harlem (Labor)

1996

Jagland, Thorbjørn (Labor)

1997

Bondevik, Kjell Magne (Christian Democratic)

2000

Stoltenberg, Jens (Labor)

2001

Bondevik, Kjell Magne (Christian Democratic)

2005

Stoltenberg, Jens (Labor)

2013

Solberg, Erna (Conservative)

Bibliography

CONTENTS Introduction General Bibliographies Guidebooks Map Collections and Statistical Abstracts History Surveys of Norwegian History From the Beginning to the Constitution (1814) From the Constitution to the Present Politics Government Law Political Parties Economy Agriculture Industry Finance Trade Development Labor Transport and Communications Society Anthropology Sociology Education Religion Culture Archeology Architecture Arts Literature Linguistics Media and Publishing Science 329

330 333 333 333 334 334 334 335 338 341 341 343 343 344 344 345 345 346 347 348 348 349 349 350 350 351 352 352 353 354 355 356 357 358

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Geography and Geology Public Health and Medicine Science and Technology Newspapers, Journals, and Websites Norwegian Newspapers with Websites Scholarly Journals Other Useful Websites

358 358 359 360 360 360 360

INTRODUCTION This bibliography is designed both to serve the needs of readers who have little or no command of the Norwegian language and to be helpful to those who do. While the overwhelming majority of the books and articles mentioned are in English, there is also a generous sampling of works in Norwegian. Most of the works mentioned are of relatively recent date, although some are older, including classics in the field, for example, works by Carl Joachim Hambro and Halvdan Koht. Norwegian history, politics, and society, along with literature and the arts, are studied most intensively in Norway by scholars who are either native Norwegians or who have come there to work because of their intellectual and professional interests. Much of this work is published in Norwegian, but some of it appears in English. In U.S. colleges and universities, the study of Norwegian language and literature has a long tradition, and both immigrant and Norwegian history have been studied as well, especially in colleges that were founded by Norwegian immigrants and in strong departments of Scandinavian studies at some of the larger research universities, for example, the University of California at Berkeley, the University of Minnesota, the University of Washington, and the University of Wisconsin. In Great Britain, the study of Norwegian history, culture, and literature has a long and illustrious tradition, with much excellent work coming out of Oxford and Cambridge, in addition to strong centers of Scandinavian and Nordic studies at University College London, the University of Edinburgh, the University of Aberdeen, the University of Nottingham, the University of Sheffield, and the University of the Highlands and Islands. Historians, political scientists, sociologists, and literary critics associated with the larger research universities throughout Europe and the world have written on Norwegian themes as well, but seldom will a scholar be able to devote all of his or her professional attention to Norwegian subjects. For some, it has become a research specialty, while for others it is a cherished

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professional sideline. Academics whose work is not exclusively focused on Norway, however, are often able to place their observations of Norwegian history, society, and culture in illuminating contexts. International professional organizations also play a major role in the creation and dissemination of scholarly work related to Norway. For example, the Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study publishes the journal Scandinavian Studies, which regularly publishes work on Scandinavian, including Norwegian, history, society, and literature. The International Comparative Literature Association is sponsoring a multivolume history of Nordic literary culture, the first volume of which was published in 2017: Stephen Sondrup, Mark Sandberg, Thomas DuBois, and Don Ringaard (eds.), Nordic Literature: A Comparative History, vol. 1, Spatial Nodes. The series looks beyond the traditional national literary approach to focus on commonalities in comparative regional, postnational literature. Because most of the scholarship devoted to Norway is done there and published in Norwegian, what appears in English tends to deal with questions or issues that are of theoretical or principal interest to the field or that are or have been matters of significant attention on the part of the general public. For example, Norway’s resistance to joining the European Union will be of general interest to specialists in international studies, while the oil and gas policies of the Norwegian government will have some degree of impact on a large number of people (Norway is one of the world’s largest exporters of oil and natural gas). Some more traditional topics (e.g., Norway’s response to the Nazis during World War II and its security policy decisions during the Cold War) still attract a good deal of interest. Many studies that appear in English are simply reflections of the scholar’s own intellectual concerns; however, in the aggregate, the work done in response to such concerns offers very good coverage of the field, as this bibliography demonstrates. Those who know or are able to learn Norwegian should consult the 15volume Norges historie (History of Norway), edited by Knut Mykland and published from 1976 to 1980. With contributions from the most highly respected scholars of the generation then at the height of its intellectual and professional power, this series is informative and copiously illustrated. The defining moment in Norway’s modern history came in 1814, when Europe’s political situation at the end of the Napoleonic Wars created an opportunity for Norway’s leading citizens to frame a national constitution and declare independence. This event divides Norway’s history into an older and a newer part, and it has a similar function in the way the topical studies in this bibliography are organized. There is an abundance of literature on the Vikings, their culture, their raids, and their enduring fascination. Among the publications worthy of note here are Judith Jesch, The Viking Diaspora, published in 2015, in which she examines how the Scandinavian migrants connected with each other through

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their shared heritage, whether in Britain or Russia. One of the most appealing aspects of that heritage is the hypnotic world of the Norse gods. A recent publication that presents a fascinating retelling of the stories of their mythological world is Neil Gaiman, Norse Mythology, from 2017. More academic, but no less compelling, is John Lindow, Norse Mythology: A Guide to Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs, published by Oxford University Press in 2002. Tied peripherally to Old Norse mythology yet reverberating through the cultural landscape of Norway for centuries until finding a dystopic, modern home on the World Wide Web are the provocative, fascinating, and foreboding trolls. Building on his keen knowledge of folklore and literature, John Lindow looks at this uniquely Nordic cultural apparition in Trolls: An Unnatural History from 2015. One of Norway’s darkest moments in recent times arrived on 9 April 1940, when Nazi Germany attacked. Great scholarly work can result from the study of a nation’s trials, however, and a very good example of that is Oddvar Hoidal’s magisterial Quisling: A Study in Treason (1989), the supreme significance of which is recognized both in Norway, where it has appeared in translation, and throughout the English-speaking world. Another engaging account related to Norway’s World War II experience is Gunnar Sønsteby’s autobiographical narrative Report from #24 (2017), a firsthand narrative of what it was like to work in the resistance movement, originally published in 1965. In this bibliography, the sections dealing with Norway’s history are followed by sections on politics, economy, society, culture, and science. The world’s best collection of library materials related to Norway is found at the Nasjonalbiblioteket (National Library) in Oslo, which also has an excellent website, www.nb.no, that provides access to their numerous databases and other electronic resources. The best library collections related to Norway in the United States are found at the Library of Congress and at research universities with large departments of Scandinavian Studies, first and foremost the University of California, Berkeley; the University of California, Los Angeles; the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities; the University of Washington, Seattle; the University of Wisconsin, Madison; and the University of Texas, Austin. Statistisk Sentralbyra (SSB, Statistics Norway) offers a wealth of numerical and statistical information found at www.ssb.no, and Arkivverket (the Archive Service) offers access to materials held at the Norwegian National Archives (Riksarkivet) as well as at the regional state archives (statsarkivene) and the digital archives (Digitalarkivet), including electronic versions of the various Norwegian censuses and images of the actual pages of almost all Norwegian parish registers. Their website is www.riksarkivet.no, which has both a Norwegian and an English interface.

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GENERAL Bibliographies Grønland, Erling. Norway in English. Oslo: Norwegian Universities Press, 1961. Haukaas, Kaare, comp. Norwegian Legal Publications in English, French and German. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1966. Hoberman, John. “Bibliographical Spectrum.” Review of National Literatures 12 (1983): 185–207. Johansson, Eve, ed. Official Publications of Western Europe. London: Mansell, 1984. Nordstrom, Byron J., ed. Dictionary of Scandinavian History. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1986. Sather, Leland B., and Hans H. Wellisch. Norway. World Bibliographical Series, no. 67. Oxford: Clio Press, 1986. Guidebooks Baedeker Scandinavia: Norway, Sweden, Finland. New York: Macmillan Travel, 1996. Berezin, Henrik. Adventure Guide to Scandinavia. Hunter Travel Guides. Edison, N.J.: Hunter, 2006. Castberg, Frede. The Norwegian Way of Life. London: William Heinemann, 1954. Collins, Andrew, ed. Fodor’s Norway. Fodor’s Travel Guides. New York: Fodor’s Travel, 2000. Evenstierget, Snorre. Norway. Eyewitness Travel Guides. London: Dorling Kindersley, 2006. Insight Guides Norway. 3rd ed. London: Insight Guides, 2018. Kiel, Anne Cohen, ed. Continuity and Change: Aspects of Contemporary Norway. Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1993. Maager, Eva, and Birte Simonsen, eds. Norway: Society and Culture. Kristiansand, Norway: Portal Books, 2005. Norway and Sweden: Handbook for Travellers. Leipzig, Germany: K. Baedeker, 1889. Seaton, George W. What to See and Do in Scandinavia: How to Get the Most Out of Your Trip to Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland, Finland, and the North Cape. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1939. Selbyg, Arne. Norway Today: An Introduction to Modem Norwegian Society. Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1986.

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Map Collections and Statistical Abstracts Statistical Yearbook of Norway. Oslo: Statistisk sentralbyrå, 2013. This is the final printed edition of the Statistical Yearbook. Annual statistical summaries are now online. Especially informative is “This Is Norway,” an annual statistical overview of Norwegian society. It is available as a PDF in English on the Statistisk sentralbyrå website: https://www.ssb.no/en/ befolkning/arktikler-og-publikasjoner/this-is-norway. Time-Life Books. Scandinavia. Library of Nations. Alexandria, Va.: TimeLife Books, 1987. United States Board on Geographic Names. Gazetteer of Norway Names Approved by the United States Board on Geographic Names. Washington, D.C.: National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1997.

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POLITICS Government Archer, Clive. Norway outside the European Union: Norway and European Integration from 1994 to 2004. Europe and the Nation State, no. 5. London: Routledge, 2005.

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Waage, Hilde Henriksen. Norwegians? Who Needs Norwegians? Explaining the Oslo Back Channel: Norway’s Political Past in the Middle East. Oslo: Royal Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2000. Wolf, Maria. Youth Policy in Norway: Report by the International Team of Experts Appointed by the Council of Europe. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe, 2004. Law Andenæs, Mads Tønnesson, and Ingeborg Wilberg. The Constitution of Norway: A Commentary. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1987. Bø, Bente Puntervold. Immigration Control, Law, and Morality: Visa Policies towards Visitors and Asylum Seekers; An Evaluation of the Norwegian Visa Policies within a Legal and Moral Frame of Reference. Oslo: Unipub, 2002. Borvik, Bjørnar. The Norwegian Approach to Protection of Personality Rights: With a Special Emphasis on the Protection of Honour and Reputation. Bergen, Norway: Fagbokforlaget, 2004. Falkanger, Thor, Hans Jacob Bull, and Lasse Brautaset. Introduction to Norwegian Maritime Law. Oslo: Sjprettsfondet, 1987. Gisle, Jon, ed. Aschehoug og Gyldendals store norske leksikon. Lov og rett. Oslo: Kunnskapsforlaget, 1995. Gundersen, Fridtjof Frank, and Sverre Faafeng Langfeldt. Lov og rett for naringslivet. Oslo: Focus, 1990. Holder, Harold D. European Integration and Nordic Alcohol Policies: Changes in Alcohol Controls and Consequences in Finland, Norway and Sweden, 1980–1997. Aldershot, Hants, U.K.: Ashgate, 1998. Johnsen, Jon T. Juss-Buss and Clinical Legal Education. Publications from Institute for Sociology of Law. Oslo: University of Oslo, 1991. Kjønstad, Asbjørn. Norwegian Social Law. Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1987. Krohn, Mads. Norwegian Petroleum Law. Oslo: Sjprettsfondet, 1978. Mykland, Knut, Torkel Opsahl, and Guttorm Hansen. Norges grunnlov i 175 ar. Oslo: Gyldendal, 1989. Smith, Lucy, and Peter Lødrup. Children and Parents: The Relationship between Children and Parents according to Norwegian Law. Oslo: Ad Notam, 1991. Political Parties Brundtland, Gro Harlem. Madam Prime Minister: A Life in Power and Politics. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002.

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Dagre, Tor. Norway’s Political Parties. Oslo: Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1990. Grepstad, Ottar, and Jostein Nerbøvik, eds. Venstres hundre ar. Oslo: Gyldendal, 1984. Grofman, Bernard, and Arend Lijphart, eds. The Evolution of Electoral and Party Systems in the Nordic Countries. New York: Agathon Press, 2002. Halvorsen, Terje. Partiets salt: AUFs historie. Oslo: Pax, 2003. Heidar, Knut. Partidemokrati på prøve: Norske partieliter i demokratisk perspektiv. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1988. Isaksen, Guttorm. Ryddesjau: Arbeiderpartiet i maktens ruiner. Oslo: Aschehoug, 2001. Listhaug, Ola. Citizens, Parties, and Norwegian Electoral Politics, 1957–1985: An Empirical Study. Trondheim, Norway: Tapir, 1989. Matthews, Donald R., and Henry Valen. Parliamentary Representation: The Case of the Norwegian Storting. Parliaments and Legislatures. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1999. Saeter, Martin. Socialist Parties in Norway: Their European and Atlantic Profiles. Oslo: Norsk Utenrikspolitisk Institutt, 1976. Saglie, Jo. Standpunkter og strategi: EU-saken i norsk parttpolitikk 1989–1994. Oslo: Unipax, 2002. Shaffer, William R. Politics, Parties, and Parliaments: Political Change in Norway. Parliaments and Legislatures. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1998. Strom, Kaare, and Lars Svasand, eds. Challenges to Political Parties: The Case of Norway. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997. Valen, Henry, and Daniel Katz. Political Parties in Norway: A Community Study. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1964.

ECONOMY Agriculture Almas, Reidar, and Brynjulv Gjerdiiker, eds. Norwegian Agricultural History. Trondheim, Norway: Tapir Academic, 2004. Furre, Berge. Mjølk, bønder, og tingmenn: Studiar i organisasjon og politikk kring omsetninga av visse landbruksvarer 1929–30. Oslo: Det Norske Samlaget, 1971. Hammond, Jerome W. Targeting Agricultural Policies in Norway for Income Maintenance and Rural Development. St. Paul: Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics, University of Minnesota, 1990.

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SOCIETY Anthropology Anderson, Myrdene. Preliminary Remarks in Saami Ethnoecology: Resource Management in Norwegian Lapland. West Lafayette, Ind.: Institute for the Study of Social Change, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Purdue University, 1978. Barth, Fredrik Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture Difference. Oslo: Pensumtjenesten, 1994. Braarvig, Jens, and Thomas Krogh, eds. In Search of Symbols: An Explorative Study. Oslo: Novus forlag, 1997. Eidheim, Harald. Aspects of the Lappish Minority Situation. Oslo: Department of Social Anthropology, University of Oslo, 1987. Krupnik, Igor, Rachel Mason, and Tonia W. Horton, eds. Northern Ethnographic Landscapes: Perspectives from Circumpolar Nations. Washington, D.C.: Arctic Studies Center, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution in collaboration with the National Park Service, 2004. Kyllingstad, Jon Røyne. Kortskaller og langskaller: Fysisk antropologi iNorge og striden om det nordiske herremennesket. Oslo: SAP, 2004. Odner, Knut. The Varanger Saami: Habitation and Economy, AD 1200–1900. Oslo: Institute of Social Anthropology, Oslo University, 1989. Rugkåsa, Marianne, and Kari Trædal Thorsen, eds. Nære steder, nye rom: Utfordringer i antropologiske studier i Norge. Oslo: Gyldendal akademisk, 2003. Vorren, Ørnulv, and Ernst Manker. Lapp Life and Customs: A Survey. London: Oxford University Press, 1975.

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Sociology Almas, Reidar, K. Vik, and J. Ødegaard. Women in Rural Norway: Recent Tendencies in the Development of the Division of Labour in Agriculture and the Participation of Rural Women on the Labour Market. Trondheim, Norway: University of Trondheim, 1983. Andersson, Mette. Urban Multi-Culture in Norway: Identity Formation among Immigrant Youth. Mellen Studies in Sociology 51. Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press, 2005. Eriksen, John. Sociology of the Family in Norway in the 1970’s: Expansion and Applicability. Oslo: Institutt for anvendt sosialvitenskapelig forskning, 1980. Holdsworth, C. M., and D. H. J. Morgan. The Transition Out of the Parental Home in Britain, Spain and Norway. Swindon, U.K.: Economic and Social Research Council, 2003. Mjøset, Lars. Kontroverser i norsk sosiologi. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1991. Selid, Betty. Women in Norway: Their Position in Family Life, Employment and Society. Oslo: The Norwegian Joint Committee on International Social Policy in Association with the Department of Cultural Relations, Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1970. Sweetser, Dorrian Apple. Urban Norwegians: Kinship Networks, and Sibling Mobility. Oslo: Institute of Applied Social Research, 1973. Wikan, Unni. Mot en ny norsk underklasse: Innvandrere, kultur og integrasjon. Oslo: Gyldendal, 1995. Education Bleiklie, Ivar, Roar Høstaker, and Agnete Vabø. Policy and Practice in Higher Education: Reforming Norwegian Universities. Higher Education Policy 49. London: J. Kingsley, 2000. Eide, Kjell. Problems in Education and Employment in Norway. Paris: UNESCO, 1976. Einarsdottir, Johanna, and Judith T. Wagner, eds. Nordic Childhoods and Early Education: Philosophy, Research, Policy, and Practice in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. International Perspectives on Educational Policy, Research, and Practice. Greenwich, Conn.: Information Age, 2006. Fetveit, Anne Marie. Alternatives to Universities in Higher Education: Country Study, Norway. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1988.

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Fredriksen, Birger. Main Trends in Norwegian Higher Education since 1960. Oslo: Norsk Utenrikspolitisk Institutt, 1984. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Lifelong Learning in Norway. Reviews of National Policies for Education. Paris: OECD, 2002. Tønnessen, Liv Kari. Norsk utdanningshistorie: En innføring. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1995. Religion Amundsen, Arne Bugge, ed. Norges religionshistorie. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 2005. Aukrust, Knut, and Berge Furre, eds. Diakoni og samfunn. Oslo: Norges forskningsnåd, 1998. Bloch-Hoell, Nils E. Religion in Norway. Oslo: International Summer School, 1987. Dubois, Thomas A. Sacred to the Touch: Nordic and Baltic Religious Wood Carving. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2018. Furre, Berge. Soga om Lars Oftedal. Oslo: Norske sarnlaget, 1990. Furseth, Inger. A Comparative Study of Social and Religious Movements in Norway, 1780s–1905. Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press, 2002. Hale, Frederick. Norwegian Religious Pluralism: A Trans-Atlantic Comparison. Texts and Studies in Religion 59. Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press, 1992. Haslam, Gerald M. Clash of Cultures: The Norwegian Experience with Mormonism, 1842–1920. American University Studies 7. New York: Peter Lang, 1984. Hassing, Arne. Church Resistance to Nazism in Norway, 1940–1945. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2014. ———. Religion and Power: The Case of Methodism in Norway. Lake Junaluska, N.C.: General Commission on Archives and History, United Methodist Church, 1980. Jacobsen, Knut A, ed. Verdensreligioner i Norge. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 2001. Molland, Einar. Church Life in Norway, 1800–1850. Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1957.

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CULTURE Archeology Blindheim, Charlotte, Birgit Heyerdahl-Larsen, and Roar L. Tollnes. Kaupang funnene. Norske oldfunn, no. 11. Oslo: Universitets oldsaksamling, 1981. Boaz, Joel. Hunter-Gatherer Site Variability: Changing Patterns of Site Utilization in the Interior of Eastern Norway between 8000 and 2500 B.P. Universitetets oldsaksamlings skrifter, new series, no. 20. Oslo: Universitetets oldsaksamling, 1998. ———. The Mesolithic of Central Scandinavia. Universitetets oldsaksamlings skrifter, new series, no. 22. Oslo: Universitetets oldsaksamling, 1999. Christensen, Arne Emil, Anne Stine Ingstad, and Bjørn Myhre. Osebergdronningens grav: Vår arkeologiske nasjonalskatt i nytt lys. Oslo: Schibsted, 1992. Hansen, Gitte. Bergen c. 800–c. 1170: The Emergence of a Town. Bryggen Papers, vol. 6. Bergen, Norway: Fagbokforlaget, 2005. Larsen, Arne J. Footwear from the Gullskoen Area of Bryggen. Bryggen Papers, vol. 4. Bergen, Norway: University of Bergen, 1992. Munch, Gerd Stamsø, Olav Sverre Johansen, and Else Roesdahl, eds. Borg in Lofoten: A Chieftain’s Farm in North Norway. Arkeologisk skriftserie, no. 1. Trondheim, Norway: Tapir Academic Press, 2003. Myhre, Lise Nordenborg. Trialectic Archaeology: Monuments and Space in Southwest Norway, 1700–500 BC. Stavanger, Norway: Arkeologisk museum i Stavanger, 2004. Nærøy, Arne Johan. Stone Age Living Spaces in Western Norway. BAR International series, no. 857. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2000. Øye, Ingvild, ed. Medieval Fishing Tackle from Bergen and Borgund. Bryggen Papers, vol. 5. Bergen, Norway: Fagbokforlaget, 2004. Selsing, Lotte, ed. Norwegian Quaternary Botany 2000. Stavanger, Norway: Arkeologisk museum i Stavanger, 2000. Simonsen, Povl. Steinalderbosetningen isandbukt pa Sørøya, Vest-Finnmark: Rapport og tolkning. Tromsø, Norway: Tromsø Museum, 1996. Simpson, David N. Archaeological Investigations at Krossnes, Flatøy, 1988–1991. Bergen, Norway: Historisk Museum, Universitetet i Bergen, 1992. Skre, Dagfinn, and Frans-Arne Stylegar. Kaupang: The Viking Town, the Kaupang Exhibition at UKM, Oslo, 2004–2005. Oslo: University of Oslo, University Museum of Cultural History, 2004. Sognnes, Kalle, ed. Rock Art in Landscapes—Landscapes in Rock Art. Trondheim, Norway: Tapir akadernisk forlag, 2003.

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Solberg, Bergljot. Jernalderen i Norge: ca. 500 f Kr.–1030 e. Kr. Oslo: Cappelen akadernisk forlag, 2000. Solli, Brit. Narratives of Veøy: An Investigation into the Poetics and Scientifics of Archaeology. Universitetets oldsaksarnlings skrifter, no. 19. Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo, 1996. Vinsrygg, Synnøve. Merovingartid i Nord-Noreg: Studie i utvalt materiale fra gravfunn. Arkeologiske avhandlinger fra Historisk museum, Universitetet i Bergen, no. 2. Bergen, Norway: Historisk museum, Universitetet i Bergen, 1979. Architecture Almaas, Ingerid Helsing. Norway: A Guide to Recent Architecture. London: Batsford, 2002. Bergan, Gunvor Øverland, and Trinelise Dysthe. Hjemme i Norge: Tradisjon og fornyelse. Oslo: Cappelen, 1994. Brekke, Nils Georg, Per Jonas Nordhagen, and Siri Skjold Lexau. Norsk arkitekturhistorie: Fra steinalder og bronsealder til det 21. hundrearet. Oslo: Sarnlaget, 2003. Elton, Lars, and Petter T. Moshus, eds. Norsk olympisk design: Design og arkitektur til de XVII olympiske vinterleker Lillehammer 1994. Oslo: Norsk forum, 1995. Grønvold, Ulf, ed. Architecture from Norway: Buildings, Architects, History. Oslo: Nasjonalmuseet for Kunst, Arkitektur og Design, 2005. Holan, Jerri. Norwegian Wood: A Tradition of Building. New York: Rizzoli, 1990. Liepe, Lena. Medieval Stone Churches of Northern Norway: The Interpretation of Architecture as a Historical Process. Tromsø, Norway: Universitetsbiblioteket, 2001. Martens, Johan-Ditlef. Norwegian Housing. Oslo: Norsk Arkitekturforlag, 1993. Norberg-Schulz, Christian. Modern Norwegian Architecture. Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1986. Stigum, Hilmar, and Torill Sand. Building Customs. Oslo: Institute for Folkelivsgransking, 1972. Thiis-Evensen, Thomas, Sissi Solem Winge, and Svein Aamold. The Norwegian Parliament: Its Art and Architecture. Oslo: Stortinget, 2000. Tostrup, Elisabeth. Architecture and Rhetoric: Text and Design in Architectural Competitions, Oslo, 1939–97. London: Andreas Papdakis, 1999. ———. Norwegian Wood: The Thoughtful Architecture of Wenche Selmer. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Architectural Press, 2006.

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Arts Bay Sjøvold, Aase. Norwegian Tapestries. Oslo: C. Huitfeldt Forlag, 1982. Børhaug, Espen, and Frank Johnsen. Bergen Rock City: Eventyrlige Konsertopplevelser mellom de Sju Fjell. Bergen: Johan Grieg Forlag AS, 2012. Bringaker, Arve, and Louise E. Shaw. Between Space and Time: Contemporary Norwegian Sculpture and Installation. Oslo: Association of Norwegian Sculptors, 2000. Bryne, Arvid. They Painted Norway: Glimpses of Norwegian Nature and Norwegian Artists. Oslo: Andresen and Butenschøn, 2004. Danbolt, Gunnar. Norsk kunsthistorie: Bilde og skulptur fra vikingtida til i dag. Oslo: Samlaget, 1997. Goertzen, Chris. Fiddling for Norway: Revival and Identity. Chicago Studies in Ethnomusicology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997. Grimley, Daniel M. Grieg: Music, Landscape and Norwegian Identity. Woodbridge, U.K.: Boydell Press, 2006. Grinde, Nils. A History of Norwegian Music. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991. Hale, Nathan Cabot, and David Finn. Embrace of Life: The Sculpture of Gustav Vigeland. New York: H. N. Abrams, 1969. Hauglid, Roar. Native Art of Norway. New York: Praeger, 1967. Heller, Reinhold. Edvard Munch: The Scream. New York: Viking, 1973. Hohler, Erla Bergendahl, Nigel J. Morgan, Anne Wichstrøm, Unn Plahter, and Bjørn Kaland. Painted Altar Frontals of Norway, 1250–1350. London: Archetype, 2004. Jerman, Gunnar, ed. A Cultural Odyssey: Focus on Norwegian Art. Oslo: Index, 1997. Kleivi, Bjorg Oseid. Rosemaling: Decorative Painting from Norway. Norway: Boksenteret Forlag, 1995. Lange, Kristian, and Arne Østvedt. Norwegian Music: A Brief Survey. London: D. Dobson, 1958. Lincoln, Louise, ed. The Art of Norway: 1750–1914. Minneapolis, Minn.: Minneapolis Institute of Arts, 1978. Pahlke, Rosemarie E., ed. Munch Revisited: Edvard Munch and the Art of Today. Dortmund, Germany: Museum am Ostwall, 2005. Parmann, Øistein. Norwegian Sculpture: With 131 Plates. Oslo: Dreyer, 1969. Prelinger, Elizabeth. After the Scream: The Late Paintings of Edvard Munch. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2002. Prideaux, Sue. Edvard Munch: Behind the Scream. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2005. Sjåstad, Øystein, Christian Krohgs Naturalism. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2017.

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Broberg, Gunnar, and Nils Roll-Hansen, eds. Eugenics and the Welfare State: Sterilization Policy in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1996. Chambers, Graham R., ed. The Health Care Systems in the European Union: A Comparative Analysis; Austria, Finland, Sweden, and Norway. Luxembourg: European Parliament, 1995. Elstad, Jon Ivar. Distribution of Welfare Services in the Decentralized Welfare State: The Case of Primary Health Services in Norway. Oslo: INAS, 1989. Larsen, Øivind, and Bent Olav Olsen, eds. The Shaping of a Profession: Physicians in Norway, Past and Present. Canton, Mass.: Science History/ USA, 1996. Noord, Paul van den, Terje Hagen, and Tor Iversen. The Norwegian Health Care System. Paris: OECD, 1998. Olson, R. Paul, ed. Mental Health Systems Compared: Great Britain, Norway, Canada, and the United States. Springfield, TIL: Charles C. Thomas, 2006. Siem, Harald. Choices for Health: An Introduction to the Health Services in Norway. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1986. Science and Technology Bing, Jon, and Knut S. Selmer, eds. A Decade of Computers and Law. Publications of Norwegian Research Center for Computers and Law, no. 7. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1980. Egeland, Alv, and William J. Burke. Kristian Birkeland: The First Space Scientist. Astrophysics and Space Science Library, vol. 325. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, 2005. Friedman, Robert Marc. Appropriating the Weather: Vilhelm Bjerknes and the Construction of a Modem Meteorology. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Reviews of National Science Policy: Norway. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1985. Sørensen, Knut H., ed. The Spectre of Participation: Technology and Work in a Welfare State. Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1998.

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NEWSPAPERS, JOURNALS, AND WEBSITES Norwegian Newspapers with Websites Adresseavisen (Trondheim), www.adressa.no Aftenposten (Oslo), www.aftenposten.no Bergens Tidende (Bergen), www.bt.no Dag og Tid (Oslo), www.dagogtid.no Dagbladet (Oslo), www.dagbladet.no Dagens Næringsliv (Oslo), www.dn.no Dagsavisen (Oslo), www.dagsavisen.no Morgenbladet (Oslo), www.morgenbladet.no Nationen (Oslo), www.nationen.no Nordlys (Tromsø), www.nordlys.no Rogalands Avis (Stavanger), www.rogalandsavis.no Stavanger Aftenblad (Stavanger), www.stavanger-aftenblad.no Verdens Gang (Oslo), www.vg.no Scholarly Journals Edda: Scandinavian Journal of Literary Research. Founded in 1914, it is the premier literary journal in Norway. Published quarterly. Articles published in Norwegian, English, Swedish, and Danish. Historisk tidsskrift (Journal of History), started in 1871, is published four times each year by Den norske historiske forening (the Norwegian Historical Society). Scandinavian Economic History Review, started in 1953, is published three times each year by the Scandinavian Society for Economic and Social History and Historical Geography. Scandinavian Journal of History, started in 1976, is published four times each year for the Historical Associations of Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden, and the Scandinavian subcommittees of the International Committee of Historical Sciences. Scandinavian Studies, started in 1911, is the journal of the Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study and publishes articles in English on Scandinavian literature, history, and other topics. Other Useful Websites Antiquarian Booksellers, www.antikvariat.net Aschehoug Publishers, www.aschehoug.no

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Bergen, City of, www.bergen.kommune.no Gyldendal Publishers, www.gyldendal.no The Ibsen Center, www.hf.uio.no/ibsensenteret Ibsen Society of America, www.ibsensociety.org Ibsen’s dramas online, www.dramaonlinelibrary.com/playwrights/henrik-ibsen-iid-12352 The National Museum, www.nasjonalmuseet.no Norwegian Folk Museum, www.norskfolke.museum.no Oslo, City of, www.oslo.kommune.no/english Stavanger, City of, www.stavanger.kommune.no Tromsø, City of, www.tromso.kommune.no Trondheim, City of, www.trondheim.com University of Bergen, www.uib.no University of Oslo, www.uio.no University of Tromsø, www.uit.no

About the Authors

Terje Leiren (BA, MA, California State University, Los Angeles; PhD, University of North Texas) is professor emeritus of Scandinavian studies and history at the University of Washington, Seattle, where he has been a faculty member since 1977. He held the Sverre Arestad Endowed Chair in Norwegian Studies from 2007 to 2017 and was chair of the Department of Scandinavian Studies from 1995 to 2010. He was president of the Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study from 1993 to 1995, and in 2000 he became a charter member and first secretary treasurer of the Society of Historians of Scandinavia. He wrote Marcus Thrane: A Norwegian Radical in America (1987); edited Stage and Screen: Studies in Scandinavian Drama and Film: Essays in Honor of Birgitta Steene (2000); and edited and translated Selected Plays of Marcus Thrane (2008). He was general coeditor for the University of Washington Press series New Directions in Scandinavian Studies, which published 11 books during his tenure. He has written numerous articles on Norwegian and Norwegian American history and culture in such journals as Scandinavian Journal of History, Scandinavian Studies, Norwegian-American Studies, The Historian, Scandinavica, and Syn og Segn, among others. Born in Norway, Professor Leiren emigrated with his family as a young child. He regularly visits Norway for personal and professional reasons and was a lecturer in Norwegian history at the University of Oslo International Summer School from 1988 to 2000 and a visiting scholar at the University of Bergen, Department of History, in 2000. Jan Sjåvik (BA, Brigham Young University; PhD, Harvard University) is professor emeritus of Scandinavian studies at the University of Washington, Seattle, where he has been a faculty member since 1978. He wrote Arne Garborgs Kristiania-romaner: En beretterteknisk studie [Arne Garborg’s Kristiania Novels: A Study in Narrative Technique] (1985), Reading for the Truth: Rhetorical Constructions in Norwegian Fiction (2004), and Historical Dictionary of Scandinavian Literature and Theater (Scarecrow Press, 2006) and has recently completed the manuscript of Reading Knut Faldbakken: Growth, Intersubjectivity, Truth. He has also written articles on Norwegian and other Scandinavian writers, including Knut Hamsun, Ole E. Rølvaag, Alfred Hauge, Dag Solstad, and Johan Sebastian Welhaven, as well as entries on Scandinavian writers for several reference works. A native Norwegian, Sjåvik received his primary and secondary education in Norway, followed by a semester at the Norwegian Technological and Scientific University 363

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(NTNU) in Trondheim, before immigrating to the United States in December 1972. He has presented his work in guest lectures at the universities of Oslo, Bergen, Tromsø, and Agder, as well as at the NTNU in Trondheim. He has conducted research at the manuscript collection of the National Library, Oslo.