Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan 9811590761, 9789811590764

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Wei Ren · Yan He

Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan

Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan

Wei Ren Yan He •

Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan

123

Wei Ren Zhengzhou Municipal Bureau of Cultural Radio, Television and Tourism Zhengzhou, China

Yan He Tsinghua University Beijing, China

ISBN 978-981-15-9076-4 ISBN 978-981-15-9077-1 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9077-1

(eBook)

Jointly published with Shanghai Far East Publisher The print edition is not for sale in China (Mainland). Customers from China (Mainland) please order the print book from: Shanghai Far East Publisher. © Shanghai Far East Publisher 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publishers, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publishers remain neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Editorial Committee: Guo Lei, Yang Si, Huang Junfeng, Zhang Yi, Zhang Hejun, Song Wenjia, Bao Junhui, Wang Jingjing Academic Advisor: Guo Daiheng Designed by: Beijing Qingcheng Ruixian Digital Science and Technology Institute Co., Ltd. Illustrator by: Wu Kongkong Photography: Zheng Taisen, Wang Yi, etc.

In 2010, Historic Monuments of Dengfeng in “The Center of Heaven and Earth,” consisting of eight sites (11 items), were inscribed on the UNESCO World Cultural Heritage List on the 34th session of the UNESCO’s World Heritage Committee. It was never an easy task. The grand-scale complex of Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan consists of 367 architectural structures in 11 items at eight sites, namely Zhougong Sundial Platform and Observatory of Dengfeng, Songyue Temple Pagoda, Architectural Complex of Shaolin Temple (Kernel Compound, Chuzu Temple, Pagoda Forest), Huishan Temple, Songyang Academy of Classical Learning, Taishi Que Gates, Shaoshi Que Gates, Qimu Que Gates, and Zhongyue Temple. The property seems to be something of irrelevant structures, despite the cultural and religious significance. However, it has been inscribed on the World Cultural Heritage List, because the property is located in “the Center of Heaven and Earth.” What does “the Center of Heaven and Earth” mean? How can it be the core of cultural heritage sites rather different from one another? “The Center of Heaven and Earth” actually not only cradles Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan, but also illustrates the cardinal line of traditional Chinese culture.

Foreword

The history of the Mount Song area can be traced back to the Xia Dynasty in the twenty-third century, B.C. The heritage architecture in this area witnessed the rise and fall of various powers, including the Han Dynasty, the Northern Wei Dynasty, the Tang and Song Empires, the Jin Dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty, and the Ming and Qing Empires. It displays the character of each historical period. Over the past 2000 years, history has been woven into the architecture here constantly and continuously. The Mount Song area is, therefore, a perfect representation of the perpetual Chinese civilization, the most magnificent museum of ancient Chinese architecture. Most importantly, these various types of architecture reflect the mainstream architectural design and technologies of each particular historical period. They are the offspring of the innovative work of smart Chinese people, a marvelous creation that ancient Chinese people took pride in. This book tells us the stories about the architecture in the Center of Heaven and Earth in simple terms and leads readers to trace the history. In the book, the author provides a detailed interpretation of the phrase “in the Center of Heaven and Earth” and, specifically, analyzes the word “center” from both macro- and micro-perspectives. He explains the reasons for the existence of “Taishi Mountain” and “Shaoshi Mountain,” as well as temples and architecture for the purpose of sacrificial ceremonies dedicated to Mountain Gods. He looks into the social environment in ancient China and concludes that since agriculture played an important role in the ancient Chinese society, emperors attached great importance to agricultural activities. The emperors thus had to pray and made offerings on a regular basis, in a hope that Gods could manipulate natural phenomena, such as wind, thunder, storm and lightning, in their favor. In fact, rituals and sacrificial ceremonies are also a common means used by rulers to further secure their thrones, as they were indebted to a belief that their “power was divine.” A culture of feudalism, hence, came into existence. Nature exerts huge influences on agricultural production. In an attempt to find the patterns of astronomical phenomena, ancient Chinese built architecture designed for astronomical research and exploration. The earliest astronomical facility in this area is the Observatory of the Duke of Zhou. In the Yuan Dynasty ix

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(1281 A.D.), the “Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory” was built, and the government established 27 observation locations across the nation to enable the researchers in the country to work together. Later, the “Shoushi Calendar,” the most comprehensive calendar at that time, was published, which was more than 300 years earlier than the Gregorian calendar published in the Europe at the end of the sixteenth century. Its calculation is indeed quite accurate and close to the data collected by modern scientific devices. For example, it is calculated that a year consists of 365.2425 days, which is only 0.0003 day (approximately 26 s) in short compared to the modern calendar. The calendar was even exported to Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. The development of the Chinese calendar thus originates from the Observatory of the Duke of Zhou. This book also introduces the history of Buddhist architecture in detail. Shortly after Buddhism was introduced to China, Buddhist architecture began to appear. There are still quite a few temples and pagodas of different eras today, which show that Buddhism has been in China for 2000 years. The best-known temple at the foot of Mount Song is the Shaolin Temple. It was built in the 19th year of the Taihe Era in the Northern Wei Dynasty (495 A.D.) when the Emperor of Xiaowen received a group of Buddhist monks from Tianzhu. Later, Bodhidharma, a monk from Southern India, came to China in the Northern Wei Dynasty to transmit his religion and lived at Mount Song for 9 years. He was, later on, regarded as the first Chinese patriarch who also led to the creation of the Shaolin Temple and Shaolin Kunfu. There are numerous religious murals on the walls of the Shaolin Temple, which demonstrate the cultural characters of Zen Buddhism. Such cultural characters have certain influences on various religions and cultures and are also widespread oversea. The Forest of Pagodas in the Shaolin Temple is the largest collection of Buddhist pagodas in China. Over the 1000 years from the Tang Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, the Forest of Pagodas had been expanding continuously. It contains a lot of historical information of the social and economical environment of the area where the Shaolin Temple is situated and also reflects the religions, architectural designs, and arts and technologies in the area. The Songyue Pagoda constructed in the Yongping Era of the Northern Wei Dynasty (508–511 A.D.) is the oldest existent brick pagoda in China. It is a parabolic tower with multiple eaves and arch doors. On the second floor of the 12-sided pagoda, apart from the gate, there is also a decorative door shaped like a mini-pagoda on each wall. The niches at the lower part are intricately carved into lions, which suggest the cultural exchanges on architectural designs between India and China. The academy played a significant part in Chinese education in the history of time. Unlike schools founded by the government, such as Xiangxue, Xianxue, Fuxue, and Taixue, the academy is designed for university students and other gifted scholars. The Songyang Academy is famous for the development of Neo-Confucianism. Many prominent politicians and philosophers, in fact, graduated from this school. The best living proof is the 2000-year-old cypress that witnessed a series of historical changes.

Foreword

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From a typological perspective, the architecture in the Center of Heaven and Earth is diverse in shape and form. Each type of architecture has various designs. There are three ceremonial and monumental buildings in this area, which are not only different in style but also in their relationship to the environment. As for religious architecture, not only temples but also pagodas and palaces are quite different. Such differences reflect the diversity and technological creativity of Chinese wooden construction from the twelfth century to the nineteenth century. The various architectural styles and designs of temples and pagodas constitute a splendid page in the Chinese Buddhist architecture history. Speaking of astronomical facilities for scientific research, the “Observatory of the Duke of Zhou” and the “Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory” are sufficient to prove the diversity in architecture. This book also mentions the uniqueness of the architecture in the “Center of Heaven and Earth.” These buildings hold a special place in the history of religion, culture, and art, which other world heritages fail to. First of all, the word “the oldest” makes the Chinese architecture distinctive. The Songyue Pagoda is the earliest pagoda in China, and the Monk Jingzang Pagoda in the Huishan Temple constructed more than 1200 years ago is the oldest existent octagonal brick pagoda in the country. Speaking of size, the Zhongyue Temple is the largest ceremonial architecture, and the Forest of Pagodas in the Shaolin Temple is the grandest pagoda collection of monk. In terms of style, the design of the Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory is remarkable and unique. The glazed tower and the double pagoda with multiple eaves in the Huishan Temple are also not seen anywhere else in China. The book goes to great length to discuss the Songyue Pagoda and the Zhongyue Temple with detailed descriptions: The Songyue Pagoda makes its name throughout the world and stands out from all brick buildings because of its exceptional and advanced tubular architectural structure. Compared to the octagonal pagoda constructed 300 years later in the Song Dynasty, the Songyue Pagoda is the earliest brick pagoda in the country. It is also the oldest tubular construction in the world. The dodecagonal shape of the pagoda also demonstrates the successful application of geometry by ancient Chinese laborers. The Zhongyue Temple: since the Spring and Autumn period, Chinese emperors had started to worship Heaven and Earth on the crest of Mount Song, and it had later become a tradition for all the future emperors. As such, there are many ceremonial buildings around this area, including the Taishi Towers dated back to 1900 years ago, which was later transformed into the current Zhongyue Temple. From the “The Reconstruction Plan of the Zhongyue Temple in the Great Jin Dynasty” carved into the stele in the Zhongyue Temple, we can see that the temple still preserves the structure of the original building 1000 years ago when the emperors worshiped Heaven and Earth. It is actually very rare and even unique in China that a temple not only presents the architectural character of its forerunner, Taishi Towers, but also a cultural relic nearly 1000 years ago, a “stele of the temple structure.” Compared with the Zhongyue Temple, the other temples are not so well

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preserved, and there is no similar stele that showcases the change in the architectural structure. The Zhongyue Temple, as well as its surrounding buildings, is a masterpiece of ancient Chinese architecture. We pass various ceremonial gates, towers, pavilions, and finally enter the most sacred room, the largest palace in the Zhongyue Temple, the Junji Palace. Two magnificent corridors flank the Junji Palace at the front. Behind the palace are chambers and the library, which look less solemn than the buildings at the front. On the mountain at the rear stands the Huanggaifeng Pavilion, which marks the end of this remarkable journey. We can definitely see a distinctive hierarchy from the change in the architectural style of the Zhongyue Temple. Its majestic air reflects the deep and long-lasting influence of Confucianism on Chinese architecture. The buildings perfectly demonstrate the characters of Chinese ceremonial architecture, present the highest skills of Chinese architectural art, and exert a profound influence on other ancient Chinese architecture. In conclusion, this book introduces the heritage architecture in the “Center of Heaven and Earth” and helps us understand their unique and great cultural values among all other Chinese cultural heritages. November 2018

Guo Daiheng Tsinghua University Beijing, China

Contents

1 Why is the Term “The Central Kingdom”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2 Mount Songshan: The Center of Heaven and Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3 The Nation’s Grand Events: The Three Han Que Gates, The Zhongyue Temple and Sacrifices on Mountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Three Han Que Gates: The Earliest Tangible Evidence to Sacrifices on Mountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . From the Taishi Shrine to the Zhongyue Temple: Sacrifices on the Central Sacred Mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 The Observatory in the Center of Earth: The World of Astronomy in Ancient China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Culture Reflected in Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Obsession With “The Center of Earth” in Ancient China . . . . . . . . . The Giant Sundial Built by Guo Shoujing at the Center of Earth . . . . 5 The Chan Buddhism and Martial Art: Localization of Buddhism at Mount Songshan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Cradle of the Chan Buddhism Deep in the Luxuriant Woods of Mount Shaoshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Huishan Temple: A Witness to the Growth of Chinese Chan Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motion and Tranquility: Martial Art and Chan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39 39 50

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65 66 68 76

..

85

..

85

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.. 94 . . 100

6 The Songyang Academy of Classical Learning: A Frontier of New Confucianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 An Academy Growing Out of a Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 A Place of Rebirth of Confucianism: The Witness to the Crisis and Rejuvenation of Confucianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

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7 Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism at Mount Songshan: From Rivals to Being in Harmony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Taoism: The First Step on Mount Songshan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Harmony Between Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism at Mount Songshan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 8 An Architectural Epitome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An Example of the Official Architecture: Yingzao Fashi and the Main Hall of the Chuzu Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innumerable Pagodas in the Pagoda Forest in the Shaolin Temple . . . A Milestone Work of Chinese Pagodas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . 139 . . 139 . . 149 . . 162

Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Appendix A: Tour Map of Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Appendix B: Emperors Who Offered Sacrifices to Mount Songshan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Appendix D: Important Pictures on the Three Han Que Gates . . . . . . . 203 Appendix E: Important Structures Within the Zhongyue Temple . . . . . 207 Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Chapter 1

Why is the Term “The Central Kingdom”?

China, literally means “the Central Kingdom”. Have you ever wondered about the origin of the name? Nothing has been more appropriate than this name, though. “Central” has been the best illustration to traditional Chinese culture and the ultimate core of the Chinese civilization. In ancient China, ideas, systems and things originated from this concept “central”, which is a key to traditional Chinese culture and cultural relics. It is the fundamental though of Chinese philosophy. People in ancient China found the understanding of the relationship between Heaven, Earth and man the grandest and most important idea. Despite complicated religious beliefs in ancient China, Heaven was the supreme god, followed by Earth, or “Heaven and Earth”.1 And the supreme rulers and their spouses were known as “huang” (related to Heaven) and “hou” (related to Earth) in imperial China. Traditionally in China, Heaven, Earth and man shared the same “core”, even though the three were on entirely different ranks. Either “the Way” or “Nature” put in Taoism, or “the orthodoxy” upheld by Confucianism, tells about the supreme rule observed by Heaven, Earth and man. Thanks to this supreme rule, Heaven, Earth and man have been closely interrelated. Nonetheless, in traditional Chinese culture, Heaven, Earth and man stand on different ranks. Heaven is the ultimate source of all rules. To ancient Chinese people, things on Earth follow rules set by Heaven; thus reflect Heaven’s will. Man is expected to observe the rules set by Heaven and Earth; thus reflect the will of Heaven and Earth. As Taoism puts it, “Man follows the rule of Earth; Earth follows the rule of Heaven; Heaven follows the rule of the Way; and the Way follows the rule of what it is.”2 Given then Heaven, Earth and man follow the same rule and man follows Heaven and Earth, China already saw in its early days the interaction between Heaven and Zuozhuan: Xigong Shiwunian (The Commentary of Zuo: the 15th Year of Duke Xi of Lu), “Your Majesty rests your feet on Earth and has Heaven above your head”. 2 Chapter 25, Dao De Jing (The Classic of the Way and Virtue). 1

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man and the idea that man is an integral part of Heaven. As early as in the Shang Dynasty (ca. sixteenth–eleventh century B.C.), the idea about the relationship between Heaven and man already came into being. The idea seemed to later generations, however, somewhat abnormal: Rulers of the Shang thought they “were chosen by Heaven” and “destiny remains constant”, therefore, the ruling of the Shang would remain unshakable. So King Zhou of Shang became an unbridled tyrant. At his death, he still didn’t receive the fact that Heaven “abandoned” his reign.3 After the Shang court had been overthrown and replaced by Zhou, the Zhou rulers (mainly Dan, Duke Zhougong) rectified the “Heaven and man” theory. According to the Zhou people, “destiny” doesn’t remain constant. A ruler must “have the

King Zhou of Shang, notorious for his tyranny, stuck to the idea that destiny remains constant, even at the collapse of his rule

According to Shang Shu: Xibo Kan Li (Book of Documents: Chief of the West [King Wen]’s Conquest of [the State of] Li), facing a crisis in the late years of his reign, King Zhou of Shang still sighed, “Ach! Isn’ t Heaven on my side?”.

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virtue for the Heaven- endowed power”. “Son of Heaven” wouldn’t retain his “Heaven-endowed destiny”, unless he followed the rules of Heaven and man.4 However, “Heaven” in ancient China isn’t the “universe” or “atmospheric layer” in the modern sense. “Earth” doesn’t refer to the planet we live on. In ancient Chinese philosophy, “Heaven is spherical and Earth is square”; in another word, Earth is a vast plane and Heaven is like a transparent dome overspreading it. Due to limited knowledge of science and technology, ancient people imagined what “Heaven” looked like: Some held that Heaven, as a dome, covered Earth; that is the “dome” theory.5 Others thought that Heaven is like a giant ball encircling the flat Earth; that is the theory of sphere-heavens.6 In either of the two theories, one point in the “spherical Heaven” finds one in a vertical corresponding relation to it in the “flat Earth”. As “Earth follows the rules of Heaven,” the central point of Earth is of great significance, for it right corresponds to the zenith or the center of the universe. How sacred the center of the universe is! Both astronomical and geographical centers have been far beyond the scope of nature, as Heaven, Earth and man are closely related. Thus, “the Center of Heaven and Earth” stands in the core of the Chinese civilization. This theory of Heaven, Earth, man and “center” was later carried forward in Confucianism. Confucius said, “I followed the Zhou rites.”7 That is, Confucius followed the thoughts of Zhou, particularly those of Duke Zhougong (who has been thus thought to be the herald of Confucian thoughts). In the first days when he established Confucianism, Confucius “talked about no capricious forces”.8 That is, Confucius avoided any connection with mysterious unknown things and talked about “center” in a “culture-enriched” sense. That is the core idea of Confucianism, namely “humanity”, which, however, is misread as pure “benevolence” and According to the Zhou people, the ruler should “respect Heaven to protect his people. “As is put in Shi Jing: Da Ya- Wen Wang (Classic of Poetry: Major Court Hymns-Decade of King Wen of Zhou),” As Heaven’ s will, the Shang people submitted themselves to the rule of Zhou. The fact shows that Heaven-endowed destiny doesn’t remain constant or unchanged.” According to Shang Shu: Cai Zhong Zhi Ming (Book of Documents: Charge to Cai Zhong), “Heaven-endowed destiny” is closely related to “the people’s mind”, “Heaven has no favorites except the virtuous. The people’s mind is changing except that it always is favor of a virtuous ruler.” In his Jiu Gao (Announcement about Drunkenness), Duke of Zhou talked about the collapse of King Zhou of Shang, “So Heaven condemned Shang, because of the latter’s obsession in carnal pleasures. Heaven isn’t cruel. It was the Shang people who incurred their punishment”. 5 The “dome” theory was first seen in Zhoubi Suanjing, an ancient Chinese mathematical book authored around the Western Han Dynasty, “Earth is square and Heaven is spherical. Heaven is like a dome over Earth”. 6 The theory of sphere-heavens originated in the Warring States Period. Zhang Hen, a renowned astronomer of the Han Dynasty authored Zhang Hen’s Commentary on the Armillary Sphere and made the armillary sphere, an astronomical instrument based upon the theory. 7 Lun Yu: Ba Yi (Analects: Eight Lines of Eight Dancers Apiece), “Zhou followed the Xia and Shang rites that have been colorful and vital. I followed the Zhou rituals”. 8 Lun Yu: Shu Er (Analects: Transmission). Confucius believed that there were capricious forces, but he didn’ t advocate pursuing or worshiping those forces. 4

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“mercy”. Nonetheless, “humanity” of Confucianism is something corresponding to “universal love” of Mohism. They are all theories about interpersonal relations and social order. The theory of universal love argues that all people are equal, thus entitled to impartial care. In contrast, the theory of humanity argues that different people should be cared in different degrees, based upon interpersonal relations. According to Confucianism, interpersonal relations differ in intimacy in accordance with kinship. A harmonious society would be built upon benevolent love starting from one’s close kin. It is like concentric circles, with the benevolent love for one’s close kin in the center, radiating from the center to the outer. Traditional Confucian human relations, such as loyalty, filial piety and brotherly love, were all generated from the theory of “humanity”. Those Confucian ideas were the principles of the ancient Chinese society. Confucianism became the dominant ideology in the Han Dynasty. Since then, it has been an integral part of ancient Chinese society. Applied to the Chinese culture, it is an order ideal to Confucianism, namely “tianxia”: The place where the emperor or “the center of tianxia” stands at the core, around which radiate concentric circles. The outmost one, known as the circle of “yidi” or barbarians, still has its center fall on the one of inner circles, namely the ultimate rule followed by Heaven, Earth and man; therefore, barbarians, even placed on the outmost concentric circle, they were sheltered by the Chinese culture.9 That’s why China is called “the Central Kingdom”, its core areas are known as “the Central Plains”, and ideas, such as “people in the tianxia have the same lord” and “all the land belongs to the king”, are popular.10 “Tianxia” is actually the world in the eyes of ancient Chinese people. The understanding of the relations between Heaven, Earth and man in ancient China was cosmology back then. The tianxia theory was then the traditional world view of China. “The Central Kingdom”, as is indicated by the name, is the state in the center of the world. And the center of “the Central Kingdom” would naturally be the center of the world and universe. It would be the center of center. The idea of “the Center of Heaven and Earth” originated from such a world view. Not that rational in the modern sense, the idea of “being the center”, however, served as the principle in the past two thousand years or so of Chinese world view, philosophy and practical life. It could be seen in almost everything traditional in China. “Being central” may be the most concise generalized term for the Chinese civilization and the most sacred concept in traditional Chinese culture. “The Center of Heaven and Earth”, as the carrier of this sacred concept, is located in the core place of the vast territory of ancient China. It is first of all the cradle of the Chinese civilization. Ancestors in the remote times started their social life here and from here, they moved to wider areas. “The Center of Heaven and 9 As is put in Han Shu: Xiao Wangzhi Zhuan (Book of Han: Xiao Wangzhi) authored by Ban Gu of the Han Dynasty, “A wise emperor encourages moral integrity and rituals, first in the capital city, then to vassal states, and further to barbarians”. 10 Shijing: Xiaoya: Gufeng Zhishi: Beishan (Classic of Poetry: Lesser Court Hymns: Decade of Gufeng: Northern Mount), “All the land belongs to the king. All the people are the king’s servants”.

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Earth” is the epitome of the spirit of China, crystallizing the features of traditional Chinese culture. “The Center of Heaven and Earth” is also a source, around which forms a greater circle of the Chinese culture. In this sense, a place to be “the Center of Heaven and Earth” need to fulfill quite tough criteria. Where shall we find such a place?

Chapter 2

Mount Songshan: The Center of Heaven and Earth

We must turn to real life to anchor ancient people’s clinging to “being the center”. Where is “the Center of Heaven and Earth” located? Mount Songshan, known as the Central Sacred Mountain, has been recognized as “the Center of Heaven and Earth”, as the source of the Chinese civilization. Located in the central part of China, Mount Songshan cradled the continuous civilization of the Central Plains. The sites and ruins discovered in the area form a continuous chain starting from the Neolithic Age 100,000 years ago to the twentieth century. With the highly-developed prehistoric culture and unique pattern of cultural exchange, Mount Songshan and its surrounding area saw the earliest state civilization in China. With naturally-endowed conditions, Mount Songshan stood as the source of the Chinese civilization. The Chinese nation has long recognized the area as the center of the country. Duke Zhougong of the Western Zhou Dynasty “measured the shadow cast by the sun”, to locate “the Center of Heaven and Earth”. Mount Songshan and its surrounding area have had many historic and cultural elements. Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan inscribed on the UNESCO’s World Cultural Heritage List have boasted a long and continuous history and been located in an area of 40 km2 or so around Mount Songshan.

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Inscription on He zun ritual wine vessel

Historically, Mount Songshan has been known for being mysterious. No other word would be more appropriate than “mysterious”.1 Mount Songshan is unrivaled in terms of culture.

Emperor Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty wrote a poem titled “Huishan Temple”, “Among all the beautiful mountains and rivers, Mount Taishi and Mount Shaoshi have been the most mysterious.” Taishi and Shaoshi refer to Mount Songshan.

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Mount Songshan, the Central Sacred Mountain

Mount Songshan in central China took its initial shape in the crustal movement 3600 million years ago. Geologically, it has been one of the oldest mountains in China. Located northwest to Dengfeng in the west of Henan Province, Mount Songshan extends over 30 km from the west of Xinzheng in the east to the east gate of Luoyang in the west, occupying an area of 4000 km2. The highest altitude is 1512 m. Mount Songshan is largely made up of Mount Taishi in the east and Mount Shaoshi in the west. “Song” in the term Mount Songshan means being lofty. Mount Songshan is a lofty mountain in the Central Plains of China. In the remote times, it was natural that people worshipped lofty mountains in the area where they were living, as they held a primitive belief that “everything has the soul”. However, Mount Songshan has occupied an extraordinarily important position in China, because of its location in the source and center of the Chinese civilization. Nüwa is the best-known legendary figure of the ancient times. There are numerous stories about her. One version is told against the background of Mount Songshan. Nüwa is credited with creating mankind. It is said that Nüwa and her elder brother Fuxi lived at the foot of Fenghuang (Phoenix) Peak in Mount Songshan. She sculpted clay figures according to her own appearance. The clay

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figures came into life. Later, Nüwa set rules of marriage for mankind to produce descendants.2 That is a widespread telling of Nüwa’s “creating mankind with clay”. Later, Gonggong the God of Water and Zhurong the God of Fire had a battle, in which Gonggong was defeated and broke Mount Buzhou. The sky collapsed and the world was flooded by the water from the Celestial River. Nüwa and Fuxi couldn’t bear to see mankind suffer. The two fought bravely the catastrophe. Nüwa sewed the crack in the sky with a bone needle and filled the gap with five-colored stones. The floodwater from the Celestial River was finally stopped.3 That is the story of Nüwa’s patching up the sky. It is said that Mount Songshan itself is piled up with the five-colored stones Nüwa used to patch up the sky. The stories of Nüwa’s creating mankind and patching up the sky have been widely known in China, in various versions, though. It remains unclear about Nüwa’s hometown. One version goes that Nüwa lived in Mount Songshan. However, it is never a coincidence that Nüwa’s stories have been popular in Mount Songshan area, as the area has been indeed one of the hometowns of earliest human beings in China. As early as in the Paleolithic Age (2,500,000–10,000 years ago), ancient men already lived in Mount Songshan. The Zhiji Cave Site dating 100,000 years back, the Xuchang people’s site in the south of Mount Songshan dating 80,000– 100,000 years back, the Laonainaimiao Site dating 30,000–50,000 years back, and the Lijiagou Site in Xinmi dating 10,000 years back. The brilliant early-day Chinese civilization developed unbroken in Mount Songshan area.

2

As is put in Fengsu Tong (Comprehensive Meaning of Customs and Mores) authored by Ying Shao of the Han Dynasty, “In the early days when Heaven and Earth first got apart, there was no mankind. Nüwa made mankind out of clay. She was later too busy to sculpt figures one by one. And she flung a rope into mud. The mud balls came into life as human beings”. 3 As is put in Huainanzi: Lanming (Huainanzi: Peering into the Obscure) compiled by Liu An of the Han Dynasty, “Going back to more ancient times, the four pillars were broken; the nine provinces were in tatters. Heaven did not completely cover [the earth]; Earth did not hold up [Heaven] all the way around [its circumference]. Fires blazed out of control and could not be extinguished; water flooded in great expanses and would not recede. Ferocious animals ate blameless people; predatory birds snatched the elderly and the weak. Thereupon, Nüwa smelted together five-colored stones in order to patch up the azure sky, cut off the legs of the great turtle to set them up as the four pillars, killed the black dragon to provide relief for Ji Province, and piled up reeds and cinders to stop the surging waters. The azure sky was patched; the four pillars were set up; the surging waters were drained; the province of Ji was tranquil; crafty vermin died off; blameless people [preserved their] lives”.

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The Zhiji Cave Site: Five-hundred meters north to Wangzongdian Village, Cuimiao Town, Xingyang, Zhengzhou, the cave looks like a stone mansion and measures 12–15 m wide at the mouth, and at least 21 m long in depth. The area totals more than 300 m2. It was discovered in 1984 and experienced seven excavations 1989–2003, during which period 100 m2 were under excavation. There are 24 accumulative layers of cultural relics and 17 places with trace of fire use. Other discoveries include over 2000 animal fossils of megaloceros, woolly rhinoceros, antelope and wild ox; more than 20,000 pieces of stone tools, including scrapers and choppers; and a large number of treated animal bones. According to the Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, the upper four layers are cultural relics dating 100,000 years back and the lower layers are of earlier times. The Zhiji Cave Site has been an important discovery of cave sediments of the Quaternary period in China and in Henan Province, in particular, thus of high academic values in tracing the source of ancient culture in central China and rebuilding the palaeoenvironment and relationship between it and human beings

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Animal fossils and stone tools unearthed from the Zhiji Cave Site

The Laonainaimiao Site

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Traces of life of ancient men were discovered in the Laonainaimiao Site. Located in the Yingtaogou Scenic Spot in the Houzhai Township, Erqi District in the southwestern suburb of Zhengzhou, the Laonainaimiao Site underwent the first archaeological excavation in 2011. In a 50 m2 area of excavation, archaeologists discovered more than 3000 pieces of stoneware, over 12,000 pieces of animal bones and fragments and 20-plus places with trace of fire use, as well as continuous multiple laminated layers of dwelling. The site clearly demonstrates the details of continuous dwelling of ancient people in a central camp. Archaeologists discovered a series of cultural survival closely related to behaviors of modern man. The archaeological discoveries have been solid evidence to a prosperous Paleolithic culture and complicated dwelling form in central China as early as in the times 30,000–50,000 years ago. Those discoveries are thus of academic significance in a further study of different opinions and on the origin and development of modern man between prehistoric archaeology and paleoanthropology

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Profile of the Lijiagou Site. Located in the west of Lijiagou Village, Yuecun Town, Xinmi, the Lijiagou Site is a cultural survival about 10,000 years ago, of the transition period between the Neolithic and Paleolithic Ages. In the strata of the site there are numerous stoneware, animal fossils and traces of human activities. The site is quite illustrative of the transition period between the Neolithic and Paleolithic Ages, in terms of stratum accumulation, combination of tools, dwelling form and means of livelihood. It clearly reveals how prehistoric local dwellers turned from a migrant Paleolithic life of hunting large herbivorous animals to a Neolithic one when they more settled down and lived on a plant-based diet and hunting. The unique local characteristics of the period are well revealed. The discovery has well filled in the blank in history between the late Paleolithic Age and the Peiligang Culture

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Microlithic cores and leaves unearthed from the Lijiagou Site

The Peiligang people living in Mount Songshan area over 8000 years ago in the Neolithic Age already led a settled life and practiced agriculture. The Dahecun culture took form about 6000 years ago. And 5000 years ago, the Yellow Emperor, known as the Initiator of the Chinese Civilization, was born in, conducted his undertaking and established his capital city in Mount Songshan area, creating the Chinese civilization.

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Located on the hill in the west of Peiligang Village, Xincun Town, about 7.5 km northwest to the downtown of Xinzheng, the Peiligang Site is a settlement site dating 8000 years back. Discovered by villagers of Peiligang Village in 1958, the site underwent four excavations 1977–1979 organized by Kaifeng Administration of Cultural Heritage, Administration of Cultural Heritage of Xinzheng County, Archaeology Dept. of School of History of Zhengzhou University, and the Institute of Archaeology CASS. The area of exposure totaled 2700 m2. Archaeologists excavated 144 tombs, one pottery kiln and 22 ash pits, and unearthed over 400 pieces of cultural relics. Identified with these unique-style pieces, the site has been known as the Peiligang culture. This discovery filled in the blank in history of the early Neolithic Age prior to the Yangshao culture, thus is of great significance to the study of prehistoric civilization in China

Stone grinding disc and rod unearthed at Peiligang Site

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The protective cover over the Dahecun Site

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J Ruins of the foundation of a pole-framework mud-wall house, the Dahecun Site. Located in the

northeaster suburb of Zhengzhou, the Dahecun Site is an ancient settlement site of the Yangshao and Longshan cultures, with traces of the Erlitou culture and some ruins of the Shang Dynasty. In excavations, archaeologists have discovered quite a number of foundations, ash pits and tombs of different ages, and unearthed numerous tools and utensils. Building patterns of foundations vary greatly, with distinct features of times. The wall of F1 foundation measures as high as one meter. The foundation is an architectural structure of the late Yangshao culture of the Neolithic Age and has been the only one of the kind in existence in China now. The unearthed potteries include black-painted red pottery and white painted pottery. The designs depict astronomical symbols, such as sun, moon, constellations and halo. The Dahecun culture lasted as long as 3300 years or so. Phase IV of the Dahecun culture has been known to archaeologists as the Dahecun type. The discovery and excavation of the Dahecun Site provides object information and solid stratigraphic evidence to the study of how primitive clan society developed into a slavery one. It also facilitates the study of relations between primitive cultures in the Central Plains, along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and in the Yangtze River Basin. It was a witness to the integration of different ethnic nationalities in the ancient China

Painted pottery double-bodied pot unearthed from the Dahecun Site

The legendary Yellow Emperor has been recognized as the Ancestor of the Chinese nation. The Chinese people have been known as the descendants of the Yellow Emperor or the descendants of the Yan and Yellow Emperors. As the legend goes, the Yellow Emperor was born in the hill of Xuanyuan (thus known as Xuanyuan by name) and had his hereditary principality at Youxiong. According to research, Xinzheng in Mount Songshan area was the place the ancient Youxiong clan dwelled. As early as in the Han Dynasty, a memorial site of the Yellow Emperor Xuanyuan’s hometown, which all through history experienced destroys and renovations. It was under grand-scale reconstruction and renovation in the Ming and Qing dynasties and took the shape as it looks today. The place has been a sacred place for all the Chinese around the globe. Mount Songshan has historically been recognized as the Yellow Emperor’s hometown.

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Temple of the Yellow Emperor, Xinzheng

A grand ceremony for ancestor worshipping in the Temple of the Yellow Emperor

Written documents about the Yellow Emperor are largely vague in description. The legendary figure is more of an icon. However, in ancient China, Mount Songshan area was indeed the origin of ancient civilization and states in China. History was indeed like this. Since the 1970s, archaeologists have discovered a

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couple of sites of the Longshan culture (that is widely found in China and the sites of which in Henan Province dated roughly 2600B.C.–2000B.C.) in Guchengzhai of Xinmi, Wangchenggang of Dengfeng and Xinzhai of Xinmi. Archaeologically, the Longshan culture in Henan Province has been separated from the stage of ancient man and seen as something of state civilization. Generally, it is thought to be the origin of the Xia culture. The Xishan ancient town is 5300 years old, the Guchengzhai Site in Xinmi 4100 years old, and the Wangchenggang Site in Dengfeng 4100 years old. The highly developed prehistoric culture and the unique situation for cultural exchange led to the birth of the oldest state civilization in China.

Painted pottery jar unearthed from the Xishan Site

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The Xishan Site. Located on the secondary tableland on the northern bank of the Ku River in Guxing Town, Huiji District, Zhengzhou, the Xishan Site is a rammed earth city site roughly round in plan, of the late Yangshao culture. The area of the existing site measures 17,000 m2. Surrounded by a ditch, the site has in it ruins of roads, foundations, pits and tombs. The cultural deposits in the Xishan Site are divided into three phases. The cultural survival of the first phase is roughly equal to Phase I of the Hougang culture. The second phase sees the richest cultural relics and is of the Miaodigou type of the Yangshao culture. The third phase belongs to the Qinwangzhai type of the Yangshao culture. The Xishan Ancient City was first built in the early years of the period and abandoned in the late years of the period. It dated 4800–5300 years back. The city wall was built with plank- framework rammed earth. This technique laid a foundation for later-day civil engineering of city walls and platform architecture. The Xishan Ancient City has been a city site of earlier times discovered north to the Yangtze River and an important source of urban civilization in China

Foundation ruins in the Xishan Site

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A full view of Guchengzhai Site

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Ruins of rammed earth foundation of corridor, Guchengzhai Site. Located in Guchengzhai Village, Dafanzhuang, Quliang Township, Xinmi, the Guchengzhai Site is a city site of the Longshan culture in the Neolithic Age. Occupying an area of 170,000 m2, the site has today city walls in the east, south and north and gate recesses in the south and north. The city walls on the ground measures 1265 m long in total, 9.4–40 m wide at the bottom, and 5–16 m in height. The pole-framework mud wall is encircled with a deep ditch. Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology made explorations and excavations of the site between 1997 and 2003. In areas of excavation, archaeologists excavated 163 ash pits of the Yangshao, Longshan, Erlitou and Erligang cultures and of the Shang, Han and Northern Song dynasties, as well as 11 tombs, four pottery kilns and four foundations. The large-scale architectural structure is similar to a colonnade one. The unearthed objects include pottery li tripods and jars. The Guchengzhai Site has been the best-preserved on-the-ground city site of the Longshan culture in China. It has provided precious evidence to the study of the Xia culture, origin of the Chinese civilization and formation of state

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Ruins of foundation, Xinzhai Site. Located in Xinzhai Village, Liuzhai Town, Xinmi, the Xinzhai Site is a site of the Longshan culture of Henan, Xinzhai period and early Erlitou culture. About one million square meters in area, the site features a triple-layer defense system consisting of outer, city and inner moats. In the center there are large-sized dentpit architectural structures. Roughly square shaped in plan, the Xinzhai Site has the Weishui River to its south as a natural barrier. The city walls in the east, north and west and the city moat underneath have survived. The discovery of the Xinzhai Site has filled in the gap between the late Longshan culture and early Erlitou culture. It thus plays a significant role in studying the early Xia culture, dating the Guchengzhai and Erlitou sites, and locating the origin of the ancient Chinese civilization

Zun-shaped pottery jar and pig head-shaped pottery lid unearthed from the Xinzhai Site

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Sima Qian clearly stated Mount Songshan as the Central Mountain in his Records of the Grand Historian

Rulers of the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties in antiquity established their capitals near Mount Songshan, as is put in Sima Qian’s Records of the Grand Historian, “The Xia, Shang and Zhou courts lived in the Heluo area. Mount Songshan has thus been considered as the Central Mountain.”4 Both the Wangchenggang Site in Dengfeng and the Erlitou Site in Yanshi witnessed the emergence of the Xia Dynasty, the first “state” in China.

4

Shiji: Fengshanshu (Records of the Grand Historian: Treatise on Sacrifices) authored by Sima Qian of the Han Dynasty.

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The Wangchenggang Site in Dengfeng. Located on the hill commonly known as Wangchenggang, in the northeast of Bafang Village, Gaocheng Town, Dengfeng, the Wangchenggang Site is mainly of cultural survival of the middle and late Longshan culture, with cultural relics of the Peiligang and Erlitou cultures and of the Shang and Zhou dynasties. Administrations of cultural relics and archaeology in Henan Province made archaeological excavations on the site 1975–1982, discovering two small fortresses side by side in the east and west, large-size foundations, sacrificial pits, pits and ash pits of the late Longshan culture and excavating numerous pottery, stone, bone and bronze tools and utensils. In the state- level Project of Comprehensive Investigation into the Origin of the Chinese Civilization 2000–2005, large-scale surveys and excavations were conducted on the site. A large city site of the late Longshan culture was discovered west to the two small fortresses. Encircled by rammed earth wall and a moat, the city site occupies an area of 348,000 m2. The site is divided into two phases, namely early and later stages. Ruins of the early stage consist of smaller city sites and sacrificial pits. Those of the later stage include the larger city site (city wall and moat) and sacrificial pits. Interdisciplinary researches have confirmed the Wangchenggang Site as the early Xia capital described as “Yangcheng the capital of Yu the Great” in historical documents. The site dates back to 2070B.C. The discovery of the Wangchenggang Site is of the historic and scientific values in studying the origin of the Xia culture and Chinese civilization

Pit of human sacrifice in the Wangchenggang Site

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Yu the Great, who was the founder of the Xia Dynasty, had all sorts of ties with Mount Songshan. It is said that he controlled the waters in the Mount Songshan area, which boasts unrivalled cultural relics concerning Yu the Great. The Three Han Que Gates erected in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the que gates of the Sacred Way to the Temple of God of Mount Songshan. On the gates there are rich inscriptions telling about and praising Yu the Great and his wife. One also finds on the gates the image of the Tribe Xia’s totem that is a halfhuman-halfturtle. Tribe Xia and Yu the Great indeed had close ties with Mount Songshan. It is more than a legend. Gaocheng Town in Dengfeng’s jurisdiction has been historically recognized as the site of Yangcheng, the capital of Yu the Great. The Shang City in Zhengzhou at the east foot of Mount Songshan was the site of Bodu, the capital of early Shang Dynasty. The Shang City in Yanshi at the north foot of Mount Songshan was also an important capital city of the early Shang. In the Western Zhou Dynasty, the Zhou people originally lived in the west and established their capital in Haojing (present-day Xi’an, Shaanxi Province). But they still established an “Eastern Capital” in Mount Songshan area, for the sake of ruling the Central Plains area. Upon the collapse of the Western Zhou rule, the Eastern Zhou rulers moved eastwards and established their capital in Mount Songshan area. Chengzhou in Luoyang and the Eastern Zhou royal city at the western foot of the mountain were respectively the eastern capital (Luoyi) of the Western Zhou Dynasty and the capital of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty.5

5

As for the natural conditions and ancient civilization in Mount Songshan, refer to Administration of Mount Songshan Scenic Spot of Henan Province. (ed.) Annals of Mount Songshan, Vol. 2 and Vol. 4. Zhengzhou: Henan People’ s Publishing House, 2007.

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Map of the Yangcheng and Wangchenggang Sites. Located on the flat upland in the northeast of Gaocheng Town, Dengfeng, Yangcheng was a town of military significance in the west of State Zheng in the Spring and Autumn Period and of State Han in the Warring States Period. Sitting against the hill and by the river, the site is higher in the north and lower in the south. Rectangular shaped in plan, the site measures 2000 m from the south to the north and 700 m from the east to the west. The area totals 1,400,000 m2. The city wall is built with rammed earth and paved with a pebble layer at the bottom in some places. The rammed earth measures 6–9 cm thick, with round-shaped traces of ramming. North to the center in the city, there is the ruin of a large-size architectural structure. On the surface of the foundation there are paving tiles in patch, upon which there are piles of bricks, roof tiles and pottery fragments. There are water reservoirs, thrift locks and drainage pipes, indicating an advanced water supply facilities and system in the urban construction back then. Archaeologists also unearthed from the site fragmented ironware, bronze arrowheads and pottery li tripods, pots, basins, jugs, bowls, dou vessels and jars. On some potteries there are inscriptions such as “Yangchengcangqi” (“ware of warehouse of Yangcheng”) and “Yangcheng” and other symbols, indicating that the city site was Yangcheng during the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period. The discovery of the site is of great value in studying the layout of cities, construction of rammed earth city walls and urban water supply facilities during the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period

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Potteries with inscriptions “Yangchengcangqi” (“ware of warehouse of Yangcheng”) and “Yangcheng” unearthed from the Yangcheng Site

The Shang City in Zhengzhou

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Proto-porcelain zun vessel and Duling Square Ding No.1 unearthed from the Shang City in Zhengzhou. Located in Guancheng Hui District, Zhengzhou, the Shang City is the ruins of the early-day capital of the Shang Dynasty. Occupying an area of 25 km2 or so, the site consists of the ruins of city wall, palaces and dwelling settlements, tombs, workshop ruins and cellar pits. Archaeologists unearthed there a huge number of stone, pottery, bronze, jade and bone tools and utensils. The ruins of 7 km city wall and widespread palaces are best preserved and of the highest historical and cultural values. The Shang City in Zhengzhou features a triple-layer design and palace zone and has been the blueprint of later day urban layout in China. It adopted the first urban water supply system in Chinese history. Numerous ritual bronzes for the royal use have been unearthed from the three cellar pits, academically facilitating the study of the ending year of the Shang City, sacrificial ritual of the Shang court, and casting technique and decorative art of large bronzes. The discovery of the site plays a significant role in studying the early Shang history, Shang culture, early-day bronze civilization of China, and formation and development of cities in ancient China

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JThe Shang City in Yanshi. The Shang City in Yangshi is a city site of the Erligang culture of the

early Shang Dynasty and occupies an area of 2 km2 or so. Located between present-day Dahuaishu Village and Tazhuang Village, Chengguan Town, Yanshi, Luoyang, the site sits against Mount Mangshan in the north and faces the Luo River in the south. It is 10 km to the east of the ancient site of Luoyang of State Wei and about 6 km to the northeast of the Erlitou Site. Since 1983 when the Shang City was first discovered, archaeologists have made more than 20 archaeological excavations here and had a clear idea of the layout. The entire site is of a triple-layer layout, namely palace city, smaller cities and larger city. Slightly rectangular in plan, the site measures over 1700 m long from the south to the north, and 1215 m wide in the north, about 1120 m wide in the middle part and 740 m wide in the south. The site occupies an area of 1,900,000 m2 or so. The southern part of rammed earth city wall was washed off by the Luo River. The remnant part of the western city wall measures 1710 m. The northern city wall is 1240 m long. The remnant part of the eastern city wall measures 1640 m. Seven city gates have been discovered, one in the north, three in the east and the other three in the west. In the city site there are a number of crisscrossing arterial roads and stone-paved drainage channels. Five main roads run from the east to the west and six from the south to the north. Each is 6–10 m wide. Some roads start from and end at city gates. There are three smaller cities in the southern half of the site. The square-shaped palace city sits in the middle. Inside the site of the palace city, there are groups of foundations of large-size palaces. The other two smaller cities are located to the northeast and southwest of the palace city, both in the rectangular plan. Inside these two cities, there are rows of architectural structures that may be armories, granaries or fortresses. A large number of cultural relics have been unearthed from the site, including potteries, bronzes, jadeware, stoneware, bone objects, clamshell articles and proto-porcelain articles. Such precious object information well helps the restoration of early history of China

The Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties marked a crucial period in which the Chinese nation came into being, a historic process that took place at the foot of Mount Songshan and was extraordinarily admired by ancient Chinese people. It made the region the centre of Chinese civilization and embedded it as “the centre of Earth” in the national cultural consciousness. “The Center of Heaven and Earth” saw its reflection in real life logically in the area. Emperors in ancient China usually held sacrificial ceremonies to Heaven and Earth and established capital cities in places supposed to be nearest to heaven, to justify their “divine right of kings”. In the age of cold weapons, anyone who in the control of “the Center of Heaven and Earth” stood as the world’s center and ruler and his regime the orthodox rule, so that remote places were all dependent territories. In the early Western Zhou Dynasty, the Zhou court established its capital in Haojing. But King Wu of Zhou found the location too remote a place to rule over the entire territory of Zhou and tended to find somewhere in the center to build an Eastern Capital. Zhouli: Diguan Situ (Rites of Zhou: Offices of Earth), in Yangcheng at the foot of Mount Songshan, record that Duke Zhougong used a sundial to seek the centre of Earth as the location of the eastern capital. The center of Earth was found to be in Dengfeng in Mount Songshan area.

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The sunrise in Mount Songshan

Historically, Yangcheng was the longest-recognized “center of Earth” astronomically, scientifically, technologically, politically, culturally and religiously. There is solid evidence to it in huge amount of historical documents from the Western Zhou to the Qing Dynasty. Thus, Mount Songshan area has for thousands of years in Chinese history seen as “the Central Plains”, from which emerged “the Central Kingdom”. Duke Zhougong enjoyed a reputation in Chinese history no secondary to Confucius. “The center of Earth” located by Duke Zhougong has been recognized in China. Accordingly, Mount Songshan area has been widely accepted as the sacred “Center of Heaven and Earth”. Since the day when the term Five Sacred Mountains came into being, specific mountains have changed all through the years, except that Mount Songshan remains the Central Mountain. Mount Songshan as “the Center of Heaven and Earth” is the origin of the Chinese civilization, not only because the cultures discovered there were the earliest ones on the land of China, but also culturally, Mount Songshan crystallizes the essence of the Chinese culture and stands as the core of concentric circles of Chinese civilization. Mount Songshan can be seen as a microform of “the Central Kingdom”. In a broader view, Mount Songshan is the center and source of “Greater China” or “Chinese culture circle”. Mount Songshan witnessed the earliest sacrifices on mountains in the Chinese history and was the first mountain that saw systematic sacrifices to sacred mountain.

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Emperors or important court officials paid frequent visits or offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan in high profile. The grandest and most prestigious of sacrifices offered to heaven and earth began here in Mount Songshan. The Three Han Que Gates and the Zhongyue Temple are the best models of ancient sacrificial structures. The sacrifice system and practice were followed nationwide and continued to be in use till the late years of feudal China. Accordingly, Mount Songshan and its surrounding areas was the core zone emperors in ancient China attached great significance to. From the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties onwards, present-day Zhengzhou, Luoyang and Kaifeng were traditionally capital cities in ancient China and enjoyed a unique reputation among ancient capital cities in China, closely related to the concept of “the Center of Heaven and Earth”. The area was truly a major political center in ancient China. Government orders were made and given out to surrounding areas from here. The central regime had its power extend to remote areas. Large in territory, China became a united nation. Ancient Chinese thoughts came together to Mount Songshan, bearing in mind the ultimate Chinese philosophy of “the Center of Heaven and Earth”. Mount Songshan is a sacred mountain of culture true to sense. The three dominant thoughts in ancient China, namely Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, saw Mount Songshan as the sacred place, which played a decisive role in the development of the three thoughts in China. The Fawang Temple witnessed the beginning of Buddhism in China. The Chan Buddhism established in the Shaolin Temple opened a new and bright way of development for Buddhism in China. Taoism was created in Mount Songshan. A Taoist named Kou Qianzhi founded here the époque-making Xintianshi Dao sect, thanks to which Taoism got glorified. Confucianism as the orthodox thought of the country was in a crisis during the Tang and Song Dynasties. Confucian scholars then created the academy of classical learning, a new form of education, in Mount Songshan. The theories of lixue, the Confucian school of idealist philosophy, were developed here, and Confucianism saw a new chapter. It is never coincident that all those milestone events took place in Mount Songshan. The mountain enjoyed such a culture-enriched history right because of its reputation as “the Center of Heaven and Earth”. The historic monuments at Mount Songshan, great in variety and large in number, have witnessed to all the vicissitudes in history. The historic monuments, constructed in the Eastern Han, the Northern Wei, Tang, the Five Dynasties, Song, Jin, Yuan, Ming, Qing Dynasties and the Republic of China Period, spanning a period of nearly 2000 years, surpass any other group of Chinese historic buildings in their variety, the span of the time of their construction, and their historical and cultural abundance. It is a rare case that so large a group of historic monuments constructed over a span of thousands of years with the same and one cultural mentality of “the Center of Heaven and Earth”. The historic monuments at Mount Songshan were constructed over a span of thousands of years with the same and one cultural mentality of “the Center of Heaven and Earth”. They have been representative and demonstrative architectural structures of the kind. Witnessing the beginning of events in relation to them, the historic monuments at Mount Songshan have been known for their high-quality construction and profound influence.

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There are a number of “firsts” in history and China. The Three Han Que Gates at Mount Songshan are the only and earliest stone que gates to the sacred ways in existence today in China and bear tangible witness to sacrificial structures on mountains in China. The Songyue Temple Pagoda is the earliest Buddhist pagoda in China. The Observatory is among the world’s oldest and largest buildings specifically designed for astronomical observation. The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple is the oldest group of pagodas with the largest number of buildings still surviving today.

The Songyue Temple Pagoda is the earliest Buddhist pagoda in China

The architectural complexes are masterpieces of ritual (the Three Han Que Gates and the Zhongyue Temple), religious (the Songyue Temple Pagoda, the Shaolin Temple and the Huishan Temple), scientific/technological (the Observatory), and educational (the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning) buildings. As the earliest and finest examples of different architectural structures, they are the best models and specimens of architectural design and construction of different types and have profoundly influenced architectural types in mainland China. In particular, with the dissemination of Buddhism and rites of sacrifice in China and Asia, the sacrificial and Buddhist buildings at Mount Songshan have influenced not only the rules and the system of ritual and religious buildings in these regions, but also the cultural traditions.6

6

Zhengzhou Municipal World Heritage Application Committee of Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan (ed.) (2008). Historic Monuments at Mount Songshan. Beijing: Science Press.

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The historic monuments at Mount Songshan are of even profounder influence in cultural dimension. They bear witness to the ancient rites of sacrifice to heaven and earth, to the significance of sun-shadow measuring and astronomical observation, to the development of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism in China. These unique historical and cultural impressions have been deeply rooted in the Chinese cultural mentality. Around Mount Songshan area there are concentric cultural circles which have laid a foundation for diversified Chinese culture. In the meantime, Mount Songshan as the core has linked all parts of “the Central Kingdom” into a whole, with the strong centripetal force and cohesive affinity. That’s the root of the pursuit of “harmony” and “unity” in China’s history. The cultural circle around Mount Songshan can be seen as the engine and incubator of the Chinese culture. Mount Songshan is worthy of the glorious yet historically-significant name. “The Center of Heaven and Earth” has been historically an all-encompassing concept at the core of the cultural mentality and lifestyle of the Chinese people. A revisit of the historic monuments at Mount Songshan and their cultural significance may open a new window through which people have a new understanding of traditional Chinese culture and history.

2 Mount Songshan: The Center of Heaven and Earth

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Qimu Que Gotes

Chapter 3

The Nation’s Grand Events: The Three Han Que Gates, The Zhongyue Temple and Sacrifices on Mountains

Sacrificial ceremonies and military rituals are the nation’s grand events.1 Sacrifices on mountains occupied a supreme position among sacrifices in ancient China and well demonstrated the core of traditional Chinese culture. The primitive worship of mountains was developed into a sacrificial system on mountains in the Han Dynasty, with the Five Sacred Mountains at the core. Mount Songshan or the Central Sacred Mountain was the earliest witness to this transformation. The Three Han Que Gates and the Zhongyue Temple provide tangible evidence in this respect. And what legends and stories are there about the Three Han Que Gates? What are the changes in the ceremonial system in ancient China the Zhongyue Temple bear witness to? Why is Mount Songshan respected as the Central Sacred Mountain in China?

The Three Han Que Gates: The Earliest Tangible Evidence to Sacrifices on Mountains Human civilizations in remote antiquity often held primitive animism. Ancient Chinese civilization was no exception: Mountains, rivers, plants, birds and beasts were all considered to be deities. Mountains, thanks to their grand size, naturally became the most important object of man’s primitive worship and sacrificial ceremonies. God of Mountain may be the earliest “deity” in ancient China.

1

Zuozhuan: Chenggong Sanshinian (The Commentary of Zuo: The 13th Year of Duke Cheng of Lu). © Shanghai Far East Publisher 2021 W. Ren and Y. He, Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9077-1_3

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Mount Songshan cradled the Chinese civilization and was the origin of the primitive mountain worship in China. “Song” in term Mount Songshan means being tall and lofty. The mountain is a great one with visual impacts in the Central Plains. According to the chapter on the Central Sacred Mountain in Shanhaijing (Shan Hai Jing), “Taishi and Shaoshi are both graves, and sacrifices to Heaven and jade are offered to them.”2 Mount Songshan was already in early years respected as the venue for the supreme sacrificial ceremonies. It is said that Yellow Emperor, the cultural ancestor of the Chinese, frequently “met the gods” at Mount Songshan. In ancient times, the monarch’s power was believed to be conferred by heaven. Since Mount Songshan was seen as the place where “the ancestor of ten thousand mountains” and immortals lived, it was used by rulers to offer sacrifices to heaven and earth, for communion with gods, and for praying for the stability and prosperity of their country. Emperors Yao, Shun and Yu all visited the mountain. By no later than the early Western Zhou Dynasty, sacrifices had begun to be offered to the mountain. According to the inscription on a bronze made at that time, King Wu of Zhou, after conquering the Shang Dynasty, offered sacrifices to heaven and earth on Tianshi (Mount Taishi),3 which is when the grandest and most prestigious of sacrifices of this kind began in China. Despite the long history of sacrifices on mountains of China, few ruins have survived today. The Three Han Que Gates at Mount Songshan are the earliest tangible evidence to sacrifices on mountains in China. “Que” in ancient Chinese language means “gap”. As an architectural structure, a que gate looks like a memorial archway, “with a way running between.”4 A que gate consists of two separate que, without a crossbeam, and stands as the symbolic gate to a palace, temple and mausoleum. All the Three Han Que Gates were built during the Eastern Han Dynasty and flank the sacred paths in front of shrines to gods of mountains at Mount Songshan.

2

Shanhaijing: Zhongshanjing (Shan Hai Jing: the Central Sacred Mountain). The bronze gui vessel (tianwanggui) unearthed in the Meixian County, Shanxi Province, during the Daoguang era of the Qing Dynasty. 4 As is put by Liu Xi’s annotation to the Book of Han, “Que stands on both sides of a gate, with a way running between”. 3

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A panoramic view of the Taishi Que Gates

Eastern and western que of the Taishi Que Gates

In the historic monuments at Mount Songshan, the Zhongyue Temple at the southern foot of the Eastern Mount Taishi has long been a Taoist venue. In ancient

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China, however, it was the center of the sacrificial ceremonies at Mount Songshan for a long time. The predecessor of the Zhongyue Temple was the Taishi Shrine, where sacrifices were made to the God of Mount. The Taishi Shrine was said to be initially built in the Qin Dynasty. According to the written documents, the shrine had been in existence no later than the era of Emperor Wu of the Western Han Dynasty. The emperor attached special significance to the Taishi Shrine. The story was told in the Book of Han authored by Ban Gu. In the first year of the Yuanfeng era (110 B.C.), Emperor Wu of Han made sacrifices to Mount Hua and was still in a mood to enjoy his journey. Dongfang Shuo made suggestion at the opportunity, saying that Mount Songshan as the Central Sacred Mountain was the highest mountain. He suggested that the emperor made sacrifices to Mount Songshan. Emperor Wu of Han gave his consent and happily went to Mount Songshan from Mount Hua. Something miraculous took place when the emperor paid his visit to Mount Songshan. The emperor and his servants heard several shouts “Long Live the Emperor”. Such a miracle was naturally seen as a grand auspicious omen. Emperor Wu of Han issued an imperial edict, “I made sacrifices on Mount Hua and went the Central Sacred Mountain. At Mount Songshan, I came across a roe deer and paid a visit to the Qimu Stone. On the next day, when my court officials and servants accompanied me on ascending the mountain, we all heard three shouts ‘Long Live the Emperor’. Deities never failed to reply when proper sacrifices were made. I had the Taishi Shrine expanded. Felling trees was forbidden. The three households living at the mountain foot were put into the jurisdiction of Chonggao County. The county magistrate was in charge of the affairs of the Taishi Shrine and had his office inside the Shrine.” The government first set up the organization and official to administer the sacrificial events held in the Taishi Shrine and from then on, the sacrifices to the God of Mount Taishi were made to institutionalized rules.5 The Taishi Que Gates is situated on the central axis 600 m from the Zhongyue Temple. They were originally a pair of structures flanking the sacred pathway leading up to the Taishi Shrine, the precursor of the Zhongyue Temple. These south-facing structures were first built in the fifth year of Yuanchu in the reign of Emperor An of the Han Dynasty (118 C.E.),6 standing approximately seven meters apart and about four meters high. There are on the structures inscription and images in relief. There is no inscription on the eastern structure. On the western structure there are nine seal characters in three lines. Only six characters “zhong yue tai shi yang cheng” (Yangcheng, present-day Gaocheng Town in Dengfeng, is said to be the capital city of Yu the Great) of the inscription are legible. The texts inscribed beneath the nine

5

See Hanshu: Wudi Benji (Book of Han: Annals of Emperor Wu). Lu Chang, the magistrate of Yangcheng built the structure upon the imperial order and recorded the event in Songshan Taishi Shique Ming (Inscription on the Taishi Que Gates at Mount Songshan).

6

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characters contain a eulogy to the magic power of the God of Zhongyue (“Central Sacred Mountain”) and recount why the magistrate of Yangcheng built the structure. The characters are in seal and official scripts, indicating a transition in Chinese characters in the Han Dynasty. The images in relief on the Taishi Que Gates reflect the social customs and beliefs of the Han Dynasty and include the portrait of Gun (creatures that are a cross between human and turtle, the totem of the Xia tribe), winged man (a winged man, reflecting the wish to become immortals in the Qin and Han dynasties), evil-repelling cypress (reflecting the Han custom of using cypresses to ward off evil spirits), and four spirits (these images of black dragon, white tiger, scarlet bird and tortoise encircled by a serpent deriving from primitive animism and totem worship were highly esteemed in the Han Dynasty).

Stone carvings in relief on the Taishi Que Gates

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The Taishi Que Gates are the oldest temple side structures to be found in China. They provide important evidence of the ancient practice of offering sacrifices on mountains, and are notable as a typical example of ancient sacrificial architecture. The Shaoshi Que Gates at the foot of Mount Shaoshi and facing Mount Taishi, was built in the second year of Yanguang (123 C.E.) in the reign of Han Emperor An, slightly later than the Taishi Que Gates. The pair of side structures flanks the sacred pathway in front of the temple of Mount Shaoshi, which has been demolished. The Shaoshi Que Gates is structurally and materially largely the same as the Taishi Que Gates. The carvings on the structures are distinct in illustrating various scenes, such as circus show, hunting, cuju game, animal fight and taming elephants, depicting the social life of the Han Dynasty. These typical ancient Chinese sacrificial ritual structures provide important material proof of the offering of sacrifices to the God of Mount Shaoshi in ancient times.

The Three Han Que Gates: The Earliest Tangible …

The eastern and western structures of the Shaoshi Que Gates

Image of cuju game on the Shaoshi Que Gates

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Image of taming elephants on the Shaoshi Que Gates

Image of hunting on the Shaoshi Que Gates

The Qimu Que Gates is the pair of side structures flanking the sacred path before the Qimu Temple. It may have no relation to the gods of Mount Taishi and Mount Shaoshi. But the structures are closely related to the well-known legend that Yu the Great controlled the waters. People living in the Central Plains in remote antiquity suffered from devastating floods. The Xia Tribe to which Gun and his son Yu belonged was local to Yangcheng at Mount Songshan (present-day Gaocheng Town in Dengfeng). King Shun entrusted Gun, the chieftain of the Xia Tribe who was familiar with the local conditions with controlling the floods. Gun had many dams built along the riverbanks. But the method was ineffective. Failed dams led to even more severe loss. Gun was put to death due to his failure. Gun’s son Yu followed his father’s footprint and continued to fight the floods. Instead of damming the waters, Yu tried to relieve the river water into fields and made remarkable success.7 Yu the Great devoted himself to controlling the waters. It was said that Yu the Great felt powerless when he tried to cut a watercourse in a mountain to channel out

7

Shiji: Xia Benji (Records of the Grand Historian: Annals of the Xia Dynasty).

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the river water. And he turned into a titanic black bear to cut the watercourse. In the 10-plus years when he fought the waters, Yu the Great passed by his house thrice. Through all those years, Yu never had a chance to have a look at his son Qi.8 In addition to Yu’s devotion and selflessness, the legend also illustrates Yu’s wife named Tushan Jiao as a great mother (to Qi), wife and woman. It is said that Tushan looked into the far from the hilltop, as her husband Yu worked outside for controlling the waters, and turned into a stone (or, Tushan was shocked at the scene of Yu’s turning into a titanic bear and turned into a stone).9 That was the legend of the origin of the Qimu Stone at Mount Songshan. The Qimu Que Gates is 190 m south to the Qimu Stone. The Qimu Temple was built to worship Yu’s wife Tushan. Actually, Mount Songshan is closely related to Tushan. Mount Songshan consists of Mount Taishi and Mount Shaoshi. Then why are the two mountains named so? “Shi” actually refers to “wife”. Taishi refers to Yu’s wedded wife Tushan Jiao. It is said that Tushan Jiao’s younger sister Tushan Yao also married Yu the Great, as Yu’s second wife, and was known as Shaoshi or Shaoyi. As the legend goes, after Tushan Jiao turned into the Qimu Stone, Qi was brought up by Tushan Yao. For this reason, Tushan Yao has been admired by later generations as well. In fact, the Shaoshi Temple is also called the Shaoyi Temple. It was built to worship the God of Mount Shaoshi and as a memorial hall for Tushan Yao. Both the Qimu Que Gates and the Shaoshi Que Gates were built in the second year of Yanguang (123 C.E.) in the reign of Han Emperor An. The two are similar in structure as well. The Qimu Que Gates is relatively well preserved among the Three Han Que Gates. The carvings on the Qimu Que Gates illustrate the social life of the Han Dynasty and depict historically significant legendary stories, such as Yu of Xia turning into a bear (the legend that Yu the Great turned into a bear), the mother of Qi turning into a stone (the legend that Tushan turned into the Qimu Stone), and Guo Ju burying his son (impoverished Guo Ju of the Han Dynasty buried his son alive to save provisions for his mother. Heaven was deeply moved by Guo’s action and gave Guo money to provide his mother and son). The well preserved inscribed text on the Qimu Que Gates is mainly a eulogy of Yu’s feat of curbing the flood and his great selflessness.

Mengzi: Tengwengong Shang (Mencius: Duke Wen of Teng, Part I), “Yu relieved the water in nine rivers … He worked away from his home for eight years and passed by his house trice”. 9 The legends of Yu’s turning into a bear and of the Qimu Stone are found in Hanshu: Wudi Benji (Book of Han: Annals of Emperor Wu) annotated by Yan Shigu. The stories were originally found in Huainanzi, “Yu fought the floods and tried to cut Mount Xuanyuan. At the time, he turned into a bear and said to his wife Tushan, ‘When I want to have a meal, I’ll beat the drum. And you come to me upon hearing the drum.’ Yu fell on the drum when he jumped off the rock. Upon hearing the drum, Tushan went to Yu. And she happened to see Yu turn into a bear. She fled away in a great shock. Tushan ran to the foot of Mount Songshan and turned into a rock. She was to give birth to Qi. Yu said, ‘Give my son back!’ The rock burst and Qi was out into the world”. 8

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Yu of Xia turning into a bear

Jade rabbit pounding medicine

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The Three Han Que Gates: The Earliest Tangible …

Inscription on Qimu Que Gates

Guo Ju burying his son

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The eastern and western structures of the Qimu Que Gates

Sacrifices on mountains in remote ancient times have had a profound influence on the Chinese ritual culture. The earliest tangible evidence to China’s sacrifices on mountains, the Three Han Que Gates are an irreplaceable window through which people today look back at the ancient rites.

From the Taishi Shrine to the Zhongyue Temple: Sacrifices on the Central Sacred Mountain Mount Songshan is the Central Sacred Mountain of the Five Sacred Mountains that are the most important ones in Chinese culture. Sacrifices and worship events on the Five Sacred Mountains have crystallized the ethos and rule of the country. The Five Sacred Mountains were indeed the earliest venues where ancient dwellers of the Central Plains conducted worship activities on mountains. However, the system of the Five Sacred Mountains didn’t take shape when sacrifices were first made to mountains. In the early days of sacrifices on mountains, mountains were not put into various grades. There were no fixed rules for how to make sacrifices on which mountains, let alone any established systems.

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As culture and education kept progressing and autocratic imperial rule had an ever- stronger control over primitive beliefs, people followed established ritual rules for worship of mountains. Primitive worship of mountains turned into worship of sacred mountains. And the system of the Five Sacred Mountains was set up. Sacrifices on mountains from then on were one of the most important national sacrifices. The term “the Five Mountains” was first seen in Zhouli (Rites of Zhou),10 though only a generalized term. The number “five” in this term referred to a large number. “The Five Mountains” back then referred to well-known mountains in the country. The term was first given a particular meaning roughly during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han. Sacrifices on mountains were standardized, as the Han court admired and energetically supported Confucian thoughts. Confucianism was the sole dominant ideology during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han. Priority in rank advocated by Confucianism was integrated with worship of mountains, and gods of mountains were put into different ranks. In this way, the most-worshipped five mountains in the Central Plains stately become the sacred mountains recognized on the state level. The Five Sacred Mountains, namely the Central Sacred Mountain (Mount Songshan), the Eastern Sacred Mountain (Mount Tai), the Western Sacred Mountain (Mount Hua), the Southern Sacred Mountain (Mount Heng in Hunan), and the Northern Sacred Mountain (Mount Heng in Shanxi).11 Emperor Xuan of Han, who was a grandson of Emperor Wu’s, had the specific rules drawn out for sacrificial ceremonies held on the Five Sacred Mountains.12 The sacrificial system for sacrifices made to the Five Sacred Mountains has been established since the days when Emperor Wu of Han strengthened his control over the country. As the origin of the primitive worship of mountains, Mount Songshan was the “herald” of the sacrificial system for sacred mountains of the Han Dynasty. Being next to the capital and regarded as “the centre of Earth”, Mount Songshan was the first of the famous mountains to evolve from being an object of primitive worship to that of sacred mountain worship. Many have been deeply impressed with the sacrificial ceremonies held on Mount Tai. But the sacrificial ritual actually started at Mount Songshan. Furthermore, even more emperors in history made sacrifices to Mount Songshan than to Mount Tai. From the Qin and Han dynasties onwards, emperors continuously offered sacrifices on the mountain. Statistics shows that 68 emperors are recorded as having visited or offered sacrifice to Mount Songshan.

Zhouli: Chunguan: Dazongbo (Rites of Zhou: Offices of Spring), “Blood sacrifice is offered to god of land, god of grain, five deities, and mountain gods”. 11 Shiji: Fengshanshu (Records of the Grand Historian: Treatise on Sacrifices). 12 Hanshu: Jiaosizhi (Book of Han: Treatise on Sacrifices), “Since then on, rules for sacrifices to the Five Sacred Mountains and the Yangtze River, Yellow River, Huai River and Ji River … Envoys were designated to be in charge”. 10

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Emperor Wu of Han’s miraculous experience on Mount Songshan in the first year of the Yuanfeng era has been repeatedly told. Empress Wu Zetian of the Tang Dynasty held an unprecedented sacrificial ceremony at Mount Songshan, elevating the mountain to an even higher status. Even before her ascending the throne, Wu Zetian had been particularly fond of Mount Songshan. She highly recommended that her husband Li Zhi or Emperor Gaozong of Tang hold a sacrificial ceremony at Mount Songshan the Central Sacred Mountain. However, Li Zhi was too ill to make this trip. Ascending the throne, Wu Zetian finally made her first trip to Mount Songshan in the first year of the Wansuidengfeng era (696). She had a magnificent sacrificial altar built on Mount Songshan (and would make seven other trips later to offer sacrifices to Mount Songshan). Wu thought that she “made a long-desired success by making sacrifices on the Central Sacred Mountain”, and changed the designation of her imperial reign into “Wansuidengfeng” that year. In the meantime, Songyang County was renamed Dengfeng County and Yangcheng County as Gaocheng County.13 Wu Zetian named Mount Songshan as the Divine Mountain and “married” the Zhongyue God (the God of the Central Sacred Mountain) a wife named Lingfei. The god was later elevated as Shenyue Tianzhong Huangdi (Emperor of the Sacred Mountain in the Center of Heaven) and Lingfei as Tianzhong Huanghou (Empress in the Center of Heaven). Qi, who was the founder of the Xia Dynasty, was also elevated as Emperor Qisheng. Qi’s mother Tushan Jiao was named as Empress Yujing. And her younger sister Tushan Yao was named as Madame Jinque. Thus, the Zhongyue God was the first among gods of the Five Sacred Mountains to win a title with “emperor”. Mount Songshan fast gained fame and was most respected.14

Wu Zetian had the designation of her imperial reign changed in the third month of the first year of Wansuidengfeng into Wansuitongtian. Thus, the first year of the Wansuidengfeng reign was the same year of the first year of the Wansuitongtian reign. Wu Zetian’s sacrificial ceremonies on Mount Songshan were recorded in Jiutangshu: Zetian Huanghou Benji (Book of Tang: Annals of Empress Wu Zetian) authored by Liu Xu of the Five Dynasties, and in Xintangshu: Zetian Huanghou Benji (New Book of Tang: Annals of Empress Wu Zetian) authored by Ouyang Xiu of the Song Dynasty. 14 Wu Zetian gave Mount Songshan various titles in the first year of the Zhengsheng era (695) before her first sacrificial ceremony on Mount Songshan in the first year of the Wansuidengfeng reign. See Jiutangshu: Liyizhisan (Book of Tang: Treatise on Rituals III). 13

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Collected on the Junji Peak at Mount Songshan and in the collection of Henan Museum. Wu Zetian lodged in the Sanyang Palace in Gaocheng County in her trip in the first year of the Jiushi era (700). She sent a Taoist priest named Hu Chao to send a letter to gods on the Junji Peak at Mount Songshan, to remove her sin and disperse evils. On the front of the gold slip there are 63 hollow characters, reading, “Wu Zhao the emperor of Great Zhou truly admires immortals and deities. She is now sending a gold slip at the gate to Mount Songshan with full respect, to sincerely ask all deities and immortals to help remove Wu Zhao’s sins. The gold slip is sent by Wu Zhao’s envoy Hu Chao with due respect, on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month of the first year of the Jiushi era.”

Wu Zetian’s gold slip

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The venue for making sacrifices to the God of Mount Songshan changed from the Taishi Shrine to the Zhongyue Temple, reflecting to some extent how primitive mountain worship changed into sacrifice to the Central Sacred Mountain. The Taishi Shrine was renamed as the Zhongyue Temple between the late Han Dynasty and the early Northern Wei Dynasty, during which period mountain worship was transformed into sacrifice to sacred mountains. God of Mount Taishi and God of Mount Shaoshi and other legendary figures were merged into the God of Zhongyue on the state level. The Taishi Shrine was expanded and renovated in a government-sponsored project during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the Taishi Que Gates was added in front of the shrine, flanking the sacred way leading to the building. Later, the Taishi Shrine was renamed as the Zhongyue Temple and experienced large-scale renovations and expansions in the Northern Wei, Tang, Song, Jin, Ming and Qing dynasties. Stele of Zhongyue Temple (zhongyue Songgao lingmiao) was erected in the Northern Wei Dynasty, with the inscription written by Emperor Xiaowen himself. When Wu Zetian held a sacrificial ceremony at Mount Songshan, she had statues of Tianzhong Huangdi (Emperor of the Sacred Mountain in the Center of Heaven) and Tianzhong Huanghou (Empress in the Center of Heaven) made and installed in the Zhongyue Temple. In addition, Wu “allocated 100,000 from the government treasury” to expand the Zhongyue Temple.15 In 963, Emperor Taizu of Song, born Zhao Kuangyin, had garment, hat, sword and shoes made for the God of Zhongyue. During the reign of Emperor Zhenzong of Song, a three-year renovation project was launched, after which there were structures making up over 800 bays. The god of the mountain was admired as Zhongtian Chongshengdi.16 In the reign of Emperor Qianlong of Qing, the exemplar ritual building ensemble got further improved. The largest historic architectural complex was thus built. The Zhongyue Temple is an example of ritual architecture from the Eastern Han to the Qing Dynasty. It is an encyclopedia of the ancient Chinese ritual building ensembles and unique to Mount Songshan, compared with the other four Sacred Mountains. China has long been known as “a state of ceremonies”. With the Confucian ideology, nature worship and ancestor worship were well integrated into a complete set of rites and norms, and accordingly produced ritual culture and architecture different from ordinary religious culture and architecture. Particularly in ancient China, ritual norms and events played a primary role in political and social life. “Sacrificial ceremonies and military rituals are the nation’s grand events.” A sacrificial ceremony was of the highest rank in ancient China. Thus, sacrificial structures were of the highest rank, the same as or even higher than palaces.

15

In the sixth year of the Xiantong era (865), Li Fangyu the magistrate of Dengfeng County authored Xiu Zhongyumiao Ji (A Record on Renovations of the Zhongyue Temple), in which he described, “I (Wu Zetian) allocated 100,000 from the government treasury for the renovation of the Zhongyue Temple”. 16 [Yuan Dynasty] Toqto’ a et al. Songshi: Lizhiwu (The History of Song: Records of Ritual V).

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A bird’s-eye view of the Zhongyue Temple

The Zhongyue Temple became the main Taoist venue at Mount Songshan after the Xintianshidao Sect had been created. It is still unwise to see the Zhongyue Temple as “a Taoist architectural ensemble”, as its architecture never changed. The Stele with Picture of Zhongyue Temple Rebuilt in the Cheng’an Period of the Jin Dynasty erected in the fifth year of the Cheng’an era (1200) has survived today. As shown in the map of the temple on the stele, the temple ensemble has the same layout as in the Jin Dynasty. That is, there are three complexes in the ensemble, with the axis to each of them. In addition, the four iron warehouse guardians cast in the first year of the Zhiping era of the Song Dynasty (1064) and many other relics of the Song and Jin dynasties have survived today. The Zhongyue Temple has always been a ritual ensemble of the highest rank. It has never been transformed into a Taoist architectural complex. The ensemble is the largest and most intact ritual ensemble among the architectural structures on the Five Sacred Mountains. The ensemble has a profound influence on the ritual and palace architecture after it in China, including the world-known Forbidden City.

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The Tianzhong Pavilion in the Zhongyue Temple

The Yaocan Pavilion in the Zhongyue Temple

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The Stele with Picture of Zhongyue Temple Rebuilt in the Cheng’an Period of the Jin Dynasty shows that the Zhongyue Temple ensemble is roughly the same as that in the Jin Dynasty in its layout, indicating that the temple has always been a ritual architectural ensemble in history

Four iron statues of the Song Dynasty in the Zhongyue Temple

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There are now in the Zhongyue Temple ensemble 39 architectural structures, making up some 400 bays and largely rebuilt in the Qing Dynasty. The south-facing structures are arranged in symmetry along the south-north axis. Along the central axis are eleven rows of structures, the main part of the temple. They include the Mingshan Diyi Archway, the Yaocan Pavilion, the Tianzhong Pavilion, the Peitian Zuozhen Archway, the Chongsheng Gate, the Huasan Gate, the Junji Gate, the Songgao Junji Archway, the Junji Palace, the Resting Hall and Imperial Library. Most of the structures straddling the central axis are high and magnificent, featuring glazed tiles, elegant carvings, and fabulous paintings. Overall, the temple is a neatly arranged architectural complex featuring clearly defined main and auxiliary structures.

Architectural structures in the Zhongyue Temple ensemble in symmetry along the south-north central axis

From the Taishi Shrine to the Zhongyue Temple: Sacrifices …

The Mingshan Diyi Archway in the Zhongyue Temple

The Peitian Zuozhen Archway in the Zhongyue Temple

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The Songgao Junji Archway in the Zhongyue Temple

The Junji Palace in the Zhongyue Temple

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The Junji Hall, alternatively known as the Main Hall of Zhongyue and the right centre of the temple, was initially built in the Song Dynasty and rebuilt in the Shunzhi era of the Qing Dynasty. Standing on a wide platform, it is nine bays wide and five bays deep. It is the largest building of wooden construction in existence in Henan Province. The main site for offering sacrifices to the God of Zhongyue, it has a double-eave hipped roof covered by yellow glazed tiles, the highest-ranking roof type in traditional Chinese architecture. The structure of the Junji Hall is the same as a main hall in the imperial palace complex, like the Hall of Supreme Harmony (Taihe dian) in the Forbidden City. The Zhongyue Temple ensemble features a layout of outer court in the front and inner court at the rear. There is a clear-cut distinction in form and structure between the primary and secondary buildings. The profound influence of Confucianism on the overall layout of ancient buildings can be keenly felt here. The sacrificial buildings of the Zhongyue Temple ensemble had an impact not only on their counterparts at the other four Sacred Mountains, but also on the size and layout of buildings used for the sacrifices made by central governments to river gods in ancient time.

Ancient cypresses in the Zhongyue Temple

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A central axis of the Zhongyue Temple ensemble clearly seen in the overall elevation drawing of the temple

A long-standing venue for Taoist activities at Mount Songshan, the Zhongyue Temple never lost its function in being a venue for offering sacrifices to the sacred mountain. And Taoism tried to integrate sacred mountain sacrifice system with its own system, and the God of Zhongyue became a Taosit deity. This was later adopted at the other four sacred mountains. Thus, the Five Sacred Mountains are known as the Mountains of Taoism.17 The organization and officials designated by the central government to be in charge of sacrificial ceremonies in the Zhongyue Temple got obsolete in the turbulent years of late Han Dynasty. During the Wei, Jin, Sui and Tang Dynasties, the temple became Taoism dominated. And the central governments seized the momentum, having Taoist priests be in charge of the routine work in sacrificial venues in the Zhongyue Temple and designating them with assistant work in the national sacrificial ceremonies.

17

The Five Sacred Mountains were integrated into Taoism in many Taoist classics and seen as blessed venues. Such Taoist classics include Wupian Zhenwen (Five Genuine Classics) and Wuyue Zhenxingtu (Illustrations of the Five Sacred Mountains) of the Wei and Jin dynasties.

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Sacrifices at Mount Songshan found the origin in the primitive beliefs of ancestors dwelling in the Central Plains and were later integrated with Confucian thoughts and rituals and further with Taoism, a religion local to China. The Zhongyue Temple bore witness to the convergence of various thoughts in China, with Confucian thoughts as the core. It has crystallized the essence of the Chinese culture that is open-minded and inclusive.

Chapter 4

The Observatory in the Center of Earth: The World of Astronomy in Ancient China

Located in Gaocheng Town at the southern foot of Mount Taishi at Mount Songshan, the Observatory has been extraordinarily significant in history.

Relative position of Gaocheng Town/the Observatory to Dengfeng and Mount Songshan shown in the topographic map of historic monuments at Mount Songshan

Gaocheng Town was originally called Yangcheng. Wu Zetian held a sacrificial ceremony at Mount Songshan and granted the mountain the title Zhongyue or the Central Mountain (Wu thus changed the designation of her imperial reign as Wansuidengfeng). Wu thought that she “accomplished a great task” (dagong gaocheng in Chinese), and changed the town’s name as “Gaocheng” accordingly. © Shanghai Far East Publisher 2021 W. Ren and Y. He, Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9077-1_4

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Different from most historically famous towns and cities, Gaocheng Town has received much attention as a special place, not because of its political or economic position in history. It has been well-known through the years, as it was thought to be the Center of Earth in ancient China. And that’s why Mount Songshan area has been known as the Center of Heaven and Earth. The Observatory ensemble is the best-known tourist site in Gaocheng Town and the solid evidence to the idea of the Center of Earth in ancient China. Why was Gaocheng thought to be the Center of Earth? What significance the Observatory has?

Culture Reflected in Astronomy As is put in Yi (Book of Changes): Have an observation of astronomical phenomena, to see changes in nature; have an observation of culture, to realize edification.1

Man has an ever-deeper understanding of the universe, as science and technology keep progress day by day. Astronomy has long been a pillar of natural sciences. However, the idea of “astronomy” was rather different in ancient times when science and technology were not that developed as today. “Astronomy” was something more of cultural connotation. “Heaven” was the supreme god in ancient China, who set rules for the entire world. The physical world followed the rules of Heaven. So did man. Thus, man must “show his respect for Heaven” and observed “the Way of Heaven”, to keep the world on the right track. To some extent, “astronomy” in ancient China was the science of humanity and played a much more important role in people’s life. All the political thoughts and social activities in ancient China originated from the understanding of the universe of ancient Chinese people. Seen in today, “astronomy” in ancient China was more like “astrology” or divination; that is, it was used to predict and explain events in real life, by way of observing astronomical phenomena and their changes. Ancient people even took such a prediction or explanation as the guide for what they would do. In quite a long time, astronomical phenomena were usually related to affairs of state and a complete set of divination system was in use. Astronomical phenomena were given different meanings, as auspicious or ill omens. Prominent as an emperor or high-ranking official would still have to make appropriate responses to astronomical phenomena. An emperor issued a self-criticizing edict, because of eclipse. A prime minister resigned or even committed suicide as an apology, if there was a boding of evil. “An observation of heaven” was required before the army went on campaign. It was not uncommon to defeat one’s political rivals by making use of astronomical phenomena. “Sky-reading” often played a role in military affairs and affairs of state in ancient China.

Zhouyi: Bigua (Book of Changes: Hexagram 22 Bi “Adorning”).

1

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Zhai Fangjin from Shangcai (present-day Zhumadian, Henan Province) was the prime minister to Emperor Cheng of the Western Han. He took the blame for the conjunction of Mars and antares, “an enormously evil” astronomical phenomenon, and killed himself as an apology. But according to Huang Yinong, a modern historian, the assumed conjunction of Mars and antares didn’t occur in reality. It was likely to be something fake for the political purpose. (Huang Yinong [2004] Shehui Tianwenxueshi Shijiang [Ten Lectures on Sociology and Astronomy]. Shanghai: Fudan University Press.)

In ancient China, astronomical activities were actually a privilege to certain groups. As is put in Shijing (Classic of Poetry), “The emperor had an astronomical observatory to observe astronomical phenomena… Marquises were lower in rank and prohibited from building an astronomical observatory or observing astronomical phenomena.”2 “Observing astronomical phenomena” was actually a symbol of the “Heaven-endowed” legitimate status the emperor or the Son of Heaven enjoyed. Thus, only the emperor himself or those who received official authorization from the emperor were allowed the right of “communicating with Heaven”. All through the Chinese history, central governments prohibited people from “privately conducting astronomical activities”. The ban hadn’t been slightly lifted until the Qing Dynasty. In addition, in an agricultural country like China, astronomy has had its practical significance in people’s daily life. And in ancient China, weather played an even more important role in agricultural activities. It might be the first priority for

2

Shijing: Daya: Lingtai (Classic of Poetry: Major Court Hymns: Astronomical Observatory).

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farmers to work in right farming seasons. The central governments all through the Chinese history thus had to draw out calendars as accurate as possible, which was crucial to people’s livelihood and the country’s stability. However, rather different from modern-sense astronomy, observations and interpretations of astronomical phenomena were entirely different from what we have today. And from that, we may have a look at ancient people’s understanding of the universe and their mindset. The Observatory ensemble in Gaocheng Town, Dengfeng is an astronomical observatory in ancient China, through which we may have a glimpse of the world of astronomy of ancient Chinese people.

Obsession With “The Center of Earth” in Ancient China Immediate inside the southern gate of the Observatory ensemble in Gaocheng Town, Dengfeng, there is Zhougong Sundial Platform, which is approximately four meters high and consists of a stone base and a stone pillar. The Sundial Platform, as is indicated by the name, was used to measure the shadow of the erected pole cast by the sun. What was the relation between Zhougong and Gaocheng? Why did he decide to measure the shadow cast by the sun in Gaocheng? What was the significance of the event? Inside the gate there is the screen wall built in the 13th year of the Qianlong era of the Qing Dynasty (1748). There is a granite plaque set in the wall bearing an inscription written by Shi Yizan, a Qing county magistrate. It provides material proof of Yangcheng having been regarded as “the Centre of Earth”.

The main gate to the observatory

Obsession With “The Center of Earth” in Ancient China

The Ji gate in the observatory

Zhougong Shrine

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People in ancient China, without a complete cognitive system of the universe, saw heaven and earth in a rather different way: They saw the earth as being flat. In their eyes, everything on the earth followed the rules of heaven; thus, the center of earth right corresponded to the center of heaven. Therefore, the Center of Earth was of extraordinary significance. The Center of Earth was in history closely related to Yangcheng, a legendary place in China. As is put in Mengzi: Shun presented Yu to Heaven. Seventeen years elapsed, and Shun died. When the three years’ mourning was expired, Yu withdrew from the son of Shun to Yang Cheng. The people of the kingdom followed him just as after the death of Yao, instead of following his son, they had followed Shun.3

It has been the earliest record on Yangcheng found so far. Yu didn’t pass over the throne to the worthiest. Instead, he passed it over to his son Qi, who established the Xia Dynasty. Yangcheng thus became the first “capital resided by the Son of Heaven” in ancient history of China. That was the legend about Yangcheng the capital of Yu. With the “Heaven-endowed” divinity, Yangcheng was recognized as the Center of Earth. After the Xia and Shang dynasties, the Zhou court ruled over China, by which time thousands of years had elapsed and the location of Yangcheng the capital of Yu had been unknown. Therefore, Zhougong (named Dan), who was son of King Wen and younger brother of King Wu and the best-known statesman and thinker in ancient China, began to “look for the Center of Earth”. The Zhou people originally came from west China and lived around Haojing (present-day Xi’an, Shaanxi Province) as their capital. After having overthrown the reign of King Zhou of Shang, the Zhou court remained in Haojing. This left hidden danger in Zhou’s rule. After the death of King Wu of Zhou, Wugeng, who was the son of King Zhou of Shang and still lived in the old capital of Shang, staged an armed rebellion. King Cheng of Zhou and Zhougong put down the rebellion with all their strength.4 King Cheng of Zhou realized that the Zhou court had to strengthen its rule over the Central Plains, to consolidate its rule over the entire country. Then, Zhougong as a government assistant decided to establish the Eastern Capital, to rule over the entire country. According to Zhougong, the Eastern Capital as a second capital of the Zhou court had to be established at the Center of Earth, i.e. the legendary Yangcheng the capital of Yu. And he had to locate the accurate site of Yangcheng. Zhougong tried to solve the problem by measuring the shadow cast by the sun. According to Zhouli (Rites of Zhou), “The shadow (of an eight-chi pole cast by the sun) measures one chi and five cun at the Center of Earth on the day of summer solstice.”5

3

Mengzi: Wang Zhang I. Refer to Shiji: Zhou Benji (Records of the Grand Historian: Annals of Zhou). 5 Zhouli: Diguan: Dasitu (Rites of Zhou: Offices of Earth). 4

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Zhougong used gnomons to measure the shadow cast by the sun on the midday of summer solstice. Gnomons or called guibiao in Chinese work by a similar principle as a sundial does. One uses a sundial to tell time by reading the angle of the shadow of the gnomon cast on the dial. Guibiao is used to measure the length of shadow. Guibiao is a collective term for gui and biao. Biao is a pole or stone pillar erected on the level ground and gui is a south-north placed scaled plank. A gui is like a ruler. As the gui is south-north placed, the guibiao set is only suitable to measure the shadow of the pole (stone pillar) cast by the sun at midday. Zhougong’s method followed the same principle as we do today: The shadow of an eight-chi pole cast by the sun measures one chi and five cun at the Center of Earth on the midday of summer solstice.

Diagrammatic image of the guibiao set

Scientifically, the method doesn’t go. The Earth is a globe that runs around the sun on a fixed orbit. Theoretically, shadows cast by the sun measure the same in all places on the same altitude. However, people in ancient China saw the earth as a flat plane. Therefore, only the shadow of an eight-chi pole measured one chi and five cun long at the midday of summer solstice. Accordingly, Zhougong located the Center of Earth that was said to be Yangcheng the legendary capital of the Xia Dynasty. Nonetheless, Yangcheng as a town in mountains was not an ideal location for a capital city. Thus, Zhougong made a field survey and chose Luoyi (present-day Luoyang) as the location for the Eastern Capital, as Luoyi was near to the Center of Earth and had better geographic conditions. Then, Luoyi and Haojing were both in use as capital cities of the Zhou court. In actuality, the location of Yangcheng as the capital of Yu period and of the Xia Dynasty remains inconclusive, as there hardly are textual or physical relics from the

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Yu period or the Xia Dynasty. However, Yangcheng enjoyed a great reputation in ancient China after Zhougong had measured the shadow of the pole cast by the sun. Yangcheng is present-day Gaocheng. Without no evidence in authentic history, the story of Zhougong’s measuring the shadow has, however, left a profound influence on later generations. The story was repeatedly told in Zhouli (Rites of Zhou) annotated by Zheng Xuan of the Eastern Han Dynasty, and in Suishu: Tianwenzhi (Book of Sui: Treatise on Astronomy).6 Book of Sui is the official history of the Sui Dynasty compiled in the Tang Dynasty. The story has thus been taken by later generations as an iron-clad fact. Literature on Zhougong’s measuring the shadow in Yangcheng Document

Date/Author

Text

Zhouli: Diguan Situ (Rites of Zhou: Offices of Earth)

Warring States Period (476B. C.–265B.C.)

Zhoulizhu (Commentary on Rites of Zhou)

Zheng Xuan (127–200), a Confucian scholar of the Eastern Han Dynasty

(Zhougong, a statesman, thinker and scientist living around eleventh Century B.C.) “tried to locate the Center of Earth by measuring the length of shadow cast by the sun. The shadow (of an eight-chi pole cast by the sun) measures one chi and five cun at the Center of Earth on the day of summer solstice. Heaven and Earth, four seasons, wind and rain, and yin and yang, are all in harmony here. Everything’s here is fine. And the place is ideal to establish a capital.” That is Zhougong Sundial Platform in Gaocheng Town, Dengfeng “The earthen gui (dial) measures one chi and five cun long. An eight-chi biao (gnomon) is erected on summer solstice. At midday that day, the shadow of the gnomon measures one chi and five cun long, the same as the earthen gui. The place where the guibiao set is set is the Center of Earth. That is Yangcheng in Yingchuan” that is present-day Gaocheng, Dengfeng. It was renamed as Gaocheng County (continued)

6

[Tang] Wei Zheng et al. Suishu: Tianwenzhi (Book of Sui: Treatise on Astronomy).

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(continued) Document

Date/Author

Shuijingzhu (Commentary on the Water Classic)

Li Daoyuan of the Northern Wei Dynasty (sixth century)

Suishu: Tianwenzhi (Book of Sui: Treatise on Astronomy)

Wei Zheng et al. in the third year of the Zhenguan era of the Tang Dynasty (629)

Zhouli Yishu: Dasitu (Commentaries on Rites of Zhou: Offices of Earth)

Jia Gongyan during the Yonghui era (650–654) of the Tang Dynasty

Tongdian (Comprehensive Institutions)

Du You in the 17th year of the Zhenyuan era of the Tang Dynasty (801)

Yangchengshanji (On Yangchang)

Xu Youwang of the Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368)

Text in the first year of the Wansuidengfeng era under Wu Zetian’s reign (696) and became a town in Dengfeng’s jurisdiction in the Song Dynasty. The place is where Zhougong Sundial Platform sits Commentary: “The Ying River runs from Mount Shaoshi northwest to Yangcheng County, Yingchuan and flows southeastwards through the south of the county.” It is said that the place is where “Zhougong measured the shadow” “Zhougong measured the shadow of a gnomon at Yangcheng, for the purpose of drawing out an accurate calendar… It has been said that “An eight-chi biao (gnomon) is erected on summer solstice at Yangcheng. The shadow of the gnomon is of the same length as the earthen gui” “Yangcheng County in Yingchuan Prefecture is said to be the place where Zhougong measured the shadow of a gnomon. It is likely to be in existence now” “Yao Xuan, a master of ceremony was told to erect an eight- chi biao (gnomon) at the Sundial Platform in Yangcheng in the fourth year of the Yifeng era (679), by following the ancient way. At the midday of summer solstice, the shadow of the gnomon measured one chi and five cun long, the same as the length got in the ancient way” “Mount Songshan is surrounded by peaks and hills. At the foot of a hillock there is (continued)

4 The Observatory in the Center of Earth …

74 (continued) Document

Dengfeng Xianzhi (Chorography of Dengfeng County)

Date/Author

Text

Edition of the eighth year of the Jiajing era of the Ming Dynasty (1529) reprinted by the Office of Chorography of Dengfeng County

ancient Yangcheng where Zhougong measured the shadow of an eight-chi stone pillar. The ancient stone pillar still exists today” “What a great man Zhougong was! It has been said that Luo is the Center of Heaven and Earth. By measuring the shadow of the stone pillar, Zhougong found the true Center of Earth at ancient Yangcheng 100 li southeast to Luo”

Cultural relics of Zhougong’s measuring the shadow in Yangcheng Cultural relics

Date

Text

Stele of Building the Zhongtianwang Temple

The sixth year of the Kaibao era of the Song Dynasty (973)

On the Zhougong Temple at the Sundial Platform

Chen Fengwu of the Ming Dynasty (1368– 1644)

Account of the Building of the Zhougong Shrine Stele of the Rebuilding of the Sundial Platform

The seventh year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1528) The seventh year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1528)

Stele of the Rebuilding of the Zhougong Temple

The 15th year of Qing Emperor Kangxi (1676)

“Yangcheng was located as the Center of Heaven and Earth by way of measuring the shadow of the earthen pillar cast by the sun” “Zhougong assisted King Cheng of Zhou and persuaded the latter to build a capital at Luo. Zhougong found the Center of Earth by measuring the shadow of the earthen pillar cast by the sun. It was a piece of work done by a true sage” About how what Zhougong did to locate “the Center of Heaven and Earth” at Yangcheng, Dengfeng Yangcheng was located as the Center of Heaven and Earth by way of measuring the shadow of the earthen pillar cast by the sun. Zhougong did all these and had a capital built at Luoyi” “Zhougong located Yangcheng as the Center of Heaven and Earth by way of measuring the shadow of the earthen pillar cast by the sun. He had five such pillars erected. The central one was at Yangcheng, Yingchuan. The one here is right the central one”

The idea that “Yangcheng is the Center of Earth” has been recognized as a “truth”, thanks to the legend of Zhougong’s measuring the shadow of the gnomon

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there. Accordingly, Mount Songshan area where Yangcheng (Gaocheng) sits has been recognized as the Center of Heaven and Earth. Is the Zhougong Sundial Platform in the Observatory ensemble a relic that has survived from Zhougong’s times?

The Zhougong Sundial Platform

The Zhougong Sundial Platform we see today was built in the Tang Dynasty. It is said to be built on the site of the Zhougong Sundial Platform that had been there before the Tang Dynasty (it remains unknown whether the site was the original one built by Zhougong or something built in later days). The Sundial Platform that was supposed to be the original one built by Zhougong was still in operation in the Tang Dynasty. As is put in Zhouli Yishu (Commentaries on Rites of Zhou) during the Yonghui era (650–654) of the Tang Dynasty, “Yangcheng County in Yingchuan Prefecture is said to be the place where Zhougong measured the shadow of a gnomon. It is likely to be in existence now.”7 According to Tongdian (Comprehensive Institutions) authored by Du You of the Tang Dynasty, “Yao Xuan, a master of ceremony and inspector was told to erect an eight-chi biao

7 Zhouli Yishu (Commentaries on Rites of Zhou) authored by Jia Gongyan of the Tang Dynasty, “Yangcheng County in Yingchuan Prefecture is said to be the place where Zhougong measured the shadow of a pole. It is likely to be in existence now”.

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(gnomon) at the Sundial Platform in Yangcheng in the fourth year of the Yifeng era (679), by following the ancient way. At the midday of summer solstice, the shadow of the gnomon measured one chi and five cun long, the same as the length got in the ancient way. In the 11th month of the first year of the Tiaolu era (679, with the designation of imperial reign changed into Tiaolu on the third day of the sixth month of the fourth year of the Yifeng era), a gnomon was erected at Yangcheng. At the midday of winter solstice, the shadow of the gnomon measured one zhang, two chi and seven cun long.”8 As is recorded in those historic documents, the Sundial Platform at Yangcheng was still in operation in 679 in the state-level measurement of the shadow of gnomon. The Zhougong Sundial Platform we see today was built by Nangong Yue, the Imperial Astronomical Official during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang: Nangong Yue the Imperial Astronomical Official built the stone sundial platform (at Yangcheng) in the 11th year of the Kaiyuan era upon the imperial order.9

According to the rules set by Zhougong, shadow-measuring required an earthen gui (dial on the ground) and a wooden biao (gnomon erected on the ground). Upon the imperial order of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Nangong Yue built a stone sundial platform, which measures 3.91 m high in total, with each gnomon 1.95 m high. The rear wall bears a couplet, reading “The way reaches beyond tangible heaven and earth; The stone platform tells the way of yin and yang.” The Zhougong Sundial Platform is more of memorial significance and tangible evidence to the ancient idea of the Center of Earth. It was not an astronomical observation instrument in the strict sense. It is more of a symbol than an instrument. In the meantime, the construction of the Zhougong Sundial Platform was another official confirmation of Mount Songshan as the Center of Heaven and Earth made in the heyday of the Tang Dynasty. The Sundial Platform remains the most important symbol of Gaocheng as the Center of Earth.

The Giant Sundial Built by Guo Shoujing at the Center of Earth There are quite a number colloquial yet effectual probes of weather and farming season in Mount Songshan, such as “It’s wise to seed earlier the coming spring when it snows and frosts this winter.” “There’s definitely a heavy rain when clouds gather in the south.” “It’ll be dry when clouds gather in the north.” “If the moon hides behind clouds on the evening of this Mid-Autumn Day, it will snow on the 15th day of the first lunar month the coming year.” The probes are said to be created

8

Chapter VIII Zhiguan (Government Offices) in Tongdian (Comprehensive Institutions), Vol. 26. Xintangshu: Dilizhi (New Book of Tang: Treatise on Geography).

9

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by Guo Shoujing, a great astronomer of the Yuan Dynasty who was known for his great work in working out Shou Shi Li calendar. Why have Guo Shoujing and his Shou Shi Li calendar been of so profound an influence in Mount Songshan area?

A stamp in commemoration of Guo Shoujing issued in China in 1962

The Observatory sits more than 10 m north to the Zhougong Sundial Platform. The brick platform measures 12.62 m in total height, plus the small chamber at the top. The north-extending stone dial at the bottom of the platform measures 31.19 m in length. The Observatory is a sophisticated astronomical observation instrument built by Guo Shoujing and of the same function as Zhougong’s eight-chi gnomon to measure the length of shadow cast by the sun. The Observatory is one of the largest and earliest astronomical observatories in the world today. The Observatory was built between the 13th and 16th years of Yuan Emperor Zhiyuan (1276–1279), during which period the Mongolian regime just overthrew the Southern Song reign and was eager to establish its orthodox rule in the central part of China. Astronomy naturally played a significant role here. The first priority was to work out a new calendar. The well-known Shou Shi Li calendar was then published. Rigorous as he was, Guo Shoujing as an astronomer refused an empirical way. Instead, he attached great significance to practice and was known for his words “A good calendar shall be well based upon full measurements and satisfactory measurements rely upon precision instruments.”10 When Guo worked for Shou Shi Li

10

[Ming] Song Lian et al. Yuanshi: Guo Shoujing Zhuan (History of Yuan: Biography of Guo Shoujing).

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calendar, he organized astronomical observations nationwide, known as “the Measurements across the Four Seas” in the history of the Yuan Dynasty, to gain accurate and full observations: 27 observatories were set up across the Yuan territory, from N15° in the South China Sea to N65° in Siberia, with on observatory at an interval of 10°. Measurements of the length of shadow cast by the sun were thus collected in different regions at different altitudes and prepared full observations for a more accurate calendar.11 The Observatory at Gaocheng the Center of Earth stood as the largest and central one among all the 27 observatories, by following the tradition of astronomical observations from Zhougong times. The Observatory is itself a giant guibiao set and works by the same principle Zhougong followed in his measuring. Zhougong’s work was simply to locate the Center of Earth, while Guo Shoujing made painstaking observations nationwide to draw out an accurate calendar. Astronomers through the history have taken pains to get accurate measurements of the length of shadow cast by the sun at the midday of summer solstice, as the figure got at that moment is the shortest in a year. With measurements year by year, astronomers would get the accurate measurement of summer solstice. So it would work for winter solstice. In this way, astronomers in ancient China managed to get an accurate measurement of a year. Take the Zhougong Sundial Platform built by Nangong Yue and located south to the Observatory for example, to see how to measure the length of shadow cast by the sun with a guibiao set: The stone pillar erected on the platform is biao (gnomon) and measures 1.96 m in height, equal to the length of eight chi by the Tang scale. The north façade of the pillar is about 37 cm or one chi and five cun by the Tang scale, away from the north edge of the upper surface of the platform. The pillar’s shadow would right extend to the north edge of the upper surface of the platform at the midday of summer solstice. No shadow of the pillar would be seen at the bottom of the platform. The Zhougong Sundial Platform is thus also known as the No-shadow Platform. Giant as Guo Shoujing’s Observatory, it follows the same principle. The vertical groove in the center of the giant platform is the biao (gnomon) and the gui (dial) extends northwards from the bottom of the platform. Why did Guo build so giant a sundial platform?

11

As is recorded in Yuanshi: Guo Shoujing Zhuan (History of Yuan: Biography of Guo Shoujing), the Mongolian Yuan court “sent 14 astronomical officials to make astronomical observations in 27 observatories across the country, Koryo to the east, Dianchi Lake to the west, Zhuya (present- day Haikou, by translator) to the south and Tiele to the north”.

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Zhougong as the herald of measuring the length of shadow cast by the sun set “eight- chi biao (gnomon)” as the rule that was followed by later-generation astronomers. So was the gnomon on the Zhougong Sundial Platform built under the reign of Empero Xuanzong of Tang. However, the vertical groove (gnomon) on Guo Shoujing’s Observatory measures as high as 40 chi, four times longer than Zhougong’s original one. Many ancient designs perfectly follow principles of modern science, even though science back then was not that developed as it is today. This is well demonstrated in the Observatory built by Guo Shoujing. Guo managed to get more accurate measurements by enlarging the size of the gnomon and dial. It’s principle of modern error theory, according to which, the accuracy of measurements is expressed as relative errors when absolute errors are the same. Relative error is the fraction between absolute error and measurement. The gnomon on the Observatory is five times high as Zhougong’s original model. It means that the measurement from the Observatory is five times that from Zhougong’s original model, while the relative error is only one fifth in figure. Thus, the accuracy is five times that of Zhougong’s original model.

The observatory is a giant guibiao set

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North

Plan of the observatory

However, a higher gnomon has inborn defects, in spite of its remarkable strengths: The length of shadow of a shorter gnomon may only be roughly measured, as the shadow would be shorter accordingly. However, a higher gnomon may only cast a lighter shadow hardly invisible, even though the shadow would be longer to measure.12 A higher gnomon would produce more accurate measurements, but the shadow would be lighter. Due to the diffusion of sun in air molecules and dust articles, the shadow of a higher gnomon blurs at the edge, so that the strength of a higher gnomon in measurement accuracy would be reduced. Guo Shoujing as a top scientist in ancient China got well aware of the problem and solved it with a smart design. He added a small device called “jingfu” on the dial. A jingfu is actually a pinhole imaging device, through which the sun projects on the dial’s surface an image of the sun and bar that is on the gnomon’s top. When the bar divides equally the image of the sun, it is good time to measure the length of shadow. In a simulating experiment of a jingfu made today, when jingfu is moved 1.5-2 mm, there’s remarkable change in the bar’s image. With a jingfu, the accuracy of measurement reaches 2 mm at least.

12

Yuanshi: Tianwenzhi (History of Yuan: Treatise on Astronomy).

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Small chambers on the top of the observatory

The Observatory at Gaocheng features a smart design, in which its strength in measurement accuracy was brought into full play and the problem of a blur shadow was well solved. The Observatory has been an extraordinary case in ancient China’s long history of measuring the shadow cast by the sun. The accuracy of measurement from the Observatory reached a record high. In addition, the Observatory was the central one of the 27 astronomical observation stations built by Guo Shoujing and his colleagues, who finally published the Shou Shi Li calendar in the 18th year of Zhiyuan’s reign (1281). The calendar, which was almost as precise as the Gregorian Calendar still in use in many countries around the world today, specifies the period of a tropical year as 365 days, 5 h, 49 min, 12 s.13 It preceded the Gregorian Calendar by some three hundred years. As is indicated by the name, the Observatory was more than an instrument for measuring the shadow cast by the sun. It was also an instrument for astronomical observation. In “the Measurements across the Four Seas” in the Yuan Dynasty, there was a record on the observation of Polaris here. In the Ming Dynasty, a copper

13

Yuanshi: Lizhi (History of Yuan: Treatise on Calendar).

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clepsydra was used for timing here and an armillary sphere was used for astronomical observation.14 The Observatory is an astronomical station for shadow measuring, astronomical observation and timing. Guo Shoujing has been recognized as one of the best Chinese astronomers worldwide. Joseph Needham, a distinguished British scholar speaks highly of Guo Shoujing and Shou Shi Li calendar.15 The International Astronomical Society named a lunar crater and an asteroid after Guo Shoujing.16 Guo Shoujing had his name inscribed on history together with Shou Shi Li calendar and Mount Songshan. A Ming scholar named Li Shide wrote a poem titled The Sundial Platform: Ascending the high mountain in a spring day, I enjoyed a picturesque view around me. The observatory stands at the center of earth, And still tops later-generation instruments.

The poem well illustrates the symbolic significance of the Observatory to Guo Shoujing’s brilliant contribution to astronomical development in ancient China.

Water-injecting trough of the sundial

For the working principle of the Observatory, refer to Guan Zengjian’s “The Observatory in Dengfeng and Guo Shoujing’s improvement of the traditional method of shadow measuring with a pole”, in Journal of Zhengzhou University (Philosophy and Social Sciences), 1998(2). 15 [UK] Needham, Joseph. Science and Civilization in China. 16 The International Astronomical Union (IAU) named a lunar crater Guo Shoujing in 1970 and Asteroid 2012 Guo Shou-Jing in 1977. 14

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Sundial

Detail of water-discharging trough of the sundial

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'Chapter 5

The Chan Buddhism and Martial Art: Localization of Buddhism at Mount Songshan

The Shaolin Temple deep in the luxuriant forests in Mount Songshan drew the world’s attention in 1982 when the film The Shaolin Temple was on. And the martial art of the Shaolin Temple has been greatly admired. The ancient Shaolin Temple in actuality is of even more significance shown in the film. The Shaolin Temple represents Buddhism at Mount Songshan and used to witness the difficult early years of Buddhism in China. And the Chan Buddhism and martial art created in the Shaolin Temple changed Buddhism into a localized religion of China and helped it develop in the country. What is the relationship between the Chan Buddhism and martial art? How did Buddhism develop at Mount Songshan? What is the role Mount Songshan played in the history of Buddhism in China?

The Cradle of the Chan Buddhism Deep in the Luxuriant Woods of Mount Shaoshi The Chan Buddhism is today one of the iconic tags of Chinese Buddhism. It actually played a key role in the long history of Chinese Buddhism. Without the Chan Buddhism, Buddhism would never win what it has achieved in Chinese culture. Buddhism was introduced to China from Ancient India in the Han Dynasty around the year when Christ was believed to be born. However, as is commonly said, Buddhism hadn’t won an official recognition in China until the reign of Emperor Ming of the Eastern Han Dynasty.1 In the seventh year of the Yongping As is recorded in Houhanshu: Chuwang Ying Zhuan (Book of the Later Han: Biography of King Chu Born Liu Ying), King Chu, who was born Liu Ying and a younger brother of Emperor Ming, worshipped Buddha in his senior years. It indicates that Buddhism had already some influence in China.

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© Shanghai Far East Publisher 2021 W. Ren and Y. He, Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9077-1_5

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era (64), Emperor Ming of Han sent his envoys to Ancient India for Buddhist doctrines. Four years later, envoys of the Han court accompanied eminent Indian Buddhist monks back to the capital city Luoyang and brought with them Buddhist scriptures carried by white horses. Emperor Ming of Han had the two Indian monks lodge in Honglu Temple, the state guesthouse of the Han court. In that same year, the Honglu Temple was transformed into a Buddhist temple renamed the White Horse Temple, as the Buddhist scriptures were carried back to China by white horses. Since then on, a Buddhist temple has been known as “temple” (or “si” in Chinese, the character of which was originally used in the title of government organization in ancient China, like Honglu Temple). The White Horse Temple has been the ever first Buddhist temple built in China.

The White Horse Temple in Luoyang

Mount Songshan area adjacent to Luoyang, the capital city of the Eastern Han court, saw the earliest days of Buddhism in China. In the 14th year of the Yongping era (71), three years after the founding of the Whiter Horse Temple, Emperor Ming of Han ordered to build the Dafawang Temple at the foot of Yuzhu Peak at Mount Songshan, as the lodge for the Indian Buddhist monks. The Fawang Temple at Mount Songshan is also one of the earliest Buddhist temples in China. Also, Emperor Ming signed a special permission for Marquis Yangcheng or Liu Jun by name to become a Buddhist monk. Liu Jun was thus likely to be the first Chinese Buddhist monk.2

[Song] Shi Zanning. Dasongseng Shilve (History of Buddhist Monks of the Song Dynasty), Dazhengzang (Taishō Tripiṭaka), Vol. 1.

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The Fawang Temple Pagoda of the Tang Dynasty is the earliest architectural structure in existence in the temple. Square in plan, the brick pagod a features 15 overlapped-eaves roofs. The wall measures 2.13 m in thickness. The 15 overlapped-eaves roofs above the first storey form a parabolic shape. In the southern side of the first storey there is an arched door. One clay statue of Buddha sits on the altar. The top of the pagoda has long been destroyed. The iconic pagoda stands high on the terrace at the rear of the temple

Nonetheless, Buddhism saw a rather slow development in China over 300 years or so between the Eastern Han and Wei and Jin dynasties. Buddhism was on the verge of extinction in China in particular during the reign of Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei (born Tuoba Tao who taking the words of Cui Hao and Kou Qianzhi, believed in Taoism and energetically persecuted Buddhists) when the emperor

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persecuted Buddhists.3 Mount Songshan area adjacent to Luoyang that was the political center of the Northern Wei regime crystallized the difficult situation Buddhism was in China. Buddhism hardly found a place to stay at Taoism-dominated Mount Songshan area, even though the Fawang Temple was built, Buddhist scriptures translated and conversion into Buddhism. Buddhism managed to survive and develop at Mount Songshan at a historical opportunity. Upon the death of Tuoba Tao, new rulers had a reflection of the anti-Buddhist persecution. Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei and his successors were largely friendly to Buddhism. And at this very moment, Mount Songshan welcomed Batuo or Buddhabhadra, an eminent Buddhist monk from India who was a historically-significant figure in history of the mountain and Buddhism. Buddhabhadra arrived in Pingcheng (present-day Datong, Shanxi Province), the then capital of the Northern Wei court in the first year of the Taihe era (477–499) of Northern Wei, and was received by Emperor Xiaowen, who funded Buddhabhadra’s practice of Buddhism. Emperor Xiaowen moved his capital to Luoyang in the 18th year of the Taihe era (494). Buddhabhadra followed the imperial court to the new capital. The emperor had a lodge built for Buddhabhadra in Luoyang. But Buddhabhadra “loved to live in seclusion in wooded mountains and went for many times to stay at Mount Songshan away from the secular world”. Emperor Xiaowen then built a temple for Buddhabhadra deep in forests in Mount Shaoshi at Mount Songshan in 495. This was the Shaolin Temple, which was named after Mount Shaoshi (for the character “Shao”) and deep forest (for the character “lin” that means forest in Chinese).4 The Shaolin Temple was built by Emperor Xiaowen as a sort of award from the emperor for Buddhabhadra. However, Buddhism gained no momentum, though. Buddhism found difficulties in development in its earlier years in China, due to some innate reasons. As a foreign religion, Buddhism at first failed to get integrated with the Chinese culture smoothly. Particularly, the Little Vehicle of Buddhism was first introduced to China. This hindered the widespread of Buddhism in China, to some extent. The Little Vehicle and the Great Vehicle are two opposite concepts in Buddhism. At the very beginning of Buddhism in ancient India, followers had no dissents of the Buddhist doctrines. However, upon the death of Sakyamuni the founder of Buddhism, Buddhist followers began to see and interpret the Buddhist doctrines in different ways. The Great Vehicle and the Little Vehicle are two different sects of the Buddhist dogma. The term “Vehicle” or “yana” in Sanskrit [Northern Qi] Wei Shou. Weishu: Shizuji (Book of Wei: Annal of Emperor Shizu [of Northern Wei]). In the fifth year of the Taipingzhenjun era (444), Emperor Taiwu issued an imperial decree to launch “an anti-Buddhist persecution”, stating that “Buddhist monks arouse evils, in the name of deities from the West”. 4 As is put in Weishu: Shilaozhi (Book of Wei: Treatise on Buddhism and Taoism), “An eminent Buddhist monk named Batuo from the Western Regions was greatly admired by Emperor Gaozu, who sent an imperial decree to build the Shaolin Temple on the north side of Mount Shaoshi. The emperor funded Batuo’s practice of Buddhism”. 3

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means something with which Buddhist dharma saves people from sufferings. To put it simply, the Little Vehicle believes that there is only one Buddha. One practices Buddhism for self-salvation. To the contrary, the Great Vehicle dogma believes that there are innumerable Buddhas in the universe. And a Buddhist follower can attain enlightenment in a single lifetime. The Great Vehicle sect aims to save all people from sufferings. The Great Vehicle sect was obviously more popular with commoners. In addition, the Little Vehicle sect has stricter requirements for its followers. For instance, a follower of the Little Vehicle is required to become a Buddhist monk and live in abstinence. So it was not that easily accessible for the masses. When Buddhism was introduced to China in the Eastern Han Dynasty, the Little Vehicle dominated in ancient India. Over that period, “the Little Vehicle thrived and the Great Vehicle was yet in the mainstream.”5 Thus, in its earlier days in China, Buddhism saw the Little Vehicle sect introduced there. No inferior to the Great Vehicle, the Little Vehicle was not that popular with Chinese people, though. Accordingly, Buddhism in its earlier days in China saw setbacks in its development. Buddhabhadra was greatly admired by Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei. But he practiced and taught the Little Vehicle doctrines as well. The monks in the Shaolin Temple in early years concentrated on translating Buddhist scriptures. The temple had slight influence back then. Things changed in the third year of the Xiaochang era (527) under the reign of Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei. Bodhidharma, who was the 28th Patriarch of the Chan Buddhism of Indian Buddhism, came to Mount Songshan in that year. The first disciple of Prajnatara who was the 27th Patriarch of Indian Chan Buddhism, Bodhidharma succeeded his guru as the 28th Patriarch. He sailed to Guangzhou in 520 and went northwards, spreading Buddhist dharma along the way.6 In the third year of the Xiaochang era, Bodhidharma arrived at the Shaolin Temple at Mount Songshan and practiced wall-gazing in a cave in the Wuru Peak. He then found the way of zazen. From that time on, Chan Buddhism in China got separated from Indian Chan Buddhism. Bodhidharma’s way of zazen was easy to practice and got popular with commoners back then. Buddhism thus gained fast popularity in China. Bodhidharma has been known as the First Patriarch of Chinese Chan Buddhism.

During the first five centuries after Buddha’s nirvana, the Little Vehicle thrived and the Great Vehicle was yet in the stream. 6 [Tang] Shi Daoxuan. Xu Gaosengzhuan (Further Biographies of Eminent Monks). 5

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Bodhidharma by Wu Bin of the Ming Dynasty, in the collection of the Palace Museum

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Picture stele of Dharma crossing a river Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple. Painted by Li Zhongsheng in the 22nd year of the Jiajing era of the Ming Dynasty (1543)

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The Mianbi Pavilion in the Chuzu Temple

Bodhidharma attained enlightenment in the first year of the Datong era of the Western Wei Dynasty (535) after his nine-year wall-gazing. He then decided to pick a successor among his disciples. Bodhidharma conducted a series of assessments and selections in way of Q&As. Shenguang topped his fellow students. But Bodhidharma held back, as Shenguang used to follow Confucianism and believe in Taoism in his youth. Shenguang was determined. He stood in the snow on the ninth day of the 12th lunar month outside Bodhidharma’s cave. To prove his resolve, Shenguang cut off his left arm, as a token of sincerity to cut off from all heretical beliefs. Deeply moved, Bodhidharma decided to make Shenguang as his successor and changed the latter’s name as Huike. Huike has been known as the Second Patriarch of Chinese Chan Buddhism.7 The Lixue Pavilion in the Shaolin Temple was built in commemoration of this event.

Xu Gaosengzhuan (Further Biographies of Eminent Monks).

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The Lixue Pavilion in the Shaolin Temple was built in memory of Huike the Second Patriarch

Bodhidharma and Huike were founders of Chinese Chan Buddhism. The Shaolin Temple at Mount Songshan where the two monks taught Buddhism has had a profound influence in Buddhist history of China. The Shaolin Temple as the first Buddhist temple for practicing Chan Buddhism in China has been known as the origin of the Chan Buddhism, from which Buddhism began to gain momentum in China.

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Gate of the Shaolin Temple

The Huishan Temple: A Witness to the Growth of Chinese Chan Buddhism Buddhism began to gain momentum at Mount Songshan area after the founding of the Chan Buddhism in the Shaolin Temple. Buddhist temples gradually took a foothold and made progress in the mountain previously dominated by Taoism. From then on, Mount Songshan became the number-one holy place of Buddhism in ancient China. The Shaolin, Fawang, Songyue and Huishan Temples are collectively known as the four temples of Mount Songshan.

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As the birthplace of Chinese Chan Buddhism, Mount Songshan wasn’t the only center of the Chan Buddhism in China, as the Chan Buddhism was founded here in somehow wrong times. When Bodhidharma transmitted Buddhist dharma to Huike, the Northern Wei fell into turbulence and split into the Eastern and Western Weis. Bodhidharma and Huike then left the Shaolin Temple and the center of Chinese Chan Buddhism was shifted to other places accordingly. Later, Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou launched the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution,8 due to which Buddhism at Mount Songshan received a devastating blow. The birthplace of Chinese Chan Buddhism was no longer safe for the development of the religion. The Chan Buddhism later experienced vicissitudes in China. When Sengcan the Third Patriarch succeeded Huike, the center of the Chan Buddhism was already shifted to south China, in present-day Anhui Province. Huineng the Sixth Patriarch founded the Southern Chan school known for “Sudden Enlightenment”, standing side by side with the Northern Chan school that was created almost at the same time at Mount Songshan. The Huishan Temple at the foot of the Jicui Peak at Mount Songshan is the center of the Northern Chan school. Originally a temporary imperial abode built during the reign of Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei, the complex was rebuilt into a Buddhist temple in the first year of the Zhengguang era (520). During the Kaihuang era, the Sui court named the temple the Huishan Temple. The temple has experienced reconstructions and renovations throughout the dynasties. The Kernel Compound measures 65.06 m from south to north and 57.53 m from east to west, covering an area of 3743 m2. Eight historic structures survive on the central axis, including the screen wall, the main gate, and the east and west wings of the main hall. There are engraved stones inlaid in the screen wall in front of the gate, reading “Tianzhongshan” and “Tianguang Yunying”. The main hall of the Huishan Temple is the only Yuan wooden-construction building in the Mount Songshan region. Its typical structures are bracket sets, wooden frames, corner beams, rufu beams (two-rafter- long beams), zhaqian (single rafter beams), dingfu (two-rafter-long side beams), tatou and dinghuamo’ke gong. Its value in this respect has not been diminished by later repairs. There are also 23 steles and 82 ancient trees surviving within the temple.

[Sui] Fei Changfang. Lidai Sanbaoji (Fei Changfang’s Records of the Three Treasures throughout the Successive Dynasties).

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Main gate of the Huishan Temple

The Huishan Temple, one of the most famous temples in the Songshan region, was the centre where monks received the monastic rules in ancient times. It ranked as one of the four temples of Mount Songshan, along with the Shaolin, Fawang and Songyue Temples. Famous monks who came from the Huishan Temple include Pu Ji, Yuan Gui, Jing Zang, Wei Kuan, and Seng Yixing (Zhang Sui), a well-known astronomer. It was like a coincidence of fate that during the Kaihuang era of the Sui Dynasty, a later-day eminent monk who would be a key figure of the Chan Buddhism and in the Huishan Temple, was born. Born in the second year of the Kaihuang era (582) in present-day Zhijiang County, Hubei Province, the baby would later be known as Master Dao’an (a.k.a. Hui’an). Dao’an followed Hongren the Fifth Patriarch of Chinese Chan Buddhism in Huangmei, Hubei. But when Hongren intended to select Dao’an as his successor, Dao’an declined the invitation and handed over the title to Shenxiu, another brilliant disciple of Hongren. Dao’an then left Huangmei and travelled in Mount Zhongnan, which is adjacent to Chang’an (present-day Xi’an, Shaanxi Province), the capital city of the Tang Dynasty. Emperor Gaozong of Tang, born Li Zhi, soon came to know Dao’an and sent a couple of imperial decrees to summon Dao’an to teach Buddhist doctrines in the imperial court. Unwilling to woo fame and fortune, Dao’an left Mount Zhongnan and went eastwards. Dao’an in his eighties arrived at Mount Songshan in the first year of the Linde era under the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang (664) and stayed in the Huishan Temple. This was a milestone in history of Chinese Chan Buddhism

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and Mount Songshan and in Dao’an’s life. The eminent monk said, “This is my final rest place.” It was said that

Portrait of Master Dao’an

Dao’an taught Buddhist doctrines in the Huishan Temple for 45 years and passed away in the temple in the third year of the Jinglong era under the reign of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang (709).9

The Huishan Temple was destroyed in wars in the late Sui Dynasty and rebuilt in the Tang Dynasty. Buddhism was “rebuilt” in China when the Tang Dynasty was finally founded. Buddhism in north China received again attention from the central government of the Tang Dynasty and revived, after a long low from the Northern Wei Dynasty onwards. Emperor Gaozong and Wu Zetian admired Buddhism particularly and paid close attention to Dao’an, even though the eminent monk had left the capital for the Huishan Temple at Mount Songshan. Ascending the throne, Wu Zetian “invited Dao’an to the imperial court (for many times) and showed great respect to the monk” and “invited Dao’an to stay in the imperial palace”. Dao’an thus became “the imperial teacher”.10 The Huishan Temple in which Dao’an stayed accordingly became the center of Chan Buddhism in north China.

Xu Gaosengzhuan (Further Biographies of Eminent Monks). [Song] Puji (ed.). Wudeng Huiyuan, Vol. 2.

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Empress Regnant Wu Zetian admired Buddhism particularly

Shenxiu, who was Hongren’s first disciple and Dao’an’s fellow student, was the core figure of the Northern Chan school and received special treatment from the Tang court. Emperor Gaozong, Empress Regnant Wu Zetian and Emperor Zhongzong all received him in person. Shenxiu died in 705. One of his disciples named Puji continued Dao’an’s teaching in the Huishan Temple. And the Northern Chan school got thriving. The Shaolin Temple saw rejuvenation as well. Faru, another disciple of Hongren went back to the Shaolin Temple in the second year of the Yongchun era under the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang (683), and “monks across the country gathered together in the Shaolin Temple, asking Master Faru to lead rejuvenation of Buddhism”.11

Biography of Master Shifaru.

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Master Shenxiu, one of the six patriarchs of Chinese Chan Buddhism

After the reign of Empress Regnant Wu Zetian, the Huishan Temple witnessed the fierce battle between the Southern and Northern Chan schools over the orthodox status. During the Kaiyuan era under the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Master Jingzang followed Huineng in Lingnan and then went back to the Huishan Temple, to teach the doctrine of the Southern Chan school. He was the abbot of the temple for over 30 years and the herald of spreading the Southern Chan school’s doctrines in north China. However, doctrines of the Southern Chan school were not that popular in north China. Master Shenhui was another disciple of Huineng. He tried to argue for the orthodox status of the Southern Chan school, thus was squeezed out by the Northern Chan school and forced to move around. An Lushan Rebellion created an expected opportunity for the Southern Chan school. When the key figures of the Northern Chan school fled for refuge in the rebellion, Master Shenhui took the charge of taxation on tonsure and contributed enormously to putting down the rebellion. Shenhui won the court’s recognition. After his death, Shenhui was given the title of the Seventh Patriarch of the Chan Buddhism and Huineng was conferred posthumously as the Sixth Patriarch. The Southern Chan school thus won the orthodox status. Mount Songshan is still one of the best-known holy places of Buddhism in China.

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Chinese Chan Buddhism has long been different from Indian Chan Buddhism. It is something localized of Buddhism in China. Thanks to the founding of the Chan Buddhism, Buddhism has gained momentum in China, with its tag of exotic religion removed. It was popular with the ruling and the ruled and became an integral part of traditional Chinese culture. Historic temples at Mount Songshan can be seen as the greatest contributor and player in the localization of Buddhism in China.

Motion and Tranquility: Martial Art and Chan The Hall of Sakyamuni stands as the core of each Buddhist temple. The architectural design of the hall and statues placed in it follow some fixed rules. However, the Hall of Sakyamuni of the Shaolin Temple is evidently different from its counterparts. There are five statues in the main hall. In addition to the statues of the Three Buddhas of the Past, Present and Future, the other two statues are found in no other places that the Shaolin Temple. East to the statues of the Three Buddhas stands the statue of Bodhidharma the First Patriarch of the Chan Buddhism. It’s no wonder that the statue is found here in the Shaolin Temple that is the origin of Chinese Chan Buddhism. West to the statues of the Three Buddhas is the statue of Kinnara, instead of one of Huike the Second Patriarch or other key figures of the Chan Buddhism. Kinnara, instead of a historic figure, is a Bodhisattva in Buddhism. A kinnara is a musician and one of the eight kinds of nonhuman beings who protect Buddha’s teachings. Kinnar Bodhisattva is the leader of kinnaras. Why is this Bodhisattva so important to the Shaolin Temple? According to a legend, Kinnara Bodhisattva transformed into a monk of the Shaolin Temple and left a brilliant chapter on the temple’s history. The Mongolian Yuan court was declining in the Zhizheng era (1341–1368). People rose up in arms. The best-known rebels of the time were the Red Scarf Army. It is said that a monk came to the Shaolin Temple at the time. His hair unkempt, the monk only had unlined trousers, bared chested and bare footed. A rod in his hand, the monk walked straight into the kitchen. He worked hard in the kitchen, hardly speak anything. Thus, the monks had no idea of his name or dharma name. Liu Futong, the leader of the Red Scarf Army in north China laid siege to the Shaolin Temple unexpectedly in the tenth year of the Zhizheng era (1350). The Abbot led warrior monks of the temple to fight. However, they were defeated. At the critical moment, the anonymous monk stood out, “Don’t worry. I’ll chase them away with my rod.” The others made no comments and had no confidence in this monk. The monk rushed out of the main gate, his rod in hand. All of a sudden, he grew to dozens of meters high and stood on the peak top, shouting, “Kinnara Bodhisattva is here!” He had hardly finished his words when he rushed to the Red Scarf rebels. Neither swords no spears could harm the Bodhisattva. The rebels were scared to death and fled in panic. The Shaolin Temple was thus rescued. The monks finally came to know that the ordinary-looking monk in the kitchen was Kinnara

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Bodhisattva himself! The Bodhisattva taught the monks the rod-playing rudiments. And later he disappeared without a trace.12

Kinnara fighting against the Red Scarf Army (mural) in the Shaolin Temple

The legendary story has well shown the importance position martial art has taken in the Shaolin Temple. Kinnara Bodhisattva has been the best icon of Shaolin martial art. The statues of Bodhidharma and Kinnara Bodhisattva in the Hall of Sakyamuni have been the representatives of the Shaolin Temple, as the icons of the Chan Buddhism and martial art. The Chan Buddhism focuses on meditation in tranquility, while martial art is an art of movements. How have the two that seem to be in contradiction been in the Shaolin Temple throughout the history? Seemingly contradictory to each other, the Chan Buddhism and martial art are in nature inseparably. In fact, the Chan Buddhism somehow cradled Shaolin martial art. Zazen or seated meditation is the major practice of the Chan Buddhism. One who practices it for too long a time will feel numb in limbs. Thus, it’s important to do some exercise to keep fit.

[Qing] Henanfu zhi (Annals of Henan Prefecture).

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Shaolin boxing (mural) in the Shaolin Temple

Bodhisdharma was said to be the creator of Shaolin martial art. He has thus been known as the Creator of Shaolin Martial Art Boxing Styles. In another word, Bodhidharma founded the Chan Buddhism and created Shaolin martial art. Bodhidharma and Kinnara Bodhisattva have been the icons of the Chan Buddhism and martial art, as well as of Shaolin Boxing and Shaolin Rod. Similar to the Chan Buddhism founded in the Shaolin temple, Shaolin martial art is also something localized and closely related to the secular world. Shaolin martial art, in spite of being said to be created by Bodhidharma, actually didn’t originate from ancient Indian martial art. Instead, it is a genre of traditional Chinese martial art, which focuses on stability and tranquility. Therefore, Shaolin martial art has something in common with the Chan Buddhism, in essence. That is the idea of “unity of boxing and Chan” put forth by Shaolin monks about 1000 years ago. Shaolin martial art wasn’t created by Bodhidharma or Shaolin monks single-handedly; instead, it a crystallization of wisdom of the Chinese nation. Warrior monks of the Shaolin Temple had in history a close relationship with secular regimes. In front of the Bell Tower there is a 3.45 m-high stele known as “Stele of Songyue Shaolin Temple of the Great Tang”. Erected in the 16th year of the Kaiyuan era under the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (728) is the most valuable stone stele in the temple. The stele consists of two parts separated by a line. The lower part is inscribed with “Record on Building Shaolin Temple” authored by Pei Cui of the Kaiyuan era of Tang, recording a history of two centuries

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or so from the founding of the temple in the Northern Wei Dynasty to the Kaiyuan era of Tang. The upper part is “Stele of Taizong Wenhuangdi Yushu (Emperor Taizong’s handwriting)”, telling the widely known story of 13 warrior monks rescuing Li Shimin.

Stele of Taizong Wenhuangdi Yushu (Emperor Taizong’s handwriting)

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The country was in constant turbulence in the late Sui Dynasty. Wang Shichong rose up in arms and proclaimed himself emperor in Luoyang. He had his nephew Wang Renze garrison in the Shaolin Temple and seized farmlands from the temple. Thirteen warrior monks fought bravely and hard. The captured Wang Renze alive and handed him over to Li Shimin. The warrior monks helped greatly to defeat Wang Shichong’s force and found the Tang Dynasty. The historic event has been known to more people, thanks to the film The Shaolin Temple in which the event was told as that the 13 warrior monks rescued Li Shimin from jail. The film tells a story, but the stone stele in the Shaolin Temple is a piece of tangible evidence to the historic event that the 13 warrior monks of the Shaolin Temple made great contribution to the founding of the Tang Dynasty and received attention and rewards from the Tang court. Stele of Taizong Wenhuangdi Yushu (Emperor Taizong’s handwriting) is inscribed with the imperial decree issued by Emperor Taizong of Tang or Li Shimin, in which the emperor extended his gratitude to the Shaolin Temple. The imperial decree clearly recorded the contribution warrior monks of the Shaolin Temple made in the late Sui and early Tang dynasties and the rewards they received for what they did. The names of the 13 warrior monks were inscribed on the stele. Tanzong the leader monk was granted with the title of general. The Shaolin Temple was allowed to maintain an army of 500 soldier monks who were supplied by the central government and would join the imperial army in war. The decree also recorded other grants, including farmland and objects, to the Shaolin Temple. Not that miraculous as those in the film, warrior monks of the Shaolin Temple in history indeed made their contribution to the founding of the Tang Dynasty and helped Li Shimin a lot. The Shaolin Temple thus received great support from and was held in esteem by the central government of the Tang Dynasty.13

“Stele of Songyue Shaolin Temple of the Great Tang”.

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Thirteen monks saving Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty (mural) in the Shaolin Temple

The aforementioned legend of Kinnara Bodhisattva tells more or less about the situation of the Shaolin Temple was in in the late Yuan Dynasty. Energetically admired by the Yuan court, the Shaolin Temple tried to maintain the Yuan regime and fought against the farmer rebels. In the Jiajing era of the Ming Dynasty, solider monks of the Shaolin Temple were enlisted and fought Japanese pirates in coastal areas in southeast China, leaving another brilliant chapter in the secular history of China.14 Martial art was in history a link between Buddhism and the secular world. Buddhist monks at Mount Songshan played a role in state and military affairs, with their superb skills of martial art. In this way, Buddhism became a part of the state power and received support from the government. Thus, Buddhism saw a fast development in China. Shaolin martial art has been seen as the origin of all sorts of martial arts. As a “brand” of Chinese culture, the Shaolin temple and its martial art have played a remarkable role in China’s international and cultural exchange, as an integral part of the country’s soft power.

For the history of Buddhism at Mount Songshan, refer to Songshanzhi (Annals of Mount Songshan), Vol. 6.

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Shallow pits on the floor of the Thousand Buddha Hall in the Shaolin Temple

Warrior monks of the Shaolin Temple

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The Chan Buddhism and martial art, as the icons of Buddhism at Mount Songshan, have both been localized in China, so that “foreign” Buddhism has become an integral part of traditional Chinese culture and widely recognized and accepted in China. Seminars on the Chan Buddhism are held in Mount Songshan area today. Mount Songshan is still the center of Chinese Chan Buddhism. The founding and combination of the Chan Buddhism and martial art at Mount Songshan was a key point in the history of Chinese Buddhism, as from that time, Buddhism found a new and bright way to follow.

Chapter 6

The Songyang Academy of Classical Learning: A Frontier of New Confucianism

Be they “the Great Prose Masters of Tang and Song”, “the Classical Prose Movement” or “Yuan (Zhen)-Bai (Juyi) school of poetry”, those brilliant scenes on in the literary circles built by Confucian scholars in ancient China actually witnessed the largest crisis Confucianism ever faced after Emperor Wu of Han had “suppressed all other ideologies than Confucian thoughts and made Confucianism the dominant ideology”. The Songyang Academy of Classical Learning then came into being right at the time. It attracted renowned Confucian scholars and became the frontier of reform of Confucianism. The Academy then created opportunities with which Confucianism saw a new life. The Songyang Academy of Classical Learning left an indelible imprint on the history of Confucianism, culture and education of China.

An Academy Growing Out of a Temple The Songyang Academy of Classical Learning is located at the southern foot of Mount Taishi three kilometers north to the downtown of Dengfeng. Facing south, it is surrounded on the east, north and west by mountains and streams, and faces a wide, flat land in the south. The tranquil complex was in ancient China a place for teaching and learning. It is so named because it is on the sunny (yang) side of Mount Songshan. What is an academy of classical learning? Academies of classical learning were relatively young in the history of Confucian education in ancient China. Confucianism became the dominant ideology after Emperor Wu of Han had made it so. In the meantime, various schools within Confucianism got gradually assimilated into the one and only under the unified official standards and interpretation. Accordingly, Confucian education was turned from a private activity into the act of government, in the form of government-run © Shanghai Far East Publisher 2021 W. Ren and Y. He, Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9077-1_6

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schools and exams. Academies of classical learning first emerged in the Five Dynasties. They were private schools. It was a sort of return as the times required.

The Songyang Academy of Classical Learning

In the turbulent Five Dynasties in the late Tang, armymen were in power. Confucianism that used to rely on the central government funded schools and support was hard hit. Nonetheless, in the decline of government-run schools, private schools revived as the times required. And academies of classical learning came into being as an important system in the Chinese history of education. Private schools of Confucianism reached a new high after the era of Confucius who energetically supported private schools. As an important form of private education, academies of classical learning had a profound influence on culture and education in ancient China. They were similar to present-day private higher education. The

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system continued in existence in China till the late Qing Dynasty when the national imperial examination was cancelled. There were famous academies of classical learning throughout dynasties. The Songyang Academy of Classical Learning at the southern foot of Mount Taishi was originated in the Northern Wei Dynasty and officially founded in the Song Dynasty. It was one of the Four Academies of the Northern Song Dynasty. The site of the Songyang Academy boasts a long history. The two huge cypresses in the academy are about 4500 years old. It is said that Emperor Wu of Han saw a cypress on his trip to Mount Songshan. Admiring the huge cypress so much, the emperor conveyed the title “general” to the tree. But he came across another even huger cypress. However, an emperor could never recall his words. Emperor Wu then had to call it the second general. Out of his expectation, there was a cypress even larger than the first two. The emperor had no other choice than to call it the third general. In later days, people made doggerel on the three cypresses. “The larger cypress is called the smaller. Ancient cypresses became laughing sticks. The Third General was too angry to live on. The Second General blew out in anger. The First General was too embarrassed to stand straight. How ridiculous the emperor’s words were!” This anecdote is actually about the first impressions being the strongest. The two cypresses that have survived today are the First General and the Second General. The Third General Cypress was burnt in the late Ming Dynasty.

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The Second General Cypress in the Songyang Academy

The site of the Songyang Academy was still a piece of vacant land in the Han Dynasty. The first architectural structure was built in the Northern Wei Dynasty, originally as Buddhist architecture. And it was later changed into a Taoist temple. It was originally the Songyang Temple established in the eighth year of the Taihe era of the Northern Wei Dynasty (484). At that time there were hundreds of Buddhist monks in the temple. The Buddhist temple was changed into the Songyang Guan, a Taoist temple during the Daye era (605–616) of the Sui Dynasty. Emperor Gaozong of Tang paid several visits to Pan Shizheng, a Taoist priest in the Songyang Guan, and took the place as his temporary imperial abode. During the Five Dynasties in the late Tang Dynasty, Buddhist monks and Taoist priests left in turbulence; in the meantime, some Confucian scholars sought seclusion in mountains. Pang Shi, a jinshi (successful candidate in the highest imperial examination held in the palace) gave lectures at the Songyang Guan in the Qingtai era (934–936) of the Later Tang Dynasty. In the second year of the Xiande era of the Later Zhou Dynasty (955), Emperor Shizhong, born Chai Rong, changed the Songyang Guan into the Taiyi Academy of Classical Learning, which was one of the earliest academies of classical learning in China.

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The Song Dynasty was founded in 960, ending the turbulence over the period of the Five Dynasties and Ten States. Being armymen themselves, the Song rulers attached great importance to culture and education. The central government not only reopened government-run schools, but also energetically supported education in emerging private academies of classical learning. In the first year of the Zhidao era of the Northern Song Dynasty (995), Emperor Taizong gave nine Confucian classics to the Taiyi Academy of Classical Learning as a gift. The academy was rebuilt in 1035 and renamed the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning. It received from the central government 100mu school- owned land.1 The Songang Academy, which retains the architectural layout of a traditional academy of classical learning, measures 128 m north to south and 78 m east to west, covering an area of 9,984m2; it contains 26 Qing structures. Along the central axis there are five rows of courtyards—the gate, the Hall of Saints, the Lecture Hall, the Daotong Temple and the Library. All the structures (apart from the Daotong Temple, which has a hipped roof) have flush gable arched roofs covered with plain tiles, characteristic of the local buildings of Henan. It is of moderate size, simple and exquisite with gray bricks and tiles. There are also 15 stone carvings dating from the Eastern Wei Dynasty and after, and 14 ancient trees. The academy, compact in layout and complete in function, is the oldest of its kind in China for teaching and disseminating Confucian theories, offering sacrifices to Confucian saints, and holding examinations. It played an important role in the development of Confucianism and serves as an irreplaceable source for studying the academy architecture of classical learning and the educational system of ancient China as well as Confucian culture. The Songyang Academy constantly strived for excellence and perfection in education and made brilliant achievements. The academy was known for its huijiang system, in which the president of the academy invited reputed scholars to give lectures in the academy. Scholars with different and even conflicting views found the academy a platform on which they held debates and made their voices heard by more. In the meantime, students were able to change their ideas with their teachers on an equal footing.2 In this way, the Songyang Academy won a higher reputation for its academic level. The students were greatly benefited. Respect for teachers was highly prioritized in the academy, despite its advocate for equal communication between students and teachers. Yang Shi and You Zuo paid a visit to Cheng Yi, a renowned philosopher at the Songyang Academy. When the two arrived, Cheng was in a nap. Yang and You stood quietly waiting Cheng. When Cheng woke up, the snow outside was one chi deep.3 The story has been told to illustrate respectful students.

1

[Qing] Jingshuzhuren (ed.). Songyang Shuyuan Zhi (Annals of the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning), Vol. 1. 2 [Qing] Wu Ziyun. Songyang Shuyuan Jiangxue Ji (A Trip of Lecture in the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning). 3 Songshi: Yang Shi Zhuan (History of Song: Biography of Yang Shi).

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Yang Shi and You Zuo on Wait of Cheng Yi by Qiu Ying of the Ming Dynasty

A large number of renowned cultural and political figures of the Northern Song Dynasty were graduates of the Songyang Academy, including Lv Mengzheng, Zhao Anren, Qian Ruoshui, Chen Yaozuo and Teng Zijing. The Songyang Academy saw its heyday in the Song Dynasty, thanks to the support from the central government, the academy’s efforts in education, and the superb geographic location the academy enjoyed. The academy is located near Luoyang, the Western Capital of the Northern Song court (the Northern Song capital was in Kaifeng east to Luoyang). Luoyang was not only the secondary political center at that time, but also a place where unemployed government officials

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and candidates for the imperial exams gathered from the mid-Tang Dynasty onwards. Imperial examination system was first established in the Sui Dynasty. But it hadn’t played an important role in culture and education or official selection until the early Tang Dynasty. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, powerful families shared the power with the imperial ruling. Officials were selected by following a nine- rank system, in which people were ranked with their family backgrounds. “In the upper ranks there were no poor people. In the lower ranks there were no government officials.” A person from a humble background found no chance to go upwards the social ladder. The civil-service system began to be widely accepted in the middle and late Tang Dynasty. And officials from old powerful families and those selected from the imperial examination formed factions and struggled for power. That was the Niu-Li Factional Strife. Losers in a factional strife were usually forced out of the center of power and became unemployed officials. However, losers may regain power in a twinkle, thus they often chose to wait patiently. Luoyang was a favorite to unemployed officials. The Sui and Tang courts chose Chang’an (present-day Xi’an, Shaanxi Province) as their capital. Thus, the Western Capital of the Northern Song court was previously the Eastern Capital of the Sui and Tang courts. The Tang court sent those unemployed government officials who still retained their official titles to work in insignificant organizations in Luoyang. Pei Du, Bai Juyi and Liu Yuxi all worked as officials in the Eastern Capital in Luoyang. The conditions remained unchanged in the Song Dynasty. Not far from Bianliang (present-day Kaifeng, Henan Province) the Eastern Capital, Luoyang the Western Capital was still a place where the Northern Song court made arrangements for unemployed government officials. Factional strife in the Song Dynasty was even fiercer than that in the Tang Dynasty. The best-known factional strife in the Song Dynasty took place under the reign of Emperor Shenzong when Wang Anshi launched a reform. The intense reform aroused rather different opinions among court officials, who finally stood in “reformist” and “conservative” factions (alternatively known as the New Faction and the Old Faction). The two factions were in constant fights and took power in turns. The strife extended over the reign of four emperors, namely Shenzong, Zhezong, Huizong and Qinzong, till the collapse of the Northern Song court. Emperor Shenzong already foresaw the possible split of court officials before the reform, “The reform will infuriate a large number of court officials.” In fact, quite a number of major figures in government, such as Sima Guang, Wen Yanbo and Lv Gongzhu, were strong against Wang Anshi’s reform. The two factions thus formed in the court were dead rivals. Under the reign of Emperor Shenzong who energetically supported the reform, court officials in the Old Faction were either squeezed out or resigned from the court. Losing power for the moment, many of those officials moved to Luoyang, keeping a low profile and waiting for a new chance.

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A majority of the officials working in government organizations in Luoyang were scholars, even though they had lost power as political figures. The Songyang Academy of Classical Learning adjacent to Luoyang naturally attracted them for academic reasons. Similar to famous schools today, the Songyang Academy attracted a large number of renowned scholars, such as Sima Guang, Wen Yanbo, Fan Chunren, Cheng Yi, Cheng Hao and Yang Shi, and soon won a high reputation. Students were attracted to the academy across the country. The Songyang Academy of Classical Learning was the most important body of Confucian theories and education in the Northern Song Dynasty. The fierce fight between the New Faction and the Old Faction continued well beyond the reign of Emperor Shenzong, into the reigns of Grand Empress Dowager Gao, Emperor Zhezong, Emperor Huizong and Emperor Qinzong. The political scene of the late Northern Song Dynasty was like turning a pancake, and the two factions were both on a roller coaster. Thus, high-ranking court officials and celebrities sought seclusion in Luoyang and the Songyang Academy from the reign of Emperor Shenzong onwards. Luoyang and Mount Songshan area became an academic center. For instance, Sima Guang completed the Zizhi Tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), a monumental work of history in annalistic style, in Luoyang. In a sense, the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning thrived on the fierce factional strife in the Northern Song Dynasty.

Sima Guang completed the Zizhi Tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), a monumental work of history in annalistic style, in Luoyang

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The Songyang Academy was on decline during the Jin and Yuan dynasties. It was called the Chengtian Palace for a period in the Jin Dynasty, becoming a venue for Taoist activities. The academy hadn’t resumed its academic reputation until the Jiajing era of the Ming Dynasty. Receiving support from the government in the Ming and Qing dynasties, the private academy became more of a government-run school. It remained an important player in Confucian education in China till the imperial examination system was abandoned in the late Qing Dynasty.4

The Library in the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning. The academy was in history both a well-known school and a grand library

A Place of Rebirth of Confucianism: The Witness to the Crisis and Rejuvenation of Confucianism The Lecture Hall in the Songyang Academy was built in memory of Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi, two renowned scholars of the Northern Song Dynasty. Why could the two receive such extraordinary respect?

4

Gong Songtao (2014). Songyang Shuyuan (The Songyang Academy of Classical Learning) Changsha: Hunan University Press.

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Brothers Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi mainly worked in the Songyang Academy. What’s more, they played a role at the critical moment in history of Confucianism. The Cheng brothers founded the idealist philosophy school or lixue school of Confucianism. The theories of this school were later further developed by Zhu Xi. And the school was commonly known as Cheng-Zhu idealist philosophy of Confucianism. The Cheng brothers made reforms within traditional Confucianism. Back then, Confucianism was in a historical crisis and the Cheng brothers’ efforts injected new life into Confucianism. The Songyang Academy was a witness to the rejuvenation of Confucianism.

Hall of Saints in the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning

As the most important part of traditional Chinese culture, Confucianism, however, wasn’t widely recognized at the very beginning. Tianren Sance (Three Strategic Suggestions on Heaven and Man) authored by Dong Zhongshu was highly thought by Emperor Wu of the Western Han Dynasty, and Confucianism began to get popularity in China.5 Thanks to the energetic support from the ruler, Confucianism surged out of the low and became the dominant ideology in China. The Han court ruled that political affairs must follow Confucian classics; court officials were selected from Confucian scholars; and the other schools of thoughts were shut off government-run schools. That’s what’s known in Chinese history “to make Confucianism the sole dominant ideology by suppressing all the other schools 5

As is put in Hanshu: Dong Zhongshu Zhuan (Book of Han: Biography of Dong Zhongshu), “(Dong Zhongshu) admired solely Confucius and suggested that other schools of thoughts be suppressed.”

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of thoughts”. The event has had a far-reaching influence on China. From the Han Dynasty onwards, Confucianism stood as the orthodox ideology in ancient China for thousands of years. Confucianism is almost the synonym of traditional Chinese culture. It seems that Confucianism has since the reign of Emperor Wu of Han been the unrivalled dominant ideology in China. It was not so, in actuality. Confucianism fell into a great crisis between the mid-Tang Dynasty and the turning of the Tang and Song dynasties. Foreign-introduced Buddhism saw great development and won over the ruling during the Wei, Jin, Sui and Tang dynasties. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism was highly logic and rhetoric. Great Buddhist masters, such as Master Xuanzang of Tang, were usually eloquent. In contrast, Confucianism was weak in this aspect, thus fell into a weak position in debates with Buddhism. Accordingly, Confucianism gradually lost its foothold as a state ideology. Emperors of the middle and late Tang Dynasty admired Buddhism more. And Buddhism was gaining an ever-higher status. Confucian scholars and officials got alerted. Be they “the Great Prose Masters of Tang and Song”, “the Classical Prose Movement” or “Yuan (Zhen)-Bai (Juyi) school of poetry” of the middle and late Tang Dynasty, all the efforts by Confucian scholars were to revive Confucian thoughts or to re-establish the Confucian orthodoxy. Scholars, such as Han Yu, were openly against Buddhism. However, Confucian elites soon found that effort of individuals hardly worked. In the 14th year of the Yuanhe era under the reign of Emperor Xianzong of Tang (819), Han Yu went against the emperor’s will and sent a strongly-worded letter Lunfogubiao (Memorial on Bone Relics of the Buddha), saying “Buddha was of a barbarian origin… and knew nothing about the ethical order between emperor and his subjects or between father and son”, and “the bone relics are an filthy object that should be prohibited from being placed in the imperial court”.6 Emperor Xianzong naturally got infuriated and intended to put Han to death. Han Yu was however saved by his friends at the court, and he was demoted and exiled instead.7 Thus, Confucianism had to adapt itself to the times, to go out of the crisis. Confucian elites in the late Tang Dynasty began to launch reform within Confucianism. By the time of the Song Dynasty, Confucian scholars had integrated reasoning of Buddhism with Confucianism and established something known as Neo-Confucianism. The well-known idealist philosophy of Confucianism of the Song and Yuan dynasties saw a start here. All these started from the theories established by Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi collectively known as the Cheng brothers. This school of theories of Confucianism

6

[Tang] Han Yu. Lunfogubiao (Memorial on Bone Relics of the Buddha). Xintangshu: Han Yu Zhuan (New Book of Tang: Biography of Han Yu).

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has been also known as the Cheng-Zhu school of Confucianism. “Cheng” refers to the Cheng brothers and “Zhu” to Zhu Xi.

Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi collectively known as the Cheng brothers were key figures in history of Confucianism

The Cheng brothers were active mainly at Mount Songshan area and adjacent Luoyang that was the second political center of the Northern Song court. NeoConfucianism established by the Cheng brothers has been also known as the idealist philosophy of Luoyang or the Luo school. The Cheng brothers established, developed and taught their theories of Neo-Confucianism mainly in the Songyang Academy, which was one of the first educational organizations of the Northern Song Dynasty to accept and teach the Luo school’s theories. This has been historically known as the rejuvenation of the Luo school. The Cheng brothers taught mainly the traditional Confucian Four Books and Five Classics, including Analects and Mencius, with new interpretations, though. They focused on “reason” or “Heaven’s principle”, which is interpreted as the supreme principle independent of man’s will. “It exists in times of a wise ruler like Yao and in an era of a tyranny like Jie.” “Everything follows its own principle. A rule is set for a thing. An object follows its principle.”8 In the meantime, the principle followed a thing is the principle for all things. Thus, “all things are found in me.” All things in the world follow the one and same principle. In addition, according to the Cheng brothers, “reason” precedes all things in the world, but it is not automatically reflected by “a thing”. Instead, “reason” should be revealed by “man”. Then, what kind of man can do this? Scholars who follow Neo-Confucianism, of course. In this way, Confucian scholars established a well-knit system of theories centering on “reason”. Neo-Confucianism established by the Cheng brothers was later developed astonishingly fast, with effort of later-generation Confucians scholars, the first one 8

[Song] Ercheng Yishu (Words of the Two Chengs), Vol. 18.

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of whom was Yang Shi. Yang, who stood in full respect waiting Cheng Yi to wake up from a nap, followed Cheng Yi. Later, Yang worked as zhuzuolang (official historian) and guozijijiu (president of the Imperial Academy). He was respected as the leading academic figure. Yang Shi was dedicated on developing the Cheng brothers’ Neo-Confucianism and making it known to more, all through his lifetime.9 During the late Northern Song and Southern Song Dynasty, Confucian scholars, such as Zhu Xi, carried forward Neo-Confucianism of the Cheng brothers and Yang Shi. Neo-Confucianism became the dominant ideology in the academic circles of the Southern Song Dynasty and even in the Yuan and Ming dynasties. By then, Confucianism fully got rid of the long-lasting crisis it had been in from the Wei and Jin dynasties onwards, and re-established itself as the orthodox ideology in China. The Songyang Academy witnessed the rejuvenation of Confucianism. Confucianism, since the day of birth, has been open-minded and all-embracing. That’s how it has become the representative of traditional Chinese culture, which is of the same features. Traditional Chinese culture as we call it today is actually a mixed thing; so is Confucianism. Confucian theories followed by Dong Zhongshu and other Confucian scholars of the Han Dynasty were already mingled with theories of such as legalism and yin-and-yang school. That’s how Confucianism could win over Emperor Wu of Han who “used both Confucian and Legalist ways to rule”. In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties when Buddhism and Taoism were popular, Confucian scholars tried to integrated Buddhist and Taoist theories with Confucianism as well, and established the metaphysical school of Confucianism. Mount Songshan and the Songyang Academy are also known for their being all-embracing. Mount Songshan was in history a center for Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism; so was the Songyang Academy. Previously a venue for Buddhist, Taoist and Confucian events, the academy was academically reputed as a school open to various thoughts. That’s why the academy became a frontier for the rejuvenation of Confucianism in crisis. It was never a coincidence. Confucianism has been nourished with its open mind. In the late Qing Dynasty when traditional Chinese culture was confronted by the Western culture and science, the Songyang Academy was again on the frontier of Confucianism as an applied theory. The academy began in the Kangxi era of the Qing Dynasty to include the Western practical learning in its curricula, encouraging its students to apply what they learnt on reality. “In addition to classics, history and quotations of great scholars, one should also learn all practical knowledge in governance, such as military affairs, agriculture, rituals, water conservancy and rivers and channels.”10 The Songyang Academy was always on the frontier of reforms within Confucianism and the center of Confucian education. 9

Refer to Songshi: Yang Shi Zhuan (History of Song: Biography of Yang Shi). Refer to Liu Mengying, Sun Shunlin. “On the Confucian education in the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning.” In Journal of Henan Normal University (philosophy and social science), 1997 (4); Liu Songping. “Guidelines of education of the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning and its significance to higher education of China. ” In Journal of Sanmenxia Polytechnic, 2013(1).

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Chapter 7

Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism at Mount Songshan: From Rivals to Being in Harmony

A religion or school of thought usually has its own holy place. However, it is not common to see a place seen as the holy place for different regions, like Jerusalem. Mount Songshan the Central Sacred Mountain is a place like this. Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, as the most influential thoughts in ancient China, were all found at Mount Songshan, in rival first and finally in harmony. Mount Songshan has crystallized inclusiveness and open-mindedness of the Chinese civilization.

Taoism: The First Step on Mount Songshan “Three religions and nine schools of thought” has been widely known in China. “Three religions” refer to Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, which were all found in history at Mount Songshan. Confucianism had the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning and Buddhism has the Shaolin Temple. Nonetheless, Taoism native to China was the first to dominate Mount Songshan. Mount Songshan the Central Sacred Mountain, as the core place for sacrifices on mountains and sacred mountain sacrifice, received strong support and administration from the central governments from remote antiquity through to the Han Dynasty. Upon the collapse of the Han court, the previously unified country was on verge of split. The Central Plains was plagued with constant wars. The sacred mountain sacrifice on Mount Songshan was thus on decline. The belief system at the area fell into vacuum. Why was Taoism able to make the first victory at Mount Songshan in the struggle with Confucianism and Buddhism? Taking shape about in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, Taoism boasts a long history well before that time when it stood out as a systematic religion. Taoist followers usually attribute the origin of the religion to Taoist thoughts in the Spring and Autumn Period. Its canon Daodejing is said to be authored by Laozi, the © Shanghai Far East Publisher 2021 W. Ren and Y. He, Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9077-1_7

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founder of Taoist thoughts (who is respected by Taoist followers as the founder of Taoism and the model of the legendary Supreme Old Lord). It is said that Laozi practiced self-cultivation and wrote Daodejing at Mount Songshan area. In fact, Zhang Ling, the founder of Taoism, indeed attained enlightenment at Mount Songshan. During the reign of Emperor Shun of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Ling “left home and followed the Way. He carried on his back Taoist classics and lived in seclusion in a cave at Mount Songshan for nine years. Practicing self-cultivation, Zhang finally attained enlightenment”.1 Enlightened at Mount Songshan, Zhang Ling went to present- day Sichuan and established Taoism on Mount Heming. Zhang claimed that he had learnt the doctrines from the Supreme Old Lord and been given the title “Tianshi” (Celestial Master). Thus, Zhang Ling has been also known as “Zhang Tianshi” (Celestial Master Zhang) or “Zhang Daoling”. The Taoist sect he established is called “Tianshidao” (Celestial Master’s Taoism). Alternatively, it is called “Wudoumidao” (Taoism of Five Pecks of Rice), as it required a membership fee of five pecks of rice. Zhang Ling passed the title “Celestial Master” to his son Zhang Heng, who further gave the title to his own son Zhang Lu. In the late Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Lu recruited a large number of followers and set up a separatist regime in Hanzhong. However, in the turbulent late Han Dynasty, both the Eastern Han court and Family Cao wanted to wipe out newly-born Taoism. Taoist followers at Mount Songshan were hit harder. As is put in Sanguo Yanyi (The Romance of the Three Kingdoms), Zuo Ci, who knew well about of Taoist magic, was chased by assassins sent by Cao Cao and managed a narrow escape with his superb magic. Zuo Ci was a representative figure of Taoist priests at Mount Songshan. The situation hadn’t got better until Zhang Lu’s regime submitted itself to Cao Cao. In the Western Jin Dynasty, Taoist priests at Mount Songshan were active in the scene again. Taoism, as a religious belief, got recognized by commoners and some noble families. On the whole, Taoism between its founding in the Eastern Han Dynasty and the Northern Wei Dynasty had hardly influence in society or state power. Then, Taoism had a key figure and critical event in its history. Kou Qianzhi, a famous Taoist priest in the early Northern Wei Dynasty came from a family long in belief of Tianshidao. In his youth, Kou followed Zhang Lu’s Tianshidao. He later went to Mount Songshan and stayed there for decades. The Zhongyue Temple was said to be a major place where Kou Qianzhi lived in seclusion and practices self-cultivation. Kou finally found an effective way of reform within Taoism.

1

[Tang] Wang Xuanhe. Sandong Zhunang, Vol.5, quoted from Chapter II in Daoxuezhuan (History of Taoism).

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Kou Qianzhi, founder of Xintianshidao (New Celestial Master’s Taoism)

The scholar-officials of the Han nationality in power in the Northern Wei court thought little about Taoism that was in its early days somehow simple and crude. Kou Qianzhi was from a noble family and familiar with Confucian culture. By making use of this, Kou claimed that he had met the Supreme Old Lord at Mount Songshan and intended to reform Tianshidao by proving the theories of the previous three-generation Celestial Masters, namely Zhang Ling, Zhang Heng and Zhang Lu, wrong. Kou tried to make Tianshidao something more decent, by removing things like sexual intercourse and membership fees and integrating some of Confucian and Buddhist doctrines. The newly-reform Tianshidao became decent and adapted itself well to the needs of scholar officialdom and ruling order. Kou Qianzhi was widely recognized and accepted as the founder of new Tianshidao.2 However, Taoism in actuality attributed its rise to Cui Hao, who worked as Situ (Minister for Civil Affairs) for the Northern Wei court. Cui Hao had worked for three Northern Wei emperors when Emperor Taiwu, born Tuoba Tao, was in power. Coming from Family Cui of Qinghe, the most distinguished family in the north China back then, Cui Hao was a leading figure of scholar-officials of the Han nationality of the Northern Wei Dynasty under the Xianbei rule. He was unrivaled at the time in terms of statesmanship and military talents. Thus, Cui Hao was the most important court official trusted by and relied upon by Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei.3

2

See Weishu: Shilaozhi (Book of Wei: Treatise on Buddhism and Taoism). See Weishu: Cui Hao Zhuan (Book of Wei: Biography of Cui Hao).

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The alliance between Kou Qianzhi and Cui Hao changed the cultural and ideological scene radically

Kou Qianzhi left Mount Songshan for Pingcheng (present-day Datong, Shanxi Province), the capital of Northern Wei, in the first year of the Shiguang era under the reign of Emperor Taiwu (424), to find a way out for Taoism. Right at the time, Cui Hao got unemployed, as his political views offended Xianbei nobles. Tianshidao after Kou’s reform fit well the values of Confucian scholars. Kou Qianzhi intended to make Taoism accepted by the ruling, with Cui Hao’s help. And Cui wanted to have Kou and his Xintianshidao help him gain more power for the Han officials in the Northern Wei court. The two chimed in easily. Their alliance would rewrite the history of China. Cui Hao actually picked Kou Qianzhi and Xintianshidao by following the interest of the imperial family. Unable to accept by scholar officials, Taoism in its early days was somehow popular with the Xianbei imperial family coming from the grassland in the north, who had little ideas about Confucian culture or rites. Emperors of the Northern Wei Dynasty, from Daowu through Mingyuan to Taiwu, admired immortality (not limited to Taoism). Thus, they were quite likely to accept and admire Taoism. When Cui Hao recommended Kou Qianzhi Emperor Taiwu, the emperor gave a positive feedback. In the same year, Emperor Taiwu sent envoys to offer sacrifices to the Central Sacred Mountain and make salute to Kou’s disciples. In the next year, the emperor had a rite held in the capital, “to show respect to Celestial Master, make the doctrines known to more, and order the masses to follow Taoism”.4 In 440, Kou Qianzhi claimed that the Supreme Old Lord came to

4

Weishu: Shilaozhi (Book of Wei: Treatise on Buddhism and Taoism).

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the world from Heaven. Kou also gave the emperor a title Taiping Zhenjun. And Emperor Taiwu changed the designation of his imperial reign as Taipingzhenjun. In the third year of the Taipingzhenjun era, Emperor Taiwu attended a Taoist rite and received Taoist charms. He gave Kou Qianzhi an official title of Guoshi (the Imperial Teacher). By then, Taoism had established the Taoist papacy and become the religion on the state level. Taoism was on decline upon the death of Kou Qianzhi in the ninth year of the Taipingzhenjun era. However, Taoism had by that time taken a strong foothold in traditional Chinese culture and ideology. Mount Songshan as the base for Kou Qianzhi’s new Taoism had been well with Taoist imprints. The mountain actually was a sort of guarantee for the long-lasting development and far-reaching influence of Taoism. Taoism at Mount Songshan would soon enter people’s vision once again in the Sui and Tang dynasties. From the Southern and Northern Dynasties through to the Sui and Tang dynasties, the Maoshan sect of Shangqing school of Taoism dominated the Taoist scene at Mount Songshan. The Maoshan sect was founded in Liang of the Southern Dynasties. Wang Yuanzhi, the Tenth Master of the Maoshan sect, brought it to Mount Songshan and Luoyang area, when the Sui court established its rule over the country. Wang lived at Mount Maoshan (near present-day Nanjing) and sent Pan Shizheng, one of his disciples, to promote the teachings at Mount Songshan. The imperial family of the Tang Dynasty by the family name of Li claimed that Li Er or Laozi as their ancestor and energetically supported Taoism. Thus, Taoism enjoyed great advantages in the Tang Dynasty. Nonetheless, Taoism had to find a way of development at Mount Songshan, to adapt itself to the specific conditions there. The Zhongyue Temple, which was originally a venue for offering sacrifices to the Central Sacred Mountain, was put under the Taoist administration from the Northern Wei Dynasty onwards. The temple became accordingly the center of Taoism at Mount Songshan. The deities of Songshan were integrated into the family of Taoist immortals, receiving state-level sacrifices and from Taoist followers. The central government also saw Taoist priests at Mount Songshan as a resourceful manpower at Mount Songshan. The national administration for sacrifices on Mount Songshan had long been obsolete in the turbulence in the late Han Dynasty. The Zhongyue Temple was a Taoist venue. The central government then put the routine administration of Mount Songshan into the hand of Taoist priests on the mountain.

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Taoism was in actuality an integral part of the state-level rituals. Taoist priests took a role in sacrificial events held on Mount Songshan from the Southern and Northern Dynasties through to the Sui and Tang dynasties. Emperor Gaozong of Tang and Wu Zetian gave even more attention to sacrifices on Mount Songshan and to Taoism on Mount Songshan. Emperor Gaozong, born Li Zhi, paid several visits to the mountain and received Taoist priests there. Wu Zetian held a sacrificial ceremony on Mount Songshan in 696 and changed the designation of her imperial reign into “Wansuidengfeng” (Dengfeng was named after it). By being an integral part of the supreme ritual and political power of the state, Taoism successfully dominated Mount Songshan.

Harmony Between Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism at Mount Songshan The Bell Tower of the Shaolin Temple sits to the east of the Hall of Sakyamuni. In front of the Bell Tower there is a stone stele. At first glance, the stele seems to depict a shaven-headed plump old man. But at a second glance, the picture is somehow amazing. With the right part covered, the left part depicts the image of an old Confucian scholar. With the left part covered, the right part illustrates the image of an old Taoist priest. The stone stele is called “Ode to the picture of the blending of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism”, drawn and written by Zhu Zaiyu, a member of the Ming imperial family. The three old men depicted are the founders of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, namely Confucius, Sakyamuni and Laozi. The entire picture consists of three concentric circles. The outermost is Hun Yuan or the universe; the middle one, depicting the images of the three figures, symbolizes the three religions of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism; the innermost is a nine-petal lotus, meaning the nine schools of thought. Zhu Zaiyu wrote, “Good deeds may vary, but the ultimate goal is the same. Narrow-minded men close ranks against aliens. Diversities are not worrisome, as they have strengths to their own. They only need to sit in a perfect harmony. The three religions are the same in nature, and the nine schools of thought originated from the same source. There is only one and same principle on the earth.” The three religions and the nine schools of thought are in harmony without uniformity, as they are in essence a whole in the universe. How beautiful that harmonious scene is!

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“The picture of the blending of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism” in the Shaolin Temple

Chinese culture is an all-embracing one for the harmony of all parts in it. Mount Songshan, as the Center of Heaven and Earth, stands as an epitome. “The picture of the blending of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism” has illustrated the harmony to the full. The three religions have all left their own imprints on Mount Songshan in the past millennium. The mountain is today seeing a scene prosperous with various cultures and thoughts. Nevertheless, the three religions were in anything but harmony in the early days of their first encounters. Taoism was the first to get the upper hand in the void of belief after sacrificial ceremonies on Mount Songshan had been out of practice. In the meantime, Buddhism found a difficult foothold in the Taoism-dominated Mount Songshan, only with the energetic support for Emperor Xiaowen. And Confucianism, as the

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orthodoxy state ideology, had long relied upon governmental organizations in political centers; it hadn’t been a part of Mount Songshan until the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning gained popularity. In their early days of encounters, the three religions struggled hard for the front of ideology at Mount Songshan, even for the entire Central Plains region. Clashes between different schools of thoughts were usually fueled by complicated political struggles. Confucianism strived from its birthday for political power. Buddhism and Taoism, seemingly detached from the secular world, tried to win support from political patrons and even resorted to groups in power, to suppress each other. The power struggle between the three religions at Mount Songshan, in turn, often led to capricious ruling ideologies of the country. As such, Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism at Mount Songshan used to be in fierce and catastrophic strife. For instance, Kou Qianzhi found a political patron in Cui Hao in the Northern Wei Dynasty, to suppress Buddhism. As the most powerful official in the Northern Wei court and the leader of Confucian force in north China, Cui Hao was simply too eager to suppress Buddhism and find a precious chance for Confucianism. Ignoring Kou Qianzhi’s plea, Cui took further actions and successfully lobbied Emperor Taiwu to intensify the persecution of Buddhist monks. According to historic documents, the Northern Wei court “destroyed Buddhism and sent army to burn down Buddhist temples. Buddhist monks and nuns were ordered to give up their belief. Anyone who fled would be beheaded once being captured. There were no Buddhist monks or nuns across the entire territory”.5 Buddhism in north China hadn’t seen recovery until the deaths of Kou Qianzhi, Cui Hao (put to death due to history writing) and Emperor Taiwu (born Tuoba Tao). Nonetheless, the devastating strife between the three religions was far from end. Merely take Buddhism for example, the persecution were followed by three others, collectively known grand anti- Buddhist persecutions under the reign of Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei, Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou, Emperor Wuzong of Tang and Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou. The three others were never inferior to the anti-Buddhist persecution launched by Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei. But the scenario would be changed, anyway. Traditionally, Chinese culture has been in favor of harmony and following the doctrine of the mean. The three religions and the nine schools of thought at Mount Songshan would finally go out of strife and come to harmony. In their fierce struggles, however, Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism never isolated themselves from or despised one another; instead, they all tried to integrate the others’ thoughts and theories into their own. In addition, the three religions also nourished themselves with ideas from the nine schools of thought. Confucian, Buddhist and Taoist doctrines and teachings were thus not what they used to be at the very beginning. Kou Qianzhi’s Xintianshi Dao or New Celestial Master’s Taoism integrated Confucian and Buddhism rituals. Chinese Chan Buddhism was a localized thing with Confucian features. Neo-Confucianism established of the Song and Yuan

5

[Liang] Shi Huijiao. Gaoseng Zhuan (Biographies of Eminent Monks), Vol.10.

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dynasties was improved with the critical thinking learnt from Buddhism and Taoism. Despite incessant fights, the three religions got more similar to one another. This sort of assimilation made the three become the core of traditional Chinese culture. Thus, Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism would sooner or later come into harmony. As the political disruption through the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties came to an end in the founding of a strong central government of the Tang court, the three religions let their old scores go. The entire society became more open-minded and tolerant. Literary men and scholar officials of the Tang and Song dynasties usually followed Confucian, Buddhist and Taoist doctrines and adapted themselves well to the situation they sat in. It was no long a fight of life and death. In spite of struggles in later days, Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism have since then on basically been on good terms.

Stele of Buddhist, Taoist and Confucian sacred images. Drawn by Zu Zhao, a monk of the temple and a painter; the upper part of the stele bears an ode by Tang Emperor Suzong, below which are the sacred images of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism

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A legend goes that many came to Bodhidharma the First Patriarch of the Chan Buddhism when he was practicing wall-gazing in the cave. In the meantime, Celestial Master Kou Qainzhi had a dream in which Zhenwu Emperor scolded him for a loose administration that led to a domination of Mount Songshan by Buddhist monks. Kou Qianzhi then went to Bodhidharma Cave and practi ced Tao ist charm s on the Buddhist monks there, so that the monks fell into a trance. Knowing this, Bodhidharma taught his disciples to chant Xixinjing (Heart-washing Sutra) and practice Xinyiquan (Heart Boxing). Bodhidharma later had a meeting with Kou Qianzhi, hoping that the two religions may get on good terms and learn from each other. After the meeting, Kou went on good terms with the Chan Buddhism. And the two religions has since then coexisted at Mount Songshan. The legend was only fabricated by later generations, as Bodhidharma and Kou Qianzhi may never meet. But the story more or less tells about how different religions and thoughts came from strife into harmony.

The Tang Stele of the Songyang Temple, erected in the third year of the Tianbao era of the Tang Dynasty (744), is 9.02 m in height, 2.04 m in width and 1.05 m in thickness. Grand in size, the stele is inscribed with a 1078-character essay with superb carving skills. The inscription on the stele tells about the story that Sun Taichong, a Taoist priest in the Songyang Guan on Mount Songshan made pills of immortality for Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, born Li Longji. The essay was authored by Li Linfu. The title was written by Pei Jiong. Xu Hao wrote the inscription in bafen official script. It is a masterpiece of calligraphy of the Tang Dynasty. Over 80 tons in weight, the stele has its cap alone more than 10 tons heavy. There is an anecdote about erecting the stele in a smart way. And the stele is even attractive thanks to this anecdote.

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Mount Songshan bore witness both to the early-day strife and later-day harmony of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. Both the Shaolin Temple and the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning witnessed the prosperity of harmony of the three religions. The Songyang Academy, in particular, was in history a Buddhist temple, a Taoist temple and a Confucian private school. Buddhist and Taoist imprints have been seen in the academy as well. The Stele of the Songyang Temple to the south of the academy’s main gate is inscribed with Buddhist statues and inscriptions of the Northern Wei Dynasty. It is a piece of evidence that the academy used to be a Buddhist temple. The Tang Stele of the Songyang Temple west to the main gate over nine meters high is the largest stele in the Central Plains. The inscription on the stele tells about the story that a Taoist priest on Mount Songshan made pills of immortality for Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, born Li Longji. The stele has been one of the icons of the Songyang Academy.

The Stele of Songyang Temple south to the gate of the Academy provides material proof that the Academy’s predecessor was the Songyang Temple. The carvings and calligraphy on it are Northern Wei masterpieces. The two aforementioned stelae are witnesses to the history of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism here at Mount Songshan.

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The Chongfu Palace hundreds of meters away from the Songyang Academy is another place bearing witness to the harmony between the three religions at Mount Songshan. The palace was another renowned Taoist venue at Mount Songshan area, in addition to the Zhongyue Temple. It was said that Emperor Wu of Han heard shouts “Long Live the Emperor” in the mountain in his trip to Mount Songshan in the first year of the Yuanfeng era. And the emperor had the Taishi Shrine renovated and Chonggao Prefecture established. In addition, a Wansui Pavilion was built on the mountain top and a Wansui Guan constructed at the mountain foot. The Wansui Guan was the predecessor of the Chongfu Palace.

The Chongfu Palace

Later, Emperor Wu of Han listened to one of his court officials that “Taiyi is the supreme celestial immortal”,6 and had a Taiyi Altar built over the spring in the Wansui.

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Hanshu: Jiaosizhi (Book of Han: Treatise on Sacrifices).

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Guan. According to divination, hexagram Taiyi symbolizes the source of water. A drought hit one year in the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang, the emperor asked a Taoist priest named Liu Daohe to pray to Heaven for rain at the Taiyi Altar. And it rained. The emperor then had the Wansui Guan renamed Taiyi Guan. Emperor Zhenzong of Northern Song was a devout Taoist follower and upgraded Taiyi Guan into a “palace”, renaming it Chongfu Palace.

Fanshang Pavilion in the Chongfu Palace

There is a smartly-designed pavilion in the Chongfu Palace. In the center of the pavilion runs a winding channel. This Fanshang Pavilion is a modern replica of the original one. Such a design first emerged in the Northern Song Dynasty. The winding channel was first designed according to the floating cup custom. It was a long-existing custom in ancient China. When people had a get-together by a winding channel, they placed a wine cup in the channel. The cup floated. The person in front of whom the cup stopped would pick it up and drank the wine in it. The custom got well known to people thanks to the calligraphic work Lantingjixu.

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(Preface to the Orchid Pavilion Collection), written by Wang Xizhi, a great scholar of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. The work has been known as the best Chinese calligraphic work of running script. The custom was originally a common practice in Shangsi Festival falling on the third day of the third lunar month. However, the festival itself fell into oblivion, while the custom became a common practice of the Qingming Festival that is near to the Shangsi Festival on calendar. This custom later became an icon of elegance admired and followed by Confucian literati and scholar officials. Thus, a winding channel came into the design of traditional Chinese gardens, as an epitome of Confucian elegance. Fanshang Pavilion in the Chongfu Palace is in nature a cup-floating pavilion. Why was such a Confucian-style pavilion built in a Taoist venue? In the Northern Song Dynasty, the Chongfu Palace was a Taoist temple different from its counterparts. Taoist priests practiced Taoism here, while at the same time, there were in the Chongfu Palace government officials such as tiju and guangou, in charge of administrative and sacrificial affairs. Court officials who lost power in the fierce strife in the middle and late Northern Song Dynasty were usually forced to leave Bianliang the Eastern Capital and work under petty titles in Songluo area. In addition to posts in government organizations in Luoyang, quite a number of such petty posts were in the Chongfu Palace. According to the county’s annals, nearly 100 renowned court officials and great scholars who used to work in the Chongfu Palace in the Song Dynasty, such as Fan Zhongyan, Han Wei, Lv Hui, Sima Guang, Zhao Ye, Li Gang, Li Bing, Xu Yinglong, Liu Guangzu, Ni Si, Wang Ju’an, Cui Yuzhi, Xu Yi, Cao Yanyue, Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi, Yang Shi, Zhu Xi, Chao Yongzhi, Zhang Lei, Huang Yan and Wang Kaotong. Working under the petty titles of tiju and guangou, in the name of being in charge of the administrative affairs of the Chongfu Palace, those Confucian scholars were largely engaged in their Confucian studies and frequently gave lectures in the adjacent Songyang Academy of Classical Learning. Thus, an academic circle of great influence gradually took shape here. For instance, Sima Guang completed volumes 9–21 of the Zizhi Tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), a monumental work of history in annalistic style, in the Chongfu Palace and the Songyang Academy. The scholar officials working in the Chongfu Palace thus had the Fanshang Pavilion built for their fellow scholars, as a sort of spiritual icon. In fact, there was more than the Fanshang Pavilion during the Tiansheng era (1023–1031) under the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Northern Song Dynasty. Confucian scholar officials also built here in the Chongfu Palace Yiqi Pavilion (for chess playing) and Chupu Pavilion (for chupu chess playing) and other facilities for leisure. The

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Fanshang Pavilion is the only one that has survived. The Chongfu Palace, a Taoist venue though, is deeply imprinted with Confucian features. Confucianism and Taoism were on good terms. The palace was a model of harmony of the two religions. As the Center of Heaven and Earth, Mount Songshan has been an epitome of the essence of Chinese culture, namely “harmony in diversity”. People today still find the charms of the Chinese civilization of harmony and inclusiveness in the historic imprints left on Mount Songshan. Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism and other schools of thought clashed here and went into harmony here. They learnt from each other and grew better themselves. In a common prosperity, all the religions and schools of thought have grown into a whole of traditional Chinese culture. That’s the ethos of Mount Songshan and of China.

Chapter 8

An Architectural Epitome

Built in conformity with the concept of “The Centre of Heaven and Earth”, the architectural complexes at Mount Songshan are the earliest and finest examples of different architectural structures that have far-reaching influence on surrounding areas and neighboring countries.

An Example of the Official Architecture: Yingzao Fashi and the Main Hall of the Chuzu Temple The Chuzu Temple is situated on a hill 2 km northwest of the Shaolin Temple compound, with Wuru Peak behind it. It was built in memory of Bodhidharma the First Patriarch of the Chan Buddhism. Bodhidharma was said to gaze at the wall in a cave in the Wuru Peak at the western foot of Mount Songshan. There, he attained enlightenment and created Chinese Chan Buddhism. As is recorded in the Stele of the Archway in the Chuzu Temple erected in the 33rd year of the Wanli era of the Ming Dynasty (1605), “the Chuzu Temple was built at the place where the First Patriarch practiced wall-gazing”. Thus, the temple is alternatively known as the Wall-gazing Temple. Moreover, the Chuzu Temple has had a far-reaching influence in the history of Chinese architecture.

© Shanghai Far East Publisher 2021 W. Ren and Y. He, Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9077-1_8

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A distant view of the Chuzu Temple

In the second year of the Chongning era under the reign of Emperor Huizong of the Northern Song Dynasty (1103), Yingzao Fashi (Treatise on Architectural Methods) was published by the Northern Song government. The author was Li Jie, an architect from the Directorate of Buildings and Construction. Li, as an architect, worked there for 13 years out of his 22-year officialdom. Yingzao Fashi has been the first government-sponsored treatise on architecture and craftsmanship, setting strict rules for architecture on different levels. Constructions were in a large scale at the time, while there were no specific rules for structures, materials and decoration for different architectural structures. This led to astonishing waste. Moreover, construction undertakers and officials in charge were financially corrupt. The Northern Song court thus decided to publish a government-sponsored monograph on architecture and craftsmanship, to prevent malpractices in constructions. Yingzao Fashi thus came into being. As early as during the Xining era (1068–1077) under the reign of Emperor Shenzong of Song when Wang Anshi launched his reforms, Wang suggested that “rules are set for all government expenditures and important affairs such as sacrificial ceremonies”.1 The Song court thus ordered treatises (Fashi) complied by corresponding governmental departments. The Directorate of Buildings and Construction (Jiangzuojian) was in charge of compling Yingzao Fashi on architecture and craftsmanship. Nonetheless, this first Yingzao Fashi was far from satisfactory. And Li Jie was asked to rewrite it. On his memorial to the court accompanying the manuscript of Yingzao Fashi, Li Jie wrote, “(The old Fashi) was nothing more than descriptions, without any rules for construction or materials. 1

Songshi: Shihuo zhi (History of Song: Treatise on Finance and Economics), Vol.2.

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Scroll of Bodhidharma in wall-gazing by Song Xu of the Ming Dynasty. In the collection of Lvshun Museum

Rules for labor and materials in it were simply too loose to be effective.” That is to say, the old Fashi was of no help in management, as “it was of empty words with no practical use”. The new Fashi “used material from preexisting writings and documented the inherited traditions of craftsmen and architects passed down by word of mouth”. The new edition integrated theories and practice. It was completed

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Li Jie’s tomb in Xinzheng

in the third year of the Yuanfu era under the reign of Emperor Zhezong (1100) and published three years later. Yingzao Fashi had has a far-reaching influence, as a milestone in the history of Chinese architecture. It is a must-read for later-generation scholars and architects. The book records the architectural traditions of the Sui and Tang dynasties, accurately illustrates the Song architecture, and has an influence on later-generation architectural forms. Li Jie stressed “fixed rules for changeable forms”. Figurative architectural structures “are transformed into” membranes, combinations, principles for transformation, and technical tips for processing, so that architects in practice may “follow their own ideas without stepping across the borders”. The fixed rules in the book are flexible. The “caifen” rules set in the book are similar to a modern modular system. Timber membranes are put into eight ranks, according to the cross-sectional area. “Timber membranes used in a house are put into eight ranks and applied accordingly.” Also, all the eight ranks of timber membranes are 15 fen in height and 10 fen in width.2 Building materials were thus normalized and standardized. It was easier for both construction and management. Similarly, Yingzao Fashi set rules for brackets, beams and ornaments and paintings.3 It is no wonder that Liang Sicheng, a master architect, called Yingzao Fashi a textbook on traditional Chinese architecture.4

2

Guo Daiheng (ed.) (2009). History of Traditional Chinese Architecture III: Architecture of Song, Liao, Jin and Xixia (2nd edition), Chapter 10. Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press. 3 [Song] Li Jie. Yingzao Fashi. 4 Liang Sicheng. “Two textbooks on the history of Chinese architecture” in Liang Sicheng. (2001). Complete Works of Liang Sicheng, Vol. 4. Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press.

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There have been many editions of Yingzao Fashi that have survived. As a general manual for the Song architecture, the book has had a far-reaching influence in East Asia. Few Song architectural structures have survived today, let alone those that were built in the dates of Yingzao Fashi. The Chuzu Temple in the Shaolin Temple compound is a material evidence. The Chuzu Temple ensemble retains the original shape of the Song Dynasty, despite renovations and reconstructions throughout the history. Three buildings (the gate, the main hall and the Thousand Buddha Pavilion) are on the central axis, which is flanked by the Mianbi Pavilion and the Pavilion of the Holy Parents. The main hall was built in the seventh year of the Xuanhe era under the reign of Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty (1125), only 25 years after the completion of Yingzao Fashi. As a wooden construction, its construction time was nearest to the completion and publication time of Yingzao Fashi. Also, the hall was closely related to Kaifeng, the political center of the Northern Song Dynasty. It conforms to the rules laid down in that book, making them important examples of Song wooden construction technology, and most likely unique examples of wooden structural design and stone carving, thereby throwing light on the rules set out in Yingzao Fashi. The main hall of the Chuzu Temple has an irreplaceable historical value. The main hall of the Chuzu Temple conforms to the rules laid down in Yingzao Fashi, despite numerous renovations throughout the dynasties. The stone outer and hypostyle columns, wainscot and exquisite reliefs on the four sides of the altar are the original ones of the Song Dynasty. Yingzao Fashi was strict about architectural ranks. A building like the main hall of the Chuzu Temple belongs to the top-ranking group of halls. The top two timber membranes out of the eight ranks were allowed for such a building. The three-bay- wide hall has its beam construction and brackets conform to the rules set in Yingzao Fashi for a three-bay hall.

The main hall of the Chuzu Temple, material evidence to the rules set in Yingzao Fashi

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Brackets or dougong are most distinct design in traditional Chinese architecture and even the icon of traditional Chinese architecture. The part of brackets in Yingzao Fashi is one of the best parts in the book. Brackets in the Song architecture are of distinctive features. The brackets in the main hall of the Chuzu Temple are the model to the rules set in the book. In Yingzao Fashi, brackets were called puzuo and put into different categories according to the places they were in, including zhutoupuzuo (column-top bracket set), bujianpuzuo (bracket set between columns), zhuanjiaopuzuo (in-corner bracket set) and so on. Yingzao Fashi detailed the use of brackets, “If a round wooden block (dou) is used on the column top, the wooden blocks used between columns should be round-cornered (ejiaodou).” Dou or ludou refers to the load-bearing membrane on the bottom of each bracket set. A dou is largely square, round or round-cornered. Ejiaodou is in the shape between a square and a round one; that is, an ejiaodou is a round-cornered square dou. The aforementioned rule on the use dou set in Yingzao Fashi is well followed in the construction of the main hall of the Chuzu Temple. One sees today the combination of round wooden blocks (yuandou) and round-cornered wooden blocks (ejiaodou) in the building. It is the unique and sole example of the kind that survives. The distribution of bracket sets in the hall also conforms to the related rule set in Yingzao Fashi, “two bujianpuzuo (bracket sets between columns) are used in the central bay and one in the side bay or end bay.” In addition, the beam construction of the hall largely conforms to related rules in the book.

The beam structure of the main hall of the Chuzu Temple

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So are the carving decorations, in terms of design, form and carving techniques involved.5

The bracket sets (puzuo) in the main hall of the Chuzu Temple well follow the rules set in Yingzao Fashi

Refer to “Section Three The Chuzu Temple in the Shaolin Temple in Dengfeng” in Chapter Six in History of Traditional Chinese Architecture III: Architecture of Song, Liao, Jin and Xixia.

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Built to the rules set in Yingzao Fashi, the main hall of the Chuzu Temple is, in turn, a piece of solid evidence to the book. It has been a masterpiece of the Song wooden construction and the model of architecture and craftsmanship of the time that has survived today. It is thus of the equal significance as the Chan Buddhism and the Shaolin Temple.

High-relief carving on the stone column inside the main hall of the Chuzu Temple

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Stone carvings inside the main hall of the Chuzu Temple

Mural inside the main hall of the Chuzu Temple

The Hall of Sakyamuni in the Huishan Temple, another famous Buddhist temple at Mount Songshan, is also a precious model in the history of traditional Chinese architecture. This Song-style hall is at the same time sturdy-looking as the Yuan architecture usually is. North to the main gate of the Huishan Temple, the Hall of Sakyamuni is 10.6 m in height, 19.92 m in length and 13.28 m in width, occupying an area of 264.54 m2. The five-bay hall measures three bays deep and has a hip-and-gable roof. The hall has large bracket sets with five puzuo and double linking arms and sloping cantilever. In each bay there is one bujianpuzuo (bracket set between columns). The four columns in the three bays on the front eave are made of wood, and the other eave columns are made of stone. The central and side bays on the front façade are installed with partition doors, while the end bays are installed with partition windows on sills. The central bay on the rear façade is installed with slab doors. Inside the hall, a system of column elimination was adopted:

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The Hall of Sakyamuni in the Huishan Temple is a representative building of the Yuan architecture

An in-corner bracket set (zhuanjiaopuzuo) in the Hall of Sakyamuni in the Huishan Temple

Two hypostyle columns in the front were eliminated in the central bay and two hypostyle columns in the rear were eliminated in the next bays. The hall has an overhanging roof. Its beam construction, bracket sets, height of the roof truss and color paintings and plinths are of technical features of the Yuan architecture. The hall is an important example of the evolvement of wooden constructions in ancient China.

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Yingzao Fashi set the rules for architecture and craftsmanship of the Song and Yuan dynasties. The book has been a model of its kind in later generations.

Beam construction inside the Hall of Sakyamuni in the Huishan Temple

Innumerable Pagodas in the Pagoda Forest in the Shaolin Temple Pagodas have been familiar to Chinese people, as one of the major forms in traditional Chinese architecture. Nonetheless, pagodas are not native to China. Chinese people are also familiar with the term futu, as the old saying goes, “one has done more than building a seven-storey futu by saving another’s life.” Futu is originally a Sanskrit term, alternatively known as sudubo, meaning a tomb. It’s a Buddhist architectural structure used to bury Buddhist relics from cremation. It’s “pagoda” as we know. Pagodas, originally a Buddhist thing from ancient India, were introduced to China during the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties. As Buddhism gained influence in China, more pagodas were built, first to enshrine Buddha’s relics or bury relics of eminent monks. Later, pagodas were developed as an integral part of Chinese culture and used in many other ways. Thus, pagodas became what we’re familiar with today.

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The Shaolin Temple deep in the forests at Mount Shaoshi has been through the history a famous Buddhist temple with numerous eminent monks. There are a great many pagodas in the temple. The Pagoda Forest is a group of pagodas that commemorate eminent monks, located on a slope some 280 m west of the Kernel Compound. The ancient pagodas are closely arranged, giving rise to the name of “Pagoda Forest”. It covers an area of 1.99 ha, with the Shaoxi River in the south and Wuru Peak in the north. There are altogether 241 ancient pagodas in the Pagoda Forest, all brick or stone ones. The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple surpasses any other Chinese pagoda group in the number of its pagodas. Pagodas in the Pagoda Forest are in an astounding number, even though quite a number of pagodas have long been lost in history. The number was said to be an incredibly large one in ancient times. It is said that in a trip to Mount Songshan, Emperor Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty stayed at the Shaolin Temple. Hearing that there were numerous pagodas in the Pagoda Forest, the emperor sent 200 Imperial Guards to the Pagoda Forest, telling them to stand beside pagodas, one soldier by each pagoda. There proved to be more pagodas than 200. The emperor then sent other 500 soldiers. And there were still more pagodas without soldiers standing by. Emperor Qianlong felt awed, “Pagodas in the Pagoda Forest are truly innumerable!” There may be not that many pagodas as was said. But the number is indeed astonishing.

The Pagoda Forest in the Shaolin Temple

Innumerable Pagodas in the Pagoda Forest in the Shaolin Temple

The Pagoda Forest in the snow

The Pagoda Forest in the Shaolin Temple

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The Pagoda Forest has been also known to the world for the time span of construction and types of pagodas. In the “forest” and in the vicinity there is a total of 241 pagodas dating from seven dynasties—Tang, the Five Dynasties, Song, Jin, Yuan, Ming and Qing. 6 pagodas date from the Tang Dynasty, 1 from the Five Dynasties, 5 from the Song Dynasty, 17 from the Jin Dynasty, 52 from the Yuan Dynasty, 148 from the Ming Dynasty, and 14 from the Qing Dynasty. There are 23 that date from unknown periods. (In Yang Huancheng’s book and in “A study of the Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple” later quoted, the total number is 243. Six pagodas date from the Tang Dynasty, one from the Five Dynasties, five from the Song Dynasty, 17 from the Jin Dynasty, 52 from the Yuan Dynasty, 158 from the Ming Dynasty, and 14 from the Qing Dynasty.) The Pagoda Forest is known as “a comprehensive history”6 of ancient pagodas in China, as the time of construction spans over more than 1000 years from the Tang Dynasty through to the Qing Dynasty. The Pagoda Forest has been a window through which people today can have a good study of ancient pagodas throughout the dynasties. Pagodas have distinctive features of the times in which they were built. The Tang pagodas are generally single-storey square or hexagonal overlapped-eaves pagodas that are sturdy-looking and feature exquisite stone-carving tops. A Song pagoda is usually a tomb for several anonymous monks. Overlapped-eaves, such a pagoda looks similar to a Tang pagoda, yet much inferior in size and craftsmanship. Square pagodas of the Jin Dynasty, such as Pagoda of Master Duan and Pagoda of Master Xitang, look like houses with exquisite carvings. The Yuan pagodas are largely stone ones in shape of vase and cylinder with exquisite carvings. They look like the white pagoda in the Summer Palace. Pagodas from the Ming and Qing dynasties are mostly square or hexagonal brick pagodas, in various shapes, though. A Ming or Qing pagoda is somewhat a mixture of styles of the previous dynasties.

Yang Huancheng, Tang Wenxing. “Museum of ancient pagodas: the Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple”. In Cultural Relics of Central China, 1986 (2).

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The Pagoda of Master Fawan

Stone carving on the Pagoda of Master Fawan

Built in the seventh year of the Zhenyuan era under the reign of Emperor Dezong of Tang (791), the Pagoda of Master Fawan is an 8.1 m high, square-shaped, single-eaved pagoda of 27-layer polished bricks. The pavilion-like solid-bodied pagoda is the oldest pagoda in the Pagoda Forest. The surviving eave is obviously of a concave arc. The top is adorned with five-layer exquisite carvings.

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Master Fawan was an eminent monk of the Tang Dynasty. There is rich information on the temple in the inscriptions on the pagoda.

The Pagoda of Master Fahua. Over 100 m outside the east wall of the Kernel Compound, the 5.1 m high square- shaped, pavilion-like, single-eaved pagoda is the only pagoda built in the Five Dynasties in the Mount Songshan region. It was built in the fourth year of the Tongguang era of Later Tang of the Five Dynasties (926). The pagoda crystallizes the changes in shape, construction and brick and stone carvings of pagodas of the Tang and Song dynasties

The Pagoda of Mastern Xiaoguang. On the slope north to the Shaolin Temple, the 4.14 m high hexagonal-shaped, pavilion-like, single-eaved pagoda was built in the ninth year of the Tianbao era of the Tang Dynasty (750). It is of a unique design in the Shaolin Temple complex and a rarely-seen hexagonal-shaped stone pagoda from the Tang Dynasty in China

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Adhesives used on pagodas from different times also vary. Bricks on the brick pagodas from the Tang and Five Dynasties are glued together with yellow mud (containing organics such as sticky rice juice). Adhesives, as an early-day building material in ancient China, are also used as a criterion for dating of architectural structures. The adhesives used on the five Song pagodas are different from those used before the Song Dynasty. Yellow mud is used on the pagodas before the Song Dynasty, while the adhesive for the brickwork of the wall is lime slurry and interior of the wall is glued together with yellow mud or lime slurry. The adhesive used on brick pagodas from the Jin, Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties is lime slurry. Lime slurry replaced yellow mud as adhesive. Bricks used vary to times as well. Brick pagodas from the Tang and Five Dynasties are largely built with large bricks; and some bricks have on the back imprinted string pattern. Bricks on the Song pagodas are roughly the same in size as those of the Tang Dynasty, but the shape of bricks is evidently different. Bricks on the Jin pagodas are thinner. Some narrow bricks of the early Song Dynasty are imprinted with string pattern, which is hardly seen on bricks of later days. Bricks of the Yuan Dynasty are obviously different from those of the Tang and Song dynasties: There is no string pattern and bricks get smaller. Bricks of the Ming Dynasty are shorter yet thicker. Bricks of the middle and late Qing Dynasty are basically the same as modern-day bricks in shape and size.7

Yang Huancheng. “A study of the Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple”. In Journal of Huanghe S&T University, 2013(1).

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The Pagoda of Master Zhugong. Built in the first year of the Zhengda era of the Jin Dynasty (1224), the 2.7 m high inverted bell- shaped pagoda features exquisite carvings and is an artistic masterpiece. Zhugong was the abbot of the temple

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J The Sakyamuni Pagoda. The 8.1 m high Sakyamuni Pagoda is located in the pagoda courtyard of

the Kernel Compound of the Shaolin Temple. The pavilion-like two- storey pagoda was built in the second year of the Yuanyou era of the Song Dynasty (1087)

Pagodas in the Pagoda Forest have been taken as models of pagodas of their times. They well reflect the level of architectural design, decoration, masonry, brick and stone carving, and colored glass techniques of different times, truly demonstrating the level of architecture and craftsmanship.

The Pagoda of Monk Tanran. Built in the eighth year of the Wanli era of the Ming Dynasty (1580), the 5.1 m high lama pagoda features an Eight Diagrams pattern specially designed and finely carved. It’s a masterpiece of ancient stone carving

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The Pagoda of Dazhang Shugong. Built in the sixth year of the Longqing era of the Ming Dynasty (1572), the 10.1 m high hexagonal-shaped brick lama pagoda features an elegant shape beautiful pagoda and is representative of the high technical level of Ming architecture

Details on the Pagoda of Dazhang Shugong

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All the pagodas in the Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple are used to bury monks’ relics from cremation. Nonetheless, not all the monks of the Shaolim Temple could enjoy this treatment after death. Almost all the pagoda inscriptions contain terms like “abbot”, “compound headmaster”, “hall headmaster”, “chief monk”, “temple chef”, “elder monk” or “tidian”. That is, only monks with official titles or reputed monks of the Shaolin Temple have been entitled to having their relics buried in the Pagoda Forest, which is in fact the graveyard for the eminent monks of the temple. However, there are two exceptions. Two pagodas were built for ordinary monks. Basically the same as the other pagodas in shape, the two pagodas are tombs for a group of monks. Such an ordinary pagoda is the tomb for a number of monks, while an eminent monk was buried in one pagoda alone. Except the ordinary monks buried in the two pagodas in the Pagoda Forest, all the other ordinary monks of the Shaolin Temple were buried outside the Pagoda Forest, in a way roughly the same as a non-Buddhist comer is buried. Thus, in addition to differences in shape and size, pagodas in the Pagoda Forest also reflect the financial conditions of the construction times, as well as hierarchical system and pagoda burial system in ancient China.

Two ordinary pagodas as the exceptions in the Pagoda Forest and as a witness to the hierarchical differences among monks of the Shaolin Temple. Quite a number of eminent monks were buried in the Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple. The Pagoda Forest is thus a witness to the Chinese history of Buddhism and to key figures and events in the history of Chinese Chan Buddhism

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Built in the first year of the Yongchang era of the Tang Dynasty (689), the Pagoda of Master Faru is the oldest pagoda in the Shaolin Temple complex. Master Faru was a historically-significant figure of the Chan Buddhism. Chinese Chan Buddhism saw a division of Dingmen and Huimen at the times of Daoxin the Fourth Patriarch. “Ding” (Samadhi in Sanskrit) refers to deep meditation a monk is required to be in. “Hui” or wisdom is the gift a monk has. Dingmen and Huimen are like the two hands of the Chan Buddhism, Ding on the left and Hui on the right. Nevertheless, one is hardly able to practice to enhance both at the same time. Hongren the Fifth Patriarch were superb in both, with deep meditation as the major. Master Faru, who received guidance from Hongren himself, followed teachings of the Dingmen, known as “Head of Dingmen”. Master Faru went back to the Shaolin Temple during the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang, to promote teachings of the Dingmen. “Monks across the country gathered together in the Shaolin Temple, asking Master Faru to lead rejuvenation of Buddhism.”8 Faru intended to revive the Shaolin Temple. Only six years after his arrival at the Shaolin Temple, Master Faru passed away in the first year of the Yongchang era of the Tang Dynasty (689), at the age of 52. But he had a far-reaching influence. Thanks to his effort, the Shaolin Temple regained its status in the Chan Buddhism. After the era of Hongren the Fifth Patriarch, the Chan Buddhism was divided into Dingmen and Huimen, as well as into the Southern school and the Northern school. Thus, there was more than one “Sixth Patriarch”. For instance, Huineng of the Southern school and Shenxiu of the Northern school were both considered to be the Six Patriarch. So was Master Faru. But Faru was not as famous as the other “Sixth Patriarchs”, as he died earlier and had few followers. Master Faru has, nonetheless, been a historically-significant figure to the Shaolin Temple. Thanks to his efforts, the temple regained its old-day glory. With the pagoda for him as the first- built one in the Pagoda Forest, it was like an auspicious omen for the development of the temple in later days.

8

Biography of Master Shifaru.

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The Pagoda of Master Faru. Built in the first year of the Yongchang era of the Tang Dynasty (689), the Pagoda of Master Faru is located 900 m east of the Kernel Compound of the Shaolin Temple. The square-shaped, pavilion- like single-eaved pagoda stands 6.4 m high. On the south wall opens a semi-circular arch gate, inside which is the central chamber with a pyramidal ceiling. The nine-layer eaves are built with overhanging and shrink-in bricks. The stone top features a square-shaped girdled xumizuo base. On the base are the body and crown of the top, consisting of overturned bowl, three lakstas, plate and upturning moon. The top features an elegant shape and exquisite stone carving and is a masterpiece of the kind from the Tang Dynasty. The pagoda is the oldest pagoda of the Shaolin Temple complex. Faru, known as “Head of Dingmen”, was one of the six patriarchs of the Chan Buddhism

Pagodas in the Pagoda Forest vary in types. There are Indian-style stupas and Chinese- style overlapped-eaves ones and single-storey ones. Some have Eight Diagrams pattern. Others are dagobas. The Pagoda Forest is a witness and evidence to the blending of Chinese Chan Buddhism with other cultures in history. Pagoda of Monk Zhaogong from the Yuan Dynasty may seem ordinary among others. But the inscription on it was composed by Shaoyuan, the first Japanese monk in the temple. It attests to the Sino-Japanese Buddhist exchange.9

“A study of the Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple”.

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The Biantun Pagoda. The pagoda was built in the 44th year of the Jiajing era of the Ming Dynasty (1565). Biantun was a famous Ming monk and martial-arts master

The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple has had in it cultural imprints from different times in history and been a witness to the development of Buddhism in China and to exchange between different cultural circles in China and between Chinese and foreign cultures. It is “a museum of the art of ancient pagodas” and a treasure house for the comprehensive study of the history of Chinese architecture, carving and religion.

A Milestone Work of Chinese Pagodas What is the first coming into your mind upon hearing the historic monuments at Mount Songshan the Center of Heaven and Earth? The Shaolin Temple, the Zhongyue Temple, or the Observatory? The most important one is, however, the Songyue Temple Pagoda five kilometers north to the downtown of Dengfeng. The Songyue Temple Pagoda boasts an extraordinarily important status in history of traditional Chinese architecture. Liang Sicheng, the renowned architecture historian paid special attention to the temple and called for the protection of it. The pagoda was listed by the State Council on 4 March 1961 among the first group of state priority protected historic sites. What are the values and charms of the pagoda?

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Introduced to China, pagodas, in addition to being tombs for monks’ relics, became a must-have for a Buddhist temple. Almost every Buddhist temple has at least one pagoda in it. The main pagoda in the Songyue Temple, the Pagoda was built in memory of Sakyamuni.

A distant view of the Songyue Temple Pagoda

The Songyue Temple, built between 508 and 511, was the temporary palace outside the capital for Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei Dynasty. In 520, the first year of Zhengguang, it was converted into the Xianju Temple by Emperor Xiaowen. It was named as the Songyue Temple in the first year of the Renshou era under the reign of Emperor Wen of Sui (601). The buildings that survive in the temple are largely from the Qing Dynasty, except the Pagoda, which is the original one built during the Zhengguang era (520–525) of the Northern Wei Dynasty. The cream colored Pagoda measures 36.78 m in height, with a 0.85 m-high base. It is entirely built with grey bricks glued together by yellow mud and coated with white lime. The dodecagonal pagoda is the oldest brick pagoda in China, known as the First Pagoda of China. As a relic of the Northern Wei Dynasty, the heyday of Buddhism, the design of the pagoda is very revolutionary. Its construction was under the patronage of Emperor Xiaowen, as the temple had been previously a temporary imperial abode. The design is no longer that rigid-looking as Indian-style pagodas. The famous architect Liu Dunzhen commented in Notes of the Survey of Ancient Architecture in Henan that “Tang square pagodas, such as Small Wild Goose Pagoda and Xiangji

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Temple Pagoda, were all modeled on this… The absence of central columns within these pagodas proves that the design of Tang brick towers originated from the Northern Wei Dynasty… The octagonal shape of the interior plan above the second storey proves that octagonal structures do not originate from the Tang Dynasty, which is of great importance in architectural history.”10 That is to say, the square pagodas from the Tang Dynasty that have been thought to be the model of ancient Chinese-style pagodas actually modeled on the Songyue Temple Pagoda, which stands as the “ancestor” of ancient Chinese-style pagodas.

The famous architect Liu Dunzhen

“The octagonal shape of the interior plan” as Liu Dunzhen described is a great design first seen in the Songyue Temple Pagoda. The central chamber inside the Pagoda is an octagonal-shaped cylinder, similar to a modern design. The “cylindrical structure”, which is generally thought to emerge in modern high-rises no later than the nineteenth century, was actually in application on the Songyue Temple Pagoda in the Northern Wei Dynasty of China. As the earliest building with a cylindrical structure in the world, the Pagoda features a smart connection between the octagonal-shaped interior plan with the dodecagonal- shaped exterior plan. The horizontal pressure on this high-rise is passed over to all directions with this octagonal-shaped cylinder, with a good rigidity and shock-absorbing effect. Thus, the 15-storey pagoda has been through winds, rains and earthquakes through over 1000 years.

10

Liu Dunzhen. Complete Works of Liu Dunzhen, Vol.3.

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The Songyue Temple Pagoda (from Complete Works of Liu Dunzhen)

The Pagoda has been the first overlapped-eaves one in China, an architectural form side by side with pavilion-like pagoda. The early-day localized pagodas in China look like pavilions in traditional Chinese architecture. A pavilion-like pagoda features windows and doors on each storey. The number of storeys is usually the same as that of eaves. Brick pagodas in China saw a change in the Southern and Northern Dynasties. The first storey of a pavilion-like pagoda is enlarged, while the other storeys get shorter, with no windows or doors between layers of eaves. The height of eaves is much shorter than the height of a storey. Eaves are closer to each other, seeming to overlap one on another, thus the name overlapped-eaves pagoda. Such a design may be from the Buddhist belief held by ethnic minorities in north China. Its general shape and carved decoration, with clear religious meanings, are important architectural symbols of the spread and evolution of Buddhist culture.

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The Songyue Temple Pagoda

Interior structure demonstrated in the sectional drawing of the Songyue Temple Pagoda

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As the earliest example of the overlapped-eaves pagoda in China, the Songyue Temple Pagoda consists of the base, body, overlapped eaves and top. There are 15 overlapping eaves roofs above the first storey. The height of each storey diminishes from bottom to top, and the width of the eaves also decreases from storey to storey. The outer contour gradually contracts. From the construction of the Pagoda, overlapped-eaves pagodas gradually took on a distinctive style in China and became a major type of Buddhist pagodas in the Tang and Liao dynasties.

The top of the Songyue Temple Pagoda

The Pagoda features exquisite decoration. The base is undecorated, but the upper part of the body is exquisitely adorned. At each of the twelve corners is a column the top of which is ornamented with images of flames, pearls and overturned lotus. Between any two columns there is a niche consisting of roof, body and base. Decorations on the Pagoda are of features of different cultures as well. The arched door opening with its flame pattern in the lower part, and the decorative lions in Kunmen frame are products of the cultural exchange between Chinese architecture and that of the Western Regions.

A niche on the Songyue Temple Pagoda

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Decorative lions on the Songyue Temple Pagoda

One finds no floors or stairs inside the Songyue Temple Pagoda. And it’s impossible to climb upwards. There used to be floors and stairs inside, which were unfortunately burnt down in the turbulence of the Song Dynasty. A legend goes about this. It is said that back at the time there was a young cleaner monk. Whenever he cleaned the pagoda, he rose to the mid-air and came down, slowly. Astonished, the young monk talked about this with his mentor. In the next day, the young monk did the routine cleaning and his mentor watched outside. The thing was indeed like what the young monk had told. The old monk found that the young monk was actually carried by a giant black cobra coiling inside the pagoda. The old monk set fire inside the pagoda and locked the door up. And the black cobra was burnt to death. Since then on, there have been no floors and stairs any more. This was fabricated for something extraordinary. But the legend also well demonstrates how people have been interested in this First Pagoda of China. As the oldest overlapped-eaves brick pagoda that survives in China, the Songyue Temple Pagoda has had a far-reaching influence and been a living specimen of architecture and craftsmanship of the earliest pagodas in the China. It crystallizes ingenuity of its designer and builder. The Songyue Temple Pagoda has thus been a treasure in eyes of many master architects. But the Songyue Temple Pagoda is not the only milestone historic monument at Mount Songshan. Pagoda of Master Jingzang in the Huishan Temple has been equally significant in the history of traditional Chinese architecture. Pagodas were basically of a square plan from the time this architectural form was introduced to China to the Tang Dynasty.11 It was still an enormous challenge back then to build a polygonal pagoda. The Pagoda of Master Dade Jingzang in the west of the Huishan Temple was built in the fifth year of the Tianbao era under the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (746). It is the earliest octagonal-shaped

Liang Sicheng. “Buddhist architecture in China”. In Complete Works of Liang Sicheng (Vol. 5).

11

A Milestone Work of Chinese Pagodas

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pavilion-like brick pagoda that survives in China. According to Liang Sicheng, this pagoda was “the unique example” out of square pagodas in the Tang Dynasty and “the ancestor” of octagonal pagodas after it. The brick pagoda is an imitation of a wooden-frame building. The exterior features brick- built columns, beams, bracket sets, doors and windows. The inscriptions on the northern facade tell about the life of Master Jingzang.

The Pagoda of Master Dade Jingzang in the west of the Huishan Temple was built in the fifth year of the Tianbao era under the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (746). The octagonal-shaped single-eave brick pagoda is an imitation of a wooden-frame building and the oldest octagonal pagoda that survives in China

The exterior features brick-built columns, beams, bracket sets, doors and windows

Epilogue

Historic Monuments at Mount Songshan in the Center of Heaven and Earth conform to Criterion (iii) and Criterion (vi) set in Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. Cultural heritage should: Criterion (iii): bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization which is living or has disappeared. People in ancient China constantly observed and explored the universe. Their astronomical practice lasted as long as more than twentieth centuries. The astronomical idea of the centre of heaven and earth is strongly linked with the idea of imperial power and widely accepted. Consisting of 11 items at eight sites, Historic Monuments of Dengfeng in the Center of Heaven and Earth are representatives of the dominant cultures of different times throughout the history. They are tangible evidence to a dead scientific, educational and belief system and bear witness to Buddhist and Taoist cultures that survive. And Criterion (vi): be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas or with beliefs, or with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance. Historic Monuments of Dengfeng in the Center of Heaven and Earth are directly or tangibly associated with beliefs in astronomical ideas and universe, in Heaven-endowed imperial power, in sacrificial ritual, in Taoism and in the Chan Buddhism. The concentration of sacred and secular structures in the Dengfeng area reflects the strong and persistent tradition of the centre of heaven and earth. The properties are outstanding representatives of the art of ancient architecture, carving and environment. The architectural complexes there are masterpieces of various types of buildings and their essential components. As the earliest and finest examples of different architectural structures, they have influenced in Asia. Built within the concept of the Center of Heaven and Earth, the properties have Confucian, Buddhist and Taoist features and are rich in characteristics of mountain,

© Shanghai Far East Publisher 2021 W. Ren and Y. He, Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9077-1

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Epilogue

folk and foreign cultures. Diversified architectural structures are in the concentration here, forming an all-embracing civilization and producing brilliant outcomes of science, technology and art. Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan in “the Center of Heaven and Earth” is of an extraordinary significance. The properties are of immediate significance as well. As a symbol of continuous Chinese history and culture, the properties are the treasure of China.

Appendix A Tour Map of Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan

Source Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan © Shanghai Far East Publisher 2021 W. Ren and Y. He, Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9077-1

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Appendix B Emperors Who Offered Sacrifices to Mount Songshan

Emperors who offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan Sequence Name Time Form of number sacrifice-offering 1

The Yellow Emperor

Remote antiquity

Inspection

2

Emperor Yao

Remote antiquity

Inspection

3

Emperor Shun

Remote antiquity

Inspection

4

Yu the Great

Inspection

5

King Wu of Zhou

6

King Mu of Zhou

The Xia Dynasty (c twenty-first to sixteenth century BCE) The early Western Zhou Dynasty The middle Western Zhou Dynasty

Sacrifice to Heaven and Earth Inspection

Notes See “Sacrifices to Heaven and Earth” in Historical Records See He Dong Fu by Yang Xiong and annotations by Yan Shigu See “Sacrifices to Heaven and Earth” in Historical Records See “Chronicle of Xia” in Historical Records and Remarks of Monarchs

See Heavenly King gui vessel kept in Baoji Museum See Biography of King Mu

(continued)

© Shanghai Far East Publisher 2021 W. Ren and Y. He, Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9077-1

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Appendix B: Emperors Who Offered Sacrifices to Mount Songshan

(continued) Emperors who offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan Sequence Name Time Form of number sacrifice-offering

Notes

7

King You of Zhou

See “the Fourth Year of Duke Zhao” in Zuo Zhuan

8

Emperor Wu of Han

9

Emperor Xuan of Han

10

Emperor Guangwu of Eastern Han Emperor Zhang of Eastern Han Emperor Shun of Eastern Han Emperor Ling of Eastern Han Emperor Wen of Wei in the Three Kingdoms Period Emperor Ming of Wei in the Three Kingdoms Period Emperor Cheng of Eastern Jin Liu Yuan of Later Han

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

The late Western Zhou Dynasty The first year of Yuanfeng (110 BCE) The first year of Shenjue (61 BCE) The ninth year of Jianwu (33 CE) The eighth year of Jianchu (83)

Meeting to form alliance on Mount Taishi Inspection and sacrifice

The first year of Yangjia (132)

Sacrifice by deputy

The fourth year of Xiping (175)

Sacrifice by deputy

The second year of Huangchu (221)

Sacrifice by deputy

See “Biography of Emperor Wu” in Historical Records See “Sacrifices to Heaven and Earth” in History of Han See “Biography of Emperor Guangwu” in History of Eastern Han See “Biography of Emperor Zhang” in History of Eastern Han See “Biography of Emperor Shun” in History of Eastern Han See “Biography of Emperor Ling” in History of Eastern Han See “Records of Rites” in History of Jin

The fourth year of Taihe (230)

Sacrifice by deputy

See “Records of Rites” in History of Jin

The third year of Taihe (325)

Sacrifice by deputy

See “Records of Rites” in History of Jin

Sacrifice by deputy

See “Chronicles of Minor Dynasties (I)” in History of Jin See “Chronicles of Minor Dynasties (XIV)” in History of Jin See “Records of Rites” in History of Wei

18

Fu Jian of Former Qin

The second year of Yongjia (308) The Former Qin (351–94)

19

Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei

The third year of Taichang (418)

Sacrifice by deputy Inspection

Inspection

Sacrifice by deputy Sacrifice by deputy

(continued)

Appendix B: Emperors Who Offered Sacrifices to Mount Songshan

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(continued) Emperors who offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan Sequence Name Time Form of number sacrifice-offering 20

21

22

23

24

25

Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei

Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi Emperor Wen of Sui

The first year of Taiyan (435)

Sacrifice by deputy

See “Records of Rites” in History of Wei

The 18th year of Taihe (494)

Sacrifice

The third year of Zhengguang (522) The second year of Yongxi (533) The first year of Tianbao (550)

Sacrifice by deputy

See “Songgao Mountain” in Chu Xue Ji. The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan twice and this was one of them See “Biography of Emperor Suzong” in History of Wei See “Biography of Emperor Wu” in History of Wei See “Biography of Emperor Wenxuan” in History of Northern Qi See “Biography of Emperor Gaozu” in History of Sui

The 15th year of Kaihuang (595)

26

Emperor Gaozu of Tang

The reign of Wude (618–26)

27

Emperor Taizong of Tang

The reign of Zhenguan (627–49)

28

Emperor Gaozong of Tang

The first year of Tiaolu (679)

29

Empress Wu Zetian of Zhou

The first year of Tiance Wansui (695) The fifth year of Tianbao (746)

30

Notes

Sacrifice

Sacrifice by deputy Sacrifice offered in places other than Mount Songshan Sacrifice offered in places other than Mount Songshan Sacrifice offered in places other than Mount Songshan Sacrifice

Sacrifice to Heaven and Earth Sacrifice

See “Records of Rites” in Old History of Tang

See “Records of Rites” in Old History of Tang

See “Biography of Emperor Gaozong” in Old History of Tang. The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan four times and this was one of them See “Records of Rites” in Old History of Tang See “Records of Rites” in Old History of Tang (continued)

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Appendix B: Emperors Who Offered Sacrifices to Mount Songshan

(continued) Emperors who offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan Sequence Name Time Form of number sacrifice-offering

Notes

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang 31

32

Emperor Dezong of Tang Emperor Shao of Jin

33

Emperor Taizu of Song

34

Emperor Taizong of Song Emperor Zhenzong of Song Emperor Shenzong of Song Emperor Huizong of Song Emperor Gaozong of Song

35

36

37

38

39

Emperor Shizong of Jin

40

Emperor Zhangzong of Jin Emperor Xuanzong of Jin

41

42

Emperor Aizong of Jin

43

Emperor Shizu of Yuan

The fifth year of Taiping Xingguo (980) The fourth year of Jingde (1007) The first year of Xining (1068)

Sacrifice by deputy

See “Biography of Gu Shaolian” in New History of Tang See “Edicts of Emperor Shao of Jin” in Complete Collection of Tang Prose See “Biography of Emperor Taizu” in History of Song See “Records of Rites” in History of Song

Sacrifice by deputy

See “Records of Rites” in History of Song

Sacrifice

See “Records of Rites” in History of Song

The fifth year of Zhenghe (1115)

Sacrifice by deputy

See “Records of Rites” in History of Song

The seventh year of Shaoxing (1137) The fourth year of Dading (1164) The first year of Chengan (1196)

Sacrifice

See “Records of Rites” in History of Song

Sacrifice

See “Biography of Emperor Shizong” in History of Jin See “Biography of Emperor Zhangzong” in History of Jin See “Biography of Emperor Xuanzong” in History of Jin

The second year of Zhenyuan (786) The Later Jin Dynasty of the Five Dynasties The first year of Qiande (963)

The second year of Xingding (1218) The reign of Zhengda (1224–31) The third year of Zhiyuan (1266)

Sacrifice

Sacrifice by deputy Sacrifice by deputy

Sacrifice

Sacrifice by deputy

Sacrifice by deputy

See Complete Works of Yuan Haowen

Sacrifice by deputy

See “Biography of Emperor Shizu” in History of Yuan. The emperor offer (continued)

Appendix B: Emperors Who Offered Sacrifices to Mount Songshan

179

(continued) Emperors who offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan Sequence Name Time Form of number sacrifice-offering

44

Emperor Chengzong of Yuan

The second year of Yuanzhen (1296)

Sacrifice by deputy

45

Emperor Wuzong of Yuan Emperor Renzong of Yuan

The first year of Zhida (1308)

Sacrifice by deputy

The first year of Huangqing (1312)

Sacrifice by deputy

The Taiding Emperor of Yuan Emperor Shun of Yuan

The third year of Taiding (1326) The second year of later Zhiyuan (1336)

Sacrifice by deputy

49

Emperor Taizu of Ming

The second year of Hongwu (1369)

Sacrifice by deputy

50

Emperor Chengzu of Ming

The fourth year of Jianwen (1402)

Sacrifice by deputy

51

Emperor Renzong of Ming

The first year of Hongxi (1425)

Sacrifice by deputy

The first year of Xuande (1426)

Sacrifice by deputy

46

47

48

52

Sacrifice by deputy

Notes ed sacrifices to Mount Songshan three times, and this was one of them See Epigraphic Catalogue of the Central Plains (the Qing Dynasty). The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan twice, and this was one of them See “Biography of Emperor Wuzong” in History of Yuan See Epigraphic Catalogue of the Central Plains (the Qing Dynasty). The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan three times, and this was one of them See Record of Sacrifices to Zhongyue by deputy See Record of Sacrifices to Zhongyue. The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan for five times, and this was one of them See Record of Sacrifices to Zhongyue by Imperial Orders. The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan for six times, and this was one of them See Record of Songyue (the Ming Dynasty). The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan for three times, and this was one of them See Record of Songyue

See Record of Songyue (the Ming Dynasty). The (continued)

180

Appendix B: Emperors Who Offered Sacrifices to Mount Songshan

(continued) Emperors who offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan Sequence Name Time Form of number sacrifice-offering

Notes emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan twice, and this was one of them

Emperor Xuanzong of Ming 53

Emperor Yingzong of Ming

The first year of Zhengtong (1436)

Sacrifice by deputy

54

Emperor Daizong of Ming

The first year of Jingtai (1450)

Sacrifice by deputy

55

Emperor Xianzong of Ming

The first year of Chenghua (1465)

Sacrifice by deputy

56

Emperor Xiaozong of Ming

The first year of Hongzhi (1488)

Sacrifice by deputy

57

Emperor Wuzong of Ming

The first year of Zhengde (1506)

Sacrifice by deputy

58

Emperor Shizong of Ming

The first year of Jiajing (1522)

Sacrifice by deputy

59

Emperor Muzong of Ming

The first year of Longqing (1567)

Sacrifice by deputy

See Record of Songyue (the Ming Dynasty). The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan for four times, and this was one of them See Record of Songyue (the Ming Dynasty). The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan for five times, and this was one of them See Record of Songyue (the Ming Dynasty). The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan for five times, and this was one of them See Record of Songyue (the Ming Dynasty). The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan for four times, and this was one of them See Record of Songyue (the Ming Dynasty). The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan for four times, and this was one of them See Record of Songyue (the Ming Dynasty). The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan for eight times, and this was one of them See Record of Songyue (the Ming Dynasty) (continued)

Appendix B: Emperors Who Offered Sacrifices to Mount Songshan

181

(continued) Emperors who offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan Sequence Name Time Form of number sacrifice-offering 60

Emperor Shenzong of Ming

The first year of Wanli (1573)

Sacrifice by deputy

61

Emperor Xizong of Ming Emperor Sizong of Ming Emperor Shizu of Qing

The first year of Tianqi (1621)

Sacrifice by deputy

The first year of Chongzhen (1628) The third year of Shunzhi (1646)

Sacrifice by deputy

62

63

Sacrifice by deputy

64

Emperor Shengzu of Qing

The sixth year of Kangxi (1667)

Sacrifice by deputy

65

Emperor Shizong of Qing Emperor Gaozong of Qing

The first year of Yongzheng (1723) The first year of Qianlong (1736)

Sacrifice by deputy

67

Emperor Renzong of Qing

The fifth year of Jiaqing (1800)

Sacrifice by deputy

68

Emperor Xuanzong of Qing

The first year of Daoguang (1821)

Sacrifice by deputy

66

Sacrifice

Notes See Record of Songyue (the Ming Dynasty). The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan twice, and this was one of them See Record of Songyue by Ye Feng of the Ming Dynasty See Record of Songyue by Ye Feng of the Ming Dynasty See Stele of the Emperor’s Sacrificial Address in Zhongyue Temple. The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan twice, and this was one of them See Stele of the Emperor’s Sacrificial Address. The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan for twelve times, and this was one of them See Stele of the Emperor’s Sacrificial Address See Stele of the Emperor’s Sacrificial Address. The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan for twelve times, and this was one of them See Stele of the Emperor’s Sacrificial Address. The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan for four times, and this was one of them See Stele of the Emperor’s Sacrificial Address. The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan for (continued)

182

Appendix B: Emperors Who Offered Sacrifices to Mount Songshan

(continued) Emperors who offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan Sequence Name Time Form of number sacrifice-offering

69

Emperor Wenzong of Qing

The first year of Xianfeng (1851)

Sacrifice by deputy

70

Emperor Muzong of Qing Emperor Dezong of Qing

The fourth year of Tongzhi (1865) The first year of Guangxu (1875)

Sacrifice by deputy

The Xuantong Emperor

The 34th year of Guangxu (1908)

Sacrifice by deputy

71

72

Sacrifice by deputy

Notes five times, and this was one of them See Stele of the Emperor’s Sacrificial Address. The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan twice, and this was one of them See Stele of the Emperor’s Sacrificial Address See Stele of the Emperor’s Sacrificial Address. The emperor offered sacrifices to Mount Songshan twice, and this was one of them See “Biography of the Xuantong Emperor” in History of Qing

Source Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan (legends in remote antiquity included)

Appendix C The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

Pagoda of Master Faru

The first year of Tang Emperor Yongchang (689)

Brick

Erzu Temple Pagoda

The first year of Wansui Dengfeng (696) in the reign of Empress Wu Zetian

Brick

Pagoda of Master Xiaoguang

The ninth year of Tang Emperor Tianbao (750)

Stone

900 m east of the Kernel Compound of the Shaolin Temple. A square single-eaved pagoda standing 6.4 m high. It is the oldest pagoda of the Shaolin Temple complex. Faru, known as “Head of Dingmen”, was one of the six patriarchs of the Chan sect 50 m north of the Erzu Temple (in memory of Huike, the second patriarch of the Chan sect). A square single-eaved pagoda standing 5.8 m high On the slope 1500 m north-west of the Kernel Compound of the Shaolin Temple. A 4.4 m high hexagonal single-eaved pagoda. It is of a unique design in the Shaolin Temple complex (continued)

© Shanghai Far East Publisher 2021 W. Ren and Y. He, Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9077-1

183

184

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

Pagoda of Master Tongguang

The sixth year of Tang Emperor Dali (771)

Brick

Pagoda of Master Fawan

The seventh year of Tang Emperor Zhenyuan (791)

Brick

Tang pagoda

The end of Tang Dynasty

Brick

Pagoda of Master Fahua

The fourth year of Later Tang Emperor Tongguang (926)

Brick

Zhihao Pagoda

The fifth year of Song Emperor Jiayou (1060)

Brick

Pagoda of Maitreya

The second year of Song Emperor Yuanyou (1087)

Brick

Sakyamuni Pagoda

The second year of Song Emperor Yuanyou (1087)

Brick

Putong Pagoda

The third year of Song Emperor Xuanhe (1121)

Brick

An 8.9 m high square single-eave pagoda of polished bricks. Tongguang was an eminent monk in the Tang Dynasty An 8.1 m high square single-eaved pagoda of polished bricks. The oldest pagoda in the Pagoda Forest. The top is adorned with exquisite carvings A 12.2 m high seven-storey square overlapped-eaves pagoda A 5.1 m high square single-eaved pagoda. It is the only pagoda built in the Five Dynasties in the Mount Songshan region A 2.9 m high square single-eaved pagoda. Zhihao was the abbot of the Shaolin Temple and the first verifiable monk of the highest rank conferred by the emperor A 11.496 m high square nine-storey overlapped-eaves pagoda in the pagoda courtyard of the Shaolin Temple An 8.374 m high square pavilion-like two-storey pagoda in the pagoda courtyard of the Shaolin Temple A 6.9 m high square single-eaved pagoda, popularly known as the Zhongseng Pagoda (Pagoda of Ordinary Monks) because of the ordinary monks buried beneath it (one of only two in the Pagoda Forest) (continued)

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

185

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

Pagoda of Master Xitang

The second year of Jin Emperor Zhenglong (1157)

Brick

Pagoda of Master Duan

The eighth year of Jin Emperor Dading (1168)

Bricks

Pagoda of Master Haigong

The 19 th year of Jin Emperor Dading (1179)

Brick

Account of □□ Pagoda (□ indicates that the words are illegible) Pagoda of Degong

The 20th year of Jin Emperor Dading (1180)

Stone

An 8.1 m high square single-eaved pagoda. It is the oldest pagoda known to have been built in the Jin Dynasty. Xitang was the abbot of the Shaolin Temple A 6.4 m high square single-eaved pagoda. Master Duan was the abbot of Shaolin Temple A 7.4 m high hexagonal overlapped-eaves pagoda with five storeys A 1.7 m high five-storey lama pagoda

Stone

Pagoda of Master Chonggong

The reign of Jin Emperor Dading (1161–89) The first year of Jin Emperor Da’an (1209)

Stupa of Elder Yangong

The second year of Jin Emperor Xingding (1218)

Stone

Sanzu Temple Pagoda

The second year of Jin Emperor Yuanguang

Brick

Brick

A 2.3 m high seven-storey lama pagoda A 7 m high five-storey square overlapped-eaves pagoda. Chonggong was the abbot of Shaolin Temple. On the back of the pagoda is an inscription composed by Zu Zhao, a monk in the temple and a famous calligrapher and painter A 2.3 m high seven-storey pagoda in the shape of an inverted bell. It is the only pagoda for a monk from outside the temple in the Pagoda Forest A 10.016 m high square seven-storey overlapped-eaves pagoda, east to the main hall of Sanzu Temple (in memory of Sengcan, the third patriarch of the Chan sect). A typical Jin pagoda following the ancient style (continued)

186

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

Pagoda of Master Zhugong

The first year of Jin Emperor Zhengda (1224)

Stone

Pagoda of Master Rufeng

The fifth year of Yuan Emperor Zhiyuan (1268)

Brick

Pagoda of Master Yugong

The 24th year of Yuan Emperor Zhiyuan (1287)

Brick

Pagoda of Master Dinggong Pagoda of Jugong

The 24th year of Yuan Emperor Zhiyuan (1287) The 26th year of Yuan Emperor Zhiyuan (1289)

Brick

Pagoda of Elder Yingong

The 26th year of Yuan Emperor Zhiyuan (1289)

A 2.7 m high seven-storey inverted bell-shaped pagoda. With exquisite carvings, it is an artistic masterpiece. Zhugong was the abbot of the temple A 9.5 m high hexagonal overlapped-eaves pagoda with seven storeys. Rufeng was the abbot of the temple and a famous monk in the early Yuan Dynasty A 10.1 m high seven-storey hexagonal overlapped-eaves brick pagoda built with polished bricks. Well designed in structure and well built, it is a masterpiece among ancient pagodas. It is one of the three pagodas circled by railings and walls in the Pagoda Forest. Yugong was a famous monk and the abbot of the temple. He held the highest official rank for monks in the Yuan Dynasty, which conferred on him the titles of Great Master Guangzong Zhengfa and Duke of Jin. He was the only monk of the temple to be made a duke. He made a seventy-character list of seniority for monks of the temple, who honored him as “the founding master” A 4.4 m high square single-eave pagoda A 3.6 m high three-storey square overlapped-eaves pagoda A 5.5 m high three-storey square overlapped-eaves pagoda (continued)

Brick

Brick

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

187

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

Pagoda of Elder Zu’an

The 26th year of Yuan Emperor Zhiyuan (1289)

Brick

Pagoda of Master Lingyin

The 26th year of Yuan Emperor Zhiyuan (1289)

Brick

Pagoda of Master Zhonglin

The 27th year of Yuan Emperor Zhiyuan (1290)

Brick

Pagoda of Nun Huiyuan

The second year of Yuan Emperor Dade (1298)

Brick

Pagoda of Abbot Daogong

The third year of Yuan Emperor Dade (1299)

Brick

Pagoda of Master Zhenggong

The fifth year of Yuan Emperor Dade (1301)

Brick

Pagoda of Minggong Pagoda of Elder Yueyan

The ninth year of Yuan Emperor Dade (1305) The 11th year of Yuan Emperor Dade (1307)

Brick

Pagoda of Abbot Shangong

The first year of Yuan Emperor Zhida (1308)

Brick

Pagoda of Elder Huanyuan

The fourth year of Yuan Emperor Zhida (1311)

Stone

□□ Pagoda (illegible) Pagoda of Qinggong

The first year of Yuan Emperor Huangqing (1312) The fifth year of Yuan Emperor Yanyou (1318)

Brick

A 9.2 m high seven-storey hexagonal overlapped-eaves pagoda. Zu’an was the abbot of the temple and was made the governor of ten prefectures in western Henan A 7.3 m high five-storey hexagonal overlapped-eaves pagoda built in polished brick. Lingyin was the abbot of the temple and a famous monk A 9.5 m high seven-storey hexagonal overlapped-eaves pagoda. Zhonglin was the abbot of the temple A 3.3 m high three-storey square overlapped-eaves pagoda. It is the only verifiable pagoda for a nun in the Pagoda Forest A 4.5 m high three-storey square overlapped-eaves pagoda A 5.2 m high three-storey square overlapped-eaves pagoda A 3.2 m high single-eave square pagoda A 5.6 m high seven-storey inverted bell-shaped pagoda. Yueyan was the abbot of the temple and a famous monk An 8.9 m high five-storey hexagonal overlapped-eaves pagoda A 4.8 m high ten-storey pagoda in the shape of a stone Dharani column. Huanyuan was the abbot of the temple and a famous monk A 2.7 m high square overlapped-eaves pagoda A 2.8 m high square overlapped-eaves pagoda (continued)

Stone

Brick

188

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

Pagoda of Master Qinggong

The fifth year of Yuan Emperor Yanyou (1318)

Stone

Pagoda of Hegong

Brick

Pagoda of Master Guyan

The fifth year of Yuan Emperor Yanyou (1318) The fifth year of Yuan Emperor Yanyou (1318) The fifth year of Yuan Emperor Yanyou (1318)

Pagoda of Master Foxing

The fifth year of Yuan Emperor Yanyou (1318)

Stone

Pagoda of Engong

The sixth year of Yuan Emperor Yanyou (1319) The second year of Yuan Emperor Zhizhi (1322)

Brick

A 4.2 m high eight-storey lama pagoda. It has a beautiful shape and exquisite carvings A 5 m high three-storey square pagoda A 5.8 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.4 m high nine-storey inverted bell-shaped pagoda with three characters carved on it and adorned with exquisite carvings. Guyan was the abbot of the temple and a famous monk A 3 m high seven-storey stele-shaped pagoda. Its shape is unique in the Pagoda Forest A 7.5 m high four-storey single-eave pagoda A 4.3 m high three-storey square pagoda

Pagoda of Zigong

Pagoda of Vice Superintendent Yugong Pagoda of Tonghui Minggong Pagoda of Abbot Yuangong Jugong Pagoda Guanggong Pagoda

Pagoda of Master Yuezhao

The second year of Yuan Emperor Zhizhi (1322) The first year of Yuan Emperor Taiding (1324) The third year of Yuan Emperor Taiding (1326) The second year of Yuan Emperor HouZhiyuan (1336) The fourth year of Yuan Emperor HouZhiyuan (1338)

Brick Stone

Brick

Brick Brick

Brick Brick

Brick

A 5.7 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.1 m high hexagonal single-eave pagoda, 150 m south of the Erzu Temple A 5.5 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4 m high three-storey square pagoda A 8.5 m high five-storey hexagonal overlapped-eaves pagoda. Yuezhao was the abbot of the temple. (continued)

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

189

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

Pagoda of Elder Ju’an

The fifth year of Yuan Emperor HouZhiyuan (1339)

Brick

Pagoda of Vice Superintendent Gonggong Pagoda of Xi’an Ranggong

The fifth year of Yuan Emperor HouZhiyuan (1339) The sixth year of Yuan Emperor HouZhiyuan (1340)

Brick

A 7.7 m high five-storey hexagonal overlapped-eaves pagoda. Ju’an was the abbot of the temple. The inscription on it was composed by Shaoyuan, a Japanese monk in the temple. It attests to Sino-Japanese Buddhist exchange, and has been praised by Guo Moruo in a poem A 4.1 m high three-storey square pagoda

Chenggong Pagoda

The first year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng (1341) The first year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng (1341)

Pagoda of Monk Sun’an

Yuangong Pagoda Pagoda of Wuwei Ronggong

Pagoda of Zhugong

The fourth year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng (1344) The fifth year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng (1345)

The fifth year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng (1345)

Brick

Brick Brick

Brick Brick

Brick

An 8.8 m high five-storey hexagonal overlapped-eaves pagoda, the lower part covered with glazed tiles. It is the only pagoda decorated with glazed tiles in the Pagoda Forest. Xi’an was the abbot of the temple and a famous monk. The Japanese monk Shaoyuan wrote a stele inscription that narrates his deeds A 5 m high three-storey square pagoda An 8.8 m high five-storey hexagonal overlapped-eaves pagoda. Sun’an was the abbot of the temple who was given the official rank of zhongfeng dafu A 4.2 m high three-storey square pagoda A 7.8 m high five-storey hexagonal overlapped-eaves pagoda. Wuwei Ronggong was the abbot of the temple A 4 m high three-storey square brick pagoda (continued)

190

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

Pagoda of Master Fenglin

The sixth year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng (1346)

Brick

Angong Pagoda

The seventh year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng (1347) The seventh year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng (1347)

Brick

A 7.6 m high five-storey hexagonal overlapped-eaves pagoda built in polished brick. Fenglin was the abbot of the temple A 5.4 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4 m high three-storey square pagoda

Pagoda of Vice Superintendent Wugong Gaigong Pagoda Qinggong Pagoda Pagoda of Master Chunzhuo

Pagoda of Vice Superintendent Qinggong Pagoda of Xungong Tidian Songyan Pagoda

The 11th year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng (1351) The 11th year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng (1351) The 14th year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng (1354)

Brick

Brick Brick Brick

The 14th year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng (1354)

Brick

Brick

Pagoda of Songxi Dinggong

The sixth year of Ming Emperor Hongwu (1373) The sixth year of Ming Emperor Hongwu (1373) The ninth year of Ming Emperor Hongwu (1376) The 17th year of Ming Emperor Hongwu (1384) The 24th year of Ming Emperor Hongwu (1391)

Pagoda of Master Songting

The 25th year of Ming Emperor Hongwu (1392)

Brick

Pagoda of Ninggong Tidian Yugong Pagoda

The 25th year of Ming Emperor Hongwu (1392) The 28th year of Ming Emperor Hongwu (1395)

Brick

Pagoda of Biangong Tidian Pagoda of Rougong

Brick Brick Brick Brick

Brick

A 5.2 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.7 m high three-storey square pagoda A 9.1 m high seven-storey hexagonal overlapped-eaves pagoda. Chunzhuo was a famous Yuan monk, twice the abbot of the temple A 4.1 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.7 m high three-storey square pagoda A 5.2 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.1 m high three-storey square pagoda A 2.9 m high three-storey square pagoda A 6.3 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves square pagoda. Songxi was the abbot of the temple A 7.6 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda. Songting was the abbot of the temple and official of Henan A 5.3 m high three-storey square pagoda A 5.2 m high three-storey square pagoda (continued)

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

191

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

Xinggong Pagoda

Brick

A 4.9 m high three-storey square pagoda An 8.7 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda. Ningran Gaigong was the abbot of the temple and a famous monk A 5.7 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves square pagoda. Renshan Yigong was the abbot of the temple and a famous monk A 7.7 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda. Rengong was the abbot of the temple A 4.9 m high three-storey square pagoda A 6.4 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves square pagoda A 4.2 m high three-storey square pagoda A 3 m high three-storey square pagoda A 3.6 m high three-storey square pagoda

Pagoda of Ningran Gaigong

The 28th year of Ming Emperor Hongwu (1395) The 14th year of Ming Emperor Yongle (1416)

Pagoda of Renshan Yigong

The 14th year of Ming Emperor Yongle (1416)

Brick

Rengong Pagoda

The 21st year of Ming Emperor Yongle (1423)

Brick

Pagoda of Guyuan Yuangong Jingong Pagoda

The third year of Ming Emperor Xuande (1428) The fifth year of Ming Emperor Xuande (1430)

Brick

Pagoda of Wuwei Xungong Qinggong Pagoda

The fifth year of Ming Emperor Xuande (1430) The fifth year of Ming Emperor Xuande (1430) The fifth year of Ming Emperor Xuande (1430)

Brick

The ninth year of Ming Emperor Xuande (1434) The ninth year of Ming Emperor Xuande (1434)

Brick

Pagoda of Yuanzong Zhenggong Pagoda of Dafang Tonggong Pagoda of Hui’an Bangong

Brick

Brick

Brick Brick

Brick

Pagoda of Jingong Wuyong Pagoda of Yi’an Quangong

The 10th year of Ming Emperor Zhengtong (1445) The 10th year of Ming Emperor Zhengtong (1445)

Brick

Pagoda of Songyan Xigong

The 10th year of Ming Emperor Zhengtong (1445)

Brick

Pagoda of Dao’an Qingong

The 10th year of Ming Emperor Zhengtong (1445)

Brick

Brick

A 7.4 m high three-storey square pagoda A 3.8 m high seven-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda. Song’an Bangong was the abbot of the temple A 5 m high three-storey square pagoda A 6 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves square pagoda An 8.9 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda A 6.1 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves square pagoda (continued)

192

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

Pagoda of Elder Bingong

The fourth year of Ming Emperor Jingtai (1453)

Brick

Pagoda of Lingfeng Shougong

The sixth year of Ming Emperor Tianshun (1462)

Brick

Pagoda of Dongming Shenggong Pagoda of Yinzong Nenggong

The sixth year of Ming Emperor Tianshun (1462)

Brick

A 6.9 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda An 8.3 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda A 6 m high three-storey square pagoda

The seventh year of Ming Emperor Tianshun (1463)

Brick

Pagoda of Rushan Xinggong Pagoda of Liangong Songtang

The first year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1465) The first year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1465)

Brick

Pagoda of Xinggong Ziran

The ninth year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1473)

Brick

Huigong Pagoda

The ninth year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1473) The ninth year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1473)

Brick

Pagoda of Zhenggong Daoyuan Pagoda of Chenggong Yifeng Jiegong Pagoda Pagoda of Jingong Yitang Pagoda of Yugong Cuifeng Pagoda of Linggong Ruifeng Pagoda of Zhonggong Jingtang Pagoda of Yingong Dongshan

The 11th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1475) The 12th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1476) The 12th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1476) The 12th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1476) The 14th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1478)

Brick

Brick

Brick Brick Brick Brick Brick

The 14th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1478)

Brick

The 14th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1478)

Brick

An 8.3 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda A 5.4 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.1 m high three-storey square pagoda. Linggong Songtang was the abbot of the temple by imperial order An 8 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda. Xinggong Ziran was the abbot of the temple A 5.2 m high three-storey square pagoda A 5.2 m high three-storey square pagoda A 5.4 m high three-storey square pagoda A 6 m high three-storey square pagoda A 5.3 m high three-storey square pagoda A 2.4 m high three-storey square pagoda A 7.6 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda A 7.1 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda A 4.7 m high three-storey square pagoda (continued)

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

193

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction Pagoda of Jungong Yuezhou Pagoda of Daqian Rungong Pagoda of Wu’ai Jiangong Changgong Pagoda

Material

Physical features

Brick

A 5.6 m high three-storey square pagoda An 8 m high five-storey hexagonal pagoda A 3.9 m high three-storey square pagoda A 5.2 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.5 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.7 m high three-storey square pagoda A 6.7 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda A 7.3 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda A 7.8 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda. The pagoda is well designed and constructed. Wufang Conggong was the abbot of the temple and a famous monk A 3.4 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.8 m high three-storey square pagoda A 7.5 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda A 5.2 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda A 6.1 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda A 5.5 m high three-storey square pagoda An 8.3 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda. Guiyuan Shungong was the abbot of the temple (continued)

Pagoda of Denggong Wujin Pagoda of Minggong Yuetan Pagoda of Shenggong Dazhou

The 14th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1478) The 15th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1479) The 15th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1479) The 16th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1480) The 16th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1480) The 17th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1481) The 17th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1481)

Pagoda of Dinggong Hui’an

The 19th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1483)

Brick

Pagoda of Wufang Conggong

The 19th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1483)

Brick

Bengong Pagoda

The 20th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1484) The first year of Ming Emperor Hongzhi (1488) The first year of Ming Emperor Hongzhi (1488)

Brick

Pagoda of Zhengong Gutang Pagoda of Baoxin Jinggong

Brick Brick Brick Brick Brick Brick

Brick Brick

Conggong Pagoda

The third year of Ming Emperor Hongzhi (1490)

Brick

Pagoda of Xuangong Gufeng

The 13th year of Ming Emperor Hongzhi (1500)

Brick

Pagoda of Degong Chongren Pagoda of Guiyuan Shungong

The 13th year of Ming Emperor Hongzhi (1500) The 13th year of Ming Emperor Hongzhi (1500)

Brick Brick

194

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

Pagoda of Chenggong Zhuo’an

The 14th year of Ming Emperor Hongzhi (1501)

Brick

Pagoda of Qinggong Fengyun

The first year of Ming Emperor Zhengde (1506)

Brick

Nanzhou Pagoda

The first year of Ming Emperor Zhengde (1506)

Brick

Pagoda of Chekong Bengong Pagoda of Yufeng Yinggong Chenggong Pagoda

The seventh year of Ming Emperor Zhengde (1512) The seventh year of Ming Emperor Zhengde (1512) The seventh year of Ming Emperor Zhengde (1512)

Brick

Pagoda of Zhengong Yi’an Pagoda of Gumei Tinggong

The 12th year of Ming Emperor Zhengde (1517) The seventh year of Ming Emperor Zhengde (1517)

Pagoda of Master Yuezhou

The 16th year of Ming Emperor Zhengde (1521)

Brick

Pagoda of Zhenggong Dexin

The second year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1523)

Brick

Pagoda of Guangong Daqian Pagoda of Baizhai Qionggong Pagoda of Chungong Su’an Pagoda of Honggong Daji

The fifth year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1526) The sixth year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1527) The 10th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1531) The 10th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1531)

Brick

A 5.6 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda. Chenggong Zhuo’an was the abbot of the temple A 7.9 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda A 7.2 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda A 2.1 m high single-eave square pagoda A 5.7 m high three-storey square pagoda A 1.67 m high square pagoda, carved out of a single stone block, the only one in the Pagoda Forest A 4.2 m high three-storey square pagoda A 7.6 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda. Gumei Tinggong was the abbot of the temple 11.3 m high, seven-storey, overlapped-eaves. Built with polished bricks, it is one of the best Ming pagodas. Yuezhou was a famous monk and appointed abbot of the temple by the emperor An 8.3 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda A 6.1 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.5 m high three-storey square pagoda A 5.7 m high three-storey square pagoda A 6.6 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves square pagoda (continued)

Brick Stone

Brick Brick

Brick Brick Brick

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

195

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

Pagoda of Hangong Yutang

The 10th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1531)

Brick

Huigong Pagoda

The 15th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1536) The 17th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1538)

Brick

A 7.7 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves square pagoda A 3.9 m high three-storey square pagoda An 8.1 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda. Zonglin Yutang was the abbot of the temple A 5.6 m high three-storey square pagoda A 6.1 m high three-storey square pagoda

Pagoda of Zonglin Yutang

Pagoda of Angong Shouxin Pagoda of Zhanggong Yinzong Xuangong Pagoda Pagoda of Minggong Yue’an Pagoda of Tianchang Xugong Aogong Pagoda

The 18th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1539) The 20th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1541) The 20th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1541) The 20th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1541)

Brick

Brick Brick

Brick Brick

Pagoda of Yougong Sanqi

The 26th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1547) The 27th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1548) The 27th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1548)

Pagoda of Jing’an Tagong

The 31st year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1552)

Brick

Pagoda of Fugong Shou’an Pagoda of Zhudong Wangong

The 31st year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1552) The 40th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1561)

Brick

Zhigong Pagoda

The 43rd year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1564) The 43rd year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1564)

Pagoda of Jiugong Tianzhu

Brick Brick Brick

Brick

Brick Brick

A 3.6 m high three-storey square pagoda An 8 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves square pagoda A 6.3 m high three-storey square pagoda A 5.6 m high three-storey square pagoda A 5 m high three-storey square pagoda. Yougong Sanqi was a famous martial monk of the temple, who led monk troops garrisoned in Shanxi and Shaanxi A 7.6 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda. Jing’an Tagong was the abbot of the temple A 5.6 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.6 m high round lama pagoda, the first brick pagoda of this type in the Pagoda Forest. Zhudong Wangong was twice the abbot of the temple A 5.3 m high three-storey square pagoda A 5.3 m high three-storey square pagoda (continued)

196

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction Pagoda of Yonggong Dajie Biantun Pagoda

The 43rd year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1564) The 44th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1565)

Pagoda of Sankong Liaogong Pagoda of Shoutang Tiangong Wangggong Pagoda

The 44th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1565) The 44th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1565) The fourth year of Ming Emperor Longqing (1570) The fourth year of Ming Emperor Longqing (1570) The fourth year of Ming Emperor Longqing (1570) The sixth year of Ming Emperor Longqing (1572)

Pagoda of Yigong Wuqiong Pagoda of Fugong Shou’an Pagoda of Dazhang Shugong

Pagoda of Xiangong Yinshan Konggong Pagoda Pagoda of Cangong Zhufang Pagoda of Xinggong Guzong Jiangong Pagoda

The third year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1575) The third year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1575) The third year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1575)

Pagoda of Monk Tanran

The eighth year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1580) The eighth year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1580) The eighth year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1580)

Pagoda of Ruigong Xuetang

The ninth year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1581)

Material

Physical features

Brick

A 5.3 m high three-storey square pagoda A 7.7 m high specially shaped round lama pagoda. Biantun was a famous Ming monk and martial-arts master A 5.6 m high three-storey square pagoda A 6.4 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.5 m high three-storey square pagoda A 5.2 m three-storey square pagoda A 4.9 m high three-storey square pagoda A 10.1 m high hexagonal lama pagoda. This beautiful pagoda is representative of the high technical level of Ming architecture. Dazhang Shugong was a famous monk and appointed abbot of the temple by the emperor A 4.9 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.9 m high three-storey square pagoda A 6.8 m high five-storey hexagonal overlapped-eaves pagoda A 5 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4 m high three-storey square pagoda A 5.1 m high nine-storey lama pagoda. On it is an Eight Diagrams pattern specially designed and finely carved, a masterpiece of ancient stone carving A 6.6 m three-storey square pagoda (continued)

Brick

Brick Brick Brick Brick Brick Brick

Brick Brick Brick

Brick Brick Stone

Brick

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

197

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

Biaogong Pagoda

Brick

A 4 m high three-storey square pagoda A 3.9 m high three-storey square pagoda A 5.5 m high three-storey square pagoda A 6.8 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves square pagoda A 4.5 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.3 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.2 m high three-storey square pagoda A 6.3 m high three-storey square pagoda An 11.2 m high seven-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda. Built in polished brick, it is one of the finest Ming pagodas. Huanxiu was a famous Ming monk appointed abbot of the temple by the emperor A 3.8 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves square pagoda A 6.4 m high five-storey square pagoda A 5.4 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.9 m high three-storey square pagoda A 5.9 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.7 m high three-storey square pagoda A 2.4 m high single-eave square pagoda A 4 m high three-storey square pagoda A 5.6 m high three-storey square pagoda (continued)

Denggong Pagoda Pagoda of Zhenggong Wuxin Pagoda of Xionggong Dawei Pagoda of Zhugong Tianyi Pagoda of Fugong Dahai Duigong Pagoda Pagoda of Leigong Dazhen Huanxiu Pagoda

The tenth year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1582) The tenth year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1582) The tenth year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1582) The tenth year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1582) The tenth year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1582) The 11th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1583) The 11th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1583) The 11th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1583) The 14th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1586)

Brick Brick Brick

Brick Brick Brick Brick Brick

Pagoda of Monk Zhonggong

The 18th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1590)

Brick

Pagoda of Aigong Yici Pagoda of Migong Zhinan Pagoda of Donggong Benyuan Pagoda of Duogong Lianfeng Mingong Pagoda

The 18th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1590) The 19th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1591) The 20th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1592) The 20th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1592) The 21st year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1593) The 21st year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1593) The 21st year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1593) The 21st year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1593)

Brick

Qingong Pagoda Shugong Pagoda Zhugongshou Pagoda

Brick Brick Brick Brick Brick Brick Brick

198

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

Taigong Pagoda

Brick

A 3.6 m high three-storey square pagoda A 2.7 m high three-storey square pagoda A 3.5 m high three-storey square pagoda A 6.5 m high three-storey square pagoda

Niangong Pagoda Zhi’angong Pagoda

The 22nd year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1594) The 22nd year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1594) The 22nd year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1594) The 25th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1597)

Brick Brick

Pagoda of Danggong Zhengzong Pagoda of Baigong Xuefeng Pagoda of Jungong Yunan

Brick

The 25th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1597) The 25th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1597)

Pagoda of Bingong Zhi’an Pagoda of Kegong Yufeng Pagoda of Tigong Yiyuan

The 33rd year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1605) The 33rd year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1605) The 33rd year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1605)

Pagoda of Shungong Wan an

The 47th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1619)

Brick

Pagoda of Wugong Benle

The 47th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1619)

Brick

□□ Ling Pagoda (illegible) □□ Pagoda (illegible)

The reign of Ming Emperor Wanli (1573–1619) The reign of Ming Emperor Wanli (1573–1619)

Brick

Brick Brick

Brick Brick Brick

Brick

A 5 m high three-storey square pagoda A 6.7 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves square pagoda A 5.8 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.9 m high three-storey square pagoda A 7.5 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves square pagoda A 7.7 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves square pagoda built in polished brick. Shungong Wan’an was an official of the temple and a martial-arts master who rendered meritorious services in wars against Japanese invaders A 5 m high three-storey square pagoda. Wugong Benle was a teacher of martial art in the ShaoLin temple A 3.4 m high single-eave square pagoda A 1.9 m high single-eave square pagoda (continued)

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

199

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

Pagoda of Master Xueju

The third year of Ming Emperor Tianqi (1623)

Brick

Pagoda of Fanggong Youshi Jing’an Pagoda

The fourth year of Ming Emperor Tianqi (1624) The fourth year of Ming Emperor Tianqi (1624)

Brick

Pagoda of Wuyan Daogong

The fourth year of Ming Emperor Tianqi (1624)

Brick

Pagoda of Gujian Jinggong Pagoda of Dacai Shigong

The fifth year of Ming Emperor Tianqi (1625) The fifth year of Ming Emperor Tianqi (1625)

Brick

Pagoda of Shouyu Qinggong Pagoda of Xingong Daoyuan Jing’an gong Pagoda

Pagoda of Hengru Quangong Yuangong Pagoda

The fifth year of Ming Emperor Tianqi (1625) The seventh year of Ming Emperor Tianqi (1627) The eighth year of Ming Emperor Tianqi or the first year of Emperor Chongzhen (1628) The reign of Ming Emperor Tianqi (1621–27) The early Ming Dynasty

An 11.7 m high seven-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda. On the four sides of the granite base are beautifully carved images of double dragons playing with a pearl, lions rolling balls and divine houses. Master Xueju, also known as Wuyan Daogong, was a famous Ming monk and appointed abbot of the temple by the emperor A 4.1 m high three-storey square pagoda An 11.1 m high seven-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda. Jing’an was the abbot of the temple A 4.8 m high round lama pagoda, located in the rear slope of the Nanyuan Garden at the Shaolin Temple A 5.9 m high three-storey square pagoda A 6.5 m high three-storey square pagoda. Dacai Shigong was a famous martial monk who had rendered meritorious military services A 6.5 m high three-storey square pagoda An 11.1 m high three-storey square pagoda A 10 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves square pagoda

Yungong Pagoda

The late Ming Dynasty

Brick

Brick

Brick Brick Brick

Brick Brick Brick

A 6.8 m high three-storey square pagoda A 3.5 m high three-storey square pagoda A 2.9 m high single-eave square pagoda (continued)

200

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

Pagoda of Yinguang Pugong

The second year of Ming Emperor Chongzhen (1629)

Brick

Pagoda of Hanhui Xigong

The ninth year of Qing Emperor Shunzhi (1652)

Brick

Pagoda of Bi’ankuangong

The fifth year of Qing Emperor Kangxi (1666)

Brick

Fayuanshou Pagoda

The 27th year of Qing Emperor Kangxi (1688)

Brick

Pagoda of Zhongxuan Tigong Shungong Pagoda

The 34th year of Qing Emperor Kangxi (1695) The 35th year of Qing Emperor Kangxi (1696) The 55th year of Qing Emperor Kangxi (1716) The 55th year of Qing Emperor Kangxi (1716) The 56th year of Qing Emperor Kangxi (1717)

Brick

A 7.9 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves square pagoda. Located at the waist of Boyu Peak, north of the Erzu Temple This 10 m high seven-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda is beautifully designed and well built. It represents the refined techniques of Qing pagodas. Hanhui Xigong was a famous monk, appointed abbot by the emperor A 10.4 m high seven-storey overlapped-eaves hexagonal pagoda that is representative of Qing brick towers, with the corners of its eaves adorned with animal heads carved in brick. Bi’ankuan was a famous monk and the last abbot appointed by the emperor 500 m north to Ganlu Platform A 4.1 m high three-storey square pagoda A 3.9 m high three-storey square pagoda A 5.2 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4 m high three-storey square pagoda A 3.4 m high three-storey square pagoda South to Fayuanshou Pagoda thar is 500 m north to Ganlu Platform A 3.9 m high three-storey square pagoda A 6.5 m high three-storey square pagoda A 9.4 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4 m high single-eave square pagoda (continued)

Kuigong Pagoda Pagoda of Songqiu Qingong Rumiao Pagoda

Fanggong Pagoda Jiuru Yonggong Pagoda Lingong Pagoda

The 11th year of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1746) The 23rd year of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1758) The 23rd year of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1758)

Brick Brick Brick Brick

Brick Brick Brick

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

201

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

Brick

A 3.9 m high three-storey square pagoda A 3.9 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.5 m high three-storey square pagoda located on the mound 200 m north-east of the Pagoda Forest A 2 m high square pagoda with a worn top. This is one of the two pagodas for ordinary monks in the Pagoda Forest A 6 m high three-storey square pagoda A 7.9 m high five-storey square pagoda A 1.2 m high five-storey lama pagoda A 1.7 m high five-storey lama pagoda A 1.4 m high five-storey lama pagoda

Xinyun Ninggong Pagoda Lingshan Huigong Pagoda Fugong Pagoda

The third year of Qing Emperor Jiaqing (1798) The eighth year of Qing Emperor Jiaqing (1803) The 25th year of Qing Emperor Jiaqing (1820)

Tongxing Putong Pagoda

Unknown

Brick

Pagoda of Master Wugong □□ Pagoda (illegible) □□ Pagoda (illegible) Pagoda of Master □□ (illegible) Pagoda of Superintendent Fanggong □□ Pagoda (illegible) Pagoda of Monk □□ (illegible) □□ Pagoda (illegible) □□ Pagoda (illegible) Pagoda of Vice Superintendent Biangong Dafang Jingong Pagoda Zhilailing Pagoda

Unknown

Brick

Unknown

Brick

Unknown

Stone

Unknown

Stone

Unknown

Stone

Unknown

Stone

Unknown

Stone

Unknown

Stone

Unknown

Brick

Unknown

Brick

Unknown

Brick

Unknown

Stone

Yaogong Dianzuo Pagoda □□ Pagoda (illegible) □□ Pagoda (illegible)

Unknown

Brick

Unknown

Brick

Unknown

Brick

Brick Brick

A 1.4 m high five-storey lama pagoda A 1.9 m high seven-storey lama pagoda A 1.5 m high four-storey lama pagoda A 3.4 m high single-eave square pagoda A 2.6 m high single-eave square pagoda A 4.1 m high single-eave square pagoda A 1.7 m high three-storey square pagoda A 2.6 m high single-eave square pagoda A 4.2 m high three-storey square pagoda A 6 m high three-storey square pagoda (continued)

202

Appendix C: The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple

(continued) The Pagoda Forest of the Shaolin Temple Name of pagoda Time of construction

Material

Physical features

□□ Pagoda (illegible) □□ Pagoda (illegible)

Unknown

Brick

Unknown

Brick

□□ Pagoda (illegible) □□ Pagoda (illegible) □□ Pagoda (illegible) □□ Pagoda (illegible) □□ Pagoda (illegible)

Unknown

Brick

Unknown

Brick

Unknown

Brick

Unknown

Brick

Unknown

Brick

A 3.2 m high three-storey square pagoda A 4.4 m high five-storey overlapped-eaves square pagoda A 3.6 m high three-storey square pagoda A 3.8 m high three-storey square pagoda A 2.53 m high single-eave square pagoda A 2.49 m high single-eave square pagoda A 3.41 m high single-eave square pagoda

Source Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan (□ indicates that the words are illegible)

Appendix D Important Pictures on the Three Han Que Gates

Important pictures on the Taishi Que Gates Name of Time of Representative structure construction image Taishi Que Gates

The 5th year of Eastern Han Dynasty (118)

Beast head holding a ring in the mouth

Flatfish

Evil-repelling cypress Four spirits

Notes A ferocious-looking beast head with tusks and a round ring in its huge mouth. Such images are often found on bronze vessels dating from the Shang or Zhou dynasties. It was known as taotie (glutton) in the Warring States Period. In the Han Dynasty it was carved on doors and a great variety of vessels because it was believed to be able to guard property Actually a carp with one eye and three tails, a divinified symbol of good luck. It is recorded in “Sacrifices to Heaven and Earth” in Historical Records This reflects the Han custom of using cypresses to ward off evil spirits These images of black dragon, white tiger, scarlet bird and tortoise encircled by a serpent deriving from primitive animism and totem worship were highly esteemed in the Han Dynasty. The dragon, for instance, was the totem of the Yellow Emperor and Xia tribes, reflecting beliefs in the dynasty. There are a large number of images of the four spirits on the Three Han Que Gates (continued)

© Shanghai Far East Publisher 2021 W. Ren and Y. He, Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9077-1

203

204

Appendix D: Important Pictures on the Three Han Que Gates

(continued) Important pictures on the Taishi Que Gates Name of Time of Representative structure construction image Tiger eating ghost

Portrait of Gun

Handstand Important images on the Shaoshi Que Gates Name of Time of Representative structure construction images Shaoshi Que Gates

Second year of Yanguang era of the Eastern Han Dynasty (123)

Circus show

Hunting

Cuju game

Animal fight

Notes The image of a tiger eating a ghost. The story can be found in Dongjing Fu by Zhang Heng. The image reflects the ancient custom of warding off evil spirits The portrait of Gun, whose son, Yu, was the first emperor of Xia Dynasty. It comprises three images; one shows a huge turtle and the other two show creatures that are a cross between human and turtle, the totem of the Xia tribe. It reflects the ancient custom of offering sacrifices to Gun in the Songshan region Records of handstand can be found in Tong Su Bian by Zhai Hao Notes The image shows two galloping horses. On the saddle of the first one is a young woman with a double bun hairstyle and tight clothes doing an arched handstand; On the second horse there is another woman, whose long sleeves streaming behind her in the wind and backward inclining body suggest the speed of the horse, the thrilling effect of the performance, and the rider’s superb skills The image shows two people riding horses. The first one turns his head and draws his bow, ready to shoot; the second one, with a drawn bow, is chasing a spotted deer that has been shot The image, which shows two women playing cuju game, is important material proof that football originated in China. Cuju was not only entertainment, since it was also required for military training in the Han Dynasty. Another image of cuju can be found on Qimu Que Gates The image shows a tiger fighting an ox. Animal fights were a form of juedi, or wrestling, in the Han Dynasty. The image reflects the popularity of juedi at the time (continued)

Appendix D: Important Pictures on the Three Han Que Gates

205

(continued) Important images on the Shaoshi Que Gates Name of Time of Representative structure construction images Moon palace

Winged man

Important images on the Qimu Que Gates Name of Time of Representative structure construction images Qimu Que Gates

Second year of Yanguang era of the Eastern Han Dynasty (123)

Magic show

Notes The image features a toad and a rabbit making medicine in the moon. In the Han Dynasty it was believed that the toad in the moon was the incarnation of the fairy Chang’e. The image reflects the worship of the moon The image shows a winged man, reflecting the wish to become immortals in the Qin and Han dynasties Notes The image shows a man in a felt hat, with bared chest and upturned face, holding a long-necked bottle and spitting fire. There is another man holding a long-necked bottle and an axe, supposedly to perform spitting fire or changing head. The magic show was a product of Sino-foreign cultural exchange. As recorded in “Da Wan” in Historical Records, there were magic show performers called xuan zhe (those who make people dazzle) in the reign of Han Emperor Wu. In the reign of Eastern Han Emperor An, a magic show troupe from Daqin (Roman Empire) came to perform in Luoyang via Burma, to which they had travelled by sea. As recorded under “South-western Barbarians” in the History of Han, the King of Burma sent envoys to China, who presented to the emperor musicians and magic show performers, who could conjure, spit fire, dismember themselves, and replace their heads with those of oxen or horses. The image shows the magic troupe from Alexandria in ancient Egypt performing for Emperor An at the time when the side structures were built. This is important material proof of Sino-foreign cultural exchange (continued)

206

Appendix D: Important Pictures on the Three Han Que Gates

(continued) Important images on the Qimu Que Gates Name of Time of Representative structure construction images Cockfight

Yu of Xia turning into a bear

The mother of Qi turning into a stone

Guoxia horse

Taming elephants

Guo Ju burying his son

Notes The image shows two gamecocks fighting fiercely, with upturned tails and extended necks. Cockfights were popular in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and became more popular in the Han Dynasty The image shows a fat Yu drawn with curved lines, who looks half human and half like a bear, and two people watching with surprise. It reflects the legend of Yu turning into a bear to curb the flood, which was told in the Han Dynasty The image shows Lady Tushanshi turning into a stone and conceiving Qi, and two persons watching. It reflects the Xia people’s ancestral worship and the custom of offering sacrifices to the god of birth The image shows two ponies standing beneath two big trees. According to Yan Shigu’s annotations to History of Han, such ponies were called guoxia (“below fruit tree”) horse because they were so small that one could ride them under fruit trees. This species of pony is still bred in Sichuan Province of China and some European countries today There are three images in total. The mahouts hold hooked long poles to control the elephants. As recorded in History of Han, the state of Nanyue presented tamed elephants to the emperor in the second year of Yuanshou (123 B.C.) in the reign of Han Emperor Wu The image shows the impoverished Guo Ju burying his son alive by a tree to save provisions for his mother. It reflects the Confucian ethical idea of ruling the country on the principle of filial piety that was advocated by the ruling class of the Han Dynasty

Source Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan

Appendix E Important Structures Within the Zhongyue Temple

Name of structure

Time of construction

Main material

Physical features

Taishi Que Gates

The fifth year of Yuanchu (118 C.E.) in the Eastern Han Dynasty

Stone

Yaocan Pavilion of Zhongyue Temple

Built during the reign of the Qing Emperor Qianlong (1736–95) and rebuilt in 1975

Brick and wood

The structures, which are located 600 m south of the Zhongyue Temple, are 3.96 m high, 2.13 m long, and 0.7 m thick. The eastern structure is 6.75 m from its western counterpart. Each comprises a base, a main section, and a top. The inner and taller part of the structure is called muque (literally, “mother structure”) and the other part zique (literally, “son structure”). Muque has a hipped roof while zique has only half of a hip roof. On the top are imitation wooden components. The main part of each structure is built with rectangular stones; besides an inscription, it bears images carved in shallow relief on each of the stones 25.3 m south of Tianzhong Pavilion, 12.99 m tall, and covering an area of 90.49 m2. A double-eaved octagonal pavilion, used by passing travellers who had no time to (continued)

© Shanghai Far East Publisher 2021 W. Ren and Y. He, Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9077-1

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Appendix E: Important Structures Within the Zhongyue Temple

(continued) Name of structure

Time of construction

Main material

Tianzhong Pavilion of Zhongyue Temple

Rebuilt in the 41st year of the Ming Emperor Jiajing (1562)

Brick and wood

Peitian Zuozhen Archway of Zhongyue Temple

Built in the 38th year of the Ming Emperor Wanli (1610) and renovated in 1979

Wood

Chongsheng Gate of Zhongyue Temple

Qing Dynasty; rebuilt in 1942

Brick and wood

Ancient Sacred Storage of Zhongyue Temple

The reign of the Qing Emperor Qianlong (1736–95)

Brick

Physical features enter the temple to worship the mountain god from a distance Also known as Huangzhong Tower, it is 10.60 m high, 21.48 m long, and 8.13 m wide, covering an area of 174.66 m2. Taking into account the 7.44 m high platform on which it has been built, the overall height is about 18.04 m. The platform has three gates. The pavilion is five bays wide, with a double-eaved gable and hipped roof covered with green glazed tiles. The inscription above the gates reads “Zhongyue Temple” 93.12 m north of Tianzhong Pavilion, it is 9.17 m tall, 19 m long, and 7.86 m wide, covering an area of 92.91 m2. Originally named “Universe Archway”, it has four columns, three gates, and a hipped roof covered with glazed tiles. There are characters inscribed on top of the middle arch (“Peitian Zuozhen”) and the two flanking arches (“Yuzhou” and “Juzhan”) 33.85 m north of Peitian Zuozhen Archway, 11.13 m tall, 23.26 m long, and 10.12 m wide, covering an area of 235.30 m2. The gate is five bays wide and two bays deep, with a gable and hipped roof 46.91 m north-east of Chongsheng Gate, 6.59 m tall, 5.32 m long, and 5.32 m wide, covering an area of 27.93 m2. This is a single-storey square house. The walls are built with bricks, and plain tiles are used for the roof (continued)

Appendix E: Important Structures Within the Zhongyue Temple

209

(continued) Name of structure

Time of construction

Main material

Physical features

Wordless Stele Pavilion of Zhongyue Temple

The Qing Dynasty (1644– 1911)

Brick

Huasan Gate of Zhongyue Temple

The Qing Dynasty (1644– 1911); rebuilt in 1942

Brick and wood

Junji Gate of Zhongyue Temple

The Qing Dynasty (1644– 1911)

Brick and wood

Songgao Junji Archway of Zhongyue Temple

The Qing Dynasty (1644– 1911)

Wood

46.91 m north-west of Chongsheng Gate, 6.59 m tall, 5.32 m long, and 5.32 m wide, covering an area of 27.93 m2. This is a single-storey square pavilion. The walls are built of bricks, and plain tiles are used for the roof. There is a stele with no inscription 64.78 m north of Chongsheng Gate, 9.59 m tall, 24.06 m long, and 10.68 m wide, covering an area of 257.38 m2. The gate is five bays wide and two bays deep, with a gable and hipped roof 57.02 m north of Huasan Gate, 11.57 m tall, 24.37 m long, and 11.61 m wide, covering 283.3 m2. The gate is five bays wide and two bays deep, with a single-eaved gable and hipped roof covered with green glazed tiles. An upright plaque bearing its name is hung above the central entrance. A five-step Dougong supports the eaves. There is a 5 m-high coloured statue of a general on either side of the gate, which is also known as General Gate 16.95 m north of Junji Gate, measuring 8.1 m tall, 13.48 m long, and 3.91 m wide, covering 52.57 m2. Also called “God Welcoming Gate”, the archway has four columns and three arches, with the name “Songgao Junji” inscribed on top of the central one. The central arc has a nine-step Dougong and each of the flanking ones has a five-step Dougong. The roof is covered with yellow glazed tiles. This is one of the best Qing archways (continued)

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Appendix E: Important Structures Within the Zhongyue Temple

(continued) Name of structure

Time of construction

Main material

Physical features

Two Imperial Stele Pavilions of Zhongyue Temple

The reign of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1736–95)

Brick and wood

Junji Hall of Zhongyue Temple

Built in the Song Dynasty, destroyed by fire in the late Ming Dynasty, and rebuilt in the tenth year of Qing Emperor Shunzhi (1653)

Brick and wood

Located 39.55 m north of Junji Gate and 36.63 m apart from each other, each pavilion covers an area of 51 m2. The eastern pavilion was originally named “Imperial Incense Pavilion” and the western one “Imperial Silk Pavilion”. The octagonal pavilions have surrounding corridors, and double-eaved roofs covered with yellow glazed tiles. There is a seven-step Dougong set under the upper eaves and a five-step Dougong under the lower ones. They are typical Qing official style structures. They house two steles bearing poems by the emperor and erected respectively in the 15th year (1750) and the 48th year (1783) of Qianlong 75.21 m north of Songgao Junji Archway, 22.34 m tall, 34.82 m long, and 17.65 m wide, covering 614.13 m2. Also called “Great Zhongyue Hall”, it is the central building of Zhongyue Temple and the largest single wooden structure extant in Henan. It is nine-bay wide and five-bay deep, with a double-eave hip roof covered by yellow glazed tiles. There is a seven-step Dougong under the upper eaves and a five-step Dougong under the lower. The ceiling of the main bay is adorned with a beautiful zaojing (decorative ceiling pattern in the shape of caisson) featuring coiled dragons. The massive building is one of the most prestigious Qing halls extant (continued)

Appendix E: Important Structures Within the Zhongyue Temple

211

(continued) Name of structure

Time of construction

Main material

Physical features

Resting Hall of Zhongyue Temple

Rebuilt in the Chenghua Period of the Ming Dynasty and renovated in the reign of Qing Emperor Qianlong

Brick and wood

Imperial Library of Zhongyue Temple

Built in the reign of Ming Emperor Wanli (1573–1620) and rebuilt in the eighth year of the Republic of China Period (1919)

Brick and wood

Huanggai Pavilion

Qing Dynasty (1644–1911)

Brick and wood

49.89 m north of Junji Hall, 13.06 m tall, 27.98 m long, 11.42 m wide, covering 319.39 m2. The hall is seven bays wide and three bays deep. It has a single-eaved gable and hipped roof covered with yellow glazed tiles. Below the eaves is a five-step Dougong. Inside the hall there are the statues of the God of Zhongyue and his wife Lady Tianling 36.37 m north of the Resting Hall, 15.09 m tall, 39.95 m long, and 13.28 m wide, covering 530.27 m2. Also called “Huanglu Hall”, the library is eleven bays wide and three bays deep, with an imitation gable and hipped roof. It houses the statue of the Jade Emperor (Yuhuang dadi). It was used to store Taoist scriptures. Many Qing emperors wrote stele inscriptions here. The current western-style facade dates from the Republic of China Period when it was rebuilt This is an octagonal pavilion with a double-eaved roof covered with yellow glazed tiles on Huanggai Peak behind Zhongyue Temple

Source Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan

Appendix F Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

Important steles and other cultural relics at the Zhongyue Temple Name Time of construction Material Physical features Stele of Zhongyue Temple (zhongyue songgao lingmiao)

The reign of Taiyan (435–40) in the Northern Wei Dynasty

Stone

South-east of Junji Gate and west of Dongyue Hall, the stele is 2.84 m high and 0.99 m wide. It records geographic information about Mount Songshan, major deeds of Taoist Master Kou Qianzhi, who assisted Taiping Zhenjun in implementing his policy of enlightenment, and the history of Zhongyue Temple and its precursor Taishi Shrine in the Qin, Han, Wei, Jin and the Southern and Northern Dynasties. It is the first Taoist stone stele in China. It is also a rare masterwork of calligraphy in a simple yet vigorous style (continued)

© Shanghai Far East Publisher 2021 W. Ren and Y. He, Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9077-1

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Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Important steles and other cultural relics at the Zhongyue Temple Name Time of construction Material Physical features Stele inscription of Zhongyue Temple (zhongyue zhongtian chongshengdimiao)

The seventh year of Dazhong Xiangfu (1014) in the Song Emperor Zhenzong’s Reign

Stone

Stone Dhanari Column with imperial sacrificial essay

The third year of Tianxi (1019) in the Song Emperor Zhenzong’s Reign

Stone

Stele inscription on the rebuilding of Zhongyue Temple

The sixth year of Song Emperor Kaibao (973)

Stone

Stele with an essay on the expansion of Zhongyue Temple and a preface

The first year of Song Emperor Qianxing (1022)

Stone

Within the Donghua Gate. The stele is 7.37 m high and 1.64 m wide. The inscription, composed by Wang Zeng and written by Bai Xian, records the grand occasions of offering sacrifices to Mount Songshan in the Song Dynasty East of Junji Gate. The octagonal stone Dhanari column is 2.27 m high and 1.1 m in circumference. It is adorned with columns and carved pearls on the spire, and sits on a sumeru base with a lotus design. It attests to the mutual influence between religions in the Song Dynasty Inside the Xihua Gate. The stele is 5.85 m high and 1.42 m wide. The inscription, composed by Lu Duoxun and written by Sun Chongwang, records the rebuilding of Zhongyue Temple—the emperor giving the order, the making of the drawings, the selection of supervising officials, and the expansion and addition of new halls Inside the Xihua Gate. The stele is 4.83 m high and 1.3 m wide. The inscription, composed by Chen Zhiwei and written by Xing Shouyuan, records how Zhao Heng (Song Emperor Zhenzong) sent eunuchs to Mount Songshan to (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

215

(continued) Important steles and other cultural relics at the Zhongyue Temple Name Time of construction Material Physical features

Stele of the rebuilding of Zhongyue Temple

The 22nd year of Jin Emperor Dading (1182)

Stone

Stele with picture of Zhongyue Temple rebuilt in the reign of Jin Emperor Cheng’an

The fifth year of Jin Emperor Cheng’an (1200)

Stone

Imperial edict stele

The first year of Yuan Emperor Zhiyuan (1335)

Stone

announce the order of expanding the temple and the consequent extensive renovation Within Donghua Gate. The stele is 5.6 m high and 1.74 m wide. The inscription, composed by Huang Jiuyue and written by Hao Shi, with its title written in seal script by Dang Huaiying, records the rebuilding of Zhongyue Temple (reason, time, process and result). It is of great value for studying the history of the temple and the Jurchen nation. It is praised for its vigorous calligraphic style in the Essay On Songshan written by Jing Rizhen in the Qing Dynasty The stele is 1.33 m high and 0.75 m wide. It is situated at the eastern end of the northern corridor behind the eastern side entrance of Junji Gate. It bears a complete picture of Zhongyue Temple in the reign of Cheng’an. Jin Shi records that “after Zhongyue Temple was rebuilt in the reign of Cheng’an in the Jin Dynasty, it had over 800 rooms around the main halls and over 70 stele towers; a picture was drawn and carved onto a stele” South-east of Junji Gate and west of the Zhongyue Temple Stele (zhongyue songgao lingmiao). The stele is 3.08 m high and (continued)

216

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Important steles and other cultural relics at the Zhongyue Temple Name Time of construction Material Physical features

Yuelitianzhong Stele

Ming Dynasty (1368– 1644)

Stone

Poem Stele

The second year of Yuan Emperor Huangqing (1313)

Stone

Stele with the picture of Five Sacred Mountains

The second year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1574)

Stone

0.93 m wide. It records an edict orally issued by Tuohuantiemu’er, Yuan Emperor Huizong. The inscription contains both Chinese and Persian transliterations of the original Mongolian edict. Religious jargon and local dialect words are also used. The general meaning is that officers and soldiers should not cause any damage to the temple or its vegetation West to the front of Junji Hall. The stele is 1.72 m high and 0.75 m wide. The four-character name, in a vigorous style, was written by Ding Yingtai, county magistrate of Dengfeng in the reign of Wanli in the Ming Dynasty Outside the north wall of the Fire God Palace. The stele is 1.35 m high and 0.7 m wide. The poem, composed by the famous Yuan Taoist Wu Quanjie and written by Xie Junxing, describes the scenery of Mount Songshan and expresses the author’s feelings about sending letters for the reigning emperor Situated at the north end of the corridor behind the eastern entrance of Junji Gate. The stele is 1.7 m high and 0.78 m wide. Carved on it is a picture of the Five Sacred Mountains, with fulu (Taoist talisman) (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

217

(continued) Important steles and other cultural relics at the Zhongyue Temple Name Time of construction Material Physical features

Stele with the picture of Five Sacred Mountains

The 32nd year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1604)

Stone

Imperial sacrificial essay stele

The eighth year of Qing Emperor Shunzhi (1651)

Stone

Imperial sacrificial essay stele

The sixth year of Qing Emperor Kangxi (1667)

Stone

Imperial sacrificial essay stele

The first year of Qing Emperor Yongzheng (1723)

Stone

Imperial sacrificial essay stele

The 13th year of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1748)

Stone

symbolizing each mountain and related legends East of the front of Junji Gate. The stele is 3.75 m high and 1.25 m wide. Carved on it is a picture of the Five Sacred Mountains, with fulu (Taoist talisman) symbolizing each mountain Inside Shunshan House east of the Imperial Library. The stele is 1.78 m high and 0.6 m wide. Carved on it is a sacrificial address of the Emperor Shunzhi, who sent an envoy to offer sacrifices to Songshan Inside Shunshan House east of the Imperial Library. The stele is 1.7 m high and 0.6 m wide. Carved on it is a sacrificial address of the Emperor Kangxi, who sent an envoy to offer sacrifices to Songshan Inside Shunshan House east of the Imperial Library. The stele is 1.7 m high and 0.7 m wide. Carved on it is a sacrificial address of the Emperor Yongzheng, who sent an envoy to offer sacrifices to Songshan Inside Shunshan House east of the Imperial Library. The stele is 1.8 m high and 0.65 m wide. Carved on it is a sacrificial address of the Emperor Qianlong, who sent an (continued)

218

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Important steles and other cultural relics at the Zhongyue Temple Name Time of construction Material Physical features

The Qianlong Emperor’s poem stele

The 15th year of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1750)

Stone

Imperial sacrificial essay stele

The first year of Qing Emperor Guangxu (1875)

Stone

Stone Wengzhong (figure)

The fifth year of Eastern Han Emperor Yuanchu (118)

Stone

Stone lions

Qing Dynasty (1644– 1911)

Stone

envoy to offer sacrifices to Songshan Inside the Yuxiang Pavilion. The stele is 3.8 m high and 0.88 m wide. Carved on it is a poem that the Emperor Qianlong composed while touring Zhongyue Temple Inside Shunshan House east of the Imperial Library. The stele is 1.8 m high and 0.65 m wide. Carved on it is a sacrificial address of the Emperor Guangxu, who sent an envoy to offer sacrifices to Songshan The two figures are situated in the square pavilions on either side of the sacred path (24.5 m south of the Mingshan Diyi Archway). Each measures 1.2 m high and 1.54 m in circumference. They have flat tops of heads, square faces, well proportioned features, broad belts round the waist, and sword hilts in hand. They are the oldest extant stone figures in China and precious material for studying the art of carving and costume in the Han Dynasty The two lions are situated on either side of the platform in front of Tianzhong Pavilion. Each measures 2.2 m in circumference and 3.1 m high (including the base), with a ball under its feet and a round stone ball (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

219

(continued) Important steles and other cultural relics at the Zhongyue Temple Name Time of construction Material Physical features

Iron warehouse guardians

The first year of Song Emperor Zhiping (1064)

Iron

Iron lions

The second year of Jin Emperor Zhengda (1225)

Iron

Steles, statues, and other relics in the Songyue Temple Architectural Name of relic Time complex Songyue Temple

about 15 cm in diameter in its mouth The four iron statues are situated at the four corners of the ancient sacred warehouse east of Chongsheng Gate, measuring 2.5–2.65 m high. They are the largest, best preserved and best designed iron statues in China The pair of iron lions are situated below the platform in front of Junji Hall. Each measures one meter high and 1.4 m in waist circumference, and together they weigh 850 kg. There are inscriptions on their bases Material

Physical features To the south of the Songyue Temple Pagoda; 1.97 m high, 0.95 m wide. The inscription, composed by Wang Jin and written by Xu Hao, records the life of Master Dazheng and the cause of writing, and expresses the mourning for the master To the south of the Songyue Temple Pagoda; the octagonal (continued)

Tang stele of Master Dazheng of Jing’ai Temple

The fourth year of Tang Emperor Dali (769)

Stone

Usnisa-Vijaya-Dharani dvaja

Tang Dynasty

Stone

220

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Steles, statues, and other relics in the Songyue Temple Architectural Name of relic Time complex

Material

(618– 907)

Record of the Rebuilding of Samghrma Hall

Stele of sacrifice to Mount Songshan

Statue of Amitabha

The ninth year of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1744) The tenth year of Qing Emperor Xianfeng (1860)

The seventh year of Ming Emperor Yongle (1409)

Stone

Stone

White jade

Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction The Kernel Compound of Shaolin Temple

Northern Qi statue stele

The second year of Northern Qi Emperor Tiantong (566)

Stone

Stele with the Diamond Sutra

The third year of

Stone

Physical features stone Dharani column bears a carved inscription of Usnisa-Vijaya-Dharani Sutra To the south of the Songyue Temple Pagoda; 1.66 m high, 0.78 m wide. The inscription is written by Hu Ruheng To the south of the Songyue Temple Pagoda; 1.32 m high, 0.69 m wide. The inscription, written by Li Baoshan, is an essay on offering sacrifices to Mount Songshan Located at the Hall of Sakyamuni of Songyue Temple. Height of base 0.31 m, width of base 0.575 m, height of stele 1.32 m, circumference 1.60 m. The statue, with an inscription, was presented by Prince Zhou in the Ming Dynasty Physical features Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 0.8 m, width: 0.48 m; The earliest stele among the existing ones of the temple Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

221

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction

Tang Empress’s prayer

Tang Emperor Xianheng (672) The second year of Tang Emperor Yongchun (683)

Stone

Tang Empress’s poem

The first year of Tang Emperor Yongchun (682)

Stone

Stele of Songyue Shaolin Temple of the Great Tang

The 16th year of Tang Emperor Kaiyuan Dynasty (728)

Stone

Inscription on the pagoda of Master Lingyun

The ninth year of Tang Emperor Tianbao (750)

Stone

Physical features Temple; Height: 0.78 m, width: 0.66 m; written by Wang Zhijing Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 0.78 m, width: 0.66 m; composed by Wu Zetian and written by Wang Zhijing Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 1.49 m, width: 0.63 m; composed by Wu Zetian and written by Wang Zhijing Located in front of the Bell Tower at Shaolin Temple; Height: 3.45 m, width: 1.30 m; composed and written by Pei Cui. It records the story of thirteen martial monks rescuing Prince of Qin (Li Shimin), who later commended the temple. It is the most valuable stone stele in the temple Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 1.44 m, width: 0.55 m; composed (continued)

222

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction

Chu Ku Ji stele

The 14th year of Tang Emperor Zhenyuan (798)

Stone

Taizong Longqian Jiaoshu stele

Early Tang Dynasty (618–712)

Stone

Usnisa-Vijaya-Dharani sutra

Tang Dynasty (618–907)

Stone

Picture stele of Wang Yanfu’s poem

The seventh year of Song Emperor Yuanfeng (1084)

Stone

Poem on thirty-six peaks

The first year of Song Emperor Jianzhong Jingguo (1101)

Stone

Image of the Nirvana of Maitreya

The first year of Jin Emperor Da’an (1209)

Stone

Physical features by Cui Qi and written by Qin Le Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 0.58 m, width: 0.92 m; composed by Gu Shaolian and written by Cui Gai Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 1.07 m, width: 0.45 m; composed by Li Shimin Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 1.44 m, width: 0.55 m; written by Gao Cen Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 1.05 m, width: 0.31 m; composed and written by Wang Yanfu Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 2.33 m, width: 0.89 m; composed by Lou Yi and written by Shen Liao Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 1.75 m, width: 0.36 m; drawn by Zu Zhao, a monk of (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

223

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction

Stele of Buddhist, Taoist and Confucian sacred images

The first year of Jin Emperor Da’an (1209)

Stone

Image of Avalokitesvara with Su Shi’s ode

The first year of Jin Emperor Da’an (1209)

Stone

Portrait of Bodhidarma returning to the West Paradise

The first year of Jin Emperor Da’an (1209)

Stone

Portrait of Huike, the second patriarch of the Chan sect

The second year of Jin Emperor Yuanguang (1223)

Stone

Physical features the temple and a painter Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 1.49 m, width: 0.62 m; drawn by Zu Zhao, a monk of the temple and a painter; the upper part of the stele bears an ode by Tang Emperor Suzong, below which are the sacred images of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 1.00 m, width: 0.45 m; drawn by monk and painter Zu Zhao and written by Jiao Heng. The ode is above the image Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 0.76 m, width: 0.36 m; drawn by monk and painter Zu Zhao Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 1.26 m, width: 0.68 m; drawn by (continued)

224

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction

Stele of Songyue Shangren’s hymn

The end of Jin Dynasty

Stone

Image of Candra-prabha

The eighth year of Yuan Emperor Dade (1304)

Stone

Picture stele of Dharma crossing a river

The 11th year of Yuan Emperor Dade (1307)

Stone

Yugong Stele

The first year of Yuan Emperor Yanyou (1314)

Stone

Physical features monk and painter Zu Zhao Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 0.52 m, width: 0.52 m; composed and written by famous writer Zhao Bingwen (nicknamed Xianxian Daoren) Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 0.77 m, width: 0.42 m; the image is accompanied by an ode Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 0.76 m, width: 0.41 m; drawn by Dong Heng, with an ode written in regular script by Song Renzan Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 3.82 m, width: 1.33 m; composed by Cheng Jufu and written by Zhao Mengfu (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

225

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction Imperial edict stele

The first year of Yuan Emperor Yanyou (1314)

Stone

Qingshu (The Invitation) Stele

The fifth year of Yuan Emperor Yanyou (1318)

Stone

Stele of the attainment of Master Xi’an

The first year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng (1341)

Stone

Stele of a poem by Bai Juyi

The third year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng Dynasty (1343)

Stone

Physical features Located in the south-west of the Hall of Sakyamuni of Shaolin Temple; Height: 3.76 m, width: 1.18 m; the stele bears four edicts issued by Yuan emperors, with edicts in Mongolian Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 2.23 m, width: 1.06 m; the stele bears the invitation to Gu Yan as the abbot of the Shaolin Temple by the three sects, Henan Prefecture, and Dengfeng County Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; composed by Faran and written by Japanese monk Shaoyuan. It reflects Sino-Japanese Buddhist exchange Located south of the stele of Songyue Shaolin Temple of the Great Tang; Height: 0.42 m, width: 1.01 m; it bears poems by Tang poet Bai Juyi and Yuan poet Zheng Pei

Stone (continued)

226

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction Account of the remaking of the stele of Master Dharma

The seventh year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng (1347)

Stele of the biography of Master Guigong

The ninth year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng (1349)

Stone

Record of the rebuilding of three gates

The 14th year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng (1354)

Stone

Epitaph on the pagoda of Chun-zhuocaigong

The 20th year of Ming Emperor Hongwu (1392)

Stone

Stele of the image of Avalokitesvara

The 20th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1484)

Stone

Huifu Enxi Stele

Physical features Located in front of the Preaching Hall of Shaolin Temple; Height: 4.77 m, width: 1.56 m; composed by Ouyang Xuan and written by Naonao Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 1.70 m, width: 0.89 m; composed by Cai Shigui and written by Fucheng Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 0.81 m, width: 0.6 m; composed and written by Songting Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 1.3 m, width: 0.75 m; composed by Pu’an Laifu and written by Japanese monk Deshi. It is important material proof of Sino-Japanese Buddhist cultural exchange To the north of the East Meditation Hall; Height: 0.64 m, width: 0.56 m; drawn by Zhang Qi

Stone (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

227

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction The 20th year of Ming Emperor Chenghua (1484)

Physical features Located in front of the Preaching Hall of Shaolin Temple; Height: 4.17 m, width: 1.39 m; composed by Shi Yuanze

Copper Maitreya Stele

The first year of Ming Emperor Hongzhi (1488)

Stone

Stele of Master Yuezhou

The eighth year of Ming Emperor Zhengde (1513)

Stone

Stele of Kinnara’s protection of Buddha

The 12th year of Ming Emperor Zhengde (1517)

Stone

Stele of Lixue Pavilion

The tenth year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1531)

Stone

Dharma Crossing a River

The 22nd year of Ming

Stone

Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 1.38 m, width: 0.61 m; composed by Ling Chushi and written by Wuren Located in the Stele Forest of Shaolin Temple; Height: 2.25 m, width: 0.83 m; composed by Huairang Buxu and written by Faxun Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 1.51 m, width: 0.61 m; composed by Yuezhou and written by Zhou Sen; the back bears an image of Kinnara In front of the Lixue Pavilion; Height: 1.25 m, width: 0.60 m; it bears the incised “Account of Building the Shrine of the Founding Master” Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: (continued)

228

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction

Stele of the biography of Master Xiaoshan

Emperor Jiajing (1543) The 44th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1565)

Stone

Ode to the picture of the blending of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism

The 44th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1565)

Stone

Images of Sakyamuni and Tathagata

The 45th year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1566) The 14th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1586)

Stone

Epitaph on the pagoda of Master Huanxiurun

Poem on the wall that Dharma faced in meditation

The 15th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1587)

Stone

Stone

Physical features 1.68 m, width: 0.71 m; drawn by Li Zhongsheng In front of the Bell Tower of Shaolin Temple; Height: 3.35 m, width: 1.15 m; composed by De Qingwang and written by Zhu Zaiyu In front of the Bell Tower of Shaolin Temple; Height: 3.35 m, width: 1.15 m; drawn and written by Zhu Zaiyu. It is important material proof of the blending of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 2.25 m, width: 1.07 m; an image stele Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 1.72 m, width: 0.95 m; composed by Wang Daokun and written by Zhou Tianqiu Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 0.4 m, width: 0.41 m; composed and written by Wang Shisong (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

229

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction Stele of Master Wuyandao

The 27th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1599)

Stone

Stele of Master Daogong of the twenty-sixth generation

The 37th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1609)

Stone

Stele with Dharma Crossing a River

The fourth year of Ming Emperor Tianqi (1624)

Stone

Stele with poem on watching martial-arts performance at Shaolin

The fifth year of Ming Emperor Tianqi (1625)

Stone

Stele of Master Hanhui Xigong

The third year of Ming Emperor Chongzhen (1630)

Stone

Stele of a picture of plum blossoms

The sixth year of

Stone

Physical features In front of the Hall of Sakyamuni of Shaolin Temple; Height: 4.32 m, width: 1.47 m; composed by Wang Xijue and written by Dong Qichang Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 3.90 m, width: 1.49 m; composed and written by Dong Qichang Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 2.35 m, width: 1.12 m; an image stele, composed and written by Liang Jianting; with an incised image of Zhong Kui Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 2.16 m, width: 0.93 m; composed by and written by Cheng Shao, it describes monks’ martial-arts performance Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 2.40 m, width: 1.25 m; composed by Jiao Yuanbo and written by Wang Zhicai Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin (continued)

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Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction Ming Emperor Chongzhen (1633)

Stele with an inscription by Emperor Qianlong

The 15th year of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1750)

Stone

Stele with account of undertaking the construction project of Shaolin Temple

The 17th year of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1752)

Stone

Stele with account of Rebuilding Thousand Buddha Hall

The 41st year of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1776)

Stone

Stele with pedigree of the five schools of Chan sect

The seventh year of Qing Emperor Jiaqing (1802)

Stone

Physical features Temple; Height: 1.74 m, width: 0.70 m; drawn by Bieshan and written by Fu Zuozhou; it bears an ode by Fu Located to the south-east of the Hall of Sakyamuni and north-west of the Bell Tower of Shaolin Temple; Height: 3.66 m, width: 1.13 m; composed and written by Hongli, Emperor Qianlong Located in the Stele Forest of Shaolin Temple; Height: 1.92 m, width: 0.79 m; composed by Gao Yu and written by Lu Gao To the north of the Hall of Heavenly King of Shaolin Temple; Height: 3.88 m, width: 1.25 m; composed and written by Zeng Youji In the Stele Forest of Shaolin Temple; Height: 2.47 m, width: 1.01 m; composed by Haikuan and written by Jingchun; the text is the pedigree of the five schools of Chan sect

Stone (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

231

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction Inscription on the Stele of Rebuilding Shaolin Temple

The ninth year of Qing Emperor Daoguang (1829)

Stele with ode to the wall that Dharma faced in meditation

The 28th year of Qing Emperor Daoguang (1848)

Stone

Account of remaking Shaoyang Bridge Stele

The 30th year of Qing Emperor Daoguang (1850)

Stone

Five Hundred Arhats worshipping Mahavairochana (mural)

The Ming Dynasty (1368– 1644)

Plaster

Physical features Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 3.94 m, width: 1.20 m; composed by Yang Guozhen and written by Pan Jiang Located at the stele corridor of Shaolin Temple; Height: 1.47 m, width: 0.65 m; composed and written by Xiao Yuanji Located in the Stele Forest of Shaolin Temple; Height: 1.65 m, width: 0.62 m; composed by Jiao Shiyuan and written by Li Songyang On the eastern, northern, and western walls of the Thousand Buddha Hall of Shaolin Temple; Total length: 42 m; height: 7.5 m, area: 315 m2. The mural is divided into 45 groups and features 495 arhats between mountains in the upper level, clouds in the middle level, and flowing water in the lower level. Grand and well (continued)

232

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction

Thirteen monks saving Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty (mural)

The Qing Dynasty (1644– 1911)

Plaster

Kinnara fighting against Red Scarf Army (mural)

The Qing Dynasty (1644– 1911)

Plaster

Shaolin boxing (mural)

The late Qing Dynasty

Plaster

Physical features painted, it is an ancient masterpiece These two murals are painted on the northern side of the eastern wall of the Baiyi Hall in the temple. They are based on the story of thirteen martial monks from the temple rescuing Prince of Qin (Li Shimin) These two murals are painted on the southern side of the eastern wall of Baiyi Hall. They are based on the story of Kinnara fighting Red Scarf Army These two murals are painted on the southern and northern walls of Baiyi Hall. They are also known as Arhats’ Barefisted Fight. The mural on the northern wall, 18.599 m2 in area, which is painted with perspective, features thirty-three martial monks in sixteen groups fighting barefisted in front of Hall of Sakyamuni. The one on the southern (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

233

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction

Images of Dragon-subduing Arhat and Tiger-taming Arhat (mural)

The Qing Dynasty (1644– 1911)

Plaster

Images of Manjusri and Samantabhadra (mural)

The Qing Dynasty (1644– 1911)

Plaster

Stone lions

The Qing Dynasty (1644– 1911)

Stone

Physical features wall, 19.075 m2 in area, shows Shaolin martial monks practising such weapons as scimitar, spear, sword, bar, halberd, and sleeve-hidden ring. The mural stands as important material evidence to Shaolin martial art The two are on both sides of the niche in Baiyi Hall, showing Tiger-taming Arhat in the north and Dragon-subduing Arhat in the south. Painted with great skill, they are masterpieces The two are in Baiyi Hall. The one on the eastern end of the northern wall shows Manjusri riding a lion, and that on the eastern end of the southern wall shows Samantabhadra riding a white elephant The two lions stand in front of the gate of the temple, each measuring 1.67 m in height. It has a square lotus-shaped sumeru pedestal, below which is a stone base with flying horses, deer (continued)

234

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction

Statue of Ksitigarbha

Iron bell

Iron pot

The first year of Ming Emperor Hongzhi (1488) The fourth year of Jin Emperor Taihe (1204)

The fourth year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1576)

Iron

Iron

Iron

Physical features and dragons carved on it The statue is in the Bell Tower of the temple

To the north of the Bell Tower; as recorded in History of Shaolin Temple, its sound could be heard 30 li (15 km) away. Now it is cracked. There are inscriptions around it and at the bottom there are eight lips, on which are carved Eight Diagrams indicating directions. It is representative of the art of casting in the Jin Dynasty Under the platform of the Preaching Hall of Shaolin Temple; Diameter: 1.68 m, circumference: 5 m, interior depth: 0.83 m, thickness: 0.02 m, weight: 650 kg. It attests to the large number of monks in the temple in the reign of Wanli (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

235

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction Iron bell

The second year of Yuan Emperor Zhiyuan (1336)

Iron

Sitting statue of Dharma

The Ming Dynasty (1368– 1644)

Copper

Xueyinxinzhu plaque

The Qing Dynasty (1644– 1911)

Wood

Copper bell

The 17th year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1589) The late Qing Dynasty

Copper

Table screen

Wood

Physical features The bell, which weighs 325 kg, is hung under the eastern eaves of the abbot’s house. The inscription, which contains the name of Shaoyuan, a Japanese monk who was a secretar y of the temple, and the names of temples subordinate to Shaolin, attests to Sino-Japanese Buddhist exchange and the grand size of the temple in the Yuan Dynasty This is in the Lixue Pavilion. It was presented to the temple by Zhang Yongshi, a eunuch in charge of ritual affairs in the reign of Zhengde in the Ming Dynasty It is hung at Lixue Pavilion; The inscription on the plaque was written by Emperor Qianlong during his tour to Shaolin Height: 0.96 m, weight: over 250 kg

Located in the Hall of Manjushri of Shaolin Temple, this screen has (continued)

236

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction

Statue of Amitabha

The seventh year of Ming Emperor Yongle (1409)

White jade

Niche

The 15th year of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1750)

Wood

Statue of Mahavairochana

The Ming Dynasty (1368– 1644)

Copper

Statue of Avalokitesvara

The Ming Dynasty (1368– 1644)

Copper

Physical features carved upon it two Buddhist hymns written by Dong Qichang, first carved on a stone stele In the Thousand Buddha Hall; The statue was presented by the Prince of Zhou in the Ming Dynasty. Its left chest bears an inscription, which says that the prince had the statue made to bless his newly born son The niche, standing 6 m high, is in the Thousand Buddha Hall. Hung from it is a plaque bearing words and a couplet inscribed by Emperor Qianlong The 2.5 m high statue is in the Thousand Buddha Hall. The Buddha, wearing a cassock, with bare chest and feet, sits cross-legged on a lotus base. It is a Ming masterpiece The statue is now in the Baiyi Hall

Plaster (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

237

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction Chuzu Temple

Portraits of the founding masters of Chan sect

The Qing Dynasty (1644– 1911)

Stele of Rebuilding Thousand Buddha Pavilion in the Hall of Chuzu Temple

The eighth year of Qing Emperor Xianfeng (1858) The second year of the Republic of China (1913) The 21st year of the Republic of China (1932)

Stele of Rebuilding Thousand Buddha Hall

Stele of Rebuilding Chuzu Temple

Pagoda Forest and its surrounding

Epitaph on the pagoda of Master Rufeng Rengong

The fifth year of Yuan Emperor Zhiyuan (1268)

Physical features In the hall of the Chuzu Temple there are the portraits of 25 founding masters of the Chan sect, with ten on the eastern wall (two on the eastern side of the northern wall, two on the western side of the northern wall, and eleven on the western wall)

Stone

Stone

Stone

Stone

Located at Chuzu Temple; Height: 0.87 m, width: 0.76 m; composed and written by Surong Located at the Chuzu Temple; Height: 1.85 m, width: 0.72 m Located at the Chuzu Temple; Height: 1.9 m, width: 0.69 m; composed and written by Niu Mengyu Height: 2.28 m, width: 0.83 m; composed and written by Fu Bian

(continued)

238

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction Biography of Master Shifaru

Stele of Master Yugong, the first abbot of Shaolin Temple

Stele of Master Taigong

Stele of Master Taigong

The first year of Tang Emperor Yongchang (689) The 12th year of Yuan Emperor Zhiyuan (1275) The 26th year of Yuan Emperor Zhiyuan (1289)

The 28th year of Yuan Emperor Zhiyuan (1291)

Stone

Stone

Stone

Stone

Physical features Located at the central bay of the pagoda of Master Faru; Height: 1.65 m, width: 0.72 m In front of the pagoda of Master Yugong in the Pagoda Forest; Height: 1.92 m, width: 0.85 m In front of the pagoda of Lingyin Taigong in the Pagoda Forest; Height: 1.44 m, width: 0.6. The inscription, composed by Zhonglin Taigong, narrates the life of Lingyin Taigong, abbot of the temple. The back shows the Yuan Dynasty’s official document conferring the honorific title of “national advisor of the Great Yuan” on the abbot In front of the pagoda of Zhonglin Taigong in the Pagoda Forest; Height: 1.23 m, width: 0.71 m. The inscription, composed by Puxiu and written by Yueyan, narrates deeds of Zhonglin Taigong, abbot of the temple

Stone (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

239

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction Epitaph on the pagoda of Monk Fu’an

The 11th year of Yuan Emperor Dade (1307)

Epitaph of Shangong Anzhu of Shaolin

The first year of Yuan Emperor Zhida (1308)

Stone

Stele of the Attainment of Guyan Jiugong

The fifth year of Yuan Emperor Yanyou (1318)

Stone

Stele of the Attainment of Sun’an Yigong

The early reign of Zhizheng in the Yuan Dynasty

Stone

Stele of the Attainment of Master Chunzhuo

The 14th year of Yuan Emperor Zhizheng (1354)

Stone

Physical features In the pagoda of Monk Fu’an in the Pagoda Forest; Height: 1.78 m, width: 0.81 m; composed by Yongda and written by Pushun In the pagoda of Shangong Anzhu in the Pagoda Forest; Height: 1.7 m, width: 0.74 m; composed by Bai Jujing In front of the pagoda of Guyan Jiugong in the Pagoda Forest; Height: 2.66 m, width: 1.23 m; composed and written by Sihui In front of the pagoda of Sun’an Yigong in the Pagoda Forest; Height: 2.56 m, width: 1.02 m. The inscription narrates the life of Sun’an Yigong. The back of the stele bears a diagram of the school and sect to which Sun’an belonged In fr ont of the pagoda of Master Chunzhuo in the Pagoda Forest; Height: 1.68 m, width: 0.81 m; composed by Fazhen and written by Songting Ziyan, (continued)

240

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction

Stele of the biography of Master Biantun

Preface to the tour to Mount Shaoshi and Daogong Pagoda

The third year of Ming Emperor Longqing (1569) The third year of Ming Emperor Tianqi (1623)

Stone

Stone

Epitaph on the pagoda of Master Gaigong

The 16th year of Qing Emperor Kangxi (1677)

Stone

Stele of Elder Ningran Gaigong

The 21st year of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1756)

Stone

Stele of Xilai Hall Courtyard

The seventh year of Qing Emperor Jiaqing (1802)

Stone

Account of Rebuilding the Outer Wall of the

The 12th year of

Stone

Physical features who also wrote the title in seal script In front of the pagoda of Master Biantun in the Pagoda Forest; Height: 1.43 m, width: 0.63 m In front of the Daogong Pagoda in the Forest Pagoda; Height: 1.48 m, width: 0.67 m; composed by Liu Anxing, county magistrate of Dengfeng, and written by Liu Rufu In front of the Gaigong Pagoda in the Pagoda Forest; Height: 1.51 m, width: 0.71 m; composed and written by Jiao Qinchong In front of the Gaigong Pagoda in the Pagoda Forest; Height: 1.54 m, width: 0.74 m. The inscription narrates the life of Ningran Gaigong. The back bears a list of Gaigong’s successors Height: 1.92 m, width: 0.81 m. The inscription narrates the deeds of Chemiao, a monk at Xilai Hall of the temple On the eastern wall; Length: 0.69 m, (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

241

(continued) Important steles, murals, statues and other relics in the Shaolin Temple Architectural Name of relic Time of Material complex construction Gate and Planting Cypresses

Qing Emperor Jiaqing (1807)

Steles, murals, statues, and other relics in the Huishan Temple Architectural Name of relic Time Material complex Huishan Temple

Stone lions

The Qing Dynasty (1644– 1911)

Stone

Statue of Amitabha

The seventh year of Ming Emperor Yongle (1409)

White jade

Iron bell

The seventh year of Ming Emperor

Iron

Physical features width: 0.39 m. The inscription narrates the rebuilding of the outer wall of the gate of the temple and the planting of cypresses by the western gate

Physical features This pair of lions stand in front of the gate of the temple. Each measures 2.30 m in total height, 1.35 m in height exclusive of the pedestal, and 2.20 m in waist circumference. The lion on the left has a ball under its foot and a dignified smile; the one on the right has a cub at its feet and a gentle smile. The sumeru pedestals they stand on, with animal images in high relief on every side, are masterpieces among ancient stone carving The statue is inside the gate. It measures 1.60 m in total height, 1.42 m in height exclusive of the pedestal, and 1.90 m in waist circumference. It is one of the three statues of Amitabha presented by Prince Zhou of Ming to Buddhist temples on Mount Songshan On the platform in front of the main hall; weight: 650 kg

(continued)

242

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Steles, murals, statues, and other relics in the Huishan Temple Architectural Name of relic Time Material complex

Buddha image stele of Huishan Temple

Chenghua (1417) The seventh year of Northern Qi Emperor Wuping (576)

Stone

Tang stele of Master Dao’an of Mount Songshan

The 15th year of Kaiyuan in Tang Dynasty (727)

Stone

Tang Chi Die Jie Stele

The second year of Tang Emperor Dali (767)

Stone

Stele of the Jietan of Huishan Temple

The 11th year of Tang Emperor Zhenyuan (795)

Stone

Dvaja

The 49th year of Qing

Stone

Physical features

Height 1.47 m, width 0.61 m. The stele has a dragon head-shaped top and a square base. On the obverse is a Buddha image, the face and folds of clothes of which are simple, regular, and well proportioned. It is now kept in Henan Museum To the north of the gate; height 3.4 m, width 1.22 m. The inscription, composed and written by Song Dan, narrates the life of Master Dao’an. It is recorded and highly praised for its calligraphic value in the historical records of many dynasties To the north of the gate; height 1.50 m, width 0.70 m. The full name is “The jietan stele of Huishan Temple on Mount Songshan in Dengfeng County in Henan”. The inscriptions were written by Li Yu, Wang Jin, and Du Hongjian To the north of the gate; height 1.50 m, width 0.70 m. The inscription is composed by Lu Changyuan and written in official script by Lu Ying, who also wrote the title in seal script. The vigorous, elegant calligraphic style has always been highly valued In the east wing room; height 2.00 m. The top of the column is in the shape of an octagonal (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

243

(continued) Steles, murals, statues, and other relics in the Huishan Temple Architectural Name of relic Time Material complex Emperor Kangxi (1710)

The Qianlong Emperor’s stele

Picture stele of the diagram of Buddhist sects

The 15th year of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1750) Unknown

Stone

Physical features pavilion, on which is a Buddha statue. The octagonal column bears the title Prajna-paramita-hrdaya-sutra and the text of the sutra On the platform in front of the main hall; Carved on the stele is a poem written by the Qianlong Emperor during his visit to Huishan Temple

To the north of the gate; height 3.05 m, width 1.30 m. The inscription on the rounded-topped stele inscription lists the religious names of the masters of the northern and southern sects of the Chan sect from Dharma to Huineng, the sixth patriarch. It was subsequently an important proof of the development of the Chan sect Tianzhong-shan The Qing Stone Inlaid on the screen wall; Stele Dynasty height 2.40 m, width 0.86 m; (1644– written by the famous 1911) calligrapher Yan Zhenqing “Sky Light and The 25th Stone Inlaid on the screen wall. Each Cloud Shadows” year of of the four stones bears one carved stones Qing character, measuring 1.02 m Emperor high and 0.85 m wide. The Jiaqing characters, written by Song (1820) Xiang, are in a vigorous, majestic style Steles and other historic relics in the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning Name Time Material Physical features “General cypresses”

Over 4500 years ago

Stone

The first “General” cypress is to the north-west of the gate of the Academy and the second is located to the west (continued)

244

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Steles and other historic relics in the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning Name Time Material Physical features

Stele of Songyang Temple

The second year of Eastern Wei Emperor Tianping (535)

Stone

Tang Stele of Songyang Temple

The third year of Tang Emperor Tianbao (744)

Stone

of the Hall of Saints. The rank of “General” was conferred on these two cypresses by Han Emperor Wu. The first measures 12 m in height, 5.4 m in trunk circumference, and 11.5 m in the width of its crown; the second measures 18.2 m in height, 12.54 m in trunk diameter, and 17.8 m in crown width. The second “general” cypress, which is over 4500 years old, is the oldest cypress so far found anywhere in China Located 17.75 m west of the palace and 5.68 m south of the gate of the Academy. Height 3.17 m, width 1.40 m. The stele provides material proof that the Academy’s predecessor was the Songyang Temple. The carvings and calligraphy on it are Northern Wei masterpieces. As recorded by the famous architect Liu Dunzhen in Notes of the Survey of Ancient Structures in Henan, “The stele bears a small image on the obverse. The back has a Buddha image at the top of the inscription, with an exceptional inscription below. The decorative patterns on the top and both sides are also very beautiful.” Located 10 m west of the gate of the Academy. Height 9.02 m, width 2.04 m, (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

245

(continued) Steles and other historic relics in the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning Name Time Material Physical features

Stele with the poem on the three cypresses that were made generals in the Han Dynasty

The third year of Ming Emperor Longqing (1569)

Stone

Picture stele of Dengfeng County

The 21st year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1593)

Stone

Stele of the rebuilding of the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning

The 12th year of Qing Emperor Kangxi (1673)

Stone

thickness 1.05 m, weight over 80 tons. This is the largest stele in the Central Plains. It is representative of Tang steles by virtue of the power of its superb design, carving techniques, and calligraphy. It is material proof that the academy was once the Songyang Palace. Liu Dunzhen comments that “The Tang Stele of Songyang Temple, made in 744, is exceptional among Tang steles for having an image of double dragons and a pearl on top. It must have been the model for such steles as the Qing North Sea Stele and the stele of Biyun Temple” Located in the West Stele Corridor of the Academy. Height 0.91 m, width 0.45 m. Poems composed and written by Jiang Ji West of the steps of the platform in front of the Hall of Saints. Height 1.05 m, width 0.86 m. The stele, which was commissioned by Chen Guozhang, county magistrate of Dengfeng, bears a map showing places of historical interest and the mountains, rivers, roads, villages, and towns of Dengfeng. It is one of the best Ming steles in the Mount Songshan region It is located to the west of the “Picture stele of Dengfeng County” (see previous entry). (continued)

246

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Steles and other historic relics in the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning Name Time Material Physical features

Stele of the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning

The 19th year of Qing Emperor Kangxi (1680)

Stone

Stele of moral admonitions

The 20th year of Qing Emperor Kangxi (1681)

Stone

New Stele of the Daotong Temple of the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning

The 28th year of Qing Emperor Kangxi (1689)

Stone

Stele of a Poem by the Qianlong Emperor

The 15th year of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1750)

Stone

Height 1.39 m, width 0.81 m. The inscription, composed by Ye Feng and written by Jiao Qinchong, describes the rebuilding of the Academy North-east of the first “General” cypress (see above). Height 2.37 m, width 0.96 m. On the obverse and reverse of the stele there are six reports of lectures on the Academy and its reconstruction composed and written by Zhang Xun, Tang Bin, Geng Jie, Wu Ziyun, Guo Wenhua, and Dou Keqin Located in the East Stele Corridor of the Academy. Height: 0.45 m, width 0.85 m. The inscription, composed by Geng Jie and written by Li Peiheng, consists of moral principles that reflect traditional Confucian ideas In the East Stele Corridor of the Academy. Height 0.54 m, width 0.9 m. The inscription was composed by Yan Xingbang In the Imperial Stone Tablet Pavilion north-east of the Hall of Saints. Height 1.51 m, width 0.99 m. The stele bears a poem composed by the Qianlong Emperor during his visit to the Academy

Stone (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

247

(continued) Steles and other historic relics in the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning Name Time Material Physical features Stele of Allotting Land to the Academy of Classical Learning

The fifth year of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1740)

East of the “Stele of the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning” (see above). Height 2.16 m, width 0.81 m. The inscription, composed by Jiao Ruheng and written by Zhang Xueshi, is an official document by which the county magistrate Shi Yizan allotted 123mu (1mu = 1/15ha) of land that belonged to Longquan Temple to the Academy

Stele of the Rebuilding of the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning

The seventh year of Qing Emperor Guangxu (1881)

Stone

Stele of Duke Wenlu’s Tour to the Songyang Academy of Classical Learning

The 11th year of the Republic of China (1922)

Stone

Yuying Society Plaque

The 12th year of the Republic of China (1923)

Stone

East of the steps of the platform in front of the Hall of Saints. Height 1.89 m, width 0.76 m. The inscription was composed and written by Lü Xianduan, the county magistrate of Dengfeng In the West Stele Corridor of the Academy. Height 0.96 m, width 0.49 m. The inscription was composed by Zhuang Yan in 1922, the 863rd anniversary of Duke Wenlu’s tour to Songyang in the Song Dynasty In the East Stele Corridor of the Academy. Height 0.6 m, width 1.55 m. The inscription was composed and written by Kang Youwei during his tour to Mount Songshan in 1923

Steles and other relics of the Observatory Name Time

Material

Physical features

Gaowen Stele

Stone

In front of the Zhougong Shrine. Height 1.50 m, width (continued)

The 15th year of Ming

248

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

(continued) Steles and other relics of the Observatory Name Time

Material

Emperor Zhengde (1520)

Stele of the Rebuilding of the Sundial Platform

The seventh year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1528)

Stone

Account of the Building of the Zhougong Shrine

The seventh year of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1528)

Stone

Account of the Rebuilding of the Zhougong Shrine at the Yuansheng Temple

The tenth year of Ming Emperor Wanli (1582)

Stone

Stele of the Poem on a Visit to the Zhougong Sundial Platform

The reign of Ming Emperor Wanli (1573– 1620)

Stone

Stele of the Rebuilding of the Zhougong Temple

The 15th year of Qing Emperor Kangxi (1676)

Stone

Stele of a Poem by Dong Rong

The 15th year of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1750) The 20th year of Qing

Stone

Stone

Physical features 0.70 m. The inscription, composed by Chen Fengwu, records the system and practice of offering sacrifices to Zhougong In front of the Zhougong Shrine. Height 1.5 m, width 0.64 m. The inscription, composed by Lun Xuwen and written by Wang Jinqing, narrates the rebuilding of the sundial platform in the Ming Dynasty In front of the Zhougong Shrine. Height 1.6 m, width 0.65 m. The inscription, written by Wang Jinqing, describes the building of the Zhougong Shrine In front of the Zhougong Shrine. Height 1.92 m, width 0.71 m. The inscription was composed by Sun Chengji and written by Fu Ruyu In front of the Zhougong Shrine. Height 1.75 m, width 0.70 m. The poem was composed and written by Zheng Dayuan In front of the Zhougong Shrine. Height 1.47 m, width 0.56 m. The inscription was composed by Li Ruqi and written by Du Yu In front of the Zhougong Shrine. Height 1.25 m, width 0.21 m. The stele bears a poem written by Dong Rong during his tour to the Observatory In front of the Zhougong Shrine. Height 1.50 m, width (continued)

Appendix F: Important Steles and Other Cultural Relics at Mount Songshan

249

(continued) Steles and other relics of the Observatory Name Time Account of Offering Sacrifices in the Zhougong Temple Stele of the Rebuilding of Yuansheng Temple

Material

Emperor Qianlong (1755)

The 19th year Stone of Qing Emperor Guangxu (1893) Source Historic Monuments of Mount Songshan

Physical features 0.52 m. The inscription, written by Gao Yu, narrates the offering of sacrifices to Zhougong in the Qing Dynasty In front of the Zhougong Shrine. Height 1.80 m, width 0.67 m. The inscription was composed by Liu Huilin and written by Zhang Minglun