Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates 1394179812, 9781394179817

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Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates

Hematology 101 Morphology Updates

Barbara J. Bain MBBS, FRACP, FRCPath

Professor of Diagnostic Haematology St Mary’s Hospital Campus of Imperial College London and Honorary Consultant Haematologist St Mary’s Hospital Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust London

This edition first published 2023 © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/ permissions. The right of Barbara J. Bain to be identified as the author of the work has been asserted in accordance with law. Registered Offices John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-­on-­demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats. Trademarks: Wiley and the Wiley logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/ or its affiliates in the United States and other countries and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty The contents of this work are intended to further general scientific research, understanding, and discussion only and are not intended and should not be relied upon as recommending or promoting scientific method, diagnosis, or treatment by physicians for any particular patient. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of medicines, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each medicine, equipment, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data Applied for Hardback: 9781394179817 Cover Design: Wiley Cover Image: © Roger Sutcliffe/Getty Images Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

v

Contents Preface  x Note to the reader  xi Acknowledgements  xii Abbreviations  xv   1

Malaria – one swallow makes a summer  1

  2

The significance of irregularly contracted cells and hemighosts in sickle cell disease  2

  3

Striking dyserythropoiesis in sickle cell anemia following an aplastic crisis  3

  4

A normal mean cell volume does not exclude a diagnosis of megaloblastic anemia  4

  5

Prominent Howell–Jolly bodies when megaloblastic anemia develops in a hyposplenic patient  6

  6

A ghostly presence – G6PD deficiency  7

  7

G6PD deficiency in patients identified as female  8

  8

The cause of sudden anemia revealed by the blood film  9

  9

Choreo-­acanthocytosis  10

10

Lead poisoning  12

11

Dysplastic neutrophils in an HIV-­positive woman  14

12

Help with HELLP  15

13

Neutrophil dysplasia induced by granulocyte colony-­stimulating factor  16

14

COVID-­19 and acute kidney injury  17

15

Diagnosis of pyrimidine 5′ nucleotidase deficiency suspected from a blood film  19

vi

Contents

16

Bone marrow aspirate in Chédiak–Higashi syndrome  20

17

Phytosterolemia  21

18

Pseudo-­Chédiak–Higashi inclusions together with Auer rods in acute myeloid leukemia  22

19

Botryoid nuclei resulting from cocaine abuse  23

20

Infantile pyknocytosis  25

21

Splenic rupture in cytomegalovirus infection  27

22

A new diagnosis of monoclonal B-­cell lymphocytosis with cytoplasmic inclusions in a patient with COVID-­19  29

23

Pseudoplatelets and apoptosis in Burkitt lymphoma  31

24

What is a promonocyte?  32

25

Persistent neonatal jaundice resulting from hereditary pyropoikilocytosis  34

26

Auer rods or McCrae rods?  36

27

Observation of Auer rods in crushed cells in acute promyelocytic leukemia  37

28

Alpha chain inclusions in peripheral blood erythroblasts and erythrocytes  39

29

Dyserythropoiesis in visceral leishmaniasis  41

30

Compound heterozygosity for hemoglobins S and D  42

31

Granular B lymphoblastic leukemia  43

32

Hyposplenism in adult T-­cell leukemia/lymphoma  44

33

Voxelotor in sickle cell disease  45

34

The importance of a negative image  48

35

Seeing what isn’t there  49

36

A young woman with sudden onset of a severe coagulation abnormality  50

37

Immature Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes in bone marrow  51

38

Acute myeloid leukemia with myelodysplasia-­related changes showing basophilic differentiation  52

Contents

39

Thiamine-­responsive megaloblastic anemia in an Iraqi girl  53

40

Teardrop poikilocytes in metastatic carcinoma of the breast  54

41

A blood film that could have averted a splenectomy  55

42

Russell bodies and Mott cells  57

43

Dutcher bodies  59

44

Acute myeloid leukemia with inv(16)(p13.1q22)  61

45

Dysplastic macropolycytes in myelodysplasia-­related acute myeloid leukemia  63

46

Diagnosis of cystinosis from a bone marrow aspirate  64

47

Emperipolesis in a patient receiving romiplostim  65

48

Mechanical hemolysis: a low mean cell volume does not always represent microcytosis  66

49

Transplant-­associated thrombotic microangiopathy  67

50

Neuroblastoma in the bone marrow  69

51

Gray platelet syndrome  70

52

Diagnosis of systemic lupus erythematosus from a bone marrow aspirate  71

53

Diagnosis from a blood film following a dog bite  72

54

Interpreting a postpartum Kleihauer test  73

55

Dengue fever in returning travellers  74

56

Auer rod-­like inclusions in multiple myeloma  76

57

Azurophilic granules in myeloma cells  77

58

Plasmodium knowlesi  78

59

The cytological features of NPM1-­mutated acute myeloid leukemia  79

60

Irregularly contracted cells in Wilson disease  81

61

Pseudo-­Pelger–Huët neutrophil morphology due to sodium valproate toxicity  82

62

The distinctive cytological features of T-­cell prolymphocytic leukemia  83

vii

viii

Contents

63

Eosinophil morphology in the reactive eosinophilia of Hodgkin lymphoma  86

64

Malaria pigment  87

65

Salmonella colonies in a bone marrow film  88

66

Severe babesiosis due to Babesia divergens acquired in the UK  89

67

Congenital acute megakaryoblastic leukemia  91

68

Basophilic differentiation in transient abnormal myelopoiesis  92

69

Methylene blue-­induced Heinz body hemolytic anemia in a premature neonate  93

70

Neutrophil vacuolation in acetominophen-­induced acute liver failure  95

71

Howell–Jolly bodies in acute hemolytic anemia  96

72

The distinctive micromegakaryocytes of transformed chronic myeloid leukemia  97

73

Copper deficiency  98

74

Chronic neutrophilic leukemia  99

75

Neutrophilic leukemoid reaction in multiple myeloma  101

76

Persistent polyclonal B lymphocytosis  103

77

Non-­hemopoietic cells in the blood and bone marrow  104

78

It’s a black day – metastatic melanoma in the bone marrow  105

79

Dehydrated hereditary stomatocytosis  106

80

Circulating lymphoma cells in intravascular large B-­cell lymphoma  107

81

Unusual inclusions in hemoglobin H disease post-­splenectomy  108

82

An unexpectedly bizarre blood film in hemoglobin H disease  109

83

Acute myeloid leukemia with a severe coagulopathy and t(8;16)(p11;p13)  111

84

Cold autoimmune hemolytic anemia secondary to atypical pneumonia  113

85

A confusing ‘white cell count’ – circulating micromegakaryocytes in post-­thrombocythemia myelofibrosis  114

Contents

  86

Diagnosis of follicular lymphoma from the peripheral blood  115

  87

Transformation of follicular lymphoma  117

  88

Cytology of systemic mastocytosis  118

  89

Systemic mastocytosis – the importance of looking within bone marrow fragments  119

  90

Schistocytosis is not always microangiopathic hemolytic anemia  120

  91

Hemoglobin C disease  121

  92

Hemoglobin St Mary’s  122

  93

Congenital sideroblastic anemia in a female  123

  94

A puzzling case of methemoglobinemia  125

  95

Hodgkin lymphoma in a bone marrow aspirate  127

  96

Giant proerythroblasts in pure red cell aplasia due to parvovirus B19 infection in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis  128

  97

A myeloid neoplasm with FIP1L1::PDGFRA presenting as acute myeloid leukemia  129

  98

Breast implant-­associated anaplastic large cell lymphoma  131

  99

Large granular lymphocytosis induced by dasatinib  132

100

The distinctive cytology and disease evolution of blastic plasmacytoid dendritic cell neoplasm  134

101

Platelet phagocytosis as a cause of pseudothrombocytopenia  136 Test yourself  137 Answers to test cases  145 Index  152

ix

x

Preface This book is based on an ongoing series of Morphology Updates that have been published monthly in the American Journal of Hematology since 2008. When necessary, cases have been updated and a test yourself section has been added. The aim of the book is to bring the importance of ­hematological morphology to a wider readership. In selecting cases for inclusion, preference has been given to those where microscopy was crucial for diagnosis and where there is a generalizable message.

xi

Note to the reader Unless otherwise stated, all photomicrographs have been stained with a May–Grünwald–Giemsa or similar Romanowsky-­type stain. Photography has generally been with a ×100 objective but sometimes ×50 or other magnification.

xii

Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge the Editor of the American Journal of Hematology, Carlo Brugnara, whose idea it was to gather Morphology Updates into book form and thus disseminate them more widely. The major role of the co-­authors of the original reports is gratefully acknowledged. They are listed alphabetically below, in groups according to their affiliation at the time of writing the initial update, and the original article is cited with each Update. Co-­authors who are or were, at the time of writing the Update, attached to Imperial College London or Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust (St Mary’s Hospital, Hammersmith Hospital and Charing Cross Hospital) Saad Abdalla, Syed Ahmed, Jane Apperley, Marc Arca, Maria Atta, Anna Austin, Peter Bain, Vandana Bharadwaj, Eimear Brannigan, Loretta Brown, Victoria Campbell, Aristeidis Chaidos, Subarna Chakravorty, Lynda Chapple, Kan Cheung, Lucy Cook, Nichola Cooper, Christina Crossette-­Thambiah, Josu De La Fuente, Simona Deplano, Nadine Farah, Rashpal Flora, Rodney Foale, Emma Fosbury, Jacob Grinfeld, Kamala Gurung, Sophie Hanina, Amanda Hann, Andrew Hastings, Marc Heller, Leena Karnik, Mark Layton, Thomas Lofaro, Kirstin Lund, Asad Luqmani, Sasha Marks, Philippa May, Dragana Milojkovic, Audrey Morris, Jane Myburgh, Elizabet ­Nadal-­Melsió, David Nam, Akwasi Osei-­Yeboah, Bella Patel, Jiří Pavlů, Lorry Phelan, Amin Rahemtulla, Edward Renaudon-­Smith, John Riches, Lynn Robertson, Megan Rowley, Gayathriy Sivaguru, Michael Spencer-­Chapman, Sree Sreedhara, Matthew Stubbs, Sarmad Toma, James Uprichard, Lewis Vanhinsbergh, Vanlata Varu and Eva Yebra-­Fernandez. Co-­authors attached to other UK hospitals and institutions Bahaa Al-­Bubseree, Beatson West of Scotland Cancer Centre, Glasgow; Magda Al Obaidi, West Middlesex University Hospital, Isleworth, London; Hannah Al-­Yousuf, North Middlesex University Hospital, London; Philip Ancliff, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London; Anna Babb, West Middlesex University Hospital, Isleworth, London; Linda Barton, University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust, Leicester; Tanya Bernard, Ashford and St Peter’s Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Chertsey; Manju Bhavnani, Royal Albert Edward Infirmary, Wigan; Kieran Burton, Wycombe Hospital, Buckinghamshire Healthcare NHS Trust, High Wycombe; Carolyn Campbell, Oxford Genetics Laboratories, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Trust, Oxford; Wei Yee Chan, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London; Peter Chiodini, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, London;

Acknowledgements

Barnaby Clark, King’s College and King’s College Hospital, London; Nicholas Cross, Wessex Regional Genetics Laboratory, Salisbury District Hospital, Salisbury; Helen Eagleton, Wycombe Hospital, Buckinghamshire Healthcare NHS Trust, High Wycombe; Emilia Escuredo, St Thomas’ Hospital, London; Rachel Farnell, Wycombe Hospital, Buckinghamshire Healthcare NHS Trust, High Wycombe; Nicholas Fordham, St Helier Hospital, Carshalton, London; Niharendu Ghara, North Middlesex University Hospital, London; Kirsteen Harper, Beatson West of Scotland Cancer Centre, Glasgow; David Hopkins, Beatson West of Scotland Cancer Centre, Glasgow; Ann Hunter, University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust, Leicester; Vishal Jayakar, Kingston Hospital, Kingston upon Thames, London; Rosie Jones, Borders General Hospital, Melrose; Andrew Keenan, North Devon District Hospital, Barnstaple; Ahmad Khoder, West Middlesex University Hospital, Isleworth, London; May-­Jean King, NHS Blood and Transplant, Bristol; Victoria Kronsten, King’s College Hospital, London; Alison Laing, Beatson West of Scotland Cancer Centre, Glasgow; Mike Leach, Beatson West of Scotland Cancer Centre, Glasgow; Christine Liu, West Middlesex University Hospital, Isleworth, London; John Luckit, North Middlesex University Hospital, London; Caitlin MacDonald, North Devon District Hospital, Barnstaple; Louisa McIlwaine, Beatson West of Scotland Cancer Centre, Glasgow; Francis Matthey, Chelsea and Westminster Hospital, London; Sajir Mohamedbhai, North Middlesex University NHS Trust, London; Veselka Nikolova, Royal Marsden Hospital, Sutton; Simon O’Connor, Royal Marsden Hospital, Sutton; Katrina Parsons, Beatson West of Scotland Cancer Centre, Glasgow; Sophie Portsmore, North Middlesex University Hospital, London; Clare Rees, Frimley Park Hospital, Camberley; Debbie Shawcross, King’s College Hospital, London; Giulia Simini, West Middlesex University Hospital, Isleworth, London; Wenchee Siow, Wycombe Hospital, Buckinghamshire Healthcare NHS Trust, High Wycombe; Dean Smyth, Beatson West of Scotland Cancer Centre, Glasgow; Simon Stern, St Helier Hospital, Carshalton, London; John Swansbury, The Royal Marsden Hospital, Sutton; Sabita Uthaya, Chelsea and Westminster Hospital, London; Godhev Vijay, King’s College Hospital, London; Barbara Wild, King’s College Hospital, London; Ke Xu, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London; and Anne Yardumian, North Middlesex University Hospital, London. Co-­authors from Australia Alan Mills, Bendigo, Victoria (now deceased); Robyn Wells, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Woolloongabba, Queensland; Bronwyn Williams, Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital, Herston, Queensland; and Hui Sien Tay, Bendigo, Victoria.

xiii

xiv

Acknowledgements

Co-­author from France Jean-­Baptiste Rieu, Cancer University Institute of Toulouse Oncopole, Toulouse. Co-­author from India Biswadip Hazarika, Batra Hospital and Medical Research Centre, New Delhi. Co-­authors from Iraq Abbas Hashim Abdulsalam, Al-­Yarmouk Teaching Hospital, Baghdad; Abdulsalam Hatim, National Center for Hematology, Baghdad; Zead Ibrahim, Al-­Yarmouk Teaching Hospital, Baghdad; Mohammed Khamis, Al-­Khadimiya Teaching Hospital, Baghdad; and Nafila Sabeeh, Al-­Yarmouk Teaching Hospital, Baghdad. Co-­authors from Italy Francesca Barducchi, Anatomical Pathology, ASL2 Liguria; Enrico Cappelli, Clinical Pathology, ASL2 Liguria; Daniele Delli Carri, Azienda Ospedaliera G. Rummo, Benevento; Maurizio Fumi, Azienda Ospedaliera G. Rummo, Benevento; Brisejda Koroveshi, Clinical Pathology, ASL2 Liguria; Lorella Lanza, Anatomical Pathology, ASL2 Liguria; Flavia Lillo, Clinical Pathology, ASL2 Liguria; Ylenia Pancione, Azienda Ospedaliera G. Rummo, Benevento; Vincenzo Rocco, Azienda Ospedaliera G. Rummo, Benevento; Silvia Sale, Azienda Ospedaliera G. Rummo, Benevento; and Ezio Venturino, Anatomical Pathology, ASL2 Liguria. Co-­author from Kuwait Hassan A. Al-­Jafar, Amiri Hospital, Kuwait City. Co-­authors from Portugal Rui Barreira, Instituto Português de Oncologia de Lisboa Francisco Gentil (IPOLFG), Lisbon; José Cortez, Instituto Português de Oncologia de Lisboa Francisco Gentil (IPOLFG), Lisbon; Filipa Fernandes, Instituto Português de Oncologia de Lisboa Francisco Gentil (IPOLFG), Lisbon; Rita Ramalho, Instituto Português de Oncologia de Lisboa Francisco Gentil (IPOLFG), Lisbon; and Margarida Silveira, Instituto Português de Oncologia de Lisboa Francisco Gentil (IPOLFG), Lisbon. Co-­authors from Spain Beatriz Bua, Hospital Clínico Universitario de Salamanca, Salamanca; Félix Cadenas, Hospital Clínico Universitario de Salamanca, Salamanca; and María Campelo, Hospital Clínico Universitario de Salamanca, Salamanca.

xv

Abbreviations ADAMTS13 a disintegrin and metalloprotease domain with thrombospondin type 1 motif, member 13 AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome ALL acute lymphoblastic leukemia AML acute myeloid leukemia ANAE α naphthyl acetate esterase APL acute promyelocytic leukemia activated partial thromboplastin time APTT ATLL adult T-­cell leukemia/lymphoma ATP adenosine triphosphate ATRA all-­trans-­retinoic acid BIA-­ALCL breast implant-­associated anaplastic large cell lymphoma blastic plasmacytoid dendritic cell neoplasm BPDCN B-­PLL B-­cell prolymphocytic leukemia CD cluster of differentiation CLL chronic lymphocytic leukemia CMV cytomegalovirus chronic neutrophilic leukemia CNL COVID-­19 corona virus disease 2019 CVAD cyclophosphamide, vincristine, doxorubicin (Adriamycin) and dexamethasone 2,3-­DPG 2,3-­diphosphoglycerate DIC disseminated intravascular coagulation DNA deoxyribonucleic acid EBER Epstein–Barr virus-­encoded small RNA EBV Epstein–Barr virus EDTA ethylenediaminetetra-­acetic acid EMA eosin-­5′-­maleimide FAB French–American–British (classifications of hematological neoplasms) FEU fibrinogen equivalent units FISH fluorescence in situ hybridization G6PD glucose-­6-­phosphate dehydrogenase G-­CSF granulocyte colony-­stimulating factor GVHD graft-­versus-­host disease H&E hematoxylin and eosin

xvi

Abbreviations

Hb Hct HELLP HIV HLA HPLC HTLV-­1 Ig IL IRF4 ITD ITP LDH LE MBCL MCF MCH MCHC MCV MDS mRNA MUM1 NADPH NK NRBC P5′N PAS PCH PCR PLT PT RBC RDW RT-­PCR SARS-­CoV-­2 SLE Sp SUV TA-­TMA TNCC T-­PLL TTP VEGF WBC WHO

hemoglobin concentration hematocrit hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes and low platelet count (syndrome) human immunodeficiency virus histocompatibility locus antigen high performance liquid chromatography human T-­cell lymphotropic virus 1 immunoglobulin interleukin interferon regulatory factor 4 internal tandem duplication immune thrombocytopenic purpura/autoimmune thrombocytopenic purpura lactate dehydrogenase lupus erythematosus monoclonal B-­cell lymphocytosis mean cell fluorescence mean cell hemoglobin mean cell hemoglobin concentration mean cell volume myelodysplastic syndrome/s messenger ribonucleic acid multiple myeloma oncogene 1 nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate natural killer (cell) nucleated red blood cell/s pyrimidine 5′ nucleotidase periodic acid–Schiff (reaction) paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria polymerase chain reaction platelet prothrombin time red blood cell count red cell distribution width reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction severe acute respiratory distress syndrome corona virus 2 systemic lupus erythematosus spectrin standardized uptake value transplant-­associated thrombotic microangiopathy total nucleated cell count T-­cell prolymphocytic leukemia thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura vascular endothelial growth factor white blood cell count World Health Organization

1

1  Malaria – one swallow makes a summer

A Nigerian woman who was 37 weeks’ pregnant, recently arrived in the UK, presented to a general practitioner with tiredness and dyspnea. Her automated full blood count showed a ‘white cell count’ of 112 × 109/l, Hb 55 g/l, MCV 101 fl and platelet count 471 × 109/l. Examination of a blood film showed that the elevated ‘white cell count’ was due to large numbers of nucleated red blood cells and the true white cell count was 10.7 × 109/l. In addition, the film showed features of sickle cell disease (left image) and high performance liquid chromatography showed hemoglobin S as the major hemoglobin with no hemoglobin A being present. The lack of microcytosis indicated that the diagnosis was sickle cell anemia (SS) rather than compound heterozygosity for hemoglobin S and β0 thalassemia. The patient, when questioned, stated that she had sickle cell trait and denied any knowledge of a diagnosis of sickle cell anemia. Since the Hb was somewhat lower than expected (although compatible with sickle cell anemia in late pregnancy) the blood film was further examined to try to identify any other factors contributing to the anemia. There was marked polychromasia. There were no hypersegmented neutrophils and the MCV was considered compatible with the reticulocytosis. Unexpectedly, a Plasmodium falciparum ring form was detected (right). A careful search of the film disclosed a total of four parasites. A Giemsa stain showed Maurer clefts and immunological tests for an antigen specific to P. falciparum confirmed the diagnosis. Further questioning of the patient, who was afebrile, ­disclosed that 3 weeks earlier she had suspected that she had malaria and had taken a single tablet of Fansidar (pyrimethamine plus sulfadoxine) plus a paracetamol tablet. Further appropriate treatment for falciparum malaria was given. It is stated that ‘one swallow does not a summer make’ but the detection of a single parasite does permit a diagnosis of malaria. Original publication: Bain BJ (2012) Malaria – one swallow makes a summer. Am J Hematol, 87, 190.

Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

2

2  The significance of irregularly contracted cells and hemighosts in sickle cell disease

The presence of considerable numbers of irregularly contracted cells and hemighosts in sickle cell disease may serve as a warning of severe sickle crisis with significant hypoxia. These two cases demonstrate this association. The first patient was a 52-­year-­old woman with sickle cell/β0 thalassemia who presented with generalized bone pain. She was given intravenous fluids, antibiotics and analgesics but, despite treatment, ­developed respiratory failure with a PO2 of 7.0 kPa. Her blood count showed WBC 10.0 × 109/l, Hb 72 g/l, MCV 63.9 fl and platelets 257 × 109/l. In addition to the usual features of sickle cell disease, her blood film showed hemighost cells in which the hemoglobin was retracted to one side of the erythrocyte (top right image). This phenomenon was also observed in cells showing evidence of hemoglobin polymerization – cells with pointed ends and sometimes a gentle curve (top left). She declined continuous positive airway pressure and was commenced on high flow oxygen by nasal cannula, to which she responded well. The second patient was a young man with sickle cell anemia. He suffered a cardiac arrest and became severely hypoxic. His blood count then showed WBC 26.5 × 109/l, Hb 101 g/l, MCV 88.7 fl and platelet count 110  ×  109/. His blood film showed numerous hemighosts with hemoglobin retracted to one side of the cell or to both ends of an elongated cell (bottom images). In addition, there were irregularly contracted cells, some of which were somewhat angular, suggesting that polymerization was occurring (bottom left). Irregularly contracted cells and hemighosts can be a warning sign of severe hypoxia and worsening crisis in patients with sickle cell disease. This blood film observation reflects the increased percentage of dense cells demonstrable on density gradient analysis in patients with sickle cell crisis.1 Original publication: Siow W, Matthey F and Bain BJ (2017) The significance of irregularly ­contracted cells and hemighosts in sickle cell disease. Am J Hematol, 92, 966–967.

Reference 1 Fabry ME and Kaul DK (1991) Sickle cell vaso-­occlusion. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am, 5, 375–398. Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

3

3  Striking dyserythropoiesis in sickle cell anemia following an aplastic crisis

A 7-­year-­old boy with clinically mild sickle cell anemia was transferred to our pediatric intensive care unit from his local hospital. He had presented with fatigue, had developed respiratory distress and had been found to have metabolic acidosis, markedly elevated troponin and severe anemia. His Hb was 20 g/l, with an inadequate reticulocyte response (reticulocyte count 32 × 109/l). He had been transfused 20 ml/kg of O RhD-­negative packed red cells and had been commenced on broad-­spectrum antimicrobials prior to transfer. On arrival he was hemodynamically stable and self-­ventilating. A chest X-­ray demonstrated right-­sided consolidation. An echocardiogram showed mild mitral regurgitation and tricuspid regurgitation with a dilated left ventricle and mildly reduced ventricular function. Infection screening including urine legionella and pneumococcal antigen, blood ­cultures, urine cultures and viral respiratory screen were all negative. The patient was intubated and ventilated shortly after arrival in the pediatric intensive care unit. He improved clinically over the next few days, following further red cell transfusion and escalation of antibiotics, and was ­extubated. Serum troponin gradually normalized. As he recovered, there was an outpouring of nucleated red blood cells into the peripheral blood, with striking dyserythropoiesis. Erythroblasts showed nuclear lobulation, basophilic stippling, detached nuclear fragments, occasional binucleated forms and occasional mitotic figures (images). Parvovirus B19 serology, IgG and IgM, was positive, confirming recent parvovirus infection. Thus the suspected diagnosis of parvovirus-­induced severe aplastic crisis was confirmed, this being complicated by pneumonia and by cardiac ischemia secondary to severe anemia. Dyserythropoiesis has many causes, including hemolytic anemia. When erythropoiesis is very active – ‘stress erythropoiesis’ – dyserythropoiesis can be striking, as in this patient. It is important to be aware of the many potential causes of dyserythropoiesis in order to avoid misdiagnosis. Original publication: Austin A, Lund K and Bain BJ (2019) Striking dyserythropoiesis in sickle cell anemia following an aplastic crisis. Am J Hematol, 94, 378.

Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

4

4  A normal mean cell volume does not exclude a diagnosis of megaloblastic anemia

A 61-­year-­old male was referred to the emergency department by his general practitioner because of pancytopenia. This had been noted several months previously but the patient had refused detailed investigation or treatment. He was noted to have hyperpigmentation of his hands with palmer and plantar freckling. His blood count showed WBC 1.9 × 109/l, neutrophils 0.8 × 109/l, RBC 1.69 × 1012/l, Hb 42 g/l, MCV 81.5 fl, MCH 28 pg, MCHC 343 g/l, red cell distribution width (RDW) 35.5% (normal range 10–16), platelets 47 × 109/l and reticulocytes 44.5 × 109/l. His blood film (all images) showed marked anisocytosis and poikilocytosis, red cell fragments, macrocytes, oval macrocytes, teardrop poikilocytes and Howell–Jolly bodies (bottom right). Biochemical tests showed lactate dehydrogenase 5594  iu/l, creatinine 84  μmol/l, bilirubin 59  μmol/l and ferritin 257 μg/l. Serum haptoglobin was 0 g/l (0.52–2.24). A coagulation screen was normal. The marked red cell fragmentation raised the suspicion of thrombotic thrombocytopenic ­purpura (TTP) but a careful inspection of the blood film suggested an alternative diagnosis. Hypersegmented neutrophils were present (top right) and there were circulating megaloblasts, some of which showed dyserythropoietic features (bottom left). In addition, oval macrocytes and teardrop poikilocytes are very typical of megaloblastic anemia. Serum vitamin B12 was found to be T; p. Ser218Phe, also known as G6PD Mediterranean. The patient’s 5-­year-­old brother presented simultaneously with an Hb of 70 g/l and a G6PD assay of 2 u/g Hb. The patient’s father, who was known to be G6PD deficient, had milder hemolysis. Falafel are traditionally made with chick peas but are sometimes made with fava beans (broad beans) or with a mixture of the two. Patients and physicians may not be aware of this possibility. The right image is of the blood film of an adult South Asian patient identified in hospital records as ‘female’, who presented with fever and symptomatic anemia. It shows similar features to the first patient with numerous irregularly contracted cells and blister cells. In addition, Heinz bodies are apparent, precipitated within the otherwise empty area of cytoplasm within blister cells. Hb was 70 g/l. A G6PD assay confirmed deficiency. Again, the hemolysis was unusually severe for a female and further enquiries were made. It was discovered that the patient was a trans female, genetically male but choosing to identify in medical records as female. Other circumstances in which G6PD deficiency leading to symptomatic hemolysis of unexpected severity in a female that have been reported include Turner syndrome (female patients with a single X chromosome) and females who have been transplanted with bone marrow from a G6PD-­ deficient male. As it becomes possible in various jurisdictions for trans persons to legally change their gender in official records, diagnostic conundrums are likely to arise. Close liaison between clinical and laboratory staff is essential for these patients and also for those who have had a bone marrow transplant that is unknown to the laboratory as it was performed in another hospital. Original publication: Bain BJ, Myburgh J, Lund K and Chaidos A (2023) G6PD deficiency in patients identified as female. Am J Hematol, 98, 359–360. Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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8  The cause of sudden anemia revealed by the blood film

A girl aged 3 years 6 months of Indian ethnic origin presented with a 2-­day history of fever and sore throat. She had also been passing red urine for the previous 24 hours. Her blood count showed WBC 27.5 × 109/l, RBC 2.76 × 1012/l, Hb 81 g/l, Hct 0.22 l/l, MCV 80 fl, MCH 29.6 pg and MCHC 370 g/l. The increased MCHC suggested the presence of spherocytes, irregularly contracted cells or some other hyper-­dense cells. A blood film confirmed the presence of numerous spherocytes and in addition was leucoerythroblastic and showed red cell agglutination and erythrophagocytosis by neutrophils (images). Other neutrophils had large vacuoles, similar in size to an erythrocyte, containing amorphous debris. There were also atypical lymphocytes, which appeared reactive. Lactate dehydrogenase and bilirubin were increased. The reticulocyte count was initially normal (46 × 109/l) but subsequently rose. The combination of marked spherocytosis, red cell agglutinates and erythrophagocytosis was considered strongly suggestive of paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria (PCH) and confirmatory tests were performed. A direct antiglobulin test was positive for complement (+++) and negative for IgG. A Donath–Landsteiner test was positive. Red cell transfusion was required and full recovery had occurred by 3 weeks. Although the Donath–Landsteiner antibody is an IgG antibody it is usual for the direct antiglobulin test in PCH to show complement only since the antibody that binds to the cell and fixes complement in the cold detaches from the red cell membrane on warming. Confirmation of the diagnosis is by demonstration of the presence of an anti-­P antibody and biphasic hemolysis. However, the blood film appearances are highly characteristic and permit a rapid presumptive diagnosis. Original publication: Bharadwaj V, Chakravorty S and Bain BJ (2011) The cause of sudden a­ nemia revealed by the blood film. Am J Hematol, 87, 520.

Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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9  Choreo-­acanthocytosis

A 38-­year-­old Pakistani patient presented with a 3-­year history of facial grimacing, dysphagia, dysarthria and stutter. More recently she had developed mild chorea. On examination, she had facial tics, eye twitching, excessive blinking, tongue protrusions, dystonic opening of the mouth and choreiform movement of the limbs, particularly on the right side.1 There was no family history of neurological disease but her parents were first cousins. Her blood count was normal but a blood film showed acanthocytosis (image). A diagnosis of choreo-acanthocytosis was confirmed by demonstration of reduced chorein expression in red cell membranes. Choreo-­acanthocytosis is one of four rare neurological syndromes with movement disorders linked to atrophy of the basal ganglia, acanthocytosis and normal β lipoproteins, designated collectively neuroacanthocytosis (table below). The common link between the neurological and erythroid abnormality is an abnormality of cell membranes. Detection of acanthocytes in a blood film is diagnostically useful. Mutated gene and inheritance

Clinicopathological features

Choreo-­acanthocytosis

VPS13A, autosomal recessive

Adult-­onset progressive neurodegeneration, myopathy, often epilepsy

McLeod phenotype

KX, X-­linked recessive

Adult-­onset progressive neurodegeneration, myopathy, cardiomyopathy, weak or absent expression of Kell antigens

Huntingdon-­like disease 2*

JPH3, autosomal dominant

Adult-­onset progressive neurodegeneration

Pantothenate-­kinase associated neurodegeneration*

PANK2, autosomal recessive

Childhood-­onset progressive neurodegeneration, pallidal degeneration, sometimes retinitis pigmentosa

Syndrome

* Some cases have acanthocytes

Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Choreo-­acanthocytosis

Original publication: Bain BJ and Bain PG (2013) Choreo-­acanthocytosis. Am J Hematol, 88, 712.

Reference 1 Sokolov E, Schneider SA and Bain PG (2012) Chorea-­acanthocytosis. Pract Neurol, 12, 40–43.

Another image of the patient’s blood film showing a neutrophil and acanthocytic red cells.

11

12

10  Lead poisoning

A 50-­year-­old Indian woman newly arrived in the UK from India had a 9-­month history of ­anorexia,  nausea, constipation and dyspnea. Her blood count showed WBC 9 × 109/l, Hb 83  g/l,  MCV 85 fl, platelet count 249 × 109/l and reticulocyte count 281 × 109/l. Her blood film showed prominent basophilic stippling (left image), involving even an occasional circulating nucleated red blood cell (right). Mild poikilocytosis and some polychromatic macrocytes were also noted. Examination of the patient showed a lead line on her gums and a serum lead of 82 μg/100 ml. The source of lead in this patient was not discovered but she recovered on moving to England. Acknowledged sources of lead include Indian cosmetics and ayurvedic medicines, not only those available in India but also those manufactured in the USA and sold via the internet.1 Hematological effects of lead poisoning include a hypochromic microcytic anemia with sideroblastic erythropoiesis, a hemolytic anemia and a leucoerythroblastic blood film. The cause of the well-­known basophilic stippling and the hemolysis is inhibition of pyrimidine 5′ nucleotidase (P5′N) while the hypochromic microcytic anemia and sideroblastic erythropoiesis are due to ­inhibition of enzymes involved in heme synthesis. Although lead poisoning is uncommon in most developed countries, hematologists should be alert to the possibility that alternative medications and food supplements containing lead may have been purchased during travel or via the internet. Other causes of lead poisoning include ­occupational exposure (battery production, foundry work, painting and construction, mining), retained bullets and exposure to lead-­based paints in older, poorly maintained houses (sometimes through pica).2,3 In developing countries, sources of lead are much more widespread than in Western countries and include, in addition to traditional medicines, cosmetics and tooth-­cleaning powders, the ongoing use of lead-­based paints, water contamination from lead pipes and cisterns, use of lead-­containing cookware and lead-­glazed crockery and unsafe practices in small factories and mines.3,4 Original publication: Bain BJ (2014) Lead poisoning. Am J Hematol, 89, 1141.

Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Lead poisoning

References 1 Saper RB, Phillips RS, Sehgal A, Khouri N, Davis RB, Paquin J et al. (2008) Lead, mercury, and arsenic in US-­and Indian-­manufactured ayurvedic medicines sold via the Internet. JAMA, 300, 915–913. 2 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2013) Very high blood lead levels among adults – United States, 2002–2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 62, 967–971. 3 Hore P, Ahmed M, Nagin D and Clark N (2014) Intervention model for contaminated consumer products: a multifaceted tool for protecting public health. Am J Public Health, 104, 1377–1383. 4 Pfadenhauer LM, Burns J, Rohwer A and Rehfuess ES (2014) A protocol for a systematic review of the effectiveness of interventions to reduce exposure to lead through consumer products and drinking water. Syst Rev, 3, 36.

Clinical photograph of the patient showing lead line on gums.

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14

11  Dysplastic neutrophils in an HIV-­positive woman

A routine blood count on an 18-­year-­old HIV-­positive African woman showed anemia and ­thrombocytopenia (Hb 55 g/l, platelet count 10 × 109/l). The blood film showed changes reflecting recurrent infection including increased background staining, rouleaux formation and reactive changes in lymphocytes. In addition, neutrophils showed striking dysplastic features, which included detached nuclear fragments (top images), acquired Pelger–Huët anomaly (bottom left), chromatin clumping, neutrophils with strangely shaped nuclei and a high nucleocytoplasmic ratio (bottom right) and macropolycytes. Dysplastic changes in neutrophils are common in patients with AIDS and can be the feature that suggests the possibility of HIV infection.1 The presence of detached nuclear fragments in neutrophils is particularly suggestive. The range of changes seen differ from those that are usual in myelodysplastic syndromes. Hypogranularity is less common whereas bizarrely shaped nuclei and a high nucleocytoplasmic ratio in mature cells are more common. Detached nuclear fragments can occur in myelodysplastic syndromes but they are quite uncommon, whereas they are characteristic of HIV infection. Original publication: Bain BJ (2008) Dysplastic neutrophils in an HIV-­positive woman. Am J Hematol, 83, 738.

Reference 1 Bain BJ (1997) The haematological features of HIV infection. Br J Haematol, 99, 1–8. Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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12  Help with HELLP

The blood film illustrated is from a 31-­year-­old woman who presented at 26 weeks’ gestation in her first pregnancy with epigastric pain, diarrhea and vomiting. She was found to be hypertensive and edematous with a dipstick test of her urine being strongly positive for protein. Initially her blood count and liver function tests were normal but her hypertension was difficult to ­control and by 6 days from admission she had developed thrombocytopenia, followed by anemia and ­abnormal liver function tests. An elective caesarean section was carried out 8  days after admission. Blood tests were at their worst 2  days later: Hb 89  g/l, platelets 25  ×  109/l, γ glutamyl transferase 35 iu/l, alanine transaminase 492 iu/l, aspartate transaminase 295 iu/l, alkaline phosphatase 152 iu/l and bilirubin 92 μmol/l. The blood film (image) confirmed the severe thrombocytopenia and showed schistocytes including spheroschistocytes. Recovery occurred thereafter and the baby also ­survived in good condition. The HELLP syndrome is characterized by hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes and low platelet count. It represents a severe form of pre-­eclampsia/eclampsia. The hemolysis is microangiopathic in nature and examination of a blood film is helpful in making the diagnosis. Original publication: Bain BJ and Riches J (2010) Help with HELLP. Am J Hematol, 85, 70.

Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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13  Neutrophil dysplasia induced by granulocyte colony-­stimulating factor

In interpreting dysplastic features and considering a diagnosis of myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) it is important to be aware of the many other potential causes of dysplasia. One of these is granulocyte colony-­stimulating factor (G-­CSF), which causes neutrophil dysplasia. The present patient had adult T-­cell leukemia/lymphoma and following a course of combination chemotherapy became neutropenic. This led to filgrastim (recombinant human G-­CSF) being administered. Neutrophils increased in number and, having been previously cytologically normal, became abnormal (images). It is not surprising that G-­CSF causes neutrophilia, left shift, toxic granulation and Döhle bodies (top left). However, there are other features that would not have been anticipated. One of these is the presence of detached nuclear fragments (top right). Another is the presence of macropolycytes (lower images). The bottom left image shows one neutrophil of normal size and two macropolycytes; one of these has a detached nuclear fragment and the other has a large nucleus of a very abnormal shape. The bottom right image shows another macropolycyte, also with a small detached nuclear fragment; its nucleus is composed of two or more-­or-­less equal halves joined by a long filament. It is highly probably that this and the other macropolycytes are tetraploid cells. Detached nuclear fragments were first recognized in a patient taking azathioprine.1 Subsequently, they were found to be typical of neutrophil dysplasia induced by HIV infection.2 They are also a feature of G-­CSF-­induced dysplasia whereas they are quite uncommon in MDS. Macropolycytes are likewise a feature of G-­CSF-­induced dysplasia but are uncommon in MDS. Conversely, hypogranularity is not a feature of G-­CSF-­induced dysplasia. Consideration of the precise nature of any dysplastic features together with an awareness of all the clinical circumstances usually permits a distinction between MDS and other causes of dysplasia. Original publication: Bain BJ and Nam D (2010) Neutrophil dysplasia induced by granulocyte colony-­stimulating factor. Am J Hematol, 85, 354.

References 1 Bain BJ (1989) Blood Cells; A Practical Guide. Gower Medical Publishing, London, p. 42. 2 Bain BJ (1997) The haematological features of HIV infection. Br J Haematol, 99, 1–8. Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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14  COVID-­19 and acute kidney injury

Since the onset of the corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-­19) pandemic the spectrum of disease caused by SARS-­CoV-­2 (severe acute respiratory distress syndrome corona virus 2) has been found to be very wide with a myriad of hematological manifestations. Illustrated here are the peripheral blood features of two patients with acute kidney injury, which is part of this spectrum. The images above are from a 15-­year-­old Iraqi patient with β thalassemia major who was on regular transfusion and iron chelation therapy. He presented pericardiac arrest with ventricular tachycardia and acute kidney injury. He was found to have suffered hemorrhage from a duodenal ulcer, requiring emergency surgery and massive transfusion. PCR for SARS-­CoV-­2 was positive. Postoperatively he required hemofiltration and ventilatory support. His blood count and biochemical tests showed WBC 8.4  ×  109/l, Hb 99  g/l, platelet count 130  ×  109/l, creatinine 125  μmol/l (normal range 50–120), urea 13.2 mmol/l (2.5–7.0), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) 933 iu/l, d-­dimer 8460 ng/ml fibrinogen equivalent units (FEU) (normal range for age 160–390) and serum ferritin 2403 μg/l. Liver function tests were also abnormal. His blood film showed schistocytes and echinocytes (both images above), indicative of microangiopathy and renal insufficiency, and in addition there were occasional pincer or ‘mushroom’ cells (right image). Further complications during the clinical course included femoral vein thrombosis and seizures due to intracranial microhemorrhages. The patient was treated with dexamethasone and remdesivir and after 19 days in the intensive care unit and a further 13  days of hospitalization was discharged with recovery of renal function to baseline.

Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

18

COVID-­19 and acute kidney injury

The images above are from a 79-­year-­old Indian man who presented with fever and respiratory failure. PCR for SARS-­CoV-­2 was positive. His blood count and biochemistry tests showed WBC 29.5 × 109/l with neutrophilia and monocytosis, Hb 72 g/l, platelet count 28 × 109/l, creatinine 123.8 μmol/l, urea 32.3 mmol/l, LDH 1434 iu/l, d-­dimer 2110 ng/ml FEU (normal range 0–500) and ferritin 548.2 μg/l. His blood film confirmed the severe thrombocytopenia and showed schistocytes, marked echinocytosis (including echinocytic elliptocytes) and three NRBCs/100 WBC. The patient’s condition deteriorated rapidly and he died within 3 days of presentation. The peripheral blood features of these two patients reflect the presence of two recognized COVID-­19 complications: echinocytes are indicative of acute kidney injury and schistocytes are indicative of microangiopathic damage to red cells. In addition, the first patient showed pincer cells, which have been reported in COVID-­19 and suggest possible oxidant-­induced damage.1 Microvascular thrombosis, particularly in the lungs but also in other organs, is a well-­recognized feature of COVID-­19 and is responsible for the schistocytes observed. The origin of acute kidney injury is multifactorial, including acute tubular damage and infiltration by lymphocytes and macrophages, with the virus having been identified within the glomerular endothelium and in tubular cells. In addition, thrombotic microangiopathy involving the kidney can lead to coagulative necrosis.2 However, microvascular thrombosis within the kidney does not appear to be common and may not be extensive; microvascular thrombi were observed in only three of 21 cases in one series,3 in three of 26 cases in another,4 in one of three cases observed by the authors in a third series5 and in none of 12 cases in a fourth series.6 Acute kidney injury in COVID-­19 is an adverse prognostic indicator. Original publication: Crossette-­Thambiah C, Hazarika B and Bain BJ (2021) Covid-­19 and acute kidney injury. Am J Hematol, 96, 747–748.

References 1 Gérard D, Ben Brahim S, Lesesve JF and Perrin J (2021) Are mushroom-­shaped erythrocytes an indicator of COVID-­19? Br J Haematol, 190, 230. 2 Jhaveri KD, Meir LR, Chang, Parikh R, Wanchoo R, Barilla-­LaBarca ML et al. (2020) Thrombotic microangiopathy in a patient with COVID-­19. Kidney Int, 98, 509–512. 3 Menter T, Haslbauer JD, Nienhold R, Savic S, Hopfer H, Deigendesch N et al. (2020) Postmortem examination of COVID-­19 patients reveals diffuse alveolar damage with severe capillary congestion and variegated findings in lungs and other organs suggesting vascular dysfunction. Histopathology, 77, 198–209. 4 Su H, Yang M, Wan C, Yi LX, Tang F, Zhu H-­Y et al. (2020) Renal histopathological analysis of 26 postmortem findings of patients with COVID-­19 in China. Kidney Int, 98, 219–227. 5 Buja LM, Wolf DA, Zhao B, Akkanti B, McDonald M, Lelenwa L et al. (2020) The emerging spectrum of cardiopulmonary pathology of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-­19): report of 3 autopsies from Houston, Texas, and review of autopsy findings from other United States cities. Cardiovasc Pathol, 48, 107233. 6 Wichmann D, Sperhake JP, Lütgehetmann M, Steurer S, Edler C, Heinemann A et al. (2020) Autopsy findings and venous thromboembolism in patients with COVID-­19: a prospective cohort study. Ann Intern Med, 173, 268–277.

19

15  Diagnosis of pyrimidine 5′ nucleotidase deficiency suspected from a blood film

A 21-­year-­old Kuwaiti female presented with severe anemia. She gave a history that she had been anemic and jaundiced at birth and had needed a blood transfusion. Thereafter she continued to be anemic and had been transfused on a further nine occasions. At the age of 15 years, she had required cholecystectomy for gall stones. The patient was found to have mild hepatomegaly and enlargement of the spleen 23 cm below the left costal margin. A blood count showed Hb 81 g/l and reticulocyte count 13.7%. Bilirubin was 120 μmol/l and lactate dehydrogenase 1136 iu/l. Laboratory facilities to make a precise diagnosis of the hemolytic anemia were not available. Shortly after presentation, the patient suffered blunt trauma to the abdomen and required splenectomy. Subsequently a pre-­splenectomy blood film was reviewed and showed polychromatic macrocytes and prominent basophilic stippling (image), which varied from fine to coarse. The blood film findings, in the context of a congenital hemolytic anemia, suggested a diagnosis of pyrimidine 5′ nucleotidase (P5′N) deficiency and a blood sample was therefore sent from Kuwait to the UK for testing. Deficiency was confirmed: red cell P5′N was 1.0 nmol/h/mg Hb (normal range 9–20) with both parents having reduced activity (mother 4.0, father 6.0 nmol/h/mg Hb), consistent with heterozygosity. At this time, the patient’s Hb was 90 g/l and the reticulocyte count 33% (867 × 109/l). Interestingly, a blood film made from the blood that had been couriered from Kuwait to the UK did not show any basophilic stippling, indicating the importance of a fresh blood sample for this morphological observation. Despite the sophisticated modern methods available for making a precise diagnosis in patients with hemolytic anemia, careful examination of a blood film can still provide a significant clue to the correct diagnosis. This case also illustrates the value of retaining blood films, particularly when there is an unresolved diagnostic problem. Original publication: Al-­Jafar HA, Layton DM, Robertson L, Escuredo E and Bain BJ (2013) Diagnosis of pyrimidine 5′-­nucleotidase deficiency suspected from a blood film. Am J Hematol, 88, 1089.

Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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16  Bone marrow aspirate in Chédiak–Higashi syndrome

A 10-­month-­old Iraqi male presented with meningoencephalitis, treated with antibiotics. His blood count showed WBC 2.5 × 109/l, neutrophil count 0.08 × 109/l, Hb 96 g/l and platelet count 160 × 109/l. The severe neutropenia led to a bone marrow aspirate being performed. This revealed the diagnosis of Chédiak–Higashi syndrome. The child’s skin was normally pigmented and the diagnosis had not previously been suspected. The inclusions of Chédiak–Higashi syndrome sometimes have staining characteristics appropriate to a lineage but sometimes they stain abnormally. In these images of a Romanowsky-­stained bone marrow film, eosinophil granules are giant but retain their eosinophilic characteristics whereas many of the giant neutrophil granules stain deep purple. In addition to globular inclusions, some cells contain crystals (arrows). Original publication: Abdulsalam AH, Sabeeh N and Bain BJ (2011) Bone marrow aspirate in Chédiak-­Higashi syndrome. Am J Hematol, 87, 100.

Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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17 Phytosterolemia

A 12-­year-­old Iranian boy was referred because of anemia that was refractory to iron therapy despite a low serum iron. His parents were first cousins and he was known to have β thalassemia heterozygosity. He was on the ninth centile for height and weight. His blood count showed Hb 88 g/l with MCV 56.8 fl, MCH 17.6 pg, MCHC 309 g/l and platelet count 209 × 109/l. His anemia had the features of anemia of chronic disease with a low serum iron, low transferrin, low transferrin saturation and ferritin of 375 μmol/l. A blood film showed microcytosis and basophilic stippling, consistent with the known β thalassemia trait. However, there were also features suggesting a diagnosis of phytosterolemia (also known as sitosterolemia). Specifically, there was a combination of stomatocytes and large platelets (images). Lactate dehydrogenase was increased to 249 iu/l and on two occasions the reticulocytes were 156 and 191 × 109/l, consistent with hemolysis. The diagnosis was confirmed by measurement of the plasma lipids. There was an increase of cholesterol and triglycerides but in addition plant sterols were strikingly increased: campesterol 1008  μmol/l (normal range 0–56), stigmasterol 31  μmol/l (normal zero), sitosterol 1324  μmol/l (0–41), fucosterol 187  μmol/l (zero) and stigmastanol 124  μmol/l (zero). Investigation of the patient’s brother showed him to have the same condition. The patient was commenced on therapy with ezetimibe, a sterol pump inhibitor that reduces absorption of plant sterols. Phytosterolemia is an autosomal recessive condition resulting from mutation in either the ABCG5 or the ABCG8 genes, in which there is excessive absorption of dietary sterols including plant sterols. As a result there is formation of xanthomas and premature atherosclerosis. The condition appears to be rare but it is likely that it is underdiagnosed. Examination of a blood film, with recognition of the significance of the particular combination of large platelets and stomatocytosis, is critical in making the diagnosis. Often the platelet count is reduced. Diagnosis is important because of the premature vascular disease and because patients who are misdiagnosed have sometimes been treated with corticosteroids or splenectomy.1 Correct diagnosis has become particularly important with the availability of specific treatment. Original publication: Bain BJ and Chakravorty S (2016) Phytosterolemia. Am J Hematol, 91, 643.

Reference 1 Wang Z, Cao L, Su Y, Wang G, Wang R, Yu Z et al. (2014) Specific macrothrombocytopenia/ hemolytic anemia associated with sitosterolemia. Am J Hematol, 89, 320–324. Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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18  Pseudo-­Chédiak–Higashi inclusions together with Auer rods in acute myeloid leukemia

An 8-­year-­old Iraqi male presented with fever and pallor of 2  months’ duration. There was no ­lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly or hepatomegaly. A blood count showed WBC 1.5 × 109/l, Hb 69 g/l and platelet count 217 × 109/l. Examination of a bone marrow aspirate showed acute myeloid leukemia (AML) with little maturation; blast cells were 85% of nucleated cells, and the case was classified as FAB (French–American–British) M1 AML. An unusual feature was the presence not only of Auer rods (left image) but also of pseudo-­Chédiak–Higashi inclusions, which on a Romanowsky stain varied from pink to deep purple (right). In addition to typical thin Auer rods there were also thick rod-­shaped inclusions (left and right). Pseudo-­Chédiak–Higashi inclusions are observed occasionally in AML1 (including acute promyelocytic leukemia) and also, rarely, in refractory anemia with excess of blasts.2 The inclusions are formed by fusion of azurophilic (primary) granules and show myeloperoxidase activity and Sudan black B staining. On ultrastructural examination they are heterogeneous and, in contrast to the inclusions seen in the inherited anomaly, contain rod-­shaped structures showing periodicity.1 The diagnostic significance of these inclusions is likely to be similar to that of Auer rods, indicating either AML or a high grade myelodysplastic syndrome. Original publication: Abdulsalam AH, Sabeeh N and Bain BJ (2011) Pseudo-­Chédiak–­Higashi inclusions together with Auer rods in acute myeloid leukemia. Am J Hematol, 86, 602.

References 1 Tulliez M, Vernant JP, Breton-­Gorius J, Imbert M and Sultan C (1979) Pseudo-­Chediak–­Higashi anomaly in a case of acute myeloid leukemia: electron microscopic studies. Blood, 54, 863–871. 2 Bain BJ (2010) Leukaemia Diagnosis, 6th edn. Wiley-­Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 112–113.

Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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19  Botryoid nuclei resulting from cocaine abuse

A blood count on a 32-­year-­old, seriously ill patient presenting to the emergency department, showed lymphocytosis (lymphocyte count 5.8 × 109/l). A blood film was therefore examined. This showed numerous neutrophils with botryoid nuclei (top images), lymphocytes with multilobated nuclei (top right) and monocytes with butterfly-­ and fan-­shaped nuclei (bottom right); basophils and eosinophils (bottom left, which also shows a lobulated large granular lymphocyte) also had ­botryoid nuclei. Two hours later a blood count from the patient, now in the intensive care unit, showed that the lymphocyte count had fallen to 0.50 × 109/l and surprisingly that the nuclear aberrations were no longer present. The history was then obtained that the patient had multiorgan failure and had presented with a temperature of 41.9°C. Cocaine abuse was suspected and measures were taken to lower the body temperature. Subsequently, urinary breakdown products of drugs of abuse (opiates, cocaine and cannabinoids) were detected. We were interested in the rapid disappearance of the abnormal leukocytes and sought to explain this by an in vitro experiment. A K2-­EDTA-­anticoagulated blood sample was incubated at 41.9°C for 1 hour. A blood count and films were then performed and these were repeated over the next 8  hours with storage at ambient temperature (table below). Reversion to normal cytology was ­demonstrated. This nuclear abnormality is thus reversible within certain limits.

Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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Botryoid nuclei resulting from cocaine abuse

Botryoid nuclei are a feature of burns and of hyperthermia of diverse origins including ­heatstroke, brainstem hemorrhage or ischemia, encephalitis, malignant hyperthermia (genetically determined susceptibility to anesthesia-­induced hyperthermia) and abuse of cocaine or methamphetamine.1–3 This observation can thus be a clue to drug abuse. In addition, the patient initially showed stress lymphocytosis with a subsequent rapid fall of the lymphocyte count to subnormal levels. Percentage of leukocytes with botryoid nuclei Time after returning to ambient temperature

White cell count

Neutrophils

Monocytes

Lymphocytes

0

7.10 × 109/l

21

98

23

1 hour

7.09 × 109/l

56

99

43

9

3 hours

7.06 × 10 /l

34

56

21

4 hours

7.07 × 109/l

12

27

9

0

2

0

8 hours*

9

6.92 × 10 /l

* Increased apoptotic forms

Original publication: Fumi M, Pancione Y, Sale S, Rocco V and Bain BJ (2017) Botryoid nuclei resulting from cocaine abuse. Am J Hematol, 92, 1260–1261.

References 1 Neftel KA and Muller OM (1981) Heat-­induced radial segmentation of leucocyte nuclei: a non-­specific phenomenon accompanying inflammatory and necrotizing diseases Br J Haematol, 48, 377–382. 2 Hernandez JA, Aldred SW, Bruce JR, Vanatta PR, Mattingly TL and Sheehan WW (1980) “Botryoid” nuclei in neutrophils of patients with heatstroke. Lancet, 2, 642–643. 3 Im DD, Ho CH and Chang RY (2015) Hypersegmented neutrophils in an adolescent male with heatstroke. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol, 37, 488.

25

20  Infantile pyknocytosis

A newborn baby boy, born at term to consanguineous parents of Moroccan origin, presented aged 2 weeks with jaundice. He was breastfeeding well, was gaining weight and was not lethargic. His blood count showed WBC 22.3 × 109/l, Hb 63 g/l, MCV 102 fl and platelet count 596 × 109/l. Total bilirubin was 396  μmol/l and reticulocytes were 404  ×  109/l (20.5%). He had been jaundiced at 48 hours of age and was treated with double phototherapy for 24 hours; a point-­of-­care capillary Hb had been 181 g/l at that time. There was RhD incompatibility; his mother was a primigravida and had received appropriate anti-­D prophylaxis and had had negative antibody screens throughout. The direct antiglobulin test was negative. His peripheral blood film (images) showed keratocytes, irregularly contracted cells, blister cells, polychromasia and some Howell–Jolly bodies, consistent with oxidative hemolysis. A Heinz body screen was positive. There was no history of exposure to any oxidizing agents in either the mother or baby. Pretransfusion investigations included glucose-­6-­phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) assay, which was 18.8 u/g Hb (pediatric normal range 10–15). (G6PD level in the mother was normal at 10.1 u/g Hb.) Pyruvate kinase was high at 18.9 u/g Hb (adult normal range 6.2–14.2). High performance liquid chromatography was normal for age: hemoglobin A 54%, hemoglobin A2 1.1% and hemoglobin F 46.2%. Hemoglobin mass spectrometry was normal. Glutathione peroxidase level was 9.2 u/g Hb (adult normal range 13.0–30.0). Selenium was 0.77 μmol/L (adult normal range 0.25–0.6). In view of the morphological findings and the reduced glutathione peroxidase, a diagnosis of infantile pyknocytosis was made. Subsequent analysis of the GPX1 gene disclosed no mutation. The baby was transfused red cells and discharged home. Follow-­up blood tests showed resolving hemolysis; at 2 months of age Hb was 104 g/l and reticulocytes 81 × 109/l with no further need for transfusion. Infantile pyknocytosis is a poorly understood condition, first described by Tuffy et al. in 1959.1,2 These authors commented on ‘markedly distorted and contracted red cells’, which they also called ‘burr cells’. Acanthocytes and Howell–Jolly bodies can also be present, reflecting splenic overload. The ‘pyknocytes’ are keratocytes and other dense deformed cells. They appear as hyperdense cells on automated instrument scatter plots. The diagnosis rests on the characteristic blood film features of oxidant damage, with other conditions such as G6PD deficiency and exposure to an Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

26

Infantile pyknocytosis

exogenous oxidant being excluded. As in this patient, there can be a transient neonatal deficiency of glutathione peroxidase, in the absence of any mutation in the gene. Other cases are attributed to deficiency of selenium, a component of glutathione peroxidase. Extracorpuscular factors may also be relevant since pyknocytes can reappear rapidly after exchange transfusion.3 Premature infants can also develop hemolytic anemia with pyknocytes as a result of vitamin E deficiency.4 Management is supportive since spontaneous resolution occurs. Original publication: Rees C, Lund K and Bain BJ (2019) Infantile pyknocytosis. Am J Hematol, 94, 489–490.

References 1 Tuffy P, Brown AK and Zuelzer WW (1959) Infantile pyknocytosis. Am J Dis Child, 98, 227–241. Nassin ML, Vergilio J-­A, Heeney MM and LaBelle JL (2017) Neonatal anemia: revisiting the 2 enigmatic pyknocyte. Am J Hematol, 92, 717–721. 3 Ackerman BD (1969) Infantile pyknocytosis in Mexican-­American infants. Am J Dis Child, 117, 417–423. 4 Oski FA and Barness LA (1967) Vitamin E deficiency: a previously unrecognized cause of hemolytic anemia in the premature infant. J Pediatr, 70, 211–220.

A further image showing irregularly contracted cells, which are acanthocytic.

27

21  Splenic rupture in cytomegalovirus infection

A 37-­year-­old man presented to the emergency department with acute abdominal pain and symptomatic hypotension, with a blood pressure on admission of 60/33 mmHg. His blood count showed Hb 132 g/l, WBC 5.7 × 109/l, platelet count 222 × 109/l, neutrophils 3.0 × 109/l and lymphocytes 2.1 × 109/l. On examination, he had tenderness to palpation of his left upper quadrant and was thought to have suffered a spontaneous splenic rupture. Computed tomography showed a large perisplenic high attenuation collection. He had an urgent laparotomy and splenectomy with an estimated blood loss of 4.5 litres. His blood count 10 days after surgery showed Hb 92 g/l, WBC 11.4 × 109/l, lymphocyte count 8.1 × 109/l and platelet count 1068 × 109/l, and a blood film was made. This showed a significant thrombocytosis with platelet anisocytosis. Howell–Jolly bodies were also seen. However, in addition, there were atypical lymphocytes, which were large and irregular in shape with reduced condensation of chromatin and voluminous basophilic cytoplasm, sometimes containing vacuoles or azurophilic granules (images). No blood film had been made on presentation since the blood count was normal and there was no instrument flag suggesting atypical lymphocytes. Viral serology was positive for cytomegalovirus (CMV) IgM and IgG antibodies, indicating the patient had current CMV infection. CMV DNA PCR was positive and a viral load of 10,600 copies/ml was detected. The patient was treated with a 5-­day course of aciclovir 400 mg five times a day. Spontaneous (atraumatic) splenic rupture is rare and is most commonly caused by an underlying hematologic malignancy or infection. Rarer causes include: hematological disorders causing an increased bleeding tendency such as hemophilia or autoimmune thrombocytopenia; splenomegaly associated with hemolytic anemia; inflammatory causes such as rheumatoid arthritis and polyarteritis nodosa; primary amyloidosis; iatrogenic causes including use of anticoagulants or granulocyte colony-­stimulating factor (including cases in healthy stem cell donors); and primary splenic disorders such as splenic cyst, malignancy or infarction. Infectious mononucleosis is a well-­recognized cause but there have also been previous reports of cases due to primary CMV infection.1–15 In one patient, there was not only spontaneous splenic rupture but also very severe virus-­related thrombocytopenia underlying the life-­threatening hemorrhage.15 Occasional patients have been managed conservatively4,10 but most have required emergency splenectomy.

Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

28

Splenic rupture in cytomegalovirus infection

Original publication: Farnell R, Siow W and Bain BJ (2019) Splenic rupture in cytomegalovirus infection. Am J Hematol, 94, 828–829.

References 1 Horwitz CA, Henle W, Henle G, Snover D, Rudnick H, Balfour H et al. (1986) Clinical and laboratory evaluation of cytomegalovirus-­induced mononucleosis in previously healthy individuals. Medicine, 3, 124–134. 2 Rogues AM, Dupon M, Cales V, Malou M, Paty MC, Le Bail B and Lacut JY (1994) Spontaneous splenic rupture: an uncommon complication of cytomegalovirus infection. J Infect, 29, 83–85. 3 Ragnaud J, Morlat P, Gin H, Dupon M, Delafaye C, du Pasquier P and Aubertin J (1994) Aspects cliniques, biologiques et évolutifs de l’infection à cytomégalovirus chez le sujet immunocompétent: à propos de 34 patients hospitalisés. Rev Med Interne, 15, 13–18. 4 Bellaïche G, Habib E, Baledent F, Nouts A, Lusina D, Ley G and Slama JL (1998) Hemoperitoine par rupture spontanee de rate: une complication exceptionnelle de la primo-­infection a CMV. Gastroenterol Clin Biol, 22, 107–108. 5 Alliot C, Beets C, Besson M and Derolland P (2001) Spontaneous splenic rupture associated with CMV infection: report of a case and review. Scand J Infect Dis, 33, 875–877. 6 Duarte PJ, Echavarria M, Paparatto A and Cacchione R (2003) Ruptura espontánea de bazo asociada a infección activa por citomegalovirus. Medicina, 63, 46–48. 7 Gogone S, Praticò S, Di Pietro N, Melita G, Sanò M, De Luca M et al. (2005) Rottura spontanea di milza in presenza di infezione citomegalica. Descrizione di un caso clinico. G Chir, 26, 95–99. 8 Amathieu R, Tual L, Rouaghe S, Stirnemann J, Fain O and Dhanneur G (2007) Rupture spontanée de la rate au cours d’une infection à cytomégalovirus: cas clinique et revue de la littérature. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim, 26, 674–676. 9 Maillard N, Koenig M, Pillet S, Cuilleron M and Cathébra P (2007) Spontaneous splenic rupture in primary cytomegalovirus infection. Presse Med, 36, 874–877. 10 Lianos G, Ignatiadou E, Bali C, Harissis H and Katsios C (2012) Successful nonoperative management of spontaneous splenic hematoma and hemoperitoneum due to CMV infection. Case Rep Gastrointest Med, 2012, 328474. 11 Maria V, Saad AM and Fardellas I (2013) Spontaneous spleen rupture in a teenager: an uncommon cause of acute abdomen. Case Rep Med, 2013, 675372. 12 de Havenon A, Davis G and Hoesch R (2014) Splenic rupture associated with primary CMV infection, AMSAN, and IVIG. J Neuroimmunol, 272, 103–105. 13 Vidarsdottir H, Bottiger B and Palsson B (2014) Spontaneous splenic rupture and multiple lung embolisms due to cytomegalovirus infection: a case report and review of the literature. Int J Infect Dis, 21, 13–14. 14 Roche M, Maloku M and Abdel-­Aziz TE (2014) An unusual diagnosis of splenic rupture. BMJ Case Rep, 2014, bcr2014204891. 15 Glesner MK, Madsen KR, Nielsen JM and Posth S (2015) Successful emergency splenectomy during cardiac arrest due to cytomegalovirus-­induced atraumatic splenic rupture. BMJ Case Rep, 2015, bcr2014208094.

29

22  A new diagnosis of monoclonal B-­cell lymphocytosis with cytoplasmic inclusions in a patient with COVID-­19

A 75-­year-­old man with a history of chronic ischemic heart disease with a previously normal blood count, presented to the emergency department with fever and tachycardia. There was no hepatosplenomegaly or lymphadenopathy. An electrocardiogram showed left bundle branch block. Oxygen saturation was 95%. Because of the fever the patient was tested for severe acute respiratory distress syndrome corona virus 2 (SARS-­CoV-­2); the RT-­PCR assay result was positive. A diagnosis of corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-­19) was made. The patient’s blood count showed WBC 10.46 × 109/l, lymphocytes 4.51 × 109/l, Hb 129 g/l and platelet count 233 × 109/l. d-­dimer was 659 μg/l (normal range, cut off 500 μg/l) and interleukin 6 (IL-­6) was 76.3 pg/ml (normal range G:6531-­12C>T]; p. (Leu1858Val) low expression allele – also known as α spectrinLELY. Parental studies showed that the first of these was inherited from the father and the second from the mother. The baby remained well and was ­discharged home on day 14 of life. However, by day 19 the Hb had fallen to 78 g/l, and a blood transfusion was given. Hereditary pyropoikilocytosis most often results from coinheritance of a pathogenic variant of SPTA1, the gene encoding α spectrin, and a common polymorphism, α spectrinLELY (low expression LYon allele), which is present in 20–30% of many populations.1 Other cases result from homozygosity for a pathogenic SPTA1 mutation or, less often, homozygosity for a pathogenic mutation in SPTB, encoding β spectrin, or coinheritance of mutant SPTA1 and SPTB. The severity of the condition is variable with blood transfusion sometimes being needed and, rarely, splenectomy. The designation of this condition reflects the thermal sensitivity of the cells (pyro = fire) with the blood film showing some similarities to that of thermal burns or accidental heating of a blood specimen on its way to the laboratory. Diagnosis starts with morphology but increasingly it is confirmed by next generation sequencing. The differential diagnosis includes hereditary elliptocytosis with transient neonatal poikilocytosis, the differentiation being based on clinical follow-­up and genetic studies. Original publication: Sivaguru G, Simini G and Bain BJ (2022) Persistent neonatal jaundice resulting from hereditary pyropoikilocytosis. Am J Hematol, 97, 506–507.

Reference 1 Nissa O, Chonatb S, Dagaonkarc N, Almansoon MO, Kerr K, Togers ZR et al. (2016) Genotype-­ phenotype correlations in hereditary elliptocytosis and hereditary pyropoikilocytosis. Blood Cells Mol Dis, 61, 4–9.

A further image from the neonate showing dense irregular cells and occasional elliptocytes.

35

36

26  Auer rods or McCrae rods?

Auer rods are rod-­shaped crystalline structures derived from the primary granules of myeloid cells. They are most characteristic of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) but are observed also in high grade myelodysplastic syndromes and myelodysplastic/myeloproliferative neoplasms (myelodysplastic syndrome with excess blasts and chronic myelomonocytic leukemia 2, according to the 2016 World Health Organization classification). These cytoplasmic inclusions are named for John Auer (1875–1948) who described and illustrated them in 19061 in a patient admitted to the Johns Hopkins Hospital under the care of William Osler. Auer acknowledged that the observations in this patient had been mentioned previously, in the preceding year, in an article by Thomas McCrae who was also acknowledged for the clinical notes he provided for Auer’s paper.2,3 McCrae in his paper had mentioned the forthcoming more detailed description by Auer.2 It has been suggested that the designation McCrae–Auer rods would be appropriate.3 Interestingly, both McCrae and Auer thought that the cells in which they observed the inclusions were lymphoblasts. Auer rods are of considerable diagnostic importance since they indicate both the lineage and the neoplastic nature of the condition observed. They are of greatest diagnostic significance in acute promyelocytic leukemia. Bundles of Auer rods (‘faggot cells’) are characteristic and, although not totally specific, are strongly suggestive of this diagnosis. Auer rods are also characteristic of AML with t(8;21)(q22;q22.1)/RUNX1::RUNX1T1 in which condition they are unusually long (image) and are often located in a visible Golgi zone; the blast cells usually contain only a single rod, but occasionally two are present. Auer rods are also detectable in other subtypes of AML, including AML associated with t(6;9)(q23;q34.1)/KMT2A::MLLT3. They can thus be a feature of both good prognosis and bad prognosis subtypes of AML. Original publication: Bain BJ (2011) Auer rods or McCrae rods? Am J Hematol, 86, 689.

References 1 Auer J (1906) Some hitherto undescribed structures found in the large lymphocytes of a case of acute leukemia. Am J Med Sci, 131, 1002–1015. 2 McCrae T (1905) Acute lymphatic leukaemia, with the report of five cases. BMJ, 1, 404–408. 3 Seymour JF (2006) 101 years of McCrae’s (not Auer’s) rods. Br J Haematol, 133, 690. Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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27  Observation of Auer rods in crushed cells in acute promyelocytic leukemia

The morphological recognition of acute promyelocytic leukemia is of critical importance because of the need for early specific treatment. However, cytological features are quite variable and in patients in whom the cells have scanty hyperbasophilic cytoplasm, or in whom granules are so densely packed that it is difficult to distinguish cytoplasm from nucleus, recognition of the key features can be difficult. We should like to highlight the value of examination of crushed leukemic cells in blood and bone marrow films from patients with acute promyelocytic leukemia. Two patients are presented here, both with confirmed PML::RARA fusion in whom the detection of multiple Auer rods surrounding the nuclei of crushed cells facilitated a morphological diagnosis that was otherwise difficult. The first patient was a 40-­year-­old woman who presented with bruising and nose bleeds. Her blood count showed Hb 87 g/l, WBC 8.2 × 109/l, neutrophils 0.9 × 109/l, primitive myeloid cells 6.4 × 109/l and platelet count 10 × 109/l. A coagulation screen including fibrinogen concentration was normal. Both the blood film and bone marrow aspirate showed some crushed cells with Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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Observation of Auer rods in crushed cells in acute promyelocytic leukemia

multiple Auer rods surrounding the nuclei. The bone marrow image (top image) shows four ­promyelocytes, one crushed with Auer rods and the others intact with hyperbasophilic blebbed cytoplasm; one cell has a bilobed nucleus and another has several Auer rods. The final diagnosis was of classic acute promyelocytic leukemia. The second patient was a 25-­year-­old woman who presented with tiredness, menorrhagia and bruising. Her blood count showed Hb 96  g/l, WBC 2.9 × 109/l and platelet count 16 × 109/l. A coagulation screen showed a prolonged prothrombin time, reduced fibrinogen (0.6 g/l) and raised d-­dimer. A blood film showed primitive cells with scanty hyperbasophilic, blebbed cytoplasm (bottom right) but with some crushed cells revealing the presence of multiple Auer rods (bottom left). The final diagnosis was of the hyperbasophilic variant of acute promyelocytic leukemia.1 Facilitation of a cytomorphological diagnosis by the detection of crushed cells with multiple Auer rods was of particular importance in indicating the diagnosis in these two patients for different reasons. In the first patient, there was no coagulation abnormality and no t(15;17) was ­present, cytogenetic analysis showing only 46,XX,del(7)(q22q36)[7]46,XX[13]. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis, however, showed a fusion signal on chromosome 15 in 17 of 20 metaphases, indicating a cryptic insertion of RARA into PML. In the second patient, although cytogenetic and molecular genetic features were typical, cytological diagnosis was otherwise ­difficult because of the cytoplasmic features of the leukemic promyelocytes. Original publication: Ahmed SO, Deplano S, May PC and Bain BJ (2013) Observation of Auer rods in crushed cells in acute promyelocytic leukemia. Am J Hematol, 88, 236.

Reference 1 McKenna RW, Parkin J, Bloomfield CD, Sundberg RD and Brunning RD (1982) Acute promyelocytic leukaemia: a study of 39 cases with identification of a hyperbasophilic microgranular variant. Br J Haematol, 50, 201–214.

Further image of the bone marrow of the first patient showing multiple delicate Auer rods in a crushed cell.

39

28  Alpha chain inclusions in peripheral blood erythroblasts and erythrocytes

Because of the imbalance between the rate of synthesis of α and β globin chains, α chains precipitate within erythroblasts in the bone marrow in β thalassemia intermedia and major. Sometimes they are also apparent in the peripheral blood in both erythroblasts and erythrocytes. They are particularly likely to be seen in erythrocytes if the pitting function of the spleen has been lost as a result of splenectomy. The top images show the peripheral blood film of a young woman with β thalassemia major who has had a splenectomy and who, because of psychological problems, has been receiving suboptimal transfusion therapy. Her blood count showed a total nucleated cell count of 185 × 109/l, WBC 7.4 × 109/l, Hb 63 g/l, MCV 68 fl, MCH 20 pg and MCHC 291 g/l. The blood film is dimorphic (post-­transfusion) and in addition shows nucleated red blood cells (two with lobulated nuclei), Howell–Jolly bodies, Pappenheimer bodies and an acanthocyte. There are three erythrocytes containing α chain inclusions (arrows). The lower images are from a patient with β thalassemia intermedia (also known as non-­ transfusion-­dependent β thalassemia) with an unusual molecular mechanism. This 10-­year-­old African patient had compound heterozygosity for β0 thalassemia and hereditary persistence of fetal hemoglobin (HPFH2). The blood count showed Hb 94  g/l, MCV 62  fl, MCH 18.5  pg and MCHC 297 g/l. The blood film (lower images above) shows anisocytosis, poikilocytosis, hypochromic cells and Pappenheimer bodies. There are two erythroblasts, both of which contain an α chain Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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Alpha chain inclusions in peripheral blood erythroblasts and erythrocytes

inclusion. In the left image the cytoplasm surrounding the inclusion is packed with Pappenheimer bodies. The presence of α chain inclusions in these thalassemic conditions provides visual evidence of severe chain imbalance, both cases having a total lack of β chain synthesis, with the condition in the second patient being only partly ameliorated by increased γ chain synthesis. Occasionally, β thalassemia major is first diagnosed unexpectedly on bone marrow examination when α chain inclusions are discovered. The image below is from the bone marrow of a 3-­month-­old baby girl from a rural area of Iraq in whom a bone marrow examination was done because leishmaniasis was suspected.1 Erythropoiesis was micronormoblastic, hyperplastic and dysplastic with inadequately hemoglobinized cytoplasm; the image below shows three erythroblasts with α chain inclusions (arrows).

Original publication: Bain BJ (2021) Alpha chain inclusions in peripheral blood erythroblasts and erythrocytes. Am J Hematol, 96, 630–631.

Reference 1 Abdulsalam AH, Sabeeh N and Bain BJ (2011) Diagnosis of beta thalassemia major from bone marrow morphology. Am J Hematol, 86, 187.

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29  Dyserythropoiesis in visceral leishmaniasis

In making a diagnosis of myelodysplastic syndrome it is important to be aware of the numerous causes of myelodysplasia other than a hematopoietic neoplasm. Visceral leishmaniasis (kala azar) is one of the many causes of dyserythropoiesis.1 This images show a histiocyte containing leishmania (top left), a binucleate erythroblast (top right), a trinucleate erythroblast (bottom left) and abnormal erythroblasts showing, respectively, a detached nuclear fragment and four nuclei in an erythroblast that also shows basophilic stippling (bottom right). Other abnormalities that were present included cytoplasmic bridging and binucleated cells with nuclei of unequal size. The ­reticulocyte count may be inappropriately low in patients with leishmaniasis with erythroid ­hyperplasia, indicating that erythropoiesis is ineffective as well as morphologically dysplastic. Since parasites may be infrequent it is important to carry out a diligent search when confronted with cytopenia and dyserythropoiesis in a person who has resided in or visited a country where this parasite is endemic. Observation of the ‘double dot’ appearance of the nucleus and kinetoplast (top left) helps in identification of Leishmania donovani. Organisms may be identified extracellularly, as a result of cell rupture, as well as within macrophages. The bone marrow in leishmaniasis may show other abnormal features including increased plasma cells, a diffuse increase in histiocytes, hemophagocytosis and granuloma formation. Original publication: Bain BJ (2010) Dyserythropoiesis in visceral leishmaniasis. Am J Hematol, 85, 781.

Reference 1 Kopterides P, Halikias S and Tsavaris N (2003) Visceral leishmaniasis masquerading as myelodysplasia. Am J Hematol, 74, 198–199. Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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30  Compound heterozygosity for hemoglobins S and D

45.0 37.5

4.33

A2

3.65

A2

2.12 2.29 2.53

7.5

1.75

1.34

15.0

S

4.07

22.5

1.10

F

D

F

%

30.0

0.0 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Time (min.)

A 15-­year-­old refugee from Iraq was referred to our hospital shortly after arriving in the UK. He had a long history of fatigue and bone pain. His blood count showed WBC 6 × 109/l, Hb 92 g/l, MCV 99.6 fl, MCH 35.1 pg and platelets 226 × 109/l. The reticulocyte count was 80 × 109/l. His blood film (left image) showed moderate numbers of sickle cells, some macrocytes and features of hyposplenism (Howell–Jolly bodies, Pappenheimer bodies and large platelets). The patient was unaware that he suffered from sickle cell disease but reported a prior history of regular transfusion. Before leaving Iraq he had been commenced on treatment with hydroxycarbamide with a resultant improvement in his transfusion requirement. He had also been taking deferasirox and his serum ferritin was 706 μg/l. High performance liquid chromatography (right, BioRad Variant II), cellulose acetate electrophoresis at alkaline pH and acid agarose electrophoresis showed hemoglobins S and D. Hemoglobin S was 35.1%, hemoglobin D 42.3%, hemoglobin F 14.3% and hemoglobin A2 4.1%. Beta globin gene analysis by Sanger sequencing confirmed compound heterozygous mutations of HBB c.20A>T, p.Glu7Val (historically described as beta codon 6 GAG>GTG Glu>Val) encoding hemoglobin S and c.364G>C, p.Glu122Gln (historically described as beta codon 121  GAA>CAA Glu>Gln) encoding hemoglobin D Punjab/D Los Angeles. It is important to remember that ‘sickle cell disease’ is not synonymous with sickle cell anemia but encompasses also a number of symptomatic compound heterozygous states. S/D disease was first recognized in 1951 in a ‘white American’ family from Los Angeles with the newly identified variant hemoglobin being named ‘d’.1 Hemoglobin D Punjab is unusual in Middle Eastern populations where hemoglobin D Iran is more often found. It is most prevalent (~2%) in the Sikh population of northwest India but also occurs in Gujarati (~1%), Pakistani, Thai, African American, Afro-­Caribbean, northern European Caucasian, Yugoslavian, Turkish and Chinese populations. Because of its possible interaction with hemoglobin S, hemoglobin D Punjab should be identified in antenatal screening programs. Original publication: Lund K, Chakravorty S, Toma S and Bain BJ (2015) Compound heterozygosity for hemoglobins S and D. Am J Hematol, 90, 842.

Reference 1 Itano HA (1951) A third abnormal hemoglobin associated with hereditary hemolytic anemia. ProcNatl Acad Sci USA, 37, 775–784. Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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31  Granular B lymphoblastic leukemia

A 13-­year-­old Indian boy presented with extreme lethargy and weakness. On examination there was no hepatosplenomegaly or lymphadenopathy. His blood count showed WBC 18.8 × 109/l, Hb 107 g/l and platelet count 70 × 109/l. Examination of a blood film led to a suspicion of granular lymphoblastic leukemia. There were 60% blast cells with a moderately high nucleocytoplasmic ratio, delicate chromatin and 1–3  nucleoli. Many of the blast cells contained prominent azurophilic cytoplasmic granules (images). There were no Auer rods and granulocyte morphology was normal. The suspected lineage was confirmed by flow cytometric immunophenotyping which showed the blast cells to express CD45 (weak), CD34, CD10, CD19, CD20, cytoplasmic (c) CD79a, CD33 and HLA-­DR. There was no expression of myeloperoxidase, cCD3, CD7, CD13, CD64 or CD117. Cytogenetic analysis showed a normal male karyotype. Reverse transcriptase for BCR::ABL1 did not detect p210, p190 or p230 transcripts. Granular acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is uncommon. Making a distinction from acute ­myeloid and mixed phenotype acute leukemia is important and requires myeloperoxidase cytochemistry or immunophenotyping. Most cases are pro-­B or common ALL but T-­lineage cases have also been reported. In addition to B-­lineage-­specific markers, there can be aberrant expression of CD131 or CD33.2,3 There is no specific cytogenetic association and the prognostic significance, if any, is uncertain. Original publication: Hazarika B and Bain BJ (2023) Granular B lymphoblastic leukemia. Am J Hematol, 98, 210–211.

References 1 Tembhare PR, Subramanian PG, Sehgal K, Yajamanam B, Kumar A and Gujral S (2009) Hypergranular precursor B-­cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia in a 16-­year-­old boy. Indian J Pathol Microbiol, 52, 421–423. 2 Zhang J, Li M and He Y (2019) Granular B-­lineage acute lymphoblastic leukaemia mimicking acute myeloid leukaemia. Br J Haematol, 184, 894. 3 Loyola I, Cadahía P and Trastoy A (2018) Hypergranular lymphoblastic leukaemia. Br J Haematol, 182, 466. Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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32  Hyposplenism in adult T-­cell leukemia/lymphoma

A 76-­year-­old man of Trinidadian origin presented with a 6-­month history of worsening shortness of breath on exertion and a generalized itchy maculopapular rash over the previous 6 weeks. There were no B symptoms or other abnormal physical findings. His general practitioner requested a blood count which showed WBC 24.3 × 109/l, Hb 153 g/l, platelet count 216 × 109/l and ­lymphocytes 15 × 109/l; his corrected calcium was 2.44 mmol/l and lactate dehydrogenase 430 iu/l. The blood film revealed pleomorphic lymphocytes, some with polylobated nuclei, suggesting a ­diagnosis of adult T-­cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL) with leucoerythroblastic changes, together with target cells and Howell–Jolly bodies indicative of hyposplenism (images). Flow cytometry showed an excess of lymphocytes, of which 85% expressed weak CD3 together with CD2, CD4, CD5 and CD25, with CD7 and CD8 being negative. The immunophenotype was in keeping with ATLL and serology was positive for human T-­cell lymphotropic virus 1 (HTLV-­1). The proviral load was measured at 60% (proportion of infected mononuclear cells). Positron emission tomography/computed tomography showed small, metabolically active lymph nodes in both axillae, measuring up to 11 mm, with a standardized uptake value (SUV) maximum of 3.2, and bilateral inguinal nodes measuring up to 9  mm, with an SUV maximum of 4.2. Although the spleen was not enlarged it had an SUV maximum of 3.9, which was higher than the liver ­background of 3.1, suggestive of splenic involvement. Hyposplenism is usually the result of splenectomy, splenic atrophy (as in celiac disease) or ­recurrent splenic infarction followed by atrophy and fibrosis (as in sickle cell disease). Functional hyposplenism can also result from splenic overload in acute hemolytic anemia. It is unusual to see hyposplenic features, such as Howell–Jolly bodies and target cells, in the presence of a ­normal-­sized spleen. We postulate that in this patient it resulted from lymphomatous infiltration with ­replacement of normal splenic tissue. With subsequent disease progression, the patient’s spleen became palpable. Original publication: Cook L, Al-­Yousuf H, Mohamedbhai S and Bain BJ (2022) Hyposplenism in adult T-­cell leukemia/lymphoma. Am J Hematol, 97, 966–967.

Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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33  Voxelotor in sickle cell disease

A 45-­year-­old woman with sickle cell/ß thalassemia due to the HBB c.92+5G>C severe ß+ ­thalassemia mutation, who had been on a clinical trial of voxelotor for 4 years, was assessed ­clinically and hematologically during follow-­up. Concomitantly she was taking hydroxycarbamide (hydroxyurea) at a stable dosage. During this period of combined therapy her Hb had risen from 86 to 103 g/l and MCHC from 327 to 346 g/l with a varying MCV of 79–90 fl. Her blood film, having been typical of sickle cell disease pre-­voxelotor, now showed only rare sickle cells and small ­numbers of boat-­shaped or spindle-­shaped cells, some of which appeared dense (images above). In addition there were hyposplenic features (Howell–Jolly bodies, target cells, Pappenheimer bodies, acanthocytes and large platelets) together with nucleated red blood cells and macrocytes, some of which were polychromatic.

Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Voxelotor in sickle cell disease Calibrated Area % 16.9* ––– ––– ––– 6.0* ––– –––

Peak Name F P2 Unknown Ao A2 Unknown S-window

Retention Time (min) 1.07 1.27 2.28 2.45 3.64 4.20 4.39

Area % ––– 0.5 4.9 5.8 ––– 13.3 56.4

Peak Area 87071 3274 32100 38207 38747 87534 371621 Total Area: 658, 555*

F Concentration = 16.9*% A2 Concentration = 6.0*% *Values outside of expected ranges Analysis comments: 45.0 F – 1.07

37.5 30.0

7.5

2.20 4.39

2.28 2.45

15.0

A2 – 3.64

22.5

%

– 1.27

46

0.0 0

1

2

3 Time (min.)

4

5

6

High performance liquid chromatography (BioRad Variant II, above) showed duplication of the hemoglobin S and F peaks with the normal and abnormal peaks overlapping. Capillary zone ­electrophoresis (Sebia, below) showed duplication of the hemoglobin F and A2 bands while the hemoglobin S peak was of abnormal shape. Sample # : 85

Date : 05/11/2021

ID : 4347104505

Depart. : Captions

Birth. : Z15

Z14 Z13

Z12

Z11

Z10 Z(A)

Z8

Z(F)

Z(D) Z(S) Z(E) Z(A2) Z(C) Hb S zone

Z1

Hb D zone Hb F or Hb variant Hb A2 Hb A2 zone

Z8 zone 0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

Haemoglobin Electrophoresis Name Z8 zone Hb F or Hb variant Hb D zone Hb S zone Hb A2 zone Hb A2

% 1.3 12.8 2.7 78.3 2.3 2.6

Normal Values %

260

280

300

Voxelotor in sickle cell disease

Voxelotor is a first-­in-­class allosteric modifier of hemoglobin that increases the oxygen affinity of hemoglobin S with inhibition of sickling and improvement in Hb and markers of hemolysis. Whether the anti-­sickling benefits of voxelotor might be offset by reduced oxygen delivery to ­tissues remains controversial.1 The drug forms complexes with the N terminus of the α globin chain. Sickling is inhibited to the extent that a diligent search of a blood film may be needed before any sickle cells are identified. Voxelotor alters the structure not only of hemoglobin S but also of hemoglobins A, F and A2. The altered characteristics can be detected on isoelectric focusing as well as by HPLC and capillary electrophoresis.2 The altered hemoglobin sometimes overlaps with the corresponding unaltered hemoglobin and sometimes forms a distinct peak or band. There may be a difference between high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and capillary electrophoresis as to whether or not peaks are distinct. We therefore recommend that when there are two peaks, the laboratory uses the format ‘hemoglobin S x%, altered hemoglobin S y%’, with similar wording when hemoglobin A is present and there are two distinct hemoglobin A peaks. When the peaks overlap and have been quantified together, the wording can be ‘hemoglobin S plus altered hemoglobin S, x%’. Original publication: Bain BJ, Myburgh J, Hann A and Layton AM (2022) Voxelotor in sickle cell disease. Am J Hematol, 97, 830–832.

References 1 Henry EER, Metaferia B, Li Q, Harper J, Best RB, Glass KE et al. (2021) Treatment of sickle cell disease by increasing oxygen affinity of hemoglobin. Blood, 138, 1172–1181. 2 Rutherford NJ, Thoren KL, Shajani-­Yia Z and Colbya JM (2018) Voxelotor (GBT440) produces interference in measurements of hemoglobin S. Clin Chim Acta, 482, 57–59.

A further image showing a single boat-shaped cell, a nucleated red blood cell, echinocytes, a target cell and Papperheimer bodies.

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34  The importance of a negative image

An HIV-­positive woman had a bone marrow aspirate performed for investigation of fever. This showed the negative images of bacilli, both within macrophages and free. In this clinical context, the observation of macrophages stuffed with bacilli on a Romanowsky-­stained film is diagnostic of atypical mycobacterial infection and means that treatment can be started while awaiting culture results. An acid-­fast stain is also positive. Such numerous bacilli are not a feature of infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Negative images of mycobacteria have also been reported in leprosy. Original publication: Bain BJ (2008) The importance of a negative image. Am J Hematol, 83, 410.

A further macrophage in the patient’s bone marrow showing the negative images of mycobacteria.

Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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35  Seeing what isn’t there

This image shows the blood film of a patient who was hospitalized with renal failure. At first glance there appeared to be a number of unusually shaped red cells. Initially a hemolytic anemia was suspected and investigation was commenced, but on further reflection it was realized that the apparent holes in the red cells were likely to represent overlying cryoglobulin. This possibility was confirmed and was found to be due to type II cryoglobulinemia in a patient with hepatitis C infection. The hepatitis C infection was, in turn, the cause of the renal failure. Cryoglobulin can be weakly basophilic, in which case it is easily recognized on a blood film. However, it is also necessary to recognize the negative image of unstained cryoglobulin, which can be an important clue to the diagnosis of hepatitis C infection. Original publication: Bain BJ and Patel B (2008) Seeing what isn’t there. Am J Hematol, 83, 504.

A low power view of the blood film of another patient with cryoglobulinemia showing a large extracellular deposit of cryoglobulin.

Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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36  A young woman with sudden onset of a severe coagulation abnormality

Blood samples were received from a 29-­year-­old woman who had been admitted to the ­resuscitation room of an emergency department. Her blood count showed Hb 152  g/l, WBC 9.6  ×  109/l and platelet count 39 × 109/l. A citrate sample for coagulation tests was unclottable. An urgent blood film (images) confirmed thrombocytopenia and showed heavily vacuolated neutrophils and a left shift. Many of the neutrophils contained organisms (top left and right) and in some cells it was apparent that they were diplococci (bottom left). A Gram stain showed the organism to be ­Gram-­negative (bottom right) and a provisional diagnosis of meningococcal septicaemia with ­disseminated intravascular coagulation was made. A latex agglutination test for meningococcal antigen confirmed the diagnosis and the organism was typed as Neisseria meningitidis group C. Despite appropriate early and vigorous management the patient required several amputations and succumbed to the effects of the meningococcal infection 3 weeks after presentation. Peripheral blood neutrophils in meningococcal septicemia show characteristic features of toxic granulation, degranulation and marked vacuolation. Organisms are often detectable within the neutrophils and permit an early provisional diagnosis. Original publication: Uprichard J and Bain BJ (2008) A young woman with sudden onset of a severe coagulation abnormality. Am J Hematol, 83, 672. Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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37 Immature Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes in bone marrow Microgametocyte

Immature gametocytes

Macrogametocyte

A 50-­year-­old Iraqi man presented with splenomegaly and pyrexia of unknown origin. A bone marrow aspirate was done as part of the investigations and unexpectedly showed Plasmodium falciparum parasites. Malaria had not been suspected as this condition is now rare in Iraq but it subsequently transpired that the patient had recently visited Pakistan. The gametocytes that are observed in the bone marrow differ from those that are observed in the blood, being less mature.1 The immature gametocytes that are seen include some that are sail-­shaped, spindle-­shaped or oval (top image) rather than the crescent-­shaped macrogametocyte and sausage-­ shaped microgametocyte that are usually observed in the blood. This reflects the fact that gametocytes develop in the internal organs, including the bone marrow, rather than in the circulating blood. The bone marrow of this patient (bottom images) showed sail-­shaped (left), spindle-­shaped (center) and oval (right) immature gametocytes. Some mature gametocytes were also present. Original publication: Abdulsalam AH, Sabeeh N and Bain BJ (2010) Immature Plasmodium ­falciparum gametocytes in bone marrow. Am J Hematol, 85, 943.

Reference 1 Smalley ME, Abdalla S and Brown J (1980) The distribution of Plasmodium falciparum in the peripheral blood and bone marrow in Gambian children. Trans Roy Soc Trop Med Hyg, 75, 103–105. Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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38  Acute myeloid leukemia with myelodysplasia-­related changes showing basophilic differentiation

An 84-­year-­old woman presented to the emergency department because of a general deterioration in her health. A blood count showed WBC 23.4 × 109/l, Hb 52 g/l, MCV 89 fl and platelet count 9 × 109/l. The differential count showed neutrophils 1.6  ×  109/l, lymphocytes 1.3  ×  109/l and blast cells 20.9 × 109/l. Approximately half of the blast cells had basophilic granules and some were vacuolated (images). No mature basophils were seen. The neutrophils were almost all dysplastic (images), showing nuclear hypolobation and other abnormalities of nuclear shape, hypogranularity and occasional detached nuclear fragments. A bone marrow aspirate showed 12% blast cells and 2 months later this had risen to 22% blast cells. Granulopoiesis was dysplastic and more than 50% of megakaryocytes were hypolobulated, including micromegakaryocytes. Cytogenetic analysis showed 41-­42,XX,-­3, add(5)(p13),add(6)(q?25),-­7,-­10,+11,-­15,-­17[cp10]/44-­45,idem,+3,-­4,+mar[5]/46XX[5]. According to the 2016 World Health Organization (WHO) classification of tumours of haematopoietic and lymphoid tissues,1 a diagnosis of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) could be made at presentation on the basis of the peripheral blood blast count (90%) despite bone marrow blast cells being only 12%. The leukemia could be further categorized as AML with myelodysplasia-­related changes on the basis both of the dysplasia (more than 50% of cells in two lineages) and the complex karyotype. Despite the prominent basophilic differentiation, the diagnosis is not acute basophilic leukemia since, in the hierarchical WHO classification, the myelodysplasia-­related changes take precedence. Basophilic differentiation can be clinically relevant since occasional patients have features of histamine excess  – urticaria and peptic ulceration2  – and an anaphylactoid reaction following chemotherapy has been reported.3 Original publication: Wells R, Williams B and Bain BJ (2014) Acute myeloid leukemia with myelodysplasia-­related changes showing basophilic differentiation. Am J Hematol, 89, 1082.

References 1 Arber DA, Brunning RD, Orazi A, Bain BJ, Porwit A, Le Beau MM and Greenberg PL (2017) Acute myeloid leukaemia with myelodysplasia-­related changes. In: Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H and Thiele J (eds). WHO Classification of Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues. IARC Press, Lyon, pp. 150–152. 2 Duchayne E, Demur C, Rubie H, Robert A and Dastugue N (1999) Diagnosis of acute basophilic leukemia. Leuk Lymphoma, 32, 269–278. 3 Bernini JC, Timmons CF and Sandler ES (1995) Acute basophilic leukemia in a child: anaphylactoid reaction and coagulopathy secondary to vincristine-­mediated degranulation. Cancer, 75, 110–114. Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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39  Thiamine-­responsive megaloblastic anemia in an Iraqi girl

A 27-­month-­old female presented with insulin-­dependent diabetes mellitus, chronic anemia, ­deafness and cardiomyopathy. A full blood count showed WBC 4 × 109/l, Hb 71 g/l and platelet count 195 × 109/l. A differential count showed neutrophils 39%, lymphocytes 48%, monocytes 7%, eosinophils 5%, myelocytes 1% and nucleated red blood cells 2%. A blood film (top left image) showed marked anisocytosis with some very large macrocytes, mild poikilocytosis and the ­presence of circulating megaloblasts. A bone marrow aspirate was hypercellular (absent fat cells) with ­dysplastic megaloblastic erythropoiesis, erythroid vacuolation and punctate basophilia (top right and bottom left). An iron stain showed markedly increased iron stores with many ring sideroblasts (bottom right). Granulopoiesis and megakaryopoiesis were normal. The child was the daughter of consanguineous parents. An older brother was healthy but two older sisters had died of diabetic ketoacidosis and a 16-­month-­old sister had similar clinical and hematological features to those seen in the patient. On the basis of the clinical history and the bone marrow findings, a diagnosis of thiamine-­ responsive megaloblastic anemia was made. This autosomal recessive syndrome is characterized by sensorineural deafness, diabetes mellitus and thiamine-­responsive megaloblastic anemia with ring sideroblasts. Genetic analysis was not done in this family but the condition is known to result from mutation in the SLC19A2 gene. A significant proportion of the families described until now have been of Middle Eastern origin. The patient and her surviving sister showed a hematological response to thiamine therapy and their insulin requirements reduced. Original publication: Abdulsalam AH, Sabeeh N, Ibrahim ZI and Bain BJ (2014) Thiamine-­ responsive megaloblastic anemia in an Iraqi girl. Am J Hematol, 89, 659. Hematology: 101 Morphology Updates, First Edition. Barbara J. Bain. © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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40  Teardrop poikilocytes in metastatic carcinoma of the breast

A 77-­year-­old woman presented with symptoms of anemia. No splenomegaly or other specific abnormality was detected on examination. Her blood count showed WBC 5.3 × 109/l, Hb 86 g/l, MCV 92  fl and platelet count 105  ×  109/l. Liver function tests and serum calcium, phosphate, ­alkaline phosphatase and creatinine were normal. A blood film was leucoerythroblastic with numerous teardrop poikilocytes (left image). There were no dysplastic features. The patient had a previous history of adenocarcinoma of the left breast 22 years previously, treated by mastectomy and chemotherapy, and anorectal carcinoma 6 years previously, treated with chemotherapy and pelvic radiotherapy. A computed tomography scan showed splenomegaly with a spleen length measuring 14 cm, and numerous small, relatively well-­defined lucencies throughout the skeleton. A bone marrow aspirate yielded only blood but an imprint from a trephine biopsy specimen showed adenocarcinoma cells containing large globules of mucin (right), indicating a diagnosis of metastatic carcinoma of the breast. Serum Ca 15-­3 (carcinoma antigen 15.3) was 669 kunits/ml (normal