Handbook of Satellite Applications [2nd ed. 2017] 9783319233864, 9783319233857, 9783319233871, 3319233858, 3319233866

Table of contents :
Foreword......Page 5
Acknowledgments......Page 7
Contents......Page 8
About the Editors......Page 13
About the Authors......Page 16
Part I: Satellite Communications......Page 40
Satellite Applications Handbook: The Complete Guide to Satellite Communications, Remote Sensing, Navigation, and Meteorology......Page 41
Introduction......Page 42
The Evolution of Commercial Satellite Applications......Page 47
What Does the Term ``Satellite Applications´´ Mean and Why Consider It in a Unified Way?......Page 51
Common Elements of Applications Satellites......Page 52
Organization and Effective Utilization of the Satellite Applications Handbook......Page 54
Conclusion......Page 55
Cross-References......Page 56
References......Page 57
Satellite Communications Overview......Page 58
Introduction......Page 59
Overview of Commercial Satellite Services......Page 60
References......Page 66
History of Satellite Communications......Page 67
Introduction......Page 68
Early History of Satellite Communications......Page 69
The Modern History of Satellite Communications......Page 70
Separate Systems for Maritime and Mobile Satellite Services......Page 81
Evolution of Regional and Domestic Satellite Systems......Page 86
Communications Satellite Constellations as a New Option......Page 91
Satellite Systems to Support Defense- and Military-Related Services......Page 93
Direct Broadcast Satellite Systems......Page 95
The Importance of Broadcast Satellite Services as the Largest Market......Page 96
Satellite Radio Broadcasting......Page 99
Economic and Political Evolution of Global Telecommunications......Page 100
ITU Key Role in Satellite Communications......Page 101
Submarine Cables and Communications Satellites......Page 103
Satellites and the Internet......Page 104
Conclusion......Page 105
References......Page 107
Space Telecommunications Services and Applications......Page 108
Introduction......Page 109
Satellite Communications Services as Defined by the ITU......Page 111
Broadcast Satellite Services......Page 113
Mobile Satellite Services......Page 116
Other Types of Commercial Satellite Services......Page 118
Overview of FSS Services: Telephony, Information Technology (IT) Services, and Enterprise Networks via Communications Satellite......Page 121
Overview of Video and Audio Broadcast Satellite Services......Page 124
Defense-Related ``Dual Use´´ of Commercial Communications Satellite Systems......Page 126
Evolution of New Digital Services and Applications......Page 128
Limits to the Growth of Satellite Networks......Page 129
Conclusion......Page 131
Cross-References......Page 132
References......Page 133
Satellite Orbits for Communications Satellites......Page 134
Introduction......Page 135
Different Orbital Configurations for Different Communications Satellite Services......Page 137
Geosynchronous or Geostationary Satellite Orbits......Page 138
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)......Page 140
Various Types of Communications Satellite Constellations......Page 142
Molniya, Highly Elliptical Orbits (HEOs), Extremely Elliptical Orbits (EEOs), and Loopus Orbits......Page 145
String of Pearls Orbit......Page 146
Quasi-Zenith or Figure-8 Orbit......Page 147
Supersynchronous......Page 148
Earth Station and User Terminal Design for Different Orbits......Page 149
Relative Economics of Different Satellite Orbits......Page 152
Cross-References......Page 154
References......Page 155
Fixed Satellite Communications: Market Dynamics and Trends......Page 156
Introduction......Page 157
Evolution of FSS Services and Competition from Terrestrial Communications Systems......Page 158
Digital Satellite Communications and the Move to Higher Frequency Bands......Page 161
Decentralization of FSS Services as Small Ground Systems Move to the ``Edge´´ of Global Networks......Page 166
Regulatory Shifts Concerning FSS Systems to Make Them Openly Competitive......Page 169
Evolution of FSS Markets from Global Networks to Regional and Domestic Satellite Systems......Page 172
New Trends in Satellite System Design......Page 173
Conclusion......Page 174
References......Page 176
Satellite Communications Video Markets: Dynamics and Trends......Page 177
The Early History of Satellite Television......Page 179
The Evolution of Global Satellite Television Regulation and Tariffs......Page 183
The Need to Understand the Key Concepts of Television ``Contribution,´´ Television ``Distribution,´´ and Television ``Direct B.........Page 188
The Special Role of CNN in Global Satellite Television Development......Page 191
Daily News by Satellite......Page 192
How Television via Satellites Influenced Global Politics......Page 194
Sports Programming on Communication Satellites......Page 195
The Growth of ``Direct-to-Home´´ Satellite Television......Page 196
Satellite Radio Broadcasting......Page 198
High-Definition Television (HDTV) via Satellite......Page 200
Future Trends......Page 201
Conclusion......Page 202
References......Page 203
Mobile Satellite Communications Markets: Dynamics and Trends......Page 205
Introduction......Page 206
First Commercial Mobile Satellite System......Page 207
Early Studies and Programs......Page 209
First Commercial Mobile Satellite System: Marisat......Page 210
Marisat Access Control......Page 211
Marisat Multi-coast Earth Station Interworking......Page 212
Inmarsat Satellite Capacity Evolution......Page 213
Inmarsat Ship Earth Station Evolution......Page 214
Aeronautical Mobile Satellite System Introduction......Page 215
Portable Mobile Earth Stations for Telephony and Data......Page 216
Inmarsat-4 Satellites and Broadband Global Area Network (BGAN)......Page 217
USSR......Page 218
Mexico......Page 219
Iridium......Page 220
Little LEO Satellite Systems......Page 221
Terrestrial Cellular Service Convergence with MSS......Page 222
Hybrid Transparent MSS Networks......Page 224
Mobile Satellite Systems with ATC......Page 225
Conclusion......Page 228
References......Page 229
Store-and-Forward and Data Relay Satellite Communications Services......Page 231
Introduction......Page 233
Store-and-Forward Commercial Systems: The Orbcomm Inc. Constellation......Page 236
Tracking and Data Relay Satellites......Page 238
The Japanese Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System: Kodama......Page 240
The European Data Relay System......Page 242
Conclusion......Page 243
References......Page 244
Broadband High-Throughput Satellites......Page 246
Introduction......Page 247
The Broadband Satellite Challenge......Page 249
Optimizing Satellite Networks for the Internet......Page 251
Broadband Satellite Service in the United States......Page 253
Broadband Satellite Scale and Capacity......Page 256
Designing High-Capacity Broadband Satellite Payloads......Page 258
Higher-Frequencies and Narrower Beamwidth Beams......Page 259
Aggressive Frequency Reuse......Page 261
Highly Efficient Physical Layer......Page 263
Self-Optimizing Waveforms......Page 267
Combining Multiple Capacity Improvements to Design Very High-Capacity Broadband Satellites......Page 268
Data Processing Centers/Core Nodes......Page 270
Exede Gateway Earth Stations......Page 271
ViaSat-1 Satellite......Page 272
Exede Customer Terminals......Page 275
Next-Generation High-Throughput Satellites......Page 277
Conclusion......Page 278
References......Page 279
Distributed Internet-Optimized Services via Satellite Constellations......Page 281
Introduction......Page 284
History and Background to Medium and Low Earth Constellations for Communications......Page 286
The First Communications Satellite Networks Were for Mobile Services......Page 289
The Development of the O3b Satellite Network......Page 292
The OneWeb Network System......Page 295
New LEO Constellations on the Horizon......Page 297
Frequency Allocation and Number of Large-Scale Constellations that Can Be Deployed......Page 298
Orbital Debris Concerns......Page 299
Conclusion......Page 300
References......Page 301
An Examination of the Governmental Use of Military and Commercial Satellite Communications......Page 302
Introduction......Page 304
Nationally Critical Satellite Communications......Page 308
United States......Page 310
United Kingdom......Page 314
Italy......Page 315
Hosted Payloads or Hybrid Satellites......Page 316
France......Page 318
Spain......Page 319
UAE......Page 320
NATO/France/Italy/United Kingdom......Page 321
Italy/France......Page 322
Guaranteed, Long-Term Leases and Ad Hoc Leases of Capacity......Page 323
Government-Industry Partnership......Page 324
Commercial Satellite Communications Augmentation......Page 326
The Future......Page 327
Conclusion......Page 332
References......Page 334
Economics and Financing of Communications Satellites......Page 335
Introduction......Page 336
Satellite Telecommunications Services......Page 337
The Business of Satellite Communications......Page 338
Access to Space......Page 342
Comparisons of Productivity in Manufacturing Satellites......Page 346
Conclusion......Page 351
Further Reading......Page 353
Satellite Communications and Space Telecommunication Frequencies......Page 355
Radio Waves......Page 356
Need for Radio Regulations......Page 358
Nomenclature of the Frequency and Wavelength Bands......Page 360
Radio-Frequency Wave Characteristics and Maxwell´s Equations......Page 361
Field Structure and Plane Wave......Page 363
Poynting Vector and Power Density......Page 364
Wave Polarization......Page 365
Reflection, Refraction, and Transmission......Page 367
Concept of Antenna......Page 369
Directivity and Gain......Page 370
Antenna Aperture......Page 372
Polarization Mismatch Loss......Page 373
Effect of Environment with Mobile Communications......Page 374
Introduction......Page 375
Cloud Attenuation......Page 376
Rain Attenuation......Page 377
Depolarization Effects......Page 379
Ionospheric Effects on Satellite Navigation Links......Page 380
Satellite-Based Navigation Technique and Influence of Ionosphere......Page 381
Ionospheric Effects as a Function of Latitude......Page 382
Single-Frequency Receivers......Page 383
Real-Time Ionospheric Measurements......Page 384
Cross-References......Page 386
References......Page 387
Regulatory Process for Communications Satellite Frequency Allocations......Page 388
Introduction......Page 389
Legal Instruments Governing the ITU......Page 391
ITU Membership......Page 393
Organizational Structure of the ITU......Page 394
Processes for Obtaining Radio Frequencies and Orbital Slots......Page 398
International Notification, Coordination, and Registration of Radio Frequencies and Orbital Positions......Page 402
Decision-Making Process......Page 403
Problem of Interference......Page 407
Cross-References......Page 409
References......Page 410
Satellite Spectrum Allocations and New Radio Regulations from WRC-15: Defending the Present and Provisioning the Future......Page 411
Introduction......Page 412
WRC-15 Results for the Satellite Industry......Page 413
Successful Defense of Satellite Spectrum Allocations......Page 414
Regulatory Changes to Promote Innovation of Satellite Services......Page 418
Additional Spectrum Allocations for Satellite Services......Page 425
WRC-15 Consideration of Nanosatellites and Picosatellites......Page 428
Emerging Non-GSO Systems......Page 430
Further WRC-15 Regulatory Considerations......Page 433
Conclusion......Page 437
References......Page 438
New Millimeter, Terahertz, and Light-Wave Frequencies for Satellite Communications......Page 440
Introduction......Page 442
Q/V Band for Satellite Communications......Page 443
Proposed Q/V-Band Commercial Satellites......Page 446
Terahertz (THz) Frequencies for Satellite Communications......Page 449
Optical Links for Satellite Communications......Page 450
US Optical Intersatellite Link (ISL) Experiments and the Canceled TSAT Program......Page 452
Laser Light Communications......Page 453
Conclusion......Page 454
References......Page 455
Satellite Radio Communications Fundamentals and Link Budgets......Page 457
Basic System Concepts......Page 458
Transponders......Page 463
Antennas......Page 464
Digital Communications......Page 467
Modulation and Coding......Page 468
Link Budgets......Page 472
Understanding Decibels......Page 474
Link Budget Calculation......Page 478
Cross-References......Page 487
References......Page 488
Satellite Communications Modulation and Multiplexing......Page 489
Introduction......Page 490
Key Aspects of Modulation......Page 491
Digital Modulation......Page 493
Performance of Modulation Schemes......Page 496
Filtering......Page 498
Modulation Summary......Page 500
Coding......Page 501
Decoding Methods......Page 502
Serial Concatenation of Codes......Page 503
Symbol Rate......Page 504
Evolution of Coding......Page 505
Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC)......Page 506
Turbo Codes......Page 507
Coding Summary......Page 508
Introduction......Page 509
Satellite Network Assignment Approaches......Page 510
FDMA Access......Page 511
TDMA Satellite System......Page 512
Code Division Multiple Access......Page 513
MF-TDMA: Multiple TDMA Streams......Page 515
DVB-RCS: MF-TDMA......Page 516
Comparison of FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA......Page 518
Selecting a Random Access Scheme......Page 519
References......Page 521
Further Reading......Page 522
Satellite Transmission, Reception, and Onboard Processing, Signaling, and Switching......Page 523
Introduction......Page 524
Services Applications......Page 525
Physical Transport Layer Services......Page 527
Satellite Implementation Issues......Page 529
Channelized Transponder Payload Implementation......Page 530
De-modulation-Re-modulation (De-mod-Re-mod) Payload Implementation......Page 533
De-mod-Re-mod Processor......Page 535
Conclusion......Page 536
Satellite Communications Antenna Concepts and Engineering......Page 537
Introduction......Page 538
Antenna Pattern......Page 539
Coordinate System......Page 540
Radiation Direction......Page 541
Gain......Page 542
Reversibility of Antenna Characteristics......Page 543
Effective Area......Page 544
Polarization......Page 545
Linear Wire Antenna......Page 547
Reflector Antenna......Page 548
Cassegrain Antenna......Page 549
Helical Antenna......Page 550
Microstrip Antenna......Page 551
Rectangular Microstrip Antenna......Page 552
Circular Microstrip Antenna......Page 553
Directivity of Array Antenna......Page 554
Function of Phased Array Antenna......Page 555
Function of Multibeam Antenna......Page 556
Reflector Type......Page 557
Antennas for Optical Communications Systems......Page 558
Conclusion......Page 559
References......Page 560
Satellite Antenna Systems Design and Implementation Around the World......Page 561
Introduction......Page 562
Frequency Reuse Concepts......Page 563
The Migration from Lower Frequencies Bands to Higher Frequencies VHF, UHF, SHF, and Now EHF......Page 565
Techniques for Improvement of Satellite Throughput......Page 567
GEO Systems......Page 568
LEO Constellations......Page 572
Technical and Economic Challenges in Designing Satellite Antennas......Page 573
The Evolution of Satellite Antenna and Communications Systems......Page 574
Phase One: The Earliest Phase of Satellite Communications with Omni Antennas......Page 575
Phase Two: Three-Axis Stabilization and Higher Gain Satellite Antennas......Page 576
Phase 3: The Creation of Higher Gain Parabolic Reflector on Communications Satellites......Page 577
Phase 4: The Advent of Three-Axis Body-Stabilized Communications Satellites......Page 578
Phase 5: Service Diversification and Alternative Satellite Antenna Design......Page 579
Phased Array Satellite Antennas of WINDS Satellite......Page 581
Phased Array Antenna for the Quazi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS)......Page 585
Large Deployable Antennas for Mobile Services......Page 586
Optical Communications Systems......Page 587
Optical Antenna of OICETS Satellite......Page 589
European Optical Antennas......Page 590
Conclusion......Page 591
References......Page 592
Satellite Earth Station Antenna Systems and System Design......Page 593
Dipole and Monopole Antennas......Page 594
The Concept of Antenna Gain......Page 597
Parabolic Reflector Antennas......Page 600
Antenna Sidelobes......Page 602
Blockage......Page 605
System Noise Temperature......Page 606
Rain Attenuation......Page 611
Depolarization......Page 612
Modulation......Page 617
G/T......Page 618
Tracking......Page 619
Shielding......Page 622
Weather Protection......Page 623
Feed Systems......Page 624
Conclusion......Page 625
Cross-References......Page 626
References......Page 627
Technical Challenges of Integration of Space and Terrestrial Systems......Page 628
Introduction......Page 629
Mobile Satellite Systems and Ancillary Terrestrial Component......Page 631
GBBF Development and Implementation......Page 637
GBBF Calibration Scheme......Page 641
Feeder Link Doppler Correction......Page 642
Return Feed Element Path Gain and Phase Imbalance Correction......Page 644
GBBF Ground Equipment......Page 646
Inclined Operation of MSS Geo Satellites......Page 648
MSS User Terminal Links and MIMO......Page 649
Broadband Satellite Systems and Internet Access......Page 652
Protocols and Network Performance......Page 654
Reference Models......Page 655
ISO 7-Layer Reference Model for Open System Interconnect......Page 657
Broadband Satellite Multimedia Protocol Architecture......Page 659
Basic TCP......Page 661
Network Environment and TCP Optimization......Page 663
Satellite Link TCP......Page 664
TCP Performance-Enhancing Proxies (T-PEP)......Page 665
TCP and Web Acceleration: TurboPage......Page 668
IP Routers in Space......Page 669
References......Page 672
Satellite Communications: Regulatory, Legal, and Trade Issues......Page 675
Introduction......Page 676
Satellite Communications in the International Legal System......Page 677
INTELSAT......Page 680
INMARSAT......Page 681
INTERSPUTNIK......Page 682
Arab Satellite Communications Organization (Arabsat)......Page 683
Asia-Pacific Satellite Communications Council (APSCC)......Page 684
The European Legal Framework on Satellite Communications......Page 685
EUMETSAT......Page 687
The European Space Agency (ESA)......Page 688
NAFTA......Page 689
National Regulation of Satellite Communications......Page 690
Satellite Communications in Global Trade......Page 691
The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS)......Page 692
The Annex on Telecommunications......Page 694
The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs)......Page 695
Dispute Settlement......Page 696
Responsibility and Liability......Page 697
Conclusion......Page 698
References......Page 699
Trends and Future of Satellite Communications......Page 702
Introduction......Page 704
Advanced Spacecraft Antenna Design......Page 705
Improved Transmission Systems and Onboard Processing Systems......Page 710
Improved Satellite Power Systems......Page 711
Satellite Orbital Configurations and Improved Spacecraft Orientation and Pointing......Page 714
New Ground User Systems......Page 715
Integrated Satellite and Terrestrial Services and New Market Demand......Page 716
Telemetry, Tracking, Command, Monitoring, and Autonomous Operations......Page 717
Future Trends for Markets and Regulatory Systems......Page 718
Other Drivers and Opportunities......Page 720
Keys to the Future of Satellite Communications......Page 721
Smart Satellites and Advanced Encoding......Page 722
Integrated Satellite and Terrestrial Networks (i.e., The ``Pelton Merge´´)......Page 723
Advanced Launch Capabilities, In-Orbit Servicing, and Advanced Platforms......Page 724
Conclusion......Page 725
Cross-References......Page 726
References......Page 727
Future of Military Satellite Systems......Page 728
Introduction......Page 729
Advanced Satellite Capabilities......Page 730
Internet-Optimized Satellites......Page 731
Optical Intersatellite Links and the GIG......Page 732
The Future of Dual Use and Hosted Payloads......Page 734
Cybersecurity......Page 736
Advanced Coding, Processing, Autonomous Control, and Artificially Intelligent Systems Employed in Space Defense Networks......Page 738
Security of Space-Based Defense Systems......Page 739
Conclusion......Page 740
References......Page 741
Part II: Satellite Precision Navigation and Timing Section......Page 743
Introduction to Satellite Navigation Systems......Page 744
Introduction......Page 746
Technology of Satellite Navigation Systems......Page 748
International Development of Satellite Navigational and Positioning Systems......Page 750
Applications and Markets......Page 751
International Coordination, Standards, and Regulatory Issues......Page 753
Conclusion......Page 754
References......Page 755
Global Navigation Satellite Systems: Orbital Parameters, Time and Space Reference Systems and Signal Structures......Page 756
Introduction......Page 757
GNSS Orbits......Page 758
Reference Systems......Page 759
Ephemeris......Page 760
Ground Tracks......Page 762
Polar Plots......Page 763
Point Positioning......Page 764
Differential GNSS......Page 765
Kinematic and Real Time Kinematic Systems......Page 768
International Atomic Time (TAI)......Page 769
Signal Structure......Page 771
Carrier Frequencies......Page 772
Data Stream and Messages......Page 776
Multiple Access and Pseudorandom Codes......Page 777
Modulation Techniques......Page 779
Pseudo-Range......Page 780
Sources of Error and Error Budgets......Page 781
References......Page 783
International Committee on GNSS......Page 785
Establishment of the ICG......Page 787
Membership of the ICG......Page 789
Objectives of the ICG......Page 790
Working Groups of the ICG......Page 791
ICG Working Group B: Enhancement of Performance of GNSS Services......Page 792
Working Group D: Reference Frames, Timing, and Applications......Page 793
The Future of the GNSS International Coordination Process......Page 794
Providers Forum......Page 795
Results of the Latest Meeting of the ICG......Page 796
References......Page 799
Current and Future GNSS and Their Augmentation Systems......Page 801
Introduction......Page 803
The Global Positioning System (GPS) of the United States......Page 804
Global Positioning System Satellite Constellation......Page 805
Current and Future Satellite Generations......Page 806
GPS L1......Page 807
GPS L1C......Page 808
Signal-in-Space Health......Page 809
United States Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Policy......Page 810
Wide-Area Augmentation System......Page 811
The Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) of the Russian Federation......Page 812
Current and Future Satellite Generations......Page 813
GLONASS Second Generation Satellites......Page 814
GLONASS Third Generation Satellites......Page 815
Current and Planned GLONASS Signals......Page 816
Performance Standards Versus Actual Performance......Page 817
System for Differential Correction and Monitoring......Page 819
Space Segment System Description......Page 820
Current and Planned Beidou-2 Signals......Page 821
Performance Standards Versus Actual Performance......Page 823
The European Satellite Navigation System (Galileo)......Page 824
Current and Future Satellite Generations......Page 825
In-Orbit Validation (IOV) Phase and Full Operational Capacity (FOC) Phase......Page 826
Galileo E6......Page 828
Services Provided and Provision Policies......Page 829
European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS)......Page 830
Description of MSAS......Page 831
Description of QZSS......Page 833
Current and Planned Signals......Page 834
Services Provided and Provision Policies......Page 835
System Description......Page 836
Services Provided and Provision Policies......Page 837
References......Page 838
Part III: Space Remote Sensing......Page 840
Introduction and History of Space Remote Sensing......Page 841
Introduction......Page 842
History of Satellite Remote Sensing Services......Page 843
Overview of Satellite Remote Sensing Services......Page 847
Cross-References......Page 849
References......Page 850
Electromagnetic Radiation Principles and Concepts as Applied to Space Remote Sensing......Page 851
Introduction......Page 852
The Fundamentals......Page 853
Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction, Interference, and Polarization: Important Properties of Electromagnetic Waves......Page 855
Multiwavelength Studies and Black Body Radiation......Page 858
Another Effect due to Photons, the Photoelectric Effect......Page 862
References......Page 864
Astronaut Photography: Handheld Camera Imagery from Low Earth Orbit......Page 865
Introduction......Page 866
USA Space Program......Page 868
USSR/Russian Space Program......Page 870
Specifications of Astronaut Photography......Page 871
Cameras, Film, and Digital Media......Page 872
Processing, Archiving, and Accessing Astronaut Photography......Page 891
Platforms......Page 893
The (ISS) Destiny Laboratory Window......Page 894
Window Observational Research Facility (WORF)......Page 896
Advantages and Limitations......Page 898
Mapping of Megafans (``Inland Deltas´´)......Page 899
Urban Geography and Ecology......Page 903
Volcanic Eruptions and Hazard Monitoring......Page 904
Public Outreach......Page 908
Education Outreach......Page 909
Cross-References......Page 911
References......Page 912
Electro-Optical and Hyperspectral Remote Sensing......Page 918
Introduction......Page 919
Introduction to Hyperspectral Imaging......Page 920
Early History of Hyperspectral Sensing......Page 922
Electro-Optical Sensing......Page 925
References......Page 927
Operational Applications of Radar Images......Page 928
Agriculture......Page 929
SAR Data Fusion for Mineral Exploration......Page 932
Geological Hazards......Page 934
Flood Monitoring......Page 936
Oil Spill Monitoring......Page 939
River Ice Monitoring......Page 941
Conclusion......Page 943
References......Page 944
LiDAR Remote Sensing......Page 946
Introduction......Page 947
Origins of LiDAR Technology......Page 948
High-Level Technical Overview of LiDAR......Page 951
Optical Triangulation......Page 955
Time of Flight (TOF)......Page 956
Scattering......Page 957
Reflection......Page 958
Doppler......Page 959
Light Sources......Page 960
High Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) and Photon-Counting Detectors......Page 961
The LiDAR Equation......Page 962
Comparison of LiDAR to Other Forms of Remote Sensing......Page 963
Advantages and Disadvantages of Active Remote Sensing......Page 964
LiDAR Versus Radar......Page 965
Geodetic and Geodynamic Applications......Page 966
Observations and Modeling of the Terrestrial Gravity Field......Page 970
Terrestrial Reference Frame (TRF) and Earth Orientation Parameters (EOP)......Page 971
Laser Altimetry and Topographic Mapping......Page 972
Atmospheric Studies......Page 982
Guidance, Navigation, Control, and Inspection......Page 990
References......Page 993
Fundamentals of Remote Sensing Imaging and Preliminary Analysis......Page 998
Introduction......Page 999
Satellite and Airborne Data Resolution and Formats......Page 1002
Image Display......Page 1015
Image Preprocessing......Page 1016
Atmospheric Correction......Page 1017
Geometric Corrections......Page 1018
Radiometric Corrections......Page 1019
Registration and Coordinate Systems......Page 1021
Principal Components Analysis......Page 1023
Correspondence Analysis......Page 1024
Intensity, Hue, and Saturation Analysis......Page 1025
Wavelet Method......Page 1027
International Policies Governing Remotely Sensed Data......Page 1028
Cross-References......Page 1030
References......Page 1031
Processing and Applications of Remotely Sensed Data......Page 1034
Image Processing......Page 1035
Data Display, Visualization, and Reduction Methods......Page 1036
Band Combinations, Ratios, and Indices......Page 1037
Image Classification Systems......Page 1038
Unsupervised Classification......Page 1040
Supervised Classification Systems......Page 1041
Neural Network Classifiers......Page 1044
Simulated Annealing Classifiers......Page 1045
Airborne LiDAR Data Processing......Page 1048
Fuzzy Logic Classifiers......Page 1049
Accuracy Assessment......Page 1051
Change Detection......Page 1053
Image Algebra Change Detection......Page 1054
Data Integration and Spatial Modeling......Page 1057
References......Page 1061
Remote Sensing Data Applications......Page 1064
Introduction......Page 1065
Radiative Transfer and Inversion Problem......Page 1066
Temperature and Water Vapor......Page 1067
Aerosols and Clouds......Page 1069
Atmospheric Constituents......Page 1070
Greenhouse Gases......Page 1076
Precipitation......Page 1081
Sea Surface Temperature......Page 1082
Sea Surface Salinity......Page 1083
Sea Surface Wind......Page 1085
Sea Surface Height......Page 1087
Ocean Color......Page 1089
Topography......Page 1091
Geometric Corrections and Map Projection......Page 1096
Land Cover Categories......Page 1097
Classification Features......Page 1098
Maximum Likelihood Classifier......Page 1101
Neural Net......Page 1102
Examples of Land Cover Classifications......Page 1104
Geological Applications......Page 1106
Soil Moisture......Page 1107
Carbon Cycle......Page 1111
Sea Ice......Page 1113
NWP and Weather Forecasting......Page 1115
Fisheries......Page 1117
Floods......Page 1119
Ship Navigation......Page 1121
Agriculture......Page 1122
Conclusion......Page 1125
Cross-References......Page 1126
References......Page 1127
Geographic Information Systems and Geomatics......Page 1134
Introduction......Page 1135
GIS Conceptual Framework......Page 1136
Vector and Raster Models......Page 1137
Georeferencing......Page 1139
Mean Sea Level (Geoid)......Page 1140
Map Projection......Page 1143
Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing......Page 1144
Spatial Data Analysis......Page 1146
Applications......Page 1148
Examples of Current Trends......Page 1150
References......Page 1151
Developments in Hyperspectral Sensing......Page 1153
Introduction......Page 1154
What Is Hyperspectral Sensing?......Page 1155
Hyperspectral Sensors......Page 1157
Airborne Hyperspectral Sensors......Page 1158
Spaceborne Hyperspectral Sensors......Page 1162
Applications and Future Developments......Page 1167
Conclusion......Page 1171
References......Page 1172
Part IV: Space Systems for Meteorology......Page 1174
Introduction to Space Systems for Meteorology......Page 1175
Introduction......Page 1178
International Cooperation in the Field of Meteorological Satellite Services......Page 1179
Development of the Meteorological Satellite Systems......Page 1181
Present and Future Coordination of Meteorological Satellite Systems......Page 1182
Cross-References......Page 1184
United States Meteorological Satellite Program......Page 1185
Introduction......Page 1187
Historical Background......Page 1188
Nimbus Satellite Program......Page 1189
NASA Experimental Programs and the Birth of Geostationary Systems......Page 1190
GOES-8 to 12 Satellites......Page 1192
GOES 13, 14, and 15......Page 1194
GOES-R Series......Page 1197
Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite (POES) System......Page 1199
Initial Joint Polar-Orbiting Operational Satellite (IJPS) System......Page 1202
The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP): Another Asset......Page 1203
New and Future NOAA Satellites: The Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS)......Page 1204
Planned JPSS Satellite Technical Characteristics......Page 1205
The NPP Satellite......Page 1206
The GOES and POES Ground Systems......Page 1208
Conclusion......Page 1209
References......Page 1210
International Meteorological Satellite Systems......Page 1211
The World Weather Watch Programme......Page 1213
China: The Fengyun Meteorological Satellite System......Page 1216
India: The INSAT Satellite System......Page 1218
The Japanese Geostationary Meteorological Satellite System (Himawari) and the QZSS Network......Page 1221
The Russian Geostationary Operational Meteorological Satellite (GOMS) and Polar-Orbiting Meteorological (Meteor) Systems......Page 1224
The Meteor-3 Polar-Orbiting Meteorological Satellite System......Page 1225
Meteor-3M......Page 1226
The Russian Geostationary Operational Meteorological Satellite......Page 1227
Helio/Geophysical Spectrometry Instrument Complex GGAK-E......Page 1229
South Korea´s Communication, Ocean, and Meteorology Satellite (COMS)......Page 1230
Conclusion......Page 1231
References......Page 1232
Notes......Page 1233
Part V: On-Orbit Robotic Servicing, Hosted Payloads and Active Debris Removal......Page 1234
Innovations in Hosted Payload Satellite Services......Page 1235
Introduction......Page 1237
Telesat Canada and the X-Band Hosted Payload on the ANIK G1 Satellite......Page 1238
The TEMPO Hosted Payload Project by NASA......Page 1239
GCCS-WAAS Package to Augment GPS System on Telesat and Intelsat GEO Satellites......Page 1240
Hosted Payloads on LEO Constellations......Page 1241
Launch Arrangements for Multiple Deployment of Small Satellites......Page 1244
Hosted Payload Alliance......Page 1245
Regulatory and Frequency Allocation and Coordination Issues......Page 1246
Conclusion......Page 1247
References......Page 1248
On-Orbit Servicing and Retrofitting......Page 1249
Introduction......Page 1251
Maneuvering and Mating in Space with Servicing Vehicles......Page 1252
Orbital Express Space Operations Mission......Page 1254
NASA Robotic Refueling Mission (RRM)......Page 1256
Deutsche Orbitale Servicing (DEOS) Mission......Page 1257
Phoenix Program by DARPA......Page 1258
CleanSpace One......Page 1260
Dutch Space and the ConeXpress Orbital Vehicle for Life Extension......Page 1261
MacDonald Dettwiler Associates´ Space Infrastructure Servicing (SIS) Vehicle......Page 1262
Other Initiatives of Relevance......Page 1264
References......Page 1266
Advanced Manufacturing Technologies and 3D Printing......Page 1268
Introduction......Page 1269
Advanced Composite Material......Page 1270
Structural Ceramics......Page 1271
Thermoplastics......Page 1272
Innovative Surfaces......Page 1273
Robotics in Satellite Assembly and Test......Page 1274
The 3D Printing Process......Page 1275
Design Tools......Page 1277
Panorama of Current Applications......Page 1279
Rapid Prototyping and System Impacts......Page 1281
Qualification Issues......Page 1282
Future Capabilities......Page 1283
Conclusion......Page 1284
References......Page 1285
Tracking of Orbital Debris and Avoidance of Satellite Collisions......Page 1286
Introduction......Page 1288
The Space Data Association and the Analytic Graphics Inc. Tracking Network......Page 1291
Lockheed Martin and Optical Tracking Network......Page 1292
Next Steps in US Laser Ranging Capabilities for Debris Tracking......Page 1293
ESA and German and European Tracking Activities EISCAT......Page 1294
Active Removal of Orbital Debris......Page 1295
Conclusion......Page 1296
References......Page 1298
Part VI: Spacecraft Bus and Ground Systems......Page 1299
Overview of the Spacecraft Bus......Page 1300
Spacecraft Structures......Page 1301
Orbital Control and Pointing Accuracy......Page 1303
Power Systems......Page 1306
Batteries......Page 1309
Nuclear and Isotope Power Systems......Page 1312
Thermal Control and Heat Dissipation......Page 1315
Onboard Heaters and Cooling Systems......Page 1318
Conclusion......Page 1319
References......Page 1320
Telemetry, Tracking, and Command (TTandC)......Page 1321
Introduction......Page 1322
Telemetry: Providing Health and Status Updates for the Satellite......Page 1323
Tracking: Locating and Following the Satellite......Page 1326
Control: Commanding the Spacecraft Bus and Payload of the Satellite......Page 1328
TTandC System Design Aspects......Page 1330
Cross-References......Page 1331
References......Page 1332
Lifetime Testing, Redundancy, Reliability, and Mean Time to Failure......Page 1333
Introduction......Page 1335
Hazards (Natural and Man-Made)......Page 1336
Testing Strategies......Page 1337
New Concepts......Page 1338
Satellite Lifetime and Mean Time to Failure......Page 1339
Key Components, Subsystems, and Lifetime Expectancies......Page 1340
Optimum Lifetime Engineering and Testing......Page 1341
Strategies to Extend Satellite System Lifetime......Page 1342
Satellite Design and Redundancy......Page 1344
TTCandM......Page 1346
Autonomous Operation and In-Orbit Servicing......Page 1347
Conclusion......Page 1348
Cross-References......Page 1349
References......Page 1350
Ground Systems for Satellite Application Systems for Navigation, Remote Sensing, and Meteorology......Page 1351
TTandC Ground Systems......Page 1353
Ground Systems for Satellite Navigation......Page 1355
Ground Systems for Meteorological and Remote Sensing Satellites......Page 1361
Conclusion......Page 1365
References......Page 1366
Common Elements versus Unique Requirements in Various Types of Satellite Application Systems......Page 1367
Introduction......Page 1368
Common Technical Elements in Application Satellite Programs......Page 1369
Spacecraft Structures and Bus Platforms......Page 1370
Power Systems......Page 1372
Tracking, Telemetry, and Command......Page 1374
Ground and User Systems......Page 1375
Launch Services......Page 1376
Common Operational and Regulatory Aspects of Application Satellite Programs......Page 1377
Common Market and Business Considerations in Application Satellite Programs......Page 1379
The New Small Satellite Constellations......Page 1380
Differences That Stem from the Differences in the Various Satellite Markets......Page 1381
Conclusion......Page 1383
References......Page 1384
Part VII: Launch Systems and Launch-Related Issues......Page 1385
Launch Vehicles and Launch Sites......Page 1386
Introduction......Page 1387
Early History of Rocket Technology and Systems......Page 1388
Development of Solid-Fueled Missile Systems......Page 1389
Liquid-Fueled Launchers......Page 1391
Avionics and Guidance Systems......Page 1393
Cost of Launches and New Commercial Options......Page 1394
Station-Keeping, Spacecraft Operations, and End of Life......Page 1397
Conclusion......Page 1398
References......Page 1399
Trends and Developments in Launch Systems......Page 1401
Introduction......Page 1403
Chemical Propulsion......Page 1405
Electric Ion Propulsion......Page 1406
Nuclear Ion Propulsion......Page 1407
High-Altitude Launch Systems......Page 1408
Reusable Launcher Systems......Page 1410
Environmental Issues and Concerns......Page 1412
Advanced Launch Concepts......Page 1413
New Commercial Launch Sites and Spaceports......Page 1414
Conclusion......Page 1415
References......Page 1416
Part VIII: Hazards to the Future Space Applications......Page 1417
Orbital Debris and Sustainability of Space Operations......Page 1418
Introduction......Page 1419
Space Debris and Their Effect on Space Applications......Page 1423
Conclusion......Page 1449
References......Page 1450
Coping with the Hazards of Space Debris......Page 1452
Introduction......Page 1454
Lockheed Martin and Optical Tracking Network......Page 1457
ESA and German and European Tracking Activities EISCAT......Page 1459
Japanese Initiatives......Page 1460
Conclusion......Page 1461
References......Page 1463
Space Weather and Hazards to Application Satellites......Page 1464
Introduction......Page 1465
Sunspots and the 11-Year Solar Cycle......Page 1466
Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)......Page 1469
The Earth´s Atmosphere and Near-Space Environment......Page 1471
The Residual Atmosphere in Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Near-Vacuum Conditions......Page 1472
Plasma: The Electrically Charged Gas, the Ionosphere......Page 1473
Micrometeoroids and Orbital Debris......Page 1474
How the Space Environment Affects Satellite Operations......Page 1476
Near-Vacuum Conditions......Page 1477
Plasma......Page 1478
Energetic Charged Particles......Page 1479
Protection of Application Satellites Against Space Weather Effects......Page 1480
References......Page 1481
Further Reading......Page 1482
Part IX: Appendices......Page 1483
Glossary of Terms......Page 1484
Introduction......Page 1523
Australia......Page 1524
China......Page 1525
Europe......Page 1526
Israel......Page 1527
Japan......Page 1528
Russian and CIS Launch Sites......Page 1529
United States of America......Page 1530
Other Commercial Spaceports......Page 1533
Major Launch Systems Available Globally......Page 1535
Introductory Note......Page 1536
Long March 2D......Page 1537
Long March 3B......Page 1538
Long March 4C......Page 1539
Ariane 5ES......Page 1540
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV): Mark III (Proposed)......Page 1541
H-IIB 304......Page 1542
Angara 1.2 (Proposed)......Page 1543
Soyuz FG/Fregat......Page 1544
Zenit 3SL......Page 1545
Delta II......Page 1546
Delta IV......Page 1547
Orbital ATK Minotaur I......Page 1548
Stratolauncher......Page 1549
Vulcan Launch Vehicle......Page 1550
Global Communications Satellite Systems......Page 1551
US Domestic Communications Satellite Systems......Page 1556