Handbook of Research on Teaching With Virtual Environments and AI 9781799876380, 9781799876397, 9781799871064, 9781799855989, 9781799858058, 9781799838715, 9781799840961, 9781799842224, 9781799843603

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Handbook of Research on Teaching With Virtual Environments and AI Gianni Panconesi Esplica, Italy Maria Guida National Institute for Documentation, Innovation, and Educational Research, Italy

A volume in the Advances in Educational Technologies and Instructional Design (AETID) Book Series

Published in the United States of America by IGI Global Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA, USA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2021 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Panconesi, Gianni, 1954- editor. | Guida, Maria, 1958- editor. Title: Handbook of research on teaching with virtual environments and AI / Gianni Panconesi and Maria Guida, editors. Description: Hershey, PA : Information Science Reference, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “In a world where where online and offline overlap and coincide, this book presents how digital intelligence is a key competence for the future of education and looks at how AI and other digital tools are improving the world of education”-- Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2020049318 (print) | LCCN 2020049319 (ebook) | ISBN 9781799876380 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781799876397 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Virtual reality in education. | Artificial intelligence--Educational applications. Classification: LCC LB1044.87 .H3454 2021 (print) | LCC LB1044.87 (ebook) | DDC 371.33/468--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020049318 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020049319 This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Educational Technologies and Instructional Design (AETID) (ISSN: 2326-8905; eISSN: 2326-8913) British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. For electronic access to this publication, please contact: [email protected].

Advances in Educational Technologies and Instructional Design (AETID) Book Series Lawrence A. Tomei Robert Morris University, USA

ISSN:2326-8905 EISSN:2326-8913 Mission Education has undergone, and continues to undergo, immense changes in the way it is enacted and distributed to both child and adult learners. In modern education, the traditional classroom learning experience has evolved to include technological resources and to provide online classroom opportunities to students of all ages regardless of their geographical locations. From distance education, Massive-Open-Online-Courses (MOOCs), and electronic tablets in the classroom, technology is now an integral part of learning and is also affecting the way educators communicate information to students. The Advances in Educational Technologies & Instructional Design (AETID) Book Series explores new research and theories for facilitating learning and improving educational performance utilizing technological processes and resources. The series examines technologies that can be integrated into K-12 classrooms to improve skills and learning abilities in all subjects including STEM education and language learning. Additionally, it studies the emergence of fully online classrooms for young and adult learners alike, and the communication and accountability challenges that can arise. Trending topics that are covered include adaptive learning, game-based learning, virtual school environments, and social media effects. School administrators, educators, academicians, researchers, and students will find this series to be an excellent resource for the effective design and implementation of learning technologies in their classes.

Coverage • Adaptive Learning • Online Media in Classrooms • Curriculum Development • Bring-Your-Own-Device • Web 2.0 and Education • Game-Based Learning • Virtual School Environments • K-12 Educational Technologies • Classroom Response Systems • Hybrid Learning

IGI Global is currently accepting manuscripts for publication within this series. To submit a proposal for a volume in this series, please contact our Acquisition Editors at [email protected] or visit: http://www.igi-global.com/publish/.

The Advances in Educational Technologies and Instructional Design (AETID) Book Series (ISSN 2326-8905) is published by IGI Global, 701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033-1240, USA, www.igi-global.com. This series is composed of titles available for purchase individually; each title is edited to be contextually exclusive from any other title within the series. For pricing and ordering information please visit http://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-educational-technologies-instructional-design/73678. Postmaster: Send all address changes to above address. Copyright © 2021 IGI Global. All rights, including translation in other languages reserved by the publisher. No part of this series may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphics, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information and retrieval systems – without written permission from the publisher, except for non commercial, educational use, including classroom teaching purposes. The views expressed in this series are those of the authors, but not necessarily of IGI Global.

Titles in this Series

For a list of additional titles in this series, please visit: http://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-educational-technologies-instructional-design/73678

Applying Universal Design for Learning Across Disciplines Case Studies on Implementation Frederic Fovet (Royal Roads University, Canada) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 335pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799871064) • US $195.00 Advancing Online Course Design and Pedagogy for the 21st Century Learning Environment Daniel Chatham (Middlebury Institute of International Studies at Monterey, USA) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 382pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799855989) • US $195.00 Affordances and Constraints of Mobile Phone Use in English Language Arts Classrooms Clarice M. Moran (Appalachian State University, USA) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 229pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799858058) • US $175.00 Examining an Operational Approach to Teaching Probability Alessio Drivet (Geogebra Institute of Turin, Italy) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 369pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799838715) • US $195.00 4C-ID Model and Cognitive Approaches to Instructional Design and Technology Emerging Research and Opportunities Guilhermina Maria Lobato Ferreira de Miranda (Instituto de Educação, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal) Manuel Joaquim Henriques Rafael (Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal) Mário Marcelino Luis de Melo (UI, DEF, Instituto de Educação, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal) Joana Martinho de Almeida Costa Pardal (Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL), ISTAR, Portugal) and Thiago Bessa Pontes (Universidade Federal do Cariri, Brazil) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 243pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799840961) • US $175.00 Implementing Augmented Reality Into Immersive Virtual Learning Environments Donna Russell (Walden University, USA) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 315pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799842224) • US $195.00 Handbook of Research on Innovations in Non-Traditional Educational Practices Jared Keengwe (University of North Dakota, USA) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 462pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799843603) • US $245.00

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Editorial Advisory Board Giovanni Bonaiuti, University of Cagliari, Italy James Braman, Community College of Baltimore County, USA Vanessa Camilleri, Department of AI, Faculty of ICT, University of Malta, Malta Steven Kirby, Independent Researcher, UK Aliane Loureiro Krassmann, Federal Institute Farroupilha, Brazil Matthew Montebello, University of Malta, Malta Thomas Roche, Scoil Mhuire Brosna, Ireland Giuliano Vivanet, University of Cagliari, Italy Julie Willcott, zSpace, USA

List of Reviewers Lucia Bartolotti, MIUR, Italy Domenico Bracciodieta, MIUR, Italy Giulia Catalano, Cambridge Assessment, Italy Alessandro Ciasullo, University Federico II Naples, Italy Bernardo Cicchi, Independent Researcher, Italy Letizia Cinganotto, INDIRE-IUL, Italy Giuliana Dettori, CNR, Italy Filomena Faiella, University of Salerno, Italy Laura Freina, CNR, Italy Angela Maria Furnari, MIUR, Italy Alberta Mazzola, Studio Confini, Rome, Italy Martha Mendez, E-Learning Consultancy, Colombia Tina Michetti, Belgian Ministry of Education, Belgium Giulia Frances Piantadosi, University of Turin, Italy Colleen Lynn Elwell Piantadosi, MIUR, Italy Rita Tegon, MIUR, Italy Michael Thomas, Liverpool John Moores University, UK Giovanni Vincenti, Division of Science, Information, Arts, and Technologies, University of Baltimore, USA 

List of Contributors

Bartolotti, Lucia / Liceo Classico e Linguistico “F. Petrarca”, Italy............................................... 119 Boniello, Annalisa A. B. / University of Camerino, Italy................................................................... 293 Camilleri, Vanessa / University of Malta, Malta............................................................................... 616 Ciasullo, Alessandro / University of Naples Federico II, Italy......................................................... 189 Cinganotto, Letizia / INDIRE, Università Telematica degli Studi, Italy........................................... 267 Citarella, Ivonne / National Research Council, Italy........................................................................ 394 Çoban, Murat / Agri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey................................................................... 236 Conti, Alessandra A. C. / IC Nettuno 1, Italy.................................................................................... 293 Danelon, Nevio / Department of Classical Studies, Duke University, USA....................................... 518 Demirbilek, Muhammet / Faculty of Education, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey................. 634 DuQuette, Jean-Paul Lafayette / University of Macao, Macao........................................................ 461 Fedeli, Laura / University of Macerata, Italy.................................................................................... 444 Figueiredo Oliveira, Maria Angélica / Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil................ 373 Fontanella, Mario / Edu3d, Italy....................................................................................................... 492 Forte, Maurizio / Department of Classical Studies, Duke University, USA..................................... 518 Goel, Richa / Amity University, India................................................................................................ 681 Hannel, Kelly / Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil...................................................... 373 Herpich, Fabrício / Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil............................................... 373 Khattar, Sharad / Amity University, India........................................................................................ 681 Kralj, Lidija / Ministry of Science and Education, Croatia................................................................ 86 Lamonaca, Simona / Istituto Comprensivo Giuseppina Pizzigoni, Italy.......................................... 210 Manzoor, Amir / Bahria University, Pakistan................................................................................... 416 Mazzola, Alberta / Studio Confini, Italy........................................................................................... 140 Mendez, Martha P. / Independent Researcher, Colombia................................................................... 61 Montebello, Matthew / University of Malta, Malta.......................................................................... 616 Nagles Garcia, Nofal / Independent Researcher, Colombia................................................................ 61 Nobre, Ana / Universidade Aberta, Portugal...................................................................................... 43 Nunes, Felipe Becker / Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.......................................... 373 Nussli, Natalie / University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Switzerland.. 163 Occhioni, Michelina / School of Science and Technology, Geology Division, University of Camerino, Italy.............................................................................................................................. 316 Oh, Kevin / University of San Francisco, USA.................................................................................. 163 Pacchiega, Claudio / Edu3d, Italy............................................................................................. 492, 558 Paris, Eleonora / School of Science and Technology, Geology Division, University of Camerino, Italy................................................................................................................................................ 316  



Pennazio, Valentina / University of Macerata, Italy......................................................................... 444 Petrina, Stephen / University of British Columbia, Canada............................................................... 17 Sahai, Seema / Amity University, India.............................................................................................. 681 Tegon, Rita / Liceo Classico “A. Canova”, Treviso, Italy................................................................. 591 Thomas, Michael / Liverpool John Moores University, UK............................................................. 267 Tricarico, Michelangelo / Politecnico di Bari, Bari, Italy................................................................ 341 Trinchero, Roberto / University of Turin, Italy................................................................................. 540 Voskoglou, Michael / Graduate Technological Educational Institute, Greece................................. 654 Willcott, Julie / zSpace, USA................................................................................................................. 1 Zhao, Jennifer Jing / University of British Columbia, Canada........................................................... 17

Table of Contents

Foreword............................................................................................................................................ xxiv Preface............................................................................................................................................... xxvii Acknowledgment...........................................................................................................................xxxviii Section 1 Educational Approaches to Distance Learning Chapter 1 Pandemic and Post-Pandemic Use of Immersive Learning Technology................................................. 1 Julie Willcott, zSpace, USA Chapter 2 3D Virtual Learning Environment for Acquisition of Cultural Competence: Experiences of Instructional Designers.......................................................................................................................... 17 Stephen Petrina, University of British Columbia, Canada Jennifer Jing Zhao, University of British Columbia, Canada Chapter 3 Educational Practices Resulting From Digital Intelligence................................................................... 43 Ana Nobre, Universidade Aberta, Portugal Chapter 4 Creating Virtual Learning Experiences Based on Engaging Interactions and Collaborative Work in Graduate Programs: A Cognitive Analysis........................................................................................ 61 Martha P. Mendez, Independent Researcher, Colombia Nofal Nagles Garcia, Independent Researcher, Colombia Chapter 5 Mentoring Teams as a Model of Supporting Distance Teaching: The Croatian Example.................... 86 Lidija Kralj, Ministry of Science and Education, Croatia

 



Chapter 6 From Traditional to Distance Learning: Chronicle of a Switch From Physical to Virtual – Using the Game Metaphor to Understand the Process................................................................................... 119 Lucia Bartolotti, Liceo Classico e Linguistico “F. Petrarca”, Italy Chapter 7 Virtual Worlds, Learning Tools or Risk for Addiction? A Literature Analysis in a PsychoSociological Perspective...................................................................................................................... 140 Alberta Mazzola, Studio Confini, Italy Chapter 8 Culturally Responsive Pedagogy, Universal Design for Learning, Ubiquitous Learning, and Seamless Learning: How These Paradigms Inform the Intentional Design of Learner-Centered Online Learning Environments............................................................................................................ 163 Natalie Nussli, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Switzerland Kevin Oh, University of San Francisco, USA Chapter 9 A Bioeducational Approach to Virtual Learning Environments......................................................... 189 Alessandro Ciasullo, University of Naples Federico II, Italy Chapter 10 Journalism and Communication at School in Order to Form Critical Citizens................................... 210 Simona Lamonaca, Istituto Comprensivo Giuseppina Pizzigoni, Italy Chapter 11 Effects of Virtual Reality Learning Platforms on Usability and Presence: Immersive vs. NonImmersive Platform.............................................................................................................................. 236 Murat Çoban, Agri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey Section 2 A Multi-Modal Educational Perspective and Virtual Reality Chapter 12 Comparing Two Teacher Training Courses for 3D Game-Based Learning: Feedback From Trainee Teachers............................................................................................................................................... 267 Michael Thomas, Liverpool John Moores University, UK Letizia Cinganotto, INDIRE, Università Telematica degli Studi, Italy Chapter 13 Minecraft Our City, an Erasmus Project in Virtual World: Building Competences Using a Virtual World.................................................................................................................................................... 293 Annalisa A. B. Boniello, University of Camerino, Italy Alessandra A. C. Conti, IC Nettuno 1, Italy



Chapter 14 Techland: New Educational Paths Focused on Energy Resources and Sustainability Using Virtual Worlds.................................................................................................................................................. 316 Michelina Occhioni, School of Science and Technology, Geology Division, University of Camerino, Italy Eleonora Paris, School of Science and Technology, Geology Division, University of Camerino, Italy Chapter 15 The Educational Value of the Escape Room in Virtual Environments................................................ 341 Michelangelo Tricarico, Politecnico di Bari, Bari, Italy Chapter 16 Challenges and Research in Virtual Worlds and Augmented Reality in the Educational Field.......... 373 Felipe Becker Nunes, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Fabrício Herpich, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Maria Angélica Figueiredo Oliveira, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Kelly Hannel, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Chapter 17 Non-Verbal Communication Language in Virtual Worlds................................................................... 394 Ivonne Citarella, National Research Council, Italy Chapter 18 Use of Virtual Worlds for Development of Social Interaction Skills of Children With Special Needs.................................................................................................................................................... 416 Amir Manzoor, Bahria University, Pakistan Chapter 19 Instructional Design and 3D Virtual Worlds: A Focus on Social Abilities and Autism Spectrum Disorder................................................................................................................................................ 444 Laura Fedeli, University of Macerata, Italy Valentina Pennazio, University of Macerata, Italy Chapter 20 Affordances in Virtual World Learning Communities......................................................................... 461 Jean-Paul Lafayette DuQuette, University of Macao, Macao Chapter 21 Prosumers Building the Virtual World: How a Proactive Use of Virtual Worlds Can Be an Effective Method for Educational Purposes......................................................................................... 492 Mario Fontanella, Edu3d, Italy Claudio Pacchiega, Edu3d, Italy



Chapter 22 Teaching Archaeology in VR: An Academic Perspective................................................................... 518 Nevio Danelon, Department of Classical Studies, Duke University, USA Maurizio Forte, Department of Classical Studies, Duke University, USA Section 3 Artificial Intelligence and Its Potential for Improvement of Society Chapter 23 Designing Intelligent Tutoring Systems With AI: Brain-Based Principles for Learning Effectiveness........................................................................................................................................ 540 Roberto Trinchero, University of Turin, Italy Chapter 24 How Can Education Use Artificial Intelligence? A Brief History of AI, Its Usages, Its Successes, and Its Problems When Applied to Education..................................................................................... 558 Claudio Pacchiega, Edu3d, Italy Chapter 25 Toward the 4th Agenda 2030 Goal: AI Support to Executive Functions for Inclusions..................... 591 Rita Tegon, Liceo Classico “A. Canova”, Treviso, Italy Chapter 26 VLE Meets VW................................................................................................................................... 616 Matthew Montebello, University of Malta, Malta Vanessa Camilleri, University of Malta, Malta Chapter 27 Artificial Intelligence and K-12: How to Explain?.............................................................................. 634 Muhammet Demirbilek, Faculty of Education, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey Chapter 28 Computers and Artificial Intelligence in Future Education................................................................. 654 Michael Voskoglou, Graduate Technological Educational Institute, Greece Chapter 29 Role of Technology in Using Artificial Intelligence to Improve Educational Learning Challenges With Reference to India....................................................................................................................... 681 Seema Sahai, Amity University, India Sharad Khattar, Amity University, India Richa Goel, Amity University, India



Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 704 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 795 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 805

Detailed Table of Contents

Foreword............................................................................................................................................ xxiv Preface............................................................................................................................................... xxvii Acknowledgment...........................................................................................................................xxxviii Section 1 Educational Approaches to Distance Learning Chapter 1 Pandemic and Post-Pandemic Use of Immersive Learning Technology................................................. 1 Julie Willcott, zSpace, USA Immersive learning technology has the potential to increase student engagement and learning. With the onset of the pandemic in March of 2020, the delivery of education changed, and the use of immersive learning technology was impacted. This chapter considers charges and impacts at the K-12, CTE, and post-secondary level—with on-site, remote, and hybrid learning models—during the COVID-19 pandemic. Anticipated trends in education post-pandemic include an increased need for personalized learning; continued growth in remote learning, virtual learning, and online content and resources and increased demand for career and technical education. Consideration is also given to the implications for immersive learning technology post-pandemic. Specific consideration is given throughout the chapter to the use of zSpace in the United States. Chapter 2 3D Virtual Learning Environment for Acquisition of Cultural Competence: Experiences of Instructional Designers.......................................................................................................................... 17 Stephen Petrina, University of British Columbia, Canada Jennifer Jing Zhao, University of British Columbia, Canada As educational systems emphasize and experiment with forms of online and remote learning, it is increasingly important to investigate the cultural competence of instructional designers. This chapter addresses the experiences of instructional designers in a 3D virtual learning environment designed for development of cultural competence. Design-based research (DBR) and user experience (UX) methodologies were employed to explore experience of six instructional designers in 3D virtual environment. A taxonomy of experience (ToE) established by Coxon guided qualitative data collection and analysis. Through examples and data, the chapter emphasizes the necessity for instructional designers to keep in mind the 



challenge of cultural diversity in the backgrounds of students and their own, and bring guidelines and principles into culturally sensitive and responsive instructional design processes. The authors recommend four future research directions, including cross-cultural instructional designer competencies along with research into cultural personas, avatars, and guest-host relations. Chapter 3 Educational Practices Resulting From Digital Intelligence................................................................... 43 Ana Nobre, Universidade Aberta, Portugal This chapter highlights the place that digital intelligence is gaining in all sectors of our society, especially in education. Digital intelligence influences individual and collective life and it is necessary to develop critical thinking about its use. Training learners and teachers in digital intelligence also means, in a way, working to prevent potential abuses that could occur in the near future. For digital intelligence to contribute to the academic success of all learners, the role of teachers has never been more important. This chapter analyzes the emerging practices resulting from pedagogical innovation, with digital intelligence in platforms Moodle, Duolingo, and Classcraft. Chapter 4 Creating Virtual Learning Experiences Based on Engaging Interactions and Collaborative Work in Graduate Programs: A Cognitive Analysis........................................................................................ 61 Martha P. Mendez, Independent Researcher, Colombia Nofal Nagles Garcia, Independent Researcher, Colombia The purpose of this chapter is to present a cognitive analysis of virtual leaning experiences based on engaging interactions and collaborative work to enhance business skills in graduate programs. The experiences include virtual learning scenarios, autonomous learning, virtual learning technologies, and collaborative work that enable the learners to enhance business skills required for the modern world. Ten virtual learning environments are sampled to analyze cognitive processes for the learners to enhance four main business skills: leadership, entrepreneurship, sustainability, and problem solving. Based on the analysis, the authors discuss the opportunities for improvement and recommend the implementation of activities in which learners investigate and respond to an authentic, engaging, and complex problem or challenge through collaborative work. This initiative provides more possibilities for learner interactivity and cognitive processes development and fosters the implementation of engaging virtual learning environments for learners skills to solve real-life situations. Chapter 5 Mentoring Teams as a Model of Supporting Distance Teaching: The Croatian Example.................... 86 Lidija Kralj, Ministry of Science and Education, Croatia In this chapter, the author describes how the Croatian Ministry of Science and Education organized support for the education system during the COVID-19 pandemic building upon education reform and using the mentoring teams as the main resource for learning content creation and teachers’ support network. One of the most significant activities during educational reform was the establishment of virtual classrooms whose main characteristics were continuous professional development support in the online environment for learning, communication and collaboration, quick access to the new and relevant information, and establishment of the learning community of practice. The hybrid model of continuous professional development combined with mentoring teams who were already experts in remote work and



online collaboration and communication contributed to the swift and effective establishment of distance learning. This chapter provides information from the teacher perspective giving ideas and examples that can be used in future professional development and collaborative teamwork. Chapter 6 From Traditional to Distance Learning: Chronicle of a Switch From Physical to Virtual – Using the Game Metaphor to Understand the Process................................................................................... 119 Lucia Bartolotti, Liceo Classico e Linguistico “F. Petrarca”, Italy In winter 2020, Coronavirus silently spread from a Chinese metropolis globally. Schools closed and emergency distance teaching was enforced wherever possible. This chapter examines this phenomenon as it took place in an Italian upper secondary school and applies the rules of gamification as a key to understanding the process and the interconnections of all the agents that played a role. The theoretical background includes Werbach and Hunter’s game theory, the SAMR model of Ruben Puentedura, and the findings of social and emotional learning (SEL), with the aim to analyze not only the technical transformations with their consequences on teaching practices, but also the emotional impact the pandemic had on teachers and pupils. The results of the first national surveys about the effect of the lockdown months are taken into consideration to validate the author’s experience, as well as articles and studies from sources such as UNESCO, OECD, and the Economic World Forum. The description of what happened as if it were a proper game may shed some light into the complexity of this experience. Chapter 7 Virtual Worlds, Learning Tools or Risk for Addiction? A Literature Analysis in a PsychoSociological Perspective...................................................................................................................... 140 Alberta Mazzola, Studio Confini, Italy The chapter aims to provide an exploration of phenomena related to the use of technology-supported programs in the education field, with a specific focus on virtual worlds. In a psycho-sociological perspective with a psychoanalytic approach, the essay provides a literature analysis. Papers about virtual worlds and internet addiction are detected in order to explore the relationship among them. By studying mass media publications, emerging problems related to the use of technological tools in school are revealed on local and global scale. The proposal is to analyse the introduced issues by re-inscribing them within the coexistence context where they emerge. The highlighted hypothesis focuses on technology use as deeply marked by emotional approaches, determined by local cultures, which are shared among people participating to a specific context. It is possible to face specific issues, which afflict school professionals, students, and families, by analyzing emotional symbolizations they share. Chapter 8 Culturally Responsive Pedagogy, Universal Design for Learning, Ubiquitous Learning, and Seamless Learning: How These Paradigms Inform the Intentional Design of Learner-Centered Online Learning Environments............................................................................................................ 163 Natalie Nussli, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Switzerland Kevin Oh, University of San Francisco, USA The purpose of this chapter is to develop a one-stop checklist that assists educators in providing online teaching grounded in the principles of culturally responsive pedagogy (CRP), Universal Design for



Learning (UDL), ubiquitous learning (u-learning), and seamless learning. The authors explore how these paradigms inform the intentional design of learner-centered approaches in online learning environments and what an integrated approach could look like. This chapter will be relevant for faculty in higher education aiming to offer online curricula that emphasize active, collaborative, constructive, authentic, and goal-directed learning. Chapter 9 A Bioeducational Approach to Virtual Learning Environments......................................................... 189 Alessandro Ciasullo, University of Naples Federico II, Italy Knowledge carries some general characteristics related to the socio-environmental, cultural, and biophysiological contexts. These three coordinates help us to understand under which condition knowledge is achieved/gained and they do it. Along the same line, the real or virtual learning contexts being essential and unique, the possibilities offered by the VLE which give the opportunity of programming environmental challenges, complexity, and support for subjects open up a series of educational perspectives that support individual differences even when they reproduce social platforms as virtual worlds. Programming that through adequate representations of environments, situations, problems, and specific actions are able to work on more complex neuronal patterns usually activated in the presence of real objects, especially in light of the current structures present in formal contexts of education. Chapter 10 Journalism and Communication at School in Order to Form Critical Citizens................................... 210 Simona Lamonaca, Istituto Comprensivo Giuseppina Pizzigoni, Italy In the present era, information is too often transformed into communication of products or services, rather than carrying out its primary function of disseminating knowledge and awareness. Some elements, like artificial intelligence, are often used for these purposes. To bring education back to its original value, journalism in the classroom can help in the improvement of our human intelligence to orientate in this very complex world. A journalism workshop helps school education in the crucial role of forming aware careful users of contents, since the communication doesn’t spread anymore only by written articles, but also through video-news, spots, promotional campaigns, providing a lot of information about trends, economy, and politics. Students in these classrooms learn about what it means by checking the sources, verifying rights of uses, and finally, giving news supported with facts or promote ethical-social messages. Having a knowledge based on experience helps to develop critical abilities to use them. Chapter 11 Effects of Virtual Reality Learning Platforms on Usability and Presence: Immersive vs. NonImmersive Platform.............................................................................................................................. 236 Murat Çoban, Agri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey The effectiveness of the learning process in the virtual reality (VR) environment and the presence and immersion components of the VR environment are among the most important variables for students to feel as if they are part of the 3D environment and function in the environment. The objective of this chapter is to determine and compare the presence and usability levels of primary school students participating in VR environments with different immersion characteristics (immersive and non-immersive). According to the findings, there was no significant difference between immersive and non-immersive VR environments in terms of presence and usability. It was also determined that the level of presence of students in both



groups did not vary depending on usability. The results are regarded to be useful to educators, researchers, and instructional designers who want to integrate VR technology into their educational environments. Section 2 A Multi-Modal Educational Perspective and Virtual Reality Chapter 12 Comparing Two Teacher Training Courses for 3D Game-Based Learning: Feedback From Trainee Teachers............................................................................................................................................... 267 Michael Thomas, Liverpool John Moores University, UK Letizia Cinganotto, INDIRE, Università Telematica degli Studi, Italy This chapter explores data form two online language teacher training courses aimed at providing participants with the skills to create and use games in 3D immersive environments. Arising from a twoyear project which explored how game-based learning and virtual learning environments can be used as digital tools to develop collaborative and creative learning environments, two training courses were developed to support teachers to use two immersive environments (Minecraft and OpenSim). The first course was self-directed and the second was moderated by facilitators. Both courses provided a variety of games and resources for students and teachers in different languages (English, German, Italian, and Turkish). This chapter explores feedback from the teacher participants on both courses arising from a questionnaire and interviews with teachers and provides recommendations about the technical and pedagogical support required to develop immersive worlds and games for language learning. Chapter 13 Minecraft Our City, an Erasmus Project in Virtual World: Building Competences Using a Virtual World.................................................................................................................................................... 293 Annalisa A. B. Boniello, University of Camerino, Italy Alessandra A. C. Conti, IC Nettuno 1, Italy Virtual worlds (VWs) offer alternative learning environments for geoscience education and give students a feeling of “being there.” In fact, VWs are also immersive environments that enable situated learning and constructivist learning in accordance with the Vygotsky theory, because the learner is inside an “imaginary” world context. In this environment, many activities and experiences can take place as scaffolding, cooperative learning, peer-to-peer and peer evaluation, coaching, scientific inquiry. Therefore, VWs can be a new technology to motivate students and provide the educational opportunities to learn in a socially interactive learning community. In the literature already, some studies report experiences carried out to investigate the effectiveness of virtual worlds in education. In the world, there are virtual worlds used for education such as Opensim and Samsara. Minecraft (https://www.minecraft.net/en-us/) is a virtual world used by new generations specially. Chapter 14 Techland: New Educational Paths Focused on Energy Resources and Sustainability Using Virtual Worlds.................................................................................................................................................. 316 Michelina Occhioni, School of Science and Technology, Geology Division, University of Camerino, Italy Eleonora Paris, School of Science and Technology, Geology Division, University of Camerino, Italy



Techland is a virtual world completely focused on math and science (geosciences, chemistry, biology) for K6-K8 students, which has been well tested for school activities and projects in an Italian middle school. Recently, Techland has made a slowly transition from a general STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) world to a more specific and contextualized environment, with the aim to apply scientific concepts to the challenge that our society has to face today: climate change, exploitation of raw materials, pollution/remediation, green energy. Themes like circular and shared economy, sustainability, ONU Agenda 2030 Sustainable Development Goals are becoming more and more important in education. Therefore, Techland virtual environments have been expanded and improved and new environments have been created. An interdisciplinary perspective has been adopted to treat environmental themes using an inquiry-based learning methodology (IBL) adapted to virtual worlds and activities based on collaborative building, storytelling (machinima videos), and gamification. Chapter 15 The Educational Value of the Escape Room in Virtual Environments................................................ 341 Michelangelo Tricarico, Politecnico di Bari, Bari, Italy This chapter will report the experiences and skills gained during the “Escape Room at Edu3D” project developed within the Craft World virtual world, by the Edu3D open source learning community, which has long been dedicated to teaching innovation in the environment virtual, thanks to the collaboration of experts, technicians, and volunteer teachers passionate about digital architecture. The developed project has led to a review of the escape rooms, which we are normally used to associating with role-playing games in which competitors are locked in themed rooms and must try to go out collecting clues and solving puzzles, puzzles, codes, and riddles, giving them a teaching key. Chapter 16 Challenges and Research in Virtual Worlds and Augmented Reality in the Educational Field.......... 373 Felipe Becker Nunes, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Fabrício Herpich, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Maria Angélica Figueiredo Oliveira, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Kelly Hannel, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil New technologies and opportunities to modernize and make teaching more dynamic emerge, as well as to switch from the ordinary traditional teaching method to a different format, which makes the student the protagonist of the construction of his knowledge. It is precisely in this context that new forms of use of technology in the educational field emerge, among which are the virtual worlds (MV) and augmented reality (AR), which are the objects of analysis in this chapter. Taking the basic premises on these topics, this chapter aims to help the reader understand the process of development and application of virtual worlds and augmented reality in education in order to discuss the inherent difficulties, practicalities, advantages, challenges, and trends. Thus, this chapter aimed to present the reader with the importance of reflecting on this context, seeking to show how each of these technologies has been applied in the educational field, being based on reports of empirical and academic experiences of the authors and other researchers. Chapter 17 Non-Verbal Communication Language in Virtual Worlds................................................................... 394 Ivonne Citarella, National Research Council, Italy



Over the years, the virtual space has been changing, and the skills acquired by users have been improved, and the avatars, as well as the settings, have graphically become more and more sophisticated. In virtual reality, the avatar without an appropriate animation would move in jerks in a disharmonious way similar to a robot, but endowing it with a particular postural animation, you make a conscious choice of what information you want to transfer with its appearance and its posture. In recent years, research has focused on the study of communication and its importance. The purpose of this contribution is to analyze the animations present in Second Life trying to trace a socio-psychological picture of the nonverbal communication process in a virtual environment. Chapter 18 Use of Virtual Worlds for Development of Social Interaction Skills of Children With Special Needs.................................................................................................................................................... 416 Amir Manzoor, Bahria University, Pakistan At a growing rate, educators are realizing academic potential of virtual world and starting to use them to support the development of social skills and learning of children with special needs (CSN). A virtual world could be integrated into different learning contexts to provide a safe, friendly, and supportive multiuser learning environment for CSN. The objective of this chapter is to explore how educators can leverage shared interests of CSN in virtual world to facilitate their social interaction and how educator and technology support can be used to guide this learning process of CSN. Chapter 19 Instructional Design and 3D Virtual Worlds: A Focus on Social Abilities and Autism Spectrum Disorder................................................................................................................................................ 444 Laura Fedeli, University of Macerata, Italy Valentina Pennazio, University of Macerata, Italy Starting from the analysis of the typical difficulties of the condition of autism spectrum syndrome and the literature relating to the effectiveness of the use of virtual worlds, the chapter presents the design and implementation of social stories within a 3D social virtual world, namely edMondo. The environment was used for a second phase of a piloting of a research project about the development of social abilities in children with ASD and involve the use of social scenarios thanks to the interaction with a robot avatar. Chapter 20 Affordances in Virtual World Learning Communities......................................................................... 461 Jean-Paul Lafayette DuQuette, University of Macao, Macao Since the 2000s, much has been made of the potential technological affordances of virtual world education and training. However, despite their potential utilization for useful simulations, virtual worlds are first and foremost open, social platforms. In this chapter, the author will explore both the technical affordances and the oft-ignored social affordances of virtual world learning groups. Drawing from the literature and over a decade of experience with learning communities in Linden Lab’s Second Life, the author will use ethnographic data gleaned from participant observation in two very different learning groups to develop a basic taxonomy of technical and social affordances in avatar-based multi-user online environments. It is hoped that through the rubric provided, educators, researchers, and technology stewards will have a clearer understanding of both the possible benefits and the drawbacks of hosting learning communities in this environment.



Chapter 21 Prosumers Building the Virtual World: How a Proactive Use of Virtual Worlds Can Be an Effective Method for Educational Purposes......................................................................................... 492 Mario Fontanella, Edu3d, Italy Claudio Pacchiega, Edu3d, Italy With the development of new digital technologies, the internet, and mass media, including social media, it is now possible to produce, consume, and exchange information and virtual creations in a simple and practically instantaneous way. As predicted by philosophers and sociologists in the 1980s, a culture of “prosumers” has been developed in communities where there is no longer a clear distinction between content producers and content users and where there is a continuous exchange of knowledge that enriches the whole community. The teaching of “digital creativity” can also take advantage of the fact that young people and adults are particularly attracted to these fields, which they perceive akin to their playful activities and which are normally used in an often sterile and useless way in their free time. The didactic sense of these experiences is that we try to build a cooperative group environment in which to experiment, learn, and exchange knowledge equally among all the participants. Chapter 22 Teaching Archaeology in VR: An Academic Perspective................................................................... 518 Nevio Danelon, Department of Classical Studies, Duke University, USA Maurizio Forte, Department of Classical Studies, Duke University, USA The authors discuss their experience at Duke University and, more specifically, at the Dig@Lab, a core research unit of the CMAC (Computational Media Art and Culture) program in the Department of Art, Art History, and Visual Studies. This community of scholars and students represents a new branch of experimental teaching in digital humanities with the participation of students and faculty from the humanities, engineering, computer science, neuroscience, and visual media. In particular, the Dig@Lab studies the impact of virtual reality in cyberarchaeology and virtual museums. Section 3 Artificial Intelligence and Its Potential for Improvement of Society Chapter 23 Designing Intelligent Tutoring Systems With AI: Brain-Based Principles for Learning Effectiveness........................................................................................................................................ 540 Roberto Trinchero, University of Turin, Italy This chapter describes the research problems inherent the design of effective intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) based on cognitive neuroscience research (brain-based approach) and evidence-based education. Effective student-ITS interaction requires a thorough understanding of the brain processes that underpin learning. The knowledge of these principles allows you to select optimal pedagogical strategies to monitor and guide the process. AI-based tutors have great potential in constantly adapting teaching content and tactics to the changing cognitive needs of the individual student in order to foster deep understanding, increase motivation, and develop a sense of self-efficacy in the learner. The brain-based approach can give ITSs a significant increase in effectiveness in promoting learning.



Chapter 24 How Can Education Use Artificial Intelligence? A Brief History of AI, Its Usages, Its Successes, and Its Problems When Applied to Education..................................................................................... 558 Claudio Pacchiega, Edu3d, Italy AI, artificial intelligence, has recently made a big leap, especially in the field of ANI (artificial narrowed intelligence), meaning that now we are starting to have decent tools that can be useful in teaching. After the surge in importance of the distant learning techniques due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, many educators have found themselves lost in dealing with an overwhelming excess of electronic information from their students, either via chat, email, documents, videos, or multimedia material. This chapter tries to delve into the difficulties of using affordable techniques for generating valid synthetic information such as rating homework or understanding if students are correctly following distant lessons. Since this is still an early subject, much more study and tests must be done to understand the full usability of automated AI tools in this (educational) context. Chapter 25 Toward the 4th Agenda 2030 Goal: AI Support to Executive Functions for Inclusions..................... 591 Rita Tegon, Liceo Classico “A. Canova”, Treviso, Italy The 2030 Agenda settles inclusion as a crucial goal. The index for inclusion underlines a set of resources to guide educational agencies through a process of inclusive development. One interesting model to achieve it is the Universal Design of Learning (UDL) framework, whose roots lie in the field of architecture and cognitive neuroscience. It provides options to enhance the executive functions also with the support of assistive technologies: studies have recently contributed to investigate how AI-innovated Educational Management Information Systems (EMIS), apps, and learning assessments can offer to the teachers the opportunities to differentiate and individualize learning, to diagnose factors of exclusion in education, and predict dropout, dyslexia, or autism disorder. After a discussion on the state of research and on the preparatory concepts, the chapter presents examples of AI-supported tools, and how they can scaffold executive functions; it wants also to urge a future-oriented vision regarding AI and to re-think the role of education in society. Chapter 26 VLE Meets VW................................................................................................................................... 616 Matthew Montebello, University of Malta, Malta Vanessa Camilleri, University of Malta, Malta The use of artificial intelligence (AI) within a learning environment has been shown to enhance the learning environment, improve its effectiveness, and enrich the entire educational experience. The next generation of intelligent learning environments incorporates the immersion of learners within virtual worlds while still offering the educational affordances and benefits of the online environment as a teaching medium. In this chapter, the current implementation of the virtual learning world (VLW) is presented bringing together a number of previous initiatives that integrated AI within a virtual learning environment (VLE) as well as the employment of a virtual world (VW) as learning environments. The realisation of the first VLW prototype provided numerous insights that provide valuable recommendations and significant conclusions to assist in taking the virtual learning environment to the next level.



Chapter 27 Artificial Intelligence and K-12: How to Explain?.............................................................................. 634 Muhammet Demirbilek, Faculty of Education, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey Artificial intelligence (AI) is a part of our everyday life. Having artificial intelligence will be vital for careers in science and engineering, which is the important part of the STEM curriculum. Most of us are aware of existence AI-powered services and devices, but hardly anybody knows about the technology behind them. Therefore, educational institutions should prepare the next generation in school with artificial intelligence literacy and the underlying concepts including algorithms, big data, and coding. Like classic literacy, which includes writing, reading, and mathematics, literacy in AI/computer science will become a major issue in the future. Furthermore, with AI literacy, pupils also receive a solid preparation for subsequent studies at university level and their future career. Currently, computer science education in school does not focus on teaching these fundamental topics in an adequate manner. This chapter will exploit understanding AI and how AI works in daily life and offer teaching methodologies to explain how AI works to K-12 learning environments. Chapter 28 Computers and Artificial Intelligence in Future Education................................................................. 654 Michael Voskoglou, Graduate Technological Educational Institute, Greece This chapter focuses on the role computers and artificial intelligence could play for future education in our modern society of knowledge and globalization. The rapid industrial and technological development of the last 150 years has caused radical changes to the traditional human society. As a result, formal education at all levels, from elementary to tertiary, faces the great challenge of preparing students for the forthcoming era of a new but not yet well-known industrial revolution, characterized by the internet of things and energy and the cyber-physical systems controlled through it. It is concluded that it is unlikely for computers and other “clever” AI machines to replace teachers in the future, because all these devices were created and programmed by humans. It is therefore logical to accept that they will never be able to achieve the quality and independence of human thought. However, it is certain that the role of the teacher will dramatically change in future classrooms. Chapter 29 Role of Technology in Using Artificial Intelligence to Improve Educational Learning Challenges With Reference to India....................................................................................................................... 681 Seema Sahai, Amity University, India Sharad Khattar, Amity University, India Richa Goel, Amity University, India Artificial education intelligence (AIEd) is one of the emerging educational technological fields. A most logical question which comes up is, Is it possible to ensure quality in higher education? Can use of AI and sister technologies help us deliver in the mission? Will it be able to tackle all or most of shortcomings in the field of education? This study aims in a systematic review to provide an overview of AI applications research in education. Technology use in education and learning has undergone a remarkable transformation in the education sector. In order to accomplish this purpose, a quantitative analysis approach was used by open end questionnaire for a survey of scholars. This chapter examined the possible impacts of artificial intelligence on universities. The empirical findings indicate that the knowledge of AI is declining and there is a need to disperse knowledge of technology in higher education.



Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 704 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 795 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 805

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Foreword

While there has been a great surge of interest in the role of technology in the learning process recently—one further emphasized due to the critical role of technology and computer-mediated communication during the COVID pandemic in 2020 and 2021—the use of technology in the learning process reaches surprisingly far back in time. This history, at least for some decades, can be traced by through illustrations from my own family. As a new public school teacher at the Middle School level in Washington State (USA) in the early 1990s, I was tasked with teaching a new course titled keyboarding (very high tech!). This class took the place of the older typing class like the one that I took while a high school student in 1983, but added the component of teaching students how to interact with the features included in the Apple IIc™ computers available in the school computer lab. The students learned to type (keyboarding) while also exploring programs like The Oregon Trail™, Atlas Explorer, U.S. Presidents, and several other titles. Looking at my father’s generation, he told stories of growing up during the Great Depression (19291933) in St. Maries, Idaho and having a teacher play us a radio in the classroom while also showing the students the ‘innards’ of the device to illustrate how the vacuum tubes worked together to capture radio waves and transmit the sound—innovative technology for that time in Idaho! He also described the occasional ‘big event’ when they would get to leave the classroom during school time to examine an actual car that happened to be going through town (a relatively rare thing to see in St. Maries at that time) in order to have a look at how an internal combustion engine worked in practice, thus showing that his teacher may have been a proponent of Dewey’s progressive model of education (Dewey, 1916). At the turn of the 19th Century, my grandmother, Margret, taught in a one-room schoolhouse near Port Angeles, Washington. While some cities had begun using electricity twenty years earlier, this was a school with no electricity or even indoor plumbing. However, technology (of a sort) still existed in the classroom in the form of slates (typically pieces of slate of approximately six by ten inches with a wood border) that the students would write on with a piece of chalk to practice their writing, math, etc. While we might not consider such materials to be classroom technology today, these ancestral examples show the steady advances in how we have integrated a variety of available technologies over time. The types of programs I made use of in the early 1990s resulted in many hours of interaction between my students and their computers, but a quite different revolution in technology and education may be tracked back to the creation of Roy Trubshaw’s game called MUD (Multi-User Dungeon) in 1978. This is credited by many as being the first Virtual World environment (albeit text-based) that allowed players to interact with each other over a computer network. MOOs (MUDs, Object-Oriented) followed in the early 1990s and added an element that made them more applicable for educators—the ability for the MOO ‘wizard’ to add persistent objects into the environment (again text-based). As a PhD student (and teaching assistant) at the University of Arizona, the Old Pueblo MOO (developed by Dr. Roxanne  

Foreword

Montford) allowed instructors in the English Department to request their own ‘rooms’ in the MOO where they could hold text-based office hours with their students. I used the space to also hold group writing conferences with my students. Technology took another leap forward in 1986 with the release of Habitat (developed by Chip Morningstar and Randy Farmer for Lucasfilm) on the Commodore 64 computer. This was the first VW with a graphical interface that allowed for the must of massive numbers of users. While this was a 2-D space, users had customizable avatars, the ability to chat via text, the ability to see other users in the form of their avatars, and the possibility of exploring hundreds of different locations (Habitat’s first promotional video is available on Farmer’s YouTube channel: https://youtu.be/VVpulhO3jy). Although Habitat only lasted for two years due to financial concerns (a great lack of foresight from the creator of the Star Wars franchise), it is the direct ancestor of the Massively-Multiplayer Online Role Play Games (MMORPGS) and Virtual Worlds that are played by so many today. The inspiration provided by Habitat led to the creation of more modern 3-D Virtual Environments such as Active Worlds in 1995 (which included a number of education universes) and Second Life in 2003. This VW (and its open source cousin OpenSim) have attracted a great number of studies related to education (see Sadler, 2012 for an overview), including several in this volume (e.g., DuQuette, Ch 2; Thomas & Cinganotto, Ch 10; Citarella, Ch 14) and all three of these VWs almost certainly inspired some of the research in this volume in VEs such as Minecraft (e.g., Boniello & Conti, Ch 7; Thomas & Cinganotto, Ch 10), edMondo (Fedeli & Pennazio, Ch 5), and others. The rise of 2D and 3D computer environments led to development of the fully immersive Virtual Reality headsets like the HTC Vive and Oculus Quest that are now rapidly growing in popularity and considered cutting edge technology. However, once again many of us (and perhaps even our grandparents and great grandparents) were exposed to a (much) more primitive form of this technology via the View-Master, which was introduced in 1939. Forte & Danelon, Ch 21 and Çoban, Ch 22 both examine the impact of VR in education and Nunes, Herpich, Oliveira, & Hannel, Ch 26 investigate the role of Augmented Reality in this arena. The next step in computing currently attracting many millions of dollars of investment is artificial intelligence. While ‘some’ doomsayers see AI as being a possible danger (see The Terminator), in reality AI has the potential to revolutionize both computing and education and is the focus of a number of chapters in this book (e.g., Trinchero, Ch 17; Tegon, Ch 19; Demirbilek, Ch 20, Voskoglou; Pacchiega, Ch 24; Sahai, Khattar, & Goel, Ch 25; and Montebello, Ch 27). As discussed in this very brief introduction to this volume, technology has played a role in education for many decades, but it is abundantly clear that the role of technology in the world of education is rapidly advancing and its impact on students, teaching, and industry is now omnipresent. As educators it behooves us to understand ‘how’ these technologies work, ‘what’ role they may play in our own classrooms, and ‘why’ we should (or should not) make use of them with our student populations. The twenty-nine excellent chapters in this book cover a range of topics (as seen above) that should be of great help in developing such an understanding. Randall W. Sadler Department of Linguistics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA

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Randall W. Sadler is an Associate Professor of Linguistics at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, where he teaches courses on telecollaboration, virtual worlds and language learning, and the teaching of L2 reading and writing. He is the Director of the Illinois Teaching English as a Second Language and ESL Programs. His main research area is on technology in language learning, with a focus on how Computer-Mediated Communication, Virtual Worlds, and Augmented Reality can enhance that process.

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Preface

“Learning is experience. Everything else is just information.” (A. Einstein) The increasingly pervasive use of digital technology has catapulted our society into a closely interconnected and interlinked world where the natural boundaries between human and machine, virtual and real, individual and community have become less perceptible and where digital intelligence is a key skill for the future of school and work. Looking at this rapidly changing scenery, this book focuses on the potential of digital tools to improve educational practices, with particular reference to AI, AR and 3D Virtual Environments. In this regard, it presents research activities, studies and school experiences and proposes hypotheses and prospects for future development. In the reported experiences, digital technologies that can be used for educational purposes cover a vast range with increasing complexity from simple e-learning platforms to mobile learning systems (that exploit the presence of smartphones in each student’s pocket), to 3D virtual worlds (experienced behind a computer screen or through a headset) up to examples of integration of AI. Equally broad is the age range of learners, from kindergarten to those in teacher training and so a wide range of educational methodologies and frameworks has been applied including co=operative learning, flipped learning, game-based learning, project/problem based learning, universal design for learning, intelligent tutoring, student-centered online learning, competency-based learning, documentation, storytelling and more.

THE CHALLENGES This handbook was made during the Covid-19 health emergency, which broke out when the project was just getting started. The pandemic, which is still ongoing, is creating considerable and unexpected difficulties in the various spheres and contexts of society. In particular, for schools and educational institutions, it still represents a situation full of educational challenges, sometimes even new and interesting, deriving from the need to implement teaching that has to be carried out remotely and thus cannot ignore the use of technology and digital skills. This condition of necessity has revived all over the world the debate on education assisted by technological tools including both the problems it entails and the advantages it can offer. The discussion considers all the didactic proposals that occur during student - teacher online interactions in virtual 

Preface

learning environments. Their aim is to enrich or reinforce (sometimes replace due to force majeure) the traditional offer, in order to respond effectively to the new challenges coming from the world of work and to implement remedial and support courses for traditional teaching in the classroom. The analysis of the actual consequences of such an impactful situation will engage scholars for years to come. In the meantime, our work has the purpose of contributing to the ongoing debate in the scientific community on these issues, with a particular integrated point of view based on the many experiences and studies reported by authors whose skills pertain to different areas of knowledge. We hope that, once this period of daily uncertainty is over, remote or hybrid teaching and learning will no longer be seen as the answer to an emergency, but instead as the natural evolution of the 21st century school system, in which physical and digital environments are conceived as complementary and synergistic.

SEARCHING FOR A SOLUTION Within the first group of book chapters (Chs. 1-11), dealing with the diverse and complex world of Technology-supported Education, some contributions address the issue of the pandemic emergency and its consequences on the methods and environments for teaching and learning, as their central theme. In particular, some of them investigate what changes, necessary in emergency times, can become permanent transformations, evaluating their effectiveness and durability in terms of innovation. Soon, face-to-face learning and distance learning will finally no longer be seen in opposition, but as two useful allies for schools to improve their teaching offer, to increase their organizational capacity and to cope with the difficulties of individual pupils, unable to participate in face-to-face teaching activities. There is no doubt, that during 2020 the term Remote Teaching (RT) became part of the daily language of students and teachers but also of the media and social networks, after the closure of the schools, due to the health emergency. This brought the theme of education to the center of society’s debate, in a way that has not happened for many years. Through RT, the school system has tried to convey the didactic activities that have become impossible face-to-face, but above all, it has tried to keep alive the feeling of class and school community and the sense of belonging, fighting the risk of isolation and demotivation that is so dangerous in youngsters. These important objectives were found to have positive experiences but also difficulties, because unexpectedly, teachers and students found themselves having to manage communication channels which they were not used to and which, regardless of their efforts, could never replace the atmosphere of a live class. To keep the interaction between teachers and students alive, Distance Learning immediately became Digital or even Hybrid Learning since digital tools became necessary for implementing videoconferences, group chats, transmission of teaching materials uploaded to digital platforms with directions for self-employment, such as reading books, watching films and documentaries, listening to music, using virtual scientific laboratories and apps with specific functions and features. As with any novelty that suddenly appeared there was no shortage of inconveniences, dissatisfactions, gaps, even accusations against Digital RT of impoverishing the teacher-student relationship, of disqualifying the teaching staff, of commodifying knowledge or even increasing the gap between students with different economic and social backgrounds (Blaskó & Sylke, 2020). Nevertheless, there was no lack of intuition, a desire to give it all, and positive surprises. In some cases with the most positive outcomes and in the best practices reported, for example, a renewed and reinforced collaboration between parents

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and teachers for the education of their children was seen, driven by collaboration and solidarity. Certainly the consequences of all this are still under investigation. It was a single prism that revealed different shades, those that distinguish the experiences of the protagonists of the school environment, where the interaction between teachers and students should be at the center. In the awareness that it is not technology that improves the school, but the teachers’ vision and their expertise and wisdom, the use of digital in best practices is based on teaching methodologies that promote active learning and development of skills, encourage students and contribute to the development of positive attitudes towards learning [Indire, 2020].The lesson learned after almost a year of experience is that the didactic choices that have proved successful in the long run are those that have avoided replicating the dynamics of the traditional classroom in such a different and difficult situation. Instead those that have creatively found a way to make teaching actively centered on the student, based on specific tasks to be carried out independently by investigating in the real world and then returning and discussing with classmates. Another rewarding choice is that of those who have found a way to create a collaboration between students even when they were each confined to their own home, exploiting for example the potential of specific but simple online tools such as shared whiteboards, real-time surveys, collaborative map generators or tools for content curation. A special mention in this panorama goes to three-dimensional virtual environments, although still not very widespread compared to other tools. However, they have been precious at this juncture for the sense of presence and proximity they make people feel while inside them, an aspect that remains their peculiar strength. It has been four years since the release of our previous work on teaching in Virtual Worlds (Panconesi & Guida, 2017). In the meantime, research in this field has continued and we can assume that today it is quite mature. We know by now that the peculiar characteristics of virtual reality (immersion, simulation, projection) place it within the panorama that sees technologies influence, support and improve teaching methodologies, enhancing training processes and helping to develop new learning methods. Some of the authors of the previous book, alongside the new ones, shared the progress of their research in this second handbook, focusing in particular on the use of VWs to meet the needs of students with specific needs or with particular syndromes, addressing the themes of individualization, risks from addiction, teaching disciplines, teacher training (Chs. 12-22). Virtual space, in its multiple structures, therefore constitutes a privileged context of manipulation and experimentation towards the search for new meanings. These aspects recall the concept of ‘multimodality’, used in reference to the multiple ways of communicating and expressing meanings with words, sounds, images and animations. As the visual richness of the latest technology spreads and the possibilities for interaction develop, a multimodal educational perspective takes on increasing relevance. The digital animation space can become the place in which to connect both the instances of creativity and expressiveness as well as those of design and experimentation. Languages ​​thus become tools in which the contaminations between thought and action, between intentionality and realization are built. It is precisely in the creation and production of tangible and intangible artifacts that each person can experience concrete models of simulation as forms of expression that educate not only to cognitive and socio-relational knowledge, but also to an aesthetic of knowing. Knowledge, therefore, in its visual, tactile, auditory, spatial, kinetic, metaphorical and playful expressions, becomes an ordered form of knowledge, a training ground for multiple cultural connections. Moreover, immersive environments allow the simulation of contexts and real situations and a “physical” and not just textual interaction between users. Consequently they give a chance to renew profoundly assessment practices, building authentic evidence where students put in play xxix

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different skills and competences, compared with tests based on text, quizzes, or even the production of artifacts (Bronack et al., 2006; Cobb & Fraser, 2005; De Freitas & Oliver, 2006). L a s t l y, C h a p t e r s 2 3 t o 2 9 d e a l w i t h t h e t o p i c o f A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e ( A I ) a n d i t s i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o e d u c a t i o n f o r s e v e r a l p u r p o s e s . AI is commonly defined as the ability of a machine to show reasoning, learning, planning and creativity that have been considered so far as human characteristics. It allows systems to understand their environment, relate to what they perceive, solve problems and act towards a specific goal. AI systems are also able to adapt their behavior by analyzing the effects of previous actions and working independently (Machine Learning). Some types of AI have been around for more than 50 years, but advances in computer power, the availability of huge amounts of data, and the development of new algorithms have led to great leaps in technology in recent years. In fact, AI is already present in countless applications: Software: virtual assistants, image analysis, search engines, facial and voice recognition systems. ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦

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Embedded intelligence: robots, autonomous vehicles, drones, the Internet of things. Online shopping and advertising: AI is widely used to provide advice based, for example, on previous purchases, searches and other behaviors recorded online and it is widely used in the retail trade, to optimize inventories and organize supplies and logistics. Online searches: Search engines learn from a large amount of data, provided by users, to deliver relevant search results using AI algorithms. Personal digital assistants: mobile phones use AI to offer a product that is as personalized as possible, with virtual assistants who answer user questions, provide suggestions and help organize the agenda of smartphone owners. Automatic translation: automatic translation software, based on audio or written texts, uses AI to provide and improve translations or produce automatic video subtitles. Smart homes, cities and infrastructures: smart thermostats learn our behaviors to optimize energy and AI can be used in cities to improve traffic and reduce traffic jams. Vehicles: although self-driving cars are still not very widespread, cars already have some safety functions that use AI, such as sensors that detect possible dangerous situations and prevent accidents. Cyber ​​security: AI systems can help recognize and combat cyber-attacks and threats, learning from the continuous flow of data, recognizing trends, and reconstructing how previous attacks occurred. Fight against disinformation: there are AI applications that are able to identify Fake News and disinformation, analyzing the contents of Social Media, identifying suspicious words and expressions because they are sensationalistic or alarming and can thus help us understand which sources are more authoritative than others are. Health: AI is used to analyze large amounts of medical data and discover matches and patterns to improve diagnosis and prevention, developing multilingual text search tools that make it easier to find the most relevant medical information available, but also to respond to emergency calls by recognizing cardiac arrest faster than a human operator does. Transport: AI can improve the safety, speed and efficiency of rail traffic thanks to the use of autonomous driving.

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Factories: it helps manufacturers to be more efficient with the use of robots and can be used to plan sales channels or maintenance and with the use of collaborative systems and AR to increase worker satisfaction in smart factories. Agricultural and food supply chain: AI can be used to build a sustainable food system to minimize the use of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation, promoting productivity and reducing environmental impact, helping to produce healthier food or to remove weeds, thus reducing the use of herbicides, up to monitoring the movements, temperature and feeding of livestock. Public administration and services: using the data to develop models, the AI ​​can provide an alert system for natural disasters, recognizing the first signs based on experience and thus allowing preventing and preparing the response to future disasters.

AI is therefore central to the digital transformation of society, and future applications could bring further great changes. Nevertheless, AI is already present in our everyday life without us realizing it, for example in the fight against Covid19, where it is used for temperature checks in public places, to recognize infections from CT images of the lungs and also to provide data on the progression of the epidemic. AI also pushes us to rethink education, its roles, contents and traditional methods, because new technical and transverse skills are gaining importance for today’s students, both in the labor market and as a means to fully participate in society as citizens of the world (Pedrò, 2020). At the same time, adults themselves need retraining and up-skilling opportunities to enable them to face the challenges of tomorrow. However, there are considerable concerns about the use of AI in education. On one hand it can help teachers to stimulate students’ interests and strengths but on the other hand it could consolidate the global trend towards a standardized and adaptive learning, meaning detecting what exactly students know, with the risk of paying no attention to what the students themselves want to know or how they learn best. It is undeniable that the role of education in society is crucial and that it must be rethought to adapt to today’s rapid changes. First, only education can train a skilled workforce prepared for future jobs and an evolving labor market. Therefore, rethinking education in the digital age is a prerequisite for future global competitiveness. Secondly, only education can provide the conditions for social inclusion and equal participation in global society in order to be citizens in a digitized democracy. Therefore, renewing education is equivalent to safeguarding global values such as equality, democracy and law. Rethinking education in the digital age should therefore become a central issue for all political and institutional leaders.

TARGET OF THE BOOK This book is mainly aimed at teachers and school professionals of all levels meaning teachers across all disciplines and in higher education and K-12, school administrators, principals, instructional designers, librarians, media specialists, educational software developers, educational technologists, IT specialists, practitioners, researchers, academicians, and students interested in the current status of technology in the classroom and its potential role in education for the years ahead. It offers useful insights to pedagogists, psychologists, educators and equally to those parents who want to learn more about didactic and educational strategies implemented nowadays and provides an understanding on how technology is integrated into today’s classroom. xxxi

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A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMPORTANCE OF EACH OF THE CHAPTERS The book is organized into 29 chapters. A brief description of each of the chapters follows.

Section 1: Educational Approaches to Distance Learning Chapter 1 considers charges and impacts at the K-12, CTE, and post-secondary level - with on-site, remote, and hybrid learning models - during the COVID-19 pandemic. Anticipated trends in post-pandemic education include an increased need for personalized learning, continued growth in remote learning, virtual learning, and online content and resources and increased demand for career and technical education. Consideration is also given to the post-pandemic implications for immersive learning technology. Chapter 2 addresses the experiences of instructional designers in a 3D virtual learning environment aimed at the development of cultural competence. Through examples and data, obtained through Designbased research (DBR) and user experience (UX) methodologies, the chapter emphasizes the necessity for instructional designers to keep in mind the challenge of cultural diversity in the backgrounds of students and their own, and bring guidelines and principles into culturally sensitive and responsive instructional design processes. Chapter 3 analyzes the emerging practices resulting from pedagogical innovation, with Digital Intelligence, a concept that is gaining importance in all sectors of our society. In the field of innovation scenarios in online education, the author highlights the need of a balance between maintaining certain traditional aspects that have been the richness of teaching for centuries and harnessing the new possibilities offered by Digital Intelligence in education. Chapter 4 presents a cognitive analysis of virtual learning experiences based on engaging interactions and collaborative work in graduate programs. Ten virtual learning environments are sampled to analyze cognitive processes for the learners to enhance four main business skills: leadership, entrepreneurship, sustainability, and problem solving. The results of this study recommend the implementation of activities in which learners investigate and respond to an authentic, engaging and complex problem or challenge through collaborative work. Chapter 5 describes how the Croatian Ministry of Science and Education organized support for the education system during the COVID-19 pandemic, building up on education reform and using the Mentoring teams as the main resource for learning content creation and teachers’ support network in the online environment for learning, communication and collaboration. The chapter provides information from the teacher’s perspective giving ideas, and examples that can be used in future professional development and collaborative teamwork. Chapter 6 examines the phenomenon of school closure and emergency distance teaching in winter 2020, when Coronavirus silently spread from a Chinese metropolis globally. The author considers the case of an Italian upper secondary school and applies the rules of gamification as a key to understanding the process and the interconnections of all the agents that played a role. The aim is to analyze not only the technical transformations with their consequences on teaching practices, but also the emotional impact the pandemic had on teachers and pupils. Chapter 7 aims to provide an exploration of phenomena related to the use of technology supported programs in the education field, with a specific focus on virtual worlds. A literature analysis is provided in a psycho-sociological perspective with a psychoanalytic approach, in order to explore the relationship among virtual worlds and internet addiction. The hypothesis focuses on technology use as deeply marked xxxii

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by emotional approaches, determined by local cultures, which are shared among people participating in a specific context. It is possible to face specific issues, which afflict school professionals, students and families, by analyzing emotional symbolizations they share. Chapter 8 develops a one-stop checklist that assists educators in providing online teaching grounded in the principles of culturally responsive pedagogy (CRP), Universal Design for Learning (UDL), ubiquitous learning (u-learning), and seamless learning. The authors explore how these paradigms inform the intentional design of learner-centered approaches in online learning environments and what an integrated approach could look like. Chapter 9 provides a bio-educational approach to virtual learning environments, building on the possibilities offered by the VLE such as programming environmental challenges and complexity. This opens up a series of educational perspectives that support individual differences. Programming through adequate representations of environments, situations, problems and specific actions allows us to work on more complex neuronal patterns usually activated in the presence of real objects, especially in light of the current structures present in formal contexts of education. Chapter 10 reports on an experience of journalism and communication at school. We live in a period in which information is too often transformed into communication of products or services, the author states, rather than carrying out its primary function of spreading knowledge and awareness. A journalism workshop helps school education in the crucial role of forming critical citizens. Chapter 11 is aimed at determining and comparing the presence and usability levels of primary school students participating in VR environments with different immersion characteristics (immersive and non-immersive). The results are considered to be useful to educators, researchers, and instructional designers who want to integrate VR technology into their educational environments.

Section 2: A Multi-Modal Educational Perspective and Virtual Reality Chapter 12 reports and discusses data from two online language teacher training courses aimed at providing participants with the skills to create and use games in 3D immersive environments, following a two-year project which explored how game-based learning and virtual learning environments can be used as digital tools to develop collaborative and creative learning environments. The first course was selfdirected and the second was moderated by facilitators. The chapter provides recommendations about the technical and pedagogical support required to develop immersive worlds and games for language learning. Chapter 13 describes the experience of an Erasmus project held in Minecraft and states that Virtual Worlds offer alternative learning environments for geoscience education because they are immersive environments that enable situational learning and constructivist learning, since the learner is inside an “imaginary” world context. In this environment, activities can be designed using different methodologies like scaffolding, co-operative learning, peer to peer and peer evaluation, coaching and scientific inquiry. Therefore, VWs can motivate students and provide the educational opportunities to learn in a socially interactive learning community. Chapter 14 proposes learning activities for K6-K12 students in Techland, a virtual world developed with the aim of applying scientific concepts to a challenge that our society faces today: climate change, exploitation of raw materials, pollution/remediation and green energy. An interdisciplinary perspective has been adopted to treat environmental themes using an Inquiry-Based Learning methodology (IBL) adapted to virtual worlds, and activities based on collaborative building, storytelling (machinima videos) and gamification. xxxiii

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Chapter 15 reports on the experience of the “Escape Room at Edu3D” project, developed within the Craft World, by the Edu3D open source learning community, which has long been devoted to teaching innovation in the virtual environment, thanks to the collaboration of experts, technicians and volunteer teachers passionate about digital architecture. The project has led to a rethinking of the escape rooms that have thus shown to have an educational potential rather than just being involved in role-playing games. Chapter 16 aims to help the reader understand the process of development and application of virtual worlds and augmented reality in education, in order to discuss the inherent difficulties, practicalities, advantages, challenges and trends and the use of resources in these applications. Thus, this chapter aims to present the importance of reflecting on this context, seeking to show how each of these technologies has been applied in the educational field, being based on reports of empirical and academic experiences of the authors and other researchers. Chapter 17 starts with the observation that over the years the virtual space has been changing, the skills acquired by users have improved and the avatars, as well as the settings, have graphically become more and more sophisticated. The author then analyzes the avatar animations present in Second Life trying to trace a socio-psychological picture of the non-verbal communication process in virtual environments. Chapter 18 investigates the potential of the virtual world to support the development of social skills and learning of children with special needs (CSN). A virtual world could be integrated into different learning contexts to provide a safe, friendly, and supportive multiuser learning environment for CSN. The objective of this chapter is to explore how educators can leverage shared interests of CSN in the virtual world to facilitate their social interaction and how educator and technology support can be used to guide this learning process of CSN. Chapter 19 starts from the analysis of the typical difficulties of the condition of Autism Spectrum Syndrome and the literature relating to the effectiveness of the use of virtual worlds. Then it presents the design and implementation of social stories within a 3D social virtual world namely edMondo. The environment was used for the second phase of a pilot of a research project about the development of social abilities in children with ASD and involves the use of social scenarios thanks to interaction with a robot avatar. Chapter 20 explores both the technical and the oft-ignored social affordances of virtual world learning groups. Drawing from the literature and over a decade of experience with learning communities in Linden Lab’s Second Life, the author uses ethnographic data gleaned from participant observation in two very different learning groups to develop a basic taxonomy of technical and social affordances in avatar-based multi-user online environments for a clearer understanding of both the possible benefits and the drawbacks of hosting learning communities in this environment. Chapter 21 shows how a proactive use of Virtual Worlds can be an effective method for educational purposes since within them it is possible to build a cooperative group environment in which to experiment learn and exchange knowledge equally among all the participants. As predicted by philosophers and sociologists in the 1980s, a culture of “prosumers” has been developed so this is the time to teach “digital creativity”. Chapter 22 discusses authors’ experience at Duke University (NC) and, more specifically, at the Dig@ Lab, a core research unit in the Department of Art, Art History and Visual Studies. This community of scholars and students represents a new branch of experimental teaching in digital humanities with the participation of students and faculty from the humanities, engineering, computer science, neuroscience and visual media. In particular, the Dig@Lab studies the impact of virtual reality in cyber-archaeology and virtual museums. xxxiv

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Section 3: Artificial Intelligence and Its Potential for the Improvement of Society Chapter 23 describes the research problems inherent in the design of effective Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) based on cognitive neuroscience research (brain-based approach) and evidence-based education. AI-based tutors have great potential in constantly adapting teaching content and tactics to the changing cognitive needs of the individual student in order to foster deep understanding, increase motivation and develop a sense of self-efficacy in the learner. Chapter 24 considers that AI has recently made a big leap, especially in the field of ANI (Artificial Narrowed Intelligence), meaning that now we are starting to have decent tools that can be useful in teaching. The author tries to delve into the difficulties of using affordable techniques for generating valid synthetic information such as rating homework or understanding if students are correctly following distant lessons. Since this is still a subject very early in its development, much more study and tests must be done to understand the full usability of automated AI tools in education. Chapter 25 starts with a discussion on the state of research on AI-innovated Educational Management Information Systems (EMIS), apps, and learning assessments and how they can offer opportunities to differentiate and individualize learning, to diagnose factors of exclusion in education, and predict dropout, dyslexia, or autism disorder. Then it presents examples of AI supported tools and discusses how they can scaffold executive functions for inclusion. It also urges a future-oriented vision regarding AI and the re-thinking of the role of education in society. Chapter 26 speculates that the next generation of intelligent learning environments incorporates the immersion of learners within virtual worlds while still offering the educational affordances and benefits of the online environment as a teaching medium. The current implementation of the Smart Learning Space (SLS) brings together a number of previous initiatives that integrated AI within Virtual Learning Environments as well as the employment of Virtual World as learning environments. Chapter 27 exploits understanding AI and how AI works in daily life and offers teaching methodologies to explain how AI works to K-12 learning environments. Literacy in AI/computer science, author states, will become a major issue in the future. Therefore, educational institutions should prepare the next generation with artificial intelligence literacy and the underlying concepts including algorithms, big data and coding. Chapter 28 focuses on the role computers and AI could play for future education in our modern society of knowledge and globalization. Nowadays formal education faces the great challenge of preparing students for the forthcoming era of a new but not yet well-known industrial revolution. It is unlikely that “clever” AI machines will replace teachers in the future, as they will never be able to achieve the quality and independence of human thought. However, it is certain that the role of the teacher will dramatically change in future classrooms. Chapter 29 examined the possible impact of Artificial Education Intelligence (AIEd), as one of the emerging technological fields in higher education with reference to India. It provides a systematic review of AI applications research in Education. Starting from awareness that the use of technology in education and learning has undergone a remarkable transformation, the study aims to contribute to ensure quality in Higher Education.

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CONCLUSION Reading the contributions collected in this publication, which refer to real experiences and report methodological indications and reflections on models and digital tools that come from educational research, it is clear that the “digital school” is not ‘just’ another school. The state of emergency, brought on by the Covid-19 pandemic, which since the first months of 2020 has overturned any certainty that the Society had laboriously and contradictorily achieved in recent decades, has finally ignited the spark to initiate a broad discussion on the value and risks of distance learning. Students from every country in the world have been unable to benefit from face-to-face teaching during this past year, and in all likelihood, they will have to remain in a similar situation for many months to come. A considerable amount of hours of involvement in significant learning has been lost, along with many occasions and opportunities for making relationships, but this does not at all mean that students are suffering irreversible damage to the development of their ability to process learning, to grow as aware citizens and to acquire skills. Distance teaching, however, if used more often than just sporadically and in a limited span of time, is a solution that entails the risk of depriving students of fundamental and indispensable elements such as physical relationships, hospitality, sociability and debate. It can create an educational gap and cognitive regression, as expected and already documented by the monitoring carried out at European level (Education and Training Monitor, 2020), as well as in some non-European countries. In this emergency period, teaching in front of a screen means teachers not having to retreat in the face of this challenge, able to adapt to this new reality, testifying that education does not take place under the protective wing of an ideal, but thanks to the ability to understand the present, making use of the tools and techniques that are available. We thus witnessed a lesson within the lesson, a demonstration of the ability to adapt to reality, able to encourage children to not complain for opportunities unjustly taken from them, perhaps even teach them a positive outlook for other aspects of their life. After all, in life, Seneca’s words always carry a deep meaning: “There is a time to understand, a time to choose, another to decide. There is a time that we have lived, another that we have lost and a time that awaits us.” Gianni Panconesi Esplica, Italy Maria Guida National Institute for Documentation, Innovation, and Educational Research, Italy

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REFERENCES Blaskó, Z., & Sylke, S. (2020). Educational inequalities in Europe and physical school closures during Covid-19. Technical report, European Commission. https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/research/crosscuttingactivities/fairness Bronack, S., Cheney, A., Riedl, R., & Tashner, J. (2008). Designing virtual worlds to facilitate meaningful communication: Issues, considerations, and lessons learned. Technical Communication (Washington), 55, 261–269. Cobb, S., & Stanton Fraser, D. (2005). Multimedia Learning in Virtual Reality. In The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (pp. 525–549). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511816819.033 De Freitas, S., & Oliver, M. (2006). How can exploratory learning with games and simulations within the curriculum be most effectively evaluated? Computers & Education, 46(3), 249–264. doi:10.1016/j. compedu.2005.11.007 INDIRE - Istituto Nazionale di Documentazione. Innovazione e Ricerca Educativa. (2020). Pratiche didattiche durante il lockdown. Report 2 [Teaching Practices During Lockdown. Report 2]. https://www. indire.it/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Pratiche-didattiche-durante-il-lockdown-Report-2.pdf Panconesi, G., & Guida, M. (Eds.). (2017). Handbook of Research on Collaborative Teaching Practice in Virtual Learning Environments. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-2426-7 Pedró F. (2020). Applications of Artificial Intelligence to higher education: possibilities, evidence, and challenges. IULResearch Open Journal, 1(1), 62 – 67.

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Acknowledgment

This publication is dedicated to students of every country and of every level, with the hope that their teachers will be able to improve their motivation to learn by reading these pages. Encouraging exploration, experimentation and critical learning means letting students manage their own time and study methods autonomously, obviously keeping some fixed didactic goals that everyone must achieve, but always bearing in mind personalized teaching and learning. Applying the concepts learned to concrete problems and solve them through cooperation with their peers, also through written activities and the exchange of feedback, is a significant and effective way to develop operational skills, to exercise the spirit of initiative, to consolidate capacity to communicate, reinforce students’ sense of responsibility and enhance their personal creativity, respecting social and cultural diversity of all. Beyond the acknowledgments to the individual authors, reviewers and translators who have contributed with their enthusiasm and professional skills to the implementation of this work, we want to emphasize that this project comes to light thanks to a cornerstone which is the first human value and which lies in the process of Curiosity, Search and Discovery. This value inspired all the contributors of the book. We are also grateful to Dr. Steven Kirby for accompanying us on this editorial journey by providing support and inspiration, thanks to his expertise and knowledge in Education. His helpful feedback has enabled us to make this book a valuable contribution to readers. Finally, we want to thank in a special way the IGI Global team who have always supported us by trusting our content and never imposed any limits, except for the quality of our book, which would not have been published without their precious contribution. Gianni Panconesi Esplica, Italy Maria Guida National Institute for Documentation, Innovation, and Educational Research, Italy

 

Section 1

Educational Approaches to Distance Learning

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Pandemic and PostPandemic Use of Immersive Learning Technology Julie Willcott zSpace, USA

ABSTRACT Immersive learning technology has the potential to increase student engagement and learning. With the onset of the pandemic in March of 2020, the delivery of education changed, and the use of immersive learning technology was impacted. This chapter considers charges and impacts at the K-12, CTE, and post-secondary level—with on-site, remote, and hybrid learning models—during the COVID-19 pandemic. Anticipated trends in education post-pandemic include an increased need for personalized learning; continued growth in remote learning, virtual learning, and online content and resources and increased demand for career and technical education. Consideration is also given to the implications for immersive learning technology post-pandemic. Specific consideration is given throughout the chapter to the use of zSpace in the United States.

INTRODUCTION Immersive learning involves the use of digital technology to provide the learner with an experience of being immersed in an artificial environment. Immersive learning can include augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), mixed reality (MR), extended or cross reality (XR), and 360-degree content. Since immersive learning technology is an evolving technology, the terminology associated with it has been changing and will continue to change over time. To develop an understanding of immersive learning, it is important to know what it might be composed of in the educational field. Virtual reality (VR) refers to a computer-generated simulation in which a person can interact with 3D objects. VR use developed in industries outside of education including medicine, manufacturing, and DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch001

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 Pandemic and Post-Pandemic Use of Immersive Learning Technology

defense. In education, VR is often accessed through the use of a headset, which may include a mobile device or may be free-standing. Augmented reality (AR) refers to technology that allows a person to interact with virtual objects overlaid on real-time images. AR has gained popularity in recent years both with the public and in education through the widespread availability of mobile devices and applications with built-in capabilities. There has been some limited adoption of AR within education. Mixed reality (MR) refers to technologies that feature elements of both augmented and virtual reality. The use of this term is declining; immersive environments that combine elements of real and virtual environments are more frequently referred to as extended reality (XR). This is also known as cross reality. In addition to including VR and AR, immersive learning technology can include 360-degree content. 360-degree content provides an audiovisual environment that surrounds the user, allowing them to look around in all directions, just as they can in real life. With 360-content, the user can only look at objects, not interact with them. Like VR, 360-degree content is often accessed through the use of a headset. Some educational applications replicate the 360-degree experience on a flat screen. While immersive learning technology remains an emerging field, several reviews have been published on the use and effectiveness of VR and AR in education (Bacca et al., 2014; Martín-Gutiérrez et al., 2017). Based on these reviews, there are opportunities for teaching in virtual environments that are impossible to visualize in physical classrooms, including accessing virtual laboratories and visualizing machines, industrial plants, and medical scenarios. AR was shown to be an effective educational tool with the main advantages of learning gains, motivation, interaction, and collaboration. Augmented reality has been shown to increase attention, satisfaction, and confidence factors of student motivation (Khan et al., 2019). Educators have focused on using immersive learning to address the four “C”s of learning: critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity (Castelo, 2020). Jeremy Bailenson, founding director of Stanford University’s Virtual Human Interaction Lab, has created the acronym DICE to determine whether VR is the appropriate technology to be used in a learning environment. DICE stands for Dangerous, Impossible, Counterproductive, or Expensive and rare (Bailenson, 2018). zSpace has developed VR/AT—in other words, XR—hardware and software designed for use in an educational setting. Students interact with 3D models in zSpace through the use of tracking glasses and a hand-held stylus associated with a desktop and laptop computer (as opposed to a headset). zSpace includes a range of applications to address educational needs for K-12, post-secondary, and career and technical (CTE) education. Learning is supported through guided content accessible to the student. Teaching is supported through educational resources such as activity plans and curriculum alignment provided by zSpace.

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Figure 1. zSpace in a lab setting pre-pandemic. Pictured is the zSpace AIO desktop.

Figure 2. zSpace in a remote learning setting post-pandemic. Pictured is the zSpace laptop.

zSpace content includes applications, activities, and experiences. Applications include zSpace applications and third-party applications. Table 1. zSpace Applications and Descriptions zSpace Applications

Descriptions

zSpace Studio

Compare, dissect, analyze, measure, and annotate thousands of 3D models

Curie’s Elements

Explore the periodic table of elements

Euclid’s Shapes

Solve problems using virtual math manipulatives

Franklin’s Lab

Explore electricity through simulations

Newton’s Park

Explore force and motion through simulations

zSpace Experiences

Learn through experiential-based simulations of Earth, space, life, and physical science topics

Third-party applications include those developed by Certify-ED, Echopixel, Fun2, GTAFE, Labster, Leopoly, MEL Science, Mimbus, Nirtec, Visible Body, VIVED Learning, and Vizitech USA. In addition, zSpace users have access to 3D content using Autodesk Tinkercad, BlocksCAD, and GeoGebra. Content covered by these third-party applications includes advanced manufacturing, anatomy, automotive repair, biotech, carpentry, chemistry, construction, criminal justice, industrial logistics, robotics, and welding. Activities are written to include key terms, essential questions, learning objectives, an introduction, a conclusion, and differentiation in addition to the actual zSpace activity. Activities include associated

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question documents in digital and analog format for students. Teachers have access to standards associated with the activities and sample answers for the activities. Activities are available to cover a range of grade levels and a diversity of content areas in zSpace applications. A limited number of activities are available for third-party applications. Most of the third-party applications include guided content to facilitate assigning student work. Experiences include topics as diverse as beach and river erosion; motion and collisions; plant and animal structure and function; the water cycle; motion of the Earth’s plates; the solar system; sea and land breezes; and human response to the flu. Most experiences include a guided version and an exploratory version to expand the range of grade levels and content areas that the experiences can be incorporated with. Several studies have been conducted on the impact of the use of zSpace within educational settings. These studies have identified increased student motivation and interest (Templeton, 2019), promotion of collaborative work/learning opportunities (Shibataat et al., 2018; Templeton, 2019), and a need for a greater understanding of the role virtual presence plays in understanding cognitive development when using emergent VR technologies in the K–12 science classroom (Hite et al., 2018). All these studies were conducted pre-pandemic but provide touchstones for implementation of zSpace within the confines of the current teaching/learning environment. This chapter will consider the use of immersive learning technology in the classroom during the COVID-19 pandemic and post-pandemic. Specific consideration will be given to the use of zSpace, an immersive hardware/software combination, in the United States of America.

BACKGROUND In the United States of America, as in much of the world, on-site classrooms were closed beginning in March of 2020 due to the outbreak of COVID-19. Education was provided through remote learning. This should be considered to be emergency remote learning; very few schools had developed a plan pre-pandemic for what remote learning might consist of. While school closures and emergency remote learning were a common experience across the country, specific decisions were placed in the hands of individual districts or schools. There was no coordinated approach to providing education at the K-12 or post-secondary level. The likely duration and extent of the pandemic were not fully recognized during the spring of 2020. Thus, planning for and implementation of education in the spring semester were relatively short-term in nature. At the K-12 level, emphasis for the remainder of the 2019-20 academic year was largely placed on review/retention of existing knowledge and, in some cases, enrichment activities. While there was a focus on addressing the needs of all students, existing inequities in education, including access to technology, were enlarged (Reich et al., 2020). Content was provided to students through a variety of methods. Some schools relied on printed packets to deliver content while others implemented digital learning experiences. When the technology was available, videoconferencing became a primary method for recreating a classroom experience digitally. Many schools initially established an expectation that students would follow the established classroom schedule while engaged in virtual learning. In most cases, it was determined that this was not sustainable for the remainder of the semester. Therefore, for most schools, emergency remote learning included a daily check-up, potentially including delivery of a lesson, with follow-up work for the student to complete at home.

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With the beginning of the 2020-21 academic year, students returned to school with a renewed emphasis on learning new content. For K-12 students, the learning experience involved a number of options including fully on-site learning, fully remote learning, and a hybrid of on-site and remote learning. In K-12 schools with fully on-site learning, students returned to the classroom with safety precautions in place. These precautions included physical barriers such as plexiglass dividers and distanced desks as well as changes in class size and schedules. In K-12 schools with fully remote learning, students remained outside the classroom and participated in synchronous and/or asynchronous learning. Synchronous learning varied from quick check-ins with longer follow-up assignments to day-long virtual replications of the classroom experience. Asynchronous learning included videotaped lessons and other digital content prepared to support student learning. K-12 schools with a hybrid of on-site and remote learning included schools where students opted in to one model or the other and other schools where students were expected to be on-site at defined times and remote at other defined times. For teachers at the K-12 level, the teaching experience also involved a number of options including teaching fully on-site, teaching fully remotely, and teaching both on-site and remotely. Fully on-site teaching at the K-12 level usually included modifications made to the classroom environment to address a need for physical distancing, to the daily and weekly schedule to minimize the number of individuals a person was coming to contact with, and to the class size. Fully remote teaching at the K-12 level included a range of expectations, from schools where teachers could not be on-site to schools where teachers were required to be on-site. Teachers also experienced differences in their ability to access and use classroom supplies. This often meant that teachers were more likely to demonstrate concepts rather than provide the opportunity for students to directly experience these concepts. Often, on-site and remote K-12 teaching occurred at the same time. However, there were schools where teachers taught the same students on-site at some times and remotely at others. Additionally, there were schools where teachers were designated as either on-site teachers or remote teachers. It should be noted that tracking cameras were implemented in many classrooms to accommodate delivery of the class experience to students who were not on site. For both students and teachers at the K-12 level, the mode of learning and teaching could change, often on short notice. These changes variously affected individual students and teachers, small groups of impacted students and teachers, and entire schools. They were made in response to the presence of individuals who were diagnosed with COVID-19 symptoms, who had tested positive for COVID-19, and who had been in contact with individuals with a diagnosis or positive test for COVID-19. In addition, these changes could occur due to rates of COVID-19 infection within the community where the students resided. Public education in the United States includes career and technical education (CTE). Career and technical education is organized along pathways of learning that relate to high-demand careers such as health science, manufacturing, logistics, information technology, and agriculture. Career and technical education focuses on teaching specific career skills to students—with an emphasis on hands-on practice. These programs can be embedded within K-12 schools (mainly at the high school level) or can be taught within regional schools with a dedicated CTE focus. Career and technical education programs are also offered at the post-secondary level, most commonly in community colleges. During the spring of 2020, the curriculum and requirements for course completion in CTE programs were adjusted to accommodate for the lack of on-site education. Most students were able to complete 5

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programs as anticipated, partially due to the fact that much of the coursework had been completed prior to the onset of COVID-19 and with the expectation that this was a situation of limited duration. In planning for a return to school in the fall of 2020, there were unique challenges to providing the hands-on practices of CTE as well as addressing some increased interest in career preparation with shifts in the economy. Educational leaders needed to find ways to address these challenges within the constraints of limited, or nonexistent, on-site teaching. In addition, it became apparent that the duration of COVID-19 would be longer than initially anticipated. Post-secondary education in the United States includes technical and community colleges, which offer certification programs as well as degree programs, and four-year colleges and universities. At the post-secondary level, colleges and universities closed during the spring 2020 semester and, for the most part, reopened for the fall 2020 semester. Accommodations were made to allow for the completion of the spring 2020 semester. These included shortening the length of the semester, increasing the amount of remote delivery of content, and, in limited cases, delaying course completion to the fall 2020 semester. With the fall 2020 semester, there has been a dramatic shift to online courses, adjustments to the semester timing and length to minimize COVID-19 exposure within the population, and considerable COVID-19 testing on campuses. Among schools with resident populations—that is, most post-secondary schools—considerable time and effort were invested by the school leadership on residential health and safety. Faculty, while supported in their efforts to transition to more on-line learning, often worked independently to decide what that learning experience might look like. Obviously, the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic presented numerous challenges for both teachers and learners. The following sections of this chapter will consider the implications of these challenges for the use of immersive learning technology within educational institutions in the United States of America.

USE OF IMMERSIVE LEARNING TECHNOLOGY Pre-COVID-19 Use Immersive learning technology in the classroom has often been seen as a supplement to a traditional learning experience, fostered by enthusiastic teachers, instructional technology (IT) staff, or educational leaders. Its use has often been restricted to specific content areas or academic programs where a unique opportunity has been identified. As noted in the introduction, immersive learning technology has included a number of different devices and tools used to address the learning goals of different curriculum areas. Use of zSpace as an immersive learning technology in the K-12 classroomprac prior to March of 2020 mainly included “labs,” stations, and mobile carts. “Labs” provide a dedicated space for a number of zSpace devices sufficient for the typical number of students in a class; teachers sign up to use the lab setting for learners at a specified time. Stations include a smaller number of zSpaces integrated into a classroom for use by a sub-set of students on a rotational basis. Mobile carts provided a number of zSpace laptop devices sufficient for the typical number of students in a class; mobile carts could be moved between classrooms on an “as needed” basis. In addition, zSpace devices were located in libraries and innovation or maker spaces. zSpace provides K-12 content for use in STEAM learning with a focus on science. Content areas addressed by applications, activities, and experiences on zSpace include arts, Earth and space science, English language arts, geography, history and social science, life science, mathematics, and physical 6

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science. For high school students, zSpace provides content specifically for anatomy and physiology, biology, chemistry, and physics. For all grade levels, teachers can choose lessons with content targeted to local standards. In addition, teachers can modify existing content and create their own content. With zSpaces, students tend to work independently or in pairs on assignments provided by teachers. Assignments range from guided to exploratory in nature. Demonstration of understanding includes completion of questions embedded within the software, preparation of video recordings, and development of presentations or reports. zSpaces can also be used to present content, either through projectors or using interactive flat panels. This allows content to be displayed and explained in a whole-class learning experience. Figure 3. Use of zSpace projection capabilities

Use of zSpace as an immersive learning technology within CTE was limited prior to the spring semester of 2020 and most often consisted of learning stations within the classrooms for specific pathway programs. zSpaces were used to introduce or reinforce content, often in conjunction with hands-on practice of that content. Content offered focused on the health occupations, automotive programs, and welding programs. Content under development at that time included industrial robotics and mechanics. Within post-secondary institutions, zSpace use often included learning stations with a varying number of devices that could be accessed by students outside of class time. Students used the zSpaces to complete assigned work, to increase their competency with specific content, and to address content-specific deficiencies. In addition, zSpaces were located in libraries and innovation spaces and, in some cases, located within classrooms for use during lectures to enhance student understanding. Post-secondary content was most often used in science and medicine-related programs including anatomy and physiology, biology, chemistry, and physics. There has been some limited interest in using zSpace within teacher education programs—to prepare students for the use of technology in the classrooms that they might be teaching in.

Immediate Post-COVID-19 Use (Spring 2020) Problems that resulted from the abrupt shift to emergency remote learning during the spring semester of 2020 included students with no computers or Internet access and teachers who had no experience with remote learning (Hobbs and Hawkins, 2020). Schools needed to provide 1-to-1 devices to students if they did not already provide these and to ensure that students had access to the Internet. This was not an insignificant task and required significant expenditures of school funds and staff time. It also meant that not all schools were able to provide the necessary technology and infrastructure needed for students

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to learn digitally in the spring semester of 2020. There were also schools that opted to limit technology requirements in order to address the inequities in technology access that existed. Use of immersive learning technology was severely limited as students no longer had access to the devices, which were located within the closed school buildings. There were no plans in place for use of immersive learning technology outside of the classroom. Use of zSpaces during the spring semester of 2020 was similarly impacted. Within the buildings, school districts focused on taking measures to address safety considerations, primarily modifying infrastructure to support physical distancing and establishing sanitation protocols. During this period, federal funding was made available to K-12 and post-secondary schools through the Coronavirus Aid, Relief and Economic Security (CARES) Act. This funding covered a wide range of expenditures including purchasing educational technology and training teachers in the use of this technology. Individual states played a key role in determining how this funding was spent at the K-12 level. Funding was provided directly to higher education institutions to support the costs of shifting classes online. Again, there was no coordinated effort at the national level as to how these funds were expended as long as they met the intent of the funding. At the beginning of the fall semester, only a very small amount of the CARES funding for education had been spent. There are a number of factors that might have contributed to this in addition to the need to address health and safety concerns. These factors include supply chain issues for needed products, specifically the very limited availability of affordable computers for distribution to the students. It should be noted that CARES funds must be spent by September 2021. It is anticipated that during the spring of 2021, when school budgets are normally developed for the following academic year, school leaders may look to purchase additional technology, including immersive learning technology. It should also be noted that the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act of 2006 makes federal funding available to states on an on-going basis. The purpose of this funding is to assist school districts and public two-year colleges in improving secondary and postsecondary-level career and technical education programs to more fully develop the academic, career, and technical skills of students who elect to enroll in these programs. Carl Perkins funding allows for expenditures on computer equipment, instructional materials, curriculum development, and training/meetings/conferences. These funds can be used to purchase and train teachers on the use of immersive learning technology.

Longer-Term Post-COVID-19 Use (Fall 2020) With the return to school in the fall of 2020, there was the opportunity, albeit limited, to plan for the fall semester. It should be noted that one characteristic of the pandemic is uncertainty, both about its extent and duration and its impact on individuals and institutions. Education was not exempt from this uncertainty. Despite their best efforts, school leaders were not able to fully plan for the fall semester. For the most part, they attempted to provide for a sense of normalcy within schools despite the new constraints brought about by the pandemic. Since the spring of 2020, many public schools in the United States have experienced decreasing enrollment as the number of students being homeschooled and enrolled in private schools has increased. Student enrollment is tied to school funding in many states. Uncertainty is further enhanced by demographic shifts occurring within the country as many people move now that they can work from home. 8

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Despite this uncertainly, some school leaders did opt to purchase technology including immersive learning technology.

On-Site Some students returned to school in the fall semester of 2020 as scheduled or after delayed school openings. Hands-on learning was, however, limited in some cases. Implications included no use of headmounted displays (HMDs) and other technology as well as limited access to laboratory experiments. In many cases, this meant that teachers were seeking opportunities to support students learning—and to re-engage students. zSpace experienced requests from teachers at the K-12 level that focused on the relationship between immersive learning technology and content such as standards, curriculum, and content area connections. This appeared to be consistent with a renewed focus on “return to normal.” Some teachers who had previously used zSpace returned to using it. Teachers who had not used zSpace but who had access to it required training. The training requested tended to be either at the core, or fundamental, level or centered around implementation of the zSpace immersive learning technology. The use of zSpace in CTE programs and at the post-secondary level, if students were on-site, continued as prior to the pandemic. Although there were initially concerns about how to safely maintain technology that is shared by students, by the beginning of the fall semester, these concerns appeared to be addressed. There was limited interest from on-site schools at all levels in implementing zSpace for the academic year 2020-21 if it was not already in place. It is assumed that this was the experience for other immersive learning technology as well, for reasons previously noted. Essentially, this was not a time that additions were made to a school’s instructional technology. The successful implementation of zSpace, as with any educational product, requires professional development for educators. Prior to the pandemic, the expectation of most schools was that professional development was conducted on site. With the onset of the pandemic, the expectation of schools changed to incorporate remote professional development. In addition, it was no longer expected that the professional development be full-day but rather that it could be divided into shorter sessions of approximately one hour in duration. Initial impressions are that this has resulted in a deeper understanding of the material presented during sessions. The deepened understanding came about from teachers taking in information during a training session, practicing the information between training sessions, preparing questions, and then receiving reinforcement during a follow-up session. zSpace also increased its offerings of webinars during the fall semester, as did many other educational technology companies. These webinars focused on how to successfully integrate technology for on-site as well as remote learning. In general, there appeared to be increased participation in webinars early in the pandemic. However, as the pandemic has continued and teacher fatigue has increased, participation has declined. There remains significant interest in receiving recordings of the webinars. However, there have been no definitive studies on how much these webinars are accessed. It appears that recorded webinars are most frequently accessed when there is a specific need for the information contained within them. In addition, there is currently emerging some consensus that demand for short-format webinartype content is increasing.

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Remote Some students did not return on-site in the fall of 2020—at the K-12, CTE, and post-secondary levels. Teachers, then, returned to remote teaching with varying amounts of training, preparation, and support. In some cases, teachers were expected to teach remotely and on-site simultaneously. Student instruction included both synchronous and asynchronous delivery. During the spring semester of 2020, many K-12 schools provided daylong, or at least lengthy, synchronous teaching. With the return to school in the fall of 2020, more K-12 schools provided routine check-in times for students without the expectation that they remain online for the entire school day. Post-secondary schools provided a blend of synchronous and asynchronous classes during the spring of 2020 and continuing into the fall semester. Teachers and administrators at K-12 schools tended to look for methods to make use of the technology that they had on hand. Demands on schools as they adjusted to new realities in education meant that, in many cases, limited use was made of technology beyond that required. However, as teachers settled into the routine of the school year, some began to look for how to best engage their students. The incorporation of immersive learning technology was challenging under these conditions as the nature of immersive learning technology is that it is hands-on. The response to this limitation tended to vary at the K-12 and post-secondary levels. Some teachers began to prepare lessons incorporating immersive learning technology. These lessons were recorded to be viewed by students asynchronously or were live-streamed to be viewed by students synchronously. Video cannot fully replicate the immersive learning experience—at least, not with the technology currently available to students. However, to the extent that the immersive learning technology provided access to content not otherwise available, it enhanced student learning. zSpace was uniquely positioned to demonstrate content to students. The screen-based technology of zSpace means that it can be easily recorded using a range of readily available software. In addition, it is possible to live-stream content to students. Requested training during the last summer and fall of 2020 tended to focus on how to successfully carry out this demonstration of content. Administrators and teachers at post-secondary schools were more likely to look for new technologies that they could put into place to address the specific needs of specific programs. Leaders of these programs were willing to identify and purchase immersive learning technology to check it out to students. In some cases, the technology was made available to students for a limited time period (measured in weeks as opposed to semesters and academic years) in order to achieve specific learning objectives that supported subsequent on-site learning. This occurred heavily at community colleges as well as within CTE programs. zSpace was uniquely positioned to meet the needs of CTE students as well. zSpace content is closely aligned to specific CTE pathways. In addition, new content was introduced during 2020 to address additional CTE pathways. This content is also structured for independent student learning, which makes it work well for remote learning. In addition to purchasing zSpace technology, schools sought guidance on how to implement this immersive learning technology into their curriculum and programs. There were numerous requests for content-specific training during the late summer and continuing into the fall of 2020. At the time of writing (December 2020), the demand is continuing into the spring semester of 2021.

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Hybrid During the fall of 2020, much of K-12 education was not completely on-site or completely remote. Many, if not most, schools taught through a hybrid of on-site and remote learning. This has come about in response to health and safety concerns and parental demands, which can be in conflict with each other. Hybrid models have included schools where students were allowed to opt in to one model or the other and other schools where students were expected to be on-site at defined times and remote at other defined times. Some teachers were assigned to teach remotely while others in the same school were assigned to teach on-site. More commonly, teachers were expected to teach both on-site and remotely, either teaching on-site and remotely at the same time or switching between on-site and remote teaching during the semester. Ideally, immersive learning technology can be used when students are on-site to introduce, support, and reinforce content covered when students are learning remotely. To date, there has been limited documented experience with this approach at the K-12 level, although it may be occurring more than documented. Students in CTE programs returned to school—when feasible. Educational leaders sought out ways to provide this sub-population with specialized hands-on learning during the time that they were not able to be on campus. The combination of a zSpace laptop that could be assigned to students for use off-site with software addressing a specific curriculum meant that this immersive learning technology was implemented into CTE programs across the United States of America. This occurred at both the K-12 and community college levels. There has been limited reported introduction of immersive learning technology into traditional four-year colleges and universities during this period. The assumption is that much immersive learning technology is introduced through innovation programs, which have been more focused on addressing the more immediate needs of delivering courses, or at least portions of courses, remotely. These needs include provision of video recording and delivery technology and training on its use.

Overall Much has been said about the stress that this pandemic has created for both students and teachers. This stress increased during the fall semester of 2020 and is expected to continue into the spring semester of 2021. For students, concerns have included mental health (Golberstein et al., 2020; Son et al, 2020), inequity in access to technology (The Digital Divide, 2020), academic declines (Kuhfeld, 2020), and declines in student learning. Students have reported a negative attitude toward the use of videoconferencing and perceived it as having a negative effect on their learning experience and their motivation to learn (Serhan, 2020). For teachers, concerns have included the sustainability of educational practices implemented during this period (Kraft et al., 2020) and teacher burnout eroding instructional quality (Singer, 2020). It is commonly stated that teaching during the pandemic has been for most teachers the most stressful year of their teaching career, regardless of how many years of experience they have. It is unclear if teacher retirements have increased during the pandemic as some have projected. It will be some time before the full impact of the pandemic on the teacher population is known. This is due to any number of factors

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including a reduced number of teacher positions with budget impacts, continuation of existing teachers in the profession, and enrollment of future teachers in teacher training programs. A study by Reich et al. (2020) found that teachers identified three key factors as impacting their teaching experience during the early pandemic: student motivation, professional loss and burnout, and exacerbated inequities. Teachers struggled to motivate their students through two layers of computer screens. As they lost the familiar means of teaching, teachers also lost a fundamental sense of their own efficacy and professional identity. This sense of loss grew deeper as teachers witnessed the dramatic intensification of the societal inequities that had always shaped their students’ lives.

CONCLUSION During the pandemic, the focus of education, at all levels, appeared to shift to survival. Teachers, as a group, stepped up and provided the best possible education under the trying circumstances. Teachers used the technology available and schools sought to increase the technology, primarily low-cost tablets or Chromebooks, in the hands of students. Innovation during this period meant making the best possible use of tools available, not bringing in new tools. The use of immersive learning technology did not disappear. However, it was constrained by the technology available and the ease with which it could be implemented. Key lessons learned during the fall semester of 2020 have included the need to be agile in the immediate future and to provide learning experiences that address the shifts in education precipitated by the pandemic. It is unlikely that education will return completely to the way that it was practiced pre-pandemic. And it is equally unlikely that the use of technology, including immersive learning technology, will look the same in the future as it did pre-pandemic. At zSpace, the author and others spend considerable time now thinking about what education, what technology, and specifically what immersive learning technology will look like in the immediate future and in the long term. Obviously, none of us know exactly will happen, but we have settled on some trends that we anticipate happening.

Outlook for Future Use (Spring 2021 and Beyond) Recent (December 2020) conversations indicate that the spring semester of 2021 will continue to resemble the fall semester of 2020 due to the continued uncertainty regarding the progression of COVID-19 as well as ongoing teacher fatigue. There will likely be few changes in how education is delivered or how technology is used. It should also be noted that the delivery of education in the spring semester of 2021 will be constrained by the budgets developed and adopted during the first half of 2020. It is anticipated that remote learning will continue to play an important role in education at all levels. There is a need to better define what the best practices for remote learning are. While there may be a return of some students to post-secondary sites, the focus at these sites may be in maintaining a safe college/university environment with limited opportunities for student interaction with each other, with faculty, and with learning experiences. Courses may largely continue to be offered remotely.

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At the K-12 level, the use of technology may increase in the spring of 2021 as more devices become available. Since the spring of 2020, there have been shortages, particularly of smaller, less expensive devices such as tablets and Chromebooks. It is not anticipated that there will be significant changes in the use of technology in the spring semester of 2021 as compared to the fall semester of 2020 for budgetary and planning reasons. However, more students may have access to devices as well as the connectivity needed to use these devices. There is unlikely to be a great change in the use of immersive learning technology in most schools. At the time of writing (December 2020), many school leaders are beginning to look forward to the fall semester of 2021 and an anticipated return to a more normal school experience. This is the time of year that school budgets are normally developed. While the 2021-22 school budgets may look significantly different than the 2020-21 budgets, leaders have the opportunity to more fully evaluate the state of education and to plan accordingly. There is also the opportunity, as some school leaders recognize, to include immersive learning technology in budget plans. With the disruption experienced over the past year, this can be the time to think more broadly about how to deliver education in the 21st century. In the author’s opinion, several important trends will emerge in the post-pandemic era that will impact the use of immersive learning technology. These trends include an increased need for personalized learning, particularly at the K-12 level; continued growth in remote learning, virtual learning, and online content and resources; and increased demand for career and technical education. One reason for an increased need for personalized learning at the K-12 level post-pandemic is the anticipated student learning loss caused in part by the ineffectiveness of online instruction relative to in-person instruction (Kuhfeld et al., 2020). Other factors outside of education, including trauma and insecurity, will also significantly impact the learning loss in vulnerable populations during the pandemic. It is anticipated that when students fully return to school, there will be greater variation in student academic achievement at a given grade level. Immersive learning technology can play a significant role in addressing variations in student academic achievement when it is positioned to support independent learning. Anticipated needs include the identification of core content need to address student gaps in understanding and professional development around how to bring in immersive learning technology to address these gaps. It is expected that there will be continued growth in remote learning, virtual learning, and online content and resources, including at the K-12 level (Promethean, 2020). While these types of learning were increasing pre-pandemic, the rate of increase was greatly increased with the onset of COVID-19. Best practices are not fully developed for remote learning and virtual learning. There is a need for professionals within education with specific expertise in remote learning and virtual learning as well as a need for training for all teachers on how to best implement remote learning and virtual learning. High-quality online content and resources are also limited at all levels. As with remote learning and virtual learning, the development of online content and resources has been increasing in recent years. However, there remain sufficient gaps in the availability of quality content. There is a need to tie online content and resources to specific educational learning objectives. It should be recognized that this effort cannot be fully met by classroom teachers due to competing demands on their time. At the same time, it cannot be met by technology companies without the input and feedback of teachers in the field. Augmented reality and virtual reality were initially provided through stand-alone applications. With advances in technology currently taking place, there will be increased online immersive content including AR and VR. It is equally important that there is content tied to educational learning objectives developed for online immersive learning technology. 13

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It is anticipated that with increased online connectivity will come the opportunity for immersive learning technology to develop collaborative applications—to enable students and teachers to work across time and space. This collaboration will support project-based and inquiry learning. It will also prepare students for future employment where this type of collaboration is becoming more commonplace. An additional anticipated trend will be the increased demand for career and technical education. Since the onset of the pandemic, Americans have expressed a consistent preference for non-degree and skills training options (Strada Education Network, 2020). It is anticipated that this demand will occur at the K-12 level and at the post-secondary level, including workforce development. As AR, VR, XR, and 360-degree content play an important, and increasing, role in occupations, immersive learning can provide the opportunity for students to learn and practice skills—prior to demonstrating understanding in real-world settings. Anticipated needs include providing the opportunity for career exploration and making the connection between immersive learning content and real-world work experiences. While it is difficult to fully anticipate what will happen in education post-pandemic, it is fully expected that it will be different than education pre-pandemic. Immersive learning technology will have continue to have a role to play in education.

REFERENCES Bacca, J., Baldiris, S., Fabregat, R., & Graf, S., & Kinshuk. (2014). Augmented reality trends in education: A systematic review of research and applications. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 17(4), 133–149. Bailenson, J. N. (2018). Experience on demand: what virtual reality is, how it works, and what it can do. W.W. Norton. Castelo, M. (2020, March 11). How immersive learning technology champions the four C’s of learning. Ed Tech. https://edtechmagazine.com/k12/article/2020/03/how-immersive-technology-champions-fourcs-learning Golberstein, E., Wen, H., & Miller, B. F. (2020). Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and mental health for children and adolescents. JAMA Pediatrics, 174(9), 819–820. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.1456 PMID:32286618 Hite, R. L., Jones, M. G., Childers, G. M., Ennes, M., Chesnutt, K., Pereyra, M., & Cayton, E. (2019). Investigating potential relationships between adolescents’ cognitive development and perceptions of presence in 3-D, haptic-enabled, virtual reality science instruction. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 28(3), 265–284. doi:10.100710956-018-9764-y Hobbs, T. D. & Hawkins, L. (2020, June 5). The results are in for remote learning: it didn’t work. The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/schools-coronavirus-remote-learning-lockdowntech-11591375078 Khan, T., Johnston, K., & Ophoff, J. (2019). The impact of an augmented reality application on learning motivation of students. Advances in Human-Computer Interaction, 2019, 7208494. doi:10.1155/2019/7208494

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Kraft, M.A., Simon, N.S., & Lyon, M.A. (2020). Sustaining a sense of success: the importance of teacher working conditions during the COVID-19 pandemic. EdWorkingPaper: 20-279. Annenberg Institute at Brown University. doi:10.26300/35nj-v890 Kuhfeld, M., Soland, J., Tarasawa, B., Johnson, A., Ruzek, E., & Liu, J. (2020). Projecting the potential impacts of COVID-19 school closures on academic achievement. EdWorkingPaper: 20-226. Martín-Gutiérrez, J., Mora, C. E., Añorbe-Díaz, B., & González-Marrero, A. (2017). Virtual technologies trends in education. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 13(2), 469–486. doi:10.12973/eurasia.2017.00626a Meeder, H., & Pawlowski, B. (2020). Preparing our students for the real world: the education shift our children and future demand. National Center for College and Career Transitions, Columbia. https:// www.nc3t.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Preparing-Our-Students-for-the-Real-World-021720.pdf Promethean. (2020). The state of technology in education 2020/21. https://resourced.prometheanworld. com/technology-education-industry-report/#schools-use-of-tech Reich, J. (2020, April 3). Remote learning guidance from state education agencies during the COVID-19 pandemic: a first look. osf.io/k6zxy/ Reich, J., Buttimer, C. J., Coleman, D., Colwell, R., Faruqi, F., & Larke, L. R. (2020, July). What’s lost, what’s left, what’s next: lessons learned from the lived experiences of teachers during the pandemic. https://edarxiv.org/8exp9 Serhan, D. (2020). Transitioning from face-to-face to remote learning: Students’ attitudes and perceptions of using Zoom during COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Technology in Education and Science, 4(4), 335–342. doi:10.46328/ijtes.v4i4.148 Shibata, T., Drago, E., Araki, T., & Horit, T. (2018). Encouraging collaborative learning in classrooms using virtual reality techniques. https://cdn.zspace.com/collateralEncouraging_Collaborative_Learning_in_Classrooms_Using_Virtual_Reality_Techniques__Takashi_Shibata__Tokyo_University_of_Social_Welfare__Japan.pdf Singer, N. (2020, November 30). Teaching in the pandemic: “This Is not sustainable.” The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/30/us/teachers-remote-learning-burnout.html Sirakaya, M., & Sirakata, D.A. (2018). Trends in educational augmented reality studies: a systematic review. Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Technology, 6(2). Son, C., Hegde, S., Smith, A., Wang, X., & Sasangohar, F. (2020). Effects of COVID-19 on college students’ mental health in the United States: Interview survey study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(9), e21279. doi:10.2196/21279 PMID:32805704 Stelitano, L., Doan, S., Woo, A., Diliberti, M., Kaufman, J., & Henry, D. (2020). The digital divide and COVID-19: teachers’ perceptions of inequities in students’ Internet access and participation in remote learning. RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA134-3.html Strada Education Network. (2020, December 9). Public viewpoint: COVID-19 work and education survey: insights from 2020, implications for 2021. https://www.stradaeducation.org/publicviewpoint/

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Templeton, C. (2019). An analysis of the pedagogical affordances of a virtual learning environment in a Catholic school [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Morehead State University. https://scholarworks. moreheadstate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1341&context=msu_theses_dissertations

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 360 Degree Content: An audiovisual environment that surrounds the user, allowing them to look around in all directions, just as they can in real life. Augmented Reality: Technology that allows a person to interact with virtual objects overlaid on real-time images. Career and Technology Education: Education that focuses on teaching specific career skills to students—with an emphasis on hands-on practice. Extended Reality: Technologies that feature elements of both augmented and virtual reality. K-12: Grade levels kindergarten through the end of high school. Mixed Reality: Technologies that feature elements of both augmented and virtual reality. Post-Secondary: Technical and community colleges, which offer certification programs as well as degree programs, and four-year colleges and universities. Virtual Reality: Computer-generated simulation in which a person can interact with 3D objects.

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Chapter 2

3D Virtual Learning Environment for Acquisition of Cultural Competence:

Experiences of Instructional Designers Stephen Petrina University of British Columbia, Canada Jennifer Jing Zhao University of British Columbia, Canada

ABSTRACT As educational systems emphasize and experiment with forms of online and remote learning, it is increasingly important to investigate the cultural competence of instructional designers. This chapter addresses the experiences of instructional designers in a 3D virtual learning environment designed for development of cultural competence. Design-based research (DBR) and user experience (UX) methodologies were employed to explore experience of six instructional designers in 3D virtual environment. A taxonomy of experience (ToE) established by Coxon guided qualitative data collection and analysis. Through examples and data, the chapter emphasizes the necessity for instructional designers to keep in mind the challenge of cultural diversity in the backgrounds of students and their own, and bring guidelines and principles into culturally sensitive and responsive instructional design processes. The authors recommend four future research directions, including cross-cultural instructional designer competencies along with research into cultural personas, avatars, and guest-host relations.

INTRODUCTION Research in face-to-face and online classrooms suggests that students who have diverse cultural backgrounds present learning challenges if instructional designers fail to design culturally sensitive learning environments (Au & Kawakami,1994; Gay, 2000; Capell, Veenstra, & Dean, 2007). With the pervasive DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch002 This chapter published as an Open Access Chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and production in any medium, provided the author of the original work and original publication credited. Copyright © 2021, IGI Global. Copying or distributingsource in printare or properly electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 3D Virtual Learning Environment for Acquisition of Cultural Competence

use of educational technologies, more and more online learning platforms have become easily accessible to global learners, often with diverse cultural backgrounds. How educational and instructional designers design curriculum and courses in VLEs to best facilitate learning is a popular focus of research (Allen & Seaman, 2013; Chen, & Oakley, 2020; Mohamed, Schroeder, & Wosnitza, 2014). With advanced learning technologies (ALTs) integrated into games, online platforms, and virtual reality (VR) systems, questions of cultural competence are intensified. New technologies provide new affordances and options for instructional designers, and the complexity of design to accommodate learners’ cultural differences increases. Research suggests the need for instructional designers to be more aware of and responsive to cultural complexity during the design process, and to prevent developing culturally blind systems or unintentionally exclude cultural nuances, which results in culturally homogeneous educational resources or VLEs (Chen, Mashhadi, Ang, & Harkrider, 1999; Kawachi, 2000; Bentley, Tinney, & Chia, 2005; Young, 2008). Shortcomings of affordances are made abundantly clear as instructors transform traditional material and resources into digital formats for remote learning during Covid-19. Naïve assumptions that remote learning merely necessitates conversion of material from analog to digital prevail as students counter with expectations and demands for cultural competence and empathy. Out of convenience, most instructional designers and educators prioritized limited VLEs (e.g., learning management system) or video conferencing systems (e.g., Zoom). For more complex remote learning, 3D virtual worlds nonetheless have great potential. To contribute to research in this area, this chapter reviews research on the acquisition of cultural competence in education and explores six instructional designers’ experiences in virtual world design. To elicit responses and insights, we used OpenSimulator, an open-source platform for hosting 3D virtual worlds and the metaverse. The design of the virtual world went through multiple design-based research (DBR) iterations and was used to develop healthcare students’ cultural competence (Zhao, 2019). We recommend four future research directions, including cross-cultural instructional designer competencies along with research into cultural personas, avatars, and guest-host relations. Although since the late 1960s, “instructional design” (ID) has often been used interchangeably with “curriculum design,” “educational design” and “educational technology,” in this chapter ID refers to the design and construction of learning objects on a micro level and learning systems on a macro level (Geis & Klaassen, 1972; Laverde, Cifuentes, & Rodríguez, 2007; Nelson, 2013; Petrina, 2004).

BACKGROUND This section presents a review of the literature regarding cultural considerations for instructional designers in VLEs. Culture shapes not only how people feel, value, think, and behave, but also how people learn. “Multiculturalism,” “cultural diversity,” and “cultural pluralism” have been researched for decades. Cultural differences in increasingly global learning environments are also a well recognized fact (Au & Kawakami, 1994; Biggs, 1990; Edwards, 2000; Mahbubani, 2002; Young, 2008). The premise of instructional design for student or user variation is that “different continents, nations, regions, and communities hold different cultural, mental and cognitive models— customs, manners and behaviours— that provide kaleidoscopic perspectives in the way people see, feel, understand, and connect with the world” (Cabrero, 2014, p. 247). Addressing the needs of learners with culturally diverse backgrounds, instructional design processes have been comprehensively researched. Research indicates that the more emphasis instructional designers 18

 3D Virtual Learning Environment for Acquisition of Cultural Competence

place on cultural needs of students, the more significant are improvements in motivation, self-regulated skills, and academic achievement (Au & Kawakami, 1994; Gay, 2000; Hollins, 1996; Hood, Littlejohn, & Milligan, 2015; Kleinfeld, 1975; Ladson-Billings, 1994, 1995). However, aspects of culturally diverse learners in VLEs have not been as fully explored as those in face-to-face classrooms (Edmundson, 2003, 2004; Catterick, 2007). With the development of new technologies, students’ multicultural backgrounds that influence learning and the relevant pedagogical designs used in the development of VLEs have begun to be more widely researched (Chen & Oakley, 2020; Phan, 2018; Wang & Reeves, 2007). For example, with the significant growth of global educational exchange, the population of international student and adult trainees worldwide have become more culturally diverse. There is a growing body of literature exploring the cultural aspects of developing and teaching cross-cultural online courses in North American and Asia. North American cities such as Vancouver are major destinations for international students and trainees. Chinese immigrants represent a bit more than 25% of all immigrants to metro Vancouver. Chinese students represent about 38% of all international students in British Columbia’s postsecondary institutions (Heslop, 2018). Asian learners exhibit different learning styles and academic approaches compared to their western counterparts in VLEs (Biggs 1990, Watkins & Regmi 1990, Kember & Gow 1991; Chen & Oakley, 2020; Friesner & Hart, 2004; McCarty, 2005; Robinson, 1999). Zhang and Zhou (2010) investigated the experience of Chinese students in Canadian educational systems. Among a range a communication and social networking challenges, Chinese students are challenged to adjust to demands of group work for activities and projects. There are cultural differences in the experiences that students have in group work: instructional designers should have a level of cultural competence in recognizing the need to scaffold group work expectations and procedures. Culturally relevant learning objects and systems to respond to and accommodate students with various backgrounds make education more accessible and effective in VLEs (Edwards & Usher, 2000; Foster, 1995; Gay, 2000; Ladson-Billings,1995; Nieto, 1999; Allen & Seaman, 2013; Chen & Oakley, 2020). Instructional designers’ cultural backgrounds implicitly and explicitly affect the design of VLEs. Spronk (2004) states that culture, in learning contexts, is more profound and dynamic than surface features suggest. Instructional designers are not immune from the influence of their own cultural biases. A range of challenges and concerns are presented to instructional designers in cross-cultural contexts. Even though instructional designers are trained in professional settings, who they are and what they bring makes a difference in how design is approached (Rogers, Graham, & Mayes, 2007). Instructional design approaches can be selected without the instructional designers being fully aware of the cultural roots and philosophies that underpin them. Most design techniques are presented at face value rather than in a deeper cultural and philosophical context. Pedagogical choices made by instructional designers in online education are one of the most important focuses for researchers and practitioners alike (Van den Branden & Lambert, 1999; Pan et al., 2003; Chen & Oakley, 2020). Therefore, it is imperative to raise the awareness of instructional designers to be more culturally competent and responsive in designing educational environments and scaffolding learning activities among students with diverse cultural backgrounds. It is also imperative to recognize cultural assumptions of instructional designers themselves, which is perhaps more fundamental. It is somewhat idealistic, as McLoughlin (1999) proclaims, to ensure that instructional designers need to cover every culture prior to adopting an instructional design model. But as an instructional designer, we can probably consciously trace significant educational origins to our cultural roots, further examine and reconcile our design practice to have a deeper understanding, and achieve possible pedagogical symbiosis (Henderson, 2007). For example, Pan et al. (2003) have tried in a longitudinal study to reveal the elements embedded in 19

 3D Virtual Learning Environment for Acquisition of Cultural Competence

Confucian pedagogy and Western pedagogy, and determine whether there is symbiosis or asymbiosis for these different pedagogies. In VLEs, interactions between instructors and students, and among student peers, are different compared to those characterizing traditional classrooms. The presence of nonverbal communication cues is generally missing, which presents a very different situation for instructional designers (Phan, 2018). Also, practices and approaches usually applied in virtual learning often include different ways of thinking and acting by learners of diverse cultural backgrounds, which cause major barriers for designing VLEs and e-Learning resources (Ke, Chávez, & Herrera 2013; Dillon, Wang, & Tearle, 2007; Phan, 2018). Further, instructional designers’ own cultural backgrounds manifest dynamically, which is different than in a traditional classroom as well. Conceptualization and development of cultural competence are significant challenges as physical and virtual experience become noticeably blended and reality noticeably augmented and mixed. New media and technology are enabling more and more multisensory interactions including high-fidelity VR, artificial intelligence (AI), and other ALTs (Li, Daugherty, & Biocca, 2002, 2003; Soukup, 2000). Virtual experiences in 3D virtual worlds are multi-dimensional (e.g., affective, cognitive, haptic). In addition, they reduce temporal and psychological distance. According to Heeter’s (2000) categorization, virtual experiences and indirect experiences are consistently mediated, and for the purposes of this chapter, mediated by a range of phenomena including cultural competence and sensitivity.

Cultural Competence Cultural competence “emphasizes the ability to function effectively with members of different groups through cultural awareness and sensitivity” (Friedman & Hoffman-Goetz, 2006, p. 427). The “inter” prefix of intercultural competence indicates a two-way exchange of development and the give and take nature of two cultures in interaction. Bennett’s (1986, 1993, 2004) “Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity” (DMIS) gives a sense of cultural competence acquisition and promotes a movement from Denial to Defense to Minimization to Acceptance to Adaptation to Integration. Hammer, Bennett, and Wiseman (2003) describe this as a movement from “ethnocentrism” to “ethnorelativism” and developed an effective inventory for measuring intercultural competence acquisition (p. 424). The development of cultural competence is central to education and healthcare, among a range of other professions. This chapter limits the focus to instructional design. Within an intercultural competence framework, the challenge is for both students and designers to change in ways that reflect awareness and sensitivity in exchange. While striving to meet academic and professional development milestones. A lack of intercultural competence in students and designers is a cause of the ineffectiveness of learning. Enhancing intercultural competence for students and designers has been a significant challenge for educational organizations across various disciplines (Sit, Mak, & Neill, 2017). Cross-cultural sensitivity training dates back to the late 1950s and continues to generate contradictory results and debates over its effectiveness (Bezrukova, Spell, Perry, & Jehn, 2016). Generally, cultural competence acquisition suggests a more comprehensive experience. With intercultural competence training increasingly multi-method, researchers are interested in how variation in delivery methods and program formats could be delivered to improve the desired outcome. According to results from evaluation studies for cultural competence acquisition, with the same content coverage, whether delivered continuously in one session or in multiple sessions over a period of short time up to four weeks, the variation in the delivery methods, such as online or face to face in physi20

 3D Virtual Learning Environment for Acquisition of Cultural Competence

cal classrooms, did not differ significantly in training outcome (Goldstein & Smith, 1999; Caligiuri & Tarique, 2012). To be more effective in cultural integration, training has been recommended for international students and trainees to increase their intercultural competence (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000; Sit, Mak, & Neill, 2017). A variety of learning resources, courses, and curricula have been developed to foster and nurture the cultural competence of students and trainees, and a variety of methods were designed to help them understand different customs, beliefs, and communication strategies (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000). Research suggests that cultural competence acquisition is more effective when distributed over longer periods of time, usually for several years as cultural competence goes beyond diversity awareness and sensitivity. It requires the development of an ability of individuals to effectively interact among others with different cultural backgrounds. However much we can rely on these findings for students, research on instructional designers’ cultural competence acquisition is inadequate. To facilitate cultural competence acquisition, there are two major aspects: culture-general and culturespecific (Capell, Veenstra, & Dean, 2007). Culture-general aspects are designed to apply to different groups of clients, while the culture-specific ones are usually limited to specific ethnic groups of clients. Ideally, instructional designers would be culturally responsive in a general sense and culturally sensitive in a specific sense. Here, general sense refers to the environments and procedures through which cultural competence can be gained, it is independent of any specific cultural context. Cultural-specific aspects refer to the cultural context the instructional design is situated in, which can be east African, east Indian, etc. These contexts are still dynamic and constructive instead of static, essentialist stereotypes. Cultural competence is dynamic and fluid but there are characteristics experts agree on (Campinha-Bacote, 1995, 1999; Hammer, Bennett, & Wiseman, 2003). In summary, researchers have sought to embed cultural considerations so cultural pluralism can be accommodated in instructional design practice (Branch, 1997). It seems realistic to adopt functional instructional design models with cultural components already embedded into the model structures and design workflows. Various design models have been developed with cultural responsiveness in mind. Early on, Henderson (1996) emphasized that instructional design was a product of culture— instructional designers need to take culture into consideration. In turn, Henderson (1996, 2007) developed a Multiple Cultural Pedagogical Model for interactive multimedia instructional design. Edmundson (2007) introduced the cultural adaptation process (CAP) model for designing e-Learning for another culture. The CAP model includes guidelines for evaluating e-learning courses and matching them to the cultural profiles of targeted learners. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a framework proposed by Eberie and Childress (2007) for culturally diverse online learning design, to ensure that learning environments are universally consistent. For various reasons, no single ID model is sufficient for ensuring cultural sensitivity.

MAIN FOCUS: 3D VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT DESIGN The research focuses on instructional designers’ cultural experiences in a 3D virtual world initially designed for healthcare students. More specially, it focuses on the experiences of instructional designers in addressing the needs of culturally diverse learners, and how they provide pedagogically positive designs based on affordances of 3D virtual worlds. Most importantly, it also focuses on how instructional designers

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 3D Virtual Learning Environment for Acquisition of Cultural Competence

Figure 1. Classroom in the 3D virtual world

reflect on their own cultural roots and values during the design process in the interactive and dynamic 3D virtual world to avoid bias and further develop more culturally competent instructional design practices. As indicated, the research product is a 3D virtual world designed in OpenSimulator, which is also the field site. Simulation, embodiment, and interactivity were key affordances utilized to facilitate the acquisition of cultural competence (Anderson & Shattuck, 2012; Corder & U-Mackey, 2018; McKenney & Reeves, 2012; Reeves, Herrington, & Oliver, 2005; Squire, 2006; Zhao, 2019). The final 3D virtual world includes four main rooms: classroom, conference room, clinic, and café, which are elaborated below with screen shots (Figures 1-5). Figure 2. Conference room in the 3D virtual world

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 3D Virtual Learning Environment for Acquisition of Cultural Competence

Figure 3. Clinic in the 3D virtual world

Figure 4. Café in the 3D virtual world

Figure 5. The roles of the doctor, the nurse, and the patient in the 3D virtual world

1. Classroom and Conference room: Participants choose their session themes and character roles instead of being assigned. In the classroom, the content for the role-play scenarios is given through training packages for cultivating cultural competence in healthcare in multiple formats, including text, PowerPoint, and streaming videos. After discussing and planning effective and interesting scenarios for role-play, and then choosing roles and adopting appropriate clothes to symbolize the avatars, users enter the conference room. Doctor, nurse, and patient clothes help users imagine

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 3D Virtual Learning Environment for Acquisition of Cultural Competence

themselves in respective roles for expressing various questions or concerns about cultural competence in a healthcare scenario they create. Virtual clothes for cultural variety were created and are stored in an inventory. 2. Clinic: Experiential learning in the virtual world begins in the virtual clinic. In the clinic, users play roles of doctor, nurse, and patient in open-ended scenarios. Scenarios adopted by users varied. A few scenarios challenged the English-speaking nurse and doctor to respond appropriately to patients that spoke English as a second language. This is a common communication scenario in healthcare professions. In another example scenario, users adopted different ethnic and cultural identities that then challenged the nurse and doctor to competently and appropriately give a positive diagnosis. These could be debriefed or informed in the conference room or users could enter the café to relax and debrief. 3. Café: The café room provides a casual setting for users to debrief content and scenarios, socialize, or plan ahead for another scenario. In different sessions, participants can choose different themes or exchange roles with other players when in the virtual world, signaled in part by the avatar wearing clothes from the inventory. “Repeating a scenario with the same or different characters can sometimes afford a more in-depth examination and add to the experience” (Lowenstein, 2011, p. 194). Users in this research were able to repeat the scenarios and play the same or different roles in the virtual environment.

Participant Recruitment and Setting Data were collected by gathering the responses and attending to instructional designer experiences in 3D virtual world in related healthcare education fields in postsecondary institutions. Participants were recruited on voluntary basis. Consent was obtained before participation. Initial participants included two instructional designers, who have more than ten years experience in curriculum design in VLEs in health disciplines in Canadian universities. A subsequent iteration was added with four instructional designers from Canadian universities and Chinese universities. The ethnic backgrounds of instructional designers include Asian Canadian, Caucasian Canadian, and Chinese. Participants represent eastern and western backgrounds. The designers had wide-ranging experiences of cross-cultural design working in a variety of subjects (Table 1).

Table 1. Participant List DBR Iteration

Date

Participants

Pseudonyms

3

January – March 2018

2 instructional designers

2 instructional designers: Yuliana, Yvette

5

March – July 2018

2 instructional designers

2 instructional designers: Yuliana, Yvette

8

March – July 2020

4 instructional designers

4 instructional designers: Hua, Olivia, Daisy, Leo

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 3D Virtual Learning Environment for Acquisition of Cultural Competence

Methods: Design-Based Research (DBR) and User Experience (UX) The primary methodology was design-based research (DBR) while the secondary methodology was user experience (UX). The two were used in complementary ways to explore instructional designers’ experience in a 3D virtual learning environment. The taxonomy of experience (ToE) established by Coxon (2007) guided data collection and qualitative data analysis (QDA). McKenney and Reeves’s (2012) DBR model was adopted, in which the iterative process does not prescribe fixed, set pathways for iterations. Rather, many potential routes can be designed according to this model. A secondary methodology in this study is User Experience (UX). Touloum, Idoughi, and Seffah (2012) define UX as “something felt by the user, or by a group of users, following the use of a product (or service), or during its interaction with the product (usability and aesthetics), or even a possible use (or purchase) of a product”. “We use the word ‘something,’” they continue, “to refer to the broad meaning that covers the term experience (emotions, perceptions, reactions)” (pp. 2994-2995).

Design-Based Research (DBR) Iterations This initial study followed a DBR process through early work and testing pilots, building prototypes, and developing design products over seven iterations between January 2017-December 2018 (Table 2). A new iteration, the eighth micro-cycle was added in March-July 2020, with a focus on exploring instructional designer experiences. To produce a more culturally sensitive and responsive VLE, in the newly added iteration more avatars were designed representing different ethnic backgrounds. Also, four additional instructional designers, Hua, Olivia, Daisy, and Leo, were recruited and interviewed.

Data Coding and Analysis We developed a usable system to support learning in a 3D virtual world as well as to facilitate exploration of instructional designer experiences. The data analysis is organized through iterative reviews of interview scripts, screen shots, and notes taken in the virtual world. Interview participants were recruited on a voluntary basis. Potential participants were presented with a cover letter, consent form, and interview questionnaire. Users were encouraged to express their experiences during the semi-structured interview. Experiential and existential elements of the ToE helped shape the questions for instructional designers. Interview data were entered into Microsoft Office 365 Excel spreadsheets and analyzed using the SEEing technique created by Coxon (2007), which is a structural interpretation of the experiential phenomena. Details of this analysis are provided in the next section.

Taxonomy of Experience (TOE) The ToE established by Coxon (2007) guided data collection and qualitative data analysis. This ToE offers a multi-layered way to understand user experience and is responsive to researching virtual experience and user experience. Figure 6 depicts Coxon’s (2007) taxonomy, which contains sensorial, affective, cognitive, and contextual experiential elements within an existential framework of temporality, spatiality, relationality, and corporeality. These existentials derive from van Manen’s (1990, pp. 101-106) distillation of Merleau-Ponty’s (1962) units of experience.

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 3D Virtual Learning Environment for Acquisition of Cultural Competence

Table 2. DBR iterations, participants and focuses DBR Iteration

Participants

Data Source

Focus

First Micro-cycle: Analysis and Exploration

The researcher

No formal data collection

Problem identification and diagnosis.

Second Micro-cycle: Design and Construction

The researcher, 1 digital arts builder.

No formal data collection

Instructional design, 3D virtual world, and tentative product production.

Third Micro-cycle: Evaluation and Reflection

2 instructors, 2 instructional designers, 2 digital arts builders.

Audio recordings and notes from interviews with instructors, instructional designers, and digital arts builders.

Evaluation of the skeleton design through in-world observation and individual interview methods. Data collection and qualitative, inductive analysis conducted.

The Fourth Micro-cycle: Redesign and Construction

The researcher, 1 digital arts builder.

No formal data collection

Based on the previous evaluation and reflection, improvements including managing user cognitive load, broader roles in role plays, and creating more objects for the learning environment.

Fifth Micro-cycle: ReEvaluation and Reflection

10 students, 5 instructors, 2 instructional designers, 2 digital arts builders.

Nurse Cultural Competence Scale instrument (NCCS) Audio recordings and notes from interviews with students. In-world images captured during the process of student learning activities.

Survey using the NCCS instrument provides an initial perspective on students’ prior learning. In-depth interviews with the participants using the framework of Taxonomy of Experience.

Sixth Micro-cycle: Re-design and Construction

The researcher, 1 digital arts builder.

In-world images captured during the process of student learning activities.

Three more clinics created, more patient beds, medical equipment and supplies added, more clothes for different professions created to provide greater flexibility for participants to do role plays and other activities. A student café room created.

Seventh Micro-cycle: Implementation and Spread

The researcher

In-world images captured during the process of student learning activities.

Two main outputs, maturing interventions, and theoretical understanding summarized.

Eighth Micro-cycle: Redesign and Construction

6 instructional designers

Audio recordings and notes from interviews with instructional designers.

Interviews with four added instructional designers. Data collection and qualitative, inductive analysis conducted.

Figure 6. Taxonomy of experience. Adapted from Coxon (2007)

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 3D Virtual Learning Environment for Acquisition of Cultural Competence

Coxon (2007) described three types of experience. Sensorial experience includes five senses. It involves a “sense of” things, such as sight, smell, touch, and sound, and contributes to aesthetic and ergonomic appreciation within experiences. Affective experience contains emotions, feelings, and moods, which significantly influence the nature of an experience. Cognitive experience includes conation, which is reflective thought of external doing, and cognition, which is reflexive thought of internal thinking, such as personal identity (Petrina, 2010). Cognition and conation are interwoven constructs in which experiential information is processed and considered in terms of possible future interactions. The contextual components are the existential parameters within which any experience takes place, with many layers of complexity. They are usually understood in relation to a specific experiential event. This contextual space has layers of complexity and can be partially understood by being broken down into existential component parts in relation to a specific experiential event (Coxon, 2007). In order to understand the nature of experience, inputs from sensorial, affective, cognitive, and contextual factors all need to be thoroughly considered. The nature of experience requires understanding within a context, which includes “four dimensions” of existence (space, time, the physical body, and its relationships to other people). These existential factors are differentiated from contextual factors (Table 3). Table 3. Meta-themes and sub-themes of ToE Meta-themes

Experiential elements

Sub-themes

body- somatic experience/ sensorial experiences (five senses)

sight, touch, sound, comfort-ergonomics, and appearance aesthetics

heart- affective experience (emotions, feelings)

Positive-negative emotions

head-cognitive experience (thinking and acting)

conation- reflective experience, reflective thought of external doing; cognition- reflexive experience, reflexive thought of internal thinking

spatiality (space) temporality (time) Existential factors

corporeality (body, physicality)

motion, standing, moving, sitting, body movements

relationality (Relation to others) Contextual factors

environmental factors, regulatory factors, social factors

Data Coding and Analysis Through TOE-SEEing The analytic approach of SEEing facilitated the use of the ToE for data analysis, which includes nine steps to categorize and analyze users’ interview data. User experience is analyzed through a series of progressive steps to extract the essences of the experience and allow them to be “seen”, which provides a way to make abstract concepts comprehensible and visible. This method offers an opportunity to look deeper into the data collected while extracting conclusions (Coxon, 2007). The nine-step process of the ToE-SEEing process is described in the following paragraphs. The nine steps are: Step 1 Submersion and Data Gathering

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Step 2 Descriptive Narratives Step 3 Sorting Fragments into ToE Themes Step 4 Developing Meaning(s) Step 5 Essential Elements Step 6 Super-Ordinary Elements Step 7 Weight Step 8 Superordinary Summary Words Step 9 Summary Word Descriptions It begins by transforming the users’ interview fragments and ends by synthesizing them into superordinary themes. Overall, the first three steps of the ToE-SEEing included gathering and transcribing data, establishing structure, and storing information about an experience. Steps four to five are the analysis phases to allow deeper meaning to be “seen”. Finally, this analytical process results in seven overall category elements. Microsoft Office 365 Excel worksheet was customized and adopted for this analysis.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION In step 7 of the SEEing process, with the rating from 1 to 7 in relation to how important the superordinary elements are to instructional designers’ cultural competence acquisition experience (7 is the most important), we set the weight based on the knowledge gained during the immersion in step 1, our extensive literature review, and comprehensive working experience: Epistemology -7, Simulation - 6, Embodiment - 5, Language and Translation - 4, Management support - 3, Training - 2, Technical Aspects - 1. Moreover, the number of times the experience was mentioned by instructional designers during interviews was also counted in the study. In the end, superordinary elements with the weight of higher values and appearing more times have higher importance levels. The final outcomes are listed in the following paragraphs in an order of decreased importance from the highest to lowest. Relevant literature and participant comments are summarized in each element category to inform deeper layers of understanding of instructional designers’ experiences.

Epistemology Supportive of Multiple Perspectives and Embedded Values - 7 Based on the extensive research in online learning, a culturally responsive instructional design built upon eclectic pedagogical paradigms and shared epistemological systems are recommended (Bentley, Tinney, & Chia, 2005; Henderson, 1996; Henderson, 2007; McLoughlin, 1999; Rogers, Graham & Mayes, 2007). Research recommends adopting an epistemology that is supportive of multiple perspectives, so as to create learning environments in which instructors and students from different cultural backgrounds feel comfortable enough to share their opinions (McLoughlin, 1999; McLoughlin & Oliver, 2000, Wang & Reeves, 2007), and to discuss embedded values honestly, explicitly, and upfront with students in class (Bentley, Tinney, & Chia, 2005; Chen, Mashhadi, Ang, & Harkrider, 1999). During the interviews in this study, one instructional designer commented: Look[s] like western instructional design models and protocols have become global standards. A westernized pattern of thinking has been dominated during [the] instructional design process for virtual

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learning. Hopefully there are some Asian, African, and other pedagogical orientations [that] will be introduced to construct and implement culturally-sensitive online education. (Iteration 8/Hua) Another clarified: “For instructional design in 3D virtual worlds, the inclusion of the culture components should be educationally meaningful from pedagogical perspectives to improve learning rather than superficial cosmetic design, such as modifications to the skin coloring, hair, or eyes of avatars. We need to focus on cognitive functions” (Iteration 8/ Olivia). Therefore, instructional designers recommend understanding how different pedagogies are perceived in different cultures, and seek ways to incorporate various pedagogies into the 3D virtual learning environment design. This includes setting goals, tasks, and assessment so that learners from different cultural backgrounds can have options and choose those that best match their educational needs.

Language and Translation - 6 During the process of instructional design in VLEs, cultural issues may arise not only from pedagogical assumptions, but also from language problems. Language barriers are a major concern in globalized e-Learning, including in 3D virtual learning environments. We probably have all learned through experience that language cannot solely rely on online automatic translations of English into the targeted language or vice versa as they can be too literal and therefore inaccurate. If used this way, students have to guess what the instructor really means, which prevents effective communication and sharing ideas (Hutchinson et al., 2005; Tractinsky, 2000). An instructional designer commented on her own experiences during the study: We had one course which needed to translate traditional Chinese content to simplified Chinese. It can be performed automatically by auto translation software. But the actual terms and idioms have different underlying meanings in mainland of China compared to Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan where traditional Chinese is used. It is recommended that local professionals have proofreading for the courses. (Iteration 8/Hua) Therefore, cultural differences should be addressed during local processes of curricular and course design so differences in context can be handled thoroughly and cultural values embedded in the contexts can be fully acknowledged instead of simply literally translated. Another instructional designer commented “We as instructional designers consider educational context including stories, etiquette, and images, and make sure they are familiar to the targeted culture. We should avoid taboos and etc. to make curriculum and courses compatible to another culture” (Iteration 8/Daisy). Researchers recommend the use of simplified writing structures, and standardized language as much as possible to avoid local expressions, idioms, slang and colloquialisms, which would possibly enhance communication for all (Bentley, Tinney, & Chia, 2005). “Translation processes can also be to practise standard language,” one participant agreed, “such as rewriting the content without idioms or dialects, and changing spelling and phrases to more standard ones” (Iteration 8/Leo).

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Management Support - 5 The designers reflected and expressed the urgent need to address culture components in instructional design processes in virtual learning environments, but noted that they were bound by organizational expectations and policies: the extra time and resources needed to understand, evaluate, and design cultural contexts during design are not supported. Instructional Designers in this study commented on the organizational challenges they faced. “I would say it is probably mostly organizational because peer instructional designers usually understand the value of culture components during design, but their academic levels usually are not decision makers in university, so we need to get buy-in” (Iteration 8/Hua). “Our management just ignored it as they don’t think understanding and supporting cultural design is feasible and important” (Iteration 8/Olivia). “The management thinks there are a lot of constraints of budget and resources” (Iteration 8/Daisy). A fourth instructional designer added: It is difficult to get buy-in from key stakeholders to access necessary resources and on-going support. The proposed solutions can be an ongoing process of informing and educating the management…. One possible solution to address this issue can be through disseminating relevant educational research during seminars and workshops, and inviting management to attend and get informed about the significance of cultural design in facilitating effective learning of global learners. (Iteration 8/Leo)

Training Through Workshops and Seminars - 4 In this study instructional designers expressed the needs for training through workshops to build cultural competence among themselves. Currently there are no defined standards and levels for cultural competence requirements. Instructional designers need to acquire more knowledge and skills to address a variety of cultures during design processes. Two participants commented: “I as an instructional designer do have a strong desire to learn more about the cultural needs of learners. Currently we do not have a clear approach and focus for cultural analysis during the needs assessment process” (Iteration 8/Leo). “There must be some personal bias. We lack knowledge on how to approach the instructional design process with cultural components embedded; not sure what exactly to look for in culture related design” (Iteration 8/Hua). Standards and common knowledge pools for the workshops and seminars are recommended by instructional designers. “It is difficult to access cultural resources. defined training and information resources may help build instructional designers’ cross-cultural design skills and increase their level of cultural expertise” (Iteration 8/Hua). “Making information on cultural profiles easily accessible for designers during needs assessment and other design process are helpful” (Iteration 8/Olivia).

Complexity of the Technical Aspects - 3 Comments regarding the technical interface of the 3D virtual world were generally mixed. For example, one instructional designer acknowledged: “It’s easy to use. It can create blended learning scenarios to provide the flexibility of learning. Students can be either in a classroom, or at home through distributed learning” (Iteration 5/Yuliana).

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However, the findings in this study also revealed that participants needed technical support at the beginning in order to learn effectively. The participants’ previous experience with online games, even with 3D virtual worlds directly, does not automatically transfer to the mastery of essential controls in the OpenSimulator 3D virtual world. “A training package should be provided as an option from my instructional design perspective, which can reduce the learning curve and anxiety. A short instructional video can help users to get many features quickly” (Iteration 5/Yuliana). Therefore, orientation sessions for the navigation control, view control, and other basics are recommended to increase users’ confidence early in the course. After a short orientation, ample time should be arranged to let participants explore and learn how to control their avatars, such as moving and changing clothes, and how to click on various objects to easily participate in the activities in the virtual world. Also, various and flexible communication methods are advocated as well. “It is really helpful students and instructors can have private discussions, as well as group discussions. Various communication channels allow students to send private messages to someone and to the whole class publicly” (Iteration 8/Olivia). Supporting users requires more than just explaining how the technical pieces work and helping them get familiar with tools and controls in the virtual world. Social skills and cultural awareness are essential in the orientation session (Jones, Ramanau, Cross, & Healing, 2010). An instructional designer commented: “For the group work, instructional designers should provide multiple options. Students with different cultural backgrounds may have different learning preferences. In addition to addressing pedagogical objectives in online education, we need to take students’ learning preferences based on their cultural backgrounds into consideration as well” (Iteration 8/Daisy).

Experiences in Simulation in 3D Learning Environments - 2 As media rich platforms, 3D virtual worlds offer the possibility of learner experiences that enhance deep learning through realistic simulation (Corder & U-Mackey, 2018; Davies et al., 2015; Delwiche, 2006; de Freitas & Neumann, 2009). Virtual worlds allow the development of simulation activities that otherwise would be difficult due to its high cost. Most instructional designers’ experiences regarding simulation were positive. “There is no risk. It’s always safe for students to try. No concerns as those when they have when deal with real patients, feeling a much safer environment. No ethical concern” (Iteration 5/Yuliana). “The simulated environment is pretty realistic. Some cultural aspects of learning can definitely transfer more effectively through this contextual layer” (Iteration 8/Leo). To create educative experience for students, it is essential to design in the 3D virtual world with concrete association with real world learning spaces. To best facilitate learning transfer, the virtual space should often replicate real world scenarios and simulations, scaffolds, and virtual learning activities. Lectures presented with PowerPoint, professional seminars, the virtual clinic and hospital visits, role plays, and video streams in this research are drawn from the real-world experiences of health subjectrelated scenarios. Synchronous role plays decrease interpersonal boundaries and facilitate group dynamics to conduct learning tasks. Complex decisions can be taken in real time to apply theory to practice in complex situations (Hew & Cheung, 2010). “You don’t know the reaction the patient [avatar] will present. It is dynamic in real time. It is two-way interaction” (Iteration 5/Yuliana).

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Experiences in Embodiment in 3D Learning Environments - 1 Virtual worlds shape the embodiment of learners in the form of avatars, among other features (Thomas & Brown, 2009). With identities acted out or expressed through avatars, learners can immerse in 3D content through interacting with other users’ avatars. Through role play scenarios in the 3D virtual world in this study, instructional designers understand more about their own powers and limitations. “I like the play scenarios to practice cultural competency. Things are so dynamic. Decisions are made in real time. This really helped me realize the cultural context [in which I was] originally situated” (Iteration 5/Yuliana). Enhancements were suggested as well. “The avatar is a bit simplified, hope to have more facial expressions” (Iteration 5/Yuliana). The more control one has over an avatar the more one experiences a sense of embodiment, immersion, and presence. In our research with students, a participant independently reiterated what Yuliana, an instructional designer, indicated: “I like the clothes and my appearance in the [virtual] world. If the facial mapping is more like me, it will make me feel more like the avatar is me” (Iteration 5/Ethan). The success level with which avatars engage learners is highly dependent on the level participants can project themselves into or identify with the avatar. Designers can adopt a variety of design methods through which learning activities develop within the learning space, encourage learners to characterize themselves as avatars to enhance the experience of virtual worlds and promote engagement. An instructional designer commented: “Embodiment depends on how much control you have over the avatar. Also, the time, you won’t get the embodiment feeling if you just play 15 minutes. But if you have played for days, more embodiment will be built” (Iteration 5/Yuliana). She continued: “Interestingly, if you watch the video games kids play, the avatars are not polished at all, no real face, actually just boxes. But they are so attached to them. I think because they have the full control over it. I think more control brings more embodiment feeling” (Iteration 5/Yuliana). “Students can learn from peers. When students switch to different roles (different embodiments), they all bring their own prior knowledge and experiences. Multiple perspectives and approaches contribute to the cultural learning scenarios” (Iteration 5/Yuliana).

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Despite the development of competencies and standards for instructional designers, cultural competence is nearly systematically overlooked or taken for granted (Rogers, Graham, & Mayes, 2007). Two of the International Board of Standards for Training, Performance and Instruction’s (IBSTPI) (2012) Instructional Designer Standards allude to cultural sensitivity but are overly general: 7(b) Determine characteristics of the physical, social, political, and cultural environment that may influence learning, attitudes, and performance. 12(e) Accommodate social, cultural, political, and other individual factors that may influence learning. (pp. 4, 5) Similarly, the International Society for Technology in Education’s (ISTE) (2017) Standards for Educators includes cultural competence as a collaborator item rather than a design item:

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4(d) Demonstrate cultural competency when communicating with students, parents and colleagues and interact with them as co-collaborators in student learning. (p. 2) One future research direction is identifying, detailing, and evaluating or measuring cultural competencies for instructional designers. Bezrukova, Spell, Perry, and Jehn’s (2016) review of research in cultural sensitivity training is poignant: “A key finding from our analysis is that integrated training worked well along with training that focused on both skill-building and awareness. From these conclusions a question arises: what exactly needs to be integrated” (p. 1245)? Future research into instructional designers’ cultural competence should attend to scales, such as Hammer, Bennett, and Wiseman’s (2003), along with characteristics identified by cross-cultural communication experts (Lynch, 2011): • • • • • • •

Respects individuals from other cultures Makes continued and sincere attempts to understand the world from others’ points of view Is open to new learning Is flexible Has a sense of humor Tolerates ambiguity well Approaches others with a desire to learn (p. 104)

The Association for Talent Development (ATD) (2015) builds on these for their global designer and trainer competencies. Identifying and measuring competencies of instructional designers assumes an acknowledgement of their cultural biases and stereotypes. Documenting what designers know (i.e., cognition) and what they may express in addition (i.e., implicit cognition) require creative, comprehensive measures. A second research direction is testing virtual worlds and other related objects and systems for access, equity, and inclusion, or cultural pluralism and variation, through diverse personas and UX methods (Cabrero, 2014; Cabrero, Winschiers-Theophilus, & Abdelnour-Nocera, 2016). In design, a persona is a fictitious user that shares commonalties with a target audience or small group when interacting with the process or product. More specifically, a persona is a “communicational evocation of a set of users with shared aims on technological needs and requests, and it is mostly built by designers based on users’ real data” (Cabrero, Winschiers-Theophilus, & Abdelnour-Nocera, 2016, p. 149). Research should focus on the challenges of developing diverse personas in instructional design and the procedures designers use to make learning objects and systems inclusive. As Cabrero, Winschiers-Theophilus, and AbdelnourNocera (2016) caution, “a lack of cross-cultural validity, local relevancy, and designerly liability make personas prone to false or oversimplified representations in depicting local populaces” (p. 149). Personas are underutilized in instructional design and it is important that researchers document how and when designers collect “users’ real data” to depict target student groups. Research into development and uses of personas is increasingly imperative as AI tutors, pedagogical agents, VR systems, and related ALTs are included in products for interactive learning (Aleven, Beal, & Graesser, 2013; Baylor, 2007; Gutica & Petrina, 2020; Wang & Petrina, 2013; Wang, Petrina, & Feng, 2017). In short, instructional designers should keep in mind the challenge of diversity in their products. Although not stressed by participants, avatars and associated features, such as skin tone and clothing, should reflect cultural diversity. Closely related to research into personas, this is a third recommended direction for research within 3D virtual worlds, ALTs, and VR platforms as user content and vendor 33

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content often limit avatars and clothing to western skin features and styles. An avatar is “the graphical representation of a user of a digital media product functioning as a focus for the user’s agency within a virtual world” (Liboriussen, 2014, p. 38). Nowak and Fox’s (2018) extensive review found that users “select avatars they believe will help them meet interaction goals, which could include revealing or concealing elements of their identity to other users” (p. 40). Granted, as instructional designers in our research reported, users split attention between avatar representation and virtual world content and rules. Hence, it is important for researchers to explore whether and how designers provide a range of choices of avatars with visible cultural or racial characteristics and roles. Harrell and Lim (2017) stress that rather than considering avatars as “mere technically constructed visual artifacts,” “a more expansive view holds that virtual identities serve as important ways through which people represent or express themselves” (p. 53). Along with Harrell and Harrell (2012), they prove insightful findings and methods for researching diverse avatars within an empirical “computational identity systems” framework (p. 57). Fourth, we recommend future research into guest-host relations as analogous to interdependencies among students or users, instructional designers, and their objects or systems (Zhao, 2019, pp. 137-142). Eames (1972) describes the guest and host relationship that he and his wife emphasized in their design work: “One of the things we hit upon was the quality of a host.... a very good, thoughtful host, all of whose energy goes into trying to anticipate the needs of his [or her] guests— those who enter the building and use the objects in it” (p. 16). Williams (2018) elaborates, arguing that the “designer as host” “is catalyst for a series of actions and encounters to take place, which may involve a specific piece or shape, or may include the transformation of that piece through learning experiences. The host facilitates learning, exploration, adaptation and interaction” (p. 287). Host-guest relations are conceptually dimensions of hospitality (Hawthorne, 1932). This could be a productive analogy for conceptualizing cultural competence in instructional design in that not all hosts and guests act the same (e.g., some hosts are frustrating or uncomfortable while some guests are rude). Aitken’s (1991) commentary on the Wu-Men Kuan is insightful: “Host and guest... we switch roles and have fun” (p. 99). Instructional design may require role switching and code switching in ways that can be informed by other forms of design, such as architectural and fashion design. The host does not always have full authority and the guest is not always being controlled. The dynamic interactions between the host and guest build the fundamental relationship among them. And further, the host and guest cooperate with each other. This demands reconceptualizing the traditional hierarchical structure of design into one of a networked heterarchy (Williams & Fletcher, 2010).

CONCLUSION This chapter addressed the challenges and problems of the cultural competence of instructional designers. We stressed the importance of empirical research with instructional designers. We found that using a tangible instructional product as a sounding board, such as the 3D virtual world designed in OpenSimulator, keeps the participants grounded and concrete. That said, we analyzed interview data collected from six instructional designers’ experiences and found seven themes related to the cultural aspects of the virtual world design. These themes can potentially contribute to building culturally effective virtual worlds and sensitive learning environments. An effective instructional designer needs to consider not only the students’ cultural background, but also their own cultural background and biases. In turn researchers need to explore the cultural competence of instructional designers. We recommended 34

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four future research directions, including cross-cultural instructional designer competencies along with research into cultural personas, avatars, and guest-host relations. As educational systems across the world are emphasizing and experimenting with forms of online and remote learning, it is increasingly important to enhance and improve the cultural competence of instructional designers.

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Zhao, J. J. (2019). Design of a 3D virtual learning environment for acquisition of cultural competence in nurse education: Experiences of nursing and other health care students, instructors, and instructional designers (Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation). University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Cultural Competence: Ability to design and respond for “diverse values, beliefs and behaviors, including tailoring delivery to meet [students’] social, cultural, and linguistic needs” (Betancourt, Green, & Carillo, 2002, p. 5). Instructional Design: Analysis and development or design of learning objects, products, and systems. Intercultural Competence: The “inter” prefix added to “cultural competence” indicates a two-way exchange of development and the give and take nature of individuals from two different cultures in interaction. User Experience: Methodology to account for “perceptions and responses that result from the use and/or anticipated use of a product, system or service” (International Standards Organisation, 2019).

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Chapter 3

Educational Practices Resulting From Digital Intelligence Ana Nobre https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9902-1850 Universidade Aberta, Portugal

ABSTRACT This chapter highlights the place that digital intelligence is gaining in all sectors of our society, especially in education. Digital intelligence influences individual and collective life and it is necessary to develop critical thinking about its use. Training learners and teachers in digital intelligence also means, in a way, working to prevent potential abuses that could occur in the near future. For digital intelligence to contribute to the academic success of all learners, the role of teachers has never been more important. This chapter analyzes the emerging practices resulting from pedagogical innovation, with digital intelligence in platforms Moodle, Duolingo, and Classcraft.

INTRODUCTION Humanity, according to Aristotle (1993), is naturally able to live in society. It is difficult to imagine the human being who lives totally isolated from his equal. Therefore, at least one concept here seems relevant to us: collectivity. It seems to be paramount in human survival. In this collectivity, the need for the other is evident. It seems unlikely that a human being can live exclusively alone; dependence on the other tends to be a characteristic of all human societies. Hobbes (1979), on the other hand, does not deny collectivity or social life, but tends to believe that the other is a storm for us. According to this author, the presence of another human causes us fear, because our relations tend to violence and the extermination of both, and in that sense only a legitimate political power could save us. One thing that calls our attention to authors so distinct and separated by centuries of difference is not necessarily divergence, but a point that in terms of interpretation brings them together: the human being is bound to the presence of the other. If this is true, we wonder if a human could be able to live in the world totally isolated from a human group? How would he guarantee his survival? Our goal, however, is not to understand how the human DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch003

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being survived or determined itself collectively. Living with the other in recent years seems to have expanded the possibilities--,could the other be a machine? Could a machine be understood as an agent of interlocution? Could an intelligent machine educate a human? If not educating, could it provide data to expand educational possibilities? Where would the teacher’s role be in this situation? Do hierarchies change? Reconfigure? Do they obliterate? Relevant issues, but our focus in this chapter is to reflect on the following question: in the contemporary world of Education, wherein Digital Intelligence (DI) seems to gain several dimensions of performance, is it possible to think about minimizing the human presence in the teaching-learning processes? In educational strategies? In more depth, we seek to understand how DI directs ideas and proposals on the reconfiguration of teaching. We problematize DI and its dimension as a possible answer to the reconfiguration of teaching work and practices.

BACKGROUND Defining Digital Intelligence: No Small Task! Defining DI is not a simple thing because the definition has evolved since 1960 (Buchanan, 2005). At the time, some algorithms could enter into a rather vague definition of DI, whereas today they are taught as part of classic problem-solving strategies and not as instances of DI (Rich, 1988). DI is very far from replacing human intelligence today, and it is difficult to estimate the extent of DI development in the future. Projections range from a limited application of DI in the coming decades to achieving a technological singularity in the relatively near horizon. This singularity would be a point of no return where DI could develop itself exponentially, jeopardizing any human control over it. However, it is not necessary to consider extreme scenarios for advances in DI, even from a conservative perspective, to deserve the attention of education stakeholders (Karsenti, 2018}). DI is creating new needs for a specialized workforce as well as a need for citizens to have a good grasp of the issues surrounding digital tools. Actors in the education community can react to or prepare for change. In its simplest form, Digital Intelligence can be defined as a field of study aimed at the artificial reproduction of the cognitive faculties of human intelligence in order to create software or machines (robots, platforms, etc.). Digital Intelligence is therefore also computer programs - or machines like robots - able to learn and apply the knowledge acquired to solve problems. DI is therefore able to solve problems by learning from data, patterns, and models. Digital Intelligence is found in several fields and applications in education (Sanchez & Lama, 2008). The point of DI is to relieve humans of certain, sometimes more complex, tasks by automating them.

SOME KEY CONCEPTS It seems necessary to present some key concepts of this current field (Najafabadi at all, 2015).

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Big Data Big data is like a digital ecosystem that allows data to be collected, transferred, archived and manipulated in abundance. The link with Digital Intelligence is important. Ecosystems that collect a lot of data allow systems that use DI to exploit it. Take, for example, the Moodle platform of Universidade Aberta, where 500 teachers from Portugal, in the 2018-2019 school year, registered to receive teaching certification through distance training. Each of the learners completed 8 to 12 modules each requiring nearly a hundred actions. So that’s about 500,000 pieces of data (or actions) that can be used to create “patterns” or models, in order to better understand the journey of learners who succeed and those who don’t in this training course. The use of DI enables the platform to learn from these models so that it can become more effective in ensuring the success of more learners.

Algorithm Algorithms are at the heart of artificial intelligence. They are a series of instructions designed to define the behaviour of a system to enable a result to be obtained from data supplied as input. For example, algorithms are used in automatic image recognition. Machine learning, this aspect of artificial intelligence, enables knowledge to be generated automatically by processing the data collected. With the knowledge acquired by the system, it is then possible to create a model or pattern allowing decisions to be made. For example, in the case of the distance-learning platform of Universidade Aberta, the system can, from the success and failure paths of learners, create an “ideal” intervention model, which aims for the success of learners. This “learning” allows the platform to automatically, autonomously, and individually send reminders at appropriate times to learners to increase their chances of success. Machine learning can therefore, in a way, lear without having been previously programmed. Machine learning also benefits automatic image recognition, as is the case with the “leafsnap” application, which provides a wealth of information about plants that are photographed with a tablet. In a context where more and more schools are equipping students with tablets, these applications have exceptional cognitive potential + which goes far beyond the motivation they arouse in learners.

Deep Learning Deep learning is hierarchical learning (Bengio, 2019). Deep learning mimics, in a way, the functioning of a human brain. For image recognition, for example, deep learning works as follows. When looking for a cat image, a search engine like Google assigns several characteristics or layers to that query, such as head outline, coat type, nose type, and ears shape. For each characteristic, a weighting is applied. The software, without telling us, goes through abstract layers to increasingly concrete layers in order to be able to make predictions. In the end, without having seen all the images of cats that exist, Google generally manages to recognize all cats. This advance in DI is significant. No more need to teach machines everything. A machine can learn and recognize without necessarily having learned before

Digital Intelligence and Education The OCDE article “Coronavirus and the future of learning: What AI could have made possible” presents several thoughts on the added value that systems based on Digital Intelligence would have in education 45

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in a context of crisis such as that resulting from the Covid-19. The author indicates that in the current containment crisis, AI would be most useful for the following people: • • •

those who help teachers and students find free and commercial digital resources; those who help teachers give students personalized tasks based on their knowledge and the difficulties they have with the subject; those who help students to do their work in different fields.

Lacoste (2017), in an article for the website “Consumidor Moderno”, sought to reflect on how the DI would impact the business of the future. The author stated that: “it is a mistake to think that human creativity and intelligence will be replaced by robots and algorithms.” For the entrepreneur, the biggest challenge that involves DI and business is the “training and qualification of teams”, in this sense, “teams” or “group of workers”. If Lacoste’s business outlook is right, would that be the biggest challenge when we think of Education--Training and qualifying teachers for the future with DI? The contributions of Digital Intelligence to education are far from magical. We are not at all at the substitution of teaching practices by algorithms, but its potential benefits in the teaching and learning environment do not appear to be negligible. Only by basing ourselves on the educational triangle (Houssaye, 1988), is it possible to foresee impacts that could be the subject of much speculation. The three poles of the triangle (teacher, students and knowledge) as well as the relationships between them (didactic, pedagogical and learning) would be potentially affected by DI. The interest of the educational triangle as an angle of attack for categorizing impacts lies in the fact that it is a relatively effective model. It forces us to question several aspects of education in a school context. Digital Intelligence, as we have seen, is already very present in education, especially with the applications that learners and teachers use on their mobile phones on a daily basis or when they carry out research on the Internet. The Duolingo application, with its voice recognition system and its more than 200 million users, is a digital tool with artificial intelligence that is widely used in education. This intelligent foreign language learning platform is now increasingly present in classrooms where tens of thousands of teachers are already using it to improve their lessons. Its Digital Intelligence makes it possible to adapt learning activities according to current knowledge of the language. There are other platforms for learning languages, such as Mon Coach Bescherelle, a spelling training application which adapts to the level of the learner. A growing number of universities are now making use of software that uses DI to detect plagiarism in student work. This is the case, for example, with the software Turnitin, which uses DI to detect the degree of plagiarism of received work. The interface allows you to see, on the one hand, the student’s work with the possibly plagiarized passages and, on the other, the source of the plagiarism, with even the percentage of the source that is found in the work of the student. Adaptive learning is another important trend in the use of Digital Intelligence (Miller, 2019). With adaptive learning, technologies above all make it possible to easily and dynamically adapt learning paths according to the needs and characteristics of learners. Adaptive learning uses DI to organize learning according to the skills or individual needs of each learner. The system cannot only vary the content in terms of degree of difficulty, but it can also add or remove content. Major authors (Russel & Norvig, 2016 and Negnevitsky, 2002)) in education such as Pearson and McGraw-Hill have also fully invested in this sector by offering intelligent digital books. The concept is simple: learning paths are constantly evolving, depending on the responses provided by learners, their needs, their characteristics, etc. 46

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Figure 1. The Educational Triangle, Source: Organized by the author

Few platforms use Digital Intelligence, but there is the Classcraft platform. Created in 2018, this platform allows teachers to lead a role-playing game in which their students play different characters. It is a digital tool that helps stimulate teamwork, improve student behavior in class, and increase their motivation. As part of a project in development, Classcraft, on the strength of the data collected in the classroom from some 2 million users, will soon use Digital Intelligence to help teachers manage their teaching in a more efficient and automated way. For Bhat and Cain (2018), the teachers of the future will be intelligent machines instead of humans and the teachers will lose their role and become little more than classroom assistants. They will set up equipment, help children when necessary, and perhaps maintain discipline. The point here is not to try to give validity to predictions about the future. The concern is to compose a debate about the possibilities and changes promoted by DI, since they are configured as reality in the educational “market”. Or as Kasparov said, “The combination of humans and machines is not the future, it is the present”.

Digital Intelligence and Teacher This is probably what we fear most: will DI succeed in replacing the teacher? From the perspective of even very significant progress, the answer is no. A report from the Brookfield Institute indicates that early childhood educators, preschool, elementary and secondary school teachers are among the five jobs least likely to be affected by automation (Lamb, 2016). DI naturally leads to the development of several technologies that are likely to replace repetitive and relatively predictable tasks involved in teacher responsibilities. However, the work of the 21st century teacher goes well beyond the spectrum of automatable tasks. Beyond being a master conveyor

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of knowledge, teachers can be creators of learning environments and support for students. Humans have qualities that are difficult to replicate in DI: empathy, caring, critical judgment, and cognitive flexibility. In other words, the soft skills of teachers will be a big part of what sets them apart from DI. However, beyond the substitution of certain repetitive and relatively predictable tasks, DI can have a significant impact on the level of teaching practice through numerous didactic tools that help pedagogical choices.

Digital Intelligence and Student We are certainly not talking about replacing the teacher with DI. The mere thought that DI might interfere with the educational relationship might cause the idea to be automatically rejected by many people reading these lines (Caneva, 2018) However, because a technology exists does not mean that we have to use it. For example, daring to envision that DI could be paramount in classroom management opens the door to writing a script for the Black Mirror series. However, science fiction scenarios aside, many educators already working on DI augmented products that can help students with their learning. In fact, for several years, the Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC) have been successful. Students can now learn what they want, when they want, and most importantly, at a pace that suits them. However, this abundance of opportunity and freedom can create confusion about what to learn and the order in which to proceed. Some students do not know what they want to learn because they do not have the expertise of a teacher who can structure and optimize the phases of learning. This often leads to demotivation and abandonment of the training process. DI could help prevent this from happening. Using data gathered on a profit, DI could play a supporting role in the educational and professional guidance of the pupil by counter a possible decline in motivation. Smart tutors could predict when a student starts to lose interest and alert their teachers. They could anticipate the behavior and respond with the right reinforcement.

Digital Intelligence and The knowledge In the case of knowledge, we do not distinguish here between knowledge, skills or any other categorization of what human beings can accumulate as intellectual baggage. The impact of DI on knowledge appears to be on two levels: first, the training students should receive to understand and use DI. This aspect is not often mentioned when talking about the impact of DI in education, but there are certainly questions to be asked about training programs and this for several subjects, including foreign languages (Taddei, 2018). Then there is the knowledge that humans should have to live in a world where DI is very present. Whether it is to meet students’ need for expertise or to develop critical thinking skills in the use of this technology, it is important that educational programs adapt. Though for many people, understanding how DI works seems very complex and reserved for a small group of specialists, several concepts related to DI are already taught, but their disposition in training programs is sometimes questionable. Moreover, in the teaching of foreign languages, should we make sure that the pupils know how to use these technologies adequately and responsibly? After all, our young people will soon have to manipulate tools where DI will be more and more present. Indeed, the proliferation of media of all kinds is already a challenge in the selection and interpretation of information. When this information is pre-screened and targeted by DI algorithms, as is currently the case on some social media, the challenge is even greater. The ethical issues of DI should therefore be addressed during their training. 48

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IMPACT ON EDUCATION Didactic Impact Part of a teacher’s job is potentially automatable (Chui at all, 2016). DI ​​would free teachers from certain more administrative tasks so that they could take more care of the pedagogy. The added value of DI in this regard is not in the content itself to be taught, it is in the selection process of content and tools in the classroom. These new technologies allow individual student analysis in a fraction of the time and can help teachers personalize individual learning.

Educational Impact In Stanford University’s latest forward-looking report, part of a 100-year program to study DI in all its possibilities, researchers predict an increased presence of DI tutors in assisting teachers (Stone & al., 2016). Indeed, by collecting school data and combining it with students’ learning habits, some algorithms will be able to tailor a learning program that promotes educational differentiation. Imagine a program that is able to classify students according to the methods of work that are most effective for them in a very short time. This process, which once consumed a lot of time in observation, data compilation and statistical calculations, can be optimized by DI. It would therefore increase the impact of teaching on student learning. In this context, we are not replacing, but rather reinforcing the importance of the teacher to students. “If certain situations of failure are perhaps inevitable (personal circumstances, poor adaptation of the learner’s desires to the training offered), a good many of them could be avoided by early detection, which would give rise to a reframing and more attentive and personalized follow-up. »(Bovo, Sanchez, Héguy, Duthem, 2013). Additionally, once the overall picture of learners is established, algorithms can match candidates most likely to help each other. Collaboration in learning can now be done on a very large scale--a pupil in Portugal could very well receive help in French from a pupil in France, Switzerland, or Belgium. The machine that connects them can monitor the exchanges and intervene to ensure that they remain pedagogically relevant. In a case where students have difficulty in oral communication - vocabulary - alerts can even be sent to their respective teachers for follow-up.

Impact on Learning Regarding the relationship between the student and knowledge, perhaps some tasks performed by the students would be automatable, or at least, could be optimized by DI. It is about making informed educational choices. DI, like all technology, must provide a learning advantage and most importantly, not hinder it. Beyond student monitoring tools, DI can develop or refine certain tools for the production and processing of information. Take the case of the automatic translator, an example of a work tool that has become more refined over time. We remember its early drafts, where several suggestions did not fit well with the author’s intentions. Since then, a collection and analysis of a large number of texts using data science has refined its effectiveness. Today we have a machine translation tool that satisfies many educational needs. However, DI could go way beyond just translating sentences. The potential of feedback tools in the linguistic field is evident with the advent of artificial intelligence (Wang, Chang, Li, 2008).

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METHODOLOGY We realize the existence of different DI proposals for Education in the world, such as Khan Academy, Coursera, Content Technologies Inc., Carnegie Learning, Third Space Learning, Lit, Alt School and Mind Spark. In this chapter, we present a few possibilities of thinking about the application of DI in Education as intelligent systems. We will discuss the Moodle, ClassCraft, and Duolingo platforms order to allow reflection on DI. The methodology and analysis for our research was carried out in our educational context. The methodology used is based on applied research related to the practical nature of the case study, characterizing its approach in the delimitation and interpretation in the Explanatory Research as theorization and reflection . We analyze the platforms adapted to teaching and learning mediated by DI, and we promote considerations about teaching in this context.

EXAMPLES OF DI IMPLEMENTED IN HIGHER DISTANCE EDUCATION In the context of the current pandemic, we observe that many training courses are provided to teaching staff in Portuguese Higher Education on the tools available, whether on the digital learning environment of the Moodle type and their quiz tools and homework assignment, Microsoft Teams-type collaboration tools, Zoom-type videoconferencing tools, H5P, or Studio Yuja-type multimedia video production tools, etc. Other training courses supporting the transition to distance learning are also offered. We also observe that many organizations currently offer inventories of digital educational resources to teachers (Blanc, 2017) to support them in their transition to distance learning. Presumably, with this experience, more teachers will be tempted to explore the use of digital tools and thus diversify their teaching strategies. They will have a better understanding of the possibilities and the complementarity that software, especially those based on Digital Intelligence, can offer for their teaching. There is widespread fear today, fueled by sensationalist articles, of a possible replacement of teachers by robots. This closer proximity to digital tools should allow teachers to assess for themselves the potential of digital technology and thus be interested in exploring the use of DI in education. Helping this assessment will be their awareness of the protection of personal data and the ethical use of technologies, issues needing to be addressed during training. We are constantly told that DI will be omnipotent in the years to come and that the education sector absolutely needs to consider this technology to train the adults of tomorrow. But what are the exploitable avenues of exploration? How does one usse DI in a tangible way? To answer these questions, let’s explore some real examples of the educational practice of this technology.

Duolingo Online language learning platforms are an alternative when it comes to quality training in the process of acquiring a second language. The preference for this type of education is often due to its accessibility, as these tools can be used from anywhere and on any computer or mobile device. Among the several existing today, one stands out Duolingo. This platform is intended to help anyone who wants to learn a new language. Duolingo is one of the most famous applications whose main objective is to work with differ50

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ent languages through dynamic and attractive games. This application is very interactive and can serve as a pedagogical tool, arousing the interest and attention of students when learning a Foreign Language. The software is available on the web for free. It facilitates practices, as well as assessments and other activities for learning a new language. When choosing a particular language, for example the English language, the teacher has the option of choosing the level of education and the age of the students. The teachers can reinforce the contents that have already been taught through exercises and games presented by the app. It offers rewards when challenges and activities are overcome, involving learners in a fun way They are more participatory, which increases motivation for study. Each lesson is a phase and when one lesson is completed, another is unlocked, making it easier to follow a coherent learning progress. The software stimulates waning to advance modules and win prizes in a fun and playful way. The .teaching and learning process ends up being pleasant and interactive. Duolingo is a media resource where-in teachers can create classes and add students, elaborate tasks, and monitor and observe each student’s development. Classes become more dynamic--teachers can evaluate students in real time, present the proposed content, and then launch an activity in Duolingo, Activating the timer available in the tool challenges the students. Seeing the possible difficulties they are confronting and removing those obstacles makes it seem more possible that they can acquire mastery of the language. With regard to Duolingo in the school environment, the platform was adapted specifically for teachers. This version, named “Duolingo to walk,” is intended to assist teachers in controlling activities performed by students, making it possible to create a class and later develop the desired activities within the platform. It also makes possible the monitoring of student progress and the identification of those who have the most difficulties in performing a certain task. The data are formulated from the analysis of individual student performance.

Personalized Learning Personalized learning refers to a DI curriculum that offers a variety of educational content in which the pace of learning and the teaching approach are optimized to meet the needs of each learner. The tool adapts to the preferences and interests of different learners Learners who learn very quickly and those who are a little slower can continue to learn at their own pace. Thus, in our academic journey as a teacher we have created short-term digital resources. In order to diversify and adapt learning to the needs of the student, the design of short-term learning resources requires a fragmentation of the content down to its smallest component (grain of knowledge), i.e. the equivalent of ‘a paragraph of text, a table or a figure. Its fragments or grains of knowledge can be reused in their initial or adapted form (to the work context or to the personal situation) to meet the needs of each learner in a personalized device. Once these fragments are constructed, they are organized into learning resources of limited duration (between 15 and 20 minutes) that aim to acquire an element of skill or achieve a specific objective. These components or resources will be grouped together according to the pedagogical approach or the pedagogical scenario according to the target audiences and according to the training objectives. According to Bouillier (2013), granularity and scripting are the two essential requirements to make content suitable and adaptable. In order to integrate students and motivate them to explore interdisciplinarity, students were asked to make a 15-minute documentary about a phase on distance learning. Wanting to give the project the form of a Role-Playing Game, the concepts of characters were used for each student. The characters 51

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were separated into clans, which were the groups and levels of evolution (generations in distance learning). At the end of the project, a student survey concluded that 91% of them reported having dedicated themselves more than usual to the studies of the disciplines involved; ranking and seals were the elements that students liked most, and more than 90% of them found the experience to be beneficial in terms of learning (Silva et al, 2015). In this new way of teaching, teachers are not excluded from the teaching process. Only their role and mission t will evolve and transform. Instead of a “knowledge broker,” he teacher must become a guide and a coach, with less time devoted to disseminating the content, which the students can master on their own, and more time devoted to individual training, support, and implementation of programs adapted to the needs of each student.

Gamification Education is an area that has been exploring gamification a lot. An online platform, Moodle, helps teachers to “gamify” their subjects. According to Deterding et al. (2011), the essence of gamification is to increase the attendance and motivation of a user in certain areas, through the inclusion of game elements. Typically, these elements are used to motivate user behavior, generating greater productivity. The team environment is also widely explored and worked on, both through competition and cooperation principles (Glover, 2013). In this sense, gamification intensifies mutual help, exchange of information, and the creation of communities. This type of online environment for education which tracks student development, motivating and helping teachers to evaluate, is becoming increasingly common on the internet. (Kiryakova et al, 2014).

The ClassCraft ClassCraft is a tool that allows teachers to transform the learning experience using game mechanics to engage and motivate students in the classroom (ClassCraft, 2017; Triana et al, 2015). To use ClassCraft, teachers register on the platform as a teacher, then create a new class and choose a class name. They can then change the rules of the game as they apply to different categories: • • •

• •

experience points. the actions of the characters’ powers. sentences when students lose Health Points (health points are the student’s life points in the game, where whenever the student behaves negatively, they must be removed.) and Experience Points (experience points are the points of experiences, added whenever the student has a positive behavior). XPs are necessary for the student to pass the level, buy powers, and progress in the game. the duration of the class in the game.-- choosing the start and end date and the duration in hours of the lesson per week, the experience needed to change students’ level.

After setting up all the rules, teachers register students to the class, adding the students’ first and last names, creating a team and/or inserting students to the chosen team. Finally, the teacher emails students desiring to register the code that will be required for the student to enroll in Class Craft and enter the game.

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Participant Actions Throughout the classes, the students of the discipline could carry out a set of activities with a view to the development of the discipline project (conception of an open educational resource for a virtual exhibition on the history of distance learning) and the respective necessary documentation, as well as fulfill with your student duties in the classroom. The set of actions that students can perform in class are as follows: develop the tasks proposed on the Moodle platform; do research to clarify doubts; ask questions in discussion forums or in the classroom; collaborate in clarifying the doubts of colleagues in the classroom; be assiduous, punctual and comply with social rules in the classroom; giving suggestions to colleagues in the form of constructive comments or clarifying doubts; share tutorials and interesting documents on topics to be implemented in the project; make presentations / demonstrations of the project. The accomplishment of tasks, the desire to reach different levels to carry out a good project, and the gratification in developing and improving skills are intrinsic factors related to student motivation. Thus, in this project game elements that are expected to have a favorable influence on students’ motivation are used, such as the allocation of points, the unlocking and use of powers, the progress bar, the team system, battles and scoring. These elements of the game were selected according to the learning objectives and evaluation criteria of the discipline. The inclusion of time constraints for problem solving, as well as the use of points and levels to accomplish the task, can be used to involve and encourage students. Points allow for quick feedback and can be an advantageous device to keep students motivated. The proposed challenges and missions can be useful to reinforce autonomy for decision making, and cooperation. ClassCraft was used in this Gamification process as a support platform for the implementation of the proposed activities. Through this platform, it is possible to divide students into teams, monitor student performance through the student’s character, purchase powers and character customization, manage content in the classroom, and communicate with students through messages. Gamification, in the educational context, has increasingly contributed to the innovation of learning strategies and improved the quality of teaching, while facilitating student engagement in certain activities (Christensen & Raynor, 2003).

Virtual Environments - Moodle Virtual learning environments, according to some authors (Sarmento et al. (2011), Barbosa (2005) and Castro Filho et al. (2005), are understood in the integration of a set of digital technologies that allows the construction of an environment or educational software in which it is possible to promote information in knowledge to its members individually or collectively. In this way, the virtual environments can be, according to Dillenburg and Teixeira (2011), restructured as a “physical classroom for the online environment” using “appropriate technologies to provide learners with new tools that facilitate learning”. Virtual environments have instructional and constructionist tools that are classified according to their functionalities in educational software, such as questions and answers, communication, and cooperation (ex: Moodle). The virtual learning environment used in our teaching path promotes the cooperative and collaborative teaching-learning process mediated by computer in the undergraduate and graduate courses in distance and networked teaching at the Universidade Aberta of Portugal. Available to the entire university community, the platform Moodle features tools and an interface that enable the inclusion of content in 53

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different formats (texts, narrated presentations, videos, animations and simulations, synchronous and asynchronous student-teacher interaction, and monitoring of the process learning via assessments). In this virtual environment, new pedagogical practices are used to minimize the limitations of time and space between educational actors, teacher, and student. For Cristovão and Nobre (2011), “the real function of the educational apparatus is not to teach, but to create learning conditions”. Thus, Motta and Gava (2011) point out that this educational environment “contributes greatly to the development of new cognitive processes”. The examples presented in this chapter are still incipient and operate at different levels of education (undergraduate and Master). However, it is possible to understand the strengthening of discourse when a relationship between teaching and learning is built in which student and machine develop frequent interactions. This is, therefore, an open door for the reconfiguration of the work of teaching to a process in which “intelligent tutors” will be able to accommodate hundreds of students individually with unique paths and tracks – a phenomena that was unlikely in the previous everyday life of the teacher. Figure 2. The Digital Intelligence in the Educational Practices, Source: Organized by the author

We must not forget that the COVID-19 pandemic has required historically unprecedented changes in education systems. Therefore, we must think about an educational model in which students and machines are the real protagonists of the teaching and learning process. Teachers can be relegated to secondary role

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or undergo a reconfiguration of their duties and functions similar to the transformations that occurred in other professions when there was a massive implementation of digital technology in the work process.

CONCLUSION This chapter sought to broaden a still incipient debate in the field of education--using DI in educational practices. We note that there is still no prospect of transformation in the short term, but there are signs that such technologies will be widely used in education. Legislation that alters teaching could affect the incorporation of DI in education, mainly due to the demands of the Covid-19 pandemic, which overnight transformed teaching and learning. We should conduct a reflection on DI: • • • •

DI influences our individual and collective life, and it is necessary to develop a critical mind regarding its use; if we really want DI to contribute to the academic success of all students, the role of teachers has never been more important; DI is already ubiquitous in education: smart books, search engines, educational applications, learning platforms, etc; DI in education must be clearly defined by different educational actors in our entire society, starting with teachers and learners.

Digital Intelligence is now an integral part of our lives. Thus, we must see it as a tool with great potential that we must know how to use pedagogically. One of the challenges our education system faces with the arrival of DI is to find the right balance between maintaining certain traditional aspects that have made teaching so rich for centuries and taking advantage of the new possibilities offered by DI in education.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Active Methodology: The student is the main character and the most responsible for the learning process. Digital Intelligence: The sum of the social, emotional, and cognitive skills essential to live in the digital world. Digital Technologies: Can help make our world fairer, more peaceful, and more just. Education With DI: Understand the evolution of our environment, not to be so sceptical of advances and not fear them in our workplace. Educational Practice: Most appropriate action or path to be taken to achieve an objective or goal.

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Educational Triangle: Reflect as many pedagogical postures as possible depending on whether one favors a peak or a relationship between two peaks. Virtual Learning Environment: A platform for the digital aspects of courses of study. They present resources, activities and interactions within a course structure and provide for the different stages of assessment.

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Chapter 4

Creating Virtual Learning Experiences Based on Engaging Interactions and Collaborative Work in Graduate Programs: A Cognitive Analysis Martha P. Mendez Independent Researcher, Colombia Nofal Nagles Garcia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6712-7212 Independent Researcher, Colombia

ABSTRACT The purpose of this chapter is to present a cognitive analysis of virtual leaning experiences based on engaging interactions and collaborative work to enhance business skills in graduate programs. The experiences include virtual learning scenarios, autonomous learning, virtual learning technologies, and collaborative work that enable the learners to enhance business skills required for the modern world. Ten virtual learning environments are sampled to analyze cognitive processes for the learners to enhance four main business skills: leadership, entrepreneurship, sustainability, and problem solving. Based on the analysis, the authors discuss the opportunities for improvement and recommend the implementation of activities in which learners investigate and respond to an authentic, engaging, and complex problem or challenge through collaborative work. This initiative provides more possibilities for learner interactivity and cognitive processes development and fosters the implementation of engaging virtual learning environments for learners skills to solve real-life situations.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch004

Copyright © 2021, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Creating Virtual Learning Experiences Based on Engaging Interactions and Collaborative Work

INTRODUCTION The purpose of this paper is to present a cognitive analysis of virtual leaning experiences based on engaging interactions and collaborative work to enhance business skills in graduate programs. The experiences include virtual learning scenarios, autonomous learning, virtual learning technologies, and collaborative work that enable the learners to enhance business skills required for the modern world. Ten virtual learning environments are sampled to analyze cognitive processes for the learners to enhance four main business skills: leadership, entrepreneurship, sustainability, and problem solving. A literature review was carried out on current e-learning trends and factors which facilitate learning to consider the main cognitive processes in such virtual learning experiences. Besides this, the engagement theory and an autonomous learning framework were considered to support the interactions between the learner and the content, the tutors and the peers taking place along the process. Based on the analysis, the authors discuss the opportunities for improvement, and recommend the implementation of activities in which learners investigate and respond to an authentic, engaging, and complex problem or challenge through collaborative work. This initiative provides more possibilities for learners ´interactivity and cognitive processes development and fosters the implementation of engaging virtual learning environments to develop learners ´skills to solve real life situations. Engaging learners in virtual learning environment scenarios to enhance professional competences and skills is one of the challenges educational programs have to face particularly when engagement, learning, and solutions to real life situations must be a guarantee of an effective educational process. Providing learners with engaging learning experiences lead the authors to consider the kind of learning activities, the learning interactions between the learner and the content, the tutors and the peers taking place along the process, and the cognitive process involved in such learning activities. A cognitive analysis of the virtual learning experiences was carried out to determine the effectiveness of the collaborative work and engaging interactivities implemented in virtual learning scenarios for graduate courses which aim is to enhance four main business skills: leadership, entrepreneurship, sustainability, and problem solving. This initiative tries to respond to the demands for virtual learning experiences that effectively and efficiently lead learners to develop those business skills under an autonomous learning framework and collaborative work based on an engagement approach .Ten virtual learning scenarios were sampled to analyze cognitive processes containing collaborative work, autonomous-based learning activities, interaction itineraries, and digital material and resources which satisfy the learners ´needs for solving problems in real context. As a matter of fact, opportunities for interactions between the learner and the content, the tutors and the peers mediated by resources and technological applications, foster learners´ cognitive processes to contribute to the education of innovative citizens. This chapter is developed in 4 sections. In the first section, some referential information about the Perspectives on e-learning will be presented to explore the current educational trends as the context to understand the diversity of technologies which can be used to create virtual learning experiences; factors and strategies for creating engaging learning experiences and the concepts of autonomous learning and collaborative work. The second section, Virtual engaging learning scenario will describe the design, the content, the collaborative work, the learning activities and the technological tools used to provide a diversity of interactions between the learner and the content, the tutors and the peers. The most common components found in the learning management systems of the sampled courses are detailed in order to illustrate how a virtual learning scenario provides leaners with technological tools to achieve learning goals. The business skills considered to provide the learners with are also presented. In the Cognitive 62

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analysis, the authors will analyze the cognitive scope involved in the virtual learning experiences keeping in mind the components of the learning activities used to enhance the business skills in graduate learners under an autonomous learning framework. Finally, in the last section, Conclusions, the authors will determine the opportunities for improvement and recommend the implementation of activities in which learners investigate and respond to an authentic, engaging, and complex problem or challenge in a virtual engaging learning scenario.

Background of the Study The study is introduced by reviewing the relevant literature about e-learning trends, learners’ engagement, and collaborative work to relate them to the virtual environments sampled for this study and to analyze the cognitive processes of the learning activities designed in the virtual environments to enhance business skills in graduate programs. There are many concepts related to e-learning and digital education or virtual education. For the effects of this paper, the authors consider these three concepts as synonymous as they make use of a broad range of technology-enhanced educational strategies. E-learning is defined as “an innovative web-based system based on digital technologies and other forms of educational materials whose primary goal is to provide students with a personalized, learner-centered, open, enjoyable, and interactive learning environment supporting and enhancing the learning processes” (Rodrigues et al. 2019: 95). With the increase in e-learning innovations in higher education, institutions need to overcome the new challenges they have to face in order to accomplish their educational goals and to ensure efficiency and efficacy of tools and strategies when creating a virtual learning scenario. Besides this, engaging interactions and cognitive processes may enable learners to respond to authentic and complex problems by providing opportunities for learners to interact with the content, the tutors and the peers along the process while developing strong disciplinary knowledge and multidisciplinary skills like those related to business.

PERSPECTIVES ON E-LEARNING Regarding perspectives on e-learning, Joosten et al (2020) mention the most important trends in digital education: adaptive learning, open education resources, gamification and game-based learning, massive open online courses, Learning Management systems (LMS) and interoperability, mobility and mobile devices and design. Adaptive learning is an approach that uses emergent technologies to provide personalized instruction. “Adaptive learning technologies provide students with learning activities, an assessment of their learning, and feedback on their learning” (Joosten et al, 2020: 17). These technologies permit to understand how each student learns, how to personalize contents, activities, evaluation, and feedback according to the learner´s level of achievement and needs. The design and development of a course from the adaptive learning perspective contributes to the personalization of the learning process since different contents, multiples activities, a variety of evaluation and feedback can be implemented according to individual needs. Open education resources (OER) refer to a “course content, materials, or activities that are open, meaning that they are easily accessible by instructors and students” (Joosten et al, 2020: 18). These open education resources may be from different sources such as: The Internet, virtual libraries, publishers, 63

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teachers, researchers, among others. In any case, it is important to consider that these resources are easily accessed by the learner through friendly learning platforms. Gamification and game-based learning are considered two learning tools that may meet the requirements for effective learning processes. The gamification and the game-based learning permit that the learner manages his knowledge and uses it in different situations by being able to understand the theoretical concepts and the factors that affect its application. “Gamification is learning that incorporates gaming elements into the learning activity (content and interaction), assessment, or course… Game-based learning is when games are used to facilitate learning. This learning is often related to the learning of concepts to enhance cognitive knowledge or the learning through the simulation activities to enhance students’ cognitive, behavioral, and affective abilities that often parallels real-life situations” (Joosten et al, 2020: 19). Gamification stimulates learners’ participation, simplifies activities, allows positive feedback through rewards and awards, promotes attitudes such as perseverance and triumph, develops a sense of relevance and solidarity, promotes peer communication and develops values that make the person an integral human being. (Gallego, Molina & Llorens, 2011). Massive open online courses (MOOC) are free digital courses accessible to anyone and have no limit on the number of participants. MOOC´s contain different kinds of materials such as videos, readings, tests, and provide interactivities to build a learning community among the participants. MOOC´s are a learning strategy to attract new learners by linking the prospective students to institutional academic offers. According to Glance, Forsey and Riley (2013), Massive open online courses have common characteristics such as massive participation, online and open access, lectures in short video formats, formative quizzes, automated assessment and/or peer and self–assessment and online forum for peer support and discussion. Learning Management Systems and interoperability (LMS) are platforms that facilitate the administration of resources of the learning process and are oriented to virtual learning. Most of these LMS´s systems integrate a diversity of tools for telepresence, instant messaging, mobile content, multimedia content and activity deployment with different applications. With regard to this, an LMS platform “has capabilities to integrate with interactive/multimedia materials and for instructors to implement with non-linear learning design, which give it the potential of migrating online course design from teachercentered pedagogies to student-centered pedagogies”. (Tseng, 2020: 5). Mobility and mobile devices are referred to an e-learning trend to solve the learner´s needs for a high mobility and constant use of a mobile device in all personal, social, and professional activities. According to Traxler´s definition, m-learning is “any educational provision where the sole or dominant technologies are handheld or palmtop devices” (as cited by Mendez,2017). This educational trend known is mainly focused on providing content, learning experiences, activities and interactivities, assessment, among other processes, through the use of smart phones, portable digital assistants (PDAs), and tablets. Design has to do with factors and elements needed to develop an e-learning course. The design requires to consider the creation of the interactions between the learner and the content, the tutors and the peers, the learning activities and the assessment to be carried out on the course objectives in order to impact the virtual learning. It also promotes the autonomous learning and the factors that affect the engaging learning experience for learners to improve their process. A synthesis of the previous ideas is represented in the figure 1. Digital learning trends

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Figure 1. Digital learning trends Source: Author´s elaboration

The different e-learning trends presented above and others proposed in several reports and studies are considered in order to obtain significative learners ‘engagement. They ensure the domain of new knowledge and develop competences related to any discipline in learning process. All of these trends and innovations contribute to advancing quality digital teaching and learning experiences designed to enrich, they involve and engage the current learners with anyone, anywhere, and anytime. According to Mynbayeva, Sadvarkasssova and Akshalova (2019), digital technologies change our way of life, ways of communication, way of thinking, feelings, social skills, and social behavior. Also, they open up other channels to influence on other people, make decisions and solve problems. In the revision of the sampled courses, the authors found that all of them use open resources, learning management systems, design, adaptive learning, and have access to mobility and mobiles devise. There is not clear evidence of massive online courses, gamification, game-based activities to promote the learning process. In general terms, the graduate courses taken for this study use and implement some of the different digital educational trends described above by the authors.

ENGAGING LEARNING EXPERIENCE The engaging learning is the mechanism that facilitates the learning process creating learners´ interest in the subject and motivation for fulfilling the learning activities. That is to say that “engagement is defined as the level of involvement that the learner exhibits toward the learning process, whereas motivation is defined as the reason for the learner to become and remain engaged in a learning activity” (Laine & Lindber, 2020: 84).

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Engagement contributes to the learning process as “the learner moves in a cycle from concrete experience to observation and reflection to forming abstract concepts to involvement in active experimentation – that is, from feeling to watching, thinking and doing”. (Fuirer, 2005: np). It implies that learner acts with responsibility and autonomy to work on different learning activities. From the autonomy and the active learning perspectives, “the learners form connections in three cyclic phases: planning, cognitive processing, and evaluating. The planning phase is a meta-cognitive process in which learners enumerate the surrounding nodes, order them, exclude some, and select one. Learners use three criteria in choosing nodes: (a) self-efficacy, (b) eligibility of the resource, and (c) feasibility of the resource. In the cognitive processing phase, learners interact with the selected nodes in hopes of finding the required information. The evaluation phase refers to the process of questioning the value of the selected nodes” (AlDahdouh, 2020: 100). All of these actions are carried out in an autonomous way by the learner. In addition to those perspectives explained before, E-learning requires that the learners take initiatives to interact with contents, other learners, teachers, technological platforms, companies (in the case of practicum or internships), and surroundings. In this context, engagement in e-learning can be defined as “the level of interest learners show towards the topic being taught; their interaction with the content, instructor, and peers; and their motivation to learn and progress through the course” (Briggs, 2015: 1, cited by Abernathy & Thornburg, 2020: 247). In virtual education, learners are required to develop a capacity of resilience for transforming constantly their cognitive structure to attend all environmental changes. The engaging learning permits that learners create an emotional link with their learning process. Therefore, engagement captures “heart and mind, in learning – or to use formal terms, are cognitively and affectively connected to the learning experience” (Quinn, 2005: 12). The engaging learning is developed when the learners are“using time and energy to learn materials and skills, demonstrating that learning, interacting in a meaningful way with others in the class (enough so that those people become “real”), and becoming at least somewhat emotionally involved with their learning (i.e., getting excited about an idea, enjoying the learning and/or interaction)”. (Dixson, 2015: np). The new educational strategies are focuses on the learning process centered in the learner to obtain a formal commitment and an active role. Consequently, the learning process would “allow the students to actively engage in the learning process and become immersed in a topic of interest over a longer time as well as experiment, play and examine open-ended problems promote critical thinking and help develop creative and innovative skills” (Bøjer, 2021: 36). Engaging learning applies different strategies to obtain learners ´s commitment to improve their own learning process. Then, it “is important to recognize the value of incorporating e-learning activities in our teaching approaches in order to motivate students and provide them with an opportunity to interact and engage with peers in cooperative and collaborative learning” (Muñoz de Escalona et al, 2020: 1783). The expertise and the personal experience of the authors lead them to consider the importance of the following elements when creating a virtual learning scenario to improve the learners ‘learning process: 1) understanding learners ´interests, 2) applying theory to real situations, 3) using relevant, precise, and clear contents, 4) promoting autonomous learning, 5) providing flexibility to learners, 6) presenting content in multiple formats, and 7) giving continuous feedback. All of these elements contribute to engage learners with their own learning process. These elements are showed in the figure 2 and explained in the following paragraphs.

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Figure 2. Engaging learning experiences elements Source: Author´s elaboration

Understanding learner´s interests is necessary in order to recognize what moves the learner´s actions. Its understanding permits to know the way he learns and the strategies that facilitate his learning processes. Understanding learners contribute to design the learning activities to engage leaners with their learning process and to gain the learner’s commitment to his own process. Applying theory to real situations facilitates to contrast theory with practice contributing to competences development and assuring the domain of theoretical concepts of a subject and a discipline. Using new knowledge in real situations permits the learner to understand the subject and its applications so that he can improve his professional performance. Using relevant, precise, and clear contents contributes to the learning process because relevant contents are meaningful for the learner and facilitate knowledge acquisition and skills development. Precision and clarity are content attributes which permit the learner to understand theoretical concepts and to improve his learning process. Promoting autonomous learning permits that learners make an intentional decision to control and to assume their responsibility for goal setting, planning, using resources, and taking actions in a learning process. They self-regulated and manage their own process. Autonomous learning enables the appropriation of new knowledge and develops competences and skills for improving professional performance. Providing flexibility to learners offers freedom to undertake own initiatives to improve their learning process according to their own interests, needs, and capabilities. Flexibility permits that learners act and deploy their autonomy to determine what do, how to do and when to do according to the activity itinerary. Presenting contents in multiple formats improves the students´ learning process. Using different content formats in the virtual learning scenarios can support the different leaning styles and learners needs when interacting with digital materials and resources. Videos can be used to facilitate the comprehension of difficult topics; application forms can support knowledge in different situations; diagrams and graphic elements can be used to summarize content; audios incorporated to long and complex explanations can

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make understanding possible; visual content, music, and songs effects can increase the learners´ interest and engagement to their learning process. Figure 3. Factors of an engaging learning experience in virtual learning scenarios Source: Author´s elaboration

Giving continuous feedback makes the learner know and understand his advances and at the same time, makes him measure his progress on his own learning process. Feedback as information given to the learner by teachers or peers about his performance related to learning goals or outcomes will improve his confidence, self-awareness, and enthusiasm for learning. Feedback enhances learning and improves assessment performance guiding the leaner to undertake actions to ensure the achievement of competences and to domain the theoretical concepts. It facilitates the comprehension of how to learn and what strengths and weaknesses the learners possess in the learning process. As a matter of fact, in the graduate courses sampled for this study, the authors found evidence of some engaging learning elements such as the application of theory to real situations, the use of relevant, precise, and clear contents, the autonomous learning promotion, the content in multiple formats, and the continuous feedback. However, the least evident element was the understanding of learners´ interests because, in most of the cases, the sampled courses were designed from the institutional perspective to respond to the curriculum. The importance of these elements has been confirmed with different graduate business courses taught by the authors in Colombia, México and Perú. This will be complemented with some mechanisms that permit to deploy engaging learning experiences in the virtual learning scenarios.

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FACTORS FOR AN ENGAGING LEARNING EXPERIENCE IN VIRTUAL LEARNING SCENARIOS Four factors are considered by the authors in order to have an engaging learning experience in a virtual learning scenario: 1) Brevity and precision, 2) Interesting content, 3) Visible elements, 4) Interactivity. These factors are shown in the figure 3. Regarding brevity and precision, it is particularly important that contents are short and accurate, specially, the text because the learner does not like to read a text which is extremely long. It is recommended that texts have an extension between five and ten lines. In any case, the text has only one screen (scroll) as a maximum length. For interesting contents, it is necessary to tell a good story which generates emotional links with the learner or his activities or his environment. These emotional links create the atmosphere to promote the learning processes of the learners. The emotional links can be related to an interesting story, practices, applications, failures, or successful cases of real life. The purpose is to catch the learner´s attention and make him ready for the subject or topic of study. With respect to visible elements, a virtual learning scenario must have multiple options and different forms of content presentations. It is especially important that the screen shows information in different and varied forms to impact touch, sight, hearing, and all sense organs. It can be achieved by using sound, text, graphics, video, and special effects to enrich the contents in virtual learning scenarios. The interactivity is a factor that completes the other components as it permits that learners interact with the contents, with the teacher, with other learners. In some cases, the interactivity may transcend the virtual learning scenarios by including interaction with co-workers, communities, and society in general. There are applications which permit the interaction in simulated scenarios to explore and to assess the impact of those different factors in the use of knowledge in real situations. The analysis of the factors of engaging learning experiences in the virtual learning scenarios of the courses sampled for this study shows the use of technology applications or development. For instance, all of the engaging learning experiences show interesting contents, different level of interactivity with the contents, the teachers, the peers, and different interactions with the environment. There are contents of different length, but they are precise. Besides, the visible conditions in the scenarios show that all the analyzed courses contain several multi formats in their learning scenarios. such as texts, graphics, images, video, and audio, among others.

TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES TO IMPACT E-LEARNING Education is having an evolution that requires an innovative pedagogy. According to Kukulska-Hulme et al (2020), ten technological advances will affect the future learning process: 1) Artificial intelligence, 2) Post- humanist perspectives, 3) Learning through open data, 4) Engaging with data ethics, 5) Social justice pedagogy, 6) E-sports, 7) Learning from animations, 8) Multisensory learning, 9) Offline networked learning, and 10) Offline networked learning. These technological developments are presented in the figure 4 and are described in the following paragraphs.

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Figure 4. Technological advances to impact e-learning Source: Author´s elaboration

Artificial intelligence (AI): It is understood as “computer systems that interact with people and with the world in ways that imitate human capabilities and behaviors” (Kukulska-Hulme et al, 2020: 3). Artificial intelligence has many applications for improving learning process such as: facilitating interaction, developing critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, cooperation, and team work. AI can help teachers to evaluate activities and verified learners ‘identity to reduce the fraud risk. Post-humanist perspectives: It permits the effective interaction between humans and machines as in the case of using chatbots to attend the learners´ frequently - asked questions. Technological developments and advances have worked on applications to improve the interactions between human-machine, human-environment and human-animal that can be used in learning processes. Learning through open data: It facilitates the obtention of information from the real world and contributes to understand the theoretical concepts and its applications in the real life to improve the individual´s professional performance. The open data enables engaging learning experiences because it connects data and information for appropriate knowledge and creates new one. Engaging with data ethics: It has to do with the different questions related to a “pressure on educational institutions to start to develop policies relating to data ethics, to obtain consent from students to use and analyze any data from their interactions with their learning management system, and to provide effective training and support for students” (Kukulska-Hulme et al, 2020: 4). It is important to consider an ethical use of all data involving the participants in the learning process. Social justice pedagogy: It explores the options to “help people address their unconscious biases as well as the injustices in their own lives and in society. Social justice pedagogy aims to educate and enable students to become active citizens who understand social inequalities and can contribute to making society more democratic and egalitarian” (Kukulska-Hulme et al, 2020: 4). Social justice pedagogy

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is a challenge that digital education and virtual learning scenarios must face to improve the equity and justice and to reduce any form of discrimination in the learning process. E-sports (Electronic sports): The use of games in the learning process has increased in order to improve the engagement in the learning process because they enable the options for interaction and application of knowledge in the real word. The games permit to see the effects of the factors which impact the application of theorical concepts in different situations. Gamification enables the learner to experiment and interact with simulations applying knowledge in the real world. At the same time, it permits to create new knowledge and adapt it to particular and concrete situations. Learning from animations: In this case the video and animation applications offer an important element for showing and explaining difficult concepts and different forms in which the new knowledge can be applied in the learner´s activities. Learning from animation facilitates to understand the new knowledge and can engage the leaner through a dynamic and creative way. Multisensory learning: It is based in the use multimedia and hypermedia for content presentation which impact different senses simultaneously for improving the learning process. Multisensory learning contributes to the learner engagement because the contents are presented using different media as text, video, animations, graphics, movies, songs, audio, and different types of effects. Offline networked learning: It facilitates multiple interactions with content, partners, communities, resources, among others. It promotes different options to access to the new knowledge from a variety of sources. Offline networked learning contributes to develop competences as cooperation, collaboration, and teamwork as there are learners who can be given access to mobile devices in technology-rich collaborative learning spaces. Online laboratories: They provide remote-access to labs in various disciplines and engage learners to apply knowledge and develop competences to use the theoretical concepts in his professional life. Online laboratories offer the opportunity to practice and experiment knowledge and develop skills using theories in practical situations. As regards the technological advances impacting e-learning mentioned in this section, the authors analyze the virtual learning scenarios supporting the evidence of technology applications in terms of innovation. It is found no evidence of artificial intelligence or interaction between humans and machines from the post- humanist perspective. There are only readings, recommended practices or bibliography related to autonomous learning and some open data which support learning processes.

AUTONOMOUS LEARNING Autonomous learning is understood as a learning strategy for obtaining learners´ commitment to learning and to take over the control of their own learning process. In this situation, the learner plans his learning process, searches the resources, decides the way to approach to the subject, determines the sources of information to access a theoretical concept, and explores the different applications of knowledge. The autonomous learning processes “facilitate the navigation of learning through higher degrees of motivation, creative thinking, and conceptual learning” (Esfandiari & Gawhary, 2019: 64). The autonomous learning works on four dimensions: 1. Conceptual advance, 2) Development of Thinking abilities, 3) Senses, emotions, and values generation, and 4) Academic and social habits formation (Nagles, 2014). These dimensions are showed in the figure 5 and explained in the following paragraphs.

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Figure 5. Autonomous learning dimensions Source: Author´s elaboration

Conceptual advance is related to the progress in the domain of a theoretical concept and the theory of subject learning object. That is, to know how a concept makes successful practice possible. Conceptual advance permits the understanding and the new knowledge appropriation. It contributes to knowledge construction. Development of thinking abilities on the one hand refers to the cognitive abilities to facilitate and improve the learning process as it facilitates this process and on the other hand, it corresponds to thinking abilities associated to the domain, use and application of new knowledge in the personal, social, and professional activities. Senses, emotions, and values generation contribute to improve the learning process and to have a better performance. The learner creates a scenario and conditions which promote the learning process and appropriation of new knowledge and competences development. Sense, emotions, and values generation contributes to build personal links between learners, learning process and theoretical concepts. Academic and social habits formation facilitate the interaction between the learner and the contents and context to improve the learning process. Academic and social habits formation permit to generate interaction with sources of new knowledge, to develop conditions to be engaged in learning activities, to explore options for habit formation that promotes learning process and focuses on the learner´s learning process. Autonomous learning is based on “student-centered approaches, meanwhile, put students’ interests, needs and experiences in the first place, and take on the view that learning is enhanced when the content of learning is relevant to the learner to develop their own understanding of the concepts, and when students energetically engage in the process of building their own knowledge” (Hsieh & Hsieh, 2019:5). There are two key factors in the autonomous learning: self-regulation in learning process and metacognition. Self-regulation in learning process is an activity carried out by an autonomous learner to control different factors as: the learning goals, the learning itineraries, the learning resources, time for

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a task fulfillment, among others. Regarding metacognition, the learner is aware of his own learning process and understands the way he learns, his strengths and weaknesses to learn a particular subject. The self-regulation in the learning process and metacognition make a learner be responsible of his own learning, assume proactive autonomy as a learner, and take the control of different variables and factors of his own learning process to obtain better outcomes. An important reference to autonomous learning is the Four pillars of learning for the 21st century which contributes to focus the learner´s activities in his learning process to obtain a good performance and the expected outcomes. This will lead the learner to learning throughout life. The four pillars for learning in the 21st century is a paradigm established by UNESCO and correspond to: 1) learning to know which is focused on developing logical skills and learning to learn; 2) learning to do that promotes the application of knowledge and develops problem solving skills according to the context; 3) learning to live together oriented to develop social skills and values to be tolerant with other cultures and to learn how to work in teams; and 4) learning to be focused to whole personal development including body, mind and spirit (Delors, 1996). Figure 6. The four pillars for learning in the 21st century Source Authors’ elaboration

Concerning autonomous learning dimensions such as the conceptual advance, academic, and social habits formation, the authors get evidence of all the sample courses. However, the development of thinking abilities and senses, emotions, and values generation are presente at different levels of application. For the case of metacognition and self-regulation learning processes, the virtual learning scenarios show they are present but in different stages of evolution. If the paradigm of the four pillars for the 21st century learning is examined in the virtual learning scenarios, learning how to know, and learning to do are present in the learning activities proposed in the

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courses. On the contrary, the other 2 pillars, learning to live together and learning to be are less evident or they are not clearly stated in the activities. According to the authors, the autonomous learning contributes to a sustainable learning process given that sustainable living may be attained by focusing on accessibility, availability, affordability, accountability, and last but not the least, acquisition of knowledge and skills as it is stated by Valverde-Berrocoso et al (2020) The effective sustainability education is obtained by developing skills of critical thinking, being able to argument effectively and to challenge injustice and inequitable distribution, being able to respect people, to cooperate, and to develop conflict resolution skills . Sustainable education is focused on acquisition of skills which ensures relevant and responsible learning. Collaborative work is supported by collaborative learning which is one of the approaches taken to analyze the cognitive processes given in the interactivities in the sampled virtual learning scenarios of this study. Collaborative learning refers to the learning organization which learners are provided with to work together on a shared learning goal (Asterhan & Schwarz: 2016; Gillies & Boyle: 2008). Dooly, M. arguments that “Collaboration entails the whole process of learning. This may include students teaching one another, students teaching the teacher, and of course the teacher teaching the students, too. …students are responsible for one another’s learning as well as their own and that reaching the goal implies that students have helped each other to understand and learn” (2013:21) Collaborative work will enable the learner to enhance business skills through learning strategies, learning interaction in virtual engaging learning scenarios. Cognitive processes involve the development of mental skills and the acquisition of knowledge (Anderson and Smith,2015) and they include basic mental and complex processes such as knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation according to Bloom´s taxonomy. The cognitive processes permit a learner to carry out problem solving and decision-making tasks to develop skills and being able to cope and deal with real life situations. In this study, learners are expected to develop cognitive processes to enhance business skills in an engaging and virtual leaning environment that allows them to self-direct and self- manage their own learning process at a collaborative -based activity strategy in which they have to interact with content, tutors and peers.

LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND TOOLS All of the selected courses for this study are delivered through a learning management system (LMS). According to Sabharwal et al. (2018); Turnbull, Chugh, and Luck (2019), an LMS can be defined as an online technology for designing, managing, and delivering course material. In other words, an LMS is a network space enabling pedagogical, technological, and communication integration to articulate and integrate learning spaces. As an integral component of virtual education, LMS´s have different tools for the learners to successfully achieve the different tasks and goals comprised in the virtual courses and to interact with the contents, the tutors, and the peers. In the sampled virtual courses, the authors found a common LMS structure basically with a content module, communication and evaluation tools, and learning follow-up tools. Referring to the content module, the LMS´s permit the learners to interact with videos, live sessions, multiformat texts, storytelling, podcasts, among others. Learners are supposed to read, watch, and listen

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to the resources and materials given in the virtual scenario in order to fulfil the learning activities and develop competences under an autonomous learning process. As communication tools, the authors found a set of elements that allow interaction among learners in virtual learning scenarios to get feedback on learning experiences. Mails and an internal messaging system were integrated to facilitate the learner-tutor-learner communication and communication with peers; also, they have forums for debating. The interaction with the teacher provided by the different communication tools has several purposes, such as clarifying concepts, guiding the learner in his process, answering questions and exchanging ideas as part of the teaching -learning process. It is also important to mention that in the courses taken for this study, learners have received a systemgenerated email that lists the course, coursework, and the due date assigned .This favors the learning process as learners are engaged in the different tasks and activities by being aware of when to do and what to do in the right time. Bearing in mind that LMS´s have several tools to provide learners with communication, a calendar and an announcement board were evident as elements to support their learning process by providing them with pertinent and necessary information about their tasks and responsibilities. Besides these tools, the LMS´s have a set of evaluation tools such as tests, surveys, rubrics, grading and feedback tools which allow learners to be aware of their progress in the learning process. Because of the teacher´s need to review and rate learners´ performance and course effectiveness, the LMS platforms provide them with tools to follow up learning processes, so that both teachers and learners can be aware of their development. Tests and surveys are used to measure the learners´ monitor their progress, and gather information from them related to course development. Although it was not a common feature in the virtual learning scenarios, learning analytics was evident in 4 of the 10 courses, the authors want to mention that it allows the teacher to run different reports for the courses in order to keep track of his learners´ performance and support their learning process by acting in the right moment and engage them in the r own process. As regards the peer interaction and collaboration elements found in those virtual learning scenarios, chats, glossaries, wikis, and forums were incorporated for the learners to work in groups. This team work is a dynamic learning strategy that allows the learners ´ knowledge consolidation through the interaction with others. Additionally, working in groups (by collaborative work) permits the learners to develop cognitive processes such as analysis, synthesis, argumentation, problem solving, among others that facilitate to conceptualize ideas and principles and to incorporate them into everyday practice. Using the interaction tools contributes to networking and the creation of a belonging sense to the group, strengthening the necessary motivational link to the learning process, resulting in learners´ engagement. The authors found that the effective use of the virtual classroom platform is guaranteed by a technical support system provided by trained personnel during seven days a week, twelve hours a day by various means provided by the institutions: e-mail, telephone service, face-to-face attention (when possible), and induction virtual learning scenarios management, etc. To conclude, the purpose of the LMS is to offer the learners the possibility to have permanent access to information that will allow them to organize their activities; for example, programming events, submitting activities, debating in forums, and communicating with peers. Also, it generates non-formal interaction through the chats. It is important to mention that these interactions occur synchronously (in real time) or asynchronously (not at the same time, when the learners can learn at their own pace).

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BUSINESS SKILLS TO BE ENHANCED IN LEARNERS In this study, the authors selected the business skills that were common in the ten virtual learning scenarios and defined them in terms of learners needs. For the analysis of the cognitive processes involved in the learning activities proposed in the virtual learning scenarios, the authors consider the different tasks learners are provided with keeping in mind Anderson and Krathwohl´s revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy. In this revision, Anderson and Krathwohl proposed a cognitive model that included 4 knowledge dimensions: factual related to what a learner needs to know to solve problems; conceptual which refers to understanding ideas in an interconnected and organized way to be able to apply knowledge; procedural dimension meaning that the learners know how to do something, the steps they have to take in order to fulfil a task; and metacognitive that has to do with learner´s knowledge about his own learning process(Anderson and Krathwohl,2001).That is to say, through metacognition the learners know how they learn, what they learn and when they learn. Since the 10 sampled courses for this study have virtual engaging learning scenarios aiming at enhancing business skills in graduate students, the authors take 4 of those skills which appear as a common feature in those virtual scenarios for the subsequent cognitive analysis. Defining competences as “… good performance in diverse, authentic contexts based on the integration and activation of knowledge, rules and standards, techniques, procedures, abilities and skills, attitudes and values”. (Villa Sanchez, 2008:29), the authors selected leadership, entrepreneurship, sustainability, and problem solving which are defined in terms of common business skills the authors found in the curricula of the institutions where this study was carried out. Once the tasks and learning activities planned for those learners are considered and revised in terms of competence development and the mentioned business skills, the authors present their findings in the virtual scenarios. Those findings are illustrated in chart 1. Evidence of competence development in virtual learning scenarios Leadership: Strategic thinking skills and Motivation. Professionals need to be able to analyze critical factors and variables that will influence the long-term success of a business, a team, or an individual. Based on motivation, a leader must inspire their workers by supporting them in developing self-esteem through recognition and rewards so that the company has the best results in production. Entrepreneurship: Efficiency and networking High performance is necessary when it comes to solving a problem, therefore a professional requires strategies and techniques for yielding higher results in less time. Professionals need to grow a network which facilitates business opportunities, partnership deals, finding subcontractors and exploring external capacities. Sustainability: Creativity and emotional intelligence Being able to coordinate with others and manage teams of people show the ability to empathize with other people. Professionals must be able to take a creative approach to their work and understand its role in solving problems. Problem solving: Analytical skills and decision making Being able to work with data (information and different types of facts) will permit to see patterns and trends for drawing meaningful conclusions from them and solve problems.

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Professionals must be able to choose between possible solutions to a problem by reasoning or following own intuition. Table 1. Evidence of competence development in virtual learning scenarios Virtual learning scenario

Competences development Leadership

Entrepreneurship

Sustainability

Problem solving

1

Evidence of an activity related to leadership competence.

Evidence of an activity related to entrepreneurship competence

No evidence of sustainability competence development activity.

Evidence of an activity related to problem solving.

2

No evidence of a leadership competence developmentactivity

No evidence of an activity related to entrepreneurship competence

Evidence of an activity related to sustainability competence.

Evidence of an activity related to problem solving.

3

No evidence of a leadership competence developmentactivity.

Evidence of an activity related to entrepreneurship competence

Evidence of an activity related to sustainability competence.

Evidence of an activity related to problem solving.

4

No evidence of a leadership competence developmentactivity.

No evidence of an activity related to entrepreneurship competence

No evidence of an activity related to entrepreneurship competence

Evidence of an activity related to problem solving

5

Evidence of a part of an activity related to leadership competence.

Evidence of an activity related to entrepreneurship competence

No evidence of an activity related to entrepreneurship competence

Evidence of an activity related to problem solving

6

No evidence of a leadership competence developmentactivity.

Evidence of an activity related to entrepreneurship competence

Evidence of an activity related to sustainability competence

Evidence of an activity related to problem solving

7

Evidence of a part of an activity related to leadership competence

Evidence of an activity related to entrepreneurship competence

Evidence of an activity related to sustainability competence

Evidence of an activity related to problem solving

8

No evidence of a leadership competence developmentactivity.

Evidence of an activity related to entrepreneurship competence

Evidence of an activity related to sustainability competence

Evidence of an activity related to problem solving

9

Evidence of a part of an activity related to leadership competence

Evidence of an activity related to entrepreneurship competence

Evidence of an activity related to sustainability competence

Evidence of an activity related to problem solving

10

Evidence of a part of an activity related to leadership competence

Evidence of an activity related to entrepreneurship competence

Evidence of an activity related to sustainability competence

Evidence of an activity related to problem solving

Source. Authors´ elaboration

VIRTUAL ENGAGING LEARNING SCENARIO In this section, the authors describe the design of the virtual learning scenarios in terms of content (materials and resources), the collaborative work, the learning activities, and the technological tools used to provide a diversity of interactions between the learner and the content, the tutors and the peers and achieve the main goal of the sampled virtual learning scenarios from different graduate programs. The virtual learning scenarios of the 10 courses sampled for this study have:

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•

•

• • • •

Content: A diversity of formats are present in the virtual scenarios: pdf´s texts with case studies, experts´ lectures, articles, papers and power point presentations. E-texts are also part of the content. There is some use of multimedia such as videos and podcasts as part of the resources the learners have to interact with in order to acquire knowledge. Collaborative activities in order to provide learners with the possibilities to interact with peers and work together under a collaborative learning framework. In the activities included in 4 of the 10 virtual scenarios, leaners have to evaluate and assess own work and contribution to the group by using evaluation rubrics. Learning activities for independent work such as reading texts, listening to podcasts, writing summaries and analyzing information that allow them to contribute to the group when fulfilling collaborative work. Interactivities such as the ones between learner with content, learner and tutor, and learner and peers already explained along the presentation of the learning management system. Technological tools in order to present content. Mainly, learners can create a diversity of technological tools such as infographics, blogs and wikis, simulations software, and videos in order to develop the different learning and collaborative activities proposed in the courses. Cognitive processes as higher-level functions to gain knowledge and comprehension. These cognitive processes include critical thinking, comprehension, analysis, synthesis, problem identification and statement, and problem-solving. Self-regulation activities are also found in the 10 virtual learning scenarios.

For the effects of this study, in chart 2 the virtual engaging learning scenarios are given an identification number and the relevant elements comprising the virtual engaging learning scenarios are listed in order to determine the cognitive processes and analyze them lately.

COGNITIVE ANALYSIS This section presents the analysis of the cognitive scope involved in the virtual learning experiences considering the components of the learning activities used to enhance the business skills in graduate learners under the autonomous learning and engaging framework. Based on the common elements found in the virtual engaging learning scenarios, the authors analyze the cognitive processes included in virtual engaging learning scenarios to enhance business skills on graduate learners from different curricula and institutional backgrounds. To do so, Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy Model designed by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) and evaluated by Goksu (2016) is taken as a criterion since it refers to the Knowledge Dimension that support the expected skills and knowledge in the learners enrolled in such courses taken as samples. The knowledge dimension (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001; Goksu (2016) contains factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive scopes that permit learners to construct knowledge and apply it to real situations.

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Table 2. The virtual engaging learning scenarios Source. Authors’ elaboration Virtual learning scenario

Content (resources)

Collaborative work

Learning activities 1. Listening to some experts and reviewing supporting materials. 2.Analysing the meaning of the lectures and relating them to other readings, knowledge, and experiences. 1. Reading some texts from experts and reviewing supporting materials. 2.Analysing and synthetizing information

1

Live lectures

Writing a report on leadership Evaluating collaborative work

2

Texts

Summarizing information about sustainability

3

Multimedia: podcasts, videos, storytelling

Presenting a flow Interacting with several chart for a business examples of business cases. plan

4

Articles and papers reference literature Writing a problem statement and Presentations PowerPoint propose a solution Videos, Textbooks

5

Articles and papers reference literature Presentations PowerPoint Videos, Textbooks

Writing a problem statement and propose a solution Evaluating collaborative work

6

Articles and papers reference literature Presentations PowerPoint Videos, Textbooks

Writing a problem statement and propose a solution Evaluating collaborative work

7

Articles and papers reference literature Writing a problem PowerPoint statement and Presentations propose a solution Videos, Textbooks

8

Articles and papers reference literature Writing a problem PowerPoint statement and Presentations propose a solution Videos, Textbooks

graphics9

Articles and papers reference literature PowerPoint Presentations, Videos, Textbooks

Writing a problem statement and propose a solution Evaluating collaborative work

10

Articles and papers reference literature Presentations PowerPoint Videos, Textbooks Storytelling

Writing a problem statement and propose a solution Make a video

1. Listening to some experts and reviewing supporting materials 2. Writing a report of a case analysis 3. Writing a problem report and a proposed solution 1. Listening to some experts and reviewing supporting materials 2. Writing a report about the revision of reference literature 3. Writing a problem report and a proposed solution 1. Listening to some experts and reviewing supporting materials 2. Writing a state of the art about the subject. 3. Writing a problem report and a proposed solution 1. Listening to some experts and reviewing supporting materials 2. Writing a report of a case analysis 3. Writing a problem report and a proposed solution 1. Listening to some experts and reviewing supporting materials 2. Writing a report about a case analysis 3. Writing a problem report and a proposed solution 1. Listening to some experts and reviewing supporting materials 2. Applying the test for collecting data about the problem situation 3. Report the process and the analysis information on the problem situation 4. Writing a problem report and a proposed solution 1. Listening to some experts and reviewing supporting materials 2. Writing a report about a case analysis 3. Writing a problem report and a proposed solution 4. Make a video with the proposal to solve the problem

Interactivity

Technological tool

Cognitive process

Leaner-content Leaner-peers

Infographics

Critical thinking Self-regulation

Leaner-content Leaner-peers

Blog and wiki

Analysis and synthesis

Learner – content learner-tutors learner -peers

Video

Critical thinking Problem identification and statement Solving problems

Learner – learner Learner -content Learner – tutor Learner – peer

Video Blog

Critical thinking Problem identification and statement Solving problems

Learner – learner Learner -content Learner – tutor Learner – peer

Simulations software Video Blog

Learner – learner Learner -content Learner – tutor Learner – peer

Video Blog Infographics

Learner – learner Learner -content Learner – tutor Learner – peer

Video Blog Infographics

Critical thinking Problem identification and statement Solving problems

Learner – learner Learner -content Learner – tutor Learner – peer

Infographics Video Blog

Critical thinking Problem identification and statement Solving problems

Learner – learner Learner -content Learner – tutor Learner – peer Learner – environment

Simulations software Process information software Video Blog

Critical thinking Problem identification and statement Solving problems Data analysis Self-regulation Metacognition

Video Blog

Critical thinking Problem identification and statement Solving problems Self-regulation

Learner – learner Learner -content Learner – tutor

Critical thinking Problem identification and statement Solving problems Self-regulation Critical thinking Problem identification and statement Solving problems Self-regulation

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Referring to the factual knowledge, it is to know the basics of a subject to solve specific problems. About the conceptual knowledge, that means the ability to work with abstract concepts and ideas, to establish interrelationships among the basics and more complex ideas to frame a concept; procedural knowledge implies to follow steps to do something and requires skills and knowledge of methods. Finally, the metacognitive dimension that refers to the learner’s knowledge of his own learning process, the way he learns, when and what he learns as part of a reflective and an autonomous learning process. The most common and evident cognitive processes identified in the virtual learning scenarios taken as samples for this study are Critical thinking, Problem identification and statement, Solving problems, and Self-regulation. Therefore, the cognitive analysis will try to explain the knowledge dimension of those cognitive processes keeping in mind the collaborative work assigned to learners. In the revision of the activities proposed for developing collaborative work by writing a report on leadership, summarizing information about sustainability, presenting a flow chart for a business plan, writing a problem statement and propose a solution in the virtual scenarios 1 to 10, the authors analyzed the cognitive processes and can report: Critical thinking, as defined by Nussbaum, Barahona and Rodriguez (2020) implies conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information which also requires self-regulation and metacognitive processes for the learners to validate own knowledge. According to the knowledge dimension taken as criteria it corresponds to: • • • •

Factual knowledge as the learners need to understand the basic information given through the content; summarize the main features of the topics presented and write the report. Conceptual knowledge since the learners need to determine the relevant information, make up concepts prior an analysis done on own knowledge and collected information from different sources. Procedural knowledge as the leaners must apply procedures to formulate a business plan and being able to present it in a flow chart in which they have to integrate skills and judge decisions based on analysis. Metacognitive knowledge as the learners need to reflect about their process to consider their progress to make adjustments in their learning strategies.

Problem identification and statement which requires other cognitive processes such as searching relevant information, making inferences based on facts and principles, analyzing and synthetizing information and knowledge. • •

• •

80

Factual knowledge as the learners need to understand the basic information related to what a problem is and what a proposal means in terms of the interaction, they have with examples of cases given to be analyzed. Conceptual knowledge as learners must need to differentiate and determine the contexts, the general notions, and ask and answer questions regarding the problem they want to state, so that they will be able to build blocks of thoughts and beliefs and argumentations to state a problem on collaborative work basis. Procedural knowledge as they will be able to design efficient project workflow to fulfil the assigned task of stating a problem and proposing its solution. Metacognitive knowledge as they can manage own learning process and adjust their needs to work in a collaborative way.

 Creating Virtual Learning Experiences Based on Engaging Interactions and Collaborative Work

Solving problems taken in this study as a process that “…begins with recognising that a problem situation exists and establishing an understanding of the nature of the situation. It requires the solver to identify the specific problem(s) to be solved and to plan and carry out a solution, along with monitoring and evaluating progress throughout the activity”. (OECD 2013, 123), the authors follow OECD ´s model of solving problems and co-relate each of those steps presented by OECD with the knowledge dimensions by Anderson and Krathwohl. OECD ´s model comprises: generating a problem, specifying a problem, finding possible ways to solve the problem, testing these ways, and putting the solution into a larger context. In the virtual learning scenarios considered as the object of this study, the findings are: • • • •

Factual knowledge as the learners need to understand problem elements and context to find a possible solution as required in the task. Conceptual knowledge as learners’ needs are to be able to know principles and generalizations to respond to several contexts in which the problem is set and to determine the appropriate solutions through theories, models, and structures. Procedural knowledge as they must be able to determine the appropriate steps, methods, and techniques to solve the problem they stated. They must be able to test those procedures and negotiate with peers the right and the suitable solution. Metacognitive knowledge as they are required to work in groups and must be able to self-regulate and monitor their own process and progress.

Self- regulation in terms of being able to control, manage and direct own learning process as one of the principles of autonomous learning discussed in earlier sections. • • • •

Factual knowledge since the learners must identify ways to interact with resources, peers and teachers as learning strategies. Learners must be able to know the content formats that suit their needs for their learning process. Conceptual knowledge to be able to construct concepts by means of solid foundations in order to fulfil the tasks given in each scenario. This will permit the learners to explain and defend their criteria when debating in groups. Procedural knowledge as the learners must be able to apply and use a procedure regarding strategic knowledge to control their own learning process Metacognitive knowledge as they are required to control their own progress, to work in groups and reorganize tasks and procedures if it is needed to fulfil the learning activities.

CONCLUSION The aim of this cognitive analysis was to determine the opportunities for improving and implementing activities in which learners investigate and respond to an authentic, engaging, and complex problem or challenge in a virtual engaging learning scenario. This attempt had the view of collaborative work under an autonomous learning framework integrating several kinds of interactions between the learner and the content, the tutors, and the peers through sampled e-learning courses. Leaners’ engagement in virtual learning scenarios was taken from the perspectives of current educational trends as the context to understand the diversity of technologies which can be used to create virtual learning experiences. 81

 Creating Virtual Learning Experiences Based on Engaging Interactions and Collaborative Work

Factors and elements for creating engaging learning experiences were presented to enrich the possibilities of using innovative ways to deliver knowledge through virtual learning scenarios. They were discussed under an autonomous learning framework that includes the conceptual advance, the academic, and social habits formation. The authors got evidence of thinking abilities and senses, emotions, and values generation are present in the virtual scenarios as well as metacognition and self-regulation learning processes as part of the aim of the courses sampled for this study: enhancing business skills in graduate learners for different curricula and institutions. The effort for analyzing the cognitive processes entailed in each of the learning activities is a contribution to consider the need for creating virtual learning scenarios with a diversity of interactions that will engage learners in their own learning process, especially when they have to master professional skills required for the modern world of business. The analysis on the most common cognitive processes found in the sampled courses such as critical thinking, problem identification and statement, solving problems, and self-regulation show they correspond to factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive scopes that permit learners to construct knowledge and apply it to real situations. This analysis will lead teachers, designers, and institutions to consider the kind of learning activities they have to implement in order to have engaging virtual learning scenarios for enhancing business skills in graduate learners as the highest cognitive process required at this professional level. Institutions, teachers, and designers must consider a previous analysis of the course and learning objective and population; the activities design, the content development and the evaluation of resources and results. The impact of the technological innovations was not studied in this project, however further research may be carried out since all of them are also part of the engaging learning experiences displaying multiformat contents, diversity of interactivities between leaners and those contents, teachers, and peers.

REFERENCES Abernathy, D. F., & Thornburg, A. W. (2020). Theory and Application in the Design and Delivery of Engaging Online Courses: Four Key Principles That Drive Student and Instructor Engagement and Success. In Handbook of Research on Developing Engaging Online Courses (pp. 246-258). IGI Global. http://doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-2132-8.ch014 Anderson, L. W. (Ed.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Complete edition). New York: Longman. https://www.celt.iastate. edu/teaching/effective-teaching-practices/revised-blooms-taxonomy/ Asterhan, C. S. C., & Schwarz, B. B. (2016). Argumentation for learning: Well-trodden paths and unexplored territories. Educational Psychologist, 51(2), 164–187. doi:10.1080/00461520.2016.1155458 Bøjer, B. (2021). Creating a Space for Innovative Learning: The Importance of Engaging the Users in the Design Process. In Teacher Transition into Innovative Learning Environments. A Global Perspective. Springer, Singapore.

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Delors, J. (1996). Learning: the treasure within Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first century. UNESCO Publishing. Dixson, M. D. (2015). Measuring Student Engagement in the Online Course: The Online Student Engagement Scale (OSE). Online Learning, 19(4). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1079585.pdf Dooly, M. (n.d.). Constructing knowledge together. https://www.peterlang.com/view/9783035105650/ 9783035105650 eLearn Center. (2018). E-Learning Research Report 2017. Analysis of the main topics in research indexed articles. Barcelona: eLearn Center (UOC). http://openaccess.uoc.edu/webapps/o2/bitstream/10609/75705/6/ ELR_Report_2017.pdf Esfendiari, M., & Gawhary, M. W. (2019). Is Technology Paving the Way for Autonomous Learning? World Journal of English Language, 9(2), 64–73. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Is-TechnologyPaving-the-Way-for-Autonomous-Esfandiari-Gawhary/ebd597585e13595406d16f72c80f49b02fcd831b Fuirer, M. (2005). Jolt, catalyst, spark! Encounters with artworks in the schools programme at Tate Modern. https://www.tate.org.uk/research/publications/tate-papers/04/jolt-catalyst-spark-encounterswith-artworks-in-schools-programme-tate-modern Gallego, F., Molina, R., & Llorens, F. (2011). Gamificar una propuesta docente. Diseñando experiencias positivas de aprendizaje. Dpto. de Ciencia de la Computación e Inteligencia Artificial Universidad de Alicante. https://blogs.ua.es/faraonllorens/2014/05/23/gamificar-una-propuesta-docente-2a-edicion/) Gillies, R. M., & Boyle, M. (2008). Teachers’ discourse during cooperative learning and their perceptions of this pedagogical practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24, 1333–1348. https://www.sciencedirect. com/science/article/abs/pii/S0742051X0700131X Goksu, I. (2016, October). The Evaluation of the Cognitive Learning Process of the Renewed Bloom Taxonomy Using a Web Based Expert System. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 15(4). Handoko, E., Gronseth, S., McNeil, S., Bonk, C., & Robin, B. (2019). Goal Setting and MOOC Completion: A Study on the Role of Self-Regulated Learning in Student Performance in Massive Open Online Courses. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 20(3), 38–58. https://doi. org/10.19173/irrodl.v20i4.4270 Hsieh, H., & Hsieh, H. L. (2019). Undergraduates’ Out-Of-Class Learning: Exploring EFL Students’ Autonomous Learning Behaviors and Their Usage of Resources. Education in Science, 9(159), 1–15. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/9/3/159 Joosten, T., Lee-McCarthy, K., Harness, L., & Paulus, R. (2020). Digital Learning Innovation Trends. Online Learning Consortium. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED603277.pdf

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Krishnakumaryamma, A. N., & Srikirupa Venkatasubramania, S. (2018). Technology-Mediated Pedagogies for Skill Acquisition toward Sustainability Education. In New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education. IntechOpen. https://www.intechopen.com/books/ new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education/technologymediated-pedagogies-for-skill-acquisition-toward-sustainability-education Kukulska-Hulme, A., Beirne, E., Conole, G., Costello, E., Coughlan, T., Ferguson, R., FitzGerald, E., Gaved, M., Herodotou, C., Holmes, W., Mac Lochlainn, C., Nic Giollamhichil, M., Rienties, B., Sargent, J., Scanlon, E., Sharples, M., & Whitelock, D. (2020). Innovating Pedagogy 2020: Open University Innovation Report 8. The Open University. https://iet.open.ac.uk/file/innovating-pedagogy-2020.pdf Lamon, S., Knowles, O., Hendy, A., Story, I., & Currey, J. (2020). Active Learning to Improve Student Learning Experiences in an Online Postgraduate Course. Front. Educ., 5, 598560. doi:10.3389/ feduc.2020.598560 Mendez, M. (2015) Proceedings of the CALL 2015. Task design and CALL. Immersive learning and collaborative work in foreign language learning for developing intercultural competences in virtual worlds. Universitat Rovira i Virgili. www.uantwerpen.be Munoz de Escalona, P., Dunn, M., Soares, F., Marzano, A., Vichare, P., & Lazar, I. (2020). E-learning tools: engaging our students? In Proceedings of 2020 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON). IEEE. https://researchonline.gcu.ac.uk/ws/files/33956043/P.Munoz_E_Learning_tools_ EDUCON2020_V3.pdf Mynbayeva, A., Sadvakassova, Z., & Akshalova, B. (2017). Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods, In New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education. IntechOpen. https://www.intechopen.com/books/new-pedagogical-challengesin-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education/pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-centuryinnovative-teaching-methods Nagles, N. (2014). Innovación y Capacidades Dinámicas. Propuesta de un Modelo de Innovación Sustentable para la Evolución Empresarial, (Modelo MISEE) aplicado al sector cosmético en la ciudad de Bogotá, Colombia [Innovation and Dynamic Capabilities. Proposal for a Sustainable Innovation Model for Business Evolution, (MISEE Model) applied to the cosmetic sector in the city of Bogotá] [Doctoral Dissertation, University of Bogotà]. Ediciones EAN. http://hdl.handle.net/10882/9003 Nussbaum, M., Barahona, C., & Rodriguez, F. (2020). Taking critical thinking, creativity and grit online. Education Tech Research Dev. doi:10.100711423-020-09867-1 OECD. (2013). PISA 2012 Assessment and Analytical Framework: Mathematics, Reading, Science, Problem Solving and Financial Literacy. Paris, France: OECD. doi:10.1787/9789264190511-en Orlov, G., McKee, D., Berry, J., Boyle, A., DiCiccio, T., Ransom, T., Rees-Jones, A., & Stoye, J. (2020). Learning During the COVID-19 Pandemic: It Is Not Whom You Teach, but How You Teach. NBER Working Paper No. 28022, National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.nber.org/system/files/ working_papers/w28022/w28022.pdf Quinn, C. N. (2005). Engaging Learning. Designing e-learning simulation games. John Wiley and Sons.

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Rodrigues, H., Almeida, F., Figueiredo, V., & Lopes, S. L. (2019). Tracking e-learning through published papers: A systematic review. Computer Education, 136, 87–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. compedu.2019.03.007 Sabharwal, R., Hossain, M. R., Chugh, R., & Wells, M. (2018). Learning Management Systems in the Workplace: A Literature Review [Paper presentation]. The 2018 IEEE International Conference on Teaching, Assessment, and Learning for Engineering (TALE), Wollongong. Traxler, J. (2005). Defining mobile learning. Proceeding of the IADIS International Conference in Mobile Learning, 261‒266. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228637407_Defining_mobile_ learning#fullTextFileContent Tseng, H. (2020). An exploratory study of students’ perceptions of learning management system utilization and learning community. Research in Learning Technology, 2020(28), 2423. https://doi.org/10.25304/ rlt.v28.2423 Turnbull, D., Ritesh, C., & Luck, J. (2019). Learning Management Systems: An Overview. In A. Tatnall (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Education and Information Technologies. Springer Nature. doi:10.1007/978-3319-60013-0_248-1 Valverde-Berrocoso, J., Garrido-Arroyo, M., Burgos-Videla, C., & Morales-Cevallos, M. B. (2020). Trends in Educational Research about e-Learning: A Systematic Literature Review (2009–2018). Sustainability, 2020(12), 5153. doi:10.3390u12125153 Villa Sanchez, A., & Poblete, M. (2008). Competence-based learning. A proposal for the assessment of generic competences. University of Deusto. http://www.tucahea.org/doc/Competence-based%20learning%20Alfa%20Project.pdf

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Adaptative: The ability to adapt to new conditions, forms, and environments. Autonomy: The capacity to behave or act based on own criterium with independence and freethinking attitude. Competence: The ability to perform or to fulfil a task effectively using training, knowledge, skills, and experience. E-Learning: A methodology used to train individuals through the internet. It requires learning management systems to deliver educational processes. Engagement: The emotional connection a student has with his own learning process. Interaction: A situation in which individuals act reciprocally with other individuals or objects. Resources: Materials or elements to meet needs and achieve goals. Scenarios: A set of environments that can display a diversity of contexts to perform different actions. Self-Regulation: The ability to control, monitor, and self-direct behavior, emotions, and body to pursuit objectives in life.

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Chapter 5

Mentoring Teams as a Model of Supporting Distance Teaching: The Croatian Example Lidija Kralj Ministry of Science and Education, Croatia

ABSTRACT In this chapter, the author describes how the Croatian Ministry of Science and Education organized support for the education system during the COVID-19 pandemic building upon education reform and using the mentoring teams as the main resource for learning content creation and teachers’ support network. One of the most significant activities during educational reform was the establishment of virtual classrooms whose main characteristics were continuous professional development support in the online environment for learning, communication and collaboration, quick access to the new and relevant information, and establishment of the learning community of practice. The hybrid model of continuous professional development combined with mentoring teams who were already experts in remote work and online collaboration and communication contributed to the swift and effective establishment of distance learning. This chapter provides information from the teacher perspective giving ideas and examples that can be used in future professional development and collaborative teamwork.

INTRODUCTION It was the beginning of March 2020 when schools in Italy started to close down. Being in the close neighbourhood, Croatia expected to be under the influence of COVID-19 pandemic very soon. The Croatian Ministry of Science and Education immediately started preparations for school closure in Croatia and the transition towards the distant teaching and learning. There are 1 300 primary and secondary schools, 460 000 students, and 60 000 teachers in Croatia. Moreover, preparations were ongoing in the background, confidentiality agreements were being signed by all involved in the planning of this operation. The scale of the project is sufficiently illustrated by the figures - if we take into account the number of pupils, students, teachers, professors and staff in schools DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch005

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 Mentoring Teams as a Model of Supporting Distance Teaching

and universities, mentors, employees of the Ministry of Science and Education, Croatian Academic and Research Network – CARNET, University Computing Centre -Srce, Internet Service Providers, national television, publishers who were preparing online materials – we come to a number of more than one million actors (excluding parents). Secrecy was important not to raise the level of panic in public in a situation where schools in other European countries have not yet started to close massively (MoE, 2020a). Planning started in parallel for a few areas: for the technical solutions, policies, and regulations, learning content production and support network. In this chapter we are focusing on the areas of learning content production and support network which were realised by the Mentoring teams. Interviews were held with mentors to collect their emotional reflection about starting the preparation and content creation in an incognito mode, what decisions they made, how they organised collaboration and communication within the teams, which area they have to focus on – considering such a short period of time they had for preparations.

THE PLAN FOR REMOTE SCHOOLING BUILT ON THE COMPREHENSIVE CURRICULAR REFORM At the beginning of March, when school closure was announced as a potential measure, the Ministry of Science and Education in Croatia (MoE) started preparations for distance teaching and learning. It took two weeks to move all classes online, and distance learning was successfully launched on March 16th 2020. The concept was based on two key principles: 1. Access has to be provided to all, adapted to student age 2. There needs to be a backup channel for every solution (TV, web, LMS, social networks, messaging platforms) (MoE, 2020a) Ministry of Science and Education created a national school/grade schedule, which was envisaged in such a way that, in case the situation lasts until the end of the school year, would enable pupils to acquire the learning outcomes defined in the subject curricula. The national schedule foresees approximately 5 hours of schoolwork a day, but schools can add extra hours for their pupils. Each school has organised a virtual staffroom for teachers and virtual classrooms for students (Figure 2) on various platforms (Moodle, Microsoft Teams, Yammer, Google Classroom) where teachers communicate daily with their pupils, give them instructions and learning resources, check their activity and completion of tasks (MoE, 2020a). In implementing digitalisation during previous years, the priority of the Ministry of Science and Education was to ensure teachers’ digital independence, which meant ensuring that teachers have their own laptops and classrooms are equipped with overhead projectors or interactive/smart whiteboards, so that various types of content and multimedia can be used in all classes. Strong emphasis was put on developing teachers’ digital competences and enabling them to work in a virtual environment. Teacher training for the curricular reform was launched online in 2018, via virtual classrooms on the Moodle platform, which enabled continuous professional development and online cooperation for teachers. In almost two years more than 50 000 teachers participated in these trainings. This was the key experience that later enabled teachers to establish virtual classrooms and communicate with students and other teachers without difficulty. All those virtual classrooms are used as a support network for teachers, sharing learning resources, ideas and information and for direct communication with the Ministry. The training 87

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and support are provided by Mentoring teams who were established in 2017 and continuously prepared and organised trainings and support as part of the educational reform. Figure 1. Support – multiple levels and agents, red titles are activities supported by the Mentoring teams

Figure 2. Organisational plan for schools

Key areas of the curricular reform with focus on teachers were: • • • •

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Strengthening professional competences of teachers Support for principals and stakeholders in schools Learning community - all participants are also mentors Changing the way of professional development

 Mentoring Teams as a Model of Supporting Distance Teaching

◦◦ ◦◦ ◦◦

Sustainability Scalability Equal quality and rights for all teachers.

Mentoring Teams as a Key Factor of Education Reform in Croatia For all those key areas activities were designed and delivered by the Mentoring teams. Mentors are teachers from the primary and secondary schools, or the university. 70 of them have been ‘borrowed’ from schools since the spring of 2018 working full time on the reform implementation, and 200 of them were continuously working on reform activities from 2018 – 2020, while still working with students in their schools as well. Since the autumn of 2017, the Mentoring team were in training to develop additional competences necessary for providing continuous professional development for all teachers (Figure 3). Figure 3. Development of the Mentoring team

From the start Mentoring teams were organized in an online environment Microsoft Teams as they were living all over Croatia and organization of frequent face to face meetings was inefficient and expensive. MS Teams environment was used for content creation, sharing documents and calendars but the most important functionality was constant communication, the flow of ideas, and instant support as some of the mentors prefer working during the night and some are early birds. In every moment of the day, somebody was present in Teams so everybody could ask, share ideas, or simply have virtual coffee together. Teams videoconferences and chats options made possible everyday organization and work of the Mentoring teams. So when COVID-19 crisis started Mentoring teams were already actually “living” in the virtual community on Microsoft Teams for two years. That was the important experience they

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shared with colleagues in schools as a way to support them in the transition towards distance teaching and learning. From the spring of 2018, the Comprehensive Curricular Reform implementation was supported by the Strategic reform support service of European Commission (SRSS, DG Reform) as a project implemented by British Council. In that project several international experts provided training and professional development for members of Mentoring teams and followed mentors’ work in schools, as well as their competences, characteristics and behaviour. Reports published from those SRSS projects (Sinnema, C. & Park. J. (2019). Priestley, M. & Ireland, A. (2019). Aitken, G. (2019), Bradfield et al, 2020) give us a broader picture about Mentoring teams. Teachers need to be supported by resources and aligned professional development that enable them to make sense of the policy. This includes mobilising subject expertise to generate a critical mass of people who understand the intent of the reform, and building trust so that classroom practice can be discussed openly, and providing resource materials close to teachers’ daily practice. Mentors are recognised as a ‘critical mass of experts” the team who can build networks of trust, and who can develop resources illustrative of the reform principles at the level of classroom practice (Aitken, 2019). Mentors play an important role in bringing about the institutional change by bridging the gap between theory and practice and increasing connectedness amongst teaching staff (Ma et al. 2018). Mentors reported both the challenging and inspiring collaborations with teachers, cited the need for collaboration and working in their teams as being part of their effective practice, with their confidence being improved by the membership in a team of mentors. Access to formal mentorship programmes provide an opportunity for professional learning by allowing teachers to make links between theory and practice and by promoting staff engagement. (Bradfield et al, 2020) Mentorship programmes provide a useful framework for collaborative approaches to reform by providing access to professional networks, which facilitate meaningful interaction between colleagues (Mulford, 2003). Mentors were highly focused on building mentee knowledge and skill-building in real world, collaborative tasks, with highly personalised feedback being provided to teachers. The mentoring environment created for the Comprehensive Curricular Reform in Croatia focuses on a vision of ‘good teaching” and inquiry into principled teaching practice by mentors’ promotion of reform ideas about teacher learning and development. (Bradfield et al, 2020) Mentors spoke about the importance of creating a relationship with teachers, so that the teachers did not feel threatened and knew they were understood and supported and ensuring that teachers are not feeling as they are being ‘looked down on”. Despite being confronted by many challenging situations, the mentors continued to confirm their stance of being helpful, understanding, and to assure the teachers that many things they were already doing were positive. To do this, they spoke about taking time to think and be careful with their responses, so as to be reliable. (Bradfield et al, 2020) Characteristic of mentors are: hard-working, dependable, enthusiastic, positive, ‘being in a good mood’, answering questions promptly, asking questions, giving examples, providing feedback on teachers’ online tasks, creating activities as practice before asking teachers to do the same, thinking and rethinking ideas and practices, having empathy, working from the place the teacher is beginning from, and learning from everyone, highly professional, a good manager, being able to balance demands, motivating, being accessible, supportive, non-judgemental, always learning, self-reflective, use humour, and working to deadlines. (Bradfield et al, 2020) When talking about the mentoring team, mentors highlighted the need for collaboration and finding compromise in a team as being characteristics of effective mentors. Every mentor recognised that they 90

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did not know everything they needed to know but saw this as a positive characteristic, meaning that they were learners along with the teachers. Mentors highlighted that their own learning had led them to feel more confident and asserted that there was a need for on-going opportunities to support this continued growth, their confidence was improved by the membership in a team of mentors working together. The Mentoring team knew each other well and supported each other when answering questions, facilitating workshops, and generally completing tasks. Working in this kind of a team led to the production of new ideas, discussions, and mutual respect between members of the team. Mentors knew that they had the team behind them and that working within teams meant they can do things that they cannot do alone. Benefits of the mentoring process for mentors include an increased sense of self-worth, personal satisfaction, learning from the exchange of ideas generated when working with their mentees. (Bradfield et al, 2020)

Virtual Classrooms for Continuous Professional Development of Teachers One of the most significant activities during the Comprehensive Curricular Reform was the establishment of online virtual classrooms for teachers’ professional development on the Moodle platform. In the 2018-2020 period, 128 virtual classrooms were continuously held for 56 565 participants, which is almost all teachers from Croatian primary and secondary schools. Virtual classrooms were organised in an overlapping sequence starting with a virtual classroom for Computer Science (Informatics) teachers in January 2018 (until June 2020), continuing with 26 virtual classrooms for teachers in 73 experimental schools from April 2018 until January 2020 and finally with 101 virtual classrooms for all teachers in all primary and secondary schools in Croatia (1 300 schools) that started in January 2019 and finished in June 2020. Those virtual classrooms were part of the support for teachers in spring 2020, during school closure because of COVID-19. Main characteristics of professional development in those virtual classrooms were: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Online environment for learning, communication, and collaboration Quick access to the new and relevant information Continuous support Learning community – participants are also experts & mentors Sharing community – ideas, activities, assessment methods, resources Continuous education with topics organized in a 2 to 4 week rhythm 4 - 10 hours of participants’ active engagement weekly Mandatory and non-mandatory topics and activities with clear deadlines Different teaching and assessment methods Recording of progress and involvement Promotion of e-Portfolio of professional Development Certificates and badges of participation with learning outcomes Establishing sharing and support network; the community of practice

Mentors were organised in small teams, which worked fully online, so creation of the learning content for continuous professional development in the virtual classrooms could be delivered efficiently, in-time, and with high quality. Small teams were organised around a topic or event, they worked collaboratively with support from international experts, creating and improving learning content in several cycles and levels of analysis and improvement. When the learning content for the specific topic was created it 91

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was first implemented and tested in preparatory virtual classroom with other mentors as a way of peer assessment and preparation for the next phase. After testing it was improved and subject teams added specific aspects for different subject teaching, for example, they added tasks that are connected with some Mathematics area or some language skills and competencies tasks and activities. The next phase was the delivery of the learning content in virtual classrooms, monitoring of implementation, gathering feedback from participants and enriched according to their suggestions and prepared for future use. That way learning content and resources were created for 721 topics and successfully delivered during two and half years. Principles of lean or agile approach were followed so the professional development could be refined and enriched in every new cycle of implementation – from mentors, over experimental schools to all schools deployment. Figure 4. Scheme of mentors’ work in small teams for virtual classrooms

Online interactions in virtual classrooms were focused around a different topic every few weeks and involved tasks for the teachers to complete and forums for questions. The mentors provided feedback on the teachers’ tasks and answered questions. Mentoring teams took a ‘team approach’, collaborating to support each other when there were difficult questions coming from teachers. Mentors reported that the

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giving and receiving of feedback from peers was not something that was familiar to the teachers and that some teachers found receiving feedback difficult. As mentors, they had to be gentle as the teachers often did not see the feedback as ‘help. In tasks with peer assessment teachers feeling that giving feedback was difficult, particularly in selecting which kind of feedback approach should be taken. (Bradfield et al, 2020)

Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Professional Development in Virtual Classrooms Ministry of Science and Education decided to use the hybrid model for the support of Comprehensive curricular reform and implementation of new curriculums in all primary and secondary schools in Croatia. In the experimental phase, for 73 schools was organized 5 counselling visits for each school and 7 regional and national face to face meetings while continuous, online support in the virtual classrooms were organized for 27 months. In the second phase of curriculum implementations, when all 1300 schools were involved – 2 face to face meetings were organized on counties level (1000 meetings in total) and one counselling visit to every school. Continuous, online support in the virtual classrooms for all Croatian teachers started in January 2019 and lasted for 18 months. Such combining continuous professional development in virtual classrooms with occasionally (three times per school year) face to face workshops was well accepted in experimental schools and it enabled scaling up for the whole teachers’ population in Croatia. According to Lofthouse (2018), face-to-face interaction is valuable because it promotes meaningful dialogue and provides a space for problem solving and transformational practice. The importance of open dialogue in mentor/mentee relationships, whereby conversation not only involves instructional dialogue from the mentor but where the mentor engages in two-way dialogue, has the potential to create a transformative space in which professional practice can be debated and new professional identities explored. (Bradfield et al, 2020) Mentors supported the use of both the virtual and face-to-face methods that had been undertaken as training for the teachers in these areas. In terms of face-to-face interactions, many mentors believed that these were a more powerful experience for the teachers, as opposed to the online environment because they can see a practitioner effectively delivering training in person. (Bradfield et al, 2020) Sinnema, C. & Park. J. (2019) in their Summary of Monitoring and Evaluation Findings Technical Support to the Implementation of the Comprehensive Curricular Reform in Croatia summarises answers from 1 047 teachers about support they received as a preparation for implementation of the Comprehensive Curricular Reform. 64.6% of teachers say that support was productive, 63.9% agree it was effective but at the same time challenging (71.1%). When asked about quality of the support programme, 67.3% of teachers say it was high quality comparing to 3.7% who thought it was a very low quality. 70.7% of teachers agree that the supporting programme was a source of new ideas and insight which they could use in their classrooms. The overall average mark of the teachers’ comments about support programme is between 3.8 and 4.34 (scale was 1 to 6), which shows that the chosen approach of combining continuous professional development in virtual classrooms with occasionally (three times per school year) face to face workshops is well accepted and good for scaling up for the whole teachers’ population in Croatia. Professional development in the virtual classrooms was welcomed by most teachers, although a variable quality of experience was reported in terms of their engagement with the training. As this was the first attempt of continuous professional development provided fully online for some teachers the online engagement was time-consuming and very intensive, and sometimes difficult to use. (Priestley & Ireland 2019). 93

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We could see how teachers’ perspective regarding online training in virtual classrooms changed from the start of the virtual classrooms use in 2018, through 2019 and 2020 and then during and after the first wave of COVID-19 crisis in the spring/summer 2020. In December 2018, The National centre for an external evaluation conducted a questionnaire among teachers in experimental schools in which 1 251 of them took part. 65% of them were teachers in primary schools (lower or upper) and 35% were teachers in secondary schools (NCVVO, 2019). Two-thirds of teachers (66.6%) participated in more than three trainings within the experimental program, 27.3% of them participated two to three times, 5.6% of teachers participated in trainings only once, while less than 1% of teachers have never participated in trainings as part of the experimental program. Out of all teachers who participated in the training, 88.8% were educated by distance learning in virtual classrooms. About 40% of teachers believe that the trainings are well organised and slightly more than half of the teachers agree that the trainings helped them to understand the new teaching methods, evaluation and assessment. Teachers are divided in regard to the frequency of trainings, some of them think that trainings have to be more frequent and some that there were too many trainings. When asked about their satisfaction with the trainings, 10.9% teachers completely agree that trainings are well organised, 33.9% mostly agree, 36.4% neither agree nor disagree, 14.3% mostly disagree, and 4.4% completely disagree. The arithmetic mean of their statements is 3.33. More than half of the teachers are satisfied with the work of the mentoring teams, while about one-tenth of teachers are not satisfied with their work. Also, about half of teachers agree that there are available sources of information on the implementation of the new curriculums, while a slightly smaller percentage estimate that they have the support of the system during the implementation of the experimental program. 20.0% of teachers say they are completely satisfied with the work of the mentoring teams, 37.6% mostly agree, 30.6% neither agree nor disagree, 9.2% mostly disagree and 2.6% completely disagree with the statement ‘I am satisfied with the work of the mentoring teams’. The arithmetic mean of their statements are 3.63. Some of the comments written by teachers and principals in Priestley & Ireland (2019) Summary of Qualitative Findings: We would like to have more educational conferences, workshops, where we could ask someone concrete questions but online support is to be complimented. There is a lot of online content, digital content. Whoever wants to, can ... I’ve learned a lot from it. We are keen to work together to encourage co-operation in implementing the new teaching and evaluation methods, but we need more time to meet and work through the materials that are provided in the virtual classroom. We will solve our problems through co-operation. Some of us are dealing with the situation better than the others, some of us have a fairly good understanding of our shortcomings whilst others do not. Virtual classrooms are good, but online training could not replace professional practice learning. Collaboration and communication between colleagues, despite being online, is more effective than selfdirected learning in the virtual classroom modules. I mostly find the answers to my questions on the discussion forums, where there are discussions.

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Concerning the online support, it is altogether fine, but we would appreciate to have more offline support. We asked teachers (n = 3 486) to evaluate the online training in the virtual classrooms at the end of school year 2018/2019. The most frequent benefits of the virtual classrooms that teachers mentioned were: • • • • • • • • • • •

Mentors availability and presence 24/7 Constructive and on-time feedback Learning content and resources available the whole time Easier and more frequent interaction and experience exchange with other participants and mentors Flexible time and place organisation No costs for traveling Ownership of learning Easier to concentrate, motivating Complex content presented in understandable units, step by step leading Clear structure, stated expectations and exact deadlines Innovative methods of learning and teaching Some of their comments about benefits are:

I don’t waste time and money on traveling to the place of education. Mentors are fast and accessible, and tasks can be done at a time when I want to. I don’t have to worry about how and what I’m going to wear.:) We organise our time ourselves, we have access to a large amount of learning resources and information, we can exchange ideas and examples with colleagues, and we have feedback from mentors. We can see and compare our work with others at the same time. This is important to me because then I know am I going in the right direction. We determine the place and time of learning, but the deadlines must be respected. All materials are permanently available for re-study. It is possible to ask a question on the forum at any time, and it is important to exchange experiences with colleagues, which is more accessible in this way than in face to face trainings. I can always return to topics if I need further clarification and understanding. There is also a sense of encouragement and support from mentors in a pleasant communication environment. The immediate accessibility of mentors if we need support or advice. I am also glad that we promptly receive constructive feedback from mentors. Work at home, no travel, no expenses. Easier to concentrate, focus. It encourages reflection, and reexamination of previous work.

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The materials or literature that have been made available to us are interestingly composed, accessible, easy to read, and very useful. During the education, we were directed to the most important content with different visual clues and interactive resources. The advantages are also that all teachers and mentors are ‘networked” and it is easier to communicate and receive useful advice and guidance. It is easier to ask a question in a virtual classroom than live in a professional meeting. The advantages of education in virtual classrooms are that they direct me to important elements and innovations in the field of modern education and at the same time enable me self-regulated learning strategies for achieving results in tasks are determined by me, I manage my time, I educate myself by researching topics offered in virtual classrooms. The most frequent disadvantages of the virtual classrooms that teachers mentioned were: • • • • • • •

Strict schedule for finishing the topics Complexity of tasks Too many obligations and work outside regular teachers working time Missing face to face communication, missing non-verbal communication Difficult to find extra time needed to read what other participants wrote Too much screen time Good equipment and internet connection is necessary Some of their comments about disadvantages are:

I prefer face to face training because I feel more involved, it is immediate and I can react instantly, ask, without everything remaining permanently written down. Lack of direct contact with the lecturer in case something in the assignment is unclear. Too short deadlines for solving tasks in a particular topic, the inability to catch up with the training during the summer break Contact with colleagues and mentors live is much more natural than in virtual classrooms, the response in a virtual environment should be waited for. There is no quick exchange of ideas with other participants as in live training. The main disadvantage is a live word, face to face communication, which in most cases is much better than a conversation via chat/email/forum. Participants can copy someone else’s quizzes and tests or send each other solutions for tasks. Some really put in the effort and some didn’t at all.

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As we encounter new ways of teaching for the first time, we cannot discover a lot of ambiguities on our own, we need more frequent live contact. Figure 5. Reasons for your participation in virtual classroom?

The benefit of professional development in the virtual classrooms was recognised by the participants because 85% of them agreed with the statement that it made it easier for them to understand the changes brought by curricular reform, and 15%strongly or completely disagreed with this statement. They rated their activity in the virtual classroom with an average grade of 4.37 on a scale of one to five. In June 2020 we asked teachers again about professional development in the virtual classrooms (n = 3 791) as a part of the follow up questionnaire regarding distance teaching and learning. Satisfaction with the prepared contents for professional development in the virtual classroom. When asked to evaluate satisfaction with the prepared contents for professional development in the virtual classroom 91% of the participants said they were completely or mostly satisfied. Answers from the participants were divided into four groups of statements: I am completely satisfied 31%; I am mostly satisfied 60%, I am mostly dissatisfied 8% and I am completely dissatisfied 1%. 89% of the participants said they were completely or mostly satisfied when asked to evaluate satisfaction with the prepared activities (tasks, forums, workshops, quizzes) in the virtual classroom. Participants answers were split up into four groups of statements: I am completely satisfied 31%; I am mostly satisfied 58%, I am mostly dissatisfied 10% and I am completely dissatisfied 1%.

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Teachers rated their engagement in virtual classrooms as very good average, at 4.18 on the scale from 1 to 5. In virtual classrooms they mostly shared interactive content, examples of assessment and problem tasks. 62% of participants said that in virtual classrooms they shared interactive content like quizzes, escape room activities, puzzles etc. 34% of them shared different examples of problem solving tasks; 46% of them shared examples of assessment and evaluation methods (rubrics, assessment list, self-assessment survey, exit ticket…) examples of inquiry learning shared 27% of them but 19% of participants did not share any content. In distance teaching, teachers used different materials, but the most common were the video lessons created by mentoring team, then other learning resources from colleagues and mentors, which they shared in virtual classrooms. It is shown that teachers used a wide range of topics, and that they rated the mentors with a very high grade (4.4). This indicates that in the continuation of distance learning, video lessons should continue to be made and additional education, support and sharing of materials in virtual classrooms should be held. Here are some characteristic comments related to the professional development and support in the virtual classrooms: In the new circumstances, this way of education has proven to be extremely good. During the training, I went through learning content on various topics, which had a positive impact on my personal professional development. Sometimes it was hard and too much, especially during distance learning, but still the feeling of satisfaction when the task is successfully solved is indescribable. My training has risen to a higher level. I got ideas, examples for future work. I received answers related to the reform, so my work was made easier in some areas. There were things that were not needed and that were already known, but also things that I first encountered that were nice and very useful for my everyday work in school. I have made more progress than I expected. It would be good to have such support in the future too. My professional development during education in virtual classrooms is almost exclusively related to mastering information and communication technology and its application in teaching. I invested a lot of effort and time during this professional development training. I accepted challenges and gladly fulfilled all obligations. I have acquired new competencies and I am looking forward to the beginning of the new school year. The hybrid model of continuous professional development in virtual classrooms combined with Mentoring teams who were already experts in remote work and online collaboration and communication positively contributed to the swift and effective establishment of distance learning in the context of the COVID 19 crisis (MoE, 2020a).

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COVID-19 RESPONSE: SPRING 2020 Creation of the Learning Content for Distance Teaching It was the beginning of March 2020 when schools in Italy started to close down. Being in the close neighbourhood, Croatia expected to be under the influence of COVID-19 pandemic very soon. The Croatian Ministry of Science and Education immediately started preparations for school closure in Croatia and the transition towards the distant teaching and learning. The first priority for the Mentoring team, at the beginning of March 2020, was preparing guidelines, handbooks and tutorials for teachers, principals and students, analysing and writing recommendations about different digital tools for distance learning and creating national average curriculum and schedule so if needed every class and their teacher could follow the same plan. In the same time the Mentoring teams started recording video lessons for students aged 11 – 18 and produce TV lessons for students aged 7 – 10. Video lessons were published on YouTube channel (Figure 4 and 5) (MoE, School for life YouTube, 2020b) and TV lessons were broadcasted on the Croatian national TV. The main idea behind every video lesson was to ensure the continuation of education for all students giving them basic resources which every teacher can build upon, and to give additional learning resources for parents who stayed at home and experienced home-schooling for the first time. Mentoring teams were creating learning resources for 12 years of primary and secondary education, which means delivering 300 video lessons per week for students aged 11 – 18 and 25 hours of new TV programme weekly for students aged 7 -10. All educational resources are freely and publicly available online. For upper primary and secondary level students, 15-minute videos were created on the basis of a national subject schedule which should enable all students to reach all learning outcomes planned in the curriculum by the end of the school year. Mentoring teams immediately started developing video lessons so by March 15th learning content for a whole week of learning for all 8 years of primary and 4 years of secondary education was prepared (MoE, 2020a). The priority was to create digital content needed to launch distance learning, so that teachers would have time to establish the communication infrastructure and adapt to online teaching. The leading team in the Ministry of Science and education were aware that most of the Croatian teachers never tried to teach in a virtual environment so the Ministry has to organise support for them in order to ensure continuation of education and school year for all students. Providing sets of video lessons for all subjects and all grades were the simplest and the most efficient solution. Methods for distant teaching or e-learning are not part of teacher pre-service education, only classical teaching methods and pedagogy for face to face teaching are part of teaching university syllabus. 543 attendees finished E-Learning Academy from 2004 until 2014, so we could say that among Croatian teachers there are around 300 teachers with developed competences for e-learning in some of the areas of e-learning management, mentoring or course design (CARNET, 2014). Unfortunately, that is only 0.4% of all teachers in primary and secondary schools. Therefore, most of Croatian teachers did not have competences for distant teaching and have never tried teaching in a virtual environment. To help colleagues in schools, Mentoring teams prepared videos with advice for teachers on how to organise work in virtual classrooms, on how to support students in their social and emotional learning and how to assess students’ work online (MoE,School for life YouTube, 2020c).

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Figure 6. 4 100 video lessons published on the YouTube channel in 3 months

Figure 7. Around 150 000 visited YouTube channel daily, more than 11 million visits in three months

Mentoring Teams: Emotional Reflection Ensuring teacher support and creation of digital content was the job of the Mentoring teams. The Mentoring team was established at the beginning of 2018 to be the support during the implementation of new curricula and providing continuing professional development and support for all teachers and principals during Comprehensive Curricular Reform that started in 2015. Preparation for school closure due to COVID-19 crisis in March 2020, involved a smaller group of 60 mentor teachers who started to work in secrecy, preparing training, resources, and learning content for a situation they never experienced before. Their first activities were:

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• • •

Organisation of subject teams and support team for publishing videos Learning how to record videos, how to prepare all resources needed so that the video lesson is understandable for students and easy to use by teachers, students, and parents Making plans for video lessons to cover all subjects and grades

Preparing and recording of 300 lessons per week was an extremely intensive work, as everything had to be available publicly at least three days in advance. The Ministry announced a public call for help which was answered by an additional 600 teachers who immediately started to work in the Mentoring teams. That means that ‘old” mentors had to take care of new members – help them with essential skills for planning, organising and recording video lessons alongside with empowering them to face the challenge, share expertise and knowledge and give support to each other in order to create good quality learning resources for the whole education system, while still teaching in their classes and thinking about their students, parents, families and schools. The creation of strong connections among team members showed as huge benefit in these unexpected circumstances but also as a token for the future. As time was the main constraint, organisation of teams had to be as efficient as possible and team leader had to jump in as substitute if needed because learning resources had to be published no matter what. Interviews were held with mentors to collect their emotional reflection about staring preparation and content creation in an incognito mode, what decisions they made, how they organised collaboration and communication within the teams, which area they have to focus on– considering such a short period of time they had for preparations. The interview was held based on three milestones: at the beginning of their work mid-March, halfway through the school closure and the end of the school year; and at the end of June when their work in the Mentoring teams and school year ended. 304 mentors participated in the interview (Table 1), 80% of them female. Mentors come from all subject areas in Croatian schools as well as class teachers in lower primary schools who teach all six primary subjects (Croatian language, Mathematics, Visual Art, Nature, Music and Physical education). Table 1. Participants according to their place of work Level of school

Number of participants

Lower primary school

44

Upper primary school

132

Secondary school

103

Primary and secondary school

15

Higher education

2

other

8 304

Here are their responses in chronological order (the start of school closure in March, mid-term reflection at the end of April and the end of school year in June 2020) with some comparison later on.

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Beginning of the Distant Teaching and Learning Mentors were asked how they felt when school closure were announced and they started intensive preparation of learning content for primary and secondary school students and providing support for the whole education system in Croatia. The most chosen feelings were responsible (70.39%), ready for new challenges (64.80%), expert and professional (33.55%) and dedicated (33.22%); the less chosen feelings were: sad (3.26%), lost (3.29%) and unimportant (0%). The top two chosen feelings show us that mentors were aware of the importance of their role in COVID-14 crisis and their responsibility to do their best in those unexpected circumstances. Figure 8. Remember mid-March: school closures have been announced and you have been asked to help prepare for and support distance learning. How are you felt?

Mentors were asked to describe their emotions and how they organised themselves and the teams at the beginning in a form of short diary, and here are some of their comments. All our communication channels instantly started buzzing. We had a couple of days to develop skills that we thought a single teacher never, but really never, would need. Realizing the scope of work waiting for me, what I have to think about, fear crept in again. What will my colleagues say, will any mistake happen to me under the pressure and jitters, what will it look like as recorded material. We all found ourselves at one point with these emotions, questions so we went to each other and shared them. We were comforted that everything would be OK, that colleagues would understand. Then one voice of the reason cam to the surface, a colleague just stated: we are not doing this for teachers only, this is for our and their students. In the mentoring team, we get a new task - making video lessons. What are the video lessons? Now? I have to complete the mentoring of the Assessment topic in the virtual classroom, organise spring meetings, so many things to do.. Why do we need to record the lessons? There is no corona virus in our country.

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We are not going to close the schools, we are far away. How I’m going to do the recording? Research based on the experiences of the gamers in the family, forums, phone calls. Zoom, Apowersoft, Screencast o’matic, ppt video - open, try, eliminate. I’ll stick to the PowerPoint Review each clip in detail, write a list of things I do well and things that I should change (of course, this page with the necessary changes was much longer). That half-hour reflection resulted with a post-it note for each future video lesson (Figure 9). Figure 9. Remainder how to record good video lesson

Translation of the post-it note ‘Rules for recording good video lesson’: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Breath slowly and silently Speak slowly with a short break after each sentence Don’t blink too much Minimise head movements One video has to be recorded at the same time of the day and in same clothes Don’t squish or make other sounds with lips Dogs in a recording are usually acceptable but parrots are not Don’t look at the ceiling Try something new in the next video Don’t forget to have fun

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Figure 10. What were your first impressions of teamwork from the perspective of starting work in the Mentoring teams in the preparation of distance learning?

Most of the mentors’ impressions were: It’s good, I have someone to ask (61.18%), collaboration in a virtual environment is effective (53.62%), I can do it (51.32%). Only 2.30% of mentors were worrying if someone will help them. Figure 11. What forms of support did you consider to be the most important for your colleagues at the beginning of distance learning?

When asked: ‘What forms of support did you consider to be the most important for your colleagues at the beginning of distance learning?’ mentors first choices were: video lessons and tips for teachers.

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Figure 12. You made your first video lesson, screenplay, presentation, working material and / or recorded your first television show. How did you feel after that?

When asked about their impressions they created after the first resource, they mostly chosen: it is easier in the classroom (51.97%), this turned out to be perfectly fine (47.70%), it’s not that awful (37.50%) and I can do it (35.20%). Only 1.64% of participants thought that ‘mission impossible” described their work in these unexpected conditions. While producing learning content, mentors were also taking care of their colleagues in schools. Their opinion (ranking) about which topics they considered the most important to support for the colleagues at school at the time was: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

How to encourage and motivate students Communication with students in a virtual environment Use of various digital tools with students Social and emotional support to students Assessment for learning and assessment as learning in distance learning Use of various digital tools to create content and record video lessons Collaboration with colleagues in a virtual environment Assessment of what was learned in distance learning How to share educational content and examples of good practice with colleagues Student collaboration in a virtual environment Mentoring students in a virtual environment Subject matter

In their responses, it is visible that in such unexpected condition the subject knowledge is the less worrying topic and the most important topics are those that are hard to cover in virtual environments. It also shows that in times of crises teachers are worried about the social and emotional conditions of their students and how to motivate them to be self-efficient when they are not within the physical reach.

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Mid-Term Reflection Next point of reflections were in the end of April, after Mentors have been providing support and preparing distance learning for over a month. Being responsible remains the strongest feeling (72.37%), followed by focused which increased from 25.00% to 60.53% in a month and ‘expert and professional’ on the third place increased from 33.55% to 57.89%. As expected ‘ready for new challenges” decreased from 64.80% to 35.53% as mentors became more and more acquainted with their new work and role. Negative feelings downsized, so frightened, unimportant and lost got 0%, and sad only 1.97%. Table 2. You have been providing support and preparing distance learning as a mentor for over a month. How did you feel during that period? Feelings

Percentage

responsible

72.37%

focused

60.53%

expert and professional

57.89%

dedicated

42.43%

ready

40.13%

ready for new challenges

35.53%

tired

34.21%

important

22.70%

obliged

18.75%

confused

2.30%

sad

1.97%

frightened

0.00%

unimportant

0.00%

lost

0.00%

Comments from the mentors’ diary. I was not alone in this. I had a personal photographer, a colleague digging through the remains of lunch to find a good chicken bone, because I urgently needed it for a lesson. And a psychologist because I needed a little comforting from time to time. And the critics who pointed out to me how to choose a better shooting angle and what was more or less successful. I had the moments of inspiration when I watched the video lessons of my colleagues or we could call them now - cameramen, lecturers, editors, directors? I will dare to say that none of them expected to be a YouTuber☺. My daughter knows that I practice first, so she plays around me making stars, jumping and chases the dog. The moment I comb my hair, put on make-up, and a good T-shirt (not necessarily ironed pants) she knows it’s time for bed because Mom is going to record for real.

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P.S Today, a month since the first message and the closing of the school and the isolation and the corona and the earthquake and the sadness and the joy I honestly don’t know what could, what kind of task could surprise me anymore and which I couldn’t do. Just another challenge for which we’ll find the solution! Later it was… later. It didn’t get any easier! We gained some experiences, which led to cuts, changes, changes, online meetings, tears, laughter, not sleeping, waking up with the thought: and to suggest that we change the fourteenth slide, and there on the twenty-first that experiment… After sometime, it was getting more normal though - we had a few lessons up our sleeve and the due wasn’t yesterday. Here and there I manage to catch up a glimpse of colleagues’ video lessons and I listen, watch, enjoy, whishing I had such a teacher back in my school days. Our dear teachers at TV School on the Third are great, wonderful they even made my pre-schooler daughter to create a theatre in a box which was a task for the fourth grade.

End of the School Year and Overall Reflection on COVID-19 Response By the end of the school year and the end of video lessons preparation, mentors became satisfied (51.97%) with the work they had done but also tired (43.09%). Being responsible, expert and professional remain the top feelings.

Table 3. You have been providing support and preparing distance learning as a mentor for months. How are you feeling? Feelings

Percentage

responsible

64.80%

expert and professional

51.97%

satisfied

51.97%

tired

43.09%

ready for new challenges

37.50%

focused

35.20%

ready

31.91%

dedicated

28.29%

important

25.00%

obliged

14.14%

sad

4.28%

unimportant

1.32%

confused

0.33%

frightened

0.00%

lost

0.00%

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Figure 13. Comparison of feelings in all three stages

By the end of the school year and the end of video lessons preparation, mentors became satisfied (51.97%) with the work they had done but also tired (43.09%). Being responsible, expert and professional remain the top feelings. Comments from mentors’ diary: Table 4. What are your impressions of teamwork after several months of work and cooperation in the mentoring team in the preparation of distance learning? Impressions of teamwork

start

middle

end

it’s good, I have someone to ask

61.18%

50.66%

34.54%

collaboration in a virtual environment is effective

53.62%

62.50%

70.39%

I can do it

51.32%

31.25%

24.67%

it’s good that we’re all in Teams

37.83%

45.07%

43.42%

expert and professional

32.89%

51.32%

51.32%

everything is perfectly organised

30.26%

59.21%

56.91%

I’m not sure where to start

18.42%

0.66%

0.33%

chaotic

4.93%

1.32%

0.66%

I know that on my own

4.61%

12.17%

6.91%

working in Teams will drive me crazy

3.29%

3.29%

2.30%

lost

2.30%

0.00%

0.00%

will anyone help me

2.30%

1.32%

0.33%

The pace of filming has continued, and it is fantastic to me that our entire team is breathing as one, everyone is working frantically and everyone cares that the final result is as good as possible. And we succeeded in that! I am happy when I hear the voice of colleagues explaining physics and biology to my son. I am proud of all the knowledge that has been embedded into these videos and that my son says: ‘Well,

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these video lessons are not bad at all!’ And what all our fellow experts who may have been suspicious of the whole project so far say. I believe that they were amazed when they saw that they were greeted with ready lessons that they can use immediately and that we were prepared even for such unexpected situation, thanks to our leadership, brave and strong women☺ Figure 14. Comparison of impressions of teamwork in all three stages

All mentors were part of teams who worked in a virtual environment (Microsoft Teams) for three months. Around 30% of them were ‘old mentors” who are used to work online in virtual teams but most of them were new to such remote work and support. At the beginning, the strongest impression was ‘it’s good, I have someone to ask’ which shows how important support from team members are and how much the sharing of knowledge and expertise is needed in the education community. A significant decrease is visible in the impression ‘I’m not sure where to start’ from 18.42%, 0.66% to the 0.33% at the end. As time goes by, the impression ‘collaboration in a virtual environment is effective’ grow stronger: 53.62%, 62.50% to 70.39%. That shows that teachers appreciate collaboration and communication with peers as well as peer assessment and feedback especially because the percentage of lower secondary teachers who report engaging in the collaborative activities in their school at least once a month in Croatia is 3% comparing with the OECD average 28% (OECD, 2020). Teachers’ collaboration and networking was one of the topics in OECD (2020), TALIS 2018 Results (Volume II): Teachers in OECD countries and economies in TALIS are quite likely to employ basic collaborative practices like discussing the development of specific students with colleagues (61% of teachers on average do this) and, to a lesser extent, exchanging teaching materials with colleagues (47%). However, far fewer teachers engage in the deeper forms of professional collaboration, which involves more interdependence between teachers, with only 9% of teachers saying they provide observation-based feedback to colleagues, and 21% engaging in collaborative professional learning at least once a month.

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Table 5. Comparison of feelings regarding resources they created in all three stages Feelings lt is easier in the classroom

start 51.97%

middle 30.92%

end 24.01%

This turned out to be perfectly fine

47.70%

46.38%

27.30%

It’s not that awful

37.50%

28.62%

12.50%

I can do it

35.20%

25.99%

13.16%

What colleagues will say

29.28%

9.87%

6.58%

This is not my voice

27.30%

3.29%

1.32%

What students will say

26.97%

8.88%

6.91%

I can’t work from scratch again, let the guest stay (cat, child, sound of drill, phone)

19.41%

14.47%

6.91%

Is it possible that I look like this while speaking to my students

19.08%

2.30%

1.64%

It is excellently done

10.20%

21.05%

24.34%

I’m boring myself

9.54%

3.95%

1.32%

I sound and look ok

6.91%

12.17%

10.20%

Mission Impossible

1.64%

0.33%

0.00%

I get positive feedback

61.18%

39.80%

I did great

28.62%

28.29%

Each new content is better than the previous one

55.92%

39.14%

I learned a lot by looking at the content prepared by other mentors

51.97%

35.86%

Feedback from colleagues on the team helps me make even better content

51.97%

36.18%

I feel that I am progressing professionally with every new content created

56.25%

47.70%

I can’t do it anymore

5.26%

8.55%

Luckily it’s the last one

17.43%

I made a nice collection

41.45%

I am proud of a job well done

72.70%

Is it over yet

21.38%

When we asked mentors how they felt after they made the first/tenth/last video lesson, screenplay, presentation, and working material or recorded their first/tenth/last television show, they showed more confidence towards the end of the period (Table 5). At the beginning worries were recognised as the strongest feelings: ‘lt is easier in the classroom’ by 51.97% and ‘This turned out to be perfectly fine’ by 47.70%. Most of the mentors stated that is easier to teach in the classroom (51.97%) but that percentage was halved by the end (24.01%). In addition, in mid-March, they worried how their colleagues would comment on their video lessons (29.28%) because putting yourself on a public stand, even in recorded video, is not an easy task. However, in the end that percentage was lowered by almost five times. Raised satisfaction with their work can be seen in answers mentors gave in the middle of the period: ‘I get positive feedback’ (61.18%), ‘I feel that I am progressing professionally with every new content created’ (56.25%), ‘Each new content is better than the previous one’ (55.92%). What is interesting is that all of those statements got a lower percentage at the end, which could be caused by tiredness.

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The strongest feeling at the end of the period was ‘I am proud of a job well done’ by 72.70%, followed by ‘I feel that I am progressing professionally with every new content created’ by 47.70%. With 72.70% ‘I am proud of a job well done’ was the most chosen statement throughout the period showing that although work was intensive and exhausting, it was also satisfying, making mentors proud of what they managed to achieve in just three months (Figure 12). Figure 15. You have created your last video lecture, script, presentation, working material and / or recorded your last television show. How did you feel after that?

Comments from mentors’ diaries on ‘If we are started again now, what would you do differently?” Everything and nothing! I’m not sure I’d embarked on this adventure so bravely if I knew what awaited me. Of course, video lessons could be improved on many ways and levels, BUT… work with our team is irreplaceable, ‘a handful of tears, a bag of laughter’ and pure ‘fantasy. In short, an unforgettable experience. A huge opportunity to learn, I doubt I would ever embark on an adventure like this under normal circumstances. And I learned a lot, I got a bunch of ideas on how to

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implement online communication in regular classes. I would like to point out, the most important thing I learned is: instead of thinking ‘I don’t know” I started thinking ‘I don’t know ... yet. I wouldn’t change anything, because with time constraints we did what was possible we have no chance to do anything but what first comes to mind. I wish we could work with less tension, more comfortable time so I can try to get better recording equipment and enrich the recordings with more demonstration and research experiments. I would include colleagues from science, to appear here and there with a comment, a statement, and an explanation. I have to thank my wife for actively helping - her hands were the main actors in the video. In addition, she was my main channel of information - from family, country and the world. When she explained self-isolation to me, we realized that this was nothing new to me ;) we already have been isolated while creating video lessons. Figure 16. Which topics did you consider the most important to support your colleagues at school at the time?

The final question was open for comments, here are a few of those comments from the mentors, which describes how they felt, how the whole teamwork was organised, as well as what aspects of the teamwork they valued as important. The Mentoring Teams is the most positive thing that happened to me during the pandemic. I have never experienced so much understanding and mutual support. We all worked as one and in the end, we were all around us, and first of all we proved to ourselves that WE CAN DO IT. Many thanks to Team MENTORS! 🙂

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The model of teamwork of teachers, leading and mentoring colleagues within the team, as well as the model of supporting colleagues in schools has proven to be effective. With small modifications, it would be a very effective model of work on the professional development of teachers in all working conditions. Considering that everything started in unexpected conditions and that there are few of us in the team, it ended great. I am grateful to all my colleagues who selflessly shared their knowledge and tips for recording video lectures. All members of the Mentoring teams did a great job and sacrificed a lot of their free time. (Especially in the beginning when there were just a few of us.) It wasn’t easy, but with the right people and great organisation, a fairy tale synergy was created. Thank you all 😀 My words are just words of thanks. Being thrown into the river and start swimming is not easy but we learned and managed extraordinarily. Thanks to everyone for the support and communication that kept me sane. Informal chats, advice and collaboration both in chats and in teams made my days. Although the reason for joining and working in the mentoring team is not very dear to anyone, during this period I really enjoyed the work and new challenges and I think I have progressed professionally. I especially liked the communication with colleagues, dissecting each lesson in detail which gave us all an extra motivation to be better every next time. I am proud to be part of this motivating team! For me, this was a special experience and challenge. At first I couldn’t even imagine what it would look like. It wasn’t easy, it was hard, intense, but the feedback from my classmates and teammates constant support was a sign that we were doing a good job. Not good, great! As I often tell my students - the effort always pays off. The work in the mentoring team was a signpost in the dedicated and responsible preparation of teaching content, which will become crucial for the student’s creation and work. The work in the mentoring team is a reflection of excellence, the mentors are clear, precise, detailed, their knowledge and support are invaluable. During the responsible work I received important information about our subject reality, I gained a complete insight into the curriculum planning of teaching content, a wealth of knowledge and insights that will be an integral part of further work and training. Communication in the mentoring team was a reflection of appreciation, respect, guidance, and I often received feedback that included guidance, support and praise. It is an honour and a pride to be a part of this important work, to accompany all activities, to cooperate, to create, to contribute to our knowledge and abilities. Working in a mentoring team contributed to building self-awareness about the importance of teamwork, aroused feelings of teamwork and creation, and spawned a multitude of positive feedback (students, colleagues, superiors). Thank you for the opportunity to work, learn, advance, and which has directed my awareness towards modern systems, methods, and principles of work. I gained valuable insight into the endless possibilities and contours of individual contribution and teamwork. Each segment of the work in the mentoring team will influence my further teaching, communication with students, creating endless opportunities for their creativity and imagination. Both as a person and as a teacher, I received endless joy and inspiration. Thank you very much.

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Figure 17. Final comments from the mentors represented in the word cloud

CONCLUSION During this intensive period of learning, the content creation and providing support for the whole education systems during spring wave of COVCID-19 crisis, some of the lessons learned were: • • • • • • •

People (Teachers) are the key Investing in teachers always pays back Support and Empowerment Sharing and Caring Wellbeing Social and emotional learning Sinergy is important – let’s put all pieces together

One of the most significant activities during the Comprehensive Curricular Reform was the establishment of virtual classrooms on the Moodle platform. In the 2018-2020 period, 128 virtual classrooms

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were held for 56 565 participants, which is almost all teachers from Croatian primary and secondary schools. The main characteristic of professional development in those virtual classrooms were continuous support in the online environment for learning, communication and collaboration, quick access to the new and relevant information and establishment of the learning community – participants are also experts & mentors. For the efficient, in-time and high quality professional development, the mentors were organised in small teams so they could continuously create learning content and deliver training and support in the virtual classrooms. Professional development in the virtual classrooms was welcomed by most teachers. As this was the first attempt of a continuous professional development provided fully online for some of teachers online engagement was time-consuming and very intensive, and sometimes difficult to use. (Priestley & Ireland 2019). In this chapter we could see how teachers’ perspective regarding online training in virtual classrooms changed from the start of the virtual classrooms use in 2018, through 2019 and 2020 and then during and after the first wave of COVID-19 crisis in the spring/summer of 2020. The most characteristically comment from the beginning: Virtual classrooms are good, but online training could not replace the professional practice learning transformed into the In the new circumstances, this way of education has proven to be extremely good. in June 2020. In the final questionnaire in June 2020, 91% of the participants said they were completely or mostly satisfied with the prepared contents for professional development in the virtual classroom. Some of the benefits of the virtual classrooms that teachers mentioned were: 24/7 presence of mentors, constructive and on-time feedback, learning content and resources available the whole time, flexible time and place for training without any costs for traveling and easier and more frequent interaction and experience exchange with other participants and mentors, clear structure, stated expectations and exact deadlines. Some of the disadvantages of the virtual classrooms that teachers mentioned were: the strict schedule for finishing of the topics, missing the face to face communication, missing the non-verbal communication and difficulty to find some extra time needed to read what other participants wrote. Croatian education system, with the extensive help from the Mentoring Teams, made a quantum leap into the 22nd century, all schools were transformed to distance teaching and learning in just one week, 4100 video lessons and 300 hours of TV broadcast have been created over the length of three months. Three months after the pandemic started we knew that: • • • • • •

40% of the school year was organised as distance teaching and learning, Teaching and assessment methods from the education reform came handy, Mentoring teams took the opportunity to show real practical lessons Sharing & caring community among teachers keeps growing Parents get better insight in the teaching and learning processes Teachers accepted family guests in their virtual classrooms (virtual walls are thinner and softer) (MoE, 2020a)

In the Ministries’ questionnaire on distance teaching and learning, 4139 teachers took part and said they were very pleased with the fact that there are video lessons and television programmes; 90% of them share this opinion whereas almost 50% of them are fully satisfied and more than 40% are mostly satisfied. (MoE, 2020a)

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Mentoring teams were also asked to assess their work with grades from 1 to 5. Their average marks were: • • •

Satisfaction with working in a mentoring team 4.68 Support you received from other members of the Mentoring teams 4.78 Contribution to the team 4.27.

The overall impressions are that work in the Mentoring teams during the pandemic was intensive, exhausting, but also very satisfying and professionally empowering. Creation of strong connections among team members showed as a huge benefit in these unexpected circumstances, but also as a token for the future. This example also shows that fully online mentoring support could be organized efficiently and sufficiently and that this organization during first wave of pandemic could be replicated for future support for the whole education systems. A mentoring scheme similar to the Croatian one in the Comprehensive Curricular Reform was organised in Finland (Pennanen at al, 2020, and Geeraerts et al, 2015), India (Borg and Parnham, 2013), and New Zealand (Langdon et al, 2011) proving mentors’ values and showing how supporting teachers and empowering them to use all their competences and grow outside their comfort zone has a huge benefit for the whole education system. This is example of online mentoring scheme and support is limited to the Croatian context so further research in international context or context of another country could give conclusions relevant to the broader context.

REFERENCES Aitken, G. (2019). Curriculum Reform in Croatia: Monitoring and Evaluation Report for the Technical Support to the Implementation of Comprehensive Curricular Reform in Croatia Part. Academic Press. Borg, S., & Parnham, J. (2013). Introducing a mentoring model in a large-scale teacher development project in India. Master trainers, ELISS, British Council. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/ introducing-a-mentoring-model-a-large-scale-teacher-development-project-india Bradfield, K. Z., Xenofontos, C., Shapira, M., Priestley, A., & Priestley, M. (2020). An Exploration of Curriculum Reform in the Republic of Croatia: Mentors and Principals. University of Stirling. Croatian Academic and Research Network (CARNET). (2014). E-learning Academy. https://www.carnet. hr/projekt/e-learning-akademija/ Geeraerts, K., Tynjälä, P., Heikkinen, H. L. T., Markkanen, I., Pennanen, P., & Gijbels, D. (2015). Peergroup mentoring as a tool for teacher development. European Journal of Teacher Education, 38(3), 358–377. doi:10.1080/02619768.2014.983068 Langdon, F., Flint, A., Kromer, G., Ryde, A., & Karl, D. (2011). Leading Induction and Mentoring Pilot Programme: Primary Learning in Induction and Mentoring. New Zealand Teachers Council. https:// teachingcouncil.nz/sites/default/files/Induction_and_Mentoring_Pilot_Primary_Report_0.pdf

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Lofthouse, R. (2018). Re-imagining mentoring as a dynamic hub in the transformation of initial teacher education: The role of mentors and teacher educators. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 7(3), 248–260. doi:10.1108/IJMCE-04-2017-0033 Ma, S., Herman, G. L., Tomkin, J. H., Mestre, J. P., & West, M. (2018). Spreading teaching innovations in social networks: The bridging role of mentors. Journal for STEM Education Research, 1(1-2), 60–84. doi:10.100741979-018-0002-6 Ministry of Science and Education (MoE). (2020a). Croatia – how we introduced distance learning. https://skolazazivot.hr/english/ Ministry of Science and Education. (2020b). School for life YouTube channel. https://www.youtube.com/ channel/UCUq1OACvA1XKyXxvstWAJ9w Ministry of Science and Education. (2020c). School for life Advices for teachers, YouTube Playlist. https:// www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL9Mz0Kqh3YKr_5kBmR9FB4USHd0EwxiKk Mulford, B. (2003). School Leaders: Changing Roles and Impact on Teacher and School Effectiveness. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. NCVVO. (2019) Rezultati inicijalne analize upitnika. Zagreb: Nacionalni centar za vanjsko vrednovanje. OECD. (2020), TALIS 2018 Results (Volume II): Teachers and School Leaders as Valued Professionals. TALIS, OECD Publishing. doi:10.1787/19cf08df-en Pennanen, M., Heikkinen, H. L. T., & Tynjälä, P. (2020). Virtues of Mentors and Mentees in the Finnish Model of Teachers’ Peer-group Mentoring. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 64(3), 355–371. doi:10.1080/00313831.2018.1554601 Priestley, M., & Ireland, A. (2019). An Exploration of Curriculum Reform in the Republic of Croatia. A Summary of Qualitative Findings. British Council. Sinnema, C., & Park, J. (2019). Summary of Monitoring and Evaluation Findings Technical Support to the Implementation of the Comprehensive Curricular Reform in Croatia. The University of Auckland.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Collaborative Learning: Educational approaches involving a joint intellectual effort by students, or students and teachers as part of their learning, or teachers together as part of their professional development. Distance Teaching: Teaching with the use of the internet and digital technology, where students and teachers are not physically present in a classroom. Appear in almost all schools during the COVID-19 pandemic in spring 2020. E-Learning: Learning and teaching that is enabled electronically with the support of digital technology. Mentor: Someone who teaches or gives help and advice to a less experienced person. In teachers’ professional development, a supporting and guiding person who helps to raise competencies and trying new educational approaches.

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Teachers’ Professional Development: Any type of continuing education or training for teachers. A way for teachers to improve their skills and competencies. Teamwork: The collaborative effort of a group to achieve a common goal or to complete a task in the most effective and efficient way. In the teaching context, it means teachers working together to create learning resources and supporting each other in the process of creation resources and teaching with such learning resources Virtual Environment: A place where students and teachers can work together online. A place for interactions between students, or students and teachers or just teachers enabled with digital technology.

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Chapter 6

From Traditional to Distance Learning:

Chronicle of a Switch From Physical to Virtual – Using the Game Metaphor to Understand the Process Lucia Bartolotti https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7613-3374 Liceo Classico e Linguistico “F. Petrarca”, Italy

ABSTRACT In winter 2020, Coronavirus silently spread from a Chinese metropolis globally. Schools closed and emergency distance teaching was enforced wherever possible. This chapter examines this phenomenon as it took place in an Italian upper secondary school and applies the rules of gamification as a key to understanding the process and the interconnections of all the agents that played a role. The theoretical background includes Werbach and Hunter’s game theory, the SAMR model of Ruben Puentedura, and the findings of social and emotional learning (SEL), with the aim to analyze not only the technical transformations with their consequences on teaching practices, but also the emotional impact the pandemic had on teachers and pupils. The results of the first national surveys about the effect of the lockdown months are taken into consideration to validate the author’s experience, as well as articles and studies from sources such as UNESCO, OECD, and the Economic World Forum. The description of what happened as if it were a proper game may shed some light into the complexity of this experience.

INTRODUCTION In the winter of 2020, what had seemed a local sanitary problem in a Chinese metropolis silently spread over the globe. In an irresistible if deceptive sweep from east to west, coronavirus forced whole populations into restraint and confinement. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch006

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 From Traditional to Distance Learning

On March 8, it was Italy’s turn, and the approximate 8,000 state educational institutions in the country faced a dilemma: how should they keep in touch with their students and keep their learning going? The story of the forced switch to digital by a whole secondary school, seen from the privileged point of view of the support person for teaching with digital tools, can be revealing. How did the process develop, from chaos to a new kind of organization? How was a new decision-making chain established? How did the school stakeholders – teachers, students and parents – respond? While the different institutions laboured through organizational, technical and behavioural changes, patterns started to emerge. It was then, and precisely when educators started to think that school had to be taken “to the next level”, that a paradigm gained significance: the paradigm of gaming. This chapter is going to apply this paradigm as a key to understanding what happened.

THE CONTEXT The application of the described paradigm is going to be based on the close observation of what took place in a specific school, namely “Liceo classico e linguistico F. Petrarca” (from now on “Liceo Petrarca”) in Trieste, Italy. This is an upper secondary school specializing in modern and ancient languages and literature, populated by 936 pupils and 101 teachers in the academic year 2019-2020. The non-teaching staff includes 8 people in the administration offices and 2 technicians, only one of whom has an ICT (Information and Communication Technology) background. The students, who are divided into 44 classes, range from 14 to 19 years of age, being 19 the age of admission to university in Italy, after 13 years of primary and secondary education. The number of pupils in a class can vary from 16 to 28. It is important to underline, in this context, that classes are formed when 14-year-old pupils enroll in the school and proceed with only minor changes to the end of secondary tuition, five years later, as one’s curriculum in Italy is not individually chosen - the students’ choice of subjects depends on the kind of school they have enrolled in. As a consequence, strong bonds are formed between pupils who grow up together as a group for five long years. Liceo Petrarca used to have the reputation of being an innovative school at the beginning of the new millennium. Nowadays, after a long period of slow decline, it is considered quite traditional, albeit successful in terms of the number of students who are admitted to university and reach their degrees, often with good results. ICT is not a subject of study, nor are the students encouraged to use it, unless they come across teachers who are personally motivated and technically skilled. Technology is indeed used in a number of projects that entail partnerships with other European schools, which requires communication at a distance and collaborative work in producing digital objects (presentations, videos, games…). Each classroom in the school has a computer and a projector, which are normally used to show the digital content of the students’ textbooks (videos, slides, audios in a foreign language, extra texts) or videos found in the web. The school can also count on two mobile labs (20 nine-year-old Macbook laptops and 20 relatively recent iPads), a very old computer laboratory mounting a Linux distribution that no-one is currently able to update and a brand new computer laboratory (using Windows as an OS, like the class devices) that was inaugurated just 10 days before lockdown. The strong point is a high-speed fiber connection ensuring that disruptions during online activities are really rare.

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THE GAME PARADIGM AND OTHER THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTIONS Game constituents have been described in many ways, since gamification of non-game processes started drawing the attention of anthropologists, researchers and finally businessmen. The paradigm that is going to be loosely used in these reflections is the one described in “The Gamification Toolkit” by Kevin Werbach & Dan Hunter (2015), which distinguishes between game components, mechanics and dynamics. The four-layer scaffolding imagined for this game draws inspiration from the well-known SAMR (Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, Redefinition) model by Ruben Puentedura (2006). In its original formulation the model was applied to the observation of the effects of the use of digital tools in education. Since then, Puentedura has been integrating the model with other cognitive constructs like Bloom’s taxonomy (Puentedura, 2014). Both theories have been integrated with Daniel H. Pink’s motivational studies in Allan Carrington’s Padagogy Wheel, which is a very popular tool for choosing digital applications with a pedagogically consistent rationale and has been translated into more than 30 languages. This could be a rich enough theoretical framework to describe what happened from a cognitive and technical point of view, but the whole emotional setting that was the background of these happenings must also be taken into consideration. It should be noticed that “distance learning” is not the same as “emergency remote education”, as the former has a long and dignified history, beginning in the 18th century with correspondence courses, and has been widely researched, while the latter “is about surviving in a time of crisis with all resources available, including offline and/or online.” (Bozkurt et al., 2020, para. 2). Strategies for the management of the strong emotions that came with the surge of the pandemic, and not just generic manifestations of care and sympathy, should have been necessary to both educators and pupils, as remarked by UNESCO (ED/2020/IN 2.2, p. 4): Emerging research on teachers in crisis contexts has highlighted the importance of building the socialemotional competencies and resilience of teachers. (..) Even in more stable contexts, failure to build socialemotional competencies can lead to stress and burnout, particularly among younger, more inexperienced teachers, which in turn can lead to absenteeism and attrition and poor teaching quality. For the future, these social-emotional skills need to be better integrated into initial and ongoing teacher education. This kind of strategy is provided, for instance, by the Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) approach -, but no such training is formally offered in Liceo Petrarca as part of its tuition. To tell the truth, many extracurricular activities that could be part of a proper SEL program are indeed offered by Liceo Petrarca and are considered part of its “identity”. In fact, the “mission statement” of the school, in the definition of the 2019-2022 “Piano Triennale dell’Offerta Formativa” (PTOF on their website) or Three-year Educational Plan reads: Liceo Petrarca considers the physical, psychological and emotional well-being of its students with the greatest concern, in the conviction that it is possible to foster well-being at school through appropriate strategies. We think it important and necessary for our students to experience their school as a welcoming and stimulating place, a place offering opportunities for social interactions, encouraging human relationships and promoting a balanced development of individuals.

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This emphasis on personal well-being, the importance attributed to humanities in the syllabus and the stress on collaboration, all make this school receptive to “humanistic” learning theories, that is, theories that focus on the development of the person rather than on academic achievement through mere selection. All the same, much of the learning in Liceo Petrarca is still teacher-led and focused on academic content, which makes the school sound somehow like Alfie Kohn’s definition of a “progressive school” (Kohn, 2008, “What It Isn’t”, para. 4): A school that is culturally progressive is not necessarily educationally progressive. An institution can be steeped in lefty politics and multi-grain values; it can be committed to diversity, peace, and saving the planet — but remain strikingly traditional in its pedagogy. What is needed is an integrated and well structured approach that is consistently included in subject teaching: Many teachers already use important elements of SEL. What is less common is a comprehensive framework that provides coherence and consistency to specific objectives and instructional methods. Effective teaching requires consideration of how the class structure, teaching methods, and class climate will affect both academic and social and emotional development. Having a specific SEL program brings unity to these aspects of school life and frees educators to focus their creative energies on special projects and adaptations that enrich any program (Elias et al., 1997, p. 73). This kind of implementation has not taken place in our school. On the one hand active participation, group work and peer education are increasingly encouraged by Liceo Petrarca’s principal, on the other assessment is (and was during lockdown) carried out in a very traditional way, which creates competition between pupils and classes and is in contradiction with the aforesaid values. Unfortunately no data are available about the specific behavioural or pedagogical choices made by the teaching staff in Liceo Petrarca during the lockdown months, but a comprehensive survey carried out by INDIRE (the national research institution funded by the Ministry of Education) on a national basis in June 2020 can be said to faithfully represent Liceo Petrarca and many similar institutions. According to the survey report, representing a total of 3,774 respondents, 23.5% of teachers working in a secondary school dedicated 4 or more hours weekly to making contact with their students and socializing with them, which gives an idea of how far teachers went from ordinary classroom management practices to meet their students’ emotional needs. This understandable rush of sympathy and caring effort was not paralleled with a corresponding transformation in the teaching practices, as can be seen in the data collected by the researchers, which show a prevalence of frontal lessons carried out through video calls and of traditional assignments over projects or workshop activities (INDIRE, June 2020, Table 11). The described contradictions will be ingrained in the building of the imagined game and will provide food for thought.

THE GAME NARRATION A solid narration for the game is provided by fact. On March 3, one week before the rest of Italy, the President of the region decreed the suspension of schooling. Teachers and students had already been 122

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left at home for three days, while the politicians were pondering, and therefore the school staff were not caught unprepared. In the morning of March 3 seven people met in the school premises to find a way to fulfill the school’s educational duties: the principal, her two collaborators, the ICT support person (the author of this article) and three more tech-savvy teachers. Seven months later, all final-year students had received their diplomas, while the others had regularly completed their school year. In between, a revolution. Apparently, if one looks at this narration from the point of view of the practical results, this is a story of success. It took the school staff five days, from March 3 to March 7, to organize a way that made it possible to teach at a distance. From Monday, March 9, a large majority of students were connecting synchronously to their teachers at 8 o’clock, following the ordinary timetable. But if one delves deeper into this experience, the story is not so linear.

DEFINING THE OBJECTIVE OF THE GAME Werbach & Hunter (2015) devised a six-item checklist for the effective design of a game and called it “the 6D framework”. The very first item is “Definition of the game objective”. Given that the school principal’s objective was taking the school year to a regular end, it might comfortably be said that it was achieved: all students got their passes. In fact, passes were granted to all students, all over Italy, by ministerial decree. While in our case the final passes had largely been deserved, more detailed definitions of “objective” and “success” are needed, and means by which they can be measured. Given that the school administration, subject departments and individual teachers have general to specific educational objectives, a possible solution could be measuring the post-lockdown outcomes against the original objectives. At the other end, the students will evaluate not only their final marks, but also their own frustration or satisfaction in achieving them – or their frustration or satisfaction with their general experience of remote learning – which is in any case impossible to measure in an objective, scientific way, without a proper survey. A solution could possibly derive from the second item in Werbach & Hunter’s 6D checklist, namely “Delineate target behaviours”. The proposed syntax, in the design of this game model, is “The reaching of the final objective (a realistic assessment of students and their educational success) through target/ desired behaviours”, the latter being the behaviours of all the players in the game.

THE PLAYERS The third item in Werbach & Hunter’s 6D checklist reads: “Describe your players”, meaning the actors or protagonists of the game. In this context, the interactions of primary or secondary agents are noticeable. The primary agents are the people who determine the “whys” and the “hows” of school life: the principal as the main decision maker, the teachers and the students. The secondary agents, who can have an impact on but do not normally cross classroom life, are parents or regional/national administrators, up to the Ministry of Education. To the ends of this article, the players setting off from the “Start square” are the teachers. Their interplay either with the principal’s directions or with the students’ outcomes and responses define the successive challenges across the four game levels, with the occasional contribution from angry or happy parents or a new regulation landing from the Ministry. 123

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A non-human but looming protagonist of this game is technology. ICT has been the helpful assistant or the antagonist in everyone’s varied and individual experience of remote teaching. Even the professionals who had disdainfully ignored technology for years, in their conviction that pressing any kind of key was menial work, compared to the verbose lectures held in the classroom in front of an awed public, eventually had to come to terms with wires, tutorials and passwords. In this context, technology would be very much part of the scaffolding rather than the player’s ally or antagonist, the latter roles being a mere projection of a teacher’s feelings about technology itself.

INCORPORATING TECHNOLOGY IN THE ACTIVITY LOOPS The fourth item in the mentioned 6D checklist is “Devise activity loops”. This is when the game creator shifts from the wider, more theoretical framework into the actual designing of the game. The final two items of the checklist in fact refer to less general albeit necessary features of the overall design: the role of emotions and the devising of the appropriate content. The former are generally called “fun”, but Werbach & Hunter later specify that “(...) the word is really a stand-in for a diverse set of emotional responses.” In the current context, the “loops” translate into four levels, or the four-layer scaffolding mentioned in the section dedicated to the underlying theory. Puentedura’s SAMR model describes a progression in the mastery of technology in education. The four successive phases in the model (Substitution, Augmentation, Modification and Redefinition) are grouped into two pairs, called respectively Enhancement and Transformation. Only in the latter pair is the learning process modified in depth, while the first two phases are really a sort of technological adaptation of traditional, face-to-face classroom activity, with some multimedia additions. The model reflects the actual progression of what happened after the suspension of all lessons in presence. In a way, it was a huge experimentation about the validity of the SAMR model itself, on a nation scale. In fact, on March 3 a choice was made, among different video conference tools, and each class was provided with a collective Google Suite account for quick communication (at the time all teachers had an institutional Google Suite account but the students did not and therefore shared the password to their collective inbox). A few days of training followed, while teachers and students experimented communicating through the web. From March 9 “school” restarted according to the ordinary schedule, as if nothing had happened – only “elsewhere”. The teachers launched their video calls, the students joined with their paper textbooks open in front of the screen and the lessons took place as usual, with readings, explanations, time for questions and regular assignments. The few teachers who still had technical problems (due to old devices or connectivity issues) assigned some work to be done autonomously and asked their students to send it back via email. This describes the SAMR “Substitution” phase exactly. After one or two weeks, the mathematics and foreign language teachers felt the need to enhance their online work. Most of them had already learned to share their screen in order to show the extra resources that are currently offered with the digital versions of textbooks, but the math teachers started looking for online boards to carry out their demonstrations, while language teachers wanted their students to listen to authentic language spoken by natives. Both categories started exploring the web for tools that might enhance their lessons, which is a precise description of the “Augmentation” phase in the SAMR model. At this point, most teachers were quite satisfied with the learning process (not considering, in this section, other issues some of our students were experiencing) and would have stopped exploring new

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possibilities then and there, but for two happenings: the students’ demands for a redefinition of timing and the need for testing. As to the first request, the students had soon realized that online lessons necessitate far more continuous focus than lessons in presence and demanded shorter video calls. Negotiations followed and an agreement ensued, whereby online lessons should last no longer than 40 minutes, with a 20-minute pause between the six video calls that most students were following every day from 8am to 2pm. Teachers who had two successive periods with the same class agreed to hold one 40-minute video call and assign independent work to replace the second period. This kind of organization proved satisfactory and went on to the end of the school year, without disrupting the teaching styles that had been chosen. The second happening, namely, the demand by the school principal that the students be tested and their performances formally assessed, provoked much reflection at its best and lively arguments at its worst and in a number of cases turned out to be a watershed in teaching practices. After some debate in the subject departments, a document was issued, with a list of possible testing formats, many of which were pretty informal. The distinction between oral and written forms of testing was dismissed, the number of required marks per student diminished, and flexibility recommended. Teachers were asked to take any sign of participation into account, including turning up for lessons, keeping one’s camera on, contributing with relevant questions and comments to lessons, meeting deadlines for home assignments. Quizzes (“even online”, the document read) and organized presentations of syllabus content were mentioned, but not emphasized, supposedly in the attempt to go beyond the traditional paper tests (which of course could not be reliably carried out) and that very typical Italian form of oral testing that is called “interrogazioni”, which during face-to-face classes consists of questions about the syllabus content to be answered orally by a pupil sitting – sometimes even standing – next to the teacher’s desk. The teachers’ responses were threefold. The most traditional ones carried on with their transmissive teaching style, using “interrogazioni” and asking students to “look straight into their camera” while answering. Others felt more adventurous and started looking for digital tools that might prove meaningful and reliable in testing the mastery of syllabus content. Finally, a few teachers tried using different ways to evaluate the students’ competences. Unfortunately, no survey was carried out, among either teachers or students, to study the factual application of the new recommendations, the students’ responses and the outcomes, but this is exactly where the game paradigm may help in providing a key to the comprehension of the transformation process. In fact, in the SAMR model the most meaningful change occurs when the first two modalities of use of technology (Substitution and Augmentation) are left behind, and a teacher steps on to the more transformational phases, namely “Modification” and “Redefinition”. In Puentedura’s definition (2006) of the Modification phase “Tech allows for significant task redesign”. Actually, students were asked to create digital products, either alone or in groups (via collaboratively-built Google slide presentations) and to present them to the class while sharing their screens. Others created mind maps and were asked to explain their choices. A few teachers tried using Kahoot! (a game-based platform for digital quizzes) to have a quick feedback about the correct assimilation of content, while a small number of them – especially science teachers – learned to add plug-ins to Google Modules in order to have a timing feature and asked the author of this article, as the Google Suite administrator of the school, to open Google Classroom to the students’ private accounts, so as to launch video calls, send digital resources and assign quizzes from a single place. While it is impossible to measure the percentage of the teachers in Liceo Petrarca who stepped out of their comfort zone to find ways and digital tools that might provide a reliable form of assessment, the mentioned INDIRE survey about teachers’ behaviours during the COVID-19 lockdown period in Italy 125

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found that the prevalent testing format continued to be the traditional “interrogazione” or content-related oral interview, especially in the unscheduled form (INDIRE, June 2020, Table 44). Another survey carried out by CNR researchers (CNR is the government-funded Italian National Research Council) on 336 teachers measured the typologies of assessment methods too, among other items. About 68% of teachers marked individual home assignments, 55% gave online tests and the same percentage used the traditional oral interviews. Some 38% assessed the oral presentation of an individual home assignment . About 18% did the same, but allowed group work. Approximately 13% gave group home assignments but did not ask the students to present their work orally, while about the same percentage chose other forms of assessment. Much in tune with the INDIRE researchers, these scholars observe that: (…) if we consider assessment modes (fig. 5), we can see that individual assignments, online tests, and synchronous oral interviews are overwhelmingly represented. Collaborative and group assignments were used by less than 20% of respondents (Giovannella et al., 2020). In conclusion, only a small percentage of educators addressed the challenge of modifying their assessment criteria and tasks so that the students’ work could be adapted to the new digital environment and provide reliable evidence of effective learning. As to the fourth level of the SAMR model, “Redefinition”, it was generally not put into practice. In Puentedura’s words (2006), the learning process is “redefined” when “Technology allows for creation of new tasks, previously inconceivable”. In the activities belonging to this phase, the shared features are a highly skilled use of digital tools, a collaborative construction of knowledge and sometimes the vanishing of ownership /visibility limitations (when the created products are publicly shared on the web). Project Based Learning or PBL (Blumenfeld et al., 1991, pp. 369-398) provides the kind of instructional design that allows the mentioned features, but PBL requires a modification of instructional timing, with plenty of lesson time dedicated to group work, which in Liceo Petrarca was not feasible without breaking the rigid rules set for teaching at a distance (synchronous lesson time according to the pre-COVID weekly schedule, with recording of the object of the lesson on the school electronic register). Moreover, group work was not carried out, except in the form of co-created slide presentations and only where the teachers were able to show how to use collaborative tools such as Google Presentations. Theoretically, an opportunity for a real redefinition of the learning process is provided by the need to reorganize the 2020-2021 school year, which will supposedly start in presence in most countries but might be interrupted any time by new distancing regulations, following a comeback of COVID-19 before a vaccine is widely distributed to the population. In fact, at the moment of writing there are no signs that this kind of redefinition process is going to happen in Italy, where the government’s focus is currently set on issuing sanitary regulations and buying smaller desks for students, so that they might sit at a safe distance from each other. It is true that professional training is being encouraged and even funded, but it is not compulsory and therefore left to the good will of individual teachers. It is important to clarify that academic success is perfectly possible without resorting to a complete redefinition or redesign of school activity. The point is, the use of digital technology actually removes physical communication barriers and tends to foster the building of networks. Each intersection in the network is given communication agency, in a way that normally takes place in social networks but does not happen in the physical classroom. Have teachers taken advantage of this feature, or could they do it in the future?

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DESIGNING THE GAME ELEMENTS Werbach & Hunter found that the main elements in games belong to three categories that they named Dynamics, Mechanics and Components and graphically represented as a pyramid. The upper layer, Dynamics, is also the most significant hierarchically, in that it gives meaning and consistency to the two underlying layers. This is the reason why any game design should start from the top, where the drives motivating your players are created, and add more practical details while progressing towards the base. The five elements in the Dynamics category are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Constraints Emotions Narrative Progression Relationships

As already specified, the narrative is pretty clear: your school has closed down due to a pandemic disease but the students cannot be abandoned; the game will accompany you, the teacher, while you try to restore effective communication, rebuild your class community and take them to academic success at the end of the school year. The objective will be reached by accumulating “experience points” thanks to a number of “correct” choices (the so-called “target behaviours” that are part of the given definition of the general game objective).

DESIGNING DYNAMICS: PROGRESSION While SAMR is the theoretical model giving meaning and coherence to the construction of the imagined game, the four layers actually correspond to the factual progression of what happened in Liceo Petrarca and probably in all the schools that tried to implement teaching at a distance. The first three phases roughly correspond to Substitution, Augmentation and Modification in the SAMR model, while a step into what might be called the Redefinition phase hardly took place, because of a number of external constraints, the most important of which were timing (the end of the school year) and current laws – especially the lack of standard regulations for the implementation of “smart” (distance) working in education. As already stated, there would still be an opportunity for the realization of the fourth phase, if only the Ministry took it into consideration and its practical aspects were discussed with school administrators and trade unions representatives. Phase one (corresponding to the Substitution phase in the SAMR model): this was the time when the school ICT experts set the basis for operational digital communications. Basic tech issues were solved and all teachers received instructions about the web conference tool to be used, while classes were provided with a class mail box for both teaching and organizational aims. It was a frantic time that lasted about two weeks and led to the possibility to move traditional teaching to the web. Phase two (corresponding to the Augmentation phase in the SAMR model): organizational and communicative problems that had not been addressed during the first two weeks (for lack of time) came to the fore. On the technical side, the teachers and students who did not have the right devices or a powerful enough connectivity needed individual attention. Norms regulating remote teaching were issued and 127

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published on the school site. The students started complaining about the length of the “lessons” and the quantity of “home” assignments (the work to be done independently after “school hours”): a debate followed that led to the reduction of the video calls length. It was also the time when ways were devised for parents to contact individual teachers and the first formal staff meetings were held. All this has no connection to Puentedura’s Augmentation phase, but for the fact that the teachers started feeling relatively confident with the new teaching environment and started looking around for interesting digital tools that might foster motivation and keep their students’ attention focused on their lessons. It is important to say that at this point the web was literally flourishing with offers of professional development at no cost, partly in an effort to actively support the educational system, party because the big digital players saw an unprecedented opportunity for national (later global) expansion and started a silent and relentless fight for dominance. This phase lasted about a month, until the beginning of April. Phase three (corresponding to the Modification phase in the SAMR model): this phase did not develop spontaneously but was spurred by the issuing of instructions about assessment by the Ministry of Education (MIUR). It is important to understand – in order to fully comprehend the continuous uncertainty and stress all school members were subject to – that the process was neither clear nor even. The instructions were successively detailed over the school year, initially (March 8) in the form of general indications, the first of which left it to teachers to decide which assessing methodologies to adopt “without indicating any specific procedures, which derive more from tradition than from norms” (MIUR, Nota protocollare 279 of March 8, 2020, p. 3). After a few days a further communication was transmitted from the Ministry, repeating that “The formats, methodologies and tools employed in the ongoing assessment of learning, leading to the final assessment, are in charge of the teachers and must comply with the criteria approved by the school’s Assembly of Teachers” (MIUR, Nota protocollare 388 of March 17, 2020, p. 7). But this time the document went on specifying that assessment practices must be constant and follow the principles of promptness and transparency that, in compliance with the current laws but, even more, consistently with professional common sense, must distinguish any evaluation activity. If the pupil is not immediately informed that he/she has made a mistake, what the nature of the mistake is and why it is a mistake, the mark turns into a punishing ritual that has nothing to do with pedagogy, or any kind of teaching practice. Assessment always has the additional function of encouraging, of showing how to study further and catch up, strengthening one’s skills, in a personalization process that has the aim of fostering the pupils’ sense of responsibility, especially in the present circumstances (Nota protocollare 388, p. 7). None of these communications could be enforced, being “indications” rather than proper regulations. School principals were left wondering whether marks could be lawfully collected and recorded and in which forms (there were long public debates as to the opportunity to use standard marks in primary schools) until legal norms were issued, as late as May 16, stating that each individual teacher, Class Council (the team of subject teachers assigned to a specific class) and the school’s Assembly of Teachers must consider reformulating their teaching objectives, methodologies and assessment criteria; that marks should be given as usual but that all pupils would be given a “pass” irrespective of the given marks; that a document should be drawn for each class declaring which part of the syllabus had not been completed; that remedial courses would have to be organized in September 2020 for those students who had been left behind during the lockdown months; that further rules for the final exams would be presently issued by the Ministry (Ministerial Decree or Ordinanza Ministeriale 11 of May 16, 2020). 128

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Liceo Petrarca anticipated the debate among the teaching staff and issued its own regulations on April 6, which proved a watershed in the teachers’ practices. From that moment, teachers were asked to formalise their marks by inserting them in the electronic register adopted by the school. This phase lasted from the beginning of April to the end of the school year on June 9. This somehow artificial subdivision of the different steps in the progression of the school year after lockdown does not mean that the entire teaching staff moved together from one phase to the next. On the contrary, everyone chose where to stand while both external circumstances and formal demands from the administration evolved. For instance, when asked to assess their students, some teachers merely replicated their traditional assessment formats (traditional oral interviews or “interrogazioni” based on rote learning), adapting it to the digital environment (“Please turn on your camera and look into it while answering”). These teachers never left the Substitution phase. Phase four (corresponding to the Redefinition phase in the SAMR model): this is the most elusive phase as it has practically no correspondence in reality and is based on mere conjecture. In fact, instances of this phase can be traced in projects that were indeed carried out in Liceo Petrarca but not during the pandemic, as Liceo Petrarca is an “eTwinning School”, that is, a recognized member of a network of European schools that collaborate in educational projects that are only possible through the web. Apart from this, suggestions are coming from the Ministry that major transformations be applied to instructional design of activities, with an implementation of what is now called a “digitally integrated approach” (DDI or “Didattica Digitale Integrata”), that is, partly in presence and partly online. The imaginary game materializing the consequences of lockdown on the Italian educational system would take its players across four layers that are a combination of the SAMR model and the evolution of what really happened in the country from March 9.

DESIGNING DYNAMICS: EMOTIONS When describing this element, Werbach & Hunter (2015) stated that “A good way to tell if you’re using an effective gamified system is whether it’s pushing your emotional buttons.” Naturally the whole of the coronavirus story is entwined with emotions, to the point that the need for specific psychological help was globally recognized (UNESCO, COVID-19 Education Response, April 2020). To the ends of this study, it is important to distinguish between emotions that are intrinsic to the circumstances and the emotional involvement that should be theoretically interwoven in the game. Luckily, Liceo Petrarca is not located in one of the areas of the country where the death toll was painfully high; consequently, apart from a small number of individual cases our adolescent students soon recovered from the initial shock and went on to experience a general feeling of anxiety, social isolation, uncertainty and powerlessness. Later on they had to deal with physical restlessness and boredom. During the initial, emotionally intense phase – roughly corresponding to the first phase in our imagined game – the students and their families appreciated the fact that the school had been able to almost immediately get in touch with its pupils and had restored the familiar routine. They responded warmly and sent the school administration a grateful letter that was promptly published on the school website. Very soon, though, they started resenting the fact that video calls were long and their teachers were sending extra work to do; the mood changed, with the effect that the second phase was emotionally very different from the first. Finally, no generalization can be made for the third phase, when the students’ performances started to be marked again, as individual emotions depended on the kind of relationships and routines 129

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that each class had developed with their numerous teachers, and of course on individual performances in the different subjects. As to the teachers, apart from the general feeling of anxiety and uncertainty, they had to deal with altogether different emotions, the most powerful and pervasive of which being tech-related stress and frustration, and a deep sense of isolation. Specifically, the whole of the school staff was suddenly required to switch to remote working, without a choice and without training. While the feasibility of the switch was proven, the typical issues of remote working were not addressed by the administration for lack of specialized training, with the result that burnout was a concrete danger. One word should be spent for the deep stress experienced by the school principals, who were and are prosecutable, in Italy, whenever safety rules prove ineffective, and by families, who had to cope with financial uncertainty (or sometimes collapse) as well as organizational difficulties – being schools closed. While the latter factors are a constant during the pandemic, together with the anxiety and stress related to the uncertainties generated by the global evolution of the infection, the emotions experienced by students were more phase-related and could – at least partially – be dealt with even by teachers. Indeed they were, especially at the beginning, during the video calls when time was dedicated to letting the pupils express their fears and then to studying what was happening and discussing the measures that were being taken. As one pupil put it: I feel teachers more like human beings. Because we’re all in the same “sad” situation, all of us are stuck at home and living what everybody else is living. I think that all of us (my class) have created like a new “relationship” both with each other and with the teachers, or at least some of them. Others noticed that for the first time in their school experience teachers started their lessons with the question “How are you?” This kind of emotional support was commonly practised by teachers, as shown by the INDIRE research as the time devoted by teachers to “making contact”. To tell the truth, in our school it was more common in the initial phase, soon to be replaced by annoyance at teachers giving too much homework “because they [the students] have nothing to do” or requiring students to turn up at unexpected times of the day to complete a lesson or receive an instruction. Regulations were soon necessary to avoid arbitrariness, misunderstandings and resentment. On the other hand, teachers had to deal with altogether different kinds of emotions. Those of them who had had to overcome their fears of technology but had eventually managed to hold their first online lessons, experienced initial feelings of elation and empowerment – emotions that were, once again, phase-related. The next step was less pleasant and involved a sense of estrangement. Some teachers found it difficult to control the video conference tool (the ability to control the lay-out of the faces or to switch from the faces to the chat and back) and suffered from the fact that a large number of pupils were not using their cameras. They had the feeling that they were “speaking to a wall” rather than to human beings and lost their confidence. It must be said that in all the cases in which a strong bond had not been established between teachers and students, the latter were not helpful, taking advantage of the opportunity to “disappear” from lessons without ever participating or leave the computer for short or long stretches of time without the teacher realizing. Then there were the professionals who were upset by the fact that their inability to use the digital tools was there for everybody to see: they would have benefited from their students’ help but were too shy to ask or did not accept the fact that they were no longer in control. Finally, there was a cultural obstacle represented by the fact that some teachers were deeply convinced that communication via a digital device “was not real” and “you could only be authentically 130

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you in presence”. These feelings were not shared but casually, and were neither discussed among peers or addressed by the administrators, who were still struggling with primary practical issues. These observations come from direct experience, but the teachers’ emotional response to emergency remote teaching is starting to be studied and the findings are not in contradiction with these observations. An educator who took part in a meaningful if limited British study described it in very effective words: “Like a rug had been pulled from under you” (Kim & Asbury, 2020). Advice from knowledgeable authorities seems to suggest that administrators at all levels of the educational scaffolding should have taken care of the educators’ feelings. On March 23, 2020, Andreas Schleicher, Director for Education and Skills, and Special Advisor on Education Policy to the SecretaryGeneral at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in Paris, warned that: [But] the heart of learning is not technology – it is pedagogy and ownership. Successful education systems in this moment will do whatever it takes to develop ownership by the teaching profession. When teachers assume ownership, it is difficult to ask more of them than they ask of themselves. And then: Perhaps the greatest risk in this crisis is that the social fabric created in and by schools will become fractured. Learning is not a transactional process, where students are passive consumers of content, where schools are service providers and where parents are clients. Learning always happens through interaction and in an environment of well-being and self-efficacy for both learners and teachers. The success of students over the coming weeks and months, particularly those from disadvantaged groups, critically hinges on maintaining a close relationship with their teachers. In this crisis, schools need to provide ways for teachers to remain socially close when they are physically distant (OECD Forum Network). All the emotions mentioned in this section would have to be integrated in the game, with no need for the design of the same to add any further emotional stimuli. In fact, a collective reflection about what took place in the teaching community in the spring 2020 would have a literally healing effect on teachers, if only it followed the recommendations of the specialists who tried to support them during the pandemic (like, for example, Mark Brackett and Christina Cipriano, from the Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence, who apply the principles of Social and Emotional Learning to the COVID-19 crisis). An example will be added in the section dedicated to the design of the Mechanics and the Components of the game itself.

DESIGNING DYNAMICS: RELATIONSHIPS Schools are complex communities with a number of interrelated relationships, whose interests change according to the role everyone plays: for example, children are concerned with family and teachers, while the principal deals with the staff but also with national, regional and local education offices, without forgetting the trade unions and the parents representatives. The focus here is on the teachers, and consequently on their relationships with the people who are of primary importance to them: students, colleagues and the principal. Occasionally also parents. Some of these relationships are passive in nature, as

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nobody can question a principal enforcing a law coming from the Ministry, and only require the ability to adjust. Others allow for choices. During the months of closure, a very important role was played by professional networks of whatever scale, and the teachers who could already count on such networks had a concrete advantage over those who would only rely on the school staff, as this was a time when information and knowledge circulated freely over the web. Indeed there were unprecedented opportunities for professional development at very low or no cost, and great support was given by international organizations, national TV networks, university professors, publishing houses, practically for the asking. On the other hand, information did not necessarily circulate within the educational institutions – for the very simple reason that made video calls difficult: lack of digital skills; feelings that communication over the web was unnatural; fears to show one’s inadequacy… Moreover, educational administrations had no familiarity with the practice of remote working and simply did not envisage regular meetings, not seeing the use, especially in those schools where frequent, regular meetings among teachers are not an accepted practice (mainly secondary schools, as from INDIRE 2020, Table 36). Relationships are the fabric a community is made of, and in the imagined game they provide the material for both challenges and solutions. As an example, a teacher’s relationship with his/her students could either be experienced as more impersonal (“I can’t see their faces and so I don’t get any feedback about the content of my lesson. Have they understood?” was a common complaint) or, on the contrary, far more personalized - via annotations of individual work, emotional support during calls, inclusion of people who could not normally come to school due to health problems (plus a small number of very shy pupils who felt “safer” at home than in the physical classroom and became very active in these circumstances). In the imagined game, sharing feelings, experiences and ideas with one’s co-players could be a powerful dynamic, adding to the success and usefulness of the game itself.

DESIGNING DYNAMICS: CONSTRAINTS Like emotions and relationships, constraints are inherent in the game as they heavily influenced what happened in reality. They are, basically, digital skills, timing and regulations. No further explanations are needed about digital skills, except for the observation that some schools in Italy were luckier than others when they had to organize distant learning, due to that fact that among their classroom teachers there were people who for a reason or another did have digital skills (each primary and secondary institution in Italy must have a “digital animator”, that is, a volunteer who is expected to support his/her peers in the use of digital tools while teaching; digital animators do not normally have a formal background in computer science and are classroom teachers like their peers). Primary and lower secondary schools are particularly unlucky, as their staff does not even include a technician with an ICT background. Technicians are part of the non-teaching staff only in upper secondary schools. The timing constraint was specific to the phases the schools were undergoing: in the first phase it was the time it took them to switch online; in the second it was the long debate about the length of synchronous lessons and the rules to follow for the asynchronous activities that were entered as “lessons” in the official electronic register. The long, third phase was characterised by the fact that formal, national rules about assessment and final exams were continuously delayed. Specific instructions for the following school year are also an issue, forcing school leaders to spend a whole summer adjusting to indications slowly trickling in from the Ministry. None of this is totally unexpected, given the extraordinary nature of the 132

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challenge the whole world is facing, but these timing factors add to the overall stress educators are trying to cope with. Like emotions, time factors will be embedded in the game mechanics and components. As to the third element that is being considered, regulations were very much the focus of the second phase, when unprecedented issues started to emerge: what should be written on the electronic register? What should the policy be with “absentees” (students who did not join the video calls)? Should there be rules for video calls? Should parents be allowed to contact individual teachers and how? Et cetera. These kinds of norms were in charge of single schools that had to adapt them to the solutions and the technical features of the digital platforms they had adopted, as well as to the characteristics of their students (age, digital skills, available devices and connectivity…). Then there were rules pertaining to the extraordinary working conditions teachers were experiencing: should there be limited times for staff communications? How and when could teachers contact the administration offices? Were staff meetings due, and how should they be implemented? When official rules started coming form the national offices, during the third phase of the lockdown period (and of the imagined progression of the game), the schools started having much less agency and had to undergo adaptations that demanded considerable effort, including the ill-timed request to produce a number of red tape documents. This kind of constraint would have to be embedded in the third level of the game and solved through cooperative organizational effort. The ability to manage the interplay of external demands (students’ misbehaviour, school administration, parents, national regulations), and personal challenges, through effective communication and collaboration, should be the way to the solution of the game.

DESIGNING MECHANICS AND COMPONENTS In Werbach & Hunter’s (2015) words, Game Mechanics are the verbs of a game. They are the basic processes that drive the action forward and generate player engagement. Mechanics generally represent a means of implementation of one or more Dynamics. Components, on the other hand, are a game’s nouns. They are, generally, specific manifestations of the Mechanics, which are in turn manifestations of the Dynamics. Their suggested list of Mechanics includes - without the claim of being complete: challenges, chance, competition, cooperation, feedback, resource acquisition, rewards, transactions, turns and win states. They are not verbs, properly, but they do suggest action: the players face challenges, risk and take their chances, either compete or cooperate, take and give, move on and finally win – or lose. In the picture that has been described, teachers meet challenges, make decisions, cooperate rather than compete, get and give feedback, share thoughts and emotions, move on to experiment or stay put, communicate or isolate themselves, ask for professional help or give up. Some of these actions are neutral – not leading to rewards or punishment, which are categories belonging to the Components elements – while others

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are not; the choice depends on the embraced theoretical framework, enriched with the instructions that specialists have been sending through these times of difficulties. As part of the Mechanics, opportunities for gaining or losing a turn might be added to the game to symbolize a couple of elements that recurred through the four phases: “Inclusion” squares will reward the player, while “Burnout” ones will force them to stop. Examples follow. Table 1. ­ INCLUSION

Phase 1 Substitution / switching online

The school has lent a device to one of your students who previously could not follow your lessons and she turns up during video calls. You gain 3 Experience Points.

BURNOUT

Phase 1 Substitution / switching online

After trying several times to launch a video call following the school technician’s instructions, you find out that your operating system needs updating and give up. Skip a turn.

INCLUSION

Phase 2 Augmentation / a new organization

You find a text-to-speech application that will help a student with visual impairment read your textual resources. You gain 3 Experience Points.

BURNOUT

Phase 2 Augmentation / a new organization

You feel exhausted because of the increased workload. You will have to find a different work-life organization in order to protect your health. Skip a turn.

INCLUSION

Phase 3 Modification / assessment

A student decides to repeat a test after you have sent him a personal recorded message/video with the explanation of his mistakes and encouragement. You gain 3 Experience Points.

BURNOUT

Phase 3 Modification / assessment

Too many traditional written tests have required extra effort and time to mark them. You need to find alternative ways you can assess the understanding of your students. Skip a turn.

INCLUSION

Phase 4 Redefinition / redefining education

You use a feature of a digital platform to create an unobtrusive place where a person with problems can send their works and receive your feedback without being noticed by their classmates. You gain 3 Experience Points.

BURNOUT

Phase 4 Redefinition / redefining education

Group work has been ruled out as students are back in the physical classroom but cannot move from their seats because of distancing measures. You will have to convince them to collaborate on the web. Skip a turn.

The Components mentioned by Werbach & Hunter (2015) are: achievements, avatars (the pieces representing the players), badges, boss fights (the hardest challenge at the end of a level), collections, combats, content unlocking, gifting, leaderboards, levels, points, quests, social graphs (a display of a player’s social connections), teams and virtual goods. This is a chosen range among possibilities and derives from a great number of real games – especially video games – that the authors have analysed over a period of years. Naturally many of them are meaningless in the context that has been described here, but a number of artifacts as physical means of progression and achievement are a necessary part of a game. For instance, the players/teachers might progress through a board representing the four levels of the game (corresponding to the four successive SAMR steps but also the four real phases that have been described in the Progress section) by throwing the dice and meeting four different sets of Challenges and Chances while they move along the squares. The said Challenges and Chances are represented by cards describing a specific situation that is related to that particular phase. They will receive “Experience Points” as a Reward, according to how well they have addressed the described issue (in the case of the Challenges) or be given bonuses for a good idea or happy event (Chances). A few chosen squares might

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demand that they stop and share feelings and stories with their co-players, as collaboration rather than competition is functional to success, in emergency remote teaching. Moreover, relationships between players could get stronger and make the game more engaging. When the players get to a certain point in the game, or when they accumulate a certain number of “Experience points”, the successive level is disclosed for them to explore. The following table exemplifies the way the different elements of the imagined game could be interrelated, using an event that really took place during lockdown in Liceo Petrarca: Table 2. ­ Phase

2

Dynamics

Emotions Relationships Constraints

Mechanics

Making a strategic decision

Component

A “Challenge” card is drawn

Card content

During a video call an anonymous participant named “Henry II” enters the call and start writing jokes in the chat, disrupting the English History lesson. Discuss possible responses with the other players and then make a decision.

Instructions A. You call the ICT support person and discuss how to block strangers from entering the call: 1 experience point. B. You carry out the measures in A, then you call the class’s head teacher to find out whether the problem is only yours and discuss how to solve it together: 2 experience points. C. You carry out A and B. then discuss the problem with the class, asking them to draw shared rules for video calls: 3 experience points.

In solution A the issue is dealt with from a purely technical point of view, which of course might be successful but does not address the “relationship” part of the event. Solution B involves collaboration and takes the human component into consideration, while solution C turns the challenge into an opportunity of growth for the entire community. As Alfie Kohn wrote in 1996 in an article introducing his book “Beyond Discipline” (para. 16), To help students become ethical people, as opposed to people who merely do what they are told, we cannot merely tell them what to do. We have to help them figure out--for themselves and with each other-- how one ought to act. That’s why dropping the tools of traditional discipline, like rewards and consequences, is only the beginning. It’s even more crucial that we overcome a preoccupation with getting compliance and instead involve students in devising and justifying ethical principles.

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Table 3. ­ Phase

3

Dynamics

Relationships Constraints

Mechanics

Cooperating

Component

A “Chance” card is drawn

Card content

Instructions

In one of the professional pages you are following on FaceBook somebody shares an observation rubric that is perfect to assess the group work one of your classes is carrying out.

Tell your co-players whether you have ever used a rubric and how. If you have not, discuss their possible applications. After sharing, you are rewarded 3 Experience Points.

Professional networks and collaboration are always important, be they internal or external to the educational institution one is working for. When working remotely, the ability to remain connected and work as a team with one’s co-workers is a must (Moss, 2018, “Loneliness” para. 1), but it was not always encouraged by schools, especially in upper secondary schools, where sessions dedicated to department or class planning normally take place once, at the beginning of the academic year and not on a regular basis, as it happens in other orders of schools. In the research carried out by INDIRE, as many as 35% of high school teachers never discussed their teaching approach during the lockdown months, while peer training was organized for only 22.2% of them (INDIRE 2020, Table 36).

THE LIMITATIONS OF THIS APPROACH While this model is useful in terms of consistency of structure and analysis of the technological implications and potentials inherent in a quick switch to remote teaching, it may not correspond to reality whenever it is necessary to prioritize other facets of the huge problems that schools and teachers have had to face during the COVID pandemic. To name a few: supporting children that have suffered the loss of beloved family; forced abandoning of children who live in a low- or no-income family, or of children with special needs; contract or substitute teachers losing their teaching positions; risking exposition to the infection; supporting refugee or migrant children (Education International, April 6, 2020). Liceo Petrarca is a relatively privileged school in a developed country: the kind of problems its students and staff have had to face reflects their circumstances and so does this chapter. The second limitation resides in the adoption of the SAMR model as the theoretical framework for an imagined game. One might infer that using a lot of technology is “good” while using little is “bad”, but a good school is not necessarily founded on technology and this is the reason why the SAMR model has been integrated with cognition and motivation elements in the Padagogy Wheel. In the Wheel, the centre is human (intrinsic) motivation. Finally, games have a winner, but do they need to have losers? Is the teacher who decides he/she is happy to stop at the Augmentation or even the Substitution levels of the model a “loser”? As stated at the beginning of the article, academic success is possible for students led by teachers standing at one or the other of the four SAMR phases. Good relationships with one’s students and peers and professional satisfaction can be experienced at any point as well. If this were a real game, recognition and agency would have to be given to each individual teacher as to where they want to stand. Consistently, at the end of each phase a player should be recognized a corresponding level of “mastery”.

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Life, though, pushed everyone on, as all teachers had to reorganize their time and relationships (the second phase during school closure) and could not escape the assessment problem (the third phase). Therefore, mastery at Substitution would still need further adjustments. Moreover, on a collective scale this crisis has revealed the need to meet new educational demands. As stated by UNESCO, In general, there is a global need to build an understanding of the e-readiness of educators and schools, and to modernize teacher education through curricular and pedagogical innovation to meet the needs of a post-industrial, knowledge-based global society. While distance learning cannot replace teachers, this crisis has highlighted that both initial and ongoing teacher education are in need of significant reform, allowing teachers to developed more learner-centered practices and the use of ICTs for pedagogy, digital literacy, and data assessment to support curriculum differentiation and enable more individualized learning (ED/2020/IN2.2, p. 3) More than that, change is demanded by the employability requirements that are currently recognized as basic. The World Economic Forum’s report “New Vision for Education: Fostering Social and Emotional Learning Through Technology” (2016), declared that: To thrive in the 21st century, students need more than traditional academic learning. They must be adept at collaboration, communication and problem-solving, which are some of the skills developed through social and emotional learning (SEL). Coupled with mastery of traditional skills, social and emotional proficiency will equip students to succeed in the swiftly evolving digital economy (“Executive Summary”, para. 1). While keeping human beings and their physical and emotional well-being at the centre of our focus, it is important to equip our children and students with the intellectual and cultural means that will allow them to fully comprehend and critically evaluate the world around them, including the more and more pervasive technological facets. And to shape their future as well as they can.

REFERENCES Blumenfeld, P. C., Soloway, E., Marx, R. W., Krajcik, J. S., Guzdial, M., & Palincsar, A. (1991). Motivating Project-Based Learning: Sustaining the Doing, Supporting the Learning. Education Psychologist, 26(3&4) Bozkurt, A., Jung, I., Xiao, J., Vladimirschi, V., Schuwer, R., Egorov, G., Lambert, S., Al-Freih, M., Pete, J., Olcott, D. Jr, Rodes, V., Aranciaga, I., Bali, M., Alvarez, A. J., Roberts, J., Pazurek, A., Raffaghelli, J. E., Panagiotou, N., de Coëtlogon, P., ... Paskevicius, M. (2020). A global outlook to the interruption of education due to COVID-19 pandemic: Navigating in a time of uncertainty and crisis. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1). http://www.asianjde.org/ojs/index.php/AsianJDE/article/view/462 Brackett, M., & Cipriano, C. (2020, March 18). Teacher, Interrrupted: Leaning Into Social-Emotional Learning Amid the COVID-19 Crisis. https://www.edsurge.com/news/2020-03-18-teacher-interruptedleaning-into-social-emotional-learning-amid-the-covid-19-crisis

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Carrington, A. (2016). The Padagogy Wheel English V5. https://designingoutcomes.com/englishspeaking-world-v5-0/ Education International. (2020, April 6). COVID-19: Educators Call for Global Solidarity and a HumanCentred Approach to the Crisis. https://www.ei-ie.org/en/detail/16723/covid-19-educators-call-for-globalsolidarity-and-a-human-centred-approach-to-the-crisis Elias, M. J., Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R. P., Frey, K. S., Greenberg, M. T., Haynes, N. M., Kessler, R., Schwab-Stone, M. E., & Shriver, T. P. (1997). Promoting Social and Emotional Learning: Guidelines for Educators. ASCD. Giovannella, C., Passarelli, M., & Persico, D. (2020). Measuring the Effect of the Covid-19 Pandemic on the Italian Learning Ecosystems at the Steady State: A School Teachers’ Perspective. https://www. researchgate.net/publication/343127257_Measuring_the_effect_of_the_Covid-19_pandemic_on_the_ Italian_Learning_Ecosystems_at_the_steady_state_a_school_teachers’_perspective INDIRE - Istituto Nazionale di Documentazione. Innovazione e Ricerca Educativa. (2020). Pratiche didattiche durante il lockdown. Report 2 [Teaching Practices During Lockdown. Report 2]. https://www. indire.it/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Pratiche-didattiche-durante-il-lockdown-Report-2.pdf Kim, L. E., & Asbury, K. (2020, December). ‘Like a rug had been pulled from under you’: The impact of COVID‐19 on teachers in England during the first six weeks of the UK lockdown. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(4), 1062–1083. doi:10.1111/bjep.12381 Kohn, A. (1996). Beyond Discipline. https://www.alfiekohn.org/article/beyond-discipline-article/ KohnA. (2008). Progressive Education. https://www.alfiekohn.org/article/progressive-education/ Liceo classico e linguistico F. Petrarca. (n.d.). Piano Triennale dell’Offerta Formativa, p. 33. http://www. liceopetrarcats.it/images/PTOF_2019-2022/LOFFERTA%20FORMATIVA.pdf Moss, J. (2018). Helping Remote Workers Avoid Loneliness and Burnout. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2018/11/helping-remote-workers-avoid-loneliness-and-burnout Puentedura, R. (2006, November 28). Transformation, Technology, and Education in the State of Maine. http://hippasus.com/resources/tte/puentedura_tte.pdf Puentedura, R. (2014). SAMR and Bloom’s Taxonomy: Assembling the Puzzle. https://www.commonsense.org/education/articles/samr-and-blooms-taxonomy-assembling-the-puzzle Schleicher, A. (2020, March 23). How Can Teachers and School Systems respond to the COVID-19 Pandemic? Some Lessons from Talis. OECD Forum Network. https://www.oecd-forum.org/posts/63740how-can-teachers-and-school-systems-respond-to-the-covid-19-pandemic-some-lessons-from-talis UNESCO. (2020, April). Nurturing the social and emotional wellbeing of children and young people during crises. COVID-19 Education Response, ED/2020/IN1.2. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ pf0000373271 UNESCO. (2020, April). Supporting Teachers and Education Personnel During Times of Crisis. COVID-19 Education Response, ED/2020/IN2.2. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000373338

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Werbach, K., & Hunter, D. (2015). The Gamification Toolkit. Wharton School Press. World Economic Forum. (2016). New Vision for Education: Fostering Social and Emotional Learning Through Technology. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_New_Vision_for_Education.pdf

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Bloom’s Taxonomy: A classification system used to define and distinguish different levels of cognition that take place in a human mind. The taxonomy is the result of a research team project led by Benjamin Bloom in 1956. Nowadays researchers and educators generally refer to the revised edition of 2001. COVID-19: The scientific term of a coronavirus that has been causing a worldwide pandemic, starting reportedly in China in the late fall 2019. Gamification: The application of game design and other typical game elements to non-game contexts. Liceo: Upper secondary school, in Italy, preparing 14 to 19-year-old students for university. Lockdown: “Lockdown” or “shutdown” is the general term used during the COVID-19 pandemic to refer to the measures taken by many governments in order to check the spreading of the infection. Generally speaking, all non-essential shops were closed and most activities involving the gathering of people were prohibited, including schooling. Pedagogy Wheel: A visual tool for teachers, developed by Allan Carrington, combining Bloom’s Taxonomy and the SAMR model to classify hundreds of educational applications. Remote or Distance Teaching: In this context, the term refers to the teachers’ attempts to reach their pupils during the lockdown months to avoid the disruption of schooling. SAMR: A model created by Ruben R. Puentedura in 2006 to describe the transition from a traditional, face-to-face kind of education to a digital one. The acronym stands for Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, Redefinition, or the four successive steps in the transition process. SEL: The acronym for Social and Emotional Learning that was first used in 1994 by CASEL (The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning). It defines the development of the ability to understand, manage and express emotions and to relate to oneself and other people in a meaningful, healthy way.

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Chapter 7

Virtual Worlds, Learning Tools or Risk for Addiction? A Literature Analysis in a PsychoSociological Perspective Alberta Mazzola Studio Confini, Italy

ABSTRACT The chapter aims to provide an exploration of phenomena related to the use of technology-supported programs in the education field, with a specific focus on virtual worlds. In a psycho-sociological perspective with a psychoanalytic approach, the essay provides a literature analysis. Papers about virtual worlds and internet addiction are detected in order to explore the relationship among them. By studying mass media publications, emerging problems related to the use of technological tools in school are revealed on local and global scale. The proposal is to analyse the introduced issues by re-inscribing them within the coexistence context where they emerge. The highlighted hypothesis focuses on technology use as deeply marked by emotional approaches, determined by local cultures, which are shared among people participating to a specific context. It is possible to face specific issues, which afflict school professionals, students, and families, by analyzing emotional symbolizations they share.

INTRODUCTION In the last two decades, technological progress have been characterized by rapid development. Consequently, information and communication technologies have become entirely integrated into people’s daily lives, bringing new challenges to diverse social contexts. This chapter focuses on the effects involved by the introduction of technology based education programs in school contexts. Conspicuous studies have been realized about the advantages and risks of using technology in teaching programs. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch007

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 Virtual Worlds, Learning Tools or Risk for Addiction?

At the same time, rising economic investments have been dedicated to promote technology usage in the education field, grounding on the principle that technology-mediated learning environments allow students to develop specific competencies which are required to be competitive in the 21st century marketplace, fostering the development of new learning environments. Concurrently, technological usage at school, in particular, and technological usage in youth, in an extended acceptance, have become a matter of public debate in different countries. This scenario, deeply marked by a fast technological growth, founds a crosswise interest in problematic internet use, by conceiving it as a potentially major public health issue, entailing a social demand for professionals’ responses. Psychology and Psychiatry endeavour to answer to this request, achieving the conceptualization of diagnostic categories concerning internet addictions, as descripted in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) - Edition 5, published by American Psychiatric Association (APA, 2013). This chapter proposes to analyse the introduced phenomena grounding on a psycho-sociological perspective with a psychoanalytic approach. The highlighted hypothesis is that technological improvements and their usage should be explored by focusing on the specific local culture within which they are displayed. Namely technology usage could be conceived as strictly connected to the way it is symbolized. Hence it is connected to the way social groups participating to specific coexistence contexts share symbolizations founding local cultures (Carli & Paniccia, 2003). Furthermore, drawing attention to the school context, different symbolizations lead to discrepancies in terms of paradigms, methodologies and tools for interventions (Mazzola, 2018). In a wider perspective, they lead differences in term of representations about professionals’, students’, families’ experiences. This chapter purposes to introduce an exploration of these phenomena in order to stress critical issues and problem related to the way technology is perceived and utilized with the aim to highlight potential developments in the field.

THE THEORETICAL BACKGROUND The chapter aims to explore phenomena related to technology usage, with a specific focus on virtual worlds and the education field, and its connection with problematic internet use phenomena. This exploration is conducted by realizing a Literature analysis, grounding on a methodological proposal: texts could be conceived as cultural products; hence they could be interpreted as a clue to detect symbolizations about phenomena which are shared among a community, founding local cultures (Mazzola, 2020a). The introduced methodological approach to Literature analysis grounds on a semiotic and historical paradigm (Ginzburg, 1989). By citing the category of “paradigm”, the reference is to an overall conceptual construction (Kuhn, 1970), involving a precise epistemology, which founds a certain research tradition. Specifically the study concerns a qualitative research perspective. The purpose is to analyse individual, social and situational phenomena by detecting details, inconspicuous aspects, small clues, grounding on the hypothesis they could disclose something bigger and submerged (Demetrio, 1992). The essay strictly founds on an idiographic approach, rather than a nomothetic one, hence the attention is drawn on the particular, with the intent to achieve a wider knowledge about peculiar case studies, instead of looking for general laws. The objective is not to achieve an “absolute truth”, but to get closer to an extensive understanding of focused phenomena (Caronia, 1997), by analysing clues and detecting traces. Therefore from a methodological perspective, this essay is based on inductive 141

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investigation procedures, pursuing knowledge by detecting particular collected data. Specifically, this perspective refers to the Conjectural method, formulated by the Italian historian Carlo Ginzburg (1989). The author conceptualizes the Conjectural method grounding on the comparison between investigation procedures in three famous examples: Giovanni Morelli, an Italian art critic; Sigmund Freud, father of psychoanalysis; Sherlock Holmes, Conan Doyle’s fictional character. Ginzburg highlights a crucial aspect all the three cases have in common: their inquiry is realized by investigating infinitesimal traces, which allow attaining an extended and otherwise unattainable comprehension of an intricate reality. Pictorial marks (in Morelli), clues (for Sherlock Holmes) or symptoms (for Freud) are analysed as traces leading to the disclosure of complex phenomena. Grounding on the discussed theoretical background, the essay provided by this chapter intends to study a complex topic, which is figured as historically and locally characterized. Therefore virtual worlds and technology usage in the education field, as well as internet addiction, are going to be interpreted not as objects existing in nature tout court, which are passible of being descripted or measured with examinations replicable in any time and space, regardless analyser involvement. Whereas they are going to be analysed as cultural constructions, founding on symbolizations which are shared in precise social contexts, determined by history and territory, which means determined by local cultures (Mazzola, 2020a). The analysis perspective mainly refers to specific psychoanalytic theory based on a psycho-sociological approach: the Theory of Collusion, formulated by Renzo Carli and Rosa Maria Paniccia (2003). According to this theory, the subjective relationship with reality founds social construction of emotional symbolizations about phenomena. Namely emotional connotations, which deeply mark specific features of phenomena, are shared within the relationship with people participating to the same social context. The term “colluding”, from the Latin cum-ludere, precisely refers to this process of shared emotional symbolizations. In accordance with this psychoanalytic perspective, it’s possible to highlight that people operate building relationship with realty’s aspects through participating to coexistence context, grounding on collusive processes which imply conceiving events grounding on shared emotional symbolizations characterizing specific aspects of reality. Hence reality categorizations can be interpreted as traces of shared emotional symbolizations pertaining specific social coexistence contexts. In accordance with this theoretical perspective, it is possible to question that events evoke emotions, whereas to postulate emotions found events construction. As a final point, it is possible to consider reality as a social construction grounding on a process of sharing emotional symbolizations within the relationship with specific reality’s aspects (Carli, 2015). Furthermore, as Carli and Paniccia underline, if the highlighted hypothesis about collusive processes is questioned, it wouldn’t be possible to analyse the compound process fostering common sense construction. Indeed, basing on the authors’ perspective, common sense could be elaborated as a collusive process, operating in prescribing and protecting emotional system shared in a specific social context (2012). Additionally, according to the introduced theory, collusive processes which founding the construction of events’ emotional symbolizations shared in specific social contexts concern specific local cultures. In particular, the construct of “local culture” in Carli and Paniccia’s conceptualization pertains to the sets of relationship models characterizing a specific coexistence contest. Moreover, the construct of local cultures concerns the organizational and social functioning which could be formulated as the emerging resultant of the emotional process of symbolization founding on unconscious mind operating principle (2011). In conclusion, the essay which is going to be introduced by this chapter refers to the Theory of Collusion (Carli & Paniccia, 2003), pursuing the objective to study presented phenomena through a Literature 142

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analysis, by interpreting texts as cultural products. Therefore cultural products are conceptualized as traces of social dynamics founding collusive systems grounding on shared emotional symbolizations. Thus the chapter intends to analyse texts as clues to get to an extended comprehension about pointed phenomena occurring in particular social contexts, deeply marked by specific local cultures.

AN EXPLORATION IN VIRTUAL WORLDS This paragraph introduces a Literature analysis with the aim to explore the construct of virtual worlds (VW). In particular, at first the exploration focuses on VW in a broad way, in order to provide a Literature review of diverse definitions about this category. Afterwards, a study about different contributions about VW application in the education field is proposed. In conclusion, the paragraph proposes to explore differences in order to focus on transversal issues, providing a Literature analysis in accordance with a psycho-sociological perspective grounding on a psychoanalytic approach. As Girvan (2018) remarks, the development of virtual worlds, both in terms of technical features and in terms of widening range of reported user experiences, has implied a fragmented understanding of what virtual world is. Moreover, the attempt to identify a definition about VW is further complicated by the presence of heterogeneity of terms used to formulate it. They often pertain to classification based on technological features, such as: virtual world (VW); massively-multiplayer online (role-playing) game (MMO(RP) G); multi-user virtual environment (MUVE); virtual environment (VE); immersive online environment; immersive world; immersive virtual world (IVW); simulated worlds; open-ended virtual worlds; serious virtual world; social virtual world; synthetic virtual world; 3D virtual learning environment; virtual learning environment (VLE). Even if the previous labels were built in order to attain a classification based on highlighted differences in terms of technological applications, it is possible to notice that they are often used as synonyms. As Girvan (2018) underlines, it is not uncommon in Literature to find more than one term used to describe a single application. The possibility to refer to the same object by using different categories seems to amplify ambiguity in discussions about this topic. Honey et al. (2012) refer to Second Life in terms of MUVE and, at the same time, as a virtual world, whilst Ghanbarzadeh et al. (2014) conceive virtual worlds as a subset of MUVEs. Contemporaneously Second Life is mentioned as a social virtual world (Jarmon & Sanchez, 2008), as an immersive virtual world (McArdle & Bertolotto, 2012), as a virtual environment (Singh & Lee, 2009) and the latter term is also used by Minocha et al. (2010) to indicate Facebook. Stone (2013) asserts that virtual worlds show several features and characteristics which are lacking in Virtual Learning Environment, thus VW should not be formulated as a sub-category of VLE. Simultaneously, Kemp et al. (2009) developed SLOODLE, presented as a system for the integration of the VLE Moodle with Second Life. However, it is important to accurately define what is meant by the concept of virtual world, in order to guide research in the area (Schroeder, 2008). As Girvan (2018) asserts, the propensity towards a techno-centric definition offer certain advantages, such as allowing to involve a substantial variation of user experiences under the same umbrella; contrariwise it is difficult to distinguish between different technologies grounding on similar technical features. Moreover, it is not uncommon for definitions and descriptions of virtual worlds to focus on technical features, besides the rationale for the use of VW (especially in education field), is often related to the 143

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types of activities that the combination of features affords. According to the introduced scenario, in the author’s perspective, the importance of user’s experience over technical assets is highlighted. Among all the different definitions of VW, conceptualised by various authors focused on user’s experience, there is one which could be considered as a reference in Literature, basing on the number of times it is cited (over 500): in Bell’s definition, VW is “A synchronous, persistent network of people, represented as avatars, facilitated by networked computers” (2008, p. 2). Whereas Webber (2013) is one of the few authors to conceptualise Second Life as an economic system, by stressing some specific features: it has its own currency with fluctuating exchange rate and it can be used to purchase goods and services in-world. Since not all virtual worlds display a discrete economy which users have to entail in order to participate to the virtual world, even if this description of Second Life could sound interesting it could not be broaden to virtual worlds tout court. Allison et al. (2012) underline the importance of users’ possibility to create their own environment, not necessarily being constrained by what Gee (2007) calls “game-grammar”. Sclater and Lally (2013) focus on the difference among virtual worlds which are “game-based” and ones which are not, leading to the introduction of the term “open-ended virtual worlds”. Also Schroeder provides an interesting conceptualization focused on a relational level: “a persistent virtual environments in which people experience others as being there with them - and where they can interact with them” (2008, p. 2). Duncan et al. (2012) provide a formulation of virtual world, grounding on an over-extended acceptation of the concept, by considering its usage in education field, as ‘‘any online environment that allows users to play, learn or interact’’ (p. 950). It is possible to find conspicuous contributions in Literature about the connection between VW and education field. In particular, substantial elaborations point out the advantages implied in using VW in teaching programs. As Ke et al. (2016) remark, the use of virtual reality to promote simulation-based teaching training is just emerging. There are diverse areas of research about this topic, one of them stands out for the social impact of its inquiry’s object: how technology-supported collaboration can facilitate the sharing and dissemination of knowledge and competencies among community members (Di Blass & Paolini, 2014). Clark et al. (2009) highlight that young people have developed expectations and habits in using technologies at home to participate in unstructured, non-supervised, and collaborative ways to pursue interests. If teachers and educators are able to address students’ technology use to support classrooms collaboration, it is possible to capitalize natural collaborative interactions. In this perspective, technology utilization could become an opportunity to develop pupils’ knowledge construction alongside the one built in home environments. Throughout an observatory study, Quintana and Fernández (2015) note that VW could provide a virtual space to simulate teaching challenges and, in this sense, it could be considered as a pedagogical tool in collaborative teaching training programs. Jung & Latchem (2011) remark that using a virtual space in the classroom can introduce relevant changes in the way teachers promote, support and facilitate learning process. Moreover, in the authors’ perspective, setting tasks involving 3D object manipulation, creativity and corporal mobility via avatars, can remodel students’ pattern of knowledge acquisition and application. It is possible to notice that, if is essential for students to identify two objective orienting knowledge building process, in practical purposes and conceptual understanding (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2014);

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then virtual environments provide unique opportunities of collaborating for the creation of artefacts, solutions, and play (Gee, 2007). Burdea and Coiffet (2003) refer to virtual reality as “Immersion-Interaction-Imagination” since it enables a 3D immersive user interface, which allows a multimodal and real-time interactivity, participatory narrative, and personal construction that promotes imagination creativity. VW also allows the user to view and interact with a virtual object, space, or phenomenon from egocentric and exocentric perspectives. These salient features of VW make it a promising platform of collaborative, participatory simulation with dynamic perspective taking. Girvan (2018) affirms that Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) approach is propagating due to the increasing presence of technology in formal learning environments, in order to create learning scenarios that involve multiple activities distributed across physical and virtual spaces. For example, learners in a classroom may move from having a face-to-face discussion surrounding the speed of a moving car, to watching and commenting on an online video on the same topic, to completing a problem set at home in a digital environment. Given these diverse contexts, Dillenbourg et al. (2009) report an articulate and growing need for researchers to explore how CSCL fits into broader pedagogical scenarios. As Panconesi & Guida (2017) remarks, a technology based learning program could be conceived as an experiential process that must be conducted by the learner in an active and collaborative way, which is facilitated by relational multi environments where students learn from each other through the sharing of experiences; however, very often in teaching history, this knowledge have been neglected. Indeed other authors warn against potential risks that are ascribed to virtual worlds, in particular when used in the education field. It is argued that shifting between real and virtual world could entail a dichotomous perspective in personal experience, implying inaccurate assumptions about virtual identity and real identity (Lehdonvirta, 2010). Brown and Cairns (2004) suggest that total immersion could elicit a loss of awareness of the physical world. Whereas a specific meaning is attributed to the term “virtual” in Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) area, which refers to a specific set of teaching methodology grounding on the concept of learning through the use of technology to support a collaborative process. Within the comparison with the real, physical, natural or material, the construct of virtual is used to describe a simulated experience: something that is almost real, which is perceived to exist but lacks of physical properties beyond the screen (Girvan, 2018). It is, therefore, reasonable to conceive virtual world as another context, in which it is possible to transfer experience and knowledge about given objects, although those objects may assume alternative meanings in alternative worlds as in alternative cultural space. The described dynamics could determine a crisis of boundaries between a physical or material world and a virtual one (Sheilds, 1996). By operating a transversal analysis of the introduced conceptualisations about VW in education field, it is possible to highlight a fil rouge emerging in perspectives grounding authors’ positions supporting or warning about VW. The category of VW seems to be deeply marked by the concept of virtual as a parallel coexistence context. By analysing authors’ discourses, the possibility to participate to a parallel coexistence context seems to be symbolized in alternative ways, which could be polarised in two opposite emotional positions: progress endless possibilities which are waiting to be discovered, or, alternatively, danger for losing control in a parallel dimension, whose effects could be unpredictable. Both 145

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the positions reveal the assumption of firm boundaries, delimiting in a strict way the two coexistence contexts, where the connection between two worlds seems to disappear. The two highlighted positions could be considered as opposite faces of the same coin, revealing a unique collusive asset. It is possible to hypothesize that this symbolic dynamic shows the germ of problems and development possibilities in VW application in the education field: if virtual and fiscal world are symbolized as firmly detached, then it would be difficult to work for improving knowledge founding on the connection between experiences attained in VW and the ones achieved in a school context. This statement is going to be analysed further throughout the chapter.

A POP PHENOMENON: VIRTUAL WORLDS AND INTERNET PROBLEMATIC USAGE IN MASS MEDIA If the previous paragraph focuses on the construct of virtual worlds in Literature, by studying the way it is conceived by authors’ contributes addressed to international scientific community, then the current paragraph keep pursuing the exploration of phenomena related to VW, by analysing mass media. In accordance with the theoretical approach grounding this chapter, the proposal is to consider mass media publishing, such as magazine or newspaper articles, as cultural products. In other words, they could be interpreted as outcomes of cultures which are shared among local communities, grounding on collusive systems. Hence this paragraph aims to detect articles as traces of symbolizations grounding collusive systems, which determine common representations about specific issues shared among professionals and communities, influencing agencies’ social function, users’ demands and provided services (Mazzola, 2020b). As several authors asserts, within recent years there has been increasing societal concern around the compulsive and excessive use of digital and Internet-enabled devices, such as the use of social media or online video gaming, and associated psychological and physical harms (Almourad et al., 2020). Certain authors remark a link among this social concern and data survey highlighting that, over the last decade, there has been an increase in children and adolescents accessing psychological services with requests regarding online videogames practices which are described as critical (Torres-Rodríguez et al., 2018). Simultaneously, in recent years, psychiatric wards have reported raising consultations by adolescents turning to professionals to face problems related to cyber-technologies (Beranuy et al., 2012). Essig underlines that many people report suffering for an imbalance between life and life on screen; sometimes it could become considered as extreme, like excessive gaming; in those situations, clinicians could refer to “Internet addiction”, an extensive category used to offer an answer to familiar requests (2012). By analysing international mass media publishing, it is possible to note that issues related to cybertechnologies usage are a worldwide matter of debate and, in particular, they often come with a worried approach concerning children and adolescents. A CNN article, The teenagers so addicted to cellphones they’re going to detox centers (Jeong, 2019), affirms that South Korea has one of the highest ownership of smartphones in the world; more than 98% of South Korean teens used one in 2018, according to government figures and many are showing signs of addiction; around 30% of South Korean children aged 10 to 19 were classified as “overdependent” on their phones, according to the Ministry of Science and Information and Communications Technology.

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Another CNN article, Half of teens think they’re addicted to their smartphones, reports that a review of 18 research studies founds that internet addiction might affect between zero and 26% of adolescents and college students in the United States; afterwards the news is accompanied by an interview to a father of three grown children, who works as a custodian at a high school in Homer, Alaska, who said “the hallways are often half-filled with teenage zombies who are glued to their phones” (Wallace, 2016). “Is ‘Digital Addiction’ a Real Threat to Kids? Think of screens as something to handle in moderation, like food, rather than something without any healthy place in our lives, like heroin, experts say”, the New York Times asserts (Perri Klass, 2019). In Italy, since 2017, December the 2nd is recognized as the national day against cyberbullying and technological addictions (D’Aria, 2017). BBC affirms that half of the parents want mobile phones banned in schools (BBC News, 2019) and remarks that researchers have warned about technology addiction among young people, which is having a disruptive effect on their learning (BBC News, 2009). Certain countries are planning actions to face the phenomenon. In France, children have to leave their smartphones and smart devices at home or switch them off when they are at school (Smith, 2018). CNN reports that the city of Bandung, in West Java, launched a pilot program to get students away from screens by giving them baby chickens and chili seeds with the purpose to invite children to spend less time on electronic devices and more time caring for their pets or plants (Berlinger, 2019). By analysing mass media cited text, it emerges a cultural trend characterizing public debate in different countries, discussing about technologies usage in youth and about its potentially dangerous effects. The introduced articles on this issue reveal a prevalence of opinions grounding on approaches to the problem deeply marked with emotional dynamics leading to worry, loss of control and attempts to establish rules and limits aiming to face a phenomenon which is perceived as dangerous. On the contrary, there is a minority expressing opposite positions, fostering a reduction of the esteemed predictive power of the diagnosis of addiction, leading to a different symbolization of games, and technology in general, as something useful and funny. For instance, The Economist titles Addicted? Really? The internet: Mental-health specialists disagree over whether to classify compulsive online behaviour as addiction—and how to treat it (The Economist, 2011). Also, that is the case of a Wired article, The Danger of Thinking We’re All ‘Addicted’ to Tech (Eyal, 2019): Addiction is a pathology. It is not simply liking something a lot. In over a decade of researching, teaching, and writing about the power of technology to shape our behavior, I’ve come across many parents convinced their children are “addicted” to their phones. But when I enquire about the children’s behavior at home, most tell me they regularly have family meals with their kids and that their grades at school are fine. How can that be if they are using apps designed to addict them? Many potentially addictive things do not addict everyone and can be used safely in moderation by nearly everyone. People drink alcohol and have sex, but that doesn’t make us all alcoholics and sex addicts.

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Addiction is a matter of who is using, how much they are using, and the harm done as a result. It’s never simply about the substance or behavior being used or abused. We are quick to label behaviors we don’t like and don’t understand as “addictive” to provide a more satisfying reason to explain the things we (and others) do. It’s easier to say Netflix addicted me to binge-watching and that my child is addicted to Fortnite than to admit I didn’t spend any time planning something fun to do together as a family. In conclusion, mass media highlight public debate on technology usage in youth, which emerges as a disputed matter in different countries. In accordance with the methodological background founding this chapter, it is possible to study introduced articles as cultural products, in order to detect them as traces of emotional symbolizations about specific phenomena grounding cultures shared among professionals and communities (Mazzola, 2020b). By analysing discussed texts, it is possible to polarize different opinions expressed on this hot topic, identifying two opposite cultural positions: a prevailing approach warning about technology usage which is symbolized tout court as a danger, hence organizing attempts to limit its consumption; a minority position symbolizing technology as a resource (for fun and enlarging knowledges), when it is used in a proper way. These two opposite positions can actually be interpreted as faces of the same coin, namely as different positions emerging in the same collusive asset, grounding on a shared link among technology and its implicit risk for addiction, as a characteristic feature. Indeed it is possible to interpret this collusive asset throughout the psychological category of “friend/enemy” (Carli & Paniccia, 2003). In the first introduced position, the symbolization about technology as something dangerous, determines an emotional approach leading to perceive technology as an enemy tout court, for instance able to transform teenagers in zombies glued to their phones (Wallace, 2016) or which can have a disruptive effect on youth learning (BBC News, 2009). This emotional scenario originates endeavours to protect children and youth from danger: supporting initiatives to promote awareness against risks, such as institution of a national day against cyberbullying and technological addictions (D’Aria, 2017); or initiatives aiming to control youths’ risk exposition, such as banning phones at schools or detox centres creations. Contrariwise, the latter cultural position declines technology symbolization not as an enemy tout court, but as a friend until a certain limit, after which technology could become dangerous. This position determines an emotional approach to technology characterized by a warning to moderation: “Think of screens as something to handle in moderation, like food, rather than something without any healthy place in our lives, like heroin, experts say”, as the New York Times asserts. The highlighted hypothesis is that shared symbolizations about technology as an enemy or a potential enemy solicit emotions of alert and worry, determining requests of interventions and turning on public debates about this topic. Next paragraph is going to analyse an attempt to answer to social demand of interventions, operated by Psychiatry

INTERNET ADDICTION: A DIAGNOSTIC PERSPECTIVE This paragraph is dedicated to explore phenomena related to technology usage issue through a Literature analysis, narrowing the field to internet addiction. The paragraph proposes to conceive this construct

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as a cultural product, namely as the outcome of collusive processes grounding on symbolizations about issues which are shared among professionals and communities. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines Addiction as “the condition of being unable to stop using or doing something as a habit, especially something harmful” (www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com). In Internet addiction: The emergence of a new clinical disorder, the author refers to Technology addiction, also as “process addiction” or “nonsubstance-related addiction”, as a recurring compulsion by an individual to engage in some specific activity, despite harmful consequences, as deemed by the user himself/herself to his/her individual health, mental state, or social life (Young, 1996). The latter definition derives from a text which is considered the first speculative case reports of internet addiction, elaborated in the US in the mid-1990s. A substantial work have been done since then to the actual conceptualisation of Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) included in the Research appendix of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) - Edition 5 published by American Psychiatric Association (APA, 2013). During that time, there has been a rising interest in the vast array of phenomena, recognized as problematic internet use: it has become a topic of increasing interest for clinicians, researchers and stakeholders such as teachers, parents, and community groups (Tam & Walter, 2013). Since those initial explorations, a conspicuous number of instruments were devised with the purpose to attain an objective measure of the prevalence, severity and characteristics of problematic internet use in various populations. In particular, the early researches already focused on youth as a privileged target of interest. Different studies referred to diverse conceptualisations of problematic internet use, implying discrepancies in terms of category definitions, target involved, and identified objectives, methods, and instruments. Methodological approaches encompass cognitive processes, problem gambling perspective, impulse-control problem, biological addiction, etc. (LaRose et al., 2003). The wide heterogeneity of theory and methodologies employed by researches across various countries, constituted a block in drawing firm and general conclusions from the collected data (Young & De Abreu, 2011). In the early 2000s, the rise of the social web settles down with its consequent huge impact on society and its lifestyle on a global scale. As well as social networking, there was a wide increase in the popularity of online gaming (MMORGs, in particular) and, simultaneously, business and educational institutions started to utilise Web 2.0 (Tam & Walter, 2013). This scenario, deeply marked by a rapid technological growth, is the background founding a crosswise interest in problematic internet use, by conceiving it as a potentially major public health issue, revealing a social demand for professionals’ responses. As noted above a global data collection is difficult to attain because of theoretical and methodological discrepancies grounding diverse surveys, as well as variations in the specific population studied, led to problems with direct comparisons. However, despite these observations, the estimated trends of problematic internet use appear to be comparable across countries, revealing rates between 5% and 10% of the general population (Gentile, 2011; Porter G, Starcevic V, Berle D et al., 2010). A current survey (Sharma et al., 2017) reports about 1.5 million people, i.e., 3% of the German population, are believed to be at risk for internet addiction (Wölfling et al., 2009). The rate of problematic internet use in Italian adolescents is 5.4% and 18.3% in pathological internet users among British (Pallanti et al., 2006; Niemz et al., 2005). In US, among teenagers aged 13–18 years, 10.2% use internet moderately and 6% is severely addicted to internet, 8% reported lifetime internet gambling, 3.6% reported weekly online gambling (Goodman, 2008). In Indian context, 5% of youth in the age group of 18–25 years have addictive use of social networking sites and 24% have problematic usage of internet (Barthakur & Sharma, 2012). 149

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Among several issues concerning problematic internet use, conspicuous surveys have been focused on comorbidity. Alongside increasing clinical experience, several types of research aim to study the connection between problematic internet use and other clinical features, such as depression, anxiety, loneliness, bipolar disorder, ADHD, or Asperger’s Syndrome (Ybarra et al., 2005; Morahan-Martin et al., 1999; Park et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2013). Tam & Walter (2013) affirm that, once international comparisons give firmer conclusions, it may results that problematic internet use could be conceptualised not as a unitary mental health condition, but as complex end-point behaviour of a plethora of underlying psychological, developmental, ecological and intra-familial factors. For instance, digital addiction is an emergent research area which explores the problematic usage of digital devices. This includes discussions on whether a behaviour can be considered as a symptom of a mental health condition, and if so, what the diagnostic criteria should be based upon (Poli, 2017). Drawing attention on digital addiction rates, there is variance in the prevalence of digital addiction in different countries of the world, with estimates ranging from 2.6% of the population in Northern and Western Europe to 10.9% in the Middle East (Cheng & Li, 2014). Currently, there are no diagnostic criteria for digital addiction, although Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD), which describes a type of behaviours related to digital addiction, has been included in DSM–5 (APA, 2003) as a future area of research and investigation (Kaptsis et al., 2016). At the same time, the International Classification of Diseases version 11 (ICD–11; World Health Organisation, 2018) now includes a category labelled Gaming Disorder, which it further separates as being predominately online or predominately offline. There is also a lack of agreement on what terminology should be used to identify this phenomenon, which concerns a wide range of terms, such as: Internet addiction, Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD), Compulsive computer use, Internet Use Disorder (IUD), Digital addiction (DA), Gaming addiction, Smartphone addiction, etc. (Poli, 2017; Montag et al., 2019). Such a variety in terms for calling phenomena is considered highly problematic and has already had a negative influence over the unification of the field, because of the confusion created among diverse levels (Király et al., 2014). Whilst online gaming may be considered an internet activity, internet is a medium through which many activities can be pursued (e.g., sending messages, getting information, shopping, gambling, etc.). Thus, even if online gaming could be considered as an internet activity, internet and gaming are certainly different constructs (Király et al., 2015). Whereas the clinical diagnosis of IGD requires a specific pattern of conditions to be fulfilled, in accordance with DSM-5 (APA, 2013). In order to identify a persistent and recurrent use of Internet to engage in games, leading to clinically significant impairment or distress over a period of 12 months, five (or more) of the following criteria should be present: pre-occupation with Internet games; withdrawal symptoms when Internet gaming is taken away; tolerance or, in other words, the need to increase the time devoted to videogames; unsuccessful attempts to control participation in Internet games; loss of interests in previous hobbies and entertainment as a result of, and with the exception of, Internet games; continued excessive use of Internet games despite knowledge of psychosocial problems; deceiving family members, therapists, or others regarding the amount of Internet gaming; use of Internet games to escape or relieve negative moods; jeopardizing or losing a significant relationship, job, or education or career opportunity because of participation in Internet games.

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The criteria formulated by APA (2013) report adequate validity and diagnostic precision, although the diagnostic category prevalence is between 1 and 7% (Ko et al. 2014). This statistical data could be interpreted also considering that different instruments are used in diverse cultural contexts (Feng et al. 2017; Ferguson et al. 2011; Müller et al. 2015; van Rooij et al. 2014). Despite there is no firm consensus about the conceptualization of IGD as an addiction tout court, the insertion of IGD in DSM-5 seems to have been well received by most of the researchers and clinicians working in the field (Blaszczynski, 2006; Shaffer et al., 2000; Wood, 2008; Griffiths et al., 2014). Indeed the inclusion of IGD in DSM-5 could be conceived as an endeavour to achieve unification in the field (Griffiths, King, and Demetrovics, 2014). Nonetheless, there is no consensus on many issues regarding DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for IGD. Furthermore, IGD psychological, social and health consequences still necessitate further study (Griffiths et al. 2016b; Király et al. 2015; Kuss et al. 2016). Therefore the lack of agreement about diagnostic criteria makes the work of psychiatrists involved in therapeutic interventions actually difficult. Thus it emerges a request to conceptualise IGD, in order to clarify its most contentious features and to improve the research about IGD treatments (Torres-Rodríguez et al., 2018). Besides almost two decades of research, also clinical practice attempts to detect connections between internet addiction and psychological characteristics which are considered associated with the development and maintenance of problematic internet use. The array of issues, which are considered to be related to internet addiction, includes: depressive symptoms, above average state and trait anxiety, social phobia, increased feeling of loneliness, inadequate self-regulation, low self-esteem, lower life satisfaction, decreased psychosocial well-being, ADHD, narcissistic personality, aggression, and psychopathology in general (Király et al., 2014; Starcevi et al., 2011). Despite there are no firm findings allowing to determine if these features are addiction causes or consequences, researchers have a propensity for a reciprocal relation between some of these factors and internet addiction, as some longitudinal studies already suggest. Gamer’s reasons for fostering game activities are supposed to play a role in internet addiction, too. In Psychological Literature, conspicuous studies report a connection between the need to escape from reallife problems or difficulties and internet addiction, as well as between internet use problems and specific achievement-related motives (i.e., competition, achievement, advancement mechanics). In accordance with this perspective, gamers with psychiatric distress may use games as a coping strategy to improve their mood in order to attain emotional stability. On the other hand, achievement-related motives might be related to the lack of real-life achievements that may be compensated by virtual victories and successes (Kuss et al., 2012; Kwon et al., 2011; Yee, 2006; Zanetta Dauriat et al., 2011; Király et al., 2015). Throughout this paragraph an exploration of Literature about the construct of addiction and internet problematic use was provided. It is possible to remark that the concept of addiction, including the wide array of categories created to describe diverse shades of phenomena related to internet use problems and in particular IGD, refers to a specific discipline, Psychiatry, grounding on a peculiar epistemology and professional culture. Namely it is possible to interpret the attempt to elaborate a unitary diagnostic category as the discipline’s endeavour to analyse phenomena in order to answer to social requests, according to a specific epistemology: medical paradigm. Psychiatry, as a branch of Medicine, is based on the latter’s epistemological approach, which provides knowledge about phenomena grounding on nosographic categories, recognizing syndromes based on the presence or absence of certain descriptive criteria. Hence analysis focuses on the individual (Mazzola, 2020a).

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The next paragraph proposes an interpretation of phenomena related to internet addiction grounding on a psycho-sociological perspective with a psychoanalytic approach, with the aim to introduce an analysis of phenomena by moving the focus from the individual to the relational level.

VIRTUAL WORLDS: LEARNING TOOLS OR RISK FOR ADDICTION? AN INTERPRETATION IN A PSYCHO-SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE The survey, introduced through the former paragraphs, allows to highlight certain crucial points. The transversal analysis of Literature about virtual worlds in education field reports the existence of conspicuous contributions supporting advantages provided by VW usage in schools or warning about its risks. As previously discussed, it is possible to highlight a fil rouge emerging in perspectives grounding authors’ positions supporting or warning about VW. The construct of VW emerges as deeply marked by the symbolization of “virtual” as a parallel coexistence context. In particular, the possibility to participate to a parallel coexistence context appears to be symbolized in diverse ways, which could be polarised in two opposite emotional positions: endless possibilities which are waiting to be discovered, or, alternatively, a danger for losing control in a parallel dimension, whose effects could be unpredictable. Both the opposite positions evoke the postulation of steady boundaries, demarcating in a stringent way the two coexistence contexts (the physical and the virtual one) and the connection between two worlds seems to dissolve. The highlighted hypothesis focuses on this symbolic dynamic, interpreting it as a revealing clue of problems and development possibilities in VW application in the education field: if virtual and fiscal world are symbolized as strictly separated, then it would be hard to work for enhancing knowledge grounding on the connection between experiences achieved in VW and the ones attained in school context. At the same time, if VW is symbolized as a parallel context, then it could be perceived as dangerous, evoking feelings of worry and concern for youth attending VW. This collusive asset could originate requests of interventions from people perceiving themselves as excluded from VW, such as school professionals or families. Simultaneously, exploring mass media texts related to VW, it is possible to remark that cyber-technologies usage emerges as a worldwide matter of debate and, in particular, it often comes with a worried approach regarding children and adolescents, grounding on a shared connection among technology and its implicit risk for addiction, conceived as a distinguishing feature. Besides diverse approaches, it is possible to point out a collusive asset grounding discrepant positions: technology is symbolized as an enemy tout court, or, contrariwise, as a friend until a certain limit, after which technology could become dangerous. This emotional scenario could solicit emotions of alert and worry, determining requests of interventions and turning on public debates about this topic. Psychiatry attempts to answer to social request, by conceptualising the diagnostic category of IGD, with a specific focus on individuals. As Canguilhem (1998) remarks it is possible to point out the process through which the individual, with his subjective decision, defines his state or somebody’s experience as normal or pathological. Indeed Mental Health professional intervenes only if individual subjectivity arises to the choice to consult him. Hence medical diagnosis is secondary to a kind of an essential subjective diagnosis acted by an individual who determine to define himself as diseased. 152

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Moreover, it is possible to consider Mental Health issues, such as IGD, not as a characteristic of the individual but as the precipitate of collusive systems’ failure. Individuals could choose to react to pain emerging from to collusive systems’ failure, turning a demand to specific agencies symbolized as competent with specific issues. The concept of collusive systems’ failures refers to social systems of coexistence founding on collusive assets, which fail. This perspective grounds on the Theory of Collusion, a psychological psychoanalytic oriented model about emotional dynamic determining social relationships, conceived by Renzo Carli and Rosa Maria Paniccia (2003). In accordance with this model, social construction of reality begins by setting emotional meaning to different aspects of social experience, creating emotional symbolizations shared with people who participate to the same context (Carli & Paniccia, 2003). In accordance with the methodological approach grounding this chapter, the proposed analysis asserts that Mental Health issues, such as addiction, could not be detected by identifying individuals solely as unit of analysis. Contrariwise it is essential to re-inscribe individuals into relational dynamics and social coexistence system they belong to (Mazzola, 2020b), with the purpose of identifying problems and development possibilities.

CONCLUSION In the last two decades, technology investment in schools has enlarged more than a hundredfold on a global scale. Much of this investment has been made grounding on the assumption that technology-mediated learning environments offer specific advantages for students to develop skills, such as to seeking and analysing information, solving problems, hence equipping them with a set of competencies to be competitive in the 21st century marketplace, like communication and collaboration competencies. Nonetheless reported experiences about the adoption of technology tools in education reveal that educators would abandon technology if it doesn’t fit school cultural and social standing (Cuban, 2005; Lim, 2007; Lim et al., 2013; Zhao & Frank, 2003). At the same time, a technological generation gap has been reported: Generation Z and Millennials grew up in a digitalized world; they use digital technology as an integral part of their lives. A Digital divide emerges as a global trend: the youth rely on their increased digital expertise; whereas for the rest of the population, technology has an obsoleting impact, highlighting that older generations have to face the need to keep up with technological advancements (Pasztor & Bak, 2020). Certain authors (Lim et al., 2013) propose an interpretation of the scenario, founding on the conceptualization of the category of “co-adaptation of technology and school system”. They assert that this co-adaptation is determined by many conditions which are marked on a local scale, characterizing specific contexts, such as school technology resources, school culture, teachers’ and students’ expertise in technology usage and social dynamics grounding interactions in school context (Byrom & Bingham, 2001; Zhao et al., 2002; Zhao & Frank, 2003). In accordance with this perspective, authors remark that since technology usage in school constantly changes along with all of the other elements of school ecosystem, thus there is no “once and for all” solution to technology implementation in schools. (Tondeur et al., 2008). As Girvan (2018) underlines, any technology is an artefact within a wider milieu. Thus a definition of a technology needs to take into account its own activities and practices, as well as the social arrangements and organisational forms surrounding its use.

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Conspicuous studies advocate the crucial importance of national policies in fostering the potential of technology in learning processes (e.g., Tawalbeh 2001; Tondeur et al., 2007; Lim, 2007). At the same time, institutional guidelines do not guarantee any successful and satisfying implementation of technology usage in schools (Goodison, 2002). As Ertmer (2005) remarks, integration of technology into learning systems is much more complicated than providing computers and securing a connection to the Internet. Indeed technology is only a tool, which could be used to achieve goals. Nonetheless, as previously discussed, the relationship with technology is deeply marked by emotional approaches determined by local cultures which are shared among people participating to a specific context. Technology based learning programs could not ignore local school cultures and social dynamics in coexistence context which they are proposed to. In Literature there are conspicuous publications about interventions aiming to face digital divide through courses with the objective to develop skills required to access to technology usage (Ragnedda, 2019). On the contrary, it is difficult to reach interventions focused not on individual competencies, rather on relational systems where technological tools are displayed. In accordance with the approach introduced throughout the chapter, the highlighted hypothesis points out local cultures grounding emotional symbolization shared in a coexistence context as a key point to support a useful technology usage. Indeed emotional symbolization about technology tools, shared among school professionals, students and families, grounds collusive systems which determine social dynamics, supporting or contrasting technological based learning. For instance, school professionals’ or parents’ requests which could appear hostile to VW adoption in classrooms, or which could feel worried about it, could be interpreted as traces of a potential collusive systems’ failure. Thus technological tools could be interpreted as artefacts that are symbolized in specific ways. They are deeply marked by emotional dynamics which are developed within school culture and coexistence context they belong to. In conclusion, according to a psycho-sociological perspective with a psychoanalytic approach, it is possible to indicate a development possibility for technological based programs and virtual learning environments in interventions focused on school coexistence contests, with the purpose to support relationships, with a prevention and monitoring scope, in order to face problems implied by collusive systems’ failure. In particular, interventions based on the Analysis of Demand model (Carli & Paniccia, 2003), whose objective and method pertains the development of competence to analyse emotions experienced in relationships, interpreting them as a trace, as a resource to analyse problems encountered within those relations founding on specific collusive systems, could afford a school context analysis in order to face specific relational problems occurred in the school system.

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Tondeur, J., Van Keer, H., van Braak, J., & Valcke, M. (2008). ICT integration in the classroom: Challenging the potential of a school policy. Computers & Education, 51(1), 212–223. doi:10.1016/j. compedu.2007.05.003 Torres-Rodríguez, A., Griffiths, M. D., & Carbonell, X. (2018). The Treatment of Internet Gaming Disorder: A Brief Overview of the PIPATIC Program. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 16(4), 1000–1015. doi:10.100711469-017-9825-0 PMID:30147635 van Rooij, A. J., Kuss, D. J., Griffiths, M. D., Shorter, G. W., Schoenmakers, M. T., & Van DeMheen, D. (2014). The (co-)occurrence of problematic video gaming, substance use, and psychosocial problems in adolescents. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 3(3), 157–165. https://doi.org/10.1556/JBA.3.2014.013 Wallace, K. (2016). Half of teens think they’re addicted to their smartphones. CNN. http://edition.cnn.com Webber, S. (2013). Blended information behaviour in Second Life. Journal of Information Science, 39(1), 85–100. doi:10.1177/0165551512469777 Wölfling, K., Bühler, M., Leménager, T., Mörsen, C., & Mann, K. (2009). Gambling and internet addiction: Review and research agenda. Der Nervenarzt, 80, 1030–1039. PMID:19697001 Wood, R. (2008). The problem with the concept of video game addiction: Some case examples. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 6(2), 169–178. doi:10.100711469-007-9118-0 World Health Organisation. (2018). International classification of diseases for mortality and morbidity statistics (11th Revision). https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en Yang, C. Y., Sato, T., Yamawaki, N., & Miyata, M. (2013). Prevalence and risk factors of problematic Internet use: A cross-national comparison of Japanese and Chinese university students. Transcultural Psychiatry, 50(2), 263–279. doi:10.1177/1363461513488876 PMID:23660582 Ybarra, M. L., Alexander, C., & Mitchell, K. J. (2005). Depressive symptomatology, youth Internet use, and online interactions: A national survey. The Journal of adolescent health: official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 36(1), 9–18. Yee, N. (2006). Motivations for play in online games. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 9(6), 772–775. doi:10.1089/cpb.2006.9.772 PMID:17201605 Young, K. (1996). Internet addiction: The emergence of a new clinical disorder. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 3, 237–244. Young, K. S., & Abreu, C. N. (2011). Internet addiction: A handbook and guide to evaluation and treatment. John Wiley & Sons. Zanetta Dauriat, F., Zermatten, A., Billieux, J., Thorens, G., Bondolfi, G., Zullino, D., & Khazaal, Y. (2011). Motivations to play specifically predict excessive involvement in massively multiplayer online role-playing games: Evidence from an online survey. European Addiction Research, 17(4), 185–189. https://doi.org/10.1159/000326070 Zhao, Y., & Frank, K. A. (2003). Factors affecting technology uses in schools: An ecological perspective. American Educational Research Journal, 40(4), 807–840.

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Chapter 8

Culturally Responsive Pedagogy, Universal Design for Learning, Ubiquitous Learning, and Seamless Learning: How These Paradigms Inform the Intentional Design of Learner-Centered Online Learning Environments Natalie Nussli https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2411-0023 University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Switzerland Kevin Oh https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7764-5347 University of San Francisco, USA

ABSTRACT The purpose of this chapter is to develop a one-stop checklist that assists educators in providing online teaching grounded in the principles of culturally responsive pedagogy (CRP), Universal Design for Learning (UDL), ubiquitous learning (u-learning), and seamless learning. The authors explore how these paradigms inform the intentional design of learner-centered approaches in online learning environments and what an integrated approach could look like. This chapter will be relevant for faculty in higher education aiming to offer online curricula that emphasize active, collaborative, constructive, authentic, and goal-directed learning.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch008

Copyright © 2021, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Culturally Responsive Pedagogy, Universal Design for Learning, Ubiquitous Learning, and Seamless Learning

INTRODUCTION Although the use of technology-enhanced learning is flourishing in higher education, there remains a lack of clear, practical guidance on how to offer online learning programs grounded in the principles of culturally responsive pedagogy (CRP), Universal Design for Learning (UDL), ubiquitous learning (u-learning), and seamless learning. The objective is to offer design-based online learning that maximizes active, authentic, personalized, and autonomous learning opportunities. The first part of this chapter provides an introduction to the four paradigms and makes the connection to five dimensions of meaningful learning. In the second part of the chapter, the authors discuss an integrated approach. They present ideas for integrated learning scenarios, provide an account of their own ‘real’ teaching in online settings, and they introduce a one-stop checklist that combines the salient characteristics of the four paradigms and assists educators in making instructional design decisions.

BACKGROUND Culturally Responsive Pedagogy Introduction Gay (2018) defines CRP as “using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant to and effective for them. It teaches to and through the strengths of these students” (p. 36). Multiple dimensions shape CRP, including student-teacher relationship, classroom climate, classroom management, curriculum content, learning context, instructional techniques, and performance assessment (Gay, 2018). CRP is a paradigm that encompasses a multitude of concepts and “is called by many different names, including culturally relevant, sensitive, centered, congruent, reflective, mediated, contextualized, synchronized, and responsive” (Gay, 2018, p. 36). Among the numerous concepts that have shaped CRP are accountability, adaptability, connection, cooperation, diversity, empathy, encouragement, inclusiveness, perceptiveness, recognition, resourcefulness, respectfulness, self-confidence, and self-motivation (CASEL, 2013). In this chapter, the authors will focus on the four pillars as defined in the Motivational Framework for CRT by Wlodkowski and Ginsberg (1995) due to its emphasis on motivational conditions. Establishing students’ intrinsic motivation and promoting their sensitivity to cultural diversity seems especially crucial in programs that are delivered fully online with little (or no) synchronous time.

Establishing Inclusion Wlodkowski and Ginsberg’s (1995) framework is built on four pillars. The first pillar, establishing inclusion, prompts educators to create a learning atmosphere that fosters mutual respect and a feeling of connection. Collaborative learning experiences that provide opportunities for co-construction of meaning and knowledge, such as, think-pair-share, snow-balling, buzz groups, peer teaching events, writing groups, group debriefings, Socratic circles, virtual poster sessions, and team concept maps are 164

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all examples of learning activities that help establish inclusion and encourage all students to participate (Barkley & Major, 2020). Kumi-Yeboah, Yuan, and Dogbey (2017) recommend small groups of learners from diverse cultural and language backgrounds. Group tasks can be followed up with reflective sessions on multicultural group work (Siwatu, 2011) to challenge students to consider multicultural perspectives and values. Multidimensional sharing emphasizes any kind of social activity, such as introduction activities that help challenge racial and cultural stereotypes and other manifestations of intolerance (Gay, 2018; Wlodkowski, 1997). All of the above social activities can be implemented both in virtual and physical classrooms as well as in synchronous and asynchronous formats. Virtual breakout rooms (e.g., in Zoom or WebEx) could be used for think-pair-share-like activities. Padlet or a similar collaborative app could be used for creating team concept maps. Google Sites could be used for virtual poster sessions, Google Docs for writing groups. For students with advanced computer literacy and high comfort levels with technology, the learning activities could take place in three-dimensional, fully- or semi-immersive virtual worlds (e.g., Second Life, Virbela, Minecraft, Active Worlds) to foster a sense of presence.

Developing Attitude The second pillar, developing attitude, refers to learning environments in which educators strive to create favorable dispositions toward learning, for example, by making learning experiences personally relevant for students, by providing choices regarding content, interaction, and assessment methods (Ginsberg & Wlodkowski, 2009; Wlodkowski & Ginsberg, 1995) or by co-designing the courses so as to empower students to build their own experiences (Bovill, Cook-Sather, & Felten, 2011). To help promote positive attitudes among students, educators develop and explain clear assessment criteria; share examples of student output that meets (or exceeds) these assessment criteria; provide flexible discussion formats to accommodate students’ preferred choices (group size; communication tool, such as audio, video, text; synchronous or asynchronous); help students create their own learning contracts to give them more ownership of their learning; and formulate clear problem solving goals (Wlodkowski, 1997).

Enhancing Meaning The third pillar, enhancing meaning, prompts educators to provide learning experiences that are not only challenging and thoughtful but also provide students with carefully aligned opportunities to explore, reflect on, and voice their own perspectives, beliefs, and values (Ginsberg & Wlodkowski, 2009; Wlodkowski & Ginsberg, 1995). Activities framed by inquiry-based learning, project-based learning, case studies, roleplays, and simulations are some examples of meaning-enhancing learning experiences, as long as they offer rich and authentic context and allow students to apply their learning in “sufficiently realistic situations” (Wlodkowski, King, & Lawler, 2003, p. 44).

Engendering Competence The fourth pillar, engendering competence, capitalizes on creating learning and assessment experiences that demonstrate to students that they “are effective in learning something they value” (Wlodkowski & Ginsberg, 1995, p. 3). Strategies include providing effective and mastery-oriented feedback, specifically connecting students’ values and cultural frames of reference with the assessment criteria, using authen165

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tic forms of assessment, and establishing teacher-student partnership. CRP is validating and affirming because it builds “bridges of meaningfulness between home and school” (Gay, 2018, p. 37), provides a wide array of instructional strategies that cater to multiple learning styles, and uses cultural knowledge to guide curriculum development (Teel & Obidah, 2008).

Universal Design for Learning Introduction UDL is a design framework that strives to maximize learning opportunities and ensure equitable student success for all learners with differing abilities (Evmenova, 2018; Kumar & Widemann, 2014; Rose & Meyer, 2002). UDL is built on the principle of redundancy. There are three major principles encompassing three guidelines each and a total of 31 checkpoints (CAST, 2018). The first principle, multiple means of representation, revolves around ‘what’ students are learning. It aims to ensure that all learners can access learning content in a way that best accommodates their needs and abilities. This principle encompasses the following three guidelines: perception, language and symbols, and comprehension (CAST, 2018). Educators inspired by UDL will use different strategies, methods, and tools to present and share content. The second principle, multiple means of action and expression, revolves around ‘how’ students are learning. It aims to ensure that all students have varied and repeated opportunities to demonstrate mastery of content. This principle encompasses the following three guidelines: physical action, expression and communication, and executive functions (CAST, 2018). The third principle, multiple means of engagement, revolves around ‘why’ students are learning a specific content. It aims to ensure that all learners can participate in collaborative learning (Dell, Dell, & Blackwell, 2015; Meyer, Rose, & Gordon, 2014). This principle encompasses the following three guidelines: recruiting students’ interest, sustaining effort and persistence, and self-regulation (CAST, 2018). Educators inspired by UDL provide tools assisting students in monitoring their progress, engaging in self-reflection, and increasing their level of active learning. For example, students can monitor their own progress in Moodle if teachers set up a digital “checklist” where students can check off assignments one-by-one. This tool also helps students keep a visual overview of all assignments across all of their courses. Socrative offers a way to support students in their self-assessment and self-regulation. Teachers can set up the quizzes so that students automatically get their individual student reports sent to their email, which they could then include in their digital portfolio, e.g., on SwitchPortfolio, an electronic portfolio system with social networking features. SwitchTube offers a platform for students to upload their video products and provide peer feedback on each other’s work, which contributes to their active engagement and reflective processes. It has been argued that “UDL provides flexibility to all students to engage in a course in a way that is optimal for them, whether needing an accommodation or not. Hence, UDL is applicable to all learners, and in all settings - even online” (Westine et al., 2019, p. 23). Although still limited, there is a growing research base describing online faculty’s efforts to implement UDL features into their fully online or hybrid course design and curricula. The lack of empirical research has been attributed to limited guidance on how to implement UDL online and that educators might find it challenging to differentiate UDL guidelines from other quality frameworks, such as Quality Matters (QM, Quality Matters, 2018). In a

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study by Westine et al. (2019), it was found that 55.4% of the faculty (N=141) had received training in applying QM in online settings, whereas only 12% had received UDL training for online teaching.

Promoting UDL in Online Learning Environments As UDL is increasingly migrating to online and hybrid learning environments, educators need clarity and specificity as to how each of the three UDL principles, nine guidelines, and 31 checkpoints can be operationalized (Rao, Ok, & Bryant, 2014). Evmenova (2018) provides a detailed discussion of the implementation of UDL principles in both physical and online learning settings. For each of the three principles, she describes ideas proposed by educators on how each of the UDL guidelines might look like in both physical and online classrooms. CAST (2018) provides clear descriptors for each of the 31 checkpoints and practical ideas for operationalization in both physical and online classrooms. Westine et al. (2019) investigated online faculty’s familiarity with UDL and how their own course design reflected the use of UDL. The highest implementation (69.8%) was reported for those UDL guidelines suggesting options for comprehension, expression and communication. In contrast, options for physical action as well as language and support were the least reported. Only a minority reported providing students choices as to how they are allowed to demonstrate their mastery of the content (e.g., writing a paper, producing a video, or creating a presentation). Similarly, findings by Capp (2020) revealed that educators are skilled in giving out different instructional materials but are less confident in allowing students to create different products to show mastery of learning. The primary and secondary teachers who participated in Capp’s (2020) research demonstrated higher self-efficacy in applying the first UDL principle, namely, providing multiple means of representation. Less self-confidence was demonstrated with regard to the second and third UDL principle, namely, providing multiple means of expression and action and providing multiple means of engagement. Milrad et al. (2013) discuss multiple challenges of implementing UDL in online learning. For example, educators may find it challenging to “support individual learners in bridging their ongoing learning processes across context, as well as connecting multiple learners within the same learning community, but separated by time and (physical or digital) space” (p. 98). UDL challenges educators to learn new teaching habits and pushes them to shift from a philosophy of “transmissionism to constructivism and socio-constructivism” (Milrad et al., 2013 p. 98).

Seamless Learning Introduction ‘Seamlessness’, which was originally coined by Kuh (1996), has been re-defined in the context of mobileassisted learning as “the seamless integration of the learning experiences across various dimensions including formal and informal learning contexts, individual and social learning, and physical world and cyberspace” (Wong & Looi, 2011, p. 2364).

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Table 1. Selected Design Criteria for u-Learning (adapted from Yetik et al., 2020, pp. 111-119) Dimensions

Guidelines

MSL1: Formal and informal learning

• Embed social networks into online learning environments where students can publish digital profiles and express themselves without the constraints and limited functions of a learning management system (LMS). • Offer variations in formal and informal assessment and evaluation tools.

MSL2: Personalized and social learning

• Use of web-based environments for social interaction, collaborative learning, and student-student as well as student-teacher interaction. • Use a design that accommodates learners’ individual and social preferences. • Know the learners’ personal characteristics. • Use tools and environments that enrich collaboration.

MSL5: Ubiquitous access

• Design learning materials that can be used on- and offline. Prevent discontinuity of learning services when switching between devices or networks. • Integrate search devices into the learning environment. • Use online environments designed with the architecture of cloud computing to guarantee anytime and everywhere access, with automatic backup.

MSL6: Physical and digital worlds

• Use learning designs underpinned by connectivism (Siemens, 2005). • Incorporate gamified and competition-based learning (Burguillo, 2010, Landers & Landers, 2014). • Reinforce online content with offline activities.

MSL7: Use of multiple device types

• Use of devices providing cross-platform support to minimize students’ dependence on one single device. • Use of mobile applications that can function in multiple operating systems and multiple browsers. • Creating the same visual and sensory design in different devices so that the same content yields the same configuration regardless of the device. • Use of devices that can communicate with each other; taking advantage of the Internet of Things technology in devices.

MSL8: Switching between multiple learning tasks

• The learners’ own learning needs should be identified and aligned with the shifting between tasks. • Use learning analytics to provide individual learning opportunities by evaluating the learners’ means to access content as well as device and content preferences. • Use micro-learning design by presenting content in small units to accelerate the shift between multiple learning tasks. • Seamless resumption of online content while switching between environments or devices. • Activities to sustain learners’ intrinsic motivation when switching to a different environment or device. • Accommodate different technology literacy levels.

MSL9: Knowledge synthesis

• Recognize and validate prior knowledge. • Provide opportunities for personalized learning. • Push learner-centered learning designs.

MSL10: Multiple pedagogical or learning activity models

• Use different content types (audio, text, visual, animation, video, multimedia). • Design content applying dual-coding theory (Mayer, 1997) to avoid cognitive overload (Sweller, 1988). • Carefully align learning approach with space and context. • Emphasize self-regulated learning skills.

The Ten Dimensions of Mobile Seamless Learning Wong and Looi (2011) have defined ten widely cited dimensions of mobile seamless learning (MSL) with wireless, mobile, and ubiquitous technologies in education, also known as the 10D-MSL. These 10 dimensions include: formal and informal learning (MSL1), personalized and social learning (MSL2), learning across time (MSL3), learning across locations (MSL4), ubiquitous knowledge access (MSL5; encompassing context-aware learning, augmented reality learning, and ubiquitous internet access), physical and digital worlds (MSL6), combined use of multiple device types (MSL7), seamless switching between multiple learning tasks (MSL8), knowledge synthesis (MSL9), and the implementation of multiple pedagogical or learning activity models (MSL10). The ten dimensions represent continua (rather than

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dichotomies) and inspire varied combinations of mobile assisted-mediated activities and learning designs depending on the subject domain, pedagogical models, and the availability of resources (Wong, 2015). Yetik, Ozdamar, and Bozkurt (2020) investigated the criteria for the design of environments framed by 10D-MSL. Selected guidelines for eight dimensions (out of ten) are shown in Table 1 (adapted from Yetik et al., 2020, pp. 111-119). Although there are varied nuances across multiple definitions of seamless learning, the common denominators include the notions of ‘continuity of learning’ across a combination of different scenarios, spaces (learning/social), locations (in- and out-of-school), switchable contexts (formal learning in informal settings or vice-versa), multiple devices, multiple notions of learning and interaction (individual/social), the replacement of one-off learning by ongoing learning, the sharing of resources, data synchronization, and the shift from consuming knowledge to producing knowledge (Sharples, 2012; Wong & Looi, 2011; Wong, 2015). Chan et al. (2006) projected that “these developments, supported by theories of social learning, situated learning, and knowledge-building, will influence the nature, the process and the outcomes of learning” (p. 23). Wong (2015) provides an overview of the history of the seamless concept and reviews its recent development. Multiple perspectives, such as, conceptual groundings, technology, pedagogical frameworks, ecology, knowledge construction, and knowledge management are discussed in depth and contribute to the refinement and re-interpretation of seamlessness as it pertains to the future of technology-focused education. The theoretical underpinnings of seamless learning emphasize the notion of lifelong autonomous learning: The sociocultural perspective of learning consistently stands out as the implicit guiding philosophy for the conceptualization, implementation and interpretation of the notion. Constructivism and socio-constructivism become the common threads that weave together individual or groups of learners’ learning efforts and experiences across multiple spaces, (perhaps) with the eventual goal of fostering a sustainable sense of learning ownership in them. (Wong, 2015, p. 13) With this re-interpretation of seamless learning comes a pressure on educators to reassess and adapt their pedagogies to accommodate the shift to online learning (Song, 2018). Hiew and Chew (2016) explored the gaps between students and educators that hinder the effective implementation of seamless learning. Their report indicates that “the ubiquity of technologies” (p. 145) must be properly aligned with pedagogical design in order to support students’ learning experiences. Kali, Levy, Levin-Peled, and Tal (2018), for example, describe how the principles of seamless learning were used to frame an outdoor inquiry project. They describe the roles of elementary school teachers as the designers and enactors of mobile-assisted seamless learning with an emphasis on removing the seam between contexts and spaces. Their findings indicate that although mobile technologies have the potential to mediate seamless learning between the classrooms, outdoors, and home, educators find it challenging to design seamless mobile-assisted outdoor inquiry, such as offering supports for seamless learning when switching from one activity to the next, using technology to stimulate inquiry, or help students co-construct new knowledge rather than simply consume it. Their study shows that educators need training in tailoring seamless mobile learning. Similarly, it indicates that the alignment between ubiquitous technology and pedagogical design cannot be anticipated without prior training and experience.

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Another example demonstrating the need for an alignment between pedagogical design and online teaching was provided by Amhag (2017) who experimented with the use of flipped recordings prior to synchronous online webinars. Two conditions were compared. Group A students participated in F2F online webinars, whereas Group B students watched teacher-recorded flipped classroom-videos (pre-lectures) prior to the F2F online webinars. Results indicated that the teacher-recorded pre-lectures helped Group B students bridge the gaps between theory and practice and mediated the switch between formal and informal learning. Group A students, who did not have access to the pre-lectures, reported being overwhelmed with some elements of the F2F online webinars, such as frequent task-switching, and would have appreciated preparation before the webinars, such as a mini lecture or “other types of tutoring and scaffolding”, which “would have provided a sense of reality (Amhag, 2017, pp. 76-77). Finally, another critical gap exists regarding students’ use of mobile devices. Although today’s students tend to be tech savvy, they may not have the skills and knowledge how to use mobile devices effectively for learning purposes (Dahlstrohm, Walker, & Dziuban, 2013).

Ubiquitous Learning Introduction u-learning has been referred to as a learning method that allows for ‘anywhere and anytime learning’ (Hwang, Tsai, & Yang, 2008). This definition has been expanded in that u-learning is happening “not just anytime and anywhere, but perpetually and across contexts with and without external facilitation” (Mildrad et al., 2013, p. 96). It is developed and delivered by “taking advantage of digital content, physical surroundings, mobile devices, pervasive components, and wireless communication” (Cárdenas-Robledo & Peña-Ayala, 2018; p. 1097). u-learning fosters peer interaction, offers scaffolded learning in authentic contexts, enhances selfregulated and personalized learning, has a positive impact on learning effects, and has been associated with higher learner motivation (Hwang et al., 2008; Hwang, Kuo, Yin & Chuang, 2010; Peng, Chou, & Chang, 2008).

The Ten Dimensions of u-Learning The ten dimensions of u-learning include: (1) urgency of learning need, (2) initiative of knowledge acquisition, (3) context-awareness, (4) adaptive learning, (5) situation of instructional activity, (6) personalization, (7) self-regulated learning, (8) constructivist learning, (9) interactivity of learning process, and (10) learning community (Huang, Chiu, Liu, & Chen, 2011; Hwang et al., 2008; Jen, Wu, Huang, Tan, & Yang, 2010). Hwang et al. (2008) provide definitions of each dimension. Urgency of learning need: support students in finding information to solve a problem. Initiative of knowledge acquisition: “provide information and shorten students’ request time” (Huang et al., 2011, p. 2293). Context-awareness: capable of recognizing users’ statuses and locations in authentic environments and providing context-relevant information (e.g., GPS, sensors, bio-feedback). The “recreation of authentic immersive educational sceneries” is considered one of the most salient affordances of u-learning (Cárdenas-Robledo & Peña-Ayala, 2018). Adaptive learning: capable of individualized differentiation and adaptions depending on learner’s progress and needs. Situation of instructional activity: bridging learning needs and real-life situations. Actively provides personalization: personalized support and 170

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feedback. Self-regulated learning: give students control over their own learning progress. Constructivist learning: connect prior and new knowledge, guided by reflective practice. Interactivity of learning process: common platform for students, instructors, and e-tutors to interact. Learning community: collaborative learning to enrich meetings in digital environments and to help create a sense of cohesion.

Comparison between Seamless Learning and u-Learning Compared to u-learning, seamless learning appears to offer an added benefit in that it facilitates “learning that enables, in addition to what is provided through ubiquitous learning, a shift to different learning habits and scenarios” (Yetik et al., 2020, p. 107).

Sudden Switch to Online Curriculum In the planning and design of their online curricula, the authors wished to emphasize the concepts of collaboration, personal relevance, active learning, meaningful learning, constructivism, interaction, and student-autonomy. One of the factors they had to consider was that their online programs would need to support learners who did not choose to sign up for an online program; instead, online learning was imposed on them due to a pandemic. Like most faculty all over the world, the authors were faced with the challenge of having to switch to fully online learning practically over night. The second author’s students are graduate students (in-service teachers) pursuing a Masters Degree in Special Education, while the first author’s students are undergraduates (pre-service teachers) pursuing a Bachelors Degree in Primary Education. The students’ comforts levels with technology varied greatly in both groups as well as their preferences for interaction and participation in synchronous online sessions, according to a needs assessment administered in the first week of the academic semester. While some students worked very independently, others needed more support. In addition to the students’ comfort levels with technology, the authors considered the following components (adopted from Marín et al., 2016) to plan their online teaching: (a) learning goals, (b) learning activities (reading, viewing, listening; collaboration; discussion; investigation, research, inquiry; practice; production); (c) type of pedagogy (transmissive, dialogic, constructive, co-constructive); (d) modalities of representation (text, image, audio, video, multimodal); level of synchronicity (synchronous and/or asynchronous); and information sources for teaching and planned interactions (students, teachers, guest speakers, and others). The physical isolation of students from one another and the lack of interaction have been associated with alienation and a sense of disconnection (Phirangee, 2016), which prompted the authors to emphasize a learning environment that would foster collaboration and interaction. The next section explores ways to combine the salient characteristics of the four paradigms.

SUMMARY An Integrated Approach In this section, the authors explore how an integrated approach might look like. This section is guided by three questions. How can the salient characteristics from each of the four models be combined into a one-stop resource for educators? How might such a resource assist online instructors in planning and 171

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developing their DML units systematically? What do the salient features of these paradigms look like in ‘real’ online teaching? Figure 1 provides an overview of the salient characteristics and dimensions of the four paradigms outlined in the first part of this chapter. Figure 1. Overview of Salient Characteristics of Four Paradigms

Shared vs. Unique Features A closer look at Fig. 1 shows that the four paradigms offer many interrelated features. Student-autonomy, self-regulation, reflection, support, collaboration, cooperation, feedback, interaction, and choices are themes that are repeatedly referred to across paradigms. Some features, however, seem to be specific to a single paradigm. For example, the idea of “bridging the multifaceted learning efforts across multiple spaces” (Wong, 2015, p. 8) is closely tied to the notion of seamless learning. The idea of removing seams (i.e., gaps) from contexts, locations, time, learning spaces, and learning tasks does not distinctly manifest itself in the other three paradigms.

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Meaningful Learning and the Technology Integration Matrix In the Technology Integration Matrix (TIM), the Florida Center for Instructional Technology (FCIT, 2019) has targeted five dimensions of meaningful learning (i.e., active, collaborative, constructive, authentic, and goal-directed) and has associated these dimensions with differing levels of technology integration: from entry (lowest), adoption, adaption, infusion to transformation (highest). The five characteristics of meaningful learning and the five levels of technology integration generate a matrix of 25 cells. The descriptors of each level enable educators to evaluate their online pedagogies and determine which dimensions of meaningful learning they wish to emphasize. Depending on the learning objectives of individual DML units and the needs of a specific learner population, educators might apply different levels of the TIM. The descriptors of the TIM framework can be applied to both online and F2F learning environments (FCIT, 2019). Table 2 displays the goals of each learning model, the TIM descriptors and TIM video lesson examples for each of the five learning models at the highest level of the continuum, namely, the transformation level. Table 2. Practical Examples illustrating the Transformation Level of the TIM (FCIT, 2019)* Active Learning

Collaborative Learning

Constructive Learning

Authentic Learning

Goal-Directed Learning

Connect learning activities to real world beyond instructional setting. Avoid decontextualized tasks.

Set goals, plan activities, monitor progress, evaluate results, self-assess, and reflect.

Goal

Create and sustain active student engagement.

Emphasize benefits of collaboration.

Integrate new information with prior knowledge. Avoid passive consuming information.

TIM Descriptors

Extensive and unconventional use of technology tools.

Mediate collaboration with peers or experts that may not be possible without technology.

Extensive and unconventional use of technology tools to build knowledge.

Innovative use of higher-order learning experiences with real-life connection.

Extensive and higher-order use of tools to monitor and plan learning.

TIM Video Lesson Examples

Poetry podcast, virtual vacation travel guide, environmental mapping and testing.

Geography podcast, contextualizing vocabulary, the $ 10,000,000 competition.

Invention convention podcast, how sound travels.

Gaming is storytelling, dollars for Darfur, projectbased learning, video game design.

Recording animal behavior and habitats, environmental PSA, fraction and decimal review podcast.

* retrieved: https://fcit.usf.edu/matrix/matrix/

Integrated Learning Scenario The following extract from an interview with the second author describes a learning scenario that would underpin active, collaborative, constructive, authentic, and goal-directed learning at the transformation level (TIM, FCIT, 2019).

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Students from a low socioeconomic background or maybe students who are not as represented at school or in the classroom are given the assignment to showcase or highlight someone from their community. This could be somebody who has been around in their community for a long time. The students would interview this individual using their phone, transcribe the interview (or use an app to have it transcribed) and report the themes emerging from the interview. They would create a video about their community and just highlight the positive things because a lot of times these children grow up thinking that their community is really bad and that they need to get out and leave as soon as they can. But maybe this project could be a chance for them to see the goodness of these communities and just highlight the fact that there are good people there and there are establishments like barber shops or small grocery stores or restaurants that are run by really hard working people and even schools that have more non-white teachers who have committed themselves. So this is a very active way for these students to learn about their community and also have them feel good about who they are, where they are from, and use a technology. Using their phone, or maybe a teacher could let them borrow a camcorder, and then using it to create a video and showcase it at the school, or even better submit it somewhere. The students would not only learn about where they are from, but they would also learn to use technology. It provides selfconfidence for them and you never know this might cause them to think about maybe becoming a film director in the future. Maybe some of these students have that talent that we can’t really measure in a regular classroom setting. So I think it could be a transformative technology-integrated project. And I think it will create a lot of meaning for the students as it is a good way to do it. (Second author) This scenario can also be connected to all four features of the Motivational Framework for CRT (Wlodkowski & Ginsberg, 1995), to all three principles of UDL as well as to multiple features of seamless learning and u-learning.

The Four Paradigms and Real Online Teaching: Making Connections After reviewing the research literature to get a scoping review of the salient features of four paradigms and TIM (FCIT, 2019), the authors analyzed their own online teaching. The Appendix of this chapter provides a detailed verbatim account of an interview with the second author in which he reviews the online sessions that he offered during the summer semester in 2020. The following questions were asked: What has worked well and why? What has not worked well and why? How have these experiences shaped your teaching approach for the future? Did synchronous meetings result in the learning effect that you had anticipated or were asynchronous inputs more effective? Did students tend to be overwhelmed by the amount of online activities they had to process (especially if they attended multiple online classes in parallel) and were thus unable to process everything? Were there any positive surprises, for example, activities that stood out as being more successful or more engaging than you had expected? Were there activities or tasks or quizzes that were a lot more engaging for students than others and that you wish to capitalize in your future teaching? What has this experience teaching fully online taught you as an instructor? How do you model CRT in your teaching? The account provides examples of ‘real’ teaching (and ‘real’ challenges) in an online setting. Specific connections to the salient characteristics of the four paradigms are made.

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SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The authors’ goal was to combine the salient characteristics of CRP, UDL, u-learning, and seamless learning and to apply them systematically to the design and development of their online programs.

One-Stop Checklist: Integrated Approach The review of these four paradigms resulted in the development of a one-stop checklist with 35 criteria. Online instructors in higher education might find the checklist helpful in making design-based and pedagogical decisions. It visualizes the connections among the four paradigms and is designed to help evaluate activities critically and systematically. Each criterion shown in the left column of Table 3 is related to the relevant feature(s) of the four paradigms (CAST, 2018; Hwang et al., 2008; Wlodkowski & Ginsberg, 1995; Wong & Looi, 2011). Connections are also made to the five learning notions presented in the TIM (FCIT, 2019). The checklist expands on the authors’ earlier work (Nussli & Oh, 2020).

FUTURE RESEARCH It would be helpful for educators and instructional designers to have access to cross-references among DML and the salient characteristics of pedagogical and design-based frameworks, as modeled by the FCIT (2019). The TIM provides technology-enhanced student project ideas for each of the technology adoption levels (i.e., early, adoption, adaptation, infusion, and transformation) aligned with each of the five learning models (i.e., active, collaborative, authentic, and constructive). The one-stop checklist presented in this chapter might serve as a starting point that could be further expanded by adding salient characteristics of other design-based models and/or pedagogical paradigms. In their meta-analysis, Woldeab, Lawson, and Osafo (2020) compared online versus traditional elearning. Their results indicated no significant difference in the learning effect of online learning compared to traditional learning in a physical setting. Future research could investigate the extent to which the intentional and systematic design of DML contributes to the learning effect in online learning programs.

CONCLUSION The experience of having to switch to fully online learning challenged the authors in multiple ways. First, they had to revisit their pedagogical stance with a view to transitioning to online learning. Second, they needed to carefully reflect on their design-based decisions when planning and developing online activities. Third, they needed to get a well-defined picture of their students’ needs, skills, learning preferences, and computer literacy. Fourth, they wished to create learning experiences that would not be constrained by the standardization that often comes with the use of an LMS (Luck, Jones, McConachie, & Danaher, 2004). Underpinning their teaching by making strong connections to multiple paradigms and design-based models challenged the authors to revisit and redesign their online programs in order to create sustainable learning experiences for their students.

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Table 3. One-Stop Checklist “Integrated Approach” Criteria The learning experience: 1. Supports learners in conducting learning on their own. 2. Supports learners in planning, monitoring, and assessing their own learning process. 3. Allows learners to play active roles. 4. Requires learners to engage in peer discussions. 5. Encourages learners to share their experiences and preknowledge with peers. 6. Require learners to observe, produce or manipulate authentic learning objects.

CRP Engender competence Engender competence Enhance meaning Establish inclusion Establish inclusion Enhance meaning      −

UDL Engagement Engagement Engagement Engagement Engagement Action & expression

7. Allows learners to learn in a real-world environment or context.

Enhance meaning

Action & expression

8. Supports learners through authentic resources.

Enhance meaning

All 3 principles

9. Helps learners connect new ideas to their background knowledge.

Develop attitude

All 3 principles

10. Supports learners in learning efficiently.

Develop attitude

All 3 principles

11. Demonstrates to learners how to identify the elements that need to be learned. 12. Prompts learners to find information to solve a problem. 13. Provides needed information to learners in multiple formats and shows multiple perspectives.

Develop attitude Enhance meaning

All 3 principles Engagement

Engender competence

Action & expression

15. Provides learners with differentiated and adjusted information depending on their progress and individual needs.

Develop attitude

Engagement

16. Shows learners the connection between learning needs and real-life situations.

Enhance meaning

Engagement

17. Mediates rich encounters among learners & instructors. Creates a sense of community. 18. Helps to make students & teachers feel respected by and connected to one another.

Establish inclusion Establish inclusion

19. Emphasizes personal relevance and choice to help learners create a positive attitude toward the learning experience.

Develop attitude

14. Provides learners with context-relevant information depending on learners’ statuses and locations in authentic environments.

20. Challenges learners, prompts thoughtful learning experiences, reflection, and includes student perspectives and values. 21. Allows learners to demonstrate they are good at learning something they value.

Enhance meaning Engender competence

22. Matches the learners’ current knowledge, skills, dispositions, cognitive developmental stage, learning styles, cultural, and linguistic background.

Develop attitude

23. Offers learning objectives specifying what learners are expected to be able to do. 24. Contributes to creating positive student-teacher and peer interactions. 25. Reflects and accommodates students’ diverse cultures and language backgrounds.

Engender competence Establish inclusion Establish inclusion

Engagement Engagement Engagement Engagement Action & expression All 3 principles Engagement Engagement Engagement

u-learning Self-regulated learning Self-regulated learning Initiative of knowledge acquisition Learning community Learning community Situation of instructional activity Situation of instructional activity Situation of instructional activity Constructivist learning Self-regulated learning Self-regulated learning Urgency of learning need

Seamless learning Formal & informal learning Formal & informal learning

Five learning types Active Goal-directed Active

Personalized & social learning Personalized & social learning

Collaborative Collaborative

Formal & informal learning

Authentic

Formal & informal learning

Authentic Authentic

Knowledge synthesis Seamless switching btw. multiple tasks

Constructive

Active

Multiple Urgency of pedoagogical or learning need learning activity models ContextUbiquitous awareness knowledge access Multiple pedoagogical or Adaptive learning learning activity models Situation of instructional activity Learning Personalized & community social learning Learning Personalized & community social learning Situation of instructional activity Constructivist learning Self-regulated learning Seamless switching btw. Adaptive learning multiple learning tasks Self-regulated learning Learning Personalized & community social learning Provides personali-zation

Goal-directed

Authentic Collaborative

Authentic Constructive; active Active; goal-directed

Goal-directed Collaborative

continued on following page

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Table 3. Continued Criteria The learning experience: 26. Allows measuring learners’ success in achieving the learning objectives. 27. Contributes to summative and/or formative assessment. 28. Allows students to choose which form and format they prefer in terms of communication, expression, interaction, and engagement. 29. Empowers students to build their own learning experiences. 30. Emphasizes student-teacher partnership. 31. Engages learners in analysis, synthesis, and reflection.

CRP

UDL

u-learning

Engender competence Engender competence

Action & Expression Action & expression

Self-regulated learning Constructivist learning

Develop attitude

Engagement

Provides personali-zation

Action & expression

Provides personali-zation

Enhance meaning Engender competence Establish inclusion Engender competence

Engagement Action & expression

Provides personali-zation Constructivist learning

32. Does not confine learners to the physical location of the classroom and is not bound to a specific time. 33. Can be accessed anytime on- and offline. 34. Can be accessed on multiple devices. 35. Accommodates different technology literacy levels.

Represen-tation Engagement

Provides personali-zation

Seamless learning

Formal & informal learning Multiple pedagogical or learning activity models

Five learning types Goal-directed Active Goal-directed Active

Active Personalized & social learning Knowledge synthesis Operates across time & locations Ubiquitous knowledge access Multiple device types Switching between multiple learning tasks

Collaborative Constructive

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Active Learning: Students assume active and dynamic roles in planning, monitoring, conducting, and evaluating their learning processes. Asynchronous: Online communication and interaction that does not happen in real time. Culturally Responsive Pedagogy: A theoretical framework that emphasizes the provision of equitable learning opportunities. It maximizes academic achievement for multicultural learning communities. Meaningful Learning: The provision of learning experiences that emphasize active learning, personal relevance of learning, authentic contexts, constructivist approaches to learning, collaboration, and goal-direction. Seamless Learning: A type of mobile learning that emphasizes the removal of seams (i.e., gaps) within and between contexts, locations, devices, systems, learning tasks, learning settings, etc. Synchronous: Online communication and interaction happening in real time. Ubiquitous Learning: A type of mobile learning that emphasizes ubiquitous access to learning.

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Universal Design for Learning: An approach to learning design that emphasizes students’ choices by providing them multiple means of representation, action and expression, and engagement.

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APPENDIX This is a verbatim account of the second author’s online teaching experiences. The module was called “Education Practitioner: Learning Specialist”. It consisted of 10 synchronous classes held in Zoom over a period of two weeks with 11 Master’s students (three male/eight female). Each meeting lasted three and a half hours. Each live session also contained asynchronous portions to allow students to work individually in between two synchronous portions. The left column in Table 4 provides the verbatim account. The right column provides an analysis with specific connections to the salient features of the four paradigms reviewed in the first half of the chapter.

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Table 4. Verbatim Account of Online Teaching Experience and Theoretical Connections Verbatim Account

Specific Connections to the Four Paradigms

Question 1: What has worked well and why? For the summer course I taught this year, I decided to create a very thorough and detailed Canvas platform. For this year, I’ve decided to use the Home page as a “one stop” tool. When a student enters the Canvas, the home page would have all of the information needed for the course. This page included multiple links to all of the sessions. Within each session, I would have the agenda, materials (lecture PPT, readings, discussion board links, etc.). For each of the sessions, it would also have the Zoom link for the synchronous session and another link for Zoom recorded video (incl. audio transcript). Overall, students have expressed that this course was extremely well organized and easily accessible. I would say something that I noticed that was working really well is the fact that because we’re doing everything fully online and I’m not able to bring copies of handouts or have the videos play from my desktop, I had to create a very robust Canvas. I had to have everything lined up really well so that when students come to class or while they’re listening, they could find things really quickly and also they could actually look at things. I would have the agenda up on the Canvas each session. Each day has a page where they know exactly what’s going to happen and what materials I’ll be using.

This excerpt refers to two UDL pillars, namely, multiple means of representation and multiple means of engagement. Providing clearly structured, well-aligned and rigorously organized learning materials ahead of time enables students to prepare themselves for upcoming synchronous sessions. It reduces potential anxiety levels by creating a low-stress learning environment as they can preview the materials and get an idea of what they will be expected to do during the live session. As a means of cognitive scaffolding, the teacher can highlight salient points in the readings prior to the live session to help students get an overview of the key concepts. This will build the students’ learning capacity and give them the confidence to actively engage during the live session. The clear visual organization in the LMS also supports students’ self-regulation.

So synchronously, I would lecture for about 15 minutes and then ask a question, put them into breakout rooms. I use the polling system in Canvas as well as just being able to share videos with them.

Multiple features of seamless learning are evident in this excerpt. First, students seamlessly switch between multiple learning tasks in Zoom, that is, they move from the lecture to a group task in a separate virtual space. Second, they also move from a formal to an informal learning context (i.e., lecture to breakout room). Third, the instructor can join them in their breakout rooms if they need assistance (personalized & social learning). The account also exhibits collaborative learning, which is inherent to all four paradigms.

Via Zoom I also use my iPad and I can sync it with Zoom and use my Apple Pen and an app called Notability. With Notability, I was able to write things down and that also helped me to slow down. The learning process meaning instead of just using PowerPoint, I was able to use this platform and using my iPad and the pen. Just kind of writing down things, such as ‘the five components of reading’ instead of just having a slide and talking over it. I will write it down like I’m writing on a chalkboard so that the students can copy it themselves. If you have a notebook or just slow things down so that they could kind of gain the concept in a longer period of time than just staring at the PowerPoint. Those are things that work really well.

This excerpt refers to seamless learning (combined use of multiple device types), to u-learning (interactivity of learning process), and the UDL principle of multiple means of representation. The instructor makes the learning process more interactive by resorting to a ‘low-tech’ strategy of writing down notes with a pen on the iPad in ‘shared screen’ mode. The ‘slowing down’ helps avoid that a flood of incoming information overwhelms students at a fast pace. Rather, students can take the time to process the instructor’s voice comments while they are taking their own notes (or copy the instructor’s notes). The interactivity of the learning process (UDL) manifests itself by sharing the same platform on Notability. This excerpt also relates to multiple means of representation. Students can either choose to copy the instructor’s handwritten notes themselves or take a screenshot or download a PDF generated in Notability or download the Zoom cloud recording.

Question 2: What has not worked well and why? Maybe a couple of things. Maybe the first one is that I was not able to check in with them individually before class starts, which I usually do meaning just kind of walk around, sit next to them and just ask how they’re doing because other people could be talking and I can still have a one-on-one conversation. Whereas in Zoom, I’m not able to have a one-on-one conversation because everyone’s able to hear you. So students are hesitant to share what was not going well at their work or what can help and what they need. So that’s something that’s not working well.      −

This excerpt illustrates the obstacles that the instructor experienced regarding his unsuccessful attempt to implement two CPR principles. It also shows the contrast between what is possible (and natural) in an F2F setting and impractical in an online setting. The extract exemplifies a ‘missed opportunity’ regarding establishing inclusion and developing attitude. The one-on-one check-ins would have helped build a good relationship between the students and the instructor. They would also have enabled the instructor to learn more about students’ interests and experiences so that the learning experiences can be tied to the students’ previous knowledge. A compromise would be for the tutor to open the Zoom room 15 minutes earlier and invite students for an optional 1:1 check-in. Yet, this would still be more formal in Zoom than in a F2F classroom. To guarantee privacy, they would need to move to a break-out room.

Also, I’m not able to move around in the classroom. Because when I teach in person, I move around a lot, and I try to get closer to the students to show that I’m there. And also I would have students get up and write on the chalkboard. I tried that with the Zoom share function but that is not the same. They don’t get to move around so I will say multisensory education does not work well. Because basically, it’s visual and audio and they don’t ask you to move around so I would say, give them breaks every 30 minutes get up and stretch, but sometimes I forget and that’s something that didn’t go well. So giving enough breaks is important.

This excerpt relates to the UDL guideline of physical action (multiple means of expression & action). Because the online environment in Zoom is only two-dimensional (2D), both the students and the instructor are deprived of the opportunity to move around. The instructor was trying to close the distance between the students and himself, but the 2D setting prevented him from doing so. One option would be to move the classes to a 3D environment, such as Second Life, where the students’ and the instructor’s avatars would be free to move around and interact with each (e.g., sit next to each other, shake hands, walk side by side, touch objects, share a ride, share objects, etc.).

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Table 4. Continued Verbatim Account

Specific Connections to the Four Paradigms

Question 3: How have these experiences shaped your teaching approach for the future? I think that once we go back to teaching F2F, I will continue to have my Canvas platform really organized, even if I could bring handouts or whatever to class because I want them to be prepared and it actually kept me very organized as well so that I’m not doing last-minute planning. It was just that everything was ready to go. I would just go there and review and go in and just teach, so I will continue to do that. I think some sessions I could do online, because we have students who live two hours away. And having one or two online sessions in the semester, I think it could be refreshing too for them and also give them a little bit of a break. Not traveling to school because they don’t all live right next to the university. So that could be something and also you know if there was an emergency. Right now we have these fires in this area. There’s a lot of smoke so it might not be healthy to drive and be outside. So I’m prepared for that. So if anything else happens, I could go into it really quickly and switch over.

This excerpt demonstrates that the sudden switch from F2F to online teaching has challenged this instructor to rethink his teaching approach and to analyze which aspects of the online teaching he will likely retain. This requires him to notice the potential affordances and caveats of each learning experiences that he provides to his students.

Question 4: Did synchronous meetings result in the learning effect that you had anticipated? Or were asynchronous inputs more effective? If so, why? I would say the asynchronous inputs from the students are much better. And I think because we break down the three and a half hour class and we meet synchronously for one hour. “I want you to read an article, I want you to watch this video and reflect.” I think they’re going to do this on their own and individually.

This excerpt relates to multiple features of seamless learning, namely, formal and informal learning, across time, across locations, seamless switch between multiple learning tasks, personalized & social learning, knowledge synthesis, and multiple pedagogical and learning activity models. It also refers to features of u-learning, for example, interactivity of learning process (by sharing a platform). Finally, the excerpt also touches on the notion of constructivist learning, which is underpinned by all four paradigms.

Question 5: Did students tend to be overwhelmed by the amount of online activities they had to process (especially if they attended multiple online classes in parallel) and were thus unable to process everything? They mentioned Zoom fatigue because also there are other teachers and classes too so they’re working with their students on Zoom. They come to school on Zoom, which might be an overload for many students or just even people just being in meetings. So I would say we just need to be careful with that. I think that breaking down the three and a half hour class into synchronous and asynchronous portions helped in terms of students not being overwhelmed about being online.

This excerpt refers to a dimension of seamless learning, namely, physical and digital worlds. Ideally, both are combined, which means that students also need opportunities to apply new knowledge in physical worlds rather than being limited to a virtual environment for all their learning.

Question 6: Were there any positive surprises, for example, activities that stood out as being more successful or more engaging than you had expected? Students were able to show us their pets or their loved ones, their babies because they’re home. They felt so safe. Of course they can’t do that when we meet on campus. But we were able to get to know them a little bit more. Other than that nothing too surprising beyond those being able to build the community.

This excerpt clearly refers to establishing inclusion (CPR) and also touches on learning community (u-learning) as well as personalized and social learning (seamless learning).

Question 7: Were there activities or tasks or quizzes that were a lot more engaging for students than others and that you wish to capitalize in your future teaching? There was a program that I used to do some quizzes and some fun things on Cahoots and there’s some quizzes on special education and they like that. It was more like a competition.

This excerpts refers to providing frequent opportunities for selfassessment. Self-assessment is a notion reflected in self-regulated learning, which is inherent to all four paradigms. It also refers to competition-based learning in u-learning environments.

Question 8: What has this experience teaching fully online taught you as an instructor? For me, I would say I really like the energy of the students. So when I teach F2F, I could read their body language and I could read their facial expressions and gain energy from that. So it gets me more excited to teach F2F than teaching online. Initially, students were all muted [in Zoom]. They would have to raise their hand and you would have to notice it. That was a little bit difficult, but after one or two sessions, they feel comfortable, they would chime in more. They will use the chat box a lot more, actually the ones who would not speak as much in class. They use the chat box to chime in and say things. I am wondering how we could do that, F2F, how can we utilize that chat function if we met F2F so I’m kind of brainstorming ideas about that. But for now, I think those are the things that I’ve learned and I thought it was exciting.

This excerpt relates to the UDL principle of multiple means of action & expression. The students were muted upon arrival in Zoom. Thus, their opportunities for expression were initially limited. Then, it turned out that this online setting provided additional means of expression to the introverted students who would not normally contribute so much (or anything) in a F2F class. The text chat modality gave them the confidence to share their voice. In a F2F classroom, the instructor could still offer something similar to the ‘text chat’ option. For example, the instructor could project the SpeakUp app on the screen and thus provide a convenient way for the quieter students to engage in the conversation. They could post their comments or questions without having to speak up themselves. Especially in larger classes, this might be a good option to increase participation.

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Table 4. Continued Verbatim Account

Specific Connections to the Four Paradigms

Question 9: How do you model CRT in your teaching? I try to understand the students’ cultural background by providing activities such as getting to know you (e.g., Google slides activity where students introduce themselves using multimedia; student interest questionnaire). In class or online, I would try to have one-on-one conversations before or after class sessions [which turned out to be impossible in Zoom]. I try to jot down on a notepad (physical or electronic) what students shared with me. The information could be very personal (health issues, family difficulties, financial) or something light (students’ hobbies, places traveled, TV shows they like) - just showing interest and follow up next time I see them. I memorize all of the students’ names before the beginning of the semester. Many times, they are shocked that I know all of their names when they arrive on the first day. I make sure to have high expectations for all of my students. This could be their professional conduct in class and online and also academic rigor.

This excerpt illustrates three pillars of the Motivational Framework for CRT (Wlodkowski & Ginsberg, 1995). First, establish inclusion by sharing information about oneself to help create a sense of community and to build a good relationship between the students and the instructor. Second, develop attitude by learning more about students’ interests and experiences. This knowledge will enable the teacher to provide learning experiences that relate to the students’ previous knowledge. Third, enhance meaning by providing challenging learning experiences to promote higher-order thinking and critical inquiry (Wlodkowski & Ginsberg, 1995) framed by high expectations for all students.

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A Bioeducational Approach to Virtual Learning Environments Alessandro Ciasullo University of Naples Federico II, Italy

ABSTRACT Knowledge carries some general characteristics related to the socio-environmental, cultural, and biophysiological contexts. These three coordinates help us to understand under which condition knowledge is achieved/gained and they do it. Along the same line, the real or virtual learning contexts being essential and unique, the possibilities offered by the VLE which give the opportunity of programming environmental challenges, complexity, and support for subjects open up a series of educational perspectives that support individual differences even when they reproduce social platforms as virtual worlds. Programming that through adequate representations of environments, situations, problems, and specific actions are able to work on more complex neuronal patterns usually activated in the presence of real objects, especially in light of the current structures present in formal contexts of education.

INTRODUCTION This work aims to examine the possible convergences between the theoretical expressions of the bioeducational sciences, their origin, and historical-scientific evolution, their current developments in educational research, as well as their formative implications applied to VLEs. This need is addressed here by reconstructing historically and theoretically, the biological and cultural bases of the evolving subject according to the typical approach of the bioeducational sciences. This scientific approach tends to combine the subject’s transformative expression through the analysis of gene/environment, nature/ culture, and individual/environment interactions. The intent is to research how the individual’s formative growth is linked to the epigenetic expressions determined by the subject/environment interactions understood as real and/or virtual. Subsequently, we did a theoretical reconnaissance on VLEs to search for possible epistemological convergences with the epigenetic hypotheses of the bioeducational sciences. Everything was analyzed DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch009

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in-depth theoretically in order to have a broader vision for developing digital learning environments able to involve the subject in training, along with stimulating, and transforming the subjects. The bioeducative sciences. At the end of the 1970s, Biopedagogy is viewed as a phenomenological analysis and an interpretative key to the educational reality. Around the 1970s, with Debesse and Mialaret (1973), biology’s contribution to the pedagogical discourse began to be outlined as substantial. In this context, the birth of biopedagogie was defined as a mediating relationship between biology and pedagogy. This useful interlocution between the two disciplines, considered complementary later, is not fully defined as biopedagogy. In this epistemological framework during the 80s, Elisa Frauenfelder tries to overcome the relationship between biology and pedagogy, very evident in biopedagogy, to combine the biological with the cultural (Santoianni, 2006). This has been possible due to all the work of E. Frauenfelder (1983), who attempts to combine the lessons of J. Monod (1970) and J.C. Eccles (Eccles, 1953; Eccles et al., 1954) and to apply them to the dynamics of learning. The scholar of such a crucial element’s recognition and support was the importance indicated to the biological component in the learning dynamics linked above all to brain functioning and its plastic capacity. However, during the scientific development of his ideas, these studies were often accused of scientific “reductionism,” as it seemed to attribute more weight to the bios element than to the cultural aspect of the logos. The eternal debate between biological development and cultural development seemed to have made the philosophical component succeed in evolving fragile, pedagogical epistemology over the preceding decades. This last seemed to be predominant in the formative discourse but against a scientific vision of evolutionary processes. This vision was later put aside to the significant tensions produced by a positivist scientific pedagogy. The tensions towards positivism were born from the ideological basis’s disagreement (Tisato, 1967; Di Pol, 2007; Cavallera, 2010). For some people, it was a scientific-ideological result of the bourgeoisie at the end of the 19th century. Therefore, it was centered on the values of productivity and industrial progress, not in line with the transformative, moral, and ethical vision of education. The weakening scientificity process as a reference system in the human sciences originated due to the philosophical-pedagogical proposals of American pragmatism and all European activism. The latter saw in M. Montessori, the most inventive of pedagogical thought formed by the practice of profound reflexivity still applied to a scientific method borrowed from the medical world and applied to the world of education. So, the weight of the pedagogical paradox lay in a double philosophical and scientific nature. Some considered it opposed, while for others, it was superseded but never actually resolved in the dispute’s epistemological substance. Indeed, a large part of the reflexivity of philosophical pedagogy, or philosophy of education, has always depended on elements declined in practice that recalled a dynamic process internal to the educational processes. Without this last, pedagogy itself seemed to weigh on actions that were neither codified nor modifiable and so unrepeatable. During this process, educational action became the victim of reflective prejudice, imputing non-reflectiveness, and improvisation parameters. However, in Italy, because of totalitarian reasons until 1943 (the arrival of the Americans in Sicily immediately gave rise to a reform of the scholastics programs freeing them from the fascist ideological matrix), a vision of the educational phenomenon as an idealistic spiritual principle prevailed. Here, the educational one guaranteed a constructive relationship, which translated into an “educational act” between the teacher and the learner. In essence, the teacher was believed to represent knowledge and right, and with these considerations and beliefs. He also represented the correctness of the educational act, according 190

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to Gentilian actualism (Pra, 1951). However, it was never questioned how it was possible to define the parameters of the subject’s educability scientifically, and most of all, it was not pedagogy that did it. However, the American pragmatist ideology’s novelty had an easy life at the end of the Second World War. The American student and officer C. Washburne took up an early model of school programs developed by G. Ferretti. During an Inter-Allied conference on “Education,” he elaborated the new programs for the Italian school that determined a giant leap forward in the perspective of the significant role of experience in building training processes (Ciarrapico, 2014). The philosophical-pedagogical discourse of J. Dewey seemed at that point to open the Italian school to a new way of proceeding, a third way mediated between aspects of philosophical reflexivity, analytical considerations of the scientific vision and application in situation of the educational-didactic action produced by active students active role. On the other hand, these views were not welcomed by some neo-idealists, including Croce and FazioAlmayer. They, although they were freed from Gentilian neo-idealism and the Hegelian theses, were affected by a climate of growing ideological-scientific hostility, particularly in the pedagogical world. In this renewed context, not without disagreement as the teaching of the Catholic religion was absent from the programs of ‘43 -’45, it was necessary to understand the learning dynamics and how the subject, drawing teaching/lessons from direct experience on things, achieved adequate levels of learning. The main interest of the 1950s in Italy was the understanding of the underlying logic of learning, the lesson of pedagogical activism was fundamental for thinking and implementing new epistemological approaches. Within this highly articulated framework, J. Dewey’s critical, instrumentalist, and activist rationalism soon grew into the primary element upon which the epistemological model of pedagogy, in particular, were built, even more than philosophy with pragmatism. J. Dewey’s speech became very well known because of the translation in 1915 of Scuola e Società (with the title La Scuola e la Società) by G. Lombardo Radice (Cives, 2013) and with L. Credaro who had published on la Rivista several Pedagogic articles on the scholar. However, E. Codignola fully Dewey to the point of defining him as the leading educator of the twentieth century. He had already published in 1946 the innovative profiles of activism in his volume New schools and their problems (Codignola & Visalberghi, 1962) in his university lectures and through the foundation in 1950 of the group linked to the magazine Scuola e Città. So, Italy’s attention for J. Dewey was, therefore, mainly of a pedagogical nature (Cambi, 2016). Along the same line, the following scholars were for their contribution of not less importance at the time: the figure of Borghi who returned to Italy in ‘47 after staying in America for the introduction of the racial laws of 1938, the significant contributions of F. De Bartolomei’s with a scientific-pedagogical vision, A. Visalberghi with a scientific-methodological vision and R. Laporta with a liberal-democratic vision. We can therefore affirm that with the so-called Scuola di Firenze, Dewey’s thinking not only manages to enter Italy but becomes a significant reference model for all the pedagogical views of the second half of the twentieth century in Italy. Aldo Visalberghi’s perspective should also be considered, mainly because he introduces a broad and articulated debate on the birth of education sciences. The confrontation brought two leading solutions regarding the correlation between different disciplines with educational and training processes as their primary goal. One is a functional solution that tried to unite the epistemological intervention of different disciplines according to the need that was produced in the named ‘educational emergency’ (what is necessary for a given situation, allowing autonomy to the individual disciplines, avoiding any contamination that could damage their single epistemological sphere). Another one is a structural solution in which the individual disciplines function harmoniously to use standard tools with the role of mediation and unity offered by pedagogy. 191

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These novelties called for a new group of researchers to find solutions for mediation and disciplinary intermediation to broaden the field of pedagogical research, thus restricting it to more mature scientific conclusions and overcoming the eternal conflict between pedagogy as a philosophy versus pedagogy such as science. This possibility was supported by the critical biology impulse and the particular species-specific mechanisms that assured a subject learning peculiarities and guaranteed a remarkable plastic capacity of the brain; more in general, it broadened the pedagogical context to a holistic vision of learning a general characteristic of human development. This perspective was blamed for being an ‘evolutionary-Darwinian’ sort. At the same time, it aimed to bring out the typicality of man’s biological condition. That was his capacity for neuro-synaptic development, without underestimating the subsequent contribution determined by the studies of dynamic psychology studies elaborated by Jean Piaget. The two perspectives, the biogenetic one of neuronal processes and the psychodynamic elaborative one, opened a new, amazing unexplored view by the pedagogy, and in many circumstances, it still discussed the conflictual relationship between neo-idealism and activism. In this context, the scholar E. Frauenfelder directs her attention not to “what” the mind elaborates but “how” the learning processes are determined and what conditions and/or characteristics establish the epigenetic processes. The discovery of the meanings of ontogenesis, phylogeny, and epigenesis offered a fertile ground to formulate a series of learning hypotheses resulting in subsequent studies and research within the pedagogical field that can no longer help but consider the biological dimension of man. This is how the bioeducational sciences were born during the 1990s; it was accepted as an enrichment of the pedagogic of neuroscientific research that wants to overcome too much linked to biological phenomenology to open up to a broad relationship with culture and mind (Santoianni, 2006; Frauenfelder & Santoianni, 2002; Frauenfelder, Santoianni, Striano, 2004). The need emerged to connect the logos, the reflection, no longer only to the sphere of philosophical speculation but to the possibility of a new one related to ‘reasons’ of the biological. It brought us back to the theme of the physiological and corporeal dimensions of the subject. Until then, this had been considered a simple substrate and not as a basic set of physical, biological, and epigenetic processes that had their own ‘rationality’ and which cannot always be interpreted through the hermeneutic categories of philosophical epistemology. The bios epistemological categories appear to result together with its apparent inconsistencies, personal peculiarities, and non-variable aspects connected to the human species, which sometimes seemed illogical if observed and interpreted through the classic categories of logic. We indeed could talk about the development of a new logic of learning whose grammar is entrusted to the knowledge of elaborative mental processes, to the conditions of synaptic flourishing and that of their personal development, to the social conditions of development of the subject and the adaptive stimulations offered by contexts: in a word, the subject/environment relationship that became genes/environment, nature/culture, bios/ logos. We can talk about the advancement of knowledge managed by pedagogy as a dynamic discipline of learning as it can use the contribution of various other disciplines or human sciences. Alternatively, one could discuss educational sciences, bringing the further contribution of biology to this ongoing intermediation and neuroscience center. Learning and adaptability become a new model of thinking about educational reality. There could be no learning if the consequences of some training actions do not take into consideration the processes that determined some educational outcomes keeping in mind the adaptive nature of man, capable of

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modifying itself is placed in the elaborative conditions of having to manage his ability to be in the world and maybe change it. With its ‘implicit’ reasons, real human adaptability led to further questions on how this adaptive capacity exerted its functions. It was precisely from these questions that came to the hypothesis that these implicit adaptive/elaborative matrices of a subject can have their model. Flavia Santoianni (2018) is the most authoritative personality among bioeducational scholars. These forms/models are not always explicable in their functioning, but it is possible to evidentiate the nature of their cognitive products that, in turn, distinguishes the peculiarities of the individual subjects. Based on these hypotheses, bioeducational sciences are oriented towards the systematic direction of the evidence shown by the functioning of the implicit through the hypotheses reported in the theory of elementary logic. This spurred the need to elaborate more on the dynamics underlying the implicit perceptive and adaptive processes to the entire training category. Designing virtual training environments, respecting these hypotheses will be the evolution of the bioeducational discourse.

BACKGROUND Knowledge, in its cultural dimension, carries some general characteristics related to the socio-environmental, cultural, and bio-physiological context, which determine some main peculiarities which place it in a context, distributed among various subjects, embodied given the corporeal aspects of the subjectivity that expresses it (Frauenfelder, 1983; Santoianni, 2002, 2012a, 2012b, 2014). It is then the relation among these characteristics of knowledge that locates it as an expression of historical-social characteristics defined by the cultural environment that expresses it, distributed, as it is expressed in an interaction between several subjects who contribute with their relationships to mediate and co-construct meanings produced in a plural and dynamic interactions, embodied as rooted in the body dimension of the subjects in their complexity made up of mind and body (Frauenfelder, Santoianni, Ciasullo, 2018). These three coordinates help us to understand under which condition knowledge is achieved/gained, and they do it if we want to analyze it, considering subjectivity as a crucial element, central but not entirely sufficient, since its cognitive dimension is expressed through an always active localization in a continuous relationship with the environment, with other people and with the knowledge and awareness of one’s own body (Santoianni, 2010). Therefore, subjective action can be consciously and unconsciously determined by the relationship with the place, or some places, where one subjectivity is expressed. Subjectivity is always filled with peculiar and unrepeatable cultural elements; the set of relationships with which we develop complex forms of collective intelligence which, in turn, take on the characteristics of the interactions between other subjects similarly unique for their cultural, cognitive differences and the aspects of the respective body component representation. These multiple patterns that manifest between places, social contexts, other social subjects, and other bodily subjects determine the significant complexity of the educational phenomenon which, starting from the three coordinates previously illustrated, are strongly affected by the diversity of contexts, of the various protagonists, determining the training action as unique, different and unrepeatable. These initial considerations allow us to be able to say that both physical and virtual environmental contexts, with the actors that make up the training/formative relationship, in their physical possibilities 193

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to move in the real and/or virtual, significantly and unrepeatably determine the learning process (Santoianni, Ciasullo, 2018). This means that the learning situations are always new and different, even when the teacher, the trainer, or the educator themselves thought they should take the form they had expected when organizing a lesson, a learning context, a training situation (Santoianni, 2017). If places, contexts, situations, and subjects/individuals change, then methods, strategies, and tools with which training is done should not remain untouched. Along the same line, the real or virtual learning contexts being essential and unique, as much as the subjects/individuals that are formed, should be considered within a specific paradigm that cannot be marginal or an addition to traditional teaching strategies (Cantoni, Cellario, Porta, 2004). Virtual reality’s intended use as a training tool cannot be only complementary and accessory to traditional training unless supported by adequate methodological choices. The traditional models of education and training, which included its specific times, physical presence, well-defined spaces fixed in real places, can certainly involve the use of technologies; however, its use is not sufficient to modify the epistemological matrices of face-to-face training. Thinking about virtual learning environments (VLE) involves having to re-think the adaptive matrices of individuals, the role of stimuli, of perception, the virtual mediation of relationships, the reorganization of tools and software, the assistive technology that some tools can offer, to the type of sensory, body and cognitive immersion and to the type of environment that is intended to be created in order to determine effective learning processes (Chou, Liu, 2005; Dillenbourg, Schneider, Synteta, 2002; Barajas, Owen, 2000). Thinking about virtual training environments (VLEs) involves having to re-think: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

the adaptive matrices of individuals; the role of stimuli; the role of perception; the virtual mediation of relationships; the reorganization of tools and software; the type of assistance that some tools can offer about the actions to be carried out in the virtual context through the fine or gross motor skills of the interacting subject; 7. the sensory, bodily, and cognitive immersion that is planned to offer; 8. the type of learning environment that is intended to be created. The tools, the subjects, the contents, and the challenges in the learning environments are elements that involve, in a general framework of the pedagogical organization, a series of well-reasoned, conscious and mature choices, acquired knowledge of all the variables between these elements exist and could mediate (Hektner, Asakawa, 2001) Based on these numerous variables that mediate between the subject, the other subjects, and the environment, we can affirm that the educational relationship is neither singular nor naive but plural and intelligent in one word “smart” (Tikhomirov, Dneprovskaya, Yankovskaya, 2015; Zhu, Yu, Riezebos, 2016). The awareness makes the difference for those who can analyze, organize, and manage the training process to focus their attention on the emerging conditions both in the organizational phase/stage and the individual situation. 194

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The “spatial turn” wide-ranging’ discussion takes on a significant connotation meaning that it is the dimensional control that the subject employs in the real/virtual world which determines a significant part of his/her “being there” (Santoianni, Ciasullo, 2018b; Barak, Levenberg, 2016). Everyone can think of virtual environments as places of “subjective simulation” in which the subject is spatially hinged to the technological-IT matrices that can express themselves in their multiplicity by offering an organization of spaces that are involved, capable of soliciting adaptive responses from the subject, which receives support if needed (Shernoff & Bempechat, 2014; Fraser, 1998). These possibilities offered by the VLE, which give the opportunity of programming environmental challenges, complexity, and support for subjects, open up a series of educational perspectives that support individual differences even when they reproduce social platforms as virtual worlds. This multitude of organizational opportunities that “wrap” the subject in “smart” learning environments, challenging, accompanying him, and supporting them in his specificity, are known as deeply/ extensively inclusive (Ciasullo, 2018a, 2018b; Santoianni, Ciasullo, 2017). This dense network of stimulations produced virtually can involve both the biological and neurosynaptic matrix of the subject with the dimension of the spatial management of the environments and the cognitive-cultural component that is being developed as a complex network of new synaptic grammars, original and unusual precisely because they are determined by multiple potentials given by the subject/ environment interactions (Goldberg, McKhann, 2000). Simulated motor actions, spatial skills, creativity, and organization all seem to stimulate the double dimension of the subject in their biological and cultural sphere, therefore referring to the two interactive possibilities subject/environment (Santoianni, Ciasullo, 2018a). The virtual environment does not have the function of exceeding the real world or making it less significant for the subject; however, it offers an expansive, organizational possibility that is certainly wider and more immediate in its rapidly programmable ability. Programming that through adequate representations of environments, situations, problems, and specific actions can work on more complex neuronal patterns usually activated in the presence of real objects, especially in light of the current structures present in formal contexts of education. A meta-level concerning the ability to plan, organize, rewrite and restructure virtual learning environments by future teachers also comes after these considerations, however, with a view to a more careful literacy in the use and programming of virtual environments (Jeannerod, 2013). This entails a new curricular structure for the training of future teachers who should be able to think about the VLE from a design and organizational perspective and for simple fruition or use.

MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER Issues, Controversies, Problems Individual simulation is where the reflection and operation of virtual learning environments need to be inserted. The approach towards the virtual, the digital, and everything related to the use of compensatory or didactic technology could often appear to some a step towards the abandoning or overcoming of face-to-face teaching. However, this risk appears quite outdated since everyday reality has imposed a continuous tension towards the digital for more than a decade, and this is now a substantial part of everyone’s life in what is a real “digital revolution”. 195

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In this context, in addition to the subjects’ decentralized identity, there is a decentralized and, in some respects, emphasized sociality. Trying to keep the school isolated from the world, in which the “purity” of the school is preserved without digital, resembles the eternal struggle between conservation and innovation, past and future, tradition and progress. The central argument of the antinomies in education allows one to understand the dimension and the range within which the possible educational degrees develop. Nonetheless, the tools, the context, the virtual, the increased AI do not intend to replace the man who can transform himself, but to empower man in all its characteristics and functioning and structural diversity, with further possibilities. Roger Shank (1997) presented a series of analyzes that investigated the real possibilities that led to the use of virtual environments in the workplace. He started focusing on how to solve the problems caused by inadequate training and in his work Virtual Learning text. A Revolutionary Approach to Building a Highly SkilledWorkforce (1997) began by imagining the ideal conditions and strengths to compensate for the shortcomings reduced by traditional training. He introduced the concept of “failure with dignity” by reviewing the virtual context organization made capable of strengthening the subject in his training dynamics and, most of all, by introducing a solid idea of ​​designing virtual learning environments. Nowadays, Shank’s work seems pioneering and fundamental in rewriting the very concept of training as it gives an actual value to the design, organization, and the very idea of ​​creating learning environments. In his view, these considerations show an attempt to solve the underlying difficulties within traditional corporate training and then develop them into operational models to support, and in some cases, consider digital training. In 2007, in his work Virtual Learning Environment, Martin Weller had already suggested that the real challenge of virtual learning environments - gradually used in academic settings and schools starting from the e-learning organizational autonomy - was to promote various factors further step towards VLEs. Weller explained there were two main issues to address to orient training institutions towards VLEs: the first was linked to the need to “informing” the many people involved in various capacities in e-learning and show the possibilities offered by the virtual. Among the subjects in their individual and social dimension, there are policymakers, e-learning training protagonists, technical developers, and educators interested in e-learning. The second question refers to the theoretical nature where one has to consider the relationship between higher education through e-learning and technological education; evaluation and what to evaluate; the role of networks of relationships; the students’ experience; the nature of the courses to be hosted; the type of resources used and the type of “business models” that it can host according to the training needs of the path that uses them. The digital, the virtual, and the development all implicate a restructuring of contexts to support the individual subject characteristics, stimulate their adaptive capacities, and readjust to individual needs in an even more dynamic and transformative relationship of osmosis of that in the natural environment. The digital is to support and assist man, challenge and stimulate him, compensate for him, if necessary, but not the other way around, also because the opposite risk would be to have the digital rewriting the subject or modifying them (it is already happening). The scientific world of innovation explains that this generation is facing an extraordinary model change compared to the previous one before others are facing an extraordinary model change. We are in the ‘year zero’, which means not yet able to have an overall consciousness and multi-faceted use of the digital in all its potential. We are still not aware of its possible dangers. However, this demands us to consider digital as “it is” now and the need to use the training to make it develop into “ what it could or should be.

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However, the issue must be addressed without the risk of generating a political or ideological battle that would have neither winners nor losers if not to be just a sterile debate. Reality requires a complex, epochal, and stimulating educational transition. The digital and the possibilities offered by using it are no longer an option, but it represents an everyday reality, a challenge to change, a possibility, a context in which we are all abundantly involved already. Virtual learning environments (technology-mediated virtual learning environment TVLE) are strongly characterized both by the content that determines their use, in our case of the educational type and user experience. Chou and Liu (2005) try to demonstrate that the conditions that express a virtual learning path’s quality are also connected to learning outcomes, self-efficacy, satisfaction, and the learning climate. Consequently, the training challenge, even if mediated by virtuality, is not achieved as a linear, univocal, programmable, or one-way process. Therefore, even with the mediation of technology, all aspects of educational activities must include the wide dynamism of the learning processes that involve the subject entirely as an active part of the training process. There can be no educational success where the individual experiences frustration, ineffectiveness, lack of involvement, difficulty realizing his path and seeing himself in it. In this vision of the training process understood as the realization of the subject in its educational perspectives, VLEs (Virtual Learning Environments) can improve and stimulate the understanding of some topics by students and especially for those who have had learning difficulties with the modalities of traditional teaching (Pan, Cheok, Yang, Zhu, Shi, 2006). According to scholars as Pan, Cheok, Yang, Zhu, and Shi (2006), VLEs can stimulate learning processes. This is possible because a virtual space aimed at training offers an integrated approach that allows access to the necessary learning resources; it can also provide a structural possibility of evaluation and guidance to those involved in the training process. Nonetheless, the communities that are activated within these virtual “worlds” give the opportunity of communicating between the subjects of the training activities; this happens through e-mails, group discussions, access to the web, and social communication. As a result, it underlines that the position of those involved in training in VLEs is not passive since the mediation of their avatar, their virtualized self, actively collaborates to provide information, ask questions, answer questions and analyze concepts. The advantage of creating a series of programmable tools is also linked to the possibility of individually assessing the learning levels of each one with the advantage of being able to define the level of help offered by the environment, the teacher/guide mediation, to indicate the processes and to evaluate the actions implemented for the problem-solving within the environment. The added aspect related to virtual learning environments is the possibility of cooperative action for the case resolutions, structuring training courses, and the fewer distances between individuals. In other words, VLEs work well when there is a cooperative learning community (Santoianni & Ciasullo, 2019). Virtual teams are groups of individuals who interact, making use of various technologies to achieve common goals. Virtual learning teams are used in education and corporate training programs to spur collaboration and cooperative learning experiences (Johnson, Suriya, Yoon, Berrett, La Fleur, 2002). Indeed, organizations are considering more and more training and work that moves from individual assignments to group activities. This breakthrough has tremendously affected the evolution and use of communication technologies to support teamwork. As a result, individuals can communicate, collaborate, and carry out their activities more than in the past, regardless of time and space. This “genetic” mutation caused by the virtual itself leads to a redefinition of the rules and paradigms related to the meaning of “situated learning” (Santoianni, 2010). In this period of history, we have ex197

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perienced how much more the term “virtual team” is widespread; it is all moving from the dimension where the processes of collaboration among people took place in the same place to “virtual” universes, where team members are geographically free (Johnson, Suriya, Yoon, Berrett, La Fleur, 2002). However, within a joint and metacognitive didactic strategy, cooperation is more potent if the virtual group’s ability can self-set collaboration rules between participants. McGranth’s model (1993) is useful to outline a descriptive, organizational, and analytical possibility to analyze the dynamics activated within groups in a virtual learning environment. McGranth states the “Time, Interaction, and Performance” (TIP) model, and he argues that a group development process is multi-functional rather than sequential. With the TIP model, three primary and distinct functions are exercised: production, welfare, and support for members. According to this model, group members move simultaneously in one of four operational possibilities: (a) initiation, (b) problem solving, (c) conflict resolution, (d) execution. According to this theoretical hypothesis, it seems clear that a virtual learning community can execute a training function on individual subjects only in the triggered socio-educational dynamics. This possibility of implicit training action on individuals is made possible by adapting strategies induced and mediated by technological tools. All of this leads us to stress that tools cannot be merely naive, aseptic, neutral but always exert a “background noise” in the training processes carried out. In 2001 studies by Lee, Hong, Ling (2001) try to experimentally verify why some students have tremendous educational success through virtual learning environments. Firstly, they identify a technological-cultural model where presence is identified with the internet as the first means of contact between teachers and learners. They can sometimes exchange information on the subject of study in a given moment in an informal way. The first observation of today’s reality is accepting an evident presence given by the worldwide technological change. In this relationship that is not exclusively digital but of mediation and communication between actors in the educational process, the possibility offered by VLEs does not give automatic and safe certainties of educational success, like in a face-to-face type of education and training. A significant features related to the quality of the media learning processes from the virtual consist in the perception and the more or less conscious, more or less competent use of the technology itself (Lee, Hong, Ling, 2001). We have to consider significant factors like stress, conscious use of technology, dissatisfaction in using technology to learn before enabling any adequate learning processes. According to the authors, the success of an alternative perspective to traditional teaching depends on the organizational and cognitive autonomy capacity of those using a VLE tool. To show evidence of this theory, they refer to how popular online courses are at the postgraduate level compared to undergraduate programs. It is commonly known that postgraduate students are mature and motivated to undertake self-study as required in most virtual environments. As a result, according to Lee, Hong, Ling (2001), the success of the VLEs would not merely be connected to the quality of the challenges set out by the environment, the type of evaluation brought in, the extent of support given, but instead the level of competence the subjects involved in that environment which can master technology, the way secondary resources concerning the learning environment itself are used. Skills that are achieved through the ability to use technological tools adequately and, in particular, ICT, help reduce the first real VLE problem and a competent approach to technology. This vision opens up to developing adequate digital literacy processes, as mentioned in the previous paragraphs. VLEs have great potentials though it is essential as a precondition for the end-user to have technical abilities, which cannot be the simple daily use of technological tools such as smartphones, tablets, PCs, and laptops.

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SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The degree of acceptance and tolerance in using technology as a primary and fundamental element for carrying out the right training processes is paramount of this discourse. In a study presented by Šumak, Polancic, Hericko (2010), the use of adequate tools to measure the level of acceptance and familiarization with a new technology or a new service is thought to be very important. They used the unified theory of acceptance and technology use (UTAUT) (Im, Hong, Kang, 2011). The measurement factors were adapted to Moodle, an open-source web-based virtual learning environment (VLE). The study results by Šumak, Polancic, Hericko indicate that the expectation of achieving good performance and social influence has a significant impact on students’ attitude towards the use of VLEs. Social influence and attitudes towards the use of such environments are essential factors in implementing adequate and practical approaches for using certain technologies. Based on such a theory, some students’ success seems determined by social aspects and technological competencies. The development of virtual learning environments leads to a fundamental accessory feature. Technological advancement of tools, software, and assistive technologies necessitates a considerable need for training development for end-user to be ‘in step’ with the type of technology used. However, while (Livingstone et al., 2008) for other types of approach to digital training there may be a level of support through mechanisms, objects, external tools, differently with regards to the learning environments in 2D and 3D, the possibility of integrating the support directly into the environment plays a fundamental role. This is why Livingstone states in his work(2008) that those platforms such as Sloodle or second life have a more significant collaborative potential as they allow a level of collaboration and direct assistance, also by teachers. The further advantage is the possibility that many of these platforms are of the “open” type and therefore can be implemented, modified, organized through programming. One of the most common issues at the moment, because of the high costs, is the scarcity in schools of equipment and some specific materials in scientific laboratories (Bogusevschi et al., 2020). Like some experiments or some exercises that require an empirical approach, many practical activities are often not carried out. Such typical problems could be easily overcome by adopting adequate technological tools at multiple levels and degrees of performance. 3D virtual learning environments can, for example, support simulations and observations of various experiments allowing us to overcome these difficulties and shortcomings. An immersive 3D computer-based physics application can help teach the water cycle in nature and the concepts of precipitation through virtual reality. As a result, these virtualized experiments would make the active approach to experiential processes much more effective, at a minor cost minor and most of all avoiding the simple absence of materials and real environments for laboratory activities (Bogusevschi et al., 2020). In one of his researches, Bondarenko (2020) attempts to explain the “virtual information educational environment” (VIEE) concept and its didactic potential for the training of geography students through Google Classroom. In analyzing the tools adopted, the authors try to define the fundamental aspects related to the quality of a virtual environment by identifying them as immersion, interactivity, dynamism, sense of presence, continuity, and causality. The authors also highlighted the advantages of implementing the virtual information educational environment. Some of these advantages are the increase in the educational process’s efficiency determined by a constant cognitive flow and quality of interpersonal communication in the learning community. Nonetheless, there is the possibility of continuously accessing multimedia content, reducing the time required to “manually” edit the training material, elaborating pages together with the virtual group. So a learner can customize their educational process, develop 199

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a computer competence of geography students (Bondarenko et al., 2020). However, what appears evident in Bondarenko’s research is the ongoing low level of computer literacy, the lack or poor quality of software products, the difficulty of educational systems to consider VLEs worthy of attention in school organizations, and above all, the shortfall of economic stimuli (Bondarenko et al., 2020) However, an essential question following VLEs is assessing how effective could it be for the learning process where students are involved. The issue of school dropouts or low interest in education seems to be central to many nations’ educational systems. In Aluja-Banet et al. (2019) research, they try to prove how the activities completed in virtual learning environments can be checked and improved by individual users of that environment. In other words, in a VLE there appear to be the possibility, from the evaluation guidelines of the single activities performed by the users of a given environment, of at least two advantages: stimulating them in relation to personal learning characteristics and evaluating them in relation to personalized parameters, calibrated on the characteristics of the individual user. Surely AlujaBanet et al. (2019) do not work in their research by predicting what the students’ performance may be, starting from an empirical analysis of the numerical data collected as a result of the performance, since the numerical interpretation of the same would always be very controversial and subjective; it would not be equally useful to define pre-established metrics, obtained from the digital data contained in the VLE, ​​and monitor the,m, indirectly inducing an evaluation regime. This study (Aluja-Banet et al., 2019) introduces the measurement of a student’s motivation in a given task, a specific subject, and a spec about an integrated Learning Analytics system psychometric concernings of interest and attention. Their work intends to develop strategies for the student about the VLE, avoiding running into the structural problem of assessing, which tends to offer the same evaluating systems for different people and subjects. Virtual learning environments, the immersive and augmented reality ones, seem to play a significant training role in presenting complex concepts. They allow immediate usage, thanks also to the level of assistance implemented in the software adopted, concepts that in traditional teaching practice were complex (Pan et al., 2006). A study (Henritius et al., 2019), which investigates about 91 articles relating to the use of VLEs published between 2002 and 2017, wanted to verify which were the most studied areas, emotions, and variables. “Satisfaction” emerged to be the most recurring emotion among users as if the virtual environment allowed them to experience levels of greater effectiveness. A second observation is that most articles focused on describing complete and structured learning environments with the possibility of using it with an Avatar (for example, Second Life). Furthermore, according to Henritius et al. (2019), a large part of the scientific articles on learning in virtual environments was 60% quantitative. The students’ emotions were mainly studied through concepts related to emotion (e.g., “satisfaction”). Also, only a few studies, reported by the paper (Henritius et al., 2019), have analyzed students’ emotions in the course of events relying basically on a descriptive data observation of what the feelings of students were at the end of the learning sessions in a virtual environment.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS In the coming years, the future perspective is to verify what possibilities there are to find an educationally meaningful mediation that can exist between subjective spatial representations and virtualized spatial representations. The recognition of the implicit links between the neurosynaptic system and explicit external representations of the spaces in which to simulate activities, building virtual environments with 200

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adaptive challenges and tasks to be performed could push research on VLEs towards design perspectives closer to the brain-mental matrices of the subjects. This would help overcome the prevalence of virtual environments set up on programs (such as Second Life) which, although they have a specific organizational and design practicality on their side, they cannot probably be naturally produced for learning. Therefore, it is necessary to design virtual learning environments using the close relationship between neuroscientific knowledge, perspectives relating to educational planning, and computer programming. Therefore, teacher training must be adequately addressed, since, although learning mediated by virtual learning tools allows greater and accurate flexibility of the training process of the individual subject, it is also true that the teaching role is not merely connected to the image of the facilitator, the digital animator or the solver of problems with the IT tool. This needs to break free from an “external” vision of the learning process within the VLEs and become a substantial part of a careful assessment, re-elaboration, and organization of contents and activities within the system used. In a research conducted by Annansingh (2019), the author demonstrates through a series of questionnaires presented to both students and teachers using a virtual learning environment, how much the perception that teachers have of the students’ “satisfaction” is distorted. The latter often misinterprets the engagement that some digital tools offer with the motivations that push students to learn. The two are not consequential (Annansingh, 2019). To have an adequate ability to modify the learning processes of students, the teacher must stimulate deep thinking by proposing well-formulated and stimulating questions and comments that can promote critical thinking and transfer knowledge. Some studies show that the use of VLEs does not substantially affect the learning outcomes or the cognitive results, even if they encourage greater flexibility and speed of choice in content to search for (Lacka & Wong, 2019). Therefore the tools do not seem to act on the quality of learning processes but simply stimulate the research and acquisition processes of some cognitive elements. This can only mean two things: the present VLEs organization cannot solicit yet any profound dimension of learning to achieve evident increases in learning processes; their scarce use (of the VLEs) cannot make significant changes in educational processes as to highlight substantial changes in learning levels. The new direction we should go for is the development of a new category of virtual learning environments that offer: higher precision in the creation of tasks within the virtual environment, an adaptable system that is also simple to use, a more careful request for the reflection processes hardly present in the VLEs, a new structuring of virtual spaces that can answer to the profound neurophysiological processes. However, to achieve these goals, it is necessary to aim for specific training for teachers who become closer and closer to the knowledge of digital processes and their creation. We would like to invest with adequate economic funds for the implementation in our schools of real environments with the virtual in the process of “increased” the real and “enhancing” the digital with actual objects from the real world to create a sort of exchange between the two universes. So, starting from these ideas, we should think of the digital, virtual, immersive supported by technology as a complex network of a new pedagogical system where education and training are oriented, conscious, competent. The main issue is how to teach using the technology, the digital, the immersive learning environments, and if this can suggest multiple innovations in teaching-learning dynamics. In this ample prospect of numerous operational possibilities, there is the risk that “the new world” - if not addressed with a proper and improved methodological approach – can become no more than a virtualized re-proposal of real environments or even merely an infinite space of empty contexts because of the technical complexity of their programming, system, and management. We should be aware that it 201

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would not be meaningful to merely transfer the complicated work of assessing a new virtual context. After centuries of teaching carried out in the presence and within real spaces and classrooms, we must understand the alternative dynamics that can be achieved using the VLEs. Once again, there is a more significant need not only for IT professionals to deal with education and training in the virtual world, but most of all for a generation of pedagogues, educators, and trainers able to use and to reprogram virtual environments if necessary, drawing on their training. As a result, we often hear of teacher training and curricular organization of university courses fits to train skilled professionals both in terms of their disciplinary areas (the object of study) and the environments and methods to be used so that this can happen more quickly (the ways to learn). Among the many variables and organizational possibilities, the enormous potential of digital and virtual learning tools remains. The situation’s extraordinary complexity cannot be dealt with only “returning” to computer literacy training for teachers and professionals, but it must be faced with restructuring new training courses for both current and future educators. What has strongly come up during the global pandemic triggered by the Sars-Cov-2 virus is that while it has made teachers and pupils adapting in order to guarantee or be guaranteed a distance learning action (DL) (distance learning), on the other hand, it has altered the fundamental organizational principle and structuring of the learning paths. We assisted with a digital translation of the face-to-face lesson: a digitalized frontal lesson with all the ordinary moments of a lesson in presence: explanations, questions, homework or assignments completed as the usual, with similar access times to platforms, and summative evaluation. The only extra element to the traditional expression of the face-to-face lesson was the IT tools (PC, Tablet, Smartphone) and the software for multiple connections (all different from each other, and often unstable because they are adapted to the situation and not native for Distance Learning). Therefore what had was just a virtual reproduction of a real classroom, without the body dimension and spatial management by those parties of the training interaction. We have been through a time of spatial change, of embodied knowledge, and of adaptive educational contexts that “especially” in the digital world these variables have to be carefully considered, organized, studied, implemented, and encouraged; otherwise, the alternative would lead to a completely “mutilated” outcome of them. So strictly speaking, we have found out that subjectivity in its bodily meaning is an element that detached from the technology that made it possible in this particular moment to implement Distance Learning. The body has been deprived of both of its socio-relational and cognitive dimensions. Quite likely, this “absence” has brought us back to traditional teaching made up of content, frontal but distance lessons, knowledge, notions, and traditional teaching activities, which are sadly known for their denied corporeality.

CONCLUSION Collaborating actively to achieve profound learning processes and overcoming independent work obstacles are just some of VLE’s strengths. Nonetheless, they offer the possibility to evaluate each individual’s performance, provide everyone with customized support, follow the progress and the choices made to achieve a result. Therefore all these aspects seem suitable for welcoming new expressions of cooperation in the virtual world and creating new learning communities (Santoianni & Ciasullo, 2019).

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This changeover opens the door to worlds of extended participation able to overcome the barriers imposed by geographical conditions, breaking through possible strategies of communicative interaction in the school, university, research, and business world unknown till now (Johnson, Suriya, Yoon, Berrett, La Fleur, 2002). Along this line, the aspects of the relationships between individuals involved in the training processes are also changed, going from being characterized by linear-sequential interactions to a wide range of multi-functional collaboration (McGranth, 1993), i.e., aimed towards direct problem resolutions or activities to be performed in the virtual environment. The availability of “opensource” platforms provides educational and training purposes to modify the environments, implement and organize/customize them for their purposes (Livingstone, 2008). However, VLEs usage quality is determined significantly by the type of IT and digital competence that the end-user owns (Lee, Hong, Ling, 2001). On the other hand, the consequence of wrong or approximate expertise in the use of technology can lead to frustration and dissatisfaction that can negatively affect the learning processes. Indeed, Šumak, Polancic, and Hericko (2010) indicate that achieving good performance and social influence positively and encourages students and incite them to use VLEs. A significant word that emerges in the processes mediated by virtual learning environments is “satisfaction” (Henritius et al., 2019). Immersive interactivity, dynamism, sense of presence, continuity, and randomness seem to produce a constant flow of information that facilitate adequate learning processes (Bondarenko et al., 2020) and, in some cases, contribute to reducing the problem caused by school dropout in a particular way in some territorial realities. Providing a platform that offers personalized learning and assessment processes give users to be stimulated about their learning personalities. (Aluja-Banet et al., 2019). This function is applied even more significantly when explaining and learning complex concepts (Pan et al., 2006). Also, compensatory tools play a significant role for individuals with Special Educational Needs (Ciasullo, 2018a), and with the support offered by some virtual environments, physical impairment could be overcome. This entire distribution of variables, possibilities, opportunities, current limits means that educational research is increasingly determined towards the use of Virtual Learning Environments. This process has already started, with the primary limits imposed on its significant development by a widespread improvisation on digital technologies in schools. Nonetheless, other impediments are sourced in the scarcity of school funds for innovation, poor relationship between the world of research and school with an outdated teacher training still oriented to prepare teachers in a traditional perspective without looking at the current socio-technological development. Simply structuring a virtual learning environment is not the full answer. Building adequate learning processes is only possible with a more complicated approach. This last must be analytical and multidisciplinary in order to achieve an oriented educational environment. There are no alternative ways as such if not full collaboration among the world of research, the various stakeholders, and policymakers aware that our society’s turning point is no longer an option but a relevant, current, and constant need. In this perspective, looking at the complexity of education, seeing it as the primary system of social growth and evolution, made up of paradigms that keep together all various aspects of society itself, means thinking of it as an organic coexistence of multiple educational worlds. The traditional frontal lesson, virtual learning environments, and many variables (augmented reality, artificial intelligence, tangible interfaces, etc.), asynchronous remote video courses, can no longer be considered parallel and incompatible universes. All of these learning environments must be precise in interchangeable, multi-user complementary systems. Thus the most effective way to achieve such an 203

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objective can be held together by educational research capable of having a plural, multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approach, yet keeping true to its primary mission: to transform subjects in an emancipative way in order to revolutionize contexts. Realizing a vision where the concept of digital is a significant element of training processes can happen in two ways: adaptively, as experienced in this phase of the global pandemic as an alternative imposed by circumstances of the impossibility of having face-to-face lessons, or revising the complete system of designing school environments. In this case, the digital and virtual learning environments, must be elements thought and created as a”smart cloud” multitude of online services and approaches necessary for training. Virtual labs, remote group interaction, and specific training in environments customized for the trainees’ needs all seem easily achievable with VLEs. On the other hand, these operational ideas require a reconsideration of the entire training system, both tangible and intangible elements (real environments and software). Nonetheless, re-training of trainers, be these teachers or professional ones, must be considered. Thus, given all this, a fundamental function could be conducted by new curricular planning at university to train/prepare and update teachers. Achieving this “new world” of training demands a careful scientific assessment of the advantages and risks resulting from the organization’s structuring of adequate and new guidelines for school, university, and extracurricular activities. However, those who can make a difference and act upon all the ideas and hypotheses outlined in this chapter are the policymaker. They consider the need for innovation as everyday reality demands to the entire world society as opportune and urgent. A system that allows a mixed approach both in the presence and at a distance is, not to mention, a highly inclusive system. This makes it open to everyone, even those who experience low mobility, who live in remote areas, who cannot follow lessons in the presence and through a single communicative channel—provided that the “rich” societies assume responsibility in solving the problem of the digital divide and supporting the purchase of information technology globally. VLEs are a breakthrough in the training of all people, if well managed. It is now up to science to demonstrate that the path to follow is today, more than ever, necessary with no more useless or out-ofdate resistance. It is about an interactive developing process between the individual and the environment, and this time part of the environment is the digital one.

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Barak, M., & Levenberg, A. (2016). Flexible thinking in learning: An individual differences measure for learning in technology-enhanced environments. Computers & Education, 99, 39–52. doi:10.1016/j. compedu.2016.04.003 Bogusevschi, D., Muntean, C., & Muntean, G. M. (2020). Teaching and Learning Physics using 3D Virtual Learning Environment: A Case Study of Combined Virtual Reality and Virtual Laboratory in Secondary School. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 39(1), 5–18. Bondarenko, O., Pakhomova, O., & Lewoniewski, W. (2020). The didactic potential of virtual information educational environment as a tool of geography students training. arXiv:2002.07473 [cs]. https:// arxiv.org/abs/2002.07473 Cambi, F. (2016). John Dewey in Italia. L’operazione de La Nuova Italia Editrice: tra traduzione, interpretazione e diffusione [John Dewey in Italy. The Operation of The New Italian Publishing: Including Translation, Interpretation and Dissemination]. Espacio. Tiempo y Educación, 3(2), 89–99. doi:10.14516/ ete.2016.003.002.004 Cantoni, V., Cellario, M., & Porta, M. (2004). Perspectives and challenges in e-learning: Towards natural interaction paradigms. Journal of Visual Languages and Computing, 15(5), 333–345. doi:10.1016/j. jvlc.2003.10.002 Cavallera, G. U. (2010). Franco Cambi, Cultura e pedagogia nell’Italia liberale (1861-1920). Dal positivismo al nazionalismo [Franco Cambi, Culture and pedagogy in liberal Italy (1861-1920). From Positivism to Nationalism]. Studi sulla Formazione/Open. Journal of Education, 194–197. Chou, S. W., & Liu, C. H. (2005). Learning effectiveness in a Web‐based virtual learning environment: A learner control perspective. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 21(1), 65–76. doi:10.1111/j.13652729.2005.00114.x Ciasullo, A. (2018a). Universal Design for learning: The relationship between subjective simulation, virtual environments, and inclusive education. REM Research on Education and Media, 10(1), 42–48. doi:10.1515/rem-2018-0006 Ciasullo, A. (2018b). Per una prospettiva epigenetica nel virtuale [For an epigenetic perspective in a virtual]. RTH Research Trends in Humanities, 5, 47–52. Cives, G. (2013). Una scuola di democrazia e di laicità [A school of democracy and laity]. Studi sulla Formazione/Open. Journal of Education, 16(1), 25–35. Debesse, M., & Mialaret, G. (1973). Trattato delle scienze pedagogiche. 2: Storia della pedagogia e della scuola [Treaty of Pedagogical Sciences. 2: History of Pedagogy and School]. Armando. Di Pol, R. S. (2007). La pedagogia scientifica in Italia tra Ottocento e Novecento [The scientific pedagogy in Italy from Nineteenth and Twentieth centuries]. Cercenasco. Marcovalerio. Dillenbourg, P., Schneider, D., & Synteta, P. (2002). Virtual Learning Environments. In A. Dimitracopoulou (Ed.), Proceedings of the 3rd Hellenic Conference on Information & Communication Technologies in Education (No. CONF, pp. 3-18). Academic Press.

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Fraser, B. J. (1998). Classroom environment instruments: Development, validity and applications. Learning Environments Research, 1(1), 7–33. doi:10.1023/A:1009932514731 Frauenfelder, E., & Santoianni, F. (2002). Le scienze bioeducative. Prospettive di ricerca [The bioeducative sciences. Research perspective]. Liguori. Frauenfelder, E., Santoianni, F., Ciasullo, A. (2018). Implicito bioeducativo. Emozioni e cognizione [The bioeducative implicit. Emotion and cognition]. RELAdEI Neurociencias y educación infantile, 7(1), 42-51. Frauenfelder, E. Z. (1983). La prospettiva educativa tra biologia e cultura [The educative perspective between biology and culture]. Liguori. Goldberg, H. R., & McKhann, G. M. (2000). Student test scores are improved in a virtual learning environment. Advances in Physiology Education, 23(1), 59–66. doi:10.1152/advances.2000.23.1.S59 PMID:10902528 Hektner, J. M., & Asakawa, K. (2001). Learning to like challenges. In M. Csikszentmihalyi & B. Schneider (Eds.), Becoming adult (pp. 95–112). Basic Books. Henritius, E., Löfström, E., & Hannula, M. S. (2019). University students’ emotions in virtual learning: A review of empirical research in the 21st century. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(1), 80–100. doi:10.1111/bjet.12699 Im, I., Hong, S., & Kang, M. S. (2011). An international comparison of technology adoption: Testing the UTAUT model. Information & Management, 48(1), 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.im.2010.09.001 Jeannerod, M. (2013). The Functional Role of Conscious Will in Voluntary Action: Cause or Consequence? A Position Paper. In G. Auletta, I. Colagè, & C. Jeannerod (Eds.), Brains Top Down: Is Top-Down Causation Challenging Neuroscience? (pp. 103–120). World Scientific. doi:10.1142/9789814412469_0005 Johnson, S. D., Suriya, C., Yoon, S. W., Berrett, J. V., & La Fleur, J. (2002). Team development and group processes of virtual learning teams. Computers & Education, 39(4), 379–393. doi:10.1016/S03601315(02)00074-X Lacka, E., & Wong, T. C. (2019). Examining the impact of digital technologies on students’ higher education outcomes: The case of the virtual learning environment and social media. Studies in Higher Education, 1–14. doi:10.1080/03075079.2019.1698533 Lee, J., Hong, N. L., & Ling, N. L. (2001). An analysis of students’ preparation for the virtual learning environment. The Internet and Higher Education, 4(3-4), 231–242. doi:10.1016/S1096-7516(01)00063-X Livingstone, D., Kemp, J., & Edgar, E. (2008). From Multi-User Virtual Environment to 3D Virtual Learning Environment. ALT-J, 16(3), 139–150. doi:10.3402/rlt.v16i3.10893 McGrath, J. (1993). Time, Interaction and Performance: a theory of groups. In R. Baecker (Ed.), Readings in Groupware and Computer-Supported Cooperative Work (pp. 129–153). Morgan Kauffman. Monod, J., & Busi, A. (1970). Il caso e la necessità: saggio sulla filosofia naturale della biologia contemporanea [Chance and necessity: essay on the natural philosophy of contemporary biology]. Mondadori.

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Pan, Z., Cheok, A. D., Yang, H., Zhu, J., & Shi, J. (2006). Virtual reality and mixed reality for virtual learning environments. Computers & Graphics, 30(1), 20–28. doi:10.1016/j.cag.2005.10.004 Santoianni, F. (2002). La formazione biodinamica dei sistemi cognitivi: epigenesi e criteri di educabilità [The biodynamic formation of cognitive systems: epigenesis and educability criteria]. In Le scienze bioeducative (pp. 55–69). Liguori. Santoianni, F. (2004). Le prospettive epigenetiche [The epigenetic perspectives]. In Introduzione alle scienze bioeducative (pp. 1000-1009). GLF editori Laterza. Santoianni, F. (2006). Elisa Frauenfelder, oltre la biopedagogia. Storia e prospettive di una ricerca di frontiera [Elisa Frauenfelder, beyond the biopedagogy. History and perspectives of a border research]. In P. Orefice & V. Sarracino (Eds.), Cinquant’anni di pedagogia a Napoli [Fifty years of pedagogy in Naples] (pp. 1000–1020). Liguori. Santoianni, F. (2010). Modelli e strumenti di insegnamento: Approcci per migliorare l’esperienza didattica [Models and instruments of teaching: approachs for improving teaching experience]. Carocci. Santoianni, F. (2012a), Evoluzione culturale e sviluppo ontogenetico nella formazione situata delle strutture della conoscenza [Cultural evolution and ontogenetic development in a situated formation of knowledge structures]. In Per una relazionalità interculturale. Prospettive interdisciplinary. Mimesis. Santoianni, F. (2012b). L’approccio bioeducativo alla letto-scrittura. Attività didattiche e laboratoriali per la scuola dell’infanzia e la scuola primaria [The bioeducative approach to the reading and writing. Didactic and laboratorial works for childhood and primary school]. Edizioni Erickson. Santoianni, F. (2014). Modelli di studio: apprendere con la teoria delle logiche elementari [Study models: learning by theory of elementary logic]. Edizioni Erickson. Santoianni, F. (2017). Lo spazio e la formazione del pensiero: La scuola come ambiente di apprendimento [The spatiality and the formation of thought: the school as a learning environments]. Research Trends in Humanities Education & Philosophy, 4, 37–43. Santoianni, F. (2018). Teorie emergenti in campo bioeducativo [Emerging theories in a bioeducative field]. RTH Research Trends in Humanities, 5, 12–21. Santoianni, F., & Ciasullo, A. (2017). The Challenge of Spatial Management: Educational Approaches to Specific Learning Disorders. In A. Costa & E. Villalba (Eds.), Horizons in Neuroscience Research (Vol. 33, pp. 173–186). Nova Science Publishers. Santoianni, F., & Ciasullo, A. (2018a). Adaptive Design for Educational Hypermedia Environments and Bio-Educational Adaptive Design for 3D Virtual Learning Environments. REM Research on Education and Media, 10(1), 30–41. doi:10.1515/rem-2018-0005 Santoianni, F., & Ciasullo, A. (2018b). Digital and spatial education intertwining in the evolution of technology resources for educational curriculum reshaping and skills enhancement. International Journal of Digital Literacy and Digital Competence, 9(2), 34–49. doi:10.4018/IJDLDC.2018040103

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Santoianni, F., & Ciasullo, A. (2019). Digital and Spatial Education Intertwining in the Evolution of Technology Resources for Educational Curriculum Reshaping and Skills Enhancement. In Virtual Reality in Education: Breakthroughs in Research and Practice. IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-8179-6.ch016 Schank, R. (1997). Virtual Learning. A Revolutionary Approach to Building a Highly Skilled Workforce. McGraw-Hill. Shernoff, D. J., & Bempechat, J. (Eds.). (2014), Engaging youth in schools: Evidence-based models to guide future innovations. Columbia University. Šumak, B., Polancic, G., & Hericko, M. (2010, February). An empirical study of virtual learning environment adoption using UTAUT. In 2010 Second international conference on mobile, hybrid, and online learning (pp. 17-22). IEEE. Tikhomirov, V., Dneprovskaya, N., & Yankovskaya, E. (2015). Three dimensions of smart education. In Smart Education and Smart e-Learning (pp. 47–56). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-19875-0_5 Tisato, R. (1967). Studi sul positivismo pedagogico in Italia [Studies on pedagogical positivism in Italy]. Ed. RADAR. Weller, M. (2007). Virtual learning environments: Using, choosing and developing your VLE. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203964347 Z. T., Yu, M. H., & Riezebos, P. (2016). A research framework of smart education. Smart Learning Environments, 3(1), 4.

ADDITIONAL READING Boniello, A., Paris, E., & Santoianni, F. (2019). Virtual worlds in geoscience education: Learning strategies and learning 3D environments. In Virtual Reality in Education: Breakthroughs in Research and Practice (pp. 781-800). IGI Global. Cheng, Y., Chiang, H. C., Ye, J., & Cheng, L. H. (2010). Enhancing empathy instruction using a collaborative virtual learning environment for children with autistic spectrum conditions. Computers & Education, 55(4), 1449–1458. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.06.008 Goodfellow, R., & Hewling, A. (2005). Reconceptualising culture in virtual learning environments: From an ‘essentialist’to a ’negotiated’perspective. E-Learning and Digital Media, 2(4), 355–367. doi:10.2304/ elea.2005.2.4.355 Laeeq, K., & Memon, Z. A. (2018). An integrated model to enhance virtual learning environments with current social networking perspective. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 13(09), 252–268. doi:10.3991/ijet.v13i09.8000 Rienties, B., Giesbers, B., Lygo-Baker, S., Ma, H. W. S., & Rees, R. (2016). Why some teachers easily learn to use a new virtual learning environment: A technology acceptance perspective. Interactive Learning Environments, 24(3), 539–552. doi:10.1080/10494820.2014.881394

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Santoianni, F. (2011). Educational models of knowledge prototypes development. Mind & Society, 10(2), 103–129. doi:10.100711299-011-0084-7 Santoianni, F. (2016). Spaces of thinking. In The Concept of Time in Early Twentieth-Century Philosophy (pp. 5–13). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24895-0_2 Santoianni, F. (2017). Models in Pedagogy and Education. In Springer Handbook of Model-Based Science (pp. 1033–1049). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-30526-4_49

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Actualism: Is a pedagogical philosophical current that studies education starting from the ideal adhesion of the learner with the teacher. Bioeducative Sciences: These are studies on education that analyze the relationship between subject/ environment, genes/environment and the resulting hypotheses of epigenetic development. Embodied Cognition: Knowledge is not an exclusively cerebral process but involves the whole subject and his mind in a process of embodied knowledge. Implicit: The subject learns mainly through unconscious mental processes, they are the basis of the construction of knowledge. Situated Learning: Learning is the result of the interaction between the subject and the specific environment where the relationship takes place. This is why knowledge can also be situated. Special Education Needs: It is a set of educational particles that are realized by including all subjects in an educational path that welcomes and supports all kinds of diversity. Virtual Learning Environments: They are digital learning environments in which virtual contexts are simulated in which the subject involved is able to experience educational processes.

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Chapter 10

Journalism and Communication at School in Order to Form Critical Citizens Simona Lamonaca Istituto Comprensivo Giuseppina Pizzigoni, Italy

ABSTRACT In the present era, information is too often transformed into communication of products or services, rather than carrying out its primary function of disseminating knowledge and awareness. Some elements, like artificial intelligence, are often used for these purposes. To bring education back to its original value, journalism in the classroom can help in the improvement of our human intelligence to orientate in this very complex world. A journalism workshop helps school education in the crucial role of forming aware careful users of contents, since the communication doesn’t spread anymore only by written articles, but also through video-news, spots, promotional campaigns, providing a lot of information about trends, economy, and politics. Students in these classrooms learn about what it means by checking the sources, verifying rights of uses, and finally, giving news supported with facts or promote ethical-social messages. Having a knowledge based on experience helps to develop critical abilities to use them.

INTRODUCTION For years, we have been discussing the crisis that is affecting the world of information. The revolution brought by the web in this field is undeniable. If once you could access the world of information through newspapers or tv, today news travels and proliferates on the web so much that it gives us the feeling of being constantly overwhelmed by more or less important information. At first, we witnessed the proliferation of independent news sites, then, gradually, social networking sites and content aggregators entered the field. The result is that it is becoming more and more difficult for us to guide ourselves among the mass of news that we are constantly receiving: important news, secondary news, fake news, etc., which require a good capacity of understanding and analysis on the part of the readers. We are living in a situation where Artificial Intelligence can influence our interpretation of reality. The great diffusion of fake DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch010

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 Journalism and Communication at School in Order to Form Critical Citizens

news and the increasing power of informatic algorithm used to select and order the news on our devices requires the enhancement of our human intelligence to orientate ourself in a very complex world. Following this premises, one of the challenges that today’s school must therefore take on is that of training conscious citizens who are able to orient themselves critically in this area, an emergency that seems all the more pressing if we look at the growing spread of conspiracy theories and the growing disinformation of the younger generations. According to Newman (2020) “This year’s report comes in the midst of a global health pandemic that is unprecedented in modern times and whose economic, political, and social consequences are still unfolding. The seriousness of this crisis has reinforced the need for reliable, accurate journalism that can inform and educate populations, but it has also reminded us how open we have become to conspiracies and misinformation. Journalists no longer control access to information, while greater reliance on social media and other platforms give people access to a wider range of sources and ‘alternative facts’, some of which are at odds with official advice, misleading, or simply false”. (p.10). Thus begins the 2020 report of Reuters data on information published in June 2020. Indeed, the battle that the world of information is fighting in these years is certainly tough. Journalists must on the one hand provide increasingly fast and immediate information, in order not to be burned by unfair competition from unofficial sites, and on the other hand they must guarantee their professionalism through the truthfulness and completeness of their publications, carrying out fundamental operations such as checking sources, in-depth analysis, etc… Added to this is the fact that the reports of the last few years on Information (Reuters- see above) reveal how the number of users who access information mainly through social media or search engines is constantly growing, thus running into the news considered most important by the algorithms that regulate the virality of content. The result is that these users are superficially informed about the news of the world in which they live, if not badly informed. Indeed, in this situation it is not surprising that the quality of official information has decreased over the years. That is why in England in 2014 Peter Laufer founded the Slow News movement (Laufer, 2014), theorizing the importance of stopping and taking stock of completed situations, working on deepening the news and thus counteracting the speed of current information. The truth is that the world in which we live is becoming more and more complex and journalism today has to take on the task of helping citizens understand it, even more than it did yesterday. That is why it should renew itself quickly, accepting new challenges without compromising on the quality and reliability of its content, even if it is conveyed in a different way than in the past. If the world of information has its own challenge to work on, the educational world has another: there is no point in having quality information if readers cannot distinguish it from everything else. Nowadays anyone can publish anything and with a little effort (and the complicity of superficial readers) makes it viral. This is why it is important for the school to train conscious news users. They should be able to orient themselves among the plurality of media available and among the various types of communication that characterise them (articles, news launches, video-news, news, commercials, etc.), but, also, they should know the critical issues that afflict the sector today (Fake news, news for click baiting, hate speech titles...). It is important that young people understand what makes one news item more credible than another, how much more serious an article that avoids sensationalistic headlines and language is, what a great opportunity it is to be able to comment on the news, when you have arguments to offer, etc…

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Schools must pursue these important objectives in the work on social skills and citizenship education. However, according to John Dewey’s theory “learning by doing” (Dewey, 1984), it is definitely more productive to put young people in the middle of the production of information contents, to let them know from within the world of information, with its difficulties, its tools, its techniques, in order to make them aware users, rather than giving them theoretical lessons on these areas. Learning to produce information will in fact help them to read and analyse the information produced for them by others. Decoding the complexity of their “small” world to communicate messages to their peers will help them understand that behind the messages of professional communication there is a more complex reality. Therefore, opening a journalism and communication workshop in schools of all levels means working with a view to educating citizens who are more aware and less manipulable (Ranieri et al., 2019)

DECADES OF EXPERIENCE OF CONTINUOUS WORKING PROGRESS An example of what it is possible to do at school is the ten-year experience of the Communication 2.0 workshop activated at the Secondary School of Milan (Italy) Istituto Comprensivo Rinnovata Pizzigoni. The workshop was born in October 2011 with the opening of a journalistic blog (www.puecherinside. com) mainly dedicated to the publication of contents concerning the school, a page and a Facebook group linked to it with the task of promoting the news published on the blog. Over the years, it has developed through the opening of an Instagram page and then a YouTube channel. At the beginning, it was only a traditionally written, journalistic path. However, with the passing of the years, we observed how the world of children was increasingly attracted by video content and we decided to extend the workshop at school in the field of communication at a wider range producing, in addition to journalistic content, also social spots, commercials, comics, etc... The creation of this communication workshop has proved to be particularly valuable over the years: on the one hand, it has allowed teachers to accompany children in a practical way in their interface with sociality on the web; on the other hand, it has helped teachers to better understand the world of children, with their passions, fashions and sociality. The lessons are carried out in the school’s computer lab, in an absolutely horizontal and practical way (Dewey, 1984). The organization chosen is inspired by that of a newspaper, with an editorial staff that meets once a week, one or two teachers who play the role of director and a group of pupils (which generally range from 22 to 25). They represent the journalists, who, after an initial run-in, become managers. The editorial staff changes every year, but some of the most deserving students of the previous year are called back with the role of tutors to help guide the new pupils through this experience. Ten years ago, the school newspaper was born in the form of a blog on Wordpress entitled PuecherInside (from the name of the secondary school “Puecher” belonging to the Comprehensive Institute) in which only news concerning the school reality of children was published: sports initiatives, releases didactics, awards, teacher interviews, school activity surveys, etc. However, over time, the need emerged to broaden the contents to the various interests that the children attending the school followed. It was an interesting turning point, because it allowed them to better analyze the world in which they live, starting to have a more critical eye.

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Figure 1. PuecherInside’s blog on Wordpress

Hence, a series of articles on video games, the most popular apps, fashions, etc. Moreover, by accepting the proposals of the students on which topics to bring to the newspaper, the teachers involved in the project and the other teachers of the school as readers of the blog, had the extraordinary opportunity to find themselves in front of an open door to the world of children: that is to say on all those passions and habits that normally emerge only sporadically and superficially among the school desks. As previously written (Lamonaca, 2017) Students really need to feel that the teachers who accompany them are prepared, that they know what they are doing in the field of communication but also (mainly) as to the web and the tools that get proposed. Teachers need not be tech wizards: students are content with acknowledging that a teacher has sufficient web experience to open doors on new discoveries to be lived together, even if they then go on to exceed the teacher in tech use capacities. This fundamental challenging rapport, entirely played out on digital tools, creates a strong relation where students interact with teachers, telling them about their own world. In fact, students aged 10-14 still strongly need an adult, in order to see themselves reflected in his/her eyes and to understand what they are becoming. Yet they often fear this confrontation because they are very often misunderstood, or worse, they feel judged. This provokes a defense reaction where

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they opt for shutting adults off and only share their experiences with their peers. But it does not take much to invert this trend. If the adult proves to be non-judgmental and above all, curious about their life experiences, if s/he asks for their help in understanding how beautiful their world is, they will be happy to show it to him/her. Thus, with a correct attitude, this laboratory also becomes a means for understanding in real time where the youngsters are moving. Their world moves very quickly and it is hard to keep up with them. The teacher can only be done together with them. Thus, with teachers and students working side by side, it will become easy to monitor step by step the changing social fashions. Teachers will understand how youngsters have been moving away from Facebook – absolute monarch of social platforms until a few years ago – towards other tools (Instagram and Snapchat presently, in Italy), via Ask. It is possible to discover that YouTube is presently the uncontested star: preteens love to follow the Blogs of other youngsters barely older than them, where they narrate simple life events, reveal their daily anguishes, their small and great personal successes, their school life. However, teens also follow channels dedicated to games, where they meet to watch their idols’ games on Minecraft, Clash Royale, etc. They live for news about their favourite singers on WhatsApp fan clubs, they know many people online, often light heartedly taking risks; they have a parallel life in some virtual worlds. Thus, the learning environment widens, learning itself goes beyond traditional subjects and really, teachers must now convey wider social and life competencies, rather than mere contents. This is a treasure trove of precious information that the teacher can use to educate about the correct use of the Web, to stimulate social and relational capabilities, critical thinking, etc. It can also produce actual teaching tools, whenever a teacher has time and willingness to follow new, unexplored paths. This work requires mental elasticity, openness towards others and a willingness to continuously challenge oneself. (pp. 376,377) To make the experience more authentic, there were also connections with the real world of information, through visits to important editorial realities, meetings with journalists and industry professionals, participation in national journalistic competitions, etc. The balance after 10 years is definitely positive for many reasons. There have been pupils who have continued the activity of content producers on their own, opening their own blogs, and others who have continued their journalistic training in upper secondary school. A privileged relationship of confidence with the teacher is very precious because it allows her/him to intervene with authority whenever problems relating to web security emerge: a theme constantly present in the workshop. In addition to the fact that the school found itself having an ongoing documentation of all its activities, useful as an evidence of its training plan. In fact, it is also fundamental from an educational point of view to work on the creation of complex web contents (Roncaglia, 2018) in proportion to the age of the students.

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DOING JOURNALISM AT SCHOOL The first step to start this experience in schools is the opening of a blog as a platform for what will be the school newspaper. Various platforms allow you to create your own blog, even for free and in an intuitive way. It is essential to choose your own newspaper and create its logo. This is also a very interesting activity to propose at school. If you are going to create the school newspaper, it is important to involve the students in this starting phase. The simplest thing is to play on the school name inventing, through brainstorming with the editorial staff, a series of possible names that will then be worth submitting to a sort of referendum within the school leading to the final choice. As far as the logo is concerned, it is interesting to involve the IT teachers so that they can also work here on a series of proposals together with their pupils, chosen by the entire school group or even only by the future editorial staff of the newspaper.

Figure 2. PuecherInside’s logo, created from students at school

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At this point, it is necessary to provide the editors of the newspaper with initial training on the use of the platform chosen for their blog. It deals with a few, simple notions. The platforms allow you to invite collaborators from within, who, once accepting the invitation, directly access the application’s backstage console, where they can enter their content. It is up to the teacher to determine which permissions the collaborators will have. Generally, for a more professional result, it is advisable not to allow direct publication of the post, so that you can always have the possibility to verify and correct the contents before publication. You should also give some indications about the graphics. In fact, children are often very creative and use colourful texts and unusual characters. It is worth making them think about the importance of having a homogeneous and quite simple newspaper from the point of view of graphics. These characteristics make it clearer to readers, who access the contents with various supports and need to make as little effort as possible to understand the news. It is worth showing them the main national or international newspapers online or in print, stimulating a reflection on these aspects. Finally, you should give some indications regarding the use of images, which must mainly be selfproduced, but which can sometimes be convenient to search for on the web. The photographic reporter tends to be different from the artist photographer. In fact, its purpose is documentary; photography must be clear and easy to understand. Today the kids are all equipped with smartphones and therefore it will not be difficult to assign them the task of documenting the articles they will be working on. In any case, the teacher has to explain to them how to behave if they have to take pictures of people or even minors. Figure 3. Memory stones in Milan, pictures taken from students

If you are looking for images on the web, it is good to explain to children that they cannot download or publish everything they find on the net. They will start using search engines for freely reusable content. As for the rules of journalism, you will try to convey them above all on the field. In fact, the workshop lessons must by definition be the least theoretical possible. You will mention the main rules

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with slides or a short video or with posters in the workshop classroom. For the rest, you will talk about it every time the kids get to work. A few hints to the 5 W rule (What, Who, When, Where, Why) are essential to provide complete news and to establish the parameters that make news publishable (true, interesting, current). Furthermore, it will be important to reflect on the target of your newspaper. It is fundamental to understand whom you are addressing to and to decide which news to publish and what our publishing style will be. At this point, you could start working, leaving reflections on the research and verification of sources and on the specificity of journalistic language to a later moment, during the work. You will start with the publication of short, complete and verified news, gradually enriched by quotes from the people involved or other types of insights. Then, gradually introduce more complex text types: from the interview to the review of books, video games, app. or other, to the news or direct testimony of an event witnessed, up to the investigation with related data processing. Of course, each text type has its own characteristics and the students will grasp the differences by working on it. Among the typologies proposed, the investigation is very interesting, as it allows them to provide scientific data on a topic, and then try to analyse them by asking critical questions. For example, if you decide to make an inquiry into the school canteen, the students will first find themselves planning the work by establishing the questions to ask to all those who use it and imagining a series of answers that they can then tabulate. Subsequently, they will have to engage in the collection and arrangement of the data, they will have to create some tables, on which they will then have to think in order to draw up the final article. It is one of the most complex types of journalism, which nevertheless, in a very practical way, presents them with a series of challenges aimed at developing their critical sense. At this point, it becomes essential to establish which working methods to use. A workshop activity must have a limited number of participants to be functional. It is better not to exceed 25 students especially since it is not easy to find 25 different articles to write every week in a school, and because every group of students need a constant supervision by the teacher. It is therefore a good choice to organize them into cooperative units. Small groups of two or three students could work together and think about the content, the cut to be given, how to enrich that content and, at the same time, share different skills. There may be someone with a good predisposition toward writing; someone with strong social qualities that make him perfect to interface with the outside in case of interviews or collection of testimonies; someone more inclined to research or to enhance images, etc. In any case, teaching how to collaborate is one of the challenges of the school for the new generations into the world of work, which requires people capable of working as a team (Johnson and Johnson, 1996). Tutors (chosen from students who have carried out the workshop in previous years) will join these small working units from time to time. Together with the class teachers, tutors will have the task of guiding them and constantly monitoring the work, keeping in mind the basic elements of journalism mentioned above. It is important to underline at this point the role of the teacher as “first among equals”. In fact, during the workshop, the teacher will be constantly engaged in work as much as the students, giving them indications on the journalistic style to use, on how to enrich what has been done, monitoring the adherence of the text to the basic rules of journalism, etc. The teacher must work together with her/his editorial staff. The relationship between teacher and students is not like an adult who teaches and judges. The teacher is rather a more experienced journalist who decides with others what to publish and how and works with the editing staff for the production of a good newspaper. They also have to share the choice of content. A moment of discussion is necessary before starting the job, in which the whole editorial staff, sitting around the table, will evaluate the proposals of the contents 217

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to be published. Of course, the teacher will always propose content, but she must be ready to listen to the students and change her mind from time to time if she receives good input from the editorial staff. All this is important because the group must become a team with a strong common goal: the production of a good newspaper. Furthermore, this type of teacher-student relationship is the first step towards creating a strong relationship of trust in order to access the world of pupils and be able to guide them in fields generally inaccessible to them (think of how many problems teenagers have to face online alone...). It is interesting to open the newspaper also to contents outside the school as the journalistic investigation allows for in-depth studies that do not always find space inside. It is also a good idea to create a paper magazine on a topic developed during the year. This will allow students to compete with another type of journalism that has its own specificities. In fact, articles made for the blog can be recycled and revised to insert them in a page that has greater constraints than the blog in terms of space, number of characters, etc. Furthermore, you will have to work much more on the graphics, with greater attention to the search for images that must have a very important space on the page. You will have to work on a graphically effective cover, keeping attention to the space dedicated to the header and the insertion of other articles. You will then work on the construction of the graphic map taking into account that the pages can only be multiples of four in order to print the publication. Finally, you have to choose the position of the various articles with their pictures and the place for advertising pages. In short, it is an interesting challenge because it offers a series of limits that web journalism does not have. It also opens up a range of skills in the communication field that are worth taking into consideration.

THE USE OF SOCIAL Anyone today can open a blog on any topic. However, the challenge that will arise immediately after is to have a certain number of users of your content. Therefore, the next step will be to use social media as a promotional tool for the school online newspaper through social media. You should start promoting the school newspaper above all within the school, through ordinary tools such as letters, posters in common spaces and, where the institution has its own school diary, as an advertising page inside. However, it is well known how much today’s kids are constantly connected and how much, on the other hand, this is leading them increasingly to show little attention to forms of communication that do not pass through their digital devices. Furthermore, not only pupils but also parents could be the target of the school newspaper. Once again, it is important to think about what your target is or what you want it to be. In the experience carried out at the Istituto Comprensivo Rinnovata Pizzigoni, it was evident, studying the site statistics that students’ parents made up a good slice of readers. Together with the opening of the blog, a page and a Facebook group that would help in the promotion of the news was prepared in 2011. The main users of that page were precisely the parents, although, at that time, there were also many pupils. At that point, we realized that the target audience was less homogeneous than originally imagined and it made no sense to give up a slice of loyal readers. As the phenomenon of the teenager’s transmigration from Facebook to Instagram took place over the years, the school’s editorial staff began to consider the idea of opening an account linked to the blog there too. It happened in 2015 with the aim of reaching the target of students that Facebook no longer had. Later on, we took into consideration other social networks too such as Tik-Tok, for example. However,

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analysing the peculiarities of the social network, we did not consider it particularly useful for promoting the editorial staff schoolwork. Each social network, in fact, has its own characteristics that you should take into account in the communication field (Lipschultz, 2017). On one hand, Facebook allows you to propose on the blog page articles coming out every week with photos and links. On the other hand, the homonymous Facebook group, offering any user the possibility to insert content, becomes a showcase of what happens in the school, especially on particular events, such as parties, exhibitions, shows, etc., when parents publish photos or personal impressions. The Instagram page, instead, is designed mainly for the publication of images with little text and therefore it has been used to promote content through images, with the link to the page mentioned in the caption. Therefore, kids, once again, find themselves to think about different ways of communication looking for the best one to be effective. The opening of an institutional page on social media had another important result: students chose to become followers and this allowed the teacher to have an open window on the use they make of social media. Moreover, the teacher could build targeted interventions in the classes about the possible risks of social networks and, in particular cases, could take action directly on immediate needs. Going back about promotion, one of the problems that arose was about the followers’ growth. A good newspaper has important numbers of certified readers and followers on social networks. However, we must always consider the fact that we are talking about school-related initiatives. Once again, working on these topics it offers good opportunities for reflection on issues relating to media education. Dealing with teens and adolescents means to take great care of their sensitive data. It is fundamental, for such a project, that the school uses a well-structured release form signed by the parents in order to publish photographic or video material concerning the children. It is as important as making students reflect on the fact that a school newspaper should be confined to an audience limited to the school itself. That is why you should monitor social networks in order to reach the target audience set. It is better to avoid accepting followers or external contacts who are not interested in accessing the proposed contents. At this point, it becomes interesting to help young people understand that numbers do not certify the quality of a proposal. They are often attracted by the number of subscribers to a YouTube channel or chasing popularity on social networks through the spasmodic search for likes and contacts. Nevertheless, it is important to pay attention to contents also, without just looking for high numbers.

FROM WRITTEN COMMUNICATION TO VIDEO In recent years, video information is gaining more and more ground with the dissemination of online information. All the historical newspapers, in fact, opened a window on the web, complementary to traditional contents, in the last 20 years. They also had to adapt to the production of video content, particularly appreciated by users for the possibility of sharing it through social networks. In particular, the use of videos is predominant among young people. Therefore, journalism at school cannot be separated from the production of video content. If we add to this teen’s passion for YouTube and the mythicization of some Youtubers with millions of subscribers on their channels, we realize that working on video communication is once again a great opportunity to develop students’ skills and critical sense. Therefore, it could be interesting to open an institutional YouTube channel in which to publish complementary video news with the school newspaper.

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Figure 4. TG Puecher the format for newscast about school

It is of course possible to publish simple video news reports or make real little newscasts. Istituto Comprensivo Rinnovata Pizzigoni chose the latter. This is how TG Puecher was born: a fixed appointment almost every week in which the children briefly tell news from their school world. The construction of this format was also born when pupils and teachers together tried to understand in which direction to move. We started from the idea of the target audience. The need was to reach mainly students who were not particularly interested in reading the blog (more and more followed by parents instead). We asked ourselves which YouTube channels kids followed and, observing the YouTubers they loved most, we had an idea of what the school’s information format should be: short, fun, with a dynamic editing, but at the same time faithful to the rules of good journalism already explained. It was a great challenge. Students had to appear themselves on video, with their authenticity, not cast in roles that did not belong to them. At the same time, we should have in mind the rules to give correct and complete news. The challenge was also to work on the correct use of the oral language. It is in fact evident that in speech it is customary to make mistakes that you do not even realize (incomplete sentences, discord between subject and predicate in complex periods, etc.). In addition, we had to measure ourselves with new skills: the ability to use the camera to get good shots (not shaky, with a centered framing, etc.) and the entire editing phase. The expiration of one video a week (although not always respected), imposed the need to publish videos that were not perfect. This need, however, led to the choice of using errors in an ironic way through interpositions of meme or particular sounds. It was an interesting solution that allowed a work of error valorisation (Perkinsons, 1971) useful for the kids who learned in an amusing way to understand which were the mistakes to avoid. Over the years, TG Puecher has become a very popular event at school and has definitely reached the target that was expected. The possibility in this area to enhance some specific skills of certain students in the field of editing and in video communication was particularly interesting. Generally, in a first grade secondary school class, little work is done in these areas, yet teenagers who are passionate about YouTube, often begin to experiment with self-production of videos early on, even using simple editing programs. Giving them the opportunity to put this expertise at the service of a school project means making them self-aware of their potential and helping them to grow, constantly confronting them with the work they have done.

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FROM VIDEO NEWS TO SOCIAL SPOTS Once we made the mini - news production, the transition to the idea of using video communication for social purposes came almost as a consequence. In fact, at school we often deal with civic content in order to develop pupils’ social skills from a citizenship education viewpoint. Current news or civic calendar appointments can provide inspiration in this regard. Once again, the communication workshop offers the possibility to be active in this field, where kids are not users of video or text content to analyse or discuss, but are themselves active producers of content to propose to others. It is a complex job that puts in place a series of skills in the field of communication, and not only that. The topics can be different: from bullying, to gender equality, from road safety to inclusion, etc. We must not forget that young people are great users of video content of various kinds, in addition to the fact that often the creative abilities of teens are amazing. Anyway, it is useful to proceed with a careful step-by-step work planning. The first step will be to analyse the topic to be addressed, decide what the message will be, measure the feasibility of one’s ideas with the real possibilities (techniques, skills, etc.). Then, draw up a storyboard of the video (which will have to be contained in 3 or 4 minutes maximum) and a possible script. Finally, proceed with the division of roles (including those who will appear in the video and those who will work backstage). Figure 5. “No alla violenza sulle donne”, social spot for the International day against women’s violence

At this point, it will be possible to proceed with the filming learning how to manage the camera as far as the framing of the scene is concerned, often considering audio problems (school equipment is hardly a professional instrument, so the children will have to learn to act with a high tone of voice, waiting for quiet moments around them to avoid annoying interference, looking for alternative solutions to audio recording in case of outdoor shooting, etc.), searching for the best light, etc.. All these little difficulties help them to measure themselves against the ability to solve problems in a very concrete way, as explained for a long time in didactic literature (Rumiati et al., 2019). Once the shooting is complete, the post-production phase opens, in which editing becomes very important. Fortunately, today there are free editing programs that are quite simple to use and there are others at very low cost that are more performing. Working on the editing is very interesting as it offers once again the possibility of letting

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the creativity of the children express themselves. A few simple notions of editing are enough to provide them (how to cut or zoom a shot, how to create intersections between shots, how to insert opening and closing credits, etc.), then students often surprise you with new and interesting solutions. Finally, the school channel will be the right container to publish and promote the final product through the social networks connected to it. This type of work becomes very interesting also as a starting point for video workshops proposed in a more traditional context in different classes. Starting from a product made by one’s teammate means having the kids’ eyes on that problem as a starting point.

MARKETING AND ADVERTISING With the transition from video journalism to the creation of social spots, the work has expanded from the purely journalistic sphere to that of communication in general. Why not go further, experimenting with a more clearly advertising form? Today we are bombarded with advertising in any media, and the target of advertising messages has expanded more and more to include increasingly younger consumers, chasing a market trend that sees adults spending more easily for their children (Mininni, 2012). This advertising saturation makes the younger generations more manipulable as they are less able to look critically at the language of advertising and therefore more easily prey in the grafting of the desire that the advertising message brings with it (Pegan, 2009). Once again making children actively work in advertising will provide them with useful tools to understand what is behind these messages. Open days are the perfect situation to present a spot from the school, but many of the activities within the school can also be advertised, for example, the communication workshop itself, or the online newspaper or the YouTube channel, etc. In addition, in this case it is important to proceed by steps. You have to provide the basic rules of advertising communication imagining once again the target audience, establishing the message you want to communicate and summarizing it in a short but effective slogan, preparing a storyboard for a video that must be very short and that uses video and music language to convey the main idea. After that, you have to collect the students’ ideas and you will always guide them towards the communicative purpose that has been set. You will proceed, then, to the realization of the video maintaining the same indications given for the social spots. Of course, it will be important to work with the kids on the concept of promoting the positive aspects of the subject advertised. It is important that they understand that even in this area there must be a content of truth (advertising must not lie). At the same time, it will help them to reflect on how negative aspects have no place in this type of communication while positive aspects are maximized. You will have to think with them about the final result, looking for and asking for feedback from those who viewed the final product, to understand if you have managed to be convincing. Of course, working in advertising does not just mean using video as a media. In fact, it is possible to use the same communication parameters to create advertising flyers, in this case focusing more on the graphics of the product, or on advertising pages proposed in a school diary or in any newspaper to be produced at the end of the year.

THE INPUTS FROM THE REAL WORLD To make the experience of the children who attend the workshop more meaningful, it is useful to seek as much connection as possible with the world of information and real communication. Many editorial 222

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realities are available to organize meetings with schools. In fact, if in the past this happened above all in order to promote their business. Today it becomes even more important for publishing companies to cultivate the new generations in order to try to counter the trend that sees them less and less involved as users of qualified information. The alliance with the educational projects carried out by schools becomes strategic with a view to sowing seeds for the future. In Italy, several important publishing realities offer schools the opportunity to visit their offices and to interact with professionals. Among these, Corriere della Sera often hosts classes of secondary school students, telling the story of the magazine, providing an idea of how journalism has changed over time and how it takes place in the present, letting the boys enter and sit in the prestigious editorial meeting room, around the historic nineteenth-century table wanted by the founder of the magazine Eugenio Torelli Viollier, surrounded by historic first pages of the newspaper posted on the surrounding walls. It is important for young people to breathe the history of an illustrious profession within those walls and at the same time realize that it is a true, authentic and still alive story with all the changes it has experienced over time. Another interesting initiative in this area is the one proposed by Sky Academy which in Milan offers students the opportunity to visit his studios, explaining step by step the professionals involved in the creation of video information and inviting students to express their curiosity. Not only that, but as a preliminary activity, it directly involves them in the creation of a professional newscast on a topic proposed by the publisher. Before the meeting, you have to carry out a journalistic work at school on the chosen topic, starting from a series of inputs that Sky offers, preparing the articles used for the realization of the newscast. Within the studios of the magazine, pupils will measure themselves with professional equipment to create a professional newscast guided by the team available to them. Each student measures with a specific role: director, editor, cameraman, journalist, reporter, stylist. The experience is very significant for children who, through direct involvement, enter the heart of the world of real information. It would be interesting to carry out similar experiences within editorial realities that use different media (web and paper newspapers, video newspapers, radio newspapers, etc.), in order to make people aware of the different characteristics of the information. Another important growth opportunity within this educational sector is participation in competitions held by publishing companies outside the school. In fact, there are many inputs offered in this sense. In Italy, for example, the national newspaper Repubblica in the section dedicated to schools, Repubblica@ scuola, offers a series of inputs to classes who want to interface with journalism. It is in fact possible to publish articles on topical subjects or to produce other types of content thanks to the collaboration with other publishing companies. There are, for example, competitions dedicated to photography, drawing or in the field of creative writing. Another historic appointment is that of the “Chroniclers in the classroom”, a competition proposed for 15 years by the newspaper “IL Giorno”. It invites primary and secondary school classes to produce a newspaper page dedicated to a freely chosen topic with a main article and an in-depth one. The experience is interesting because pupils ask themselves what topic could be interesting for their fellow citizens, how it can be presented and deepened. At the same time, it forces students to measure against the strict limits of printed-paper (there are a number of precise characters prepared for the two articles, but also for the title and the summary). Focus Junior competition, for example, has recently proposed to schools the creation of a pdf magazine on a given topic. The National Order of Journalists proposes the “Newspapers and journalism in schools” competition aimed at rewarding the best journalistic editors in the school environment. Finally, the Municipal Police of Milan proposes “Ciak si Guida” an interesting initiative that invites schools to create a commercial on road safety.

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Figure 6. Repubblica@scuola, page written by PuecherInside’s Journalists

All these initiatives, regardless of the competition as an end in itself, are interesting because they offer the possibility to go outside the school walls, to give the measure of the work also through comparison with other realities. Knowing how to recognize the quality of one’s work by comparing it with that of others and the quality of others’ work without closing in on the rigid defense of one’s own is an important step in the maturation of every citizen. Finally, the possibility of organizing meetings with professionals in the sector at school is a great occasion. For this, you do not need great connections. It is enough to know the parents of your pupils. You will discover some who work as a journalist, press office, video editor, within the video game sector, etc. Putting young people in front of true professionalism generally makes them very curious to understand the complexity of today’s world of work. Over the years, the PuecherInside workshop has hosted journalist parents who worked for specialized magazines in history, motorcycles, news, bloggers, or friends who worked in the promotion-press office, etc. It is important to be attentive to the possibilities that school contacts offer for this purpose.

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MEDIA EDUCATION It is important to mention the possibilities of doing Media Education through work on communication and online media (Ranieri et al, 2019). Nevertheless, many problems occur especially when it is aimed at pupils under the age of 14. To do school journalism, for example, you should document the activities with photographic images or short videos, which are more effective if they present the pupils engaged in that activity. That is why it becomes essential for the school to prepare for all pupils a disclaimer for the use of audio videos on the channels of the Institute and for documentary purposes, signed by all parents. Then, it will be essential to tabulate the data in order to define the students who will never appear in the images. It is an obvious step for anyone who has to do with the problems of privacy on the net, but this allows in the delivery phase of the form to talk in all classes about the problem of the use of images on the net in general and of the use of minors in particular. Today there are more and more teenagers with mobile phones and subscribers to social networks, however they have little knowledge of the legal issues associated with publishing content. It is an important opportunity to make them understand, indirectly speaking of the school’s communication network, that to publish a photo or a video of someone I always need the authorization of the person concerned. If I am a minor too, it is necessary to have the consent of my parents to publish a photo or a video of which I am the protagonist. Moreover, if I want to publish on a social network the photo or video that portrays me with a minor friend of mine, then the consent must be asked both from mine and from his parents. Certainly, this simple statement will not put a stop to the habits of teenagers online, however it is a way to make them more aware and therefore more attentive to what they publish to avoid unpleasant situations. Generally, children welcome this speech repeated every year in all the first classes and resumed whenever there is a need, with great interest. They ask many questions, tell episodes that have happened to them or heard from others, etc. It is a first moment of discussion on a very hot topic. Another moment of reflection occurs when it is the moment of choosing to give or not precise indications of the school location. It is important that children understand that in this case it is essential to remain generic, in order to avoid giving too precise indications to possible troublemakers. Of course, adults who watch over the well-being of the students always supervise the school, but setting an example on the importance of the protection of sensitive data is an important step to bring the children themselves to watch over it when they publish news about their social networks. The publication of personal data such as the name and surname of the editorial staff of the school newspaper also sets/ poses a problem. Also in this case we decided to protect the pupils as much as possible, indicating just the name, not to directly identify a person and omitting the surname. We constantly reflect with the children on the social network connected to the workshop. First, the teacher specifies that the decision to follow or not the school’s social network is at the absolute discretion of the students. In fact, requests for friendship never start from the institutional account, as it would be an unacceptable invasion of the student’s privacy. Furthermore, we try to manage the contacts as much as possible, monitoring the registrations and accepting only those closer to the school (students or parents). This is an occasion to explain to young people that numbers do not give value to a service. In fact, the younger generations are often constantly looking for contacts and likes that give them the illusion of ephemeral popularity. An account with many followers or a YouTube channel with many subscribers appears to them cool and worth to follow. Often when you introduce the school’s blog and YouTube channel to the classroom, one of the first questions children ask is about the number of subscriptions. It is a precious opportunity to discuss the subject of safety and protection of adolescents online with 225

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them. In fact, the school has no interest in having many followers, especially since it has no profit in this activity. Instead, it is important that followers are selected as much as possible to avoid strangers infiltrating the contacts in search of adolescents with interests other than the school’s communication network objectives. Furthermore, another important issue in this area concerns the fight against the spread of fake news. From this point of view, the control of sources is fundamental. Often kids come with their own certainties about some topics they think they know very well. For example, in recent years everyone is convinced that his own favourite video game is by far the most popular among kids and is ready to write about it with the authority of the expert. In reality, you could ask him to look for data to support his idea, or through articles or statistics accredited by the information channels of the sector or simply inviting him to refute his idea by carrying out a scientific investigation in the school. This will help him understand that news must always have a scientific foundation. The next step will be to help them look critically at actual fake news as well. The interview organized with a famous fake news producer in Italy in 2018, contacted through social media, was a very interesting experience. The comparison through Skype between this character and the students was an important moment in which pupils were able to collect a direct testimony of how they built Fake News, how they work to spread them and how easy it is for people to fall for them. Two important factors are the superficiality with which the news is read online and the predisposition of a certain target to take that news as true. Finally, you should also pay attention to the management of comments. At school, teachers always ask to maintain a language appropriate to the situation. Consequently, it is obvious that even in the comments, pupils should maintain the same correct language and therefore the administrator will filter free offensive messages. However, this does not mean that criticism is not allowed. Generally, the comments of the pupils are always joking and simple, however when it happened, sometimes, to receive a criticism, the interested parties had always provided thoughtful and reasoned answers to the criticism itself. We worked on the importance of not reacting immediately, but of reflecting well on the criticism, on how much truth it could possibly contain, on how much one could argue. In this way the answer has always been a nice way to support one’s work without descending to the impulsive declarations that dominate the network (PuecherInside, 2019). In conclusion, the teacher is a point of reference for all students working in the front line together with the students on the network and managing the related safety issues. This is an important responsibility that enables the teacher to observe the students’ behaviour online. They could intervene quickly in case of problems, even on the direct instructions of pupils in difficulty.

SOME CONCRETE EXAMPLE OF ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT The PuecherInside network of the Istituto Comprensivo Rinnovata Pizzigoni can boast some particularly significant experiences carried out in the ten years of activity Among them the “Video Games Special” carried out during the school year 2016/2017 was a very interesting work. The idea was to explore this sector during the year, so important for students of that age, to understand the potential and criticality of this passion. The teacher’s attitude of openness towards an area often criminalized by adults was fundamental. In fact, in the last few years many studies have been made on ludopathy (T. Trua, 2016), but considerable importance has also been given to the positive role that video games have on the development of transversal skills (Granic et al., 2014) 226

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Figure 7. PuecherInside magazine about videogame

Approaching this sector by listening to young people who have a great desire to talk about it is a good way to critically assess their habits in this field. Often, in fact, their reference adults, even if they allow them a lot of time for playing, often confront themselves on this subject only to accuse them of addiction or to take time away from other things. So we decided during that year to dedicate great space to the topic in the school newspaper, through reviews of the most popular games, news about updates or other, interviews with Youtubers who bring videos as gamers and an investigation on the school. It has been an extremely interesting journey for both teachers and students. The latter have learned to look more critically at a phenomenon that concerns them very closely. They understood the fine line between passion and addiction (Griffiths and Davies, 2015), creating questions themselves in their investigation such as: “Do you think video games affect your mood?” or “Do you often think about moves and strategies that you would like to do in your favourite video game even when the device is off?” Not to mention their own reflections when they found themselves analysing the 70% of pupils who admitted that video games actually affect their mood or the 78% who said they often think about their video games even when they are not playing. But it was not only the dimension of gambling addiction that emerged, in fact the students’ reflections also spoke of the skills that this tool allows them to acquire, which are often even higher than those required at school (Picton et al. 2020). The search for strategies to overcome levels of play (see

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for example “Plague inc”), the stimulation of creativity in games that require the construction of worlds (as in “Minecraft”), even the historical knowledge to solve certain role-playing games (like “Assassin’s creed”), teamwork skills whenever they interact in multiplayer, are all potentialities that you shouldn’t ignore. To this, we added the participation of some students of the Communication 2.0 course in the first Italian Olympics of the “Game @ school” video game, organized in Bergamo in January 2016 (and in the following years) by the “Imparadigitale” association. The challenge consisted in conceiving, designing and creating an educational video game in groups of 2 to 4 elements on a theme assigned on the day of the event. Our pupils accepted without hesitation to participate in this event on a day off from school, getting up very early in the morning and investing in a school project the whole day. They therefore worked together side by side to make their game, using the Minecraft platform. They managed to brilliantly resolve some internal conflicts, which, considering the high motivation that the project related to their favourite video game brought with it, could be an obstacle not to be underestimated. They were happy and proud when they were able to show the teacher the product created, knowing that they would find in the teacher a curious ally who would be equally proud of the work done, even if it was “only” a video game. Furthermore, that relationship of mutual esteem between teacher and pupils came into play for which the teacher recognized the skills of the students without undermining them to simple “play skills” and the pupils proudly welcomed the opinion of a teacher they considered well “computerized”. It was also very important to share the project with their classmates, in order to have another important feedback through peer evaluation. We, then, reflected together on the skills that this experience had brought to them, without forgetting the danger of addiction. When students show to be able to rework school contents through the creation of a videogame they surely have acquired new skills in order to deeply understand these contents (Lamonaca, 2020). Finally, they made very interesting interviews for the school newspaper with Youtubers who post game contents. There are many and they are often linked to a particular gaming platform. Kids love watching these “expert” gamers (or such as they think they are) playing their favourite games. They enjoy watching them “get in trouble” and come out with irony, playing with their friends, making fun of what happens to them in the game and so on. On the other hand, this involves the desire to become “famous” themselves by opening a Youtube channel in which to post their gaming experiences, only to find comments and Likes from their followers. Therefore, the addiction to video games goes hand in hand with the addiction to popularity that Youtube opens. In fact, through these interviews it emerged that the boundary between the desire / need to play and the desire / need to post videos and to constantly monitor the satisfaction is very thin, to the point that it becomes difficult to say if you make videos as an excuse to play or play it as an excuse to record videos. It becomes very important to guide children through the analysis of these phenomena, to understand on the one hand what innovations they can bring in the field of learning, on the other hand to understand how they can be protected from the worrying risk of addiction. In fact, many kids today play by doing minute-by-minute commentary of what they do on the console, developing skills in the spoken language that the school is not always able to provide. Recording the commentary of your game means being able to speak clearly, articulating every word well, but also quickly, in an easily understandable way, all while simultaneously playing. How many times do the pupils demonstrate that they are perfectly capable of carrying out a task by explaining the work phases step by step?

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In short, the “Special video games” was an important moment to critically confront the children with a theme that concerns them a lot and at the same time to allow the teacher to fully understand how children live this passion. Another very interesting topic developed in the workshop was bullying in the 2019-20 school year. It is a common plague among adolescents, of which adults often reach distant echoes. This workshop started with an initiative promoted at school on the Internet Safer Day on 11 February. Signs were scattered throughout the school with generic questions referring to the phenomenon of bullying and cyberbullying, and then the last day themed posters were posted. It was a project created by the Istituto Comprensivo Riccardo Massa of Milan. Figure 8. Poster from the campaign against bullism at school created by the Istituto Comprensivo Riccardo Massa of Milan.

The campaign was therefore the subject of journalistic analysis by the students of the blog who carried out a series of video interviews with the kids on the issues brought up by the signs. A situation of bullying emerged during one of these interviews. A student who was the victim of teasing by her classmates told her experience. These episodes were not particularly serious, but it emerged the girl’s malaise, the difficulty of talking about it with adults, the feeling of being wrong. A situation that did not emerge in traditional didactic moments. Of course, teachers who organized class activities faced the problem, while they preferred not to publish the recorded video to safeguard the protagonist. However, it was interest-

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ing to see how a situation the girl had never talked about emerged immediately behind a camera. Once again, we are faced with the different way young people communicate compared to adults. Today, for young people, being behind a media is the easiest way to tell about themselves. However, it was not the first time we talked about bullying at school. In fact, the workshop editorial office of the year 2018-19 had worked the previous year on the creation of a social spot on the problem, in which three situations of bullying set within the school had emerged. Students had reasoned about how they could have been contrasted. The two videos mentioned have become important material both to talk about the phenomenon in classrooms and in general to be able to present and analyse the phenomenon more in depth within training courses for school teachers. Figure 9. Social spot against bullism

To conclude another interesting project carried out by the students of the Communication 2.0 workshop of the school year 2019-20 was that of documentation and analysis of the school at the time of the lockdown due to the Covid-19 pandemic. February 27, 2019 was the last day of traditional school in Milan. The pupils said goodbye that day at the end of the lessons without knowing that they would not see each other again in those classrooms until the end of the year. The closure of the school for a week was a news positively welcomed by the pupils at the beginning. After the first moment of enthusiasm, they realized how much was being lost, in terms of sociability, of relationship with teachers and classmates, etc. It was not an easy time for the school that had to invent a new way of teaching with a thousand questions and a thousand doubts, always trying to play a role as reassuring as possible towards pupils and families.

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The new pandemic that broke out at the end of 2019 placed everyone in the need to understand what was happening and to look for elements of positivity and hope in a very difficult situation. We tried to find the beauty in the little things that could be done at home, to forge stronger bonds with cohabitants, to enjoy the effects of closure on the environment, etc. Certainly it was a particular historical moment that put us in a position to understand the transience of existence and therefore the important values of our life. Faced with this exceptionality, the importance of establishing a testimony that could last over time immediately emerged. Therefore we decided not to neglect the communication workshop adapting it to the objective difficulties that emerged. We tried, then, to keep a fixed appointment with the editorial staff through live video meetings in which we tried to understand how to tell what was happening. The students used the backstage of the blog to publish articles and their mobile phone became the camera through which reality is experienced. This resulted in some interviews published in the school newspaper with parents managing the situation, in particular one with a hospital doctor parent and the other with a university teacher parent. Some news programs rigorously prepared remotely were also interesting. They included services that documented life at home: a service dedicated to distance learning with direct testimonies from pupils, one on the management of free time at home, one on creative ways invented by students to play sports at home and the last on the growth of time devoted to video games. In addition to the editorial staff, many other students participated by sending their short videos on the chosen topic edited for the realization of the service. Figure 10. TG Puecher connexed from home during pandemy

Kids were thus able to focus their attention on the positive things that could be grasped in the difficulty of the moment and at the same time they left testimonies that could be used in the coming years to remember this moment and the things learned. Students have shown that they are autonomous in the production of their materials. The teachers followed them only during live editorial meetings or by answering their questions on WhatsApp. In addition, the chain of collaboration between students has been particularly valuable. In fact, everyone contributed to requesting material and disseminating the

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information needed to produce it. The great work done by the students was possible thanks to a secret ingredient: their enthusiasm, a powerful charge capable of directly supplying even the teachers who want to guide them.

CONCLUSION At the end of the work carried out annually by the students, it is worth finding space for a moment of discussion to stimulate metacognition on the skills acquired. It is possible to do this in written form, possibly as the last article of the newspaper, but also in a debate-confrontation during the last lesson. It is in fact important to put the children in a position to reflect on what they have learned. The aim of the Communication workshop, as said at the beginning, is not so much to bring children closer to a profession in this area as to make them more aware users. The students will have learned to read the reality that surrounds them through the production of content on it. They will have learned to ask themselves questions in order to read things more critically, to look for data to support their statements and, at the same time, to be wary of those who make high-sounding statements without any supporting data. They will have understood that each message is aimed at a particular target and, in order to reach it in the best possible way, it uses the language and channels appropriate for the purpose, whether it is information or advertising. They will also have learned that knowing how to argue an idea through supporting data and a good knowledge of the topic makes them good commentators of any content, without having to use hate speech and indeed wary of those who have no arguments and comment insulting. They will know how to ask themselves if that offensive message explains why it disagrees with the previous one and if it is therefore worth considering. Furthermore, the use of various media will have made them flexible in the field of communication, capable of distinguishing, which is the best medium to provide a certain content and how the various media should be read. An important result will also be related to awareness in the management of one’s sensitive data on the network. Finally, another interesting goal that the PuecherInside communication workshop has achieved over the years has been to discover and develop talents in communication areas, which is fundamental in relation to the guiding role that the school must have at all levels. In fact, over the years there have been particularly brilliant pupils in journalistic writing, others very good in the production of images or photos, others perfectly at ease in front of a camera or extremely creative in video editing. These are skills that the students were not always fully aware of, but in the workshop they emerged very strongly and found suitable ground to grow and mature. The experience described in this chapter is that of a lower secondary school, however journalism and communication at school is certainly possible at all levels of school. In fact, in the last three years the PuecherInside workshop has expanded to interface with the primary school of the Comprehensive Institute organizing lessons in the fifth classes aimed at forming primary school press offices. We organized two-hour meetings in the various classes where the press office activity was presented, inviting pupils to produce press releases on the activities of their school. The children involved in the project welcomed the proposal very well, so much so that during the year several Press Releases were produced and sent to secondary school journalists to obtain articles regarding them. The idea was born to create a link between the two schools, but the success of the project shows that a communication path even on

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a wider scale with younger pupils is certainly possible. As far as secondary school is concerned, it is certainly possible to obtain interesting results. There are two important aspects to make the activity stimulating for teachers as well. First of all, the fact that, as already mentioned, a workshop of this kind, by breaking up the classic teacher-student relationship, becomes an extraordinary opportunity for teachers to keep up to date. Working with them using applications and online social networks and talking about topics that concern them very closely creates a very strong relationship. It is also interesting to discover that the technology teacher who is curious about technology and who has not particularly in-depth skills in this field is simply someone who opens doors for them about the use of apps or technological possibilities in which they will soon become much more experienced. The fact of showing them how an editing program works, for example, often becomes simply a starting point and then you can learn much more from them than you knew in the beginning. Very often, in fact, during this workshop it happens that it is the children who teach the teacher. This reversal of roles in which they are the ones to provide new computer knowledge to a teacher recognized as a reference point in this area within the school, makes them more self-confident, curious, eager to get involved and creates a particular relationship of trust between students and teachers that develops through working side by side. It is also interesting for the teacher that a workshop of this type is always in progress. In fact, the steps that have been added to the initial project over the years have been described in the previous paragraphs. Every school year, welcoming the input of new students and also of colleagues who want to improve on the experience, new ideas are born. During the last year, for example, we tried the production of written and video content in English and plans are being made to expand this idea in the near future through participation in international cooperation projects through the e-Twinning platform. Of course, the key to a successful project is enthusiasm. If the teacher wants to experiment and get involved with the kids, she doesn’t need in-depth skills in communication or technology, she will learn over time alongside the students.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This project couldn’t be realized without the volunteer cooperation of many helpers: Giovanna Mezzatesta and from september 2019 Anna Teresa Ferri, headmasters in Istituto Giuseppina Pizzigoni in Milan, great supporters of Puecherinside’s Project. Maurizio Ceresoli, teacher who cooperates in lessons about web security. Susanna Di Pasquale, Francesco Collura, Simona Lezzi, Maria Rinaldi, Marcello Mattioli, Paola Piras, Benedetta Marasco, teachers who cooperates in Puecherinside project. Paola Piras, teacher who translates this work. Francesca Pinnelli, ex student very talented in editing video who continues to cooperate in this project. All the students and their parents who have followed PuecherInside in all these years.

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REFERENCES Blog Puecher’s School Channel. (n.d.). https://www.youtube.com/channel/UClRrjQ-_W1FsXOXMC7DZtDg Blog Puecher’s School Page on Facebook. (n.d.). https://it-it.facebook.com/PuecherInside-148211481940634/ Dewey, J. (1984). Esperienza e Educazione [Experience and Education]. La Nuova Italia. Granic, I., Lobel, A., & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2014). The benefits of playing video games. The American Psychologist, 69(1), 66–78. doi:10.1037/a0034857 PMID:24295515 Griffiths, M. D., & Davies, M. N. O. (2005). Videogame addiction: Does it exist? Handbook of Computer Game Studies. MIT Press. Hobbs, R. (2017). Create to learn. Wiley Blackwell. Inchiesta videogiochi [Videogame’s inquiry]. (n.d.). https://puecherinside.com/2017/02/06/inchiestavideogiochi/ Intervista a un medico [Interview with a doctor]. (n.d.). https://puecherinside.com/2020/05/14/intervistaa-un-medico/ Johnson, R., & Johnson, D. (1996). Apprendimento cooperativo in classe [Cooperative learning in classroom]. Erikson. Lamonaca, S. (2017). Communication 2.0 at school. In Handbook of Research on Collaborative Teaching Practice in Virtual Learning Environments. IGI Global. Lamonaca, S. (2020). Competenze digitali per una rielaborazione creativa multimodale [Digital skills for a multimodal creative reworking]. In Animazione digitale per la didattica [Digital animation for teaching]. Franco Angeli. Laufer, P. (2014). Slow News: A Manifesto for the Critical News Consumer. U. Press. Lipschultz, J. H. (2017). Social Media Communication. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315388144 Mininni, T. (2012). Marketing to Kids While Partnering with Parents. http://www.designforceinc.com/ marketing-to-kids Newman, N., Fletcher, R., Schulz, A., Andi, S., & Nielsen, K. R. (2020). Digital News Report. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. No al bullismo [No to bullying]. (n.d.). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H2FU5lPNIfI&feature=y outu.be Pegan, G. (2009). Marketing e giovanissimi: un’indagine esplorativa sul coinvolgimento nel consumo e pubblicità nel segmento dei tweeagers [Marketing and the very young: an exploratory survey on the involvement in consumption and advertising in the tweeagers segment]. In Mercati e Competitività [Markets and competitiveness]. Franco Angeli.

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Perkinsons, H. G. (1971). The possibilities of error. D. McKay Company. Picton, I., Clarkand, C., & Judge, T. (2020). Video game playing and literacy: a survey of young people aged 11 to 16. American Psycologist National Literacy Trust. https://literacytrust.org.uk/research-services/ research-reports/video-game-playing-and-literacy-survey-young-people-aged-11-16/ PuecherT. G. (n.d.). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I9bRmyWwapw Puechernside sul Giorno [Puecherinside on Il Giorno]. (n.d.). https://puecherinside.com/2018/05/19/ puecherinside-sul-giorno/ Ranieri, M., Fabbro, F., & Nardi, A. (2019). La media education nella scuola multiculturale [Media education in the multicultural school]. Edizioni ETS. Roncaglia, G. (2018). L’età della frammentazione [The age of fragmentation]. Laterza. Rumiati, R.I., Checchi, D., Ancaiani, A., Ciolfi, A., Sabella, M., Infurna M.R., Di Benedetto, A. (2019). Il problem solving come competenza trasversale [Problem solving as a transversal competence]. Inquadramento e prospettive nell’ambito del progetto TECO [Framework and perspectives within the TECO project]. Trua, T. (2016). Dipendenza da Internet, analisi di un fenomeno in crescita [Internet addiction, analysis of a growing phenomenon]. Bit Biblos.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Communication 2.0: This definition identifies a communication lab at school where students use tool from Web 2.0, which emphasize user-generated content, usability (ease of use, even by non-experts), and interoperability (this means that a tool can work well with other products, systems and devices) for end users. Gambling Addiction: Is an urge to gamble continuously despite harmful negative consequences or a desire to stop. Istituto Rinnovata Pizzigoni: Historic Primary and Secondary school in Milan, founded in 1911 by the pedagogue Giuseppina Pizzigoni. She primarily based her teaching method on direct experience of reality. Journalism: The activity or profession of writing for newspapers, magazines, or news websites or preparing news to be broadcast. Media Education: The process of teaching and learning about media by means of critical thinking. Puecherinside: The name of all the products created in the Communication 2.0 project at Istituto Rinnovata Pizzigoni. Social Skills: The personal skills needed for successful social communication and interaction.

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Effects of Virtual Reality Learning Platforms on Usability and Presence:

Immersive vs. Non-Immersive Platform Murat Çoban Agri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey

ABSTRACT The effectiveness of the learning process in the virtual reality (VR) environment and the presence and immersion components of the VR environment are among the most important variables for students to feel as if they are part of the 3D environment and function in the environment. The objective of this chapter is to determine and compare the presence and usability levels of primary school students participating in VR environments with different immersion characteristics (immersive and non-immersive). According to the findings, there was no significant difference between immersive and non-immersive VR environments in terms of presence and usability. It was also determined that the level of presence of students in both groups did not vary depending on usability. The results are regarded to be useful to educators, researchers, and instructional designers who want to integrate VR technology into their educational environments.

INTRODUCTION Virtual reality (VR) is a trending topic that has become increasingly known in academia and industry in recent years (Guo et al., 2020). According to Burbules (2006, p. 37), VR can be defined as a 3D, interactive and computer-aided simulation environment that allows the user to act as if they are in an external world, and can appeal to more than one sense. VR is an interactive environment that perceives the user’s position and actions, provides feedback to one or more of their senses, and enables them to be mentally present in the real world in the simulation environment (Sherman & Craig, 2003, pp: 13). DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch011

Copyright © 2021, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Effects of Virtual Reality Learning Platforms on Usability and Presence

It is predicted that this technology, which is foreseen to be a sub-field of computer technologies in the near future, will be widely used in education with many different disciplines such as gaming, aviation, medicine, and psychology (Cipresso et al. 2018). In particular, VR is expected to be widely used in classrooms and adopted by educators and students in the next two or three years (Freeman, Becker, & Cummins, 2017). Some meta-analysis results support this situation (Chauhan, 2017; Merchant et al., 2014) because it is stated that with a sharp increase in the rate of application and software developed for VR technologies, the cost of this technology is also in a constant tendency to decrease (Jang & Park, 2019). In addition, according to current systematic research on VR, it is emphasized that the education category is among the most popular areas where VR is used (Radianti, Majchrzak, Fromm & Wohlgenannt, 2020). Based on these developments, technologies such as VR are shaping the future of education by constantly creating new tools and platforms in students’ learning experience in a modern world with opportunities to create innovations (Harfouche & Nakhle, 2020). In the VR environment, students are immersed in a realistic environment in which they can imitate the real things, explore, interact, and modify objects in the environment through their avatars representing themselves (Jensen & Konradsen, 2018). Students are able to feel the presence of objects in the VR environment more like the real world, receive instant feedback from the tutorials, and experience the feeling of being in a real environment (Monahan, McArdle & Bertolotto, 2008). Environments presented in the VR environment can be representative of real places or can be presented to users as completely fictitious environments. For instance, entering up to the nucleus of an atom or moving around on the surface of a star, such as the sun, are actions that cannot be explained or performed by real-life physics rules. However, the user can interact with objects, move, communicate verbally or nonverbally with other users, create objects, and even play games in the designed VR environment (Zinchenko et al., 2020). Siegle (2019) also points out similar features of VR. In particular, he claims that VR allows users to experience and feel environments in which they are not physically present. Lau and Lee (2015) observed that, according to a study they conducted, students were largely involved in the learning process while in the VR environment. Based on their research findings, they noted that learning activities in the VR environment are exploratory and fun. Thus, they underlined that students could be motivated to explore new ideas through the unique features of the VR environment. In this context, VR technologies are realtime and interactive technology that goes beyond textbooks and allows the development of flexible and appropriate learning strategies (Chung, 2012). VR technology, which is seen as a 3D environment above technologies such as computer screen, interactive whiteboards, virtual world, games or simulation, is regarded as an interesting and interactive environment that increases the efficiency of the learning process in schools and universities and enables students to keep up with the technological developments of the new day (Merchant et al., 2014; Zinchenko et al., 2020). By using some of the attraction of using virtual simulations and games in learning environments based on VR systems, learning activities can become more enjoyable and motivating (Vogel et al., 2006). Such environments provide users with a high degree of autonomy and allow users to perform actions in an environment where they can perform their abilities (Slater & Sanchez-Vives, 2016). Unlike other environments, the VR environment enables students and educators to participate directly in the environment rather than using the environment. To this end, it is advocated that students in the VR environment can learn more easily through exploration and repetitive practices (Dawley & Dede, 2014). In order for learning activities in the VR environment to reach their objectives, activities that will enable students to perceive the VR environment as a real experience should be designed (Silva, Donat, Rigoli, de Oliveira & Kristensen, 2016). That the students feel as if they are part of the VR environment, 237

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and their participation in activities within the environment can be achieved with a feeling of immersion and presence (Passing, Tzuriel & Eshel-Kedmi, 2016). Vesisenaho et al. (2019) claim that the most important advantage of a VR learning environment is that it evokes feelings of presence and immersion in users. Because of the immersive nature of virtual reality, it is emphasized that it is easier for users to engage in learning states emotionally and, consequently, cognitively process learning materials in depth (Vesisenaho et al., 2019). In fact, the VR theory is based on the components of immersion and presence (Jensen & Konradsen, 2018). It is also argued that the level of these components is of critical importance in the interaction process of users in the VR environment (Meyer, Omdahl, & Makransky, 2019). Furthermore, the role of teachers is important in terms of the effective use of VR technologies in the learning process and their integration into classrooms (Ausburn & Ausburn 2004; Horne & Thompson, 2008). In this context, teachers are an important variable in the process of students performing a specific learning task in VR environment. Because some researchers emphasize that there is an important relationship between task performance to be performed in VR environment and presence (Ellis, 1996; Welch, 1999). As a result, teachers’ perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, knowledge and skills about technology to be used in the classroom are important in the process of students’ performing a certain task (Hew & Brush, 2007; Ertmer et al., 2012). However, within the scope of this section, students’ perceptions of presence and usability towards VR technologies are examined rather than teachers. This chapter primarily defines the concepts of immersion, presence, and usability. Then, in the literature, the technological features of VR environments with different immersion features (immersive and non-immersive) are examined. Finally, the presence and usability levels of VR environments developed within the scope of the research are discussed based on comparisons of them. In addition, it is researched whether the presence levels of students who use VR environments vary depending on the usability level of the environments.

BACKGROUND Immersion and Presence Immersion is defined as the sensitivity level of the sensory features offered to users by VR systems, while presence is considered as the subjective psychological reactions of users to the virtual environment (Slater, 1999). In other words, presence is an individual user response to the virtual environment. Immersion, on the other hand, is described as a set of technological features that provide a sense of reality to users by abstracting the richness, resolution, and panoramic view of the users from other physical realities in the environment (Slater, 2018). Consequently, immersion is considered as technological characteristics of VR systems to provide users with a sense of reality (Radianti, Majchrzak, Fromm, & Wohlgenannt, 2020). VR technologies offer users three different systems in terms of immersion features (Buttussi & Chittaro, 2018): Desktop-based VR, HMD (head-mounted display) based VR, and CAVE (cave automatic virtual environment) based VR. Desktop-based VR is defined as a VR system in which users can interact with the virtual environment using a keyboard, mouse, game console, or a touch screen (Lee & Wong, 2014). HMD-based VR is a VR system that monitors the user’s head direction through these glasses and, in some cases, position, by mounting a two-LCD screen eyeglass-like device that is fixed according to the user’s eye position (Santos et al., 2009). CAVE is a projection based VR system (Sherman & Craig, 238

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2003). In this system, the user is disconnected from the real outside environment, and his audiovisual perception is completely integrated into the virtual environment, allowing him to experience the virtual environment. In this context, HMD or CAVE-based VR systems have a higher capacity in terms of providing immersion to users. In contrast, it is emphasized that desktop VR systems have a lower capacity (non-immersive) in terms of immersion (Meyer, Omdahl, & Makransky, 2019). It is also argued that VR systems with immersion are more advantageous in terms of ensuring the presence of participants than desktop VR systems (Micropoulos & Natsis, 2011). For this reason, an HMD-based VR system (HTC Vive), which has an immersion feature and is less costly than the CAVE system, was preferred in this study.

Usability Usability, a key concept in human-computer interaction, is based on the relationship between tools and the users. Usability means that the intended users for a tool to work must be able to use the tool effectively (Schultheis, Rebimbas, Mourant, & Millis, 2007). Usability can be considered as the quality of a tool that facilitates learning, is easy to use, easy to remember, tolerant to error, and subjectively pleasing (Usability, 2020). According to another definition, usability can be defined as the capacity of an application to be used easily and effectively in a series of scenarios to fulfill certain tasks with special support and training provided by a certain group of users (Shackel, 1984). In summary, the term generally expresses how well users can use the functionality of the system (Nielsen, 1993). In this context, products with high usability have features that are efficient, effective, satisfying the user, easy to learn and remember, and take a series of precautions against making mistakes (Cagiltay, 2017). When evaluated in terms of education and learning, usability is considered to be an important factor affecting educational effectiveness (Di Gironimo et al., 2013). Considering the use of VR environments for educational purposes, it is crucial to assess the usability of VR environments designed within the scope of the study. It is also important that the developed VR environments are adopted and welcomed by the students. This is because there may be no point in using these environments for educational purposes unless they are content or loved by students (Virvou & Katsionis, 2008). As a result, in assessing the quality of VR environments, the usability of the developed VR environment, together with the ability to provide a sense of usability (Sutcliffe & Gault, 2004), is important in the effectiveness of the learning process.

Previous Studies In the literature, it is seen that experimental studies comparing iVR and non-iVR environments in terms of usability and presence variables are very limited. However, there are some experimental studies comparing iVR and non-iVR environments in terms of different variables. Details of the studies comparing these environments are summarized under some titles in Table 1.

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Table 1. Some studies comparing Immersive and Non-Immersive VR environments Study

Discipline

Purpose of the research

Sample

Study result

Lee et al., 2020

Education

The study aims to report student experiences in two undergraduate courses (Understanding Pharmacology and Therapeutics and Ecotourism) in which educators apply the iVR and non-iVR environments.

Mahmoud et al., 2020

Education

The aim of this study is to compare the effect of the iVR environment and the non-iVR environment on students’ learning outcomes.

Video Gaming Industry

The aim of the study is to compare the usability, emotional response, game performance, and presence levels of users playing games in iVR and non-iVR environments.

24 undergraduate students aged 18-35

It was determined that there was no statistically significant difference between iVR and non-iVR conditions in terms of usability and performance scores of the participants. However, it was revealed that playing games in the screen modality of the iVR environment is related to people’s perceptions of selfhappiness and surprise experiences and that the iVR environment has a higher potential in providing the perceived sense of presence.

Education

This study aims to investigate age-related differences in the use of iVR and non-iVR platforms for memory assessment. In the study, elderly groups and young adults completed a virtual supermarket shopping task using non-iVR, and iVR platforms, and their level of recall was compared by the environments.

Elderly (36 people) and young (25 people) participants

Results showed that the elderly performed superior when using the iVR platform. It was also observed that the ability of young adults to remember a shopping list remains constant regardless of the platform used. These results may mean that iVR technology is well accepted among the elderly. These findings may support an inference that iVR is used more in cognitive assessment and improvement.

Leder et al., 2019

Security Education

The aim of this study is to compare the effects of safety education provided in iVR and non-iVR environments on risk perception, learning, and risky choices.

53 undergraduate students with an average age of 18

As a result of the study, it was observed that the iVR environment did not differ significantly compared to the other environment. It was emphasized that the non-iVR environment could be preferred in terms of cost.

Ventura. et al., 2019

Learning

This study aims to evaluate and compare learning activities performed in iVR and non-iVR environments in terms of memory.

42 undergraduate students

According to the results, the iVR platform showed stronger memory performance in the long run.

Food Research

The aim of this study is to investigate whether the use of iVR technology in a virtual simulation store improves the perceived presence and usability of users compared to traditional desktop technology.

111 participants (undergraduate students and university staff)

Results showed that the participants in the iVR group interacted more naturally with the store environment and were more immersed than participants in the desktop group. Both factors (surroundings and naturalness) potentially caused an increase in the participants’ perception of presence. In addition, it was emphasized that the visual realism of virtual products and the control capabilities of the iVR tools of the product review process can be improved.

Education

The aim of this study is to investigate whether there is a difference between the motivations of the students playing in iVR and non-iVR environments.

60 high school students

It was concluded that the iVR environment motivated students more than the non-iVR environment. In addition, it was emphasized that iVR environments can be a powerful tool in the digital game-based learning process.

37 undergraduate students

The results revealed that students participating in both iVR and non-iVR environments after the simulation activities showed a significant change and improvement in their understanding of conceptual models and the nature of relative motion. In addition, it was observed that the iVR environment is more successful than the other environment in solving twodimensional questions. Overall, the results showed that the iVR environment can facilitate understanding of abstract scientific phenomena and help replace intuitive misconceptions with more accurate mental models.

21 children aged 6-11

The results showed that the measured task execution times (travel and object creation) did not consistently differ by the platform. Object creation activity took longer in the iVR environment, while the travel task took longer in the non-iVR environment. Hearing status was an important factor in both settings for some activities. In addition, the iVR environment was evaluated as significantly more fun than the non-iVR environment in all subjects.

Pallavicini, Pepe & Minissi, 2019

Plechatá et al., 2019

Schnack, Wright & Holdershaw, 2019

de Souza Silva et al., 2017

Kozhevnikov, Gurlitt & Kozhevnikov, 2013

Adamo-Villani & Wilbur, 2008

240

Science Education

The aim of this study is to investigate which unique features of the iVR environment have the potential to learn and develop relative motion concepts. Students learned the concepts of relative motion using simulation in iVR and non-iVR environment.

Education

The purpose of this study is to report the effects on usability and entertainment of a game developed for mathematics and science education of hearing-impaired students at the K-5 level on different VR platforms (iVR and non-iVR).

Undergraduate students

It was shown that both VR platforms are effective in increasing students’ awareness and knowledge.

Undergraduate students

As a result of the study, it was seen that the performances of the students using the iVR platform regarding learning outcomes were significantly higher than the other environment.

 Effects of Virtual Reality Learning Platforms on Usability and Presence

Some studies in the field argue that the immersion feature of VR environments has an effect on the presence (Micropoulos & Natsis, 2011; Meyer, Omdahl, & Makransky, 2019; Servotte et al., 2020). For example, the wealth of sensors addressing sensory organs in the VR environment was noted to be effective in the perception of presence (Kim, Jeon & Kim, 2017). Some scholars point out that providing voice feedback to users in the iVR environment and ease of navigation are effective in ensuring the presence of users (Jelfs & Whitelock, 2000). In addition, it is stated that the interaction and presence level of the user in the environment can have an effect on the immersion feeling, as well as the interaction can have an effect on the presence (Mütterlein, 2018). Klein (2003) emphasizes that the control and media variety offered to the users in the VR environment contribute to the provision of presence, and argues that the characteristics of these environments affect the cognitive responses of the users. The media variety mentioned here is defined as the set of formal features that the media item used in the virtual environment contains to send information to the senses of the users (Steuer, 1992, p. 75). Additionally, considering that we use our five senses in our real-world experiences, it is stated that the number of sensors offered by the VR environment is related to the number of sensory channels that can interact (Klein, 2003). In this regard, it is argued that a large number of sensors in the VR environment is directly proportional to the possibility of providing a sense of immersion and presence (Lombard & Ditton, 1997). Therefore, in many disciplines, the fact that VR environments offer more immersion features strengthens the assumption of providing more presence levels (Kalyanaraman, Penn, Ivory & Judge, 2010; Ahn & Bailenson, 2011). While it is emphasized that the technological features and sensor richness offered to users by virtual environments such as VR have an important effect in the process of providing presence (Ivory & Kalyanaraman, 2007), it is also suggested that the individual characteristics of the users can also be effective in this process (Weech, Kenny, & Barnett-Cowan, 2019). For instance, Thornson et al. (2009) argue that individual characteristics such as the user’s cognitive involvement in the VR environment, spatial orientation regarding the environment, the state of being immersed as a psychological feature, the ability to create a mental model and empathize are important variables in the process of experiencing the VR environment. Hence, they underlined that these characteristics are related to ability and affect the presence variable (Smith-Jentsch et al., 2001; Uhm et al., 2019). Moreover, different people may react differently to the same system and consequently have a different perception of presence (Bowman & McMahan, 2007). On the other hand, some researchers indicate that immersion is not effective on the presence (Gromer et al., 2018). To this end, the immersion feature has little effect on presence in a meta-analysis study (Cummings & Bailenson, 2016). It is also argued that low-immersive environments such as desktop VR can be effective in providing users with presence (Lee, Wong, & Fung, 2010; Dubovi, Levy & Dagan, 2017). When evaluated in terms of usability, it was found in some research that the usability of iVR environments is close to the usability levels of desktop or non-iVR environments (Schnack, Wright & Holdershaw, 2019). In fact, according to the results of a study investigating the usability of the Nintendo Wii Fit Plus environment from non-iVR technologies, it is emphasized that the usability of the relevant VR platform is quite high (Meldrum et al., 2012). In another study, the usability of a non-iVR game developed for educational purposes was investigated. Although it was emphasized that the game developed according to the results was enjoyable and usable, it was emphasized that there were some usability problems (Virvou & Katsionis, 2008). For example, the game contained some design elements that distracted the user, and less experienced users faced problems related to moving around the environment and the user interface. In parallel with this situation, Goncalves (2005) argues that previous computer knowledge or 241

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experience can reduce users’ perceptions of presence in the virtual environment and that there is a strong relationship between usability and presence. Micropoulos (2006) emphasizes that students completed learning tasks in the iVR environment more easily and successfully than the projection-based VR system projected onto the wall by using a head-mounted screen with their egocentric representation models. Adamo-Villani and Wilbur (2008) also suggested that virtual object construction takes longer in an iVR environment, but a travel-related task takes longer if it is in a desktop VR or non-iVR environment. Usability in this context affects the interaction experience in VR environments, and the interaction process affects learning outcomes (Micropoulos & Natsis, 2011). In light of this information, it is important to investigate the immersion, presence, and usability components of VR platforms. Besides, the past literature emphasizes that studies on these components are quite limited (Meyer, Omdahl, & Makransky, 2019; Schnack, Wright & Holdershaw, 2019; Servotte et al., 2020). Further research into these important components of VR platforms is significant for the optimization of these environments and their effectiveness in education. The objective of this study is to compare the presence levels of students using iVR and non-iVR environments and the usability levels of the environments. Accordingly, research questions are formulated as follows: 1. Is there a significant difference between the levels of presence of the participants who experienced iVR and non-iVR environments? 2. Is there a significant difference between the system usability levels of iVR and non-iVR environments? 3. Does the perception of presence differ depending on usability?

METHOD Research Design In this study, a control group post-test quasi-experimental research design was used from quantitative research methods (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010). The control group post-test quasi-experimental design is defined as a design that controls all potential threats for internal validity, as in the quasi-experimental design with the pretest-posttest control group, as it includes a control group and participants are randomly assigned to the groups (Johnson & Christensen, 2019). No pre-test was needed in this study because it is aimed to measure the participants’ perception of presence and the usability levels of the environments in specifically defined virtual reality learning environments (iVR and non-iVR). Furthermore, the students involved in the research process did not receive any prior training on the content of the learning offered.

Sample 63 secondary school eighth-grade students, 32 girls, and 31 boys, aged 10-12, were included in the study. Participants were selected from a secondary school located in one of Turkey’s eastern provinces. Participants were determined using the purposive sampling method (Patton, 2002). This method was chosen because it is low cost and suitable for this research design, and the sampling process takes less time (Malhotra & Birks, 2000). Participants did not have any prior experience with an iVR-based learning environment. However, they have no non-iVR experiences. All of the participants took part in the study voluntarily. 30 participants (Female: 16, Male: 14) constitute the experimental group, and 33 242

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participants (Female: 16, Male: 17) constitute the control group of this study. The experimental group made applications in the iVR learning environment (via HTC Vive VR platform) and the control group in the non-iVR based learning environment (via desktop VR or non-iVR).

Tools In the iVR application process, the HTC Vive VR glasses set (1 headset, 2 sensors, 2 hand control tools, computer input connections, and LCD interconnection cables), a computer that meets the minimum hardware requirements for the operation of the VR glasses, an LCD screen, and a room of 5m×5m with an average temperature of 25o degree were used. The headset of the glasses weighs 550 grams. The glasses show a 3D environment with two OLED screens (1080 × 1200 pixels per eye, 90 Hertz) with a 100 × 110 degrees field of view. Participants controlled the iVR environment with a standard handheld HTC Vive controller. Images of the activities of the participants were viewed on an LCD television. A computer lab was used for the non-iVR environment. The laboratory, consisting of all in one type of computers, has met the optimum requirements for the operation of VR content. Computers also have onboard speakers.

Application Process The VR environment was developed using the Unity 3D game engine and Steam VR software (Unity 3D, 2020; Steam VR, 2020). For the environment, the planets in the Milky Way galaxy were attempted to be simulated. In our real world, it is a highly risky and almost impossible action to see and interact with the atmosphere, surface structure, and physical properties of other planets other than Earth. However, VR allows users to navigate these planets in a virtual environment, see surface shapes, and gain different experiences. In addition, with the teleport component of Steam VR software, users have the opportunity to move between planets and view the environment from different angles using their own controllers. Graphics, models, sounds, and animations for planets in the environment developed by the researcher were obtained from Unity 3D library. In order for participants to interact with the environment, downloaded objects were manipulated, animations were added, encoded, and adapted to the environment. The VR environment was developed over a period of about two months. The same learning content was used in both environments during the application process. However, participants in the iVR environment have experienced the learning environment using the HTC Vive device. Students who were involved in the non-iVR environment participated in the learning environment using desktop computers. Figure 2 shows some students experiencing iVR and non-iVR environments.

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Figure 1. Some users experiencing VR environments

In both environments, a participant student’s experience of the relevant environment took approximately 5-7 minutes. A technician in the practice room helped students with how to install and use the HTC Vive attachments. The application process was completed in about three hours. The students who completed the application process also filled in the presence, and system usability scale (SUS), and the process was finalized.

Data Collection Tools In appendix, the presence scale developed by Witmer, Jerome, and Singer (2005) and adapted to Turkish by Gokoglu and Cakiroglu (2019) was used to determine the presence levels of the participants. As a result of the adaptation, it was stated that the Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient of the scale, which consists of 29 items with five-point Likert type questions, is α = .844. According to the data obtained within the scope of the research, the Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient was found to be α= .823. In this context, the scale is quite reliable (Field, 2013). The scale measures a 5-factor structure about presence. These factors are involvement (Inv.), adaptation/immersion (AI), sensory fidelity (SF), interaction (Int.), and interface quality (IQ). Each item in the scale is scored between 1 and 5. 1 point given to the

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items in the scale is defined as “never,” 2 points as “bad,” 3 points as “medium,” 4 points as “good,” and 5 points as “very good.” In appendix, the SUS, developed by Brook (1996) and adapted into Turkish by Demirkol and Seneler (2018), was used to measure the usability level of VR environments. The scale, which is based on an experimental approach, is simple, fast, less costly, can be used individually, and allows a general evaluation at the end of the application. The reliability and validity of the five-point Likert-type scale were evaluated, and it was found to have good reliability and validity. In this context, the Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient of the SUS scale consisting of 10 items, was found as α = .80. The SUS reduces the overall usability level of the system under test to a single result. To calculate the SUS score, the scores for each item are added first. The score contributed by each item varies between 0 and 4. Scoring for items 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 is calculated with the formula “Scale position-1”. For items no 2, 4, 6, and 8, scoring is calculated with the formula “5-scale position”. The sum of the scores is multiplied by 2.5 to find the total value of system usability. As a result, the overall score of the SUS is determined between 0 and 100. As the usability value approaches 100, the usability of the relevant tool or system increases. In Figure 2, there is a rating scale that expresses what the general usability value obtained from the SUS scale means. Figure 2. Ratings of the mean of the SUS scores and comparison values regarding the acceptability of the overall SUS score (Bangor, Kortum & Miller, 2008).

This scaling method means that at least not bad products have SUS scores above 70, and products that score from 70 to over 80 are better. Truly superior products score better than 90. Products scoring below 70 should be considered as candidates for further review and continuous improvement and should be considered marginal at best (Bangor, Kortum & Miller, 2008).

Data Analysis Quantitative data collected from participants were analyzed using SPSS 25 software. T-test, and two-way ANOVA analyses were used for the analysis of the data. The independent sample t-test is often used to compare the scores of two different study groups for one variable (Field, 2013). Therefore, the data on the perceived presence levels of the participants and the usability averages of VR systems were analyzed by conducting two separate t-tests. Two-way ANOVA analysis was used to examine the effect of two

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independent variables on one dependent variable. First, whether the data meet the assumptions of the t-test and two-way ANOVA analysis was tested. Kolmogorov Smirnov test was used from normality tests as the sample number was n > 50 (Field, 2013). In this context, the presence and usability variable is p = .20 for students in the iVR group and p = .21 students in the non-iVR group. It can be argued that data is normally distributed in line with this information (Hair, Black, Babin & Anderson, 2013). In addition, Leven’s Test for Equality of variations was used to test the homogeneity of variances. This test results showed that the variances of the presence and usability variables for both groups were homogeneous (p > .05). Consequently, the data obtained met the prerequisites for t-test and two-way ANOVA analysis. Table 2. Comparison of the groups in terms of presence Variable Presence

iVR

Non-iVR

M

SD

M

SD

3.81

.49

3.59

.68

F

t(61)

p

2.489

1.467

.148

F

t(61)

p

.292

.404

.688

Table 3. Comparison of usability levels of VR environments Variable Usability

iVR

Non-iVR

M

SD

M

SD

68.33

12.68

66.89

15.33

Figure 3. Comparison results regarding the acceptability of iVR and non-iVR systems

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Table 4. Results regarding the perception of presence depending on usability Perceived presence

Type II Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

µ2

p

Corrected Model

3.974a

20

.199

1.087

.397

.341

Intercept

503.742

1

503.742

2755.677

.000

.985

System Usability

3.974

20

.199

1.087

.397

.341

Error

7.678

42

.183

Note. a: R2 = .341 (Adj. R2 = .027) for perceived presence.

FINDINGS Presence Levels of Participants Experiencing iVR and Non-iVR Environments Descriptive statistics and t-test analyzes were carried out to determine whether there was a significant difference in terms of presence among the study groups. The results regarding the presence levels of the study groups are presented as in Table 2. When Table 2 is examined, it is seen that there is a difference in favor of the iVR group in terms of presence among the study groups. In this respect, it was found that the average value of the students in the iVR group was higher than the students in the non-iVR group. T-test analysis results were used to test whether the difference was significant or not. According to the t-test results presented in Table 2, it was conducted that there was no significant difference between the groups [t(61) = 1.467, p > .05].

System Usability Levels of iVR and Non-iVR Environments Descriptive statistics and t-test analyzes were used to determine whether there is any difference in the usability of VR environments used by the study groups. The results regarding the usability levels of iVR and non-iVR environments are presented in Table 3. When Table 3 is examined, it is seen that the average of the students in the iVR group regarding the usability level of the system is higher than the students in the non-iVR group. T-test analysis results were used to test whether the difference was significant or not. According to the t-test results presented in Table 3, there is no significant difference between VR systems in terms of usability [t(61) = .404, p > .05]. Comparison values regarding the acceptability of iVR and non-iVR systems are presented in Figure 3 (Bangor, Kortum & Miller, 2008). According to the values in Figure 3, which compares the usability results, it can be said that the usability levels of both iVR and non-iVR systems are close to good. However, it is necessary to acknowledge that they are among the candidate VR systems for further examination and improvement in both environments (Bangor, Kortum & Miller, 2008).

Does the Perception of Presence Differ by Usability? Two-way ANOVA analysis was used to determine whether the participants’ perceptions of presence differ bu the level of usability of the VR system they used. The results are presented in Table 4.

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When Table 4 is examined, it is seen that the p-value for the System Usability row for the perceived presence variable is greater than .05 [F(1,63) = 1.087, p = .397, p > .05]. These results show that the level of the perceived presence by the participants in iVR and non-iVR environments does not differ by the usability of the relevant VR systems.

DISCUSSION In this chapter, iVR and non-iVR environments were examined and compared in terms of presence and usability. According to the results, there was no significant difference between VR environments with regards to presence and usability. In fact, some research in the field paper suggests that the immersion feature of VR systems is not effective on the presence (Cummings & Bailenson, 2016; Gromer et al., 2018). Also, it was noted that environments such as non-iVR with low immersion capability can be effective in the process of ensuring presence (Lee, Wong, & Fung, 2010; Dubovi, Levy & Dagan, 2017). The results from this research show parallelism with the findings from these studies. Presence is the subjective responses of users to the relevant VR system individually (Slater, 1999). Considering this definition, it can be argued that individual characteristics are an important variable in the differentiation of participants’ presence levels because not everyone may react the same to the VR environment, they are in. In this context, individual responses may vary according to the technological features of the VR system used and the application designed for the environment. Therefore, it is seen that the variable of presence changes depending on three basic factors: individual, technological, and design. Technological-based factors mentioned here can be defined as reasons arising from the hardware that users use throughout the VR experience (Lin et al., 2001). Design-based factors, on the other hand, can be defined as the reasons arising from the characteristics of the design elements in the environment in the process of experiencing the VR environment (Viaud-Delmon et al., 2006). HTC Vive hardware used in the iVR environment within the scope of the study consists of a wired headset and two-hand control devices as technological features. Therefore, the user has to make his physical movements in a certain area in the process of experiencing the VR environment. This limitation due to the technological nature of the HTC Vive hardware may have negatively affected the level of users’ presence because some researchers emphasize that providing ease of movement in the environment during the VR experience process is effective in ensuring that users are present (Jelfs & Whitelock, 2000). In addition, it is stated that the excess of sensors that appeal to the sensory organs in VR environment is effective in the perceived presence of users (Kalyanaraman, Penn, Ivory & Judge, 2010; Ahn & Bailenson, 2011; Kim, Jeon & Kim, 2017). The iVR and non-iVR environments designed within the scope of this research have features that appeal only to the visual and auditory senses of the users. As a result, since both environments provide feedback for the same senses of the users in terms of technological features, there may be no significant difference between the presence levels of the users. Considering its technological features, participants in the iVR environment used the HTC Vive VR system for the first time. Therefore, they might have difficulties in the process of moving around using the headset and hand control devices. This situation may be another reason that affects their levels of presence (Balakrishnan & Sundar, 2011). In this regard, it is emphasized that the specific properties of VR systems are important antecedents of interaction experience (i.e., usability), affective (i.e., presence, perceived pleasure, and control) and cognitive (i.e., mental activities, reflective thinking) variables and affect learning outcomes (Lee et al., 2010). Moreover, it is argued that the quality of VR systems presenting images related to 248

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objects in the designed environment and the degree of reflection of reality according to temporal changes is important (Dalgarno, Hedberg & Harper, 2002). Finally, although not measured within the scope of the research, participants may be exposed to cybersickness in the iVR environment. Cybersickness can manifest itself with symptoms such as nausea, headache, or dizziness during the experience of the VR environment (Rupp et al., 2019). Therefore, the location of the participants in the iVR environment may have been affected depending on the technological feature of the HTC Vive VR system and the side effects of the VR environment. In terms of design, the interaction processes of users with design objects in VR environments may also have affected their presence because some studies underline that interaction with objects in the VR environment is an important variable (Mütterlein & Hess, 2017). It is strongly emphasized that the quality of sound and image presented to the participants as content, especially during the interaction process, can have an effect on the presence (Gutierrez, Vexo & Thalmann, 2008). It can be said that the fact that the visual and auditory elements in the designed 3D learning content provided a sense of reality and the participants were satisfied with this situation was effective in the high level of presence of the participants in both VR environments. The reason is that some researchers argue that the feeling of enjoying interacting with the virtual environment and the objects in the environment during the VR experience process increases the perception of presence (Larsson, Västfjäll & Kleiner, 2001). In this context, it is stressed that interaction and especially content quality play a key role in providing a presence in VR environments (Lee, Lee, Jeong & Oh, 2020). In addition, researchers recommend analyzing the interaction in VR experience to examine presence (Coelho et al., 2006). In some studies, scholars argue that participants who experience iVR environments may depend on the level of the content presented to reflect reality because it is pointed out that visual depth in the iVR environment has a positive relationship with the perception of presence (Welch et al., 1996). The depth quality of the visual elements related to the learning content designed within the scope of this research may have contributed to the high level of the perceived presence of the environment in both VR environments. However, participants’ perceptions of presence may also be affected depending on the response time of the HTC Vive system, especially during the process of experiencing the iVR environment. Response time can be considered as the wait time of the VR system to users’ actions in the VR environment. For example, the time between the user’s head movement in the iVR environment or the feedback presented by the system in the process of interacting with objects with the hand controller can be expressed as the response time. In this regard, it is stated that delays in response time negatively affect participants’ perception of presence and that the response time for the VR system is important to ensure presence (Welch et al., 1996). Developed learning content is designed in both environments so that users can move freely and explore the learning environment according to their own preferences. This may be another reason why participants’ perceptions of presence are high because some researchers in the field argue that there may be higher perceptions when users are given the ability to change the virtual environment they are in, to move freely in the environment, and to control objects (Dinh et al., 1999). Additionally, the opinions of the participants in the VR environment can also be said to have an effect on presence. Firstly, a wide field of view offers participants a more comprehensive and more remarkable field of visual movement. Secondly, unlike the field of view in the real world, images in the virtual world are less distracting. In this study, one reason why participants in both VR environments had a similar perception of presence was that their viewing angle was equal because users can better control objects in a VR environment by

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viewing them from different angles, and enjoy visual and functional control of objects using 3D image rotation options (Li et al., 2002; Jiang & Benbasat, 2004). Some researchers discuss that regardless of whether the VR system uses an immersive or non-immersive interface, the media content experienced by the user affects the perception of presence (Baños et al., 2004). The fact that the learning content presented in this study and the feedback and design features of the designed objects are the same in both VR environments can be shown as another reason for the participants’ presence levels to be similar. In addition to the learning content, it is stated that the perception of presence may be affected by the presence of virtual persons in VR environments. In this context, the presence of other people in the VR environment can increase the participants’ perceived presence (Heeter, 1992). The developed VR environment was designed as a single user environment. Accordingly, there was no communication or interaction with other users in the VR environment. This situation may have affected the participants’ perceptions of presence. In summary, it can be said that the participants’ perception of presence in the VR environment is affected by many factors and has a complex structure. To this end, the perception of presence is mainly influenced by the individual differences of the participants, the features of the VR technology used, and the features of the elements of the designed content. When evaluated in terms of usability, it was determined that the usability levels of both VR environments were close to good, and there was no significant difference between them. However, it is seen that they are among the candidate VR systems for further examination and improvement of environments (Bangor, Kortum & Miller, 2008). The results coincide with the findings of some researchers in the literature (Shelstad, Smith & Chaparro, 2017; Schnack, Wright & Holdershaw, 2019; Pallavicini, Pepe & Minissi, 2019). On the other hand, some studies emphasize that the usability level of non-iVR environments is higher (Meldrum, et al., 2012; Brade et al., 2017). The findings obtained from these studies contrast with the results of this study. In light of these results, it is thought that there may be many factors affecting usability (Lee, Wong & Fung, 2010). In some studies, usability is thought to depend on two basic factors, quality, and accessibility. In this sense, quality is regarded as the perceived benefit of the VR system, while accessibility defines the ease of use of the relevant VR system (Salzman et al., 1999). Participants in the iVR environment may have experienced usability problems due to the first time they used the HTC Vive tool (Goncalves, 2005). The fact that the participants in the non-iVR environment have previously experienced desktop VR environments can be considered as another factor in the emergence of similar results in terms of usability. Besides, some researchers emphasize that the age level of the people who experience the environment may be effective in the emergence of usability levels (Schultheis, Rebimbas, Mourant & Millis, 2007). Therefore, when participants at different age levels experience the same learning environments, their perception of usability or presence may be at different levels regarding the relevant VR system. When evaluated from a design point of view, it is thought that 3D objects related to learning content developed for VR environments can also be effective in evaluating usability. This is because some researchers state that design elements and interface elements that distract the user might affect usability (Virvou & Katsionis, 2008). Also, highly usable interfaces are so intuitive and transparent that the user forgets the environment and the technology itself and instead focuses on interacting with content. Ultimately, so-called usability problems can be defined as the non-availability of an interface, and this directs attention to the interface itself as opposed to the content (Hartson & Pyla, 2012). Usability perception may also vary according to the tasks performed in the VR environment. For example, virtual object creation in the iVR environment may take longer than in the non-iVR environment (Adamo-Villani & Wilbur, 2008). In this context, usability can be considered as a complex component 250

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that can vary according to the content developed, the task to be performed, the technological characteristics of the environment, and individual characteristics. In fact, when considered within the scope of this study, the fact that some students have usability problems and others cannot be shown as a possible reason for a weaker link between presence and usability (Makransky & Petersen, 2019). However, it seems that more experimental studies are needed for further review. Generally, there may be many factors that affect the effectiveness and efficiency of VR technologies in the learning process, as apart from the variables of usability and presence. Because learning is a complex process. However, the role of teachers should also be considered in the process of effective use and integration of VR technologies in the classroom environment (Ausburn & Ausburn 2004; Horne & Thompson, 2008; Hew & Brush, 2007; Ertmer et al., 2012). In this context; teachers should be informed about the basic features of VR, use them in their own disciplines, share the results with each other and include VR technologies in the curriculum creation process. In addition, how teachers can use VR technologies in their own fields, how they can develop VR applications, their benefits, limitations, strengths and weaknesses should be discussed (Ausburn & Ausburn 2004).

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS In recent years, many studies have discovered that VR environments have educational advantages and potentials (Chen & Hsu, 2020). In order for VR platforms to be successful in the learning and teaching process, activities that will enable students to perceive the VR environment as a real experience must be designed (Silva, Donat, Rigoli, de Oliveira & Kristensen, 2016). For this, it is critically important that VR platforms ensure the presence of the participants (Meyer, Omdahl, & Makransky, 2019). The findings obtained in this study show that the non-iVR platform, which does not have an immersion feature, can also provide presence. Considering the costs of iVR environments, non-iVR environments can be preferred in educational activities to provide presence. Also, when evaluated in terms of usability, the lack of a significant difference between VR environments may be a factor in choosing desktop or noniVR environments. Basically, it is argued that non-iVR learning environments have become popular in modern education thanks to their real-time visualization and interaction ability (Chuah, Chen & Teh, 2008; Lee, Wong & Fung, 2010). In addition, a rapid and sharp decline in prices, a huge leap in computing power, the spread of the World Wide Web, and the prevalence of broadband connections have increased the use of non-iVR in schools (Lee, Wong & Fung, 2010, McLellan, 2004). Therefore, today’s VR systems can run in a relatively inexpensive system, such as a desktop personal computer. However, iVR platforms can also be used in education. In light of the findings, it may be useful to consider the following recommendations: •

•

During the application process of the research, students between the ages of 10-12 were selected. The findings obtained by conducting experimental studies in different age groups in terms of presence and usability can be compared. In this study, it was found out that both iVR and non-iVR technologies can be used for students between the ages of 10-12. However, in terms of cost, it may be beneficial for educators to prefer non-iVR environments. In this research, the subject of planets was taken as the learning content. The presence levels of the students may vary according to different learning contents.

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• •

•

It should not be forgotten that the variables of presence and usability are affected by many factors as well as individual characteristics. In this context, it may be useful for educators to consider students’ previous experiences and individual characteristics before starting the application process. It should be kept in mind that the presence variable is affected by the properties of VR technologies. In this direction, the richness of the number of sensors that stimulate the sensory organs of the users may have affected this place. Within the scope of the study, VR environments that appeal to the visual and auditory senses were tested. The effectiveness of iVR technologies with different sensor components (such as touch, smell, and taste) can be tested. More empirical research is needed comparing different VR technologies for usability.

There are many limitations to this study. First of all, the results were discussed on the basis of quantitative data only. In this context, the study lacks the qualitative data necessary to investigate in depth the reasons affecting the participants’ presence and usability levels in the environments. Secondly, the time given for the participants to experience VR environments during the application process (5-7 minutes) is quite limited. Thirdly, participants who experienced the iVR environment experienced the HTC Vive tool for the first time. This may have influenced the process of determining their perception of presence and usability, considering the time allowed for them to experience the device. Fourthly, cybersickness, which is among the side effects of the iVR environment, was not measured and considered as a variable that affects presence. Fifthly, the HTC Vive’s lack of haptic feedback may also have affected presence because it is argued that multi-sensory systems such as visual, auditory, olfactory, and touch improve presence (Weech et al., 2019). Sixthly, the innovation factor of the HTC Vive can also be considered as a limitation since experiencing this environment over and over again may result in less concentration, pleasure, or perception of presence (Meldrum et al., 2012). Seventhly, participants who experienced the iVR environment were unable to interact with another user with whom they could communicate in the environment. However, the participants in the non-iVR environment felt each other’s presence and were able to communicate. All these limitations may have affected the presence and usability variables.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Since many variables can play a role in the presence and usability evaluation process, future research should investigate additional variables that are not included in the variables investigated in this study. For example, variables such as interactive VR environments that allow communication between users, cybersickness, the field of view, different sensor types (such as tactile and smell), and wireless VR technologies all potentially play a role in the presence and VR-based learning process (Makransky & Petersen, 2019). In this context, researching the effect of these variables in the future is important for the effectiveness and efficiency of VR technologies in the learning process. Besides, it is necessary to investigate what kind of relationship exists between these variables. The results should be interpreted by comparing VR learning content on different platforms. In particular, the effect of time spent in VR environments on learning outcomes, presence, usability, and affective and cognitive variables should be investigated. Moreover, future research should investigate the variables related to individual differences to understand better the student characteristics that affect learning in VR applications. Factors such as prior knowledge, age, gender, interest, awareness towards technology, and motivation can be shown as

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examples of these variables. In this context, the effect of the presence of students using iVR and noniVR technologies on learning and motivation can be investigated in the future.

CONCLUSION Despite technological advances and the widespread use of VR, there is very limited evidence in the literature about the process of presence, the factors that influence them, and their role (Weech et al., 2019). More evidence will help with more advanced and optimized simulation designs. The results of this study, despite having many limitations, provide clues to the comparison of presence and usability variables in different VR environments. The study findings showed that both iVR and non-iVR environments are effective in terms of presence and usability, but need to be improved. Furthermore, it was observed that the perception of presence does not change depending on usability. All in all, emphasizing the characteristics of VR technologies and their effectiveness with regards to presence and usability while designing virtual environments can benefit students and educators attending VR courses.

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ADDITIONAL READING Coelho, C., Tichon, J. G., Hine, T. J., Wallis, G. M., & Riva, G. (2006). Media presence and inner presence: the sense of presence in virtual reality technologies. In From communication to presence: Cognition, emotions and culture towards the ultimate communicative experience (pp. 25–45). IOS Press. Makransky, G., & Petersen, G. B. (2019). Investigating the process of learning with desktop virtual reality: A structural equation modeling approach. Computers & Education, 134, 15–30. doi:10.1016/j. compedu.2019.02.002 Meldrum, D., Glennon, A., Herdman, S., Murray, D., & McConn-Walsh, R. (2012). Virtual reality rehabilitation of balance: Assessment of the usability of the Nintendo Wii® Fit Plus. Disability and Rehabilitation. Assistive Technology, 7(3), 205–210. doi:10.3109/17483107.2011.616922 PMID:22117107 Mütterlein, J. (2018). The three pillars of virtual reality? Investigating the roles of immersion, presence, and interactivity. Proceedings of the 51st Hawaii international conference on system sciences. 10.24251/ HICSS.2018.174 Pallavicini, F., Pepe, A., & Minissi, M. E. (2019). Gaming in virtual reality: What changes in terms of usability, emotional response and sense of presence compared to non-immersive video games? Simulation & Gaming, 50(2), 136–159. doi:10.1177/1046878119831420 Schultheis, M. T., Rebimbas, J., Mourant, R., & Millis, S. R. (2007). Examining the usability of a virtual reality driving simulator. Assistive Technology, 19(1), 1–10. doi:10.1080/10400435.2007.101318 60 PMID:17461285 Servotte, J.-C., Goosse, M., Campbell, S. H., Dardenne, N., Pilote, B., Simoneau, I. L., Guillaume, M., Bragard, I., & Ghuysen, A. (2020). Virtual reality experience: Immersion, sense of presence, and cybersickness. Clinical Simulation in Nursing, 38(C), 35–43. doi:10.1016/j.ecns.2019.09.006 Sherman, W. R., & Craig, A. B. (2003). Understanding virtual reality: Interface, application, and design. Morgan Kaufmann.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Avatar: Three-dimensional characters representing users in VR environment. Immersion: A set of technological features that provide a sense of reality to the users by abstracting the richness, resolution, and the panoramic view of the users from other physical realities in the environment. Immersive VR: General name of VR systems with immersion feature. Meta-Analysis: Integration and interpretation of the results of quantitative studies in the literature. Non-Immersive VR: Desktop VR systems that do not have the immersion feature. Presence: The psychological subjective reactions of the users about how much they feel in the real world in the virtual environment are the whole. Teleport: The avatar’s travel to different places in the virtual environment. Unity 3D: A game engine that developers use to develop 2D or 3D games. Usability: A measure of how well users can use the functionality of a particular tool or system.

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Virtual Reality: The use of computer modeling and simulation tools that allow the user to interact in an artificial and three-dimensional environment and appeal to their visual or other senses.

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APPENDIX Virtual Reality Presence Scale Dear students; Answer the following questions about your virtual reality experience you participated in. These answers will not be used for grading any course. In addition, your information will not be used anywhere else outside the scope of the research. Filling the form is on a voluntary basis. You can start answering the questions on the form by filling out the information below. Thank you very much for your answers.

System Usability Scale

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Table 5. ­ Gender:

Boy

Girl

1 (Never)

  2

3 (Partially)

  1. How much were you able to control events?   2. How easy was it to identify objects through physical interaction; like touching an object, walking over a surface, or bumping into a wall or object?   3. How proficient in moving and interacting with the virtual environment did you feel at the end of the experience? (AI)

  4. How well could you concentrate on the assigned tasks or required activities rather than on the mechanisms used to perform those tasks or activities?   5. Were there moments during the virtual environment experience when you felt completely focused on the task or environment?   6. How easily did you adjust to the control devices used to interact with the virtual environment?   7. How quickly did you adjust to the virtual environment experience?   8. How responsive was the environment to actions that you initiated (or performed)?   9. How well could you move or manipulate objects in the virtual environment?

(I)

  10. Were you able to anticipate what would happen next in response to the actions that you performed?   11. How well could you localize sounds?   12. How well could you actively survey or search the virtual environment using touch?   13. How natural did your interactions with the environment seem?   14. How much did the visual aspects of the environment involve you?   15. How natural was the mechanism which controlled movement through the environment?   16. How compelling was your sense of objects moving through space?

(IN)

  17. Sanal ortamdaki deneyimlerin, gerçek dünyadaki deneyimlerin ile ne kadar tutarlı görünüyordu?   18. How completely were you able to actively survey or search the environment using vision?   19. How compelling was your sense of moving around inside the virtual environment?   20. Was the information provided through different senses in the virtual environment (e.g., vision, hearing, touch) consistent?   21. How well could you examine objects from multiple viewpoints?   22. How involved were you in the virtual environment experience?   23. How completely were your senses engaged in this experience?

(SF)

  24. How much did the auditory aspects of the environment involve you?   25. How well could you identify sounds?   26. How closely were you able to examine objects?   27. How much delay did you experience between your actions and expected outcomes?

(IQ)

  28. How much did the visual display quality interfere or distract you from performing assigned tasks or required activities?   29. How much did the control devices interfere with the performance of assigned tasks or with other activities?

I= Involvement, AI=Adaptation/Immersive, SF= Sensory Fidelity, IN=Interaction, IQ= Interface Quality

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4

      5 (Completely)

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Table 6. ­ Scale Bullets

I do not agree → I totally agree 1

2

3

4

5

1. I think that I will want to use this system often. 2. I found this system unnecessarily complicated. 3. I thought this system was easy to use. 4. I think that I will need the support of a more technical person to use this system. 5. I found the various functions in this system well integrated. 6. I thought there was too much inconsistency in this system. 7. I think taht many people will learn to use this system very quickly. 8. I found this system very inconvenient to use. 9. I felt that very confident using this system. 10. In order to do something in this system, I had to learn many things first.

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A Multi-Modal Educational Perspective and Virtual Reality

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Chapter 12

Comparing Two Teacher Training Courses for 3D Game-Based Learning:

Feedback From Trainee Teachers Michael Thomas Liverpool John Moores University, UK Letizia Cinganotto INDIRE, Università Telematica degli Studi, Italy

ABSTRACT This chapter explores data form two online language teacher training courses aimed at providing participants with the skills to create and use games in 3D immersive environments. Arising from a two-year project which explored how game-based learning and virtual learning environments can be used as digital tools to develop collaborative and creative learning environments, two training courses were developed to support teachers to use two immersive environments (Minecraft and OpenSim). The first course was self-directed and the second was moderated by facilitators. Both courses provided a variety of games and resources for students and teachers in different languages (English, German, Italian, and Turkish). This chapter explores feedback from the teacher participants on both courses arising from a questionnaire and interviews with teachers and provides recommendations about the technical and pedagogical support required to develop immersive worlds and games for language learning.

INTRODUCTION As computer-assisted language learning (CALL) has often been driven by technological innovation rather than pedagogy, a constantly recurring finding has been the need for more research on the effectiveness of CALL teacher training that aims to integrate technological and pedagogical literacies (Torsani, 2015). This chapter contributes to this gap in the research by investigating two online language teacher trainDOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch012

Copyright © 2021, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Comparing Two Teacher Training Courses for 3D Game-Based Learning

ing courses, and is significant in that it examines the teacher feedback on the potential of digital gamebased learning in two 3D immersive environments (Minecraft and OpenSim). In particular the chapter contributes to the knowledge base in this area by critically exploring the potential of immersive training for teachers who use the CLIL (Content and Integrated Language Learning) approach in two different formats: a self-study course and a teacher-led training course. The main difference between the courses was that the self-study course provided a theoretical framework for games design without the need for participants to develop technical skills to build games themselves. In the teacher-led course the participants’ goal was to design and create a language learning game in a virtual world. The two courses were designed as part of a two-year research project exploring game-based language learning funded by the European Commission, and included participating teachers from Italy, the UK, Germany and Turkey. The chapter first briefly summarizes relevant research literature before describing the rationale, aims and scenarios that informed the planning and implementation of the two courses as examples of continuing professional development (CPD) for teachers in immersive worlds. The research was guided by the following two research questions which led to a mixed methods research design involving interviews, an online questionnaire and participants’ self-reflections: 1. How beneficial and effective is CPD on game-based learning and immersive worlds for foreign language teachers? 2. What are foreign language teachers’ perceptions of being trained in a community of practice (CoP) in an immersive world?

Background The use of digital games in different contexts has become increasingly popular over the last decade. Industry and educational professionals are regularly using digital games to foster users’ motivation and engagement, as confirmed by Johnson et al. (2013), who argued that “game play has traversed the realm of recreation and has infiltrated the worlds of commerce, productivity, and education, proving to be a useful training and motivation tool” (p. 21). Research has shown that games play a crucial role when it comes to education but it is important to reiterate that several categories and concepts have overlapping boundaries and they are not always clearly defined. Several authors, for example, use the terms gamification and game-based learning to describe the same concept (Callaghan, McCusker, Losada, Harkin & Wilson 2013). In order to bring more clarity to this fast changing landscape, in this chapter we define gamification in terms of a style of competitive learning related to the integration of ‘game mechanics’ such as badges, points, levels and leaderboards to non-game situations (Hamari, Koivisto & Sarsa 2014; Seaborn & Fels 2015) and game-based learning as the use of specifically designed games that have pedagogical or training content added to them along with defined learning outcomes (Van Eck, 2006). Game-based learning and gamification have become particularly popular in primary and secondary school contexts, thus the need for more effective and flexible modes of pre- and in-service teacher training to develop and sustain teacher competences in this rapidly moving area (Wiggins, 2016).

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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The use of game mechanics is often linked with the attempt to enhance student engagement and motivation (Hanus & Fox, 2015). Efforts have also been made to integrate gamification techniques more overtly into curricula, which aided by the use of dashboards, can help to visualise a student’s progress against a series of tasks (Kapp, 2012). While there are promising signs of some improvement in these areas, as is inevitable with technology-enhanced learning, several challenges have also been identified. These include the lack of resources and support for teaching staff, and opportunities to integrate game-based approaches into formal and often tightly controlled, examination focused contexts. Moreover, gamification is at odds with more traditional approaches to learning which do not specify the need for external rewards to incentivise student achievement. Given the obstacles, an understanding of effective games design in the context of educational goals and learning outcomes is required by teaching staff (Lee & Hammer, 2011). So, while there has been an increasing use of games in education, particularly in the primary and secondary school sectors, as these learners use games most extensively and seamlessly in their out of school social life (Wiggins, 2016), teachers’ approaches have often been ad hoc rather than based on sound pedagogy or training. Teacher training courses and continuing professional development (CPD) opportunities for teachers are often hosted by a variety of elearning platforms. Moodle is one of the most popular and user-friendly open source platforms which has been increasingly used in all sectors of public and private education in recent decades, particularly as a result of its alignment with the principles of social and collaborative modes of learning. Moodle is based on a Learning Content Management System (LCMS), which includes: • • •

an ‘author’ tool that allows teachers to create and re-use learning objects; a dynamic interface; an administrative interface that allows teachers to manage and track the activities of users.

The virtual environment created by Moodle is inspired by the following pedagogical principles and frameworks (Huang & Liang, 2018): • • • •

constructivism, according to which students actively build new knowledge by interacting with the environment in which it is integrated; constructionism, which is aimed at highlighting how learning is particularly effective when engaged in building knowledge and skills intended for use by other users (Kafai & Resnick, 1996); social constructivism, which aims to extend the ideas previously illustrated within a social group engaged in constructing educational materials in a collaborative way for each other, thus creating a cooperative culture of shared products with shared meanings; connected behaviour or related behaviour, as opposed to dissociated behaviour, refers to a more empathetic approach that promotes a variety of perspectives in a constant attempt to listen, ask questions and try to understand as far as possible the point of view of others (Boon, 2007).

Based on these affiliations, Moodle has strong theoretical links with cooperative learning (Kaye, 1994), which aims to foster group work for educational purposes, so that students can collaborate with each other to maximize their learning potential. Specific research has shown that cooperation, compared to competitive and individualistic efforts, generates the following results in most cases: 269

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• • •

greater productivity and effectiveness in the development of the training path; greater self-esteem, social competence and satisfactory results from a psychological point of view; more committed, attentive and collaborative interpersonal relationships.

In fact, teachers can be considered as special lifelong learners as they have to be able to innovate and adapt to different students and contexts throughout their careers. Constant learning is therefore a priority for them, because they are reflective practitioners, whose practice involves a willingness to participate actively in a continuous process of growth, requiring ongoing critical reflection on both classroom practices and core beliefs (Larrivee, 2008). If, on the one hand, learning is a never-ending process, there are some phases that are more critical and strategic than others. In this context, it is worth mentioning Mezirow’s (1991) research on how adults learn by giving meaning to their experiences through perspective transformation and the work of Schön (1983) on the teacher as a reflective practitioner, which is a key dimension of personal and professional growth. Reflecting ‘on’ and ‘in’ action is an essential aspect of learning, as it helps teachers understand the strengths and weaknesses in their teaching styles, in order to improve them constantly. Indeed, this aim was among the rationale of both training courses. As a transversal task in both courses, the digital portfolio was specifically designed to fulfill this aim. Moreover, forum interaction was encouraged as a tool for self-reflection and mutual enrichment. Online learning for teachers needs an effective and “scientifically well-grounded” learning environment, complying not only with the principles of andragogy (Knowles, 1975) which at the same time leave sufficient space for self-determination and the adoption of a heutagogical approach. Heutagogy is considered as the study of self-determined learning. It applies a holistic approach to developing learner capabilities, with learning perceived as an active and proactive process, in which learners serve as “the major agent in their own learning, which occurs as a result of personal experiences” (Hase & Kenyon, 2007, p.112). Heutagogy can be seen as a theory of distance education which extends the andragogical approach. In developing the training courses, the designers took advantage of their previous experience in the field of online adult learning through different initiatives aimed at meeting the apparently conflicting needs of socialisation and autonomy of an adult audience by offering an andragogical and heutagogical approach (Benedetti, 2018). In 2000 Garrison, Anderson and Archer defined the model of the “community of enquiry” (CoE) as consisting of three key elements which should be included in every online learning environment, according to the constructivist and constructionist models: the cognitive element, the social element and the teaching element. The three dimensions were developed in the training courses as follows: • •

•

270

the cognitive element was represented by the learning material provided in the platform as a starting point for reflection and via the shared forum spaces; in particular, it was a key part of the self-study course; the social element referred to the interaction among the participants both in the synchronous mode through webinars and live meetings in Minecraft and OpenSim and in asynchronous mode through the forums, where they were asked to post their reflections on the learning materials provided in the platform; the teaching element referred to the coaching and moderating role of the forum moderators and the teaching activities during the live online meetings.

 Comparing Two Teacher Training Courses for 3D Game-Based Learning

The development of the training courses was led by the idea that knowledge is generated by the ability to build connections within a network. Knowing how to choose what to select and understand the meaning of information is in itself a learning process. The ability to identify connections between fields, ideas and concepts is a central skill to be acquired. The learner approaches the study in the way s/he prefers, individualizing his or her approach to the content through autonomous selection leading to the personalization of the learning pathway. In distance learning, participants are encouraged to prepare projects linked to objectives in relation to the specific subject and context (Alan & Stoller, 2005). The project requires constant negotiation between the interior and the exterior. Each learner develops his or her own project by collecting the ideas received from the teacher and subject tutor, transforming cultural learning into an instrument of experience and personal appropriation. The project implies ‘double thinking’, in the sense of foreseeing and imagining a possible world, while working at the same time to achieve it. The project assigned the participants opportunities for forum interaction in the self-study course, while in the teacher-led course, the project was represented by the game they had to build in-world (Beckett, 2002, 2006; Beckett & Miller, 2006). Self-knowledge includes the possibility of making the student rediscover his/her design skills, so that the individual can not only make his choices but also return and change them if a choice is no longer suitable. In distance learning, each training course is aimed at strengthening the spirit of a scientific community based on individual and collective collaboration, sharing and creativity (Beckett & Slater, 2005, 2018, 2019). Technology can support this cooperative approach offering tools and virtual environments for sharing different participants’ experiences. By creating a Personal Learning Environment (PLE) (Chatti et al., 2010) centred on the student’s individual needs and learning styles, trying to plan and implement tailored learning pathways, the potential of webtools and media may be exploited in order to make the learning experience effective and powerful. To this end, it is important to foster as many formal and informal learning environments as possible within training pathways and to build a Community of Practice (Wenger et al. 2002), consisting of teachers and practitioners.

COURSE CONTEXT AND PLANNING Both of the teacher training courses were planned and delivered with the aim of enabling individual and cooperative learning. Individual learning was fostered especially through the delivery of learning materials and video-tutorials, which were meant to elicit content-based learning and at the same time reflection and meta-cognition. Cooperative learning was mainly fostered through discussion forums and during live events in the teacher-led course, in particular via the weekly webinars and synchronous meetings with experts in the two immersive environments, Minecraft or OpenSim. Minecraft was chosen because it is widely used by children internationally, while OpenSim is an open access immersive environment, supported by a community of educators and technicians. Both platforms have been used extensively in education with a particular focus on constructivist approaches to problem-solving and project-based learning (Kuhn & Stevens, 2017; Ryoo, Techatassanasoontorn, Lee & Lothian, 2011). This combination of autonomous learning and cooperative learning was meant to be the most effective formula to enhance life-long learning. The training courses’ teaching model was based on Scardamalia and Bereiter’s (2006) theoretical model of knowledge building, which emphasized collaborative work and research rather than individual 271

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inquiry. This means that distance learning does not lead to ‘studying alone’ as it is organized to ensure collaboration and the sharing of ideas for all involved. The knowledge building perspective adopted was also supported by UNESCO (Meek & Davies, 2009) and the training courses addressed language and CLIL teachers’ continuous professional development from a life-long learning perspective. Both the self-study course and teacher-led course were delivered through a Moodle platform and involved 5 modules, each containing several tasks, reading lists, videos, resources and instructions. The core learning material was provided by reports and resources arising from the teachers. Universal Design Principles led its development as per the following four areas.

Course Information Moodle was relatively intuitive to use and provided the complete course syllabus in one long page view. Following the design principles, an image of the relevant virtual world prefaced the course followed by an introduction chapter, a brief course description, an introduction video, a syllabus and recommendations for study time. Clear instructions for students followed about where to begin and how to navigate current content, thus meeting the ‘less than three clicks’ design principle. Each module provided tasks, communication instructions for the forum and guidelines. Students were made aware of participation expectations, technology requirements, access instructions to the various virtual environments, reading lists and course materials.

Course Content Care was taken not to infringe any copyright laws when presenting course material. There was a “Welcome” and “Let’s get acquainted” discussion. Each module began with an image or video and a clear title as well as a coloured text title marker which included the number of the module. In the self-study course personalized learning was evident. All of the modules were open from the beginning and no prerequisites were imposed on the students. All of the tasks were designed for self-study and none of the assignments had due dates or grading deadlines. Modules included three forms of interaction: 1. student-student interaction (e.g. discussion forums); 2. student-teacher interaction (feedback provided by the tutors in the discussion forums, students’ portfolios were open and accessible to peers); 3. student-content interaction (engaging and varied content such as reading, watching videos and playing games in-world was provided).

Assessment Multiple methods of assessment were used, such as forum discussions, tasks, portfolios, written essays and detailed instructions and guidelines for completing assignments and discussions were provided at the outset.

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Course Accessibility Instructions on how to login to the virtual spaces were provided. Consistent module and text styles were used and hyperlink text incorporated the destination, words and phrases to provide context for screenreaders.

METHODOLOGY Two questionnaires were delivered to the participants in both courses: one at the beginning and one at the end. Interviews were also conducted at the end of both courses in June 2019. Relevant data from the questionnaires, together with data from the interviews and the final student reflections posted in the forums on the elearning platform were used to answer the following research questions: 1. How beneficial and effective is CPD on game-based learning and immersive worlds for foreign language teachers? 2. What are foreign language teachers’ perceptions of being trained in a community of practice (CoP) in an immersive world?

The Self-Study Course The self-study course was attended by 24 participants, the vast majority of whom were upper secondary school teachers of English from Italy and Turkey. As already mentioned, the self-study course was planned to foster autonomous and independent learning through the learning materials in the platform. Forum discussion was elicited to foster reflections and opinions about the study materials. The initial questionnaire was aimed at understanding the participants’ background, learning styles and needs in order to plan and deliver the course accordingly. The final questionnaire was aimed at investigating the impact of the course on the participants in terms of learning outcomes, professional development, knowledge acquired and skills developed. In the initial questionnaire the majority of the participants self-evaluated their digital competences as ‘good’, and indicated that they often used learning technologies in their work (Beetham & Sharpe, 2019). Active and interactive methodologies such as work group and project work emerged as the most frequently applied. The majority of teachers affirmed that they used games to motivate and reward their students, to foster collaboration and develop creativity, socialization and peer learning. Regarding their knowledge and use of immersive 3D worlds, the majority of respondents reported that they had never used these platforms, but they felt that game based-learning in school curricula would be beneficial for students, especially in terms of increased motivation and the development of 21st century skills.

The Teacher-led Training Course The teacher-led course represented the second iteration of the online course although with a different format. Live sessions in-world in OpenSim and Minecraft and weekly webinars to conclude each week’s work were regularly scheduled as an integral part of the course, requiring more active and engaging participation from the teachers in the immersive worlds. Like the self-study course, it was developed as 273

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a five-week format and provided the participants with the opportunity to choose between two immersive environments to explore for language learning and teaching (OpenSim and Minecraft). 16 participants joined the course and the majority were Italian teachers of English at the upper secondary level. Their previous experience in the topics addressed by the project were self-evaluated as ‘quite highly’ skilled in ICTs. The majority also declared that they used learning technologies ‘quite often’ in class. The course was designed for two groups to work in parallel in different environments and with different learning materials. In the forum, the participants were encouraged to interact and share their ideas and comments about the learning materials. At the end of each week, a weekly webinar was organised and involved all of the participants in a lecture related to the main content of the week. The digital portfolio was the transversal task of the course, as it was positioned in the self-study course to encourage participants to collect memories from their learning experience and to have a positive impact on their professional development.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION The Teachers’ Voice from the Self-Study Course The discussion fora worked very effectively throughout the self-study course in particular where they represented a core element of the course and were appreciated by the teachers, who used them to share their opinions and reflections on game-based learning in immersive worlds and on the learning material provided in the platform. These discussions were aimed at encouraging peer learning, so that the participants could feel like integral members of a community of practice. Several comments from the discussion fora clearly identified how the CoP supported their training. In particular, two detailed comments from one of the participants are reported below: What are the advantages of learning through the making of a game? What about the development of cooperation skills in the creation of a game? The constructionist gaming combines, in a metacognitive approach, game-based learning with project-based learning, developing team working skills or cooperation skills or role-play based learning. The four freedoms of play (fail, experiment, assume different identity and effort) lead students to a new idea of learning, more enjoyable and motivating. It’s the immersive dimension of the 3D world which helps students experience a ‘real’ situation they can be involved in. Moreover, the chance of synchronous activities in a setting where the foreign language is the only way of communication urges [them] to act according to the rules of ‘real life’ situations, finding out linguistic solutions immediately, so playing games in a virtual environment definitely enhances language learning. (Participant 5) The comments show how powerful the learning experience in a 3D world was for the trainee teachers, enhancing their motivation, enthusiasm and engaging them in very challenging and rewarding activities. Such activities included role-plays and production tasks involving ICTs as participant 5 continues: Role-Play activities are fit for the purpose of learning a foreign language in 3D worlds; the constructivist paradigm (to be active creators of one’s own knowledge) is the natural infrastructure to implement such

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activities: the more the students are the makers of their own scenarios, the more they will be motivated and engaged. Once the scenarios are ready, the playing of the roles can be enriched by the element of improvisation and the methodology of problem-solving. 3D worlds are, in some way, closed worlds, because you make use of elements from its immediate environment, even if you can import elements from outside, and it’s not easy to show other people the activities and the final results, unless you shoot pictures or videos to publish on a website or blog or social network on the Internet. There is still much to do in the technology area of usability and accessibility (user-friendly tools, easy-to-use software for hearing and speech impaired students) and in the field of evaluation and assessment (creation of rubrics with criteria planned for 3D world didactical activities). (Participant 5) Based on these comments it is worth underlining how conscious the trainees were of the potential of game-based learning in immersive worlds, as a practical implementation of the constructionist approach. They also pointed out the social dimension of the games, particularly beneficial for students who used the target language in a meaningful context, thereby reducing their affective filter (Krashen, 1985). After downloading the theoretical material on game-based learning in immersive worlds and exploring the potential of 3D immersive worlds from a ‘passive’ perspective, mainly through videos and other resources, in the final questionnaire the participants stated that they were quite satisfied with the introduction to virtual worlds, as not much active engagement was required. This was done on purpose, as the ultimate goal of the initial training course was to guide the participants through an introductory learning experience in a virtual and immersive world, following a tailored pathway designed to be adjusted to individual participants’ learning needs and free time. This more ‘passive’ approach was appreciated by the participants as it was perceived as a ‘teaser’ to activate their curiosity to learn more about language learning in immersive worlds through a more practical ‘hands on’ approach in the second teacher-led course. The fact that there were no time constraints on the activities in the first course was also appreciated by the participants who did not have scheduled meetings to attend. One of the participants in the self-study course decided to continue the learning experience and enrolled in the teacher-led course as well. It would be interesting to offer such learning pathways within the continuous professional development courses attended online and face-to-face by teachers in Italy and Europe more broadly. As the participants indicated, language learning with technologies and in particular language learning in virtual and immersive worlds is still an unexplored teaching field that could be encouraged more among teachers. This is partly due to the fact that specific technical skills are required. Training on technical and digital literacy and language learning and teaching in immersive worlds could have a significant impact on school curricula and contribute to improve students’ level of competence in foreign languages. According to the teachers, the self-study course helped them to develop the following competences: Building games in virtual worlds. (Participant 3) It consolidated or deepened the use of different strategies to gamify teaching activities and base them more on learning by doing and situated learning approach. (Participant 1)

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Building some gaming activities for children. (Participant 6) I developed a further understanding of new virtual worlds and their possible uses in education. Relations. (Participant 2) Instructional design competencies, from analyzing learner needs to developing training assets. (Participant 8) Innovative approaches to learning about game-based learning additional ways of involving students, new ways to build educational games and other ways to develop creativity. (Participant 4) One of the questions on the final questionnaire was related to the possible use of the different immersive worlds for their future teaching: “How likely are you to use the following in your teaching in future?”. Answers suggested that Minecraft and OpenSim were popular because of the lack of privacy constraints on the students.

The Teachers’ Voice from the Teacher-Led Course In the teacher-led course the forum was a valuable learning space as it enabled the trainee teachers to share ideas, comments and experiences. As a moderated forum it provided several opportunities for the participants to learn from their colleagues. Every week a specific forum was created to collect the participants’ ideas and comments on the various learning materials and readings. As a result, the forum collected a wide range of meaningful insights and reflections, as shown in the selection of three extracts (1-3), where examples of comments from each of the five weeks have been quoted. The quotes can be considered learning materials in themselves as they are dense with reflections and relevant literature references chosen by the trainees. Extract 1 Re: Does it make sense to build a boardgame in an immersive environment? Saturday 22 June 2019, 22:33 “In a virtual world, board games should use some of the features offered by that unique environment, like leader boards and feedback for players. There is also the opportunity to build in multimedia and have students respond to sound, pictures, and/or video. Another reason to play board games in a virtual world even if no extra features are added would be if the players were physically distant, and playing in the virtual world gave them an opportunity to hang out and play in a common virtual space. This is true of most MMORPGs [Massive Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games], but smaller more traditional card and board games are often played by geographically distant players in Second Life and Open Sims.

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P7, what you did with that map of the British Isles is AMAZING. I love the way it is physically and audibly interactive in the Open Sim, and then also has the online quiz element, with the two complementing one another and facilitating learning from more than one direction. Brilliant!” (Participant 6) Extract 2 Re: Week 4 Suggested Readings Saturday 1 June 2019, 19:15 [the review of research provided] “is such extensive and interesting reading that one does not know what to tackle first! My comments will not be very systematic as the material would need several readings and much thought to be processed decently. A. I am familiar with MOOCs [Massive Open Online Courses] and 3DVLEs as I have tried several examples of the former (for example three courses by the European Schoolnet Academy and a number by EVO) and am a regular attendant of WVBPE [Virtual World Best Practices in Education] conferences and the like. Conversely, I have no experience in PBL [Project-based Learning], even though I attempt, from time to time, to create classroom experiences that may ‘feel authentic’. Among the three, I feel that MOOCs are least relevant to me as a teacher, being MOOCs a modality that works very well with adults but not with under-age students. 3DVLEs are at the core of our interests - we would not be here otherwise, while PBL makes sense just as a possible component of a teaching activity in a virtual environment. On the other hand, these three modalities might be combined. For example, in an eTwinning (telecommunication) project taking place in a virtual world, learning to build a specific object could be an example of PBL. B. While academic works need to distinguish between and categorize different teaching approaches, the real teacher often has to combine different methods finding a unique way to satisfy • • •

administration requirements: timing, syllabus, organizational demands... class requirements: size, diversity of students, special needs, social background.... community (fellow teachers) requirements: sharing of spaces and devices, consistency of methods with the same groups of students, interpersonal challenges (innovators are often perceived as challenging by their peers and are often met with irritation or jealousy).

Finally, I wonder which school would be willing to pay me for the needed skills ... In Italy teachers do not have a ‘career’: either they are teachers, or they are not. Consequently, the professional who takes the pain to acquire digital, pedagogical and organizational skills is paid as much as the teacher who totally relies on pre-packaged materials that s/he delivers frontally to a class, year after year. Innovators here have a totally intrinsic motivation!” (Participant 7) Extract 3 Re: Week 4 Suggested Readings Sunday 2 June 2019, 19:00 “The readings and both of your comments are fascinating. I used to teach more PBL, TBL [Taskbased Learning] or communicative approaches when I was working as a corporate trainer. Now I’m teaching more English for Academic Purposes, writing development, speaking objectives and so on. I’m 277

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also involved in CLIL courses too, such as Economics, Psychology & Sociology. When I was reading about the authentic contexts, I think it’s relative. Is EAP an authentic purpose, or is English for Specific Purposes, more authentic? Or does it mean realistic compared to the real world, but they not have to ever do that task in the real world, like flying an airplane. I love the intercultural interaction possibilities of telecollaboration, and often do contrastive cultural role playing. It’s a steep learning curve to use 3DVLE’s [3D virtual learning environments] with the main barrier, getting all the students online. At the same time, being able to design motivating tasks for the students is always the challenge, and I think a 3DVLE would help that. A first step for me, may be for one student to interact with a Bot/task to develop and demonstrate the functionality. I hope I’ll be able to do this”. (Participant 8) From the comments reported in extracts 1-3, it is worth underlining that the participants in the teacher training course had the opportunity to reflect on and discover new ways of teaching, to reshape their teaching strategies, and consider new game-based scenarios for language learning and CLIL. A clear result of the course was the level of synergy and cooperation among the participants, which opened the way to further possible cooperation and joint projects in future, as stated by participant 6 in the following comment: I really appreciated the effort to apply the gamification theory to designing and then creating an educational game within a virtual world. I also found exchanging ideas with the other participants greatly helpful. I am already planning some further collaboration with P3 (on a different course). (Participant 6) Based on questionnaire data, the trainee teachers indicated that they developed several inter-related competences as a result of their participation (see Figure 1): language competence (10%), digital competence (14%), teaching competence (14%), knowledge of immersive methodology (21%), ability to design games (14%), and their ability to create games (17%). Figure 1. Teacher competences developed during the course

The trainee teachers’ comments provided several insights into the competences they developed during the course: The course has shown me a new way to teach in the CLIL approach using games. (Participant 2)

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Figure 2. Students’ reactions to game-based learning and digital games in the school curriculum

Again, as someone already quite informed on the theory behind all the competencies listed, the course really only helped me improve in regard to the practical implementation of said theory, namely, how exactly to build what I already knew I should be building. (Participant 1) I really appreciated the effort to apply the gamification theory to designing and then creating an educational game within a virtual world. I also found exchanging ideas with the other participants greatly helpful. I am already planning some further collaboration with P3 (on a different course). Furthermore, there were many opportunities to reflect about teaching methodology and I loved that. After all, I am taking these kinds of courses to become a better teacher! (Participant 3) I feel I’ve learnt a lot of new skills. (Participant 4) All the course was really interesting and I hope to put in practice what I learnt during my next school year. (Participant 5) It was a new world of teaching for me, and really inspired me to present about my experiences at an ESP conference, and consider for many months, how I can develop this as a teaching weapon. As yet, it is still a feasibility study, but I want to use it with my university students next semester. (Participant 6)

The Final ‘Show and Tell’ The main goal of the teacher-led course was for the participants to learn more about immersive worlds for language learning and to help them create games in-world with specific learning objectives, considering their specific target students. Therefore, a final ‘Show & Tell’ exhibition was held at the end of the course, so that the participants could describe and comment on their creations. For the majority of the participants the use of game-based learning in school curricula was perceived as beneficial, as the following comment shows: Games make students interested in the lessons. The students are already familiar with the games and they do not want to work on papers, write long paragraphs. They do not realize that they learn while playing games, but implicitly, they learn and it stays in their brain for longer. (Participant 8)

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They mostly rated their students’ reactions to game-based learning and digital games as ‘quite positive’, as shown in Figure 2 (positive 25%, quite positive 50%, very positive 25%). They also thought game-based learning would result in improvements in the students’ learning outcomes, with particular reference to increased motivation, as illustrated in Figure 3 (related to language competence, increased motivation, subject knowledge, and 21st Century skills). Figure 3. Improvements in the students’ learning outcomes

The attitude of the parents to game-based learning was considered neutral (38%) and positive (31%) as shown in Figure 4. Figure 4. Reactions of the students’ parents to game-based learning?

In the teacher-led course the final live exhibition presented an opportunity for the participants to share and discuss with their peers the games they had created and the rationale behind them: it represented the core of the course. Several types of game were created as described below.

Academic Research Game The Academic Research Game (Figure 5) was designed by two participants to be played by teams of players and to provide hands-on practice of picking a topic and beginning a literature review with library based tools and databases. Each square prompted the students with a task in the text chat. By the end, students had developed a research document in their race to the top.

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Figure 5. Academic Research Game

Topographical Map Utilizing Sound Script The topographical map (Figure 6) was created in an application called Blender and imported into OpenSim. The game was dynamic and physical as bumping into the cylinders triggered a script that named a city. Interacting with the map helped student to complete this web-based exercise successfully. Figure 6. Topographical Map Utilizing Sound Script

Alice in Wonderland Hunt and Image Sort This Cheshire cat based hunt and image sorting exercise (Figure 7) tested students’ understanding of the story line by asking them to put the images from the original illustrations in order.

Figure 7. Alice in Wonderland Hunt and Image Sort

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The Board Game This hand drawn game (Figure 8) included a variety of elements and was noteworthy both for the handdrawn board and the variety of different types of activities used to engage students in language practice. The variety of well-designed tasks (including listening comprehension that used embedded video and audio clips) was created to sustain high degrees of class engagement. Figure 8. Board Game

Mysterious Forest Maze The mysterious forest maze game (Figure 9) was an example of how important preparation is to designing activities in virtual worlds. The students created an inviting woodland landscape peppered with clues and puzzles to be discovered and solved by participants. While the use of the puzzles may have attracted some students’ interest, the landscape was especially designed to stimulate learner engagement. Figure 9. Mysterious Forest Maze

Memory Game This memory game (Figure 10) is an example of what can be done with a traditional game in a virtual world that could not be done in the classroom. As soon as the student matched the correct image to what was being said in the picture, the game told the player in the text chat, “That is correct.” If incorrect, the cards quickly reverted to face down to indicate the students’ need to try again.

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Figure 10. Memory Game

Bank of Japan (Simulation) This role-playing game (Figure 11) allows players to interact with bot tellers in the bank to ask for help and the correct forms, and to interact with the ATM machines to practise recognizing which buttons need to be pressed to initiate different transactions. Figure 11. Bank of Japan (Simulation)

Quest in Minecraft The Secret Lab of Dr Moreau (Figure 12) was designed as a quest in Minecraft, located in the basement of a house, where a mysterious portal leading to another world appeared. Figure 12. Minecraft Quest The secret lab of Dr. Moreau

The gallery of immersive games represented a very powerful repository which could also be used for future teacher training initiatives.

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SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS At the end of the two teacher training courses it was deemed crucial to collect feedback from the participants to investigate the strengths and weaknesses of the two courses, especially considering a possible future reiteration of both training pathways. Several solutions and recommendations arose from the teachers’ interviews. Two online sessions aimed at interviewing the participants were organized using the Zoom virtual conferencing platform. During the first meeting a series of relevant issues were discussed, with a view to further development and continuation of the project aims. The informal agenda of the meeting was focused on a post-intervention evaluation, starting from a general overview and leading to the more specific analysis of a small subset of aspects: level of interaction, adequacy of resources and organizational timing. In general, all of the trainee teachers agreed that the courses were both very interesting and wellstructured. The duration was judged as coherent in terms of the courses’ purpose and, in one case, was even deemed too short. Other participants pointed out that the courses had been very useful, as they helped attendees “to discover” new skills. Furthermore, all of the trainees agreed that game-based learning is strongly inclusive: it encouraged collaboration and developed creativity while engaging students. A very interesting insight came from one of the participants who pointed out how game-based learning could also be beneficial for special needs students in terms of improving their self-esteem. Collaboration was identified as one possible weak aspect of both courses. Several participants agreed that collaborating with other teachers should be improved; more opportunities for collaboration would be better in future, for example, to enable trainees to perform tasks collaboratively, such as designing and making games together. The topic of collaboration arose directly from discussions about the opportunity to transform the participants’ group into a community of practice. The possibility of building a sustainable community of practice involving the trainee teachers was proposed by participants who were already members of other CoPs (for example in Edmondo world) and therefore had experienced the support and the benefits it can provide. As far as the learning contents of the courses were concerned, the participants agreed that the theoretical oversight provided, as well as the reading materials, were adequate to the courses’ purposes and the participants’ characteristics. The Moodle-based course structure received very good evaluations because it was able to provide information in a step-by-step process. No problems were reported regarding self-study, motivation or the course length. On the other hand, practical sessions were not sufficiently developed: as one trainee pointed out, “we built things but did not test them”. Linked to this aspect, a participant observed that a possible limitation stemmed from the lack of scripting-related competences needed to make artefacts that were able to react to interaction and suggested that scripting could be included in future course planning. One remark about the time needed to perform reading tasks was that due to time constraints for many participants, as it was difficult to complete some tasks. On the other hand, the reading list was only a suggestion and the task was not compulsory; indeed, the possibility of incorporating brief descriptions of the core content of the readings at the very beginning of the sessions was welcomed. The readings were unanimously judged positively and highly relevant to what was going on and not difficult to understand or filled with technical jargon. Finally, the relationship between synchronous and asynchronous events was evaluated as positive and balanced. At the end of the two training courses, all of the participants were asked in Moodle to express their final reflections in order to better understand the added value of their learning experience and its impact 284

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on their professional profile. Their comments and insights underline the teachers’ belief in the potential of immersive worlds for redesigning language learning and CLIL teaching pathways. Some of the answers from the participants can help us to understand how teacher training initiatives can improve teaching skills and techniques and lead to innovative learning environments and methodologies in future, such as video creation (Barwell, Moore & Walker, 2011; Thomas & Schneider, 2018): I believe a virtual world is the world where most of the modern teaching/ learning should happen. This kind of vision is strictly connected with the new tech world of education, where teachers are tutors and students work and learn together (peer-to-peer) to create new didactical material to be shared on the Internet: when students make and share games, they learn not only about course content but also about their own thinking. (Participant 1) On the other hand, gamification and Digital Pedagogy can help create a system that enables learners to rehearse real-life scenarios and challenges in a safe environment. There are many benefits a learner can get from a game-based learning experience, in the friendly environment the students can easily progress through the content and it can help higher recall and retention of the acquired knowledge. Additionally, an immediate feedback and the guidelines suggesting behavioural change motivate action or give a sense of achievement. Also, the new approach praises games and stresses their additional therapeutic or cathartic load. Indeed, the VR can provide constant electronic stimulation which surely can facilitate language learning. (Participant 3) I definitely feel immersion in a virtual world could contribute to language learning classes in loads of different ways, not very easy to sum up. Just to mention the main ones: boosting students’ motivation for learning, drawing on their ‘natural’ drive for technologies and videogames; creating new, different and engaging areas to socialize their language and communication skills; providing catching and challenging game-like learning environments, open to a never ending range of variations; feeding their crave for ‘making’ things, manipulating and moving while learning. (Participant 2) Avatars can speak in-world and listen but can also text in the target language in a variety of ways (Instant messages, local chat, notecards), so listening, speaking, reading and writing will all be thoroughly practised. Virtual worlds a+ can be powerful storytelling tools as well: by creating short in-world movies (machinimas) students will be able to narrate simple or complex stories and act their roles as in a real movie and be filmed using an infinite variety of outfits and clothes and settings/environments. (Participant 4) When you teach through immersive teaching, your class becomes a players community, opened to anyone. In Immersive teaching everyone looks out for others, because they work peer to peer. Pupils with more experience learn to help their schoolmates who are still beginners. Pupils learn to respect everyone’s needs, planning and organizing their activity to solve the immersive game. In order to allow everyone to participate to the learning path actively, usefully and independently.(Participant 5) You can plan an interesting CLIL lesson according to Coyle et al’s (2010) model: language of learning (content) essential vocabulary and grammar associated with the topic for a communicative approach. The language is used in authentic interactive settings in order to develop communicative skills, rather

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than focusing exclusively on grammar; language for learning (meta-cognition and grammar system) the kind of language needed to operate in a foreign language environment. Learners need skills for pair work, cooperative group work, asking questions, debating, enquiring, thinking, memorizing... language through learning (cognition) new meanings would require new language. It needs to be captured while during the learning process, then recycled and developed later.(Participant 6) Minecraft can offer students a virtual canvas for creating nearly anything they like using pixelated building blocks. Their creativity has almost no boundaries. At the same time, and for this reason, it is a recognized learning tool, used by teachers around the world to teach Math, History, Art, Physics, or nearly any other subject. Apart from that, it is, of course, an excellent tool to generate interest in your students. (Participant 7) Some disadvantages were also pointed out in terms of lack of flexibility, technical infrastructure, collaboration at school, as shown in the following comments: 3D worlds are, in some way, closed worlds, because you make use only of elements from its immediate environment, even if you can import elements from outside, and it’s not easy to show other people the activities and the final results, unless you shot pictures or videos to publish on a website or blog or social network on the Internet. (Participant 2) There is still much to do in the technology area of usability and accessibility (user-friendly tools, easyto-use software for hearing and speech impaired students) and in the field of evaluation and assessment (creation of rubrics with criteria planned for 3D world didactical activities). (Participant 1)

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS As a general recommendation to policymakers, stakeholders and practitioners, the two training pathways represented a significant example of innovation in the field of language learning and CLIL (Coyle et al., 2010; Cinganotto, 2016), using technologies which are recommended by the European Commission in the 2014 report “Improving the effectiveness of CLIL and language learning: Computer Assisted Language Learning”. Working in immersive worlds and playing games with the students can represent an effective way to bridge ‘role-play’ and ‘real-play’, which is the common paradox in foreign language classes. On the contrary, it is quite evident both to students and to learners that this is a fictional situation, in which real life is actually far from what happens in class. Therefore, it is significant how immersive worlds can reproduce real life situations and interactions, reducing Krashen’s affective filter; through their avatar in-world, the learners can speak and text chat without anxiety, thereby disguising his/her identity or face and promoting uninhibited interaction. Benefits in terms of language competences can be significant, as well as in terms of CLIL, as also stated by some of the trainee participants who mentioned the possibility of building games or objects in-world related to History, Science, Art or other subjects. Participants can therefore participate in ‘hands on’ and concrete activities about subject content, an essential ingredient of CLIL. Moreover the ‘learning

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by doing’ and ‘learning by playing’ principles are borrowed from language teaching and can represent an important added value of this approach. The courses’ use of 3D immersive gameworlds like Minecraft and in Open Sim represented an effective way to stimulate language awareness in teachers, as recommended by the latest European Council Recommendation (2019) on the need for a comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning of languages, which states that the language dimension should be a transversal element of the school curriculum, in any subject, not only in foreign languages. Moreover, the topics of plurilingualism, pluriculture and language diversity can be addressed through an online course similar to those we have seen in this project. Considering the nature of many language classes, which are more and more multi-ethnic and plurilingual, temporarily hiding one’s own identity, origin and home language through an avatar, can push learners to express themselves freely and independently, embracing language and cultural diversity, equity and social justice. As a final consideration, attending online courses similar to the ones created as part of this project may help enhance visual literacy: images, video, graphics, infographics can play an important part in learning a language, as mentioned in the European Commission’s Key Competences Framework (Council of Europe, 2018), where visual literacy is listed in the descriptor of the first Key Competence, named ‘literacy’. A foreign language should be taught through visual, multi-modal and immersive inputs, as happens in-world. That is why both training courses may lead to new training initiatives in the field of immersive language teaching and learning: making teachers aware of the importance of game-based and immersive learning may help innovate their teaching strategies and techniques, contributing to general school innovation, from a holistic point of view.

CONCLUSION This chapter has compared two online teacher training initiatives, a self-study course and a teacher-led course, as part of a two-year European Commission funded project focusing on the potential of gamebased learning and immersive worlds for language learning and CLIL. The two courses were delivered through the online Moodle platform and structured with learning materials for each week which required participants to read and comment on specific forum threads. The participants were guided through the exploration of the different learning environments with the help of digital content, tutorials and videos. The self-study course was designed as an introduction to the topic, mainly through suggested readings, videos and forum discussions. The teacher-led course was developed as a blended course with learning materials in an approach combining forums with synchronous meetings in OpenSim and Minecraft. The weekly webinars in the Zoom video conferencing platform were designed to enable the participants to reflect on different topics related to game-based learning and gamification, with reference to the learning materials available in the platform (Marino, 2004). The teacher-led course was aimed at helping teachers actively work in-world and create games for language learning and teaching: some of the games produced in-world have been described in the chapter. The course was quite demanding, especially because of the fixed appointments in OpenSim and Minecraft and the weekly webinars. Despite that, the teachers found the workload rewarding and stimulating. The teachers’ voice, collected from the forums, the interviews and the final reflections, provide several insights for teachers and teacher trainers working in the field. Virtual and immersive worlds are still a field yet to be fully investigated, particularly as some teachers believe that they require specific and 287

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very demanding digital skills, which are often not easy to develop (Middleton & Mather, 2008; Mawer, 2016). However, as the lessons learnt from a comparison of the two courses show, a relatively small amount of commitment, passion and willpower is often enough to start navigating in-world learning environments. An increasing number of online courses on language learning in Minecraft and OpenSim can help to guide teachers to innovate their teaching style and techniques, moving beyond the traditional lecture approach to classroom instruction. As a consequence, more communities of practice could help teachers grow and learn together with their colleagues, interweaving formal and informal training at the same time. Moreover, this could be a good way to introduce gamification and workshop activities with students and to persuade their parents that playing games in class is not a waste of time, but on the contrary, a potentially powerful way of improving their level of communicative competence in a foreign language. As a general suggestion, disseminating the results of the course, especially the games created by the participants in-world, is one way which we have found to encourage teachers to experiment and understand the added value of immersive worlds for language learning. The games created by the participants have also been made available as open educational resources for teachers to play and learn with their students in a virtual and immersive library.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors acknowledge the contribution to this project by INDIRE and Università Telematica degli Studi IUL Directorate and Presidency and the GUINEVERE Consortium partners. This research arose from a project funded with support from the European Commission (Project number: 2017-1-UK01KA201-036783). The information in this publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

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ADDITIONAL READING Cornillie, F., & Desmet, P. (2016). Mini-games for language learning. In F. Farr & L. Murray (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of language learning and technology (pp. 431–446). Routledge Handbooks. De Freitas, S. (2006). Learning in immersive worlds: a review of game-based learning. Joint Information Systems Committee. Peterson, M. (2016). Virtual worlds and language learning: an analysis of research. In F. Farr & L. Murray (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of language learning and technology (pp. 308–320). Routledge Handbooks. Rushkoff, D. (2006). Screenagers: Lessons in chaos from digital kids. Hampton Press. Sadler, R., & Dooly, M. (2014). Language learning in virtual worlds: Research and practice. In M. Thomas, H. Reinders, & M. Warschauer (Eds.), Contemporary computer-assisted language learning (pp. 159–182). Bloomsbury. Thomas, M., Benini, S., Schneider, C., Rainbow, C. A., Can, T., Simsek, T., Biber, S. K. & Cinganotto, L. (2018). Digital Game-Based Language Learning in 3D Immersive Environments: The Guinevere Project. Conference Proceedings: Innovation in Language Learning, Florence, Italy. Thomas, M., & Schneider, C. (2018). Language learning with machinima: Video production in 3D immersive environments. In P. Hubbard & S. Ioannou-Georgiou (Eds.), Teaching English reflectively with technology. IATEFL. Whitton, N. (2014). Games and learning: Research and theory. Routledge.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning or CLIL is an approach to foreign language teaching in which a content-based subject (e.g. business studies) is taught in the target language rather than in the first language or L1 of the learners. Community of Practice: or CoP is a group of people who interact to share a mutual interest or passion in order to improve their understanding and learning. Game-Based Learning: Or GBL is a type of teaching in which the principles of games are used, often to improve learner motivation, engagement and/or performance. These principles may include points or leaderboards for example. Immersive Worlds: These are online environments that aim to mirror the physical and/or fantasy world, in which users can build and create objects and interact, often in spoken and written language. Minecraft: A 3D immersive video game in which users build structures and buildings from resources that they discover and mine. Depending on the mode (either game or survival mode) users can cooperate or compete against other users to achieve their objectives. Moodle: A virtual learning environment (VLE) or course management system (CMS), Moodle is an open-source learning platform that enables teachers to store learning materials and activities to organise courses. OpenSim: Or OpenSimulator is a multi-user open-source 3D immersive environment which enables users to create and customize content and can be used for education and learning via voice and/or text chat.

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Minecraft Our City, an Erasmus Project in Virtual World: Building Competences Using a Virtual World Annalisa A. B. Boniello University of Camerino, Italy Alessandra A. C. Conti IC Nettuno 1, Italy

ABSTRACT Virtual worlds (VWs) offer alternative learning environments for geoscience education and give students a feeling of “being there.” In fact, VWs are also immersive environments that enable situated learning and constructivist learning in accordance with the Vygotsky theory, because the learner is inside an “imaginary” world context. In this environment, many activities and experiences can take place as scaffolding, cooperative learning, peer-to-peer and peer evaluation, coaching, scientific inquiry. Therefore, VWs can be a new technology to motivate students and provide the educational opportunities to learn in a socially interactive learning community. In the literature already, some studies report experiences carried out to investigate the effectiveness of virtual worlds in education. In the world, there are virtual worlds used for education such as Opensim and Samsara. Minecraft (https://www.minecraft.net/en-us/) is a virtual world used by new generations specially.

INTRODUCTION Nettuno 1 Comprehensive Public School - https://icnettuno1.edu.it - has been taking part in the Erasmus plus Project with Greece, the school leader, France and Spain from 2018 to 2020. The project is called ‘OUR CITY’ that involves primary and secondary school grades and is part of a search action path led by a group of teachers skilled in Virtual Worlds based learning: Open sim, Minecraft etc. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch013

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Our City Project started from the cooperation of four European countries: France, Greece, Italy and Spain. Teachers focus their attention on European culture and cooperation using the rebuilding of their cities in different ways. This activity is based on the largest tangible pieces of the nations’ cultural heritage, France, Greece, Italy and Spain, for instance. In this project students recreated their cities and monuments of their cities in Italy, Greece, Spain and France using different tools. The Italian team chose MINECRAFT. A groups of teachers used this tool to recreate monuments in Rome, Nettuno and Italian cities. This project promotes collaborative inclusion among the participants of the project through Minecraft. Constructivism is the educational philosophy that involves students in a world in which everything is created with their imagination and creativity. This environment improves the students’ skills such as problem solving, creativity, language and socialization. In this environment immersive education and learning is possible through lessons that improve the st 21 century skills, creative problem solving and digital citizenship. It is possible to use Minecraf Education Edition as a support of education in a world of tutorial and best practices. Minecraft can be used on personal computer, notebook, tablet and smartphone. This is a potential aspect of this educational world. In this environment it is possible to carry out exploration, storytelling, digital learning and game based learning. All these aspects are involved in this project. The Project has been following different phases. Project ‘OUR CITY’ was planned in three years and three stages. During the first year every country contributed to the design activities. The Italian team made up of Alessandra Conti, Maria Simona Lambiase, Raffaela Di Palma, Loredana Rocchetti, Raffaella Verbeni and other teachers created activities in their classrooms on Minecraft and chose the monuments of the city of Rome and the seatown of Nettuno in order to create a 3-D construction outline. Every classroom chose a monument and recreated it in the virtual world. In the first part of the first year students and teachers were in a training phase. Teachers learnt to use Minecraft attending a course held by an expert in Minecraft Marco Vigelini. In the same period students learnt how to use different tools on Minecraft and worked on Minecraft design and construction. Every classroom was divided into small groups of 3-4 students under the supervision of a coordinator. They worked in different environments and created monuments to share with students from France, Greece and Spain. At the end of first year (2018-19) students created different videos, shared them on YouTube and explained their work and environments. In the second year, in May 2019, students travelled to Greece to show their work to Spanish, French and Greek students. This collaborative work and the sharing of skills were fundamental for this project. Twelve students and six teachers worked in the Hill School in Athens and the other 49 members with the Spanish students from Barcelona, French students from Paris and Greek students from Athens. In October 2019 the Greek students arrived in Italy in the seatown of Nettuno near Rome and stayed a week to gain and have knowledge of the real Italian monuments that they visited in the virtual world of Minecraft. They managed to do sightseeing of the Colosseum and the monuments of Nettuno such as Borgo, Torre Astura, Forte Sangallo etc. During this meeting Italian students became the tutors of the Greek students and peer tutoring was used for the activities during the Italian week’s exchange. From 2020 to 2021 there is the last part of the project with a final journey to Spain in the city of Barcelona in the school of Saint Gervasi. In this project the Ecole Alsacienne of Paris took part, too. 294

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Figure 1. Students at work

The project participants are all students aged from 10 to 12 years old attending the last year of the primary school and the first year of the secondary school. All students worked in cooperation using different languages, digital devices and social media to exchange their cultural heritage and cultural knowledge.

Background There are only few examples in the literature presenting the use of virtual worlds for education and for game design (Slator et al., 1999). Other words as ‘cyberspace’ (from the science fiction’s books of Gibson, 1984) and ‘metaverse’ (from Snow Crash of Neal Stephenson, 1993) are often used to describe a virtual world. They give the idea of a space, particularly a 3D space, in which we can move, act, work, interact with others as in the real world. The virtual worlds were born especially as role play worlds (Castronova, 2008), firstly, in 1980s, as textual worlds called MUD (Multi User Dungeon or Multi User Dimension), then, in the 1990s, they became three dimensional worlds, known as MMORPG (Massive Multiplayer Online Role Playing Game).

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Figure 2. Building of work

Seymour Papert (1980) understood the importance of computer simulation for learning, introducing the concept of ‘microworld’ defined as ‘subset of reality or a constructed reality whose structure matches that of a given cognitive mechanism so as to provide an environment where the latter can operate effectively. The concept leads to the project of inventing microworlds so structured as to allow a human learner to exercise particular powerful ideas or intellectual skills’. Meanwhile researchers explored the use of virtual worlds according to the pedagogical principles of social - constructivism . This theory defines knowledge as the product of an active construction of the subject, it has a “located character “, anchored to a concrete context, taking place through special forms of collaboration and social negotiation. In this sense the student must be an ‘active learner’ that controls his learning. The focus point is the student (learner - centred) and his learning mode or style. Constructivism introduces also the concept of ‘learning environment’ that Wilson defines as “a ‘setting’ or a ‘space’ in which a learner acts, uses tools and resources, researches and interprets information by interacting with others (Wilson, 1996). It is ‘a learner centered process’, because it defines knowledge as complex strategy that meets his/her needs, involving and motivating learners. This project born from these experiences and it is based on use of new technologies to rebuild important cities of Europe: Barcelona, Paris, Athens, Rome and Nettuno (near Rome).

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Figure 3. Avatar of Minecraft

MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER Issues, Controversies, Problems This research was aimed at a new approach in education using a Multi User Virtual environment (Muve), defined Virtual World. Virtual Worlds (VWs) offer alternative learning environments for education and give students a feeling of “being there” (Slater, 2009). In fact, VWs are immersive environments that enable situated learning and constructivist learning in according to the Vygotsky theory (Vygotsky, 1978), because the learner is inside an “imaginary” world context. In this environment many activities and experiences can take place as scaffolding, cooperative learning, peer to peer and peer evaluation, coaching, scientific inquiry (Nelson & Ketelhut, 2007). Therefore, VWs can be a new technology to motivate students and provide the educational opportunities to learn in a socially interactive learning community. In the literature already some studies report experiences carried out to investigate the effectiveness of virtual worlds in science education, as ecology or biology (Dede 2009, 2014; Dickey, 2003, 2005a, 2005b) but there are no studies, up to now, about using virtual worlds for geoscience education (e.g. geo-game design, development a scientific literacy and best practices for geoscience education). The starting point of this research arises from the possibility of exploring the applications of VWs in education. The research focused on investigating the effectiveness of virtual worlds in the teaching/ learning for students of middle (11years old). Two are the research questions investigated:

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• •

Can a virtual world be effective to improve skills in education topics? Can an immersive experience in virtual worlds be a resource to motivate students in education? To answer the research questions, the following issues have been examined:

• •

Use of virtual worlds (knowledge and skill on virtual worlds) Student perception of the virtual path before and after the experience.

The starting point of this research is based on problem to address: the poor motivation in the study of in schools to learn cultural and history of our cities which carries away the students from these topics About motivation of students, two problems have become essential for teachers in the last years: first, trying to increase student motivation for cultural issues, by “keeping students motivated enough to stick with the learning process to the end of anything in classroom” (Prensky, 2002). In more recent years, the learning environment in education has diversified using virtual environments and new technologies At the same time this has produced different training methods in relation to students’ different learning styles (Gardner, 2011). In fact Gardner introduces the concept of multiples intelligences and for every type of intelligence there is a different learning style and a different training method (Kolb, 1986, 2005). Virtual worlds can improve intelligence multiple using immersive virtual environment that are built like reality, so student has impression to be in reality. In this context, immersive 3D environments have proved to be meaningful in offering an effective approach to support situated learning (Dede, 2014), learner- centered education and increasing new generation students’ motivation. Prensky defines this new generation of students as “digital native” suggesting that they need to be motivated in different ways (Prensky, 2001), closer to their interests and attitudes, such as the game-play (Prensky, 2002) and immersive environments (Clarke et al., 2006). A new technology that includes situated learning, learner - centered education, game based education can be the Virtual Worlds (VWs). These worlds like Minecraft use Game based approach, and it is easy for students and teachers ‘live’ in a game based environment using them. A virtual world can be considered a technology suitable to motivate students and provide educational opportunities to learn in a socially interactive learning community (Dede, 2010). Applications of the use of Virtual Worlds can be seen in the works of Dede (1995) and Dodds (2013). Dede uses the inquiry in two virtual world scenario called River City and Ecomuve, in which students as little scientist can explore and look for data on the biology of a river or of a lake. Dodds has experienced an experimental activity in Second Life using a sample of participants between the ages of 18 and 65. They were recruited from educator mailing lists and Second Life and divided in a control and an experimental group. Participants have learned data on genetics using an environment in Second Life (Genome Island) and at end of experimentation they filled a final test to detected acquired information. Dalgarno (2011) define, analyzing the subjects using 3D immersive virtual worlds, that only 19% of virtual worlds is on education and 5% on science. Dieterle and Clarke (2007) suggest several educational uses of virtual worlds, as reported in table 1.

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Table 1. Educational Uses of MUVEs (Dieterle & Clarke, 2007) (rielaborated) Uses in education of MUVEs creating online communities for pre-service teacher training and in-service professional development engaging science-based activities while promoting socially responsive behavior helping students understand and experience history by immersing them emotionally and politically in a historical context promoting social and moral development via cultures of enrichment providing an environment for programming and collaboration creatively exploring new mathematical concepts engaging in scientific inquiry

Table 2. Insights about learning and knowledge representation using virtual worlds (Dede, 1996) Insights about learning and knowledge representation using virtual worlds ‘Multisensory cues can engage learners, direct their attention to important behaviors and relationships, help students better understand different sensory perspectives, prevent interaction errors through feedback cues, and enhance perceived ease of use.’ ‘The introduction of new representations and perspectives can help students gain insights for remediating misconceptions formed through traditional instruction (e.g., many representations used by physicists are misleading for learners), as well as aiding learners in developing correct mental models. Our research indicates that qualitative representations (e.g., shadows showing kinetic energy in NewtonWorld, colors showing the magnitude of a force or energy in MaxwellWorld) increase saliency for crucial features of both phenomena and traditional representations.’ ‘Allowing multimodal interaction (voice commands, gestures, menus, virtual controls, and physical controls) facilitates usability and seems to enhance learning. Multimodal commands offer flexibility to individuals, allowing them to adapt the interaction to their own interaction preferences and to distribute attention when performing learning activities. For example, some learners prefer to use voice commands so that they need not redirect their attention from the phenomena of interest to a menu system. (However, if virtual worlds are designed for collaborative learning, voice may be a less desirable alternative.) ‘Initial experiences in working with students and teachers in Maxwell-World suggest collaborative learning may be achievable by having two or more students working together and taking turns “guiding the interaction,” “recording observations,” and “experiencing activities” in the virtual reality. Extending this to collaboration among multiple learners co- located in a shared synthetic environment may further augment learning outcomes.’ ‘In general, usability of the virtual environment appears to enhance learning. However, optimizing the interface for usability does not necessarily optimize for learning. We have found instances in which changes to make the user interface more usable may actually impede learning. For example, in NewtonWorld to use size as an indication of a ball’s mass is facile for learners, but would reinforce a misconception that mass correlates with volume.’

In the virtual worlds an avatar, a virtual representation of an user, can be called a “knowledge worker” (Bredl et al 2012) and he lives an alternative experience to reality, where the value he attaches to his presence may influence the effectiveness of such environments in education and teaching (Fedeli, 2014). These environments have, therefore, a socio - constructivist aspect in which the learning is ‘situated’ and develops through learning by doing. Here an authentic assessment can take place by simulating real contexts. This feature allows multiple educational activities. Duncan, Miller and Jiang (2012) have elaborated the following taxonomy of virtual worlds use in education: ‘Problem Based Learning (PBL), Enquiry Based Learning (EBL), Game Based Learning (GBL), Role Playing (RP), Virtual Quests, Collaborative Simulations (learn by simulation), Collaborative Construction (building activities), Design Courses (Game, Fashion, Architectural), Language Teaching and Learning, Virtual Laboratories, Virtual Field Works, Attending lectures or classes.’

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Moreover Dede lists in his work the insights about learning and knowledge representation using virtual worlds, as reported in the table 2. His idea is very interesting because underline the effectiveness of virtual worlds to increase motivation in the students. The virtual reality interface has the potential to complement existing approaches to science instruction through creating immersive inquiry environments for learners’ knowledge construction (Dede et al, 1996). All these works describe the reasons why participants might become engaged in a VWs because they promote: 1) intrinsic motivation, 2) intrapersonal factors such as challenge, 3) control, 4) fantasy, and 5) curiosity as well as interpersonal factors, such as 6) competition, 7) cooperation, and 8) recognition (Bartle, 2004). Moreover, a learning scenario on the screen can be the simulation of a scientific context even an imaginary context in which the feeling of immersion occurs with:1) The use of inputs (graphics, sound, visual perceptions of the passage through the environment);2) The customization of the avatar;3) The abilityto touch objects;4) The maps for geo-location;5) The possibility of communication through chat, instant messaging (IM) and voice (Boniello, 2010);6) The freedom of choice and autonomy in running the environment;7) The ability to design and build aspects of the environment;8) The presence of feedback mechanisms that help students to visualize their progress in the environment (Dede, 2012);9) The possibility of containing role play and serious game elements (Boniello and Paris, 2014).Students aren’t only observers, but they are active in the metaverse, develop new skills, can acquire new knowledge and behaviors, learn the consequences or impact of their actions in a protected environment (Joyce and Weil, 1996 cit in Ranieri 2005). These activities can have effects and outcomes in the real life. Bartle (2003) states that “Virtual Worlds offer automated rules that enable users to change the world they live in. Students can live a virtual learning experience similar to real experience and this is possible through the use of simulation to recreate, in a safety mode, an event, a context or a problem Dede, 1996)and chemistry (Trindade, J., and C. Fiolhais., 1999 and Lang & Brandly, 2009). Some examples of educational uses of virtual worlds have been recently presented by many University and school educators in three conferences: Immersive Education Summit (IeD), Opensimulator online conference (OOC) and Virtual Worlds Best Practice in Education conference (VWBPE).There aren’t in these conferences and in the international framework many researches on virtual worlds on geoscience education although in these learning environments, scientific skills can be improved (National Research Council, 2011). Some examples of virtual worlds presented in the international conferences and dedicated to the sciences are: Vibe, Fleepgrid, River City and EcoMuve (an Harvard university project in particular on biology and ecology). Especially Harvard University is working on the MUVEs for learning scientific inquiry and 21st century skills with the projects River city and Ecomuve since 2002 to present.Edward Dieterle and Jody Clarkeof Harvard University suggest that this approach is changing teaching and learning strategies. Dieterle and Clarke underline the importance of these environments as mentioned by the following quotation: ‘such as River City, is their ability to leverage aspects of authentic learning conditions that are hard to cultivate in traditional classroom settings (Griffin, 1995). In addition to creating experiences that take advantage of the situated and distributed nature of cognition, MUVE also allows for the design of situations that are not possible or practical in the real world. Through the affordances of a MUVE, researchers and designers can create scenarios with real-world verisimilitude that are safe, cost effective, and directly target learning goals.’Indeed the experimentation on the geoscience educationis not many represented. There are only some examples as the World Wide Web Instructional Committee (WWWIC) at North Dakota State University (Borchert & alt., 2001), 3D virtual geology field trips of 300

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Daden (2013) or on geology explorer (Slatoret al., 1999).In particular for disaster management and to improve best practice in civil protection there are not experiences or works published. Unfortunately in the international scenario and especially in Italy there are not a lot of quantitative or qualitative research on geoscience education to promote best practices for civil protection using virtual worlds.In addition, there are no information of application about this topic in the Italian school system. Therefore, this study represents an experimentation carried out to investigate the outcomes of an innovative strategy in italian context to improve the teaching and learning geoscience and to obtain information on the effectiveness of the method in geoscience education to improve best practices in civil protection. Unfortunately in the international scenario and especially in Italy there are not a lot of quantitative or qualitative research on geoscience education to promote best practices for civil protection using virtual worlds. In Italian framework we can see some examples of educational virtual world based on Opensim. A first examples is EdMondo, a project of INDIRE (National Institutefor Documentation, Innovation and Educational Research, to promote the use of virtual worlds in education and create a community of educators that use the virtual worlds for teaching. A second Examples is Craft a general purpose worlds that organizes educational activities on differents topic as mathematics, history and art. An interesting experience is developed by prof. Michelina Occhioni that created a group of a dozen thematic islands dedicated to mathematics, chemistry, biology and earth science. Student target is K6-K8 grade. She is a science and math teacher in a middle school of south of Italy. The goal is to integrate different learning setting in order to increase the quality of teaching and to motivate students Instructional design for a educational virtual world like this project is based on a background of experiences. In the international framework, there are different examples and models to build an educational virtual environment (Dede, 2010). In this research, the model of instructional design to develop and create the virtual environment take start from another experience (https://d7.unicam.it/unicamearthisland/) called Unicam Earth Island project (Boniello et others, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016) has been done according to the ADDIE model. This model is the most used for 3D educational virtual environment (Soto, 2013). The ADDIE model is divided in the following cyclic phases: Analyze, design, develop, implement, evaluate. To create paths, for every step of the cycle the following activities has been applied: The Analyze phase consisted in the analysis of learners, the learning context, the time of implementation. The Design phase dealt with the learning theory and goals of learning. In the Develop phase, the island and the geoscience paths were built. In the Implement phase tutorials and guide sheets were created, to work in the virtual learning environment. The last phase, the Evaluation, was applied before the experimentation (with pilot groups of science teachers) and during the experimentation. Other aspects considered in Implementation of this project are those about the computer-mediated communication (CMC) such as the principles described by Mayer (2009). Others principles used in the implementation of learning paths are Merrill principles. They are key principles for instructional design for Merrill (2002), they are described in the following table 3.

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Table 3. Principles for CMC – Merrill PRINCIPLES OF MERRILL (2002) Engage in a task-centered instructional strategy (Task-centered). Activate prior knowledge or experience (Activation). Observe a demonstration (Demonstration). Integrate their new knowledge into their everyday world (Integration). Apply the new knowledge (Application).

The task-centered principle puts students in the center of strategy, activation principle underlines that must be activate prior knowledge or experience, demonstration defines that student must observe a demonstration of a theory, integration defines that new knowledge of students must be integrated with their everyday world, last principle is application, students must apply new knowledges. Since its creation and up to the moment of the writing of this chapter, the implementation of environments in Minecraft has been a work in progress because in every experimentation the users (students and teachers) interact with the environment, adding their contents or objects. The project has been a community of practice on education and a laboratory in which there are always new paths or projects in progress. An example is the final project of the online interaction between Greece and Italy in the Minecraft world, created by Italian students themselves. This virtual world have been built according to the educational theory of constructivism, such as a constructivist environment, where teachers and students have experienced learning paths and activities on cultural aims. Situated learning and learning by doing activities have been applied in order to improve knowledge and skills on geosciences and engaging students in a virtual learning environment based on geoscience experiences. The classification learning paths created for the research, I have used an elaboration of the classification of educational materials in virtual worlds of the Salamander project (Richter, 2007). According to this guide the engagement types of the learning paths can be: demonstrative, experiential, diagnostic, role play, constructive and collaborative. I suggest also other categories, which I used in this research: cooperative, serious game, informative and explorative. In the table 4 there is an elaboration of Richter’s table (2007) on engagement types. To make use of the virtual words listed above, educators have experienced different learning designs and different technologies. The project on the best learning designs or the best technology for virtual worlds is quite recent because there are several possibilities to create a learning environment in the VWs. In fact, a variety of educational methodologies and approach have been applied and experienced in virtual worlds. Some experiences are on EBL (Dodds, 2013) or on IBSE24 (Ketelhut, D. J., Nelson, B. C., Clarke, J., & Dede, 2010; Boniello, 2009a, 2009b, Boniello & Gallitelli, 2013a, 2013b, 2013c), on PBL (Bignell & Parson, 2010), on Role Play (de Freitas, 2008). Only in the field of game design there are a lot of publications, which can help educators working on virtual worlds design (Dondlinger M. J., 2007). A simplification comes out from the work of Aldrich (2009), who suggests that virtual worlds, games, and simulations are in the same sphere of interest. He defines them all ‘highly interactive virtual environments (Hives)’. The idea of effectiveness of a game in the learning process was born with the book ‘Homo Ludens’ of Huizinga (1973) while, in the following years, Marc Prensky (2005) suggests the effectiveness of digital games in learning for the new generation so called digital native. In the virtual

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environment can be used a structured level of inquiry in which students as scientists acquire scientific skills such as: 1.Characterize scientific matters 2.Give a scientific explanation of the phenomena 3.Using evidence based on scientific data. Analyzing data, students formulate responses so they can go to the next step click on an object in the virtual world. Table 4. Engagement types, modified from Richter (2007) Engagement Types demonstration

Learners engage with learning objects through observation and demonstration most closely aligned with reallife traditional educational experiences

experiential

Differs from a demonstration in the degree to which the student is immersed in the Learning Materials. Learner is enveloped or immersed using multiple modes of input (sound, color, texture, etc.).

diagnostic

Learners interact with a simulated environment designed to promote inquiry, analysis, and identification with formative or summative assessment tools

role play

Learners on personas enabling them to learn and engage through interaction with a story or narrative aligned with a specific character. critical and or historical inquiry the self-personified in situated contexts community / relationships / situations

constructive

learners access to information through hands-on experimentation, discovery, and creative building and problem solving

collaborative

Learners collaborate to produce knowledge or make activities and develop skills

cooperative

Learners, each one of them for a single part, cooperate to build something all together

serious game (or challenge)

Learners are engaged in a game with a challenge or a mission and to complete it they learn and develop skills

informative

Learners can read a text, click on a object to get information with pictures, sounds or models

explorative

Learners walk and explore an area such as a volcanic landscape or a seismograph and observe how this one works.

The word ‘serious game’ was born in the last years to mark the games with educational purpose. de Freitas defines ‘serious’ the virtual worlds with educational aims. Only in 2008 Sara de Freitas gives a classification on the use of virtual worlds in education. She suggests a classification of virtual worlds. They can be divided into: role play worlds as World of Warcraft or Everquest, social worlds as Second life, Active world, Whyville, Kitely, working worlds as IBM Metaverse, training worlds(as military simulation) and mirror worlds as Google Earth. The educational features of a Virtual World are: sharing, collaboration, user control, persistence, preservation and duration, immersion and interactivity (De Freitas, 2006).Today the word ‘MUVE’ (Multi user Virtual environment) describes better a virtualworld according to the social aspect of this environment. In these metaverses it is possible to recreate educational activities and experiences in a multi user mode.Muves can be created with different technologies. In fact in the international frameworkmany types of technologies are used to create virtual worlds as Unreal Engine, Unity, Minecraft, World of Warcraft, Opensim, Second life., but many educators use virtual worlds based on the Opensimtechnology because this technology is an open source and easy to use both for teachers and students.

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Educational simulations use rigorously structured scenarios with a highly refined set of rules, challenges, and strategies which are carefully designed to develop specific competencies that can be directly transferred into the real world. Games are fun engaging activities usually used purely for entertainment, but they may also allow people to gain exposure to a particular set of tools, motions, or ideas. All games are played in a synthetic (or virtual) world structured by specific rules, feedback mechanisms, and requisite tools to support them – although these are not as defined as in simulations. Virtual worlds are multiplayer (and often massively multiplayer) 3D persistent social environments, but without the focus on a particular goal, such as advancing to the next level or successfully navigating the scenario. (from games in education: serious game)purpose as well. A serious virtual world can include games and simulations and in it students can learn according to the model of experiential learning cycle of Kolb (1984). They suggest to follow the principles of Paul Gee (2003, 2005) that defines the most important features for an effective game based learning. Six of thirty-six principles are described in Table 5 and they represent an examples of how we can create a serious game path. Table 5. Six of Principles of Paul Gee (2003) Six of Principles of Paul Gee on game based learning Active, Critical Learning Principle

All aspects of the the learning environment (including ways in which the semiotic domain is designed and presented) are set up to encourage active and critical, not passive, learning

Design Principle

Learning about and coming to appreciate design and design principles is core to the learning experience

Semiotic Principle

Learning about and coming to appreciate interrelations within and across multiple sign systems (images, words, actions, symbols, artifacts, etc.) as a complex system is core to the learning experience

Committed Learning Principle

Learners participate in an extended engagement (lots of effort and practice) as an extension of their real-world identities in relation to a virtual identity to which they feel some commitment and a virtual world that they find compelling

Practice Principle

Learners get lots and lots of practice in a context where the practice is not boring (i.e. in a virtual world that is compelling to learners on their own terms and where the learners experience ongoing success). They spend lots of time on task.

Probing Principle

Learning is a cycle of probing the world (doing something); reflecting in and on this action and, on this basis, forming a hypothesis; reprobing the world to test this hypothesis; and then accepting or rethinking the hypothesis

Cycle of four stages: of (1) having a concrete experience followed by (2) observation of and reflection on that experience which leads to (3) the formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and generalizations (conclusions) which are then (4) used to test hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new experiences. These principles have been used in this research to build serious game on earth science. Practice and probing principles of a game in education have been more used in the building of Unicam Earth island serious game. The interaction between teachers and students in a 3D learning environment was studied by Gilly Salmon (2011).

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She worked on the Media Zoo27 project in Second Life and has suggested ‘five stage model’ to develop a course in a virtual world. In these principles, Salmon describes the role of teacher called ‘emoderator’ and a model for teaching in virtual worlds (Salmon, 2010, 2013). The principles are listed in the table 6. Table 6. Elaborated from five stage model of Salmon (2010) PRINCIPLES OF GILLY SALMON access and motivation

welcoming and encouraging

online socialization

familiarization and providing bridges between cultural social and learning environments

information exchange

Facilitating task and supporting use of learning materials

knowledge construction

Facilitating process

Development

supporting responding

The principles of Salmon are used in the interaction in virtual worlds for teachers or for students. The principles used and listed in the tables represent the last applications of new technologies in education. Only Gilly Salmon has worked in virtual worlds for her theory. In this research other principles and theories described have been applied for the first time in virtual worlds to build educational paths. In this research, the aim was to evaluate the effectiveness of virtual world technology using also principles of research of Santoianni in education (Santoianni, 2006 and 2010). The principal idea in this project was to create educational paths on cities for students and teachers of middle school experimenting their effectiveness on motivation and citizenship skills. This experience takes place in a 3D virtual island, called Minecraft, built for this research project using software of Minecraft education (www.minecraft.net). Minecraft is a virtual platform where students and teachers can study, collaborate and create activities on education. In the world, the following paths have been designed and developed for the research project: Rebuild of Torre Astura, centre of Nettuno city, Tor Caldara (geological syte), naturalistic landscape of Nettuno with sea, Colosseum of Rome, Centre of Nettuno. So this project is based on improving cultural, scientific and citizenship competencies. This experience is part of a Erasmus plus project. The use of a 3D virtual world as Minecraft is an element of innovation because this world is a virtual world in use of new generation of students especially in pupils of primary school. Minecraft Education Edition is a collaborative 3D platform that teachers and educators can use to improve competences and digital skills in their students. Minecraft is a 3D virtual land where users-students can create their own worlds and experiences, using building blocks, resources discovered on the site and their own creativity The game is available on a computer, smartphone, tablet, XBox or Playstation. Students in their daily life use this environment to play, build environment and interact eachothers also in online interaction. So this tool looked much easy to use for them and much near their life. So Minecraft was, for project, the best option like tools and virtual world. Expected impact and transferability potential were based on these starting points: 1)Minecraft is as a game with no rules. 2)It doesn’t come with a set of instructions, or a stated objective – players can build and explore however they want. It’s often compared to virtual Lego. 3)Users can

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recreate an existing fantasy world or build a new one from scratch, they can fight villains and seek adventure, and they can play alone or with friends. 4)In Minecraft, children can create their own adventures at any level of play. 5)Minecraft’s focus on creatively building and exploring could help children build their problem solving, planning and organisation skills. 6) kids who play with their friends might find it improves their ability to work as a team. After these starting points there were some interesting aspects like these following: Some parents of children with autism have credited the game with improving their children’s social skills and communication abilities – there is even a Minecraft server specifically for young people with autism and ADHD. This digital activity can be proposed in different context, different countries and with different children because Minecraft is growing in popularity especially among primary-aged children. Minecraft is a game, but it is a serious game in which children can learn using game based learning methodology. Teachers works in Minecraft with students using photo, google map and collecting real data with a collaborative and cooperative learning work in little groups. In this environment teachers are as coordinators of all groups using a student centered activity with a constructivist methodology. Teachers are like mentors to improve a significant learning with a final authentic assessment and at end of project guidelines and tutorials on this work as a best practices for other teacher have been made and spread to other countries partners. Students in this project used Minecraft to build a scale model of their city and monuments of their cities. Minecraft has some interesting features: it is a game where you dig (mine) and build (craft) different kinds of 3D blocks within a large world of varying terrains and habitats to explore. Users-students can play by themselves (single player) or with others (multiplayer). There are two game modes to choose from - creative (where players have an unlimited number of blocks and items to build but in this game option you can’t die) or survival (players must find and build everything they need to avoid death by hunger, injury or attack from hostile creatures). There are also different levels of difficulty, each with its own unique features and challenges. We have used the creative mode for this project so students made and created their cities (Rome and Nettuno) and they could walk in them as virtual avatar (a digital representation of themselves) the city to other students, also creating videos in the virtual world. They will build the virtual city using photos, google map and real data. Each partner (France, Greece and Spain) used Minecraft to build a part of this virtual world, rebuilding their cities in Minecraft. Students of different cities For this aim, Italian students and teachers created activities and tutorials that partners have used to learn and use Minecraft virtual world, classroom activities and lesson plans created by italian teachers team. Students of 4-5 class of primary school (9 and 10 years old) and first class of secondary school (11 years old). The project we involved students with special needs to improve social skills and citizenship competencies. This Erasmus+ is a wonderful opportunity for both our pupils, staff and parents to embed a European dimension into our school ethos. We will benefit from the experience of partners who have already taken part in Erasmus+ as well as developing our own ability to work with European partners. This project wanted a sharing of ICT tools: how they teach with these tools, especially the use of the environment, so that we can develop and improve our own teaching and learning. In this project we involved all of the school pupils from age 9 to 11, all staff and the wider community at every opportunity.

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The activities and experience of school IC Nettuno 1 in the areas relevant to this project will be the creation of a digital game based learning using the software on Minecraft Education Edition Objective wasto transfer the project into the virtual environment Minecraft: Education Edition In addition to practical implementation there will be the development of tutorial and tools to create a Minecraft “world” called “OUR CITY” related to the construction of cities, as well as the development of examples of “worlds” based on the real experience deriving from the implementation of the project. These activities will provide a useful tool for the dissemination of project results through the implementation of the educational project by teachers to other groups of children. It will also be useful for transmitting the educational content of the project to children in an engaging way. Our experience will be based on ICT. It will experiment with the introduction of new educational methods (game based learning), created on the use of an interactive digital 3D environment and will facilitate the implementation of the project in many schools and the dissemination of the project results directly to children. The final product will be as complete as possible, subject to the limitations established by the “Minecraft” software distributors. The skills and competences of the key people involved in this project are already underway because in some of our classes we are already experimenting with the use of Minecraft to improve learning, there are teachers who are training to improve their skills and that at the time of implementation of the project will be able to achieve the goal and to be able to communicate to other partners how to use the software. This study reports the results of the experimentation carried out on a group of classes of primary and middle school in Italy, Spain, Greece and France, comprising 50 students and 16 teachers. Teachers have been involved as well, to investigate how and to which extent an innovative strategy could improve the teaching of in school. Both teachers and students participate to the online activities and to the evaluation of the competences. To collect the data and answer the research question, a mixed method, including both quantitative and qualitative, data has been used and are in evaluation: questionnaires, observations and interviews have been used to test the paths. The first results obtained from this research suggest that virtual worlds are potentially effective in education. The results obtained on the student’s evidence that this immersive environment 1) is motivating and involving, 2) increases the learning outcomes about knowledge and skills acquisition, 3) increases the students’ interaction with peers and teachers and their appreciation for collaborative work, 4) improve their interest to study topics as culture and history of our cities. The teachers participating the research, also noted the effectiveness of this methodology on motivation and learning of students, more of a traditional mode. In particular, the teachers noted that this approach: 1) increases attention and motivation, 2) increases problem solving and development of creativity, collaboration and cooperation, 3) allows simulation of ideal city and situated learning, 4) can be an environment to create education activities, E-Activities and authentic assessment. The intellectual outputs of the proposed project are designed with a view to facilitating its reiteration in different environments, by different schools, teachers, children, that did not participate in the original implementation. A “multichannel” approach is followed, that ranges from traditional printed material to web-based applications, including a board game and a documentary. This approach is based on the conviction that the multiplicity of ways to reach content can largely improve pedagogical effectiveness. Our cities: Pedagogical implementation guide and open educational resources on selected subjects Scope: A detailed guide of the educational project for application by teachers to schools/groups of children, beyond project participants and OER on subjects elaborated during the implementation of 307

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the project: technical (transport, recycling, energy, pollution …), political (democracy, representation, minority rights …), social (refugees, multiculturalism, unemployment, poverty …) Various chapters regarding theoretical and practical aspects of the project, step-by-step guide for implementation and an Annex with appropriately designed sheets for evaluation of the results of the project’s implementation. Project also include: • • • •

theme maps of actual and imaginary cities, bibliographies, list of useful sites for educators, file containing material produced by each group of children during the implementation of the project (interviews, journals, questionnaires, records of meetings)

Contribution to the general objective of the project: will be essential for the dissemination of the project’s results and will provide a useful basis for the implementation of the educational project by other teachers/schools/groups of children. Innovation of project is both in design and in content and will carry the innovative capacity of the project to larger audiences. Potential impact will enable the implementation of the project in many schools/groups of children, who are expected to benefit from its educational potential. It will also provide valuable material for other educational activities. This project will include elaborations of guidelines and tools for developing new Minecraft “worlds” related to city-construction, as well as the development of examples of “worlds”, based on the actual experience from the implementation of the project. Contribution to the general objective of the project: will provide a useful tool for the dissemination of the project’s results through the implementation of the educational project by teachers to other groups of children. It will also be useful for conveying the educational content of the project to children in an immersive way.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Whereas all the previous aspects have been very well received by the teachers, some problems have been also detected, like 1) the digital divide between teachers and students, 2) the still scarce access to technologies by schools, 3) the limited time to dedicate to new experiences, 4) the necessary training of teachers. Most of these issues can be resolved with solutions based on a good planning of the experience and an active involvement of the Principal and the instrumental figures in the school. On the other side, this approach contributes effectively to decrease the digital divide and effectively connect teachers and students. These results can be used to new experimentations in the future on other virtual paths and on the development of expertise of teachers in the use of virtual worlds in education. This research doesn’t claim that virtual learning environments can replace traditional teaching but they represent an excellent integration. In this perspective virtual worlds have strong potentials to reproduce real situations into virtual environment. This is especially interesting to model a situation or a

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phenomenon in time or space, with good applications in education topics requires a better knowledge about the environment.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS As a final remark, the results obtained in this research do not claim that virtual learning environments can replace real environment learning, but they represent an excellent integration. In this perspective virtual worlds, in the planning of the activities proposed, must also show virtual problematic situations linked to live experiences or phenomena. These results can bring to new experimentations in future on other virtual paths and on the development of the teachers’ expertise in the use of virtual worlds in education.

CONCLUSION The aim of this research was to investigate the use of virtual worlds in education and evaluate its effectiveness for learning in Minecraft in an Erasmus plus project. To carry out this experiment a virtual 3D world was built using Minecraft. In this virtual island students and teachers have experienced virtual 3D paths on topics related to monuments and their cities. This study was experimented in Italian middle and primary school, where students and teachers used paths built in a virtual world called Minecraft. To answer the research questions the following issues have been examined: 1. Use of virtual worlds like Minecraft (knowledge and skills on virtual worlds) 2.Effectiveness of using virtual worlds in terms of acquired knowledge and skills in education topics 3. Motivation of students to use virtual worlds for learning This research is based on the starting point that there is still little application of virtual worlds in education in the international framework and, moreover, there is no experience about education in Italy and abroad. Also, there are no attempts of experimentations or data collection on the use or effectiveness of virtual worlds on education. This project is the first (to my knowledge at August 2020) that use Minecraft for an Erasmus plus project.. The results of this research suggest that virtual worlds are potential effective in education to enhance learning outcomes in learning for students of middle school. It emerged that science teachers can be motivated to use a virtual world for education. Results highlight that Italian teachers think that a virtual world is an innovative way to do education, different from a more traditional methodology, for the following points: 1) Increase of attention and motivation 2) increased level of problem solving and development of creativity, collaboration and cooperation 3) allow simulation of a context and situated learning 4) can be an environment to create authentic assessments. These data are similar to data collected from the research on other topics (biology or ecology) in other countries using virtual worlds (Dede, 2010, Barab et Al., 2007 and Clark, 2009). In this study many of the teachers involved in the research noted the positive effect of this methodology on motivation and learning of students in the education.

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To show the effectiveness of this methodology, in this research a online course for science teachers was organized in a world. The results of participation and of the test show that the demand of new technologies in education is growing fast. Online collaboration between teachers increased collaboration between teachers even outside the course. As a final remark, the results obtained in this research do not claim that virtual learning environments can replace real environment learning, but they represent an excellent integration. In this perspective virtual worlds, in the planning of the activities proposed, must also show virtual problematic situations linked to live experiences or phenomena. These results can bring to new experimentations in future on other virtual paths and on the development of the science teachers’ expertise in the use of virtual worlds in education. The research project evidenced that 3D environment is useful for education, but results highlighted some limitations. These can be regarded as cultural obstacles, for example the digital divide between teachers and students, or technical obstacles, like the access to technologies by schools, the time required for the experience, the training of teachers. All these obstacles, seen as serious limitations at first, can be solved with different solutions based on a good planning of the experience and involving the principal and the instrumental figures in the school. A positive aspect was that for the online course is that no travel was required, so students can participate from the comfort of their own homes, encouraging them in participating also in lockdown. This gave them more time to learning the use of virtual worlds for education and, at the end, more confidence. Finally, regarding the digital divide between students and teachers, the initial worries of the teachers rapidly disappeared and the experience in the class with the students proved instead that the communication between them actually improved. Confidence is based on the use of virtual worlds in education, and there are so much teachers that could and should learn and use new technologies in their classroom. This experience ended in Covid pandemic situation. The only chance was provided by the virtual world of Minecraft in which students were able to meet each others in virtual worlds. This is a good starting point for a new project in the future.

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Salmon, G. (2004). The five stage model. http://www. gillysalmon. com/five-stage-model. html Salmon, G. (2011). E-moderating: The key to teaching and learning online (3rd ed.). Routledge. Salmon, G. (2013). E-tivities: The key to active online learning (2nd ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203074640 Salmon, G., Nie, M., & Edirisingha, P. (2010). Developing a five-stage model of learning in Second Life. Educational Research, 52(2), 169–182. doi:10.1080/00131881.2010.482744 Santoianni, F. (2006). Educabilità cognitiva. Apprendere al singolare, insegnare al plurale. Carocci. Santoianni, F. (2010). Modelli e strumenti di insegnamento. Approcci per migliorare l’esperienza didattica. Carocci. Scapellato, B., Paris, E., & Invernizzi, C. (2013). In-Service Teacher Training to Take Ibse Approach into Earth, Science Teaching in Italian Secondary Schools. Intern. Conference on New perspectives in Science education. Slator, B. M., Saini-Eidukat, B., & Schwert, D. P. (1999). A Virtual World for Earth Science Education in Secondary and Post-Secondary Environments: The Geology Explorer. Proceedings of International Conference on Mathematics / Science Education and Technology Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE), 519-525. Slator, B. M., Saini-Eidukat, B., & Schwert, D. P. (1999). A Virtual World for Earth Science Education in Secondary and Post-Secondary Environments: The Geology Explorer. Proceedings of International Conference on Mathematics / Science Education and Technology Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Soto, J. (2013, September). Which instructional design models are educators using to design virtual world instruction? Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 9(3). Stephenson, N. (1993). Snow Crash. Bantam-Random. Vygotsky, L. S. (1967). Play and its role in the mental development of the child. Social Psychology, 5(3), 6–18. Wilson, B. G. (1996). Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instructional design. Educational Technology.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Active Learning: Learning with action in active mode and not in passive mode. Immersion: Feeling to ‘be here’ in an environment (also if it is virtual). Minecraft: Virtual world and social world for game and education. Second Life: Virtual world and social world. Serious Game: Game in Education with education aim. Social World: Environment where there is social interaction. Virtual Worlds: Virtual worlds are multiplayer (and often massively multiplayer) 3D persistent social environments.

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Chapter 14

Techland:

New Educational Paths Focused on Energy Resources and Sustainability Using Virtual Worlds Michelina Occhioni School of Science and Technology, Geology Division, University of Camerino, Italy Eleonora Paris School of Science and Technology, Geology Division, University of Camerino, Italy

ABSTRACT Techland is a virtual world completely focused on math and science (geosciences, chemistry, biology) for K6-K8 students, which has been well tested for school activities and projects in an Italian middle school. Recently, Techland has made a slowly transition from a general STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) world to a more specific and contextualized environment, with the aim to apply scientific concepts to the challenge that our society has to face today: climate change, exploitation of raw materials, pollution/remediation, green energy. Themes like circular and shared economy, sustainability, ONU Agenda 2030 Sustainable Development Goals are becoming more and more important in education. Therefore, Techland virtual environments have been expanded and improved and new environments have been created. An interdisciplinary perspective has been adopted to treat environmental themes using an inquiry-based learning methodology (IBL) adapted to virtual worlds and activities based on collaborative building, storytelling (machinima videos), and gamification.

INTRODUCTION The development model that permeated society during the entire twentieth century, when we had the illusion that our natural resources were endless, has reached a turning point, almost to a point of no return. The question is simple: are we living far above our Planet’s ability to provide enough resources for all? Will we be able to reduce waste? For some time now, environmental sustainability, waste manDOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch014

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 Techland

agement, decarbonization and renewable energy (Edenhofer et al, 2011) have been considered as the set of solutions that could mitigate climate change and the depletion of natural resources (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2013, 2019). In September 2015 a world committee, ratified by several countries within a United Nations framework, relaunched the so-called “Agenda 2030” development program for the planet to be implemented by 2030 (United Nations, 2015). The seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are all interconnected, in order to leave no one behind and provide an ambitious and holistic reference framework, with the aim of radically transforming society towards the path of sustainability, seeking new societal models compatible with a more conscious consumption of the finite resources available, and regeneration of waste. These goals have been built on the achievements of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). In simple terms, the entire concept of Sustainable Development means that we can be sustainable only if we address some important issues involving the economic, environmental, and social fields (Allen et al, 2016). The challenge is global, everyone is involved. In particular, the 2030 Agenda recognizes the critical role of education as a catalyst for broader change. Education is itself a goal, SDG4 – Quality Education (Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all). It aims to grant access to education for all, eliminating gender disparities and to improve the poor conditions of schools in developing countries, to train teachers, to promote technical knowledge and the skills needed to promote sustainable development (UNESCO, 2017). Knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that empower people to contribute to sustainable development are required for people to become sustainability change-makers. Education, therefore, is crucial for the achievement of sustainable development. UNESCO recommend to plan and run ESD projects (Education for Sustainable Development) in schools and Universities and one of the main topics is “Basic skills and competencies needed in the 21st century” (Dede, 2010), which are necessary to support sustainability. Citizens in the twenty-first century must have the ability to coexist peacefully with the environment. To achieve this, they should have environmental literacy and awareness about the dynamic relationship in which our behavior is constantly affecting and being affected by everything natural and human in the Earth’s systems. Over one million school students recently went on strike for climate, inspired by Greta Thunberg (Carrington, 2019) and this demonstrates how much young people are sensitive to the problems our Earth is encountering. A better knowledge of the Earth’s structure and dynamic processes, the geo-resources, the natural hazards and the impacts of human activities, can increase their awareness regarding the environmental problems of our planet and their effects on people. In this framework, ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) can accelerate and improve the approach to the SDGs through formal, non-formal and informal learning (UNESCO, 2017) and promoting low-cost e-learning activities. By granting access to this knowledge to all people in the world, regardless of where they live or how much they earn, ICT also helps to narrow the digital divide between generations and empower communities. One of the main characteristics of the Agenda 2030 goals is that they are designed to be challenged from a global point of view and in a trans-disciplinary way. So, it is important for young students to approach them with a different perspective, going beyond the single subject and contextualized learning in their everyday life. In this framework, virtual worlds such as ITC’s, offer great potential as an effective platform for a variety of collaborative activities (role play, case studies, reconstruction of possible future scenarios, storytelling) to foster learning. This paper describes how virtual worlds can support learning on sustainability, with the aim of:

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explore the application of new teaching methodologies to engage students develop interdisciplinary didactic paths favoring a holistic vision of the Earth system and its strongly interconnected subsystems, bringing out the close correlation between structural and functional knowledge of our Planet with environmental awareness provide guidelines to enhance Geoscience learning within the school curriculum as a way to advance the approach to SDGs topics foster the acquisition of the digital literacy skills necessary for the 21st century, especially information and data literacy, communication and collaboration, digital content creation, problem solving (Carretero et al., 2017).

BACKGROUND Virtual Worlds Virtual worlds (VW) are defined as MUVEs (Multi User Virtual Worlds), online simulated spaces where avatars (the customizable graphical model of the user) can explore, build, code, interact with each other and with objects. Since the VW Second Life became a global phenomenon, researchers have been exploring the potential of virtual worlds for teaching purposes (Littleton & Bayne, 2008). In particular, researcher explored the potential of Opensimulator (Allison et al.,2012), an “open-source multi-platform, multi-user 3D application server”. It can be used to simulate virtual environments (opensimulator.org) similar to Second Life (secondlife.com). OpenSimulator (OpenSim for short) offer a lot of advantages with respect to Second life in the educational field, because it can run on a personal server, with less costs and more control on user access and customization (Allison & Miller, 2012). To access an Opensimulator-based VW it is necessary to use a graphical user interface (viewer), for instance Firestorm (firestormviewer.org), that is the same used to access Second Life. Different versions for OpenSim and Second Life are now available to better manage some particular features (https://www.firestormviewer. org/choose-your-platform/). In a review work spanning about 20 years, Dalgarno and Lee (2010) identified a set of unique characteristics of virtual learning environments (VLEs) that can facilitate learning, particularly spatial knowledge, situated and experiential learning, increased motivation and effective collaboration learning. According to Wilson (1996) a constructivist environment is “a place where learners may work together and support each other as they use a variety of tools and information resources in their guided pursuit of learning goals and problem-solving activities”, which is what Dede (1995) illustrated as a virtual world. In 1999 Jonassen defined a set of principles for the design of constructivist learning environments that facilitate the construction of knowledge, according to social constructivist views: • • • • 318

the learning environment must be focused on a relevant and engaging problem to be solved by the learner. the teacher acts as a coach, preparing cognitive tools, also technology-enhanced, providing a space rich in easy and accessible information and communication/collaboration tools. students can select information, interpreting the multiple perspectives of the problem and searching for solutions, teachers must provide an alternative assessment, analyzing their strategies to solve it.

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Dickey (2005) emphasized the role of 3D virtual worlds in providing “experiential” and “situated” learning. Clark and Maher (2005) highlighted how virtual environments encourage “collaboration and constructivism”. So, a virtual world “can be considered a constructivist platform based on the learning theories expressed by Piaget (1936) and, later, in the socio-constructivism of Vygotsky (1978), offering many opportunities for teaching and learning (Gül et.al., 2012). Opensimulator allows the creation of constructivist scenarios that follow the Wilson definition and the Jonassen principles. From a technical point of view, in fact, the Opensimulator-based virtual worlds viewers include the tools needed to work and collaborate together: • • •

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Synchronous and asynchronous communication, in text chat or voice communication, are important to share ideas, to plan and divide jobs, to schedule meetings about the state of the art of the project. Multimedia presentations can be shown on panels for meeting and conferences. Slides are imported in the worlds as images. Building tools embedded in the viewer allow students to build in a fast and easy way starting from a primitive shape or “prim”. A lot of resources (objects, textures, animation, visual effects) can be found in specialized websites and in-world, also by traveling between different virtual worlds (hypergrid protocol, http://opensimulator.org/wiki/Hypergrid). Objects can also be made with desktop 3D modeling applications, such as Blender, an open-source software (http://www.blender. org), and then imported in-world as a COLLADA files (COLLAborative Design Activity). Objects can become interactive by inserting into them scripts that give objects behavior (movement, color, transparency, size…) and act as learning objects or “mindtools” (Jonassen, 2000). The tool for text scripting, called Linden Scripting Language or LSL (http://wiki.secondlife. com/wiki/Portale_LSL), is included in the viewer. Alternatively, an external visual block language can be used to avoid syntax errors and facilitate the work as FS2LSL (https://inworks. ucdenver.edu/jkb/fs2lsl/release/FS2LSL.html) and Scratch4Sl (https://en.scratch-wiki.info/wiki/ Scratch_for_Second_Life). A Camera Phototool includes a set of parameters to take photos, modify light, sky and water appearance, move and rotate the camera view, smooth camera movements and so on. Used with an external PC screen capture application it is possible to record video (machinima technique). Avatars can be provided by animations and gestures to play specified actions used in role play, to act in a story, to express emotions by facial expressions. So, students, with the mediation of avatars can express all their creativity by digital storytelling, through which the pupils become active protagonists of the project. Avatars have an inventory in which to store objects, notecards, scripts, landmark, clothes, animations that are sharable with each other.

Inquiry-based learning (IBL) is an example of the constructivist method with a student-centered approach to learning, where students are encouraged to have an active role in their educational paths, exploring realistic material, asking questions and sharing ideas (National Research Council, 1996). These methodologies include advantages and constructivist features of “cooperative learning” and “learning by doing”, emphasizing reflection and discussion in every phase. Students try to find answers to their questions through their activities, making decisions, not just following the instructions slavishly. Resources can be found in the classroom, on websites, in libraries, or are first-hand data resulting from 319

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laboratory surveys. Teachers ask questions and probe hypotheses to stimulate student discussion and direct reflections (DuVall, 2001). Since the early 2000s it has been noticed that educational virtual worlds allow students to conduct highly interactive, authentic inquiry activities according to the NSES (National Science Education Standards) guidelines. They can observe phenomena and conduct inquiry much as they would in the real world (Nelson and Ketelhut, 2007). Ketelhut et al. (2008) showed that virtual worlds, “when designed around inquiry and science standards, have the potential to engage students in participating in the processes of science, particularly low-achieving students”.

The art of Machinima According to Marino (2004) the word Machinima is the merge of the words machine and cinema. He defined a machinima as a sort of “marriage of mediums; a mixture of the creative platforms, filmmaking, animation and 3D game technology”. So, machinima is a special film technique that allows the creation of stories taking place in virtual worlds and in video game scenarios. Video are created by the PC screen capture, using specialized application and video editor suites. Machinima video began to be used in 1993, when the developers of the multi-player game Doom released it with a feature that allowed the player to record, and reproduce later, game actions. In that case, they were demo files that required the original game to view them. Instead, the first real machinima product delivered in video format was Quad God, a 2000 film made by Tritin Films (Kelland, et al., 2005). Year by year machinima videos became popular among gamer communities to share game strategies and instructions. The most popular games used in machinimating are World of Warcraft and the Halo games. Virtual worlds, such as Second life and Opensim-based worlds, unlike World of Warcraft and other videogames, have the unique features that scenarios can be built by the users, so it is possible to customize environments and avatar apparel according to the need of the stories. The user acts as a puppeteer of the avatar (Lowood 2006), via the user interface (viewer), imparting animation and gestures. In Second Life especially lots of artists have been inspired not only to represent virtual daily life, but every genre from drama, documentary, romance, music video, news, sports and so on. Machinima techniques meet the innate desire to tell stories used both by amateurs and by professionals and permit low-cost production (Johnson and Pettit, 2012). Screencasts have become extremely popular in virtual learning environments and among PC users due to their simplicity and effectiveness in explaining ‘how to’ situations, such as applications instructions, tasks performed inworld and so on. During the process the game engine acts like a virtual film studio with tools such as lighting, staging, and camerawork. It is possible to produce real time performances, recorded game sessions, or post-produced linear video clips (Nitsche, 2005). Thanks to ever increasing improvements to real time 3D game engines, in the last few years it is possible to find lots of screencast videos and machinima stories on YouTube channels. Educators and archivists have begun to experiment with this affordable mode of expression, recreating history and engaging audiences through re-enactments and role play. Therefore, machinima also became the best way among educators to display the potential of virtual words in education, ranging from history reconstructions to literature and scientific subjects. While virtual worlds have their potential in synchronous interactions, Machinima can extend the opportunities for learning in an asynchronous way (Kirriemuir 2007). Using YouTube tools, students can create interactive educational machinima products and branching videos (Snelson, 2010). 320

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Teachers can take advantage of screen captures to record dynamic interactions between students/ avatars and navigation of the environment. Coupled with co-operative learning and IBL methodology, the machinima technique allows students to document projects, tackle scientific topics in a more motivating way and create digital artefacts that can be used to evaluate the inquiry cycle. Machinima are natural substrates for working in groups, collaborating from a distance and sharing tasks. Gregory et al. (2011) highlighted that virtual worlds and machinima actively also allow the perspective of teaching practice and curricula such as business scenarios and virtual excursions, role-play simulations, experimentation and language development to be changed.

TECHLAND Objectives and Activities All activities described in this work have been implemented in Techland, an Opensim-based virtual world, owned and managed by one of the authors for school activities and projects in Italian middle schools, since 2010. Techland is also part of a PhD project on sustainability and education at the University of Camerino (Italy). Techland is mainly focused on maths and science (geosciences, chemistry, biology) for K6-K8 students (Occhioni, 2013). It is an archipelago containing both educational and service islands. Teachers and students can access this virtual world in the form of avatars via a viewer. The URL address to set in the viewer to reach Techland is http://techlandgrid.it:8002. It has been configured as a “Hypergrid Grid” that means it can be easily reached, under authorization, from other similar OpenSim-based virtual worlds, using the same hypergrid facility. Techland was initially designed to simplify mathematical concepts, especially geometric properties. Afterwards it gradually expanded and evolved to include various science branches, to include interdisciplinarity into school projects. The general aim of Techland is to go beyond the concept of the classroom as the only learning environment, trying to combine methodological research with teaching. The research idea driving the develop of Techland and its experimentation has been directed in two complementary directions: • •

transforming abstract mathematical and scientific concepts into 3D animated objects (visualization, gamification) taking advantage of the constructivist nature of virtual worlds to set collaborative projects where students could be active actors (learning by doing, collaborative learning, inquiry-based learning) The learning set of the educational islands reflects the different approaches used (Occhioni, 2017):

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some islands are focused on curricular subjects that are initially built by the teacher following specific learning paths (for instance those focused on Maths, Earth Science, Chemistry, Biology). Topics and 3D objects are continuously developed and improved by the teacher. In these islands generally structured paths are proposed to the students, but they can add content or make new objects under supervision. These islands have been generally reused by different cohorts of students every year.

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other islands are completely planned and built by the students, guided by the teacher. Generally, this kind of island is developed for specific and trans-disciplinary projects, school contests, or simply to become a repository on topics of particular interest for the students (for example those on environmental issues). Students collaboratively implement the projects, developing them from the initial idea to finished product, represented by the island itself and the machinima videos used to communicate the results of the projects.

There is no defined borderline between the two types, since teachers’ and students’ content tend to be harmonized and blended together in each type of island. With time, thanks to increased ICT competences acquired by the students, it was possible to observe a transition for students from simple users of the worlds to active producers of 3D contents in the world (Occhioni, 2018). In fact, over the years, while the students experimented as simple users with virtual activities in Techland, they simultaneously participated in other projects to develop the foundations of computer science, computational thinking, 3D modeling and printing activities. It was therefore relatively simple to reuse the learned skills to apply them within virtual worlds. Since then, the pupils have actively participated in the objects, also building through 3D modeling using desktop applications. They also developed interactivity in these objects through scripting activities, becoming more proficient and active in adding content to the islands and developing other IBL collaborative projects.

Methodologies The methodologies used in Techland are collaborative learning and learning by doing, merged together to obtain something very similar to Inquiry-based learning (IBL). This kind of methodology best expresses its potential in a constructivist environment such as that powered by Opensimulator, because it emphasizes the role of pupils in the learning process; students are encouraged to explore the material, ask questions and share ideas rather than having the teacher transmitting information and knowledge. A typical collaborative project at Techland is focused on a specific scientific subject (for instance, metals recycling or renewable energy). Students are encouraged to express their creativity and knowledge starting ex-novo to build an entire island dedicated to a specific topic, following almost the same steps: Step 1: Get information (web research and hands-on experiments) After students and teacher together decide the topic to be developed, the teacher gives students materials or a list of websites to consult. All information and research are shared in the classroom among students. Brainstorming and discussions suggest to the students which topics are to be explored more deeply. At the same time, they do scientific experiments, statistical activities (data collection and plotting) and dissemination activities (multimedia presentations). These “hands-on” activities give advantages and benefits in learning. Step 2: Build scenarios and 3D learning objects (interactive scripted objects) The second step is to translate information into 3D objects (three-dimensional graphics, molecules, chemical plants, and other specific objects), after a short training course on building, terraforming and scripting techniques. Starting from a grass expanse, students start to set up an island. They choose their 322

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jobs following their own natural inclination: Builders, Scripters, Content Editors. The jobs can overlap among teams in case of need. The Builders team prepare scenarios and objects to be scripted: if necessary, they acquire some content from specialized websites. Generally, they divide the island into different zones, including: • • • •

an Info Point where participants can collect all content displayed in a special presenter area; a Sandbox where objects can be built and improved upon after they have been moved to their definitive place; exhibition areas hosting the results of the project; a Meeting Area to discuss and share ideas.

The Scripters team creates note cards for additional information about the objects and animates them. Scripted objects, such as 3D paragraphs, interact with the avatar, are animated (changes in shape, color, position and transparency) while providing information and showing scientific properties in real time and in a dynamic way. Chemical reactions, natural phenomena, physical and biological experiments can be visualized as 3D objects. Techland can be considered as a giant 3D book: students/avatars can explore around and interact with scripted learning objects by clicking. Pupils use a special visual block program similar to Scratch (Maloney et al., 2003) to animate the objects. They are familiar with this kind of coding language due to the participation to many coding projects supported by the Italian Educational Governance Department (MIUR) to develop computational thinking as the “coding hour” (https://programmailfuturo.it/ and code.org) and the “European Code Week” (https://codeweek.eu/). Coding helps students to think in a sequential manner, to decompose complex problems into simpler sub-problems, to be clear in giving instructions and to share jobs. the combination of coding and building activities helps increase the students’ engagement with mathematics and science. Step 3: Develop contents (panels and multimedia presentations) The Content and Photo Editors team organize all classroom information in multimedia presentations and uploads them into the world to be shown in special presentation areas. They also add content to the scripted objects and set video and web links on dedicated screens, connecting external resources to the world. Step 4: Make digital final product (machinima videos, websites, object repository) Machinima videos are a new and original way used by students to report about projects carried out during the year, to create stories and to express their personal point of view creatively by using other types of expression. This technique is also a way to develop different technical and communication skills in the same activities: building and coding (scenarios to be filmed), avatar animation, storyboarding, dialog, direction, filming, editing (storytelling). The actors/avatars are “forced” to play gestures, lip movements and facial expressions by means of special animations. Videos are produced using screencasting software to capture in real time the activity in the world. Generally, music and voice are added in post-production by sound recorder and video editing suites.

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Step 5: Assessment Collaborative projects offer multiple ways to assess students. Assessment in virtual worlds has the advantage that students can perform authentic activities or tasks as they would be in real world (Reiners et al, 2011), and teachers can analyze their learning in different ways. • •

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Observation: The teacher observes students while they are performing tasks. Students can also record machinima video to document the tasks for a later assessment Multimedia presentations, written reports and photo albums: Generally, students upload inworld multimedia presentations transformed in images and inserted in an interactive slideshow. They can also collect their observations in written note cards directly in-world to be delivered to the teacher, or take snapshots with an embedded photo tools and create interactive books. Exhibition areas: students can build objects representing various phenomena (volcanoes, molecules, plants and so on…) and show them to their classmates and to the teacher in dedicated areas. Meeting areas: To discuss with each other their ideas and findings (peer-review) Virtual experiments: Students perform tasks set by the teacher and then report their findings Self-assessment: Students answer multiple-choice quizzes by themselves in special workstations or can link to external educational web apps to perform serious games. They can also use virtual escape rooms, a virtual version of physical spaces where players have to discover clues, solve puzzles and perform tasks to leave the room in a limited amount of time (Nicholson, 2015). Digital outcomes: Every collaborative project leads to the production of machinima videos, used as the project’s final report, or embedded in websites made by the students. Machinima videos are suitable to test both the acquisition of contents by the student and their digital skills. Digital Surveys: By means of special screens students can navigate online forms to express opinions or to evaluate the perceived level of their skills using a Likert scale.

Teaching Sustainability in Techland In the first years of operation, Techland mainly focused on STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) curricular activities. Environmental topics were developed as sporadic projects in the context of specific activities decided by the class teaching board. As the importance of the objectives and contents of the United Nations 2030 Agenda emerged, there was a need to give a unified perspective to all topics related to sustainability. Therefore, an interdisciplinary vision has been adopted to treat environmental themes, analyzing and deconstructing sustainability issues in five main areas: • • • • •

Earth dynamics & raw materials energy resources & production consumption & lifestyles waste management urban sustainability & transportation

Therefore, a new section has been created in Techland, related to the social, economic and environmental aspects of SDGs, with groups of thematic islands focused on the challenges that humanity will face in the near future (Figure 1.). An island, called Sustainability Hub, acts as a welcome area to 324

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redirect visitors to other islands by a teleport system. In the Sustainability Hub the general features of the seventeen SDGs and their 169 targets are shown, in the multiple perspective of the three pillars of sustainable development: economic, social and environmental. Students can test their knowledge about SDGs using a virtual version of “Sustainable City”, a table game developed by Beccaceci et al. (2019), created to introduce the UN 2030 Agenda to 11-14 years old students. The five zones identified each consist of one or more islands, each relative to selected topics, to investigate in depth.

Projects The following paragraphs describe projects created in Techland which are directly related to UN Agenda 2030. Up to now, focus has been directed mainly at: • • • • • •

hydrosphere (water cycle, water distribution, cloud formation, water as the great climate regulator, water scarcity and water use efficiency) waste generation and management (prevention, reduction, recycling, reuse) sustainable lifestyles and practices of sustainable production and consumption concepts and principles of sustainable agriculture different energy types, especially renewable energies (solar, wind, water, geothermal, tidal); environmental impacts and issues of energy production, supply and usage (e.g. on climate change) urban sustainability and transportation (under construction)

Earth Dynamics and Raw Material: Earthland, Waterland, Crystal, Geo, and Unicamearth This section consists of a group of islands in continuous evolution, dedicated to the general study of the planet. It aims to understand the changes taking place on our planet, their correlations with human activities and the actions to be taken with a view to sustainability.

Earthland Earthland is focused on Geoscience (Occhioni, 2019). It is structured in different levels at different heights in the island (water cycle, atmosphere, Earth structure and composition). Graphic effects of Earth phenomena such as rain, snow, clouds and fog are obtained with particular scripts called particles. Most of the topics were intentionally left without written text or explanation to be used as machinima scenarios for training and assessment purposes. Students can also take snapshots of the various parts of the water cycle and create a multimedia presentation to be delivered to the teacher for evaluation.

Crystal and Geo Crystal and Geo are focused on geomaterials and the chemistry of minerals and rocks. They host 3D models of minerals and display their physical properties. It is going to be implemented by characteristics of more common minerals and information and activities about their practical uses in everyday life, from industrial and technological application to building and ornamental uses. Environmental issues, like health effects of asbestos or geo-resource exploitation will be implemented. 325

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Figure 1. The environmental section of Techland

Unicamearth Techland is now hosting a copy of Unicamearth island, a group of islands focused on general topics related to the dynamic and structure of the Earth developed by Annalisa Boniello during a PhD program on Geoscience Education at the University of Camerino (Boniello, 2016). In the island, the following paths in Earth sciences were designed and developed for educational research purposes: • • • •

volcanism the Phlegraean Fields volcanic area (Boniello & Paris, 2016). earthquakes and tsunamis the expedition of Darwin, the geologist

The study carried out during this PhD program demonstrated the possibility of creating geoscience paths taking advantages of the role of simulation and immersion in virtual worlds (Boniello et al., 2017, Paris et al., 2020). Future work will have the objective to include and harmonize these topics in a sustainability education perspective.

Waterland Waterland is a repository that collects activities and materials about water. The island has been completely built by students of the Middle School of Palmariggi (Apulia, Italy) in a collaborative project (Occhioni, 2013). The project was a mix of hands-on activity, statistical research on institutional websites and 3D modeling. As with all collaborative projects in Techland, it followed the same steps described in the paragraph “Methodologies”. Water topics were placed in different zones of the island:

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• • • • • • •

the Sandbox, a building area to experiment with 3D objects the Water Palace, hosting all about physical and chemical properties of water the Info Point, where students collected all their multimedia presentations about water the Statistical Area, where 3D graphs showed resources and consumption of water in the world (source FAO). In particular students familiarized themselves with the concept of the “water footprint” of daily life products, being conscious of the role of “hidden water”. a house to display domestic consumption of water a 3D representation of all productive activities responsible for the most consumption of water and pollution (agriculture, industry). a wastewater treatment plant and a phyto-remediation plant.

The island was the scenario for machinima videos (Table 1, no.1) about topics related to the chemistry of water, world resources, consumption, pollution and remediation. This project got the second prize in a national school contest. Since then, other cohorts of students have taken advantage of this work, using the island as a 3D website to be explored in the ICT laboratory or at home, or adding more contents.

Lifestyle and Consumption: Farmland This project was financed by the European Union (the National Operational Programme on Education) to contrast school dropout, and students of a K8 class of the Istituto Comprensivo di San Cesario di Lecce (Italy) had the opportunity to visit some educational farms and to appreciate their educational purposes in particular in the socio-environmental field. A network of educational farms was established by an Italian regional law in 2008. Agricultural and holiday farms, suitably equipped and having the necessary requirements of safety, hygiene and health standards, can ask the regional government to take part in the network, to carry out training activities for people, especially students and organized groups. Farms therefore become active pedagogical settings, based on a practical learning vision, observation and discovery, allowing visitors to get to know and experience biological farming, zero km supply chain from producers to consumers, economic, technological, cultural and environmental aspects of agriculture. Here, students can learn the origin of the food and understand the link between agricultural products and food, re-evaluating the social function of the farmers. During the project, students met experts in the classroom, interviewing them, and did hands-on activities on the farm, especially role play where they simulated the activity of the solidarity-based purchasing groups (G.A.S. Gruppi di Acquisto Solidale). The aim of GAS is to give alternatives to buyers, by purchasing in groups and mainly to create more responsible and aware consumer buying behavior, following some guidelines, like health, solidarity, environmental sustainability, social justice, and saving money too. In the project, the students decided to rebuild a typical educational farm and to use a machinima video (Table 1, no.2) for their final report. In the first phase of brainstorming, the pupils analyzed the information in their possession (videos, notes, photos), integrating it with web resources to outline the narrative line, dividing it into large independent sequences and entrusting a single narrating avatar with the task of explaining the objectives, activities and advantages of an educational farm. This was followed by a meeting with groups of pupils from other classes with greater familiarity with 3D modeling in OpenSim, who had the task of finding scene objects in the Techland stores or building them, based on the storyboard of the video (builder group). The next step was writing the video text. The students were 327

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able to activate synthetic language skills related to the project. In the meantime, starting from photos and videos, the builder group, under the supervision of the teacher, reconstructed scenarios suitable for filming, customized the avatar and tested the animations and facial expressions. The “video maker group”, after a short training course on the PC “screen capture” technique and on the use of the viewer camera, filmed short scenes of the video with open-source software. With a video editing program, the various pieces of the video were combined, selecting the best scenes. Then, the audio of the text, previously recorded, and the music were added. They also inserted real video clips into the machinima video (interview with experts). The pupils were so enthusiastic about the project that they organized a show for the other students of the schools and wanted to participate with the machinima video, since they appreciated the expressive potential of this technique, in a contest sponsored by the region whose exact theme was educational farms.

Energy Resources: Powerland Powerland was developed for the “International Year of Sustainable Energy”. It was the result of a collaborative project highlighting the relationship between Man and environment, and how to save energy resources. Since then, it has been continuously improved and expanded with materials built by the teacher and the students using it. The main activity has been focused on the creation of video lessons about renewable energy becoming part of a website completely built by the students. The challenge now is to approach the energy concepts in a broader way, taking into account not only the technical aspects, but also ethical, social, economic and environmental issues (Blockstein, 2015). In particular, energy from fossil fuel is the primary cause of climate disruption so it is necessary to sensitize students on the relationship between energy use and climate change. In fact, Powerland already hosts various types of power plants, in particular those based on renewable energies, which are connected to a common control room. Pupils can explore the island, following personalized educational paths about energy, about the environmental impact/sustainability of each type of power plant and their efficiency based on the variability of the environmental parameters. They can sit in the control room, interact with the equipment, walking inside storage tanks, going down into the depths of geothermal plants, walking on the edge of a dam. In an interactive house, students can calculate electric consumption. turning on domestic appliances, and evaluate their lifestyle by determining their ecological footprint. Students can also perform serious games about energy and energy consumption. Powerland also hosts a virtual escape room where students have to solve quizzes about domestic appliances and consumption and discover clues to obtain the letters that compose the password to unlock the door and leave the room.

Waste Management and Recycle: Plastic City, Glassland, Iron City Plastic City After initial training, students experiencing Techland were easily able to move around the world, interact with objects and other avatars and perform simple building techniques. Therefore, they combined coding previously learned at school, thanks to the Code Hour activity, and virtual worlds to harness their potential making 3D interactive objects. Taking advantage of previous coding experiences with visual programs and of the usability of FS2LSL program language, students overcame the difficulties of the 328

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textual LSL language. As an example, a group of about 20 K8 students were engaged to rebuild a virtual plastic recycling plant as the final outcome of a project concerning plastic materials. This activity was preceded by internet research, the study of plant layout, and deepening their knowledge of all the processes. All materials became part of a self-made website and two different machinima videos were made. Based on interviews at the end of the project, students were glad to improve different skills in the same learning environment. Figure 2. Powerland

Glassland The island of Glassland was built in 2018, in response to a call for a national contest, called Glass Circle, about glass and the circular economy, sponsored by Assovetro, the Italian national association of the industrial glass producer. Pupils of Italian elementary and middle schools were asked to create two works inspired by the Spin-Off technique. The Spin-off technique recalls the functioning of the Circular Economy, where products are recycled and new materials are produced. With the Spin-off technique, an element of a story is taken as a starting point to give life to another “parallel” story, which is thus transformed into a new “narrative product”. The contest frees the students to use any kind of artistic expression (stories, videos, drawing, music). The important thing was to highlight the importance of glass in the food sector and the advantages of its recycling for the circular economy. Eighteen K7 pupils of the Istituto Comprensivo di San Cesario di Lecce, (Italy) were involved. At the time of the contest, students were almost acquainted with how to move their avatar and how to use resources in the Techland virtual world, and some of them have just finished an extra-curricular course on 3D printing, acquiring good skills in 3D modeling with desktop applications. So, they decided to build an island focused on glass to be used as a repository and as a scenario for the two short machinima videos

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(the main video and the spin off one) of the contest. They started, under the supervision of the teacher, with brainstorming and web research about the circular economy, highlighting meaning and definition, case studies, advantages and barriers. So, they learned how the Circular Economy, as opposed to the Linear Economy, is a model centered on environmental sustainability and how it is part of the priority objectives set by the 2030 Agenda of the United Nations for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth. They had a clear idea that raw materials, passed through production and consumption, can be recycled, becoming secondary raw material to be reused in the production process. In this way waste production is limited or absent. Glass can be recycled many times, which clearly expresses how the Circular Economy works. Therefore, students had the opportunity to understand the importance of conscious behavior for the protection of the environment and health. Figure 3. Glassland

Differently from the Farmland project, where machinima was a sort of report of the activities, at Glassland building activities were functional to the scenes to be shot. As their research developed, they started to develop an island plan, deciding together the use of different parts of the island. As shown in figure 3, the island is a group of five circular platform hosting different parts of the project. They planned a central “Glass Library” platform acting as a repository for the multimedia presentation about glass in all its aspects (chemistry, application, history, cooking methods of food, advantages, waste management and recycling) to be imported in the world. The other platforms were intended for sandbox and scenario purposes. The platform at the rear left of figure 3 was used as a scenario for the main video called “Glass, a great friend”, about glass’ properties and its advantages in the food sector; the one at the rear right was used as a sandbox, a place to experiment with building and developing objects before moving them to the final destination. The platforms at the front of figure 3 were the scenario of the spin off videos called “Glass Recycling Plant” (Table 1, nos. 3 and 4).

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All the activities were conducted in the computer laboratory or in the classroom, but pupils were also free to access Glassland from home if they needed or wanted to. Students divided into four heterogeneousskills groups, so the ones who had better mastered the various techniques acted as tutors for the others, and groups also collaborated, sharing jobs, objects, animation and whatever was needed in the scene: • •

• •

Content and Photo editors The group of Content and Photo editors was responsible for organizing content in multimedia presentations in world and for the upload of all textures necessary to the builder group. Builders This group was responsible for props. Objects were found in specialized service islands on Techland, built using the embedded tools of the viewer, or by experimenting with external 3D software to model objects and importing them in to the world. They followed the the Writers’ guidelines. Writers and Actors This group developed the storyboard and dialog and took care of the audio recordings of the avatars and their animations, acting as puppeteers. Shooter and post-producers. They are responsible for the PC screen-cast and post-production of the video sequences (editing, voice and music addition).

From interviews made at the end of the project it emerged that making machinima videos helped them to better organize all the information, to analyze and summarize texts and to master different digital skills. Entering their finished product into a national contest, the students won the first prize (K6-K8 grade category) and were invited to Rome to take part in the awards ceremony.

Iron City During the COVID-19 lockdown, a 3D collaborative learning environment in Techland was set up and tested in the frame of the Geoscience Education PhD program at the University of Camerino (Occhioni et al, 2020). The aim was to implement educational pathways around environmental sustainability and the Agenda 2030 SDGs, in a joint program with schools about circular economy and sustainability, particularly focused on metals and their recycling. Metals are essential to our life. They are used to produce almost everything, but they have a strong environmental impact: their production requires lands, energy, water, chemicals, some of them polluting waters and soil, and potentially dangerous. Their production generates emissions and solid waste. Our lifestyle will require a lot of metal extraction in the future, increasing our environmental footprint. So, it is important to address these issues and to sensitize the new generations towards a more efficient use of resources, re-using them, reducing certain components of products that are at end of life and improving the industrial design. In 2020, on the Iron City island a collaborative project was set up to address some issue related to metals (figure 4). A group of students (K7, 12-13 years old, from a Middle School in Nettuno, Italy) and their science teacher were involved in the experimentation, accessing Techland from home. After a little training period to master the viewer and to became familiar with building techniques, students were asked to rebuild a typical metal recycling plant (Figure 4), following the project steps: 1) get information (web research) 2) briefing activity to share ideas and work. 3) build scenarios and objects, collaborating 331

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together 4) “texturize” objects with imported images 5) make objects interactive by coding 6) develop content (panels, multimedia presentations, interactive note cards) 7) make videos using the screen capture to report about what they learnt as a digital narration (Table 1, no.5). The in-world activities were scheduled in two hours modules per two days a week, for a total of 20 hours, but students were also free to access the island individually or in group at any time. As declared by the students, one of the factors that make this in-world project engaging was the “sense of being there”. Students communicated by chat messages and voice, had the feeling of really building something and, in the COVID-19 crisis situation, had the possibility of working together, though at a distance, everyone at home, but in contact with each other and having the perception of being really together. In addition, other than learning about metal production, recycling and the circular economy, working in a virtual world let them improve multiple aspects of their digital skills (video e-photo editing, screen capture, coding, 3D modeling, web research, storytelling). At the end of the project, in fact, anonymous questionnaires were delivered to the students using an online survey and it emerged that their engagement and their perceptions of the importance of the topics treated during the activity were high. Virtual worlds, being flexible and easily adaptable to different subjects and context, evidenced to be remarkable and effective tools for Distance Learning in the lock-down period, but also beyond the crisis times. Figure 4. Iron City

Urban Sustainability and Transportation This section is still under development and includes an island devoted to smart housing and eco-sustainable living in the city, with special attention to interdisciplinary connections with the other islands in

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the sustainability section of Techland. An island will be devoted also to transportation (public/private, electric and conventional) comparing the different types.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS In Techland students in-world perform either structured activities with simple tasks to perform in sequence, useful for immediate feedback, but also more complex activities like building, scripting and filming to create a repository island (collaborative projects). The second type of project is the most used in Techland, because it has important advantages, which allow to: • • • • •

engaging students, facing real problems and finding solution by themselves acquiring different skills in the same environment (technical, social, communication skills) give the possibility of a formative assessment re-use the island with other cohorts of students (to perform structured paths) make available specific features to support trans-disciplinary projects In this kind of project teachers and students can face some difficulties, like:

• • • • •

topics could be too easy/too difficult to approach or not suited for the school curriculum virtual worlds paths need more time compared to a “structured path” project teachers have to plan accurately the phases of the projects, managing efficiently the project Gantt teachers have to guide students, eliciting their reflections and addressing their activity and at the same time leave them free to experiment. teachers need training to master the viewer features in order to act in the virtual world.

Since beginning to be used in education, the role of virtual worlds to foster learning has been demonstrated in many scientific fields. In Geosciences for example, the research done by A. Boniello, during her PhD, demonstrated how virtual worlds can be an invaluable teaching tool to propose geoscience educational paths (Boniello, 2016). This is particularly valid to simulate long-term processes in a 4D model (geological evolution of an area) or situations which are not accessible in real life (such as the magma chamber of a volcano) (Boniello & Paris, 2016; Boniello et al., 2017. In these studies, based on results from questionnaires delivered to the students from different age and school types, involved in experimentation, it was noticed that K6-K8 degree students were more engaged by the virtual worlds activities and achieved better scores in structured virtual tests when compared to K9-K12 students. Among them, better results were achieved by students from technical schools, compared to students from scientific or humanistic high school (Boniello, 2016). The reasons for these differences were attributed to the fact that the activities had a focus on topics of interest to the younger students, who were also not so used to playing computer games, therefore it was a novelty for them, which attracted their attention, and were easier to engage. On the other end, technical school students are more used to doing activities in the computer lab and therefore demonstrated themselves to be more keen to enjoy virtual worlds compared with others from different high schools. These observations suggested the creation of different paths for different students’ age and even type of school, to obtain best results in terms of engagement and results achievement, avoiding lack of interest and lower acquisition of competences. 333

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Since 2015, a huge effort has been made to improve the digital skills of teachers and students in the Italian educational system, the so called PNSD (Piano Nazionale Scuola Digitale in Italian Language, or National Plan for the Digital School). Although most schools obtained funding for high-speed internet connection and computers, necessary to experiment in virtual worlds, there is still much to do. So, some technical issues limit still experimentation in virtual worlds. In addition, since the students (or their parents) still prefer to buy smartphones or tablets than personal computers or notebooks, if not already available at home, it is sometimes difficult for students to access them. We noticed that during the lockdown the use of virtual worlds helped them feel really in touch with their classmates, giving them the perception of being active and productive, although they couldn’t leave home, introducing moments of interaction and socialization for students, helping shy students to enter into contact with others and also reducing the divide between students and teachers. This unexpected need of new distance teaching activities due to COVID-19 evidenced how virtual worlds can be extremely useful to overcome the impossibility of carrying out practical lab exercises or educational field trips. Virtual worlds are a way of carrying out practical activities with the class by remote connection but they can be used also as support to traditional teaching in normal times. In both cases, the activities need to be planned in detail to avoid wasting time and to decrease its efficacy as a learning tool. As a result, Techland demonstrated that guidance by an experienced teacher to other teachers is still the best way to encourage the use of these learning paths. In fact, Techland proposes training sessions for teachers, to introduce them to the island teaching possibilities but also to the general use of virtual worlds. This training activity for teachers and students will be improved with time to have a better realisation of the island’s possibilities. This will probably even encourage teachers in different areas to collaborate in a class interdisciplinary activity, for example science-technology-art-history teachers could easily interact on topics related to each other.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS A virtual world has the advantages of being flexible and adapting to the needs of students and teachers. So, islands can be continuously improved and expanded to take into consideration new, related topics or students of different ages. In particular, future work regarding Techland will have the aim of implementing content relative to the Agenda 2030, to help schools approach the teaching of Environmental Education. Until now sustainability topics such as zero km food, green energy resources, waste management and recycling have been proposed, and focus will be given to geoscience topics related to the Agenda 2030, like sustainable use of georesources, climate change, oceans and pollution. A guide to Techland will be prepared for teachers, as well as an introduction to the use of the islands, to encourage teachers who are not confident with virtual worlds to use and take advantage of the educational activities available. The next action is to add structured paths, serious games and escape rooms to the collaborative projects made by students. These can be used to evaluate the competence acquired by the students and to evaluate if these activities can be used effectively as a method of assessment. In this way it will be possible to use them effectively by other cohorts of students.

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CONCLUSION The COVID-19 pandemic and lock-down periods evidenced the need for the teachers to have access to a variety of teaching methods and activities, especially to overcome the lack of laboratory use and the isolation of the students due to the social distancing imposed by the virus. Virtual worlds can help both in traditional teaching, where it was demonstrated how they can be useful to engage all the students in science topics, even those with learning difficulties, and to allow personal development, including improving relationships among students and between students and teachers. The strength of a virtual world using the IBL methodology, combined with storytelling through machinima videos, lies in the fact that the student is the protagonist of all stages of learning, from the initial idea to the final product. The island hosting the project contents implemented by the pupils can be considered the project final product, which can be visited by other classes of students and is therefore a 3D repository: it presents both the possibility to evaluate students’ work and to improve the island for future students. Moreover, one of the most important characteristics and advantage of virtual worlds as a teaching tool is the possibility to promote in the same learning environment most of the key competences of the 21st century: problem solving and computational thinking, the ability to use and create digital content, finding/sharing/communicating information and ideas, imagining and designing new and innovative ways of dealing with problems (creativity), acquiring technical digital skills (3D modeling, video and photo editing, coding). In this frame, this paper highlights also the importance of joining collaborative projects to digital storytelling activities by machinima which, although widely used for art, game reports, cultural heritage, stories, is now starting to find application in scientific fields for video lessons and project reports, as has been successfully done and tested in Techland. With time, since its first version, Techland slowly transitioned from a general STEM world (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) towards a more specific and contextualized environment, with the aim of applying scientific concepts to the challenges that our society faces today: climate change, exploitation of geomaterials, pollution/remediation, green energy. Themes like circular and shared economy, sustainability, Agenda 2030 are becoming more and more important in education and therefore in teaching activities in school.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT Special thanks are due to the teachers who collaborated in the Techland project by participating in the experiment with their students and giving suggestions and comments useful to improving the island.

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Allison, C., Campbell, A., Davies, C. J., Dow, L., Kennedy, S., McCaffery, J. P., . . . Perera, G. I. U. S. (2012). Growing the use of Virtual Worlds in education: an OpenSim perspective. In M. Gardner, F. Garnier, & C. D. Kloos (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd European Immersive Education Summit: EiED 2012, (pp. 1-13). Madrid, Spain: Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Departamento de Ingeniería Telemática. Allison, C., & Miller, A. H. D. (2012). Open virtual worlds for open learning. Higher Education Academy. Beccaceci, A., Stacchiotti, L., & Paris, E. (2019) Sustainable city: work together for a more sustainable life style [Paper presentation]. Congresso SIMP-SGI-SOGEI 2019 “Il tempo del pianeta Terra e il tempo dell’uomo”, Parma, Italy. Blockstein, D.E., (2015). Energy Education: Easy, Difficult, or Both? Journal of Sustainability Education, 8. Boniello, A. (2016). Geoscience education using virtual worlds: The Unicam Earth Island project [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Camerino, Italy. Boniello, A., & Paris, E. (2016). Geosciences in virtual worlds: A path in the volcanic area of the Phlegraean Fields. Rendiconti Online della Società Geologica Italiana, 40, 5–13. doi:10.3301/ROL.2016.64 Boniello, A., Paris, E., & Santoianni, F. (2017). Virtual Worlds in Geoscience Education: Learning Strategies and Learning 3D Environments. In G. Panconesi & M. Guida (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Collaborative Teaching Practice in Virtual Learning Environments (pp. 387–406). IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-2426-7.ch020 Carretero, S., Vuorikari, R., & Puniehttps, Y. (2017). DigComp 2.1 Digital Competence Framework for CitizensWith eight proficiency levels and examples of use. EUR 28558 EN. https://publications.jrc. ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC106281/web-digcomp2.1pdf_(online).pdf Carrington, D. (2019). School climate strikes: 1.4 million people took part, say campaigners https:// www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/mar/19/school-climate-strikes-more-than-1-million-took-partsay-campaigners-greta-thunberg Clark, S., & Maher, M. L. (2005). Learning and designing in a virtual place: Investigating the role of place in a virtual design studio. Proceedings of eCAADe 2005, 303-310. Dalgarno, B., & Lee, M. J. W. (2010). What are the learning affordances of 3-D virtual environments? British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(1), 10–32. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.01038.x Dede, C. (1995). The evolution of constructivist learning environments: Immersion in distributed, virtual worlds. Educational Technology, 35(5), 46–52. Dede, C. (2009). Comparing Frameworks for 21st Century Skills. Harvard Graduate School of Education. http://sttechnology.pbworks.com/f/Dede_(2010)_Comparing%20Frameworks%20for%2021st%20 Century%20Skills.pdf Dickey, M. D. (2005). Three-dimensional virtual worlds and distance learning: Two case studies of active worlds as a medium for distance education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(3), 439–451. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2005.00477.x

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Maloney, J., Burd, L., Kafai, Y., Rusk, N., Silverman, B., & Resnick, M. (2003). Scratch: A Sneak Preview. MIT Lifelong Kindergarten. https://llk.media.mit.edu/papers/ScratchSneakPreview.pdf Marino, P. (2004). 3D Game-Based Filmmaking: The Art of Machinima. Paraglyph Press. National Research Council. (1996). National science education standards: Observe, interact, change, learn. DC. National Academy Press. Nelson, B. C., & Ketelhut, D. J. (2007, September). Scientific Inquiry in Educational Multi-user Virtual Environments. Educational Psychology Review, 19(3), 265–283. doi:10.100710648-007-9048-1 Nicholson, S. (2015). Peeking behind the locked door: a survey of escape room facilities. White paper. http://scottnicholson.com/pubs/erfacwhite.pdf Nitsche, M. (2005). Considering students’ emotions in computer-mediated learning environments. In B. Bushoff (Ed.), Developing Interactive Narrative content (pp. 210–243). Academic Press. Occhioni, M. (2013). Techland, a virtual world for math and science. Proceedings of the 3th European Immersive Education Summit: EiED 2013, 94-99. Occhioni, M. (2017). Techland: Math and Science in a Virtual World. In G. Panconesi & M. Guida (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Collaborative Teaching Practice in Virtual Learning Environments (pp. 407–426). IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-2426-7.ch021 Occhioni, M. (2018). Techland: Evolution of a virtual world. Journal of Virtual Studies, 9(1), 23–28. Occhioni, M. (2019) Earth Science in Opensim-based virtual worlds [Paper presentation]. Congresso SIMP-SGI-SOGEI 2019 “Il tempo del pianeta Terra e il tempo dell’uomo”, Parma, Italy. Occhioni, M. A., Boniello, A., Di Palma, R., & Paris, E. 2020. Teaching Sustainability by virtual worlds as distance learning tool. In Proceedings of the ICERI2020. 13th annual International Conference of Education, Research and Innovation. Siviglia. Paris, E., Boniello, A., & Occhioni, M. (2020). Geoscience Education using virtual worlds. EuroGeologist, 50. https://eurogeologists.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/EGJ50_web.pdf Piaget, J. (1936). The Origin of Intelligence in Children. International University Press, Inc. and Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. Reiners, T., Gregory, S., & Dreher, H. (2011). Educational assessment in virtual world environments. In Australian Technology Network Assessment Conference 2011, (pp. 132-140). Curtin University. UNESCO (Ed.). (2017). Education for Sustainable Development Goals: Learning Objectives. https:// unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000247444 United Nations. (2015). Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015 -70/1. Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. https://www.un.org/ga/search/ view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. MIT Press. doi:10.1037/11193-000

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Wilson, B. G. (1996). Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instructional design. Educational Technology.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Machinima: The word Machinima is the merge of the words machine and cinema. It is a special film technique that allows the creation of stories taking place in virtual worlds and in video game scenarios using the PC screen captures and the tools included in the game engine. SDGs: A set of 17 Sustainable Development Goals included in the UN Agenda 2030. Spin-Off: In the context of mass media is a derivative work developed from a main work, typically an audiovisual product born of a TV fiction, film, comic or videogame, which maintains the setting of the original work but tells parallel stories focusing the attention on different characters, often secondary in the reference work (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin-off).Virtual Worlds: Virtual worlds (VW) or MUVEs (multi user virtual worlds), or (immersive virtual worlds (IVW) are online simulated spaces where avatars (the customizable graphical model of the user) can explore, build, code, interact each other, with objects and communicate in a synchronous and asynchronous way.

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APPENDIX Table 1. List of machinima videos made in Techland, in Italian language N°

Title

Link

1

Io non me ne lavo le mani

https://www.virtualscience.it/video/waterland.mp4

2

Masserie didattiche

https://www.virtualscience.it/masseriedidattiche.mp4

3

Il vetro, grande amico

https://www.virtualscience.it/glassland_vetro_grande_amico.mp4

4

Glass Recycle Plant

https://www.virtualscience.it/glassland_impianto_riciclo_vetro.mp4

5

Impianto di riciclo metalli

https://www.virtualscience.it/video/riciclo_metalli.mp4

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Chapter 15

The Educational Value of the Escape Room in Virtual Environments Michelangelo Tricarico Politecnico di Bari, Bari, Italy

ABSTRACT This chapter will report the experiences and skills gained during the “Escape Room at Edu3D” project developed within the Craft World virtual world, by the Edu3D open source learning community, which has long been dedicated to teaching innovation in the environment virtual, thanks to the collaboration of experts, technicians, and volunteer teachers passionate about digital architecture. The developed project has led to a review of the escape rooms, which we are normally used to associating with roleplaying games in which competitors are locked in themed rooms and must try to go out collecting clues and solving puzzles, puzzles, codes, and riddles, giving them a teaching key.

INTRODUCTION This chapter will show the experiences and skills gained during the “Escape Room at Edu3D” project developed within the virtual world of Craft World,open source by the Edu3D learning community. Edu3d (Edu3D site) was founded by Giliola Giurgola and Claudio Pacchiega with the aim of creating activities and learning tools in virtual worlds to improve the ability to collaborate and make available tools directly accessible to many people. Edu3D organizes digital laboratories where users can build experiences with innovative methods and new learning scenarios together. Online training lessons are managed thanks to open source content designed for collaborative learning. The target audience includes teachers and students of the Italian primary and secondary school (8/14 years). The objectives of the educational project carried out at Edu3D are:

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch015

Copyright © 2021, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 The Educational Value of the Escape Room in Virtual Environments

• • • •

enable and facilitate the use of virtual worlds for teachers and students aimed at achieving a sufficient level of knowledge useful for the definition of educational learning paths and the creation of educational contents; create an immersive 3D cultural environment for remote learning with online tutoring and coaching useful for increasing the quality of the student’s curriculum, an active didactic-learning challenge; create a community of practice in a multi-user 3D virtual environment, organize workshops, manage interactive activities, as well as tutorials, simulations, role-playing, learning objects, online lessons, exhibition spaces and theater sets. overcome the playful dimension of 3D worlds with collaborative learning projects and spaces dedicated to educational research.

The training activities organized at Edu3D count on the support of a group of tutors, teachers and experts in virtual worlds, who collaborate on a voluntary basis in the growth of the educational community. Currently Edu3D offers courses partly related to virtual worlds, (basic courses for beginners aimed at learning the basic skills to be able to start realizing their experiences, 3D modeling courses with Blender (Edu3d blender) at different levels of difficulty) and partly dedicated to virtual environments new generation, which can be explored through augmented reality viewers (among these, great attention was paid to the Mozilla Hubs environment, which is easy to use and accessible). Updates on courses and projects organized at Edu3D are always available on the site http://edu3d. pages.it/ . During the courses, Edu3D, over the years has developed several projects in virtual worlds aimed at schools of all levels. Among these the most significant were: •

•

treasure island (Giurgola G., 2013): the project is aimed at secondary schools and was implemented as part of the iTec project. The project was based on the three-dimensional reconstruction of the island of Gallinara in which various stages of a treasure hunt with mathematical tests were set. As part of the project, the experts were joined by the students who helped in the creation of the environment and, subsequently, made use of the digital space. The training objectives that we wanted to achieve were to put in particular the knowledge acquired during the course of study in a less rigid environment, and to encourage the collaborative aspect among the students who were called to test the environment in small groups. Piccolo Principe project and Dante project: both projects are aimed at first grade primary school students, in particular the Dante project can be extended to schools of all levels. For both projects we started from the study of the reference texts in order to recreate the typical settings and the characters present. The students carried out theatrical experiences within the environments, impersonating the characters of the two works. These projects, although different in the topics covered and in the complexity of the environments created, have in common the idea of ​​being able to use virtual environments as places where it is possible to carry out inclusive activities at low costs and of considerable visual impact.

Between 2019-2020, Edu3D promoted and implemented the “Escape Room at Edu3D” project, managing to involve 21 teachers, from schools of all levels, who proposed and created 12 Escape rooms with educational content.

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 The Educational Value of the Escape Room in Virtual Environments

MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER The chapter will give ample space to the experimentation on escape rooms carried out at Edu3d (fig.1). Figure 1. ­

In the course of the chapter, the most significant moments of teacher training will be illustrated before starting to develop their project, thus illustrating what are the tools needed to implement a work of this kind in OpenSim. Subsequently, the escapes made following the story and the observations of the teachers themselves will be described. In this phase of the chapter we will focus on understanding what the didactic implications of an escape room can be in teaching, and how these environments can be adapted to the needs of teachers (for example to the different teaching subjects dealt with or to the which the environments are aimed at). From the design point of view, we will try to understand what the role of the students can be in the design and the feedback received during the testing of the environments. The chapter will proceed with the discussion of what can be the method that teachers can use to be able to carry out activities with their students within virtual worlds. We will then proceed with the illustration of the Science Escape Room project, a more detailed project that will provide another important starting point for the use of virtual worlds and escape rooms. Following will be a parenthesis on the value of video games, to which we can also associate the escape rooms created in virtual worlds, to then understand what the potential of these environments can be in such a particular historical period as that of the Coronavirus, which led to strong use of distance learning.

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The Potential of Escape Rooms in Teaching Before proceeding, let’s examine the most significant aspects for which an escape room can be considered an effective tool in the acquisition of didactic contents, thus strengthening “traditional” learning (learning for which a student learns the didactic contents through lectures and subsequent study on textbooks). The concept of Escape (Ebook Escape Room at Edu3D)Room was born in the early 2000s in the United States, the game takes place in a themed room in which the players, through clues and riddles, must search for the key to be able to exit the room. n its original conception there are already some qualities compatible with the educational objectives: • • •

increase of team cohesion and improvement of communication; increased self-confidence, self-esteem and creativity; development of problem solving.

The idea proposed and implemented at Edu3D was therefore to create 3D environments that reflect the fundamental principles of Escape Rooms, but giving them a didactic key. The themes chosen therefore represented the didactic disciplines taught by the teachers who participated in the project. To the objectives seen so far, they can then be added: • •

verification of knowledge in an interactive and immersive way; bridging the disparities that may exist among students, proposing, especially to the less proactive ones, more engaging activities.

The choice of implementing activities of this kind in an environment like Opensim is given by the fact that the platform allows the creation of three-dimensional scenarios without constraints, a land (space in which the activities are carried out) can be seen as a blank canvas on which it is possible to paint whatever comes to mind; it is also possible to add interactions to the created objects through scripts (for example a door that opens). The greatest quality of these environments remains, however, the ability to move through avatars, giving that sense of immersion in the environment. Furthermore, in Opensim, more people can meet, communicate by voice or chat and share experiences even at a distance. Continuing to pursue the idea that a land can be seen as a blank canvas, it must also be said that, like a painter, anyone who approaches these environments must know the techniques and tools to create his “work of art” art”. Creating such an environment already requires some knowledge of the environment. It was therefore essential to involve teachers who already had some experience in virtual worlds in the project. After having collected and examined the proposals on the themes of escape made by the participating teachers, seminars were organized on what could be the general needs that could be encountered in the implementation of the works. The topics covered in the seminars and the objectives pursued were: •

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Realization of padlocks and interactive games: in the context of these seminars some useful platforms were proposed to be able to create interactive games and quizzes in an elementary way, without having to know the programming language used in Opensim. Some of the most important platforms proposed that lend themselves well to activities of this kind were Eduescaperoom, Flippity, Learningapps, Wordwall. The games made on these external platforms can be used within Opensim through interactive panels that allow you to access the website and solve the game

 The Educational Value of the Escape Room in Virtual Environments

•

•

always in the environment. The links to the sites can be hidden in the virtual room and made accessible, for example, by clicking on an object (can think for example that a link is made within a book, if the participant clicks on it, the book opens and on one of the pages appears on the multimedia site). A solution of this kind can undoubtedly simplify the implementation of an escape in Opensim, keeping the aspect of searching for clues (or in this case the games) inside the room. Creation and research of free three-dimensional content for setting up environments: due to the limits given by the construction menu available by default in Opensim, very often more advanced 3D modeling software is used, among all Blender, which however require a certain experience in 3D modeling. Models created with these software can be imported into Opensim in the .dae format. During the seminars, the focus was not so much on training the participants to use Blender (training which, however, is provided to interested teachers through periodic courses organized annually by Edu3D), but some platforms were examined where it is possible to download free objects and seen how to make changes to the downloaded templates. One of the richest platforms in 3D content, also downloadable for free, is Sketchfab, others are TURBOSQUID, Free3D, Archive3D and 3dsky. One of the criticalities of the templates that can be downloaded from these platforms is that these files are very rarely already available in .dae formats, so it becomes necessary to perform a step in Blender to convert the templates to the desired format. Programming of scripts for quizzes and special effects: scripting is one of the most complex activities in Opensim, the programming language used is LSL. Creating scripts requires study and a certain aptitude for programming. During the seminars some scripts were proposed to create multiple choice and open answer tests, and you have scripts to create numeric and alphanumeric keypads.The aim of the seminars was therefore to provide participants with the essential notions to perform the changes on some types of scripts made available.

At the end of the seminars, the participants proceeded with the realization of the projects, having the help of the tutors where it was needed. In the course of the work it was possible to observe that the main difficulties encountered were, as it was possible to imagine, on the implementation of the scripts. The difficulties encountered, however, allowed a path of growth for the participants who, with the help of tutors, solved the problems and enriched their professional background on the most difficult topics.

Escape Room Experiences All the escapes were made inside the Pythagorean Laboratory. At the entrance to the laboratory, a map was made with teleports to the various escapes. (fig. 2)

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Figure 2. ­

Let’s start to propose some of the works implemented starting from the escape entitled “Ap (p) making the locks of the mind” (fig. 3), created by teachers Monica Cricchio and Teresa Capano. Figure 3. ­

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The environment was designed for the first grades of primary school and is focused on refining the skills of Italian and Mathematics. With this Escape Room created with an “Alice in Wonderland” theme, it was decided to go beyond the concept of the discipline to try a multi and interdisciplinary approach in order to stimulate the ability of pupils in the first two years of primary school to learn with games of logic and memory, calibrated on adequate disciplinary contents (such as simple recognition quantity / symbol for the number, completion of words or sentences with missing syllables, reordering of sentences but also of images according to a logical / temporal order, labyrinths to improve spatial orientation, etc ...). Given the age of their target, they have thought of guided activities on IWB under the guidance of the teacher who thus also acts as a moderator in order to encourage teamwork and strengthen some key skills such as teamwork, strengthen problem solving, take decisions, design and plan, hone deduction skills. The design phases consisted in the teachers’ initial focus on the objectives they wanted to achieve through the Escape Room and in what ways (a theme that would captivate users and act as a background for the Escape to be created, simple, intuitive interactive activities and calibrated on the expected prerequisites in reference to visiting pupils, graphic involvement); subsequently, before proceeding with the creation of the environment, the teachers told the story of Alice in Wonderland to their students and showed some videos. Then in the classroom, through IWB, under the indication of the pupils divided into small groups, some characters - key to the story were created and the Escape Room was furnished according to their desire. As for the realization of the puzzles, it was the teachers who took care of the content part to keep a certain mystery about their resolution. The insertion of the puzzles in the environment was done by inserting the famous Mario Bros cube, at the request of the students, as they are familiar and depicting the symbol of the question mark that they themselves mentally associated with the question. By solving each puzzle, the pupils received a letter that allowed them to recompose a word that allowed them to abandon the escape. For the construction of the characters and the creation of the setting, MakeHuman (software for modeling 3D characters), Sketchfab, Script me were used. For the quizzes Wordwall was used while Eduescaperoom was used to generate the padlocks. For Monica and Teresa, the strengths of an activity of this kind are the strong involvement of the students in the various stages of implementation, but also the high interactivity that derives from the use of the Opensim platform, not only in terms of puzzles solve, but also of the various scripts that are activated, from the possibility of leaving comments and interacting with objects. On the possibility of having an environment of this kind created directly by their pupils Monica and Teresa think that in their case it would perhaps be possible with fifth grade pupils, but always supported by a teacher, however pupils can actively contribute in proposing ideas to be implemented . Expanding the vision to what the potential of a virtual environment was like Opensim in the head of didactics, Monica and Teresa, think that the didactic activity in virtual worlds allows the realization of an immersive didactics that stimulates the students more both from the point of view sensory, both from an intellectual point of view. The realization of activities of this type, which can deceive for their pseudoplayful presentation, in a school at risk like the one in which they work, intrigues and motivates much more than a traditional lesson in which the communicative message travels on the usual tracks. attentive. The next escape that is presented is entitled “The eye of Horus” (fig. 4), created by the teachers Giovanna Anna Rita Giannone Rendo, Maria Pietra Paola Sgrò and Pia Corbani. The activity was conceived and created for students of First Grade Secondary Secondary classes, in disciplines such as mathematics, history, geography, art.

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Figure 4. ­

The idea of ​​their Escape Room comes from an ancient history. An Egyptian legend tells that Horus wanted to avenge the killing of his father Osiris, committed at the hands of his brother, Seth. During the fight with his uncle, he tore out his left eye and threw it away, breaking it into 6 pieces. The god Thoth was able to reassemble it thanks to his magic and his magic allowed him to steal a fragment of the eye without, however, its absence undermining the integrity of the eye. By many this legend is seen as the starting point of Egyptian arithmetic and in fact, reading the image below the Egyptians gave each part of the eye a fractional value corresponding to the fractional unit with denominator a power of 2. reflect for a moment, and add the fractions obtained, we realize that, the set of fractions does not give unity, but 63/64 and even continuing to add smaller and smaller fractions unity is never achieved (concept of convergence and limit). The design phases consist of an initial historical research of useful information to be able to represent the story that was wanted to be told within the environment, subsequently we proceeded with the creation of the environment and research / realization of the furniture. Geogebra developed the geometric contents on the eye of Horus to be provided to the students once the escape was solved. The last phase was to implement and insert the puzzles within the environment. The tools used in the implementation were Blender, Opensim’s default construction menu, script for open and closed questions, and the Eduescaperoom site for the construction of padlocks. Regarding the strengths of an activity of this kind, for Giovanna, Maria and Pia, these allow to pursue digital skills in an active, inclusive and laboratory way: personal and social learners and ability to learn to learn:: they will know reason, proceeding methodically, selecting the right information, organizing the work both independently and collaborating with their peers to solve logical-mathematical problems, developing the correct solution and they will learn to manage the time available to them; entrepreneurial skills: they will be able to design and create within virtual worlds, organizing contents and materials; they will be able to create mathematical questions that are not easily available through Google searches

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but that require the demonstration of skills previously acquired in class with the study and application of mathematics and geometry. On the possibility of having an environment of this kind created directly by their students, Giovanna, Maria and Pia think it is possible with young people who have basic building and scripting skills and know how to use virtual worlds. Expanding the vision to what the potential of a virtual environment was like Opensim in the head of didactics, Giovanna, Maria and Pia think that virtual worlds allow to activate remote collaboration, to include pupils with special educational needs, to implement the peer tutoring between students. In recent years, virtual education has been recognized as a powerful and effective tool to support teaching and building skills. The student becomes an active protagonist of his own learning process. The next escape is titled “Guess what? Jack the ripper came back! ”(Fig. 5), and was made by teachers Lucia Bartolotti and Annalisa di Pierro. The escape was designed and created for Second Grade Secondary School students, in the context of teaching English. Figure 5. ­

The story at the center of the escape is that of Jack the Ripper who at the end of Halloween night is unable to return to the afterlife along with all the other ghosts. Solving the hidden puzzles will rebuild the magic word that opens the door to the underworld. The search begins with the reconstruction of Dickens’ tomb, and then proceeds to visit some Victorian places that are still found in modern London. At each stage there are linguistic activities related to the places themselves and to the characters connected to them. The right solution of each test will provide a letter that will make up the magic word. By entering the magic word in an alphabetic keypad, you are teleported out of the Escape Room. The design phases consisted of the initial conception and narration of the context, the most significant places were then selected which were then reconstructed and served as the background for the various

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activities conceived. Some characteristic characters were also created to enrich the proposed environments and textual notes were created with the instructions and fundamental notions for solving the tests. Finally, the overall coherence and correct functioning of all elements was verified. Figure 6. ­

The tools used for the creation of the environment were Blender and the Opensim construction menu for the creation of artifacts, MakeHuman for the creation of some characters, Opensim Script for linguistic and mechanical activities of some artifacts, Learningapps.org, Google forms, YouTube videos for further language activities. As for the strengths that emerged from this activity, for Lucia are the motivation to carry out the activities, thanks to the playful aspect, and the collaboration between peers for the solution of the games; for Annalisa, thanks to immersive teaching it is possible to simulate actual reality, students can create learning scenarios that they would not otherwise have access to, in this case an escape room set in the Victorian period in London. Students could strengthen or acquire the skills required of 21st century kids, such as creativity, collaboration, problem solving, autonomy and resourcefulness, working in a team, digital skills. As for the critical issues that emerged, for Lucia, the time taken to create the environment is much longer than the time that students can use. On the possibility of being able to have an environment of this kind created directly by the students, for Lucia, it would be difficult because having two curricular hours of teaching a week, she would have to spend most of the time in the realization; Annalisa, on the other hand, agrees that being very motivating activities for students, they could also work from homes, and that activities of this kind could be part of a Learning Didactic Unit (UDA). By broadening the vision to what the potential of a virtual environment such as Opensim was in the head of teaching, for Lucia and Annalisa, immersive teaching is very inclusive and motivating for learn-

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ing, this methodology allows you to leverage the strengths of each student, enhancing various types of “intelligences”, in this way everyone actively participates in learning that does not occur in a transmissive way but the students carry out research related to the contents to be included in the “learning scenarios” and develop various kinds of skills, “building” your own knowledge in first person. Furthermore, since the learning environment is virtual and playful, the student does not feel “forced” to learn but has freedom of action and construction, therefore assimilating the knowledge of the discipline more easily. The next escape is titled “Escape from the house-museum: that joker by Gaspard Monge!” (Fig. 6), created by the teacher Lorena Ragusa for students of the First Grade Secondary school, in the context of teaching technology. The story behind the escape is that of a schoolchild who is visiting, with the drawing teacher, the house museum of Gaspard Monge (French mathematician and draftsman, father of descriptive geometry). While in the central room of the house, a student is looking at Monge’s portrait hanging on the wall. Intrigued by his gaze, and convinced, to his enormous amazement, that he saw the portrait’s eyes marry and turn towards him, he stretches out his arm and touches the rough surface of the oil portrait with his hand. A loud roar and the sudden lowering of the floor drags the schoolchildren into a secret underground room. There, the students will find themselves catapulted into a daring adventure, conceived centuries ago by Gaspard Monge, which will lead them to have to solve both theoretical and practical questions on the three main techniques of representation of technical drawing, to open the three doors present (and drivers in the relative rooms: orthogonal projection room, axonometry room and perspective room) to be able to open the glass case and operate the lever capable of lifting the floor and bringing them back to safety inside the “canonical” rooms of the house museum. Only in this way will they be able to reunite with their teacher, and avoid ending up like other unfortunate and, alas, unprepared students, whose poor remains are scattered and dusty here and there on the floor of the underground hall, an imperishable testimony of their lack of commitment. in the studio! The three paths focus on the three drawing techniques addressed during the school year: orthogonal projections, axonometries and perspectives. Inside the room “Orthogonal projections” (room I) you will find the first panel to be recovered (and to be brought back to the initial room). To be able to take it, however, you will need to enter the secret combination inside the keypad located next to the panel. This combination will consist of the first two letters of the solutions of the three puzzles (indicated by the numbers, 1, 2, 3) found inside the room. The second room, the axonometry room, apparently empty, will lead, after a series of rez (objects that allow the appearance of other objects) obtained thanks to the solution of puzzles, to the conquest of the second panel. In the third and last room, the room of the perspective, you will have to find, as in the first room, the secret combination of the keypad, which will be given, this time, by the initials of the authors of the four paintings that will be rezzato, answering the quizzes, inside the frames hanging from the roof. Conquered in this way the three panels will be able to answer the last question, by clicking on the glass case, and obtaining salvation! The design phases included an initial conceptual phase, in which the topics were chosen, the setting of the escape was devised and the paths and themes were structured. During the design phase, project sketches were made, relating both to the “construction” part and to the “programming” part, therefore concerning the choice of tools to be able to carry out the quizzes inside the rooms. In the last phase, the operational one, there was the actual realization of the setting and the scripts to carry out the tests.

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Figure 7. ­

As for the tools used for the creation, for the setting the whole setting was created by building within Opensim (starting from prim, then modified and textured), part of the objects were downloaded from the internet (sketchfab) and then imported, others were created thanks to the use of the blender software and then imported; for the quizzes, some of those present in the rooms were created by inserting scripts in LSL within the objects present in the setting, while for others, tools available on the internet were used, such as LearningApps and Generador de candados digitales online. For Lorena, the strengths of activities of this kind can be analyzed on two levels: the students can play the escape room already built by the teachers, and in this case the strengths are related to a new way of learning, studying, learning. . Thanks to the conveyance of the game, in fact, learning becomes more fun, therefore easier, more immediate, more motivating; the pupils themselves, in a subsequent phase, can create their own escape rooms on specific topics proposed by the teachers, in this case therefore, in addition to what has already been mentioned above, the enhancement of creativity, design and problem solving skills of the students. And again the complexity of the project, its being highly interdisciplinary, in bringing up knowledge and skills of different kinds (from the theoretical knowledge of the discipline, to the skills necessary for the realization of the settings, therefore related to the use of 3D modeling programs, the computer skills necessary for the realization of the scripts, the knowledge of apps and programs on the net for the realization of padlocks and the construction of the puzzles) generated initially, and also during the course of the project, a sort of challenge with itself. The fear of the complexity of the enterprise to be completed, and the fear of not being up to the task, have been overcome from time to time, thanks also to the guidance of the project organizers and the achievement of the final result has generated in Lorraine therefore extreme satisfaction and great confidence in herself and in her abilities. Thinking therefore that being able to recreate the same situation in the didactic field can be extremely useful for achieving the goal of strengthening students’ self-esteem.

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Figure 8. ­

This escape was also tested both with its students and with a group of Erasmus students visiting the Lorraine school. The activity aroused enormous interest and the involvement found in the pupils was surprising. By broadening the vision to what the potential of a virtual environment such as Opensim was in the head of teaching, for Lorena, are the involvement, the ease of learning conveyed by the game, the use of a language very close to that of young people, the ability to arouse motivation, the development of creative potential, the strengthening of self-esteem. The enthusiasm I found in young people when activities of this kind are proposed is enormous. For example, on the occasion of the exams at the end of the school cycle, some of his students created an exam paper within the virtual worlds, exploiting the work done over the years, with surprising results. The next escape has the title “Food Safety Escape Room” (fig. 7) and was created by the teacher Giorgio Lampis for a Professional Institute for Hotel Services and the subject matter concerns food hygiene, which is normally dealt with in the first two years. The idea was born to bring students closer to the notions of hygienic food safety. For Giorgio, a “lighter” approach to school topics helps learning. Among these, “gamification” represents one of the most effective approaches to reach young people. Regarding the design, a familiar setting was chosen, that is a school classroom. The tools used were Blender, for the construction of a bacterial cell, furnishings available within Opensim. Google modules were used for the quizzes, for the Learnigapps crossword puzzle, some LSL scripts were used for true or false questions, and multiple choice. The questions are asked by some interactive objects and the correct answer allows you to access another question. For Giorgio, the strengths of activities of this kind are that the playful-didactic activities allow children to be encouraged to acquire fundamental concepts of the discipline. The motivation, in this case, is not

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the acquisition of a good grade, but the satisfaction of winning the challenge against oneself or against others. These activities lend themselves well to collaborative work and are not limited to just younger kids. Figure 9. ­

On the possibility of having students carry out activities of this kind directly, for Giorgio, it is possible after a rather long training period, difficult to program within normal lessons. It also provides for the availability of PCs during lessons, which is quite complicated in some schools. Expanding the vision to what the potential of a virtual environment such as Opensim was in the head of teaching, for Giorgio, is an immersion that can be partial or total depending on the tools used. It is not a feature that alone can guarantee success in the approach to pupils, it is also necessary that the contents and techniques are well designed to calibrate the playful and didactic aspects. The next escape is entitled “The dance of fairy tales” (fig. 8) and was conceived and created by the teacher Cristiana Pivetta for a First Grade Secondary school. Cristiana’s discipline of interest and teaching is an Italian language. The idea behind this escape is to involve those who participate in a fun treasure hunt by testing the ability to understand a fairy tale, built ad hoc for this type of experience. Starting with apples, an object dear to fairy tales, the researcher-hero will have to solve 12 puzzles to receive in exchange the letters to compose in order to discover the name of the heroine and escape with her through the door, at the stroke of midnight. The design phases of the realization of this environment were, first of all, the construction of a classic fairy tale, which deals with the theme of the relationships between sisters; the preparation of the puzzles, the realization of the scenario and the characters, the verification together with the students of the functionality of the project and the collection of feedback.

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Figure 10. ­

Blender was used for the construction of the environment and objects, while for the construction of the MakeHuman and Adobe Fuse mannequins in the beta version. The strengths found in the development of this activity were, for Cristiana, the solicitation of collaboration, sharing and creativity. The critical issues encountered can be considered the need to acquire new skills in using the software necessary to give shape to ideas. The students accompanied the implementation of the real-time escape and their suggestions were kept in mind. This allowed Cristiana to directly involve them in the path by stimulating their curiosity and increasing their commitment to the study of the fairy tale genre. The involvement of students in the realization is considered fundamental by Cristiana, otherwise the figure of the teacher who falls from the top of the activities is proposed again and the mission of the teacher is lost, which is to make their students active protagonists of their path of learning. The students chose the objects to be made, looked for the textures and suggested that she insert resources to have the opportunity to review some aspects of the fairy tale. The next escape is titled “Deep Word” (fig. 9), and was created by teachers Rossano Marano and Giovanni Garattini. The activity was designed for students of the First Grade Secondary school. The subjects concerned are mathematics and science. The “Deep Word” escape room is a science fiction theme in which the protagonist, an astronaut, will have to reveal the secret hidden in a message from outer space. Once he lands on Saturn’s moon he will have to teleport to different places by solving the various puzzles that will be proposed to him. The player will have to use logic, reflexes and astronomical knowledge to uncover the mystery and meaning of the message. For the construction of the 3d models both Blender and the construction tools present in opensim were used. For the realization of the quizzes and puzzles, the LSL programming language always present in opensim was used.

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For Rossano and Giovanni an activity of this type helps to develop logical skills, creativity and deepen their disciplinary knowledge. The critical issues encountered were on the realization of the puzzles using programming. The testing of the escape by the students took place via screen sharing and, although they could not take part in the activity in first person, they felt stimulated and still managed to get involved by solving the various puzzles present in the escape room . As regards the possibility of having students create an escape room directly, for Rossano and Giovanni, this is possible with the help of guides, through simpler tools to create the puzzles and with the support of a tutor to accompany them. in the design and implementation of the project. The next escape is entitled “To escape or not to Escape” (fig. 10), which was created by the teacher Annie R. Mazzocco. The activity is aimed at students of a third grade of the first grade secondary school but also to classes of the second grade secondary school. The escape room is entirely in English (A2 / A2.2). This project consists in going through six plays by Shakespeare solving small puzzles in order to be able to progressively open the doors that give access to the works. The escape room starts from William Shakespeare’s room and ends on Prospero’s island. The design phases included an initial phase in which the theme was chosen, the necessary documentation was collected and the objectives and levels of difficulty set; subsequently we moved on to planning the environment and the activities to be proposed. The final phase was that of testing the path. The tools used to carry out the activity were Blender 2.81, for the construction of the architecture and objects / characters; Gimp, for editing and creating textures used on objects; LibreOffice and PowerPoint, for word processing; Google Doc, for project documentation; Audacity for sounds, voices and special sound effects also for door openings; Text to speech for the voices of some characters; Cool Text to create clues and quotes on the walls of the rooms; FS2LSL, Script Me and LSL language for scripting; LearningApp for outworld interactive activities; YouTube to insert links of cartoons connected to the work cited. For Annie, the main strengths of an activity of this kind are immersion; the innovative, playful and fun approach; the possibility of carrying out the path individually or in groups; the possibility of being able to access the environment several times; the acquisition of problem solving that stimulate logic, research and, if done as a team, everyone’s skills and functional cooperation; the fact that there aren’t many rules because finding them is part of the game itself. During the continuation of the activity Annie was also helped by some of her students who already knew the principle of escape rooms. Their contribution has made it possible to develop an environment that is not very complicated but with help in Italian, since students are always a little afraid to confront the English language, even if they use it playing online and with their consoles. On the possibility of involving students in a more decisive way in the realization of these activities Annie is absolutely convinced that it is possible as long as balanced teams are created, using the skills of each one and observing them manage work, conflicts, collaboration. However, this would require ad hoc training which, for teachers like you who have a few hours a week in each class, would require at least two years. By expanding the vision to what the potential of a virtual environment like Opensim was in the field of teaching, for Annie, there is certainly the possibility of learning by doing things; another quality is the informality that these environments give, leading to a flexibility of didactic models. Another fundamental quality is the possibility of creating an environment that could not be visited in the RL due to the historical, geographical, narrative aspect. 356

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The next escape is entitled “Discovering the Nuragic civilization” (fig. 11) and was created by the teachers Maria Luisa Faccin, Susanna Loche. The activity can be used in the First Classes of the First Grade Secondary and in the First Class of the two years of the Second Grade Secondary; the material produced can also be profitably used for a path linked to local history even in paths for adults. The path is transversal and consequently the disciplines involved can be numerous: History, Literature, Art, Technology, Science. Figure 11. ­

The escape ‘land’ was born with the idea of ​​defining a useful path to learn about the Nuragic civilization, stimulating the player’s curiosity and initiative, avoiding pre-packaged approaches. There is no predetermined path, except in the access and exit phase; the traveler is the protagonist of the game’s success because he is active in the search for information, in their analysis and selection to find what is necessary to continue in the game. The project created by Susanna and Maria Luisa has the characteristic of a path in a 3D world that wants to avoid as much as possible that it is simply action in external sites. The ‘players’ must be involved in seeking information, making hypotheses, deducing. In this way we want to stimulate the spirit of initiative and relevant documentary research and avoid the traditional recipe: “first study and then answer the quizzes”, but instead favor targeted research to respond to a need, therefore more oriented to provide a methodology that a verification of the possession of certain contents. The design phases consisted in the drafting of the programmatic plan which defined which content nodes to deal with in relation to the very wide sector in question, taking into account the recipients; an inspection on the to be implemented (Nuraghe, necropolis, museums); search for documents, images and reference sites for implementation. Subsequently we proceeded with the creation of the environment, defining its focal points.

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The main strengths of an activity of this type, for Susanna and Maria Luisa, are the spirit of initiative and relevant documentary research and avoiding the traditional recipe: “first you study and then answer the quizzes”, but instead you favor research aimed at responding to a need, therefore more oriented towards providing a methodology than verifying the possession of certain contents. On the possibility of pupils participating in the construction of the escape, for Susanna and Maria Luisa, the didactic implications become even more significant because it becomes possible to bring the informal and non-formal skills of the children back into the didactic sphere; encourage teamwork; foster the development of research, selection and contextualization skills of information; implement the use of technology in the service of learning; provide tools and strategies to learn to learn in an authentic research and design path with the support of ICT. By expanding the vision to what the potential of a virtual environment such as Opensim was in the field of teaching, for Susanna and Maria Luisa, there is the possibility of creating a context that is closer and more familiar to that of children (eg videogames); being able to bring out knowledge and skills that children often already possess but which are not valued at school; the review of the relationship between teacher and pupils; the transversality of both the contents and the skills developed. The versatility of the escapes allows you to deal with any topic, even if not strictly related to teaching. By way of example, the escape “Away from this bar!” (Fig. 12) created by Francesca Bertolami, tutor of Edu3D and expert in virtual worlds, is illustrated, which deals with the theme of science fiction inspired by the Star War bar. Figure 12. ­

The escape represents a journey into a parallel universe where there is a strange bar. In the galaxy where the adventure begins, there are all the instructions to continue the journey, after which you are teleported to the Galaxy bar, an environment frequented by many alien and disturbing characters. By

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clicking on six of them and solving the questions you will get letters that you can rezz and anagram. The key word for leaving the bar is the surname of a famous science fiction writer who, unfortunately, is no longer with us. It will thus be possible to escape and return with a teleport to the Pythagorean Laboratory. The design phase began with the search on the web for the characters to be included in the bar, modifying them in Blender; the starting environment was then created. In the course of construction, several changes were made, especially after visiting the Escapees of the other participants. For Francesca it was, in fact, very useful to compare herself with the work of the other participants to add details that at the beginning had not occurred to her. From this last observation you draw another of the great possibilities of working in an environment like Opensim: within the platform you have the possibility to compare yourself with others. Opensim, and more specifically Craft World, has for years been a great resource for the realization of original projects, and of great value from an educational and cultural point of view. Sharing experiences is therefore a very important value compatible with this platform, which pushes us to continuous improvement not simply to copy something, but to improve ourselves and increase our skills. As for the test part, Francesca tried to differentiate the methods, using multiple choice questions, direct questions, reference images and even a QrCode to be read with a mobile app (Actionbound). As the last escape, the escape titled “Boom” (fig. 13), created by me and the teacher Giliola Giurgola, is presented. With this project it was possible to personally test the proposed experience, in addition to coordinating the work of the other teachers. The escape has been designed for First Grade Secondary School students. The didactic subject of interest is mathematics. Figure 13. ­

The scenario in which we move is compelling, the student finds himself inside a bank vault and identifies eight hidden rooms to solve eight tests that allow him to compose a word to open a last room

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and leave the escape. The first difficulty therefore appears to be the search for the rooms first. From an educational point of view, a fundamental role is played by tests with contents of lateral thinking, creativity and recreational mathematics. Through the proposed tests the student stimulates reasoning. An important choice was also to leave clues and suggestions in the environment and in the test rooms, this to allow the student to never get discouraged in the research or formulation of the solution. The student therefore has the possibility to choose, self-assessing, whether or not to access additional information. In addition, traps have been added to the environment to maintain the informal and playful aspect of the environment. The design phase consisted of an initial design of the environment, in such a way that the rooms were well hidden and accessible in unexpected ways. Subsequently, the tests to be inserted were identified and the clues and suggestions for the resolution of the tests were created. At the end of the design of the whole environment, details were added, such as traps. The tools used were essentially Blender, for the design of the environment; Gimp, for editing and creating graphic content; Audacity, for the creation of audio content, and all the tools offered by Opensim, mainly for the creation of test scripts. At the end of the realization of all the escapes, visits were organized to test the environments. The participants in the visits were therefore asked for opinions on the functionality of the escapes created. In principle, and in general on all the escapes, the participants agreed that the didactic paths carried out were functional and that, even if you are not an expert, it was possible to use the contents and proceed with the resolution of the tests. In some cases, the difficulties encountered were attributed to the lack of mastery of the topics covered, this in the case of specific subjects such as scientific ones. On how to use the environments, everyone agreed that it is ideal to let students access in small groups, in order to maintain the playful aspect of the environment, as well as the spirit of the escape rooms in their original conception. The strengths of the project were: • • • •

Innovating transversal digital teaching methodologies to create online communities of practice Fostering the acquisition of specific professional skills and the dissemination of significant and transferable experiences and materials in various fields of application. Building scientific meanings, that is a structured set of activities aimed at constructing meanings of learning objects. Implement a virtual place for lifelong learning. We believe it is interesting and useful to make the Edu3D environment available for innovative teachers and creative students looking for new learning environments by supporting the community of practice with remote tutoring and coaching workshops.

THE DESIGN METHODOLOGY OF AN EDUCATIONAL ESCAPE ROOM Let us now focus on what can be the methodology applicable in coordinating students in carrying out activities of this kind. The ITEC methodology (Benassi, A.,2013) provides effective guidelines for teaching scenarios. For “scenarios” are intended descriptions of innovative learning experiences, which combine technological possibilities, concrete opportunities for teachers, strategic policy objectives. The reference scenario is the “Design” which foresees that the students grouped in small project teams (3-5 360

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people) work on the design and prototyping of a product. This product will be relevant to a disciplinary (or interdisciplinary) theme and, as in industrial design, the needs of one or more category of potential users who are supposed to be interested and derive some benefit from the use of the product must be taken into account. . From what has been said it can be deduced how this approach can be fully used in the creation of didactic Escape Rooms, which can therefore be the product of the students’ design. The design phases of the method are summarized as follows: Figure 14. ­

Design Brief: the teacher assigns the students a document in which the aims, objectives of the product, the target audience and the deadline for delivery are indicated. From this moment the student teams start the design. Design Brieft may also omit some constraints, leaving designers free to define them. • • • •

Survey: the team carries out a planned observation aimed at gathering information and analyzing them, or it performs a comparative analysis with respect to similar experiences already existing Design: the prototype of the scenario is created. Testing: the prototype is subjected to the use of a representative sample of the user target, from which considerations arise with respect to the effective effectiveness of the prototype. Improvement: the designers return to the project to improve it and make a refined version based on what emerged from the users’ observations. There is, therefore, a contextual evolution of the initial Design Brief up to the definition of its final form.

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Figure 15. ­

The teacher is asked to evaluate the students taking into account the effectiveness of the products, based on what emerged from the testing phase; the quality of the documentation of the process and the sense of responsibility and role of each individual student within the team.

THE SCIENCE ESCAPE ROOM The idea developed at edu3d was a warning to the formulation of the proposal made within the famous European Digieduhack 2019 event, which I was able to curate for the Capozzi-Galilei Comprehensive Institute, in Valenzano (BA). The proposal consists in the realization of an escape that spanned several scientific topics that covered the three-year program of a First Grade Secondary school. Within the competition, this was awarded among the three best ideas worldwide. The project will be illustrated below and the strengths, potentialities and innovations introduced with respect to the Escape created within the Escape Room project at Edu3D will be examined (fig. 14). The essential strength was the context in which the business was developed. The topics covered, for their conception, have included the sphere of the infinitely small (for example the atomic structure of an atom, or the structure of a cell), and of the infinitely large (everything I have that concerns astronomy). This starting point allows us to contextualize in a different way the use of a virtual environment within didactic activities. In many cases virtual environments are used in the field of historical reconstruction, this is because if you think for example of an archaeological site, it allows teachers to live an experience without physically moving from their classroom. This solution is of great help when, for example, the places you want to visit are geographically distant.

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Figure 16. ­

Figure 17. ­

In the context of historical reconstruction, virtual worlds can also be used to reconstruct monuments that no longer exist, think for example of the reconstruction of a temple of which only the ruins remain. This second approach turns out to be more practical as the students are usually involved in the recon-

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struction activity, carrying out research and studies on what the characteristics of the site of interest were and first proceeding with the reconstruction. To these more common, but at the same time important, areas of use of virtual worlds you can add the possibility of examining, exploring, studying things that are not visible to us with the naked eye (the infinitely small and large). Figure 18. ­

The escape is structured in three paths: one concerning life, dealing with topics such as plant cells, animal cells, photosynthesis, cellular respiration and mitosis; another concerning matter, dealing with atomic structures, elements and their properties; the last one concerns astronomy, dealing with the evolutionary phases of the earth, the properties of the planets, eclipses, the parts that make up the sun, the phases of the moon and constellations. Access to one of the three paths takes place through the three-dimensional reconstruction of the science laboratory of the school for which the project was carried out. Each path is structured in turn into 10 levels between tests and games, and, at the time of accessing the path, the student has the possibility to choose a degree of difficulty depending on how well he feels about the topics covered.

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Figure 19. ­

The possibility of choosing a degree of difficulty is another aspect on which it is worthwhile to focus our attention from the moment in which it is possible to establish a warning of self-confidence in the less prepared student, managing to conclude the path thanks to facilitations, but at the same time encouraging him to improve, perhaps pushing him to tackle even the most complicated paths. As for the structure of the tests, we wanted to contrast with more purely didactic puzzles, more playful puzzles in which a real knowledge of the topics is not required, but a greater use of ingenuity is required. Let’s see, path by path, the most significant levels that can have a greater impact on the acquisition of educational content. For the path “Inside life” (fig. 15), designed for first grade students of a lower secondary school, one of the most significant levels is that concerning the association of the organelles of the plant cell with the name and description corresponding. In this level the student can visualize the cell in three dimensions in all its parts. (fig.16) In the same way, the level at which, observing the three-dimensional reconstruction of the animal cell, the student has to “turn off” the name of the organelles not belonging to the animal cell from a wheel is of considerable didactic impact. A further test is the one concerning the phases of mitosis, in which the student is asked to rearrange and, if necessary, also to associate the name by observing the model. (fig.17) This kind of activity can have a notable feedback from a didactic point of view from the moment in which the student, solving the game, attributes to the word an image that is more likely to remember in the long term. Immersiveness and visual impact therefore allow you to memorize information by associating it with the experience that fully involves the student, bringing him back, as also emerged previously, to that familiar context of videogames. In this path, one of the most playful games, is undoubtedly the one that follows the false line of the hangman game, where the student, typing in chat one letter at a time can try to recompose a word linked to chlorophyll photosynthesis, in case of mistake a daisy loses petals (fig. 18).

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Figure 20. ­

Figure 21. ­

In the case of this game, the more prepared student, reading the definition of the mysterious word, can immediately identify the word, while the less prepared student can proceed with attempts until the identification. This last case is the one that may interest us most because by making a reading in con-

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trast to the game, the student, once the word has been identified, associates it with the definition that initially had as a clue. It is then the interactivity of the environment that facilitates the acquisition of new information. Figure 22. ­

Figure 23. ­

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Figure 24. ­

Figure 25. ­

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Figure 26. ­

For the Inside the matter path (fig. 19), designed for students of a second grade of a lower secondary school, one of the most significant puzzles is the one on the association of a chemical element to an object. Also in this case, the possibility of being able to proceed to attempts in associations, allows to increase knowledge. Another significant enigma is that in which a certain number of electrons are required to be arranged in the different energy levels, following the theory of the arrangement in shells (fig. 20). In practice, the student can act on the model, increasing and decreasing the electrons for each energy level, until the right arrangement is identified. Within this environment, as in others, information is conveyed to stimulate reasoning and fix those theoretical concepts that are fundamental for the understanding and theory of the subject matter. The ability to convey information is another strong point of the environments. One of the strategies to be able to create attention on the information conveyed was to create unusual scenarios, for example, in a more playful level on the atomic weight of the electrons, the information on how it is calculated is conveyed through an airplane that flies around the environment. The game consists in the action of a slot machine until the correct association element - atomic weight is obtained (fig. 21). For the Inside the Universe path (fig. 22), designed for third grade students of a lower secondary school, an interesting puzzle was that concerning the association of the three-dimensional reproduction of the evolutionary phases of the earth with descriptions correspondents (fig. 23); another, instead, concerned the association of the parts of the Sun with the corresponding name (fig. 24); a further game, of a different type to those illustrated previously, is that in which the student, using a keypad, must rotate the Moon around the Earth in order to reconstruct one of the eclipses indicated in the chosen difficulty level (fig. 25).

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This type of game undoubtedly presents several interesting aspects, the first is to clarify and show the process behind an eclipse, showing the shadow cones that form between the Sun, Earth and Moon; the other aspect is to clarify what is the motion of the Moon around the Earth, showing the trend of the first around the second by increasing the keypad. Also in this case the concept of learning by doing plays a fundamental role, the student can arrive at the solution by trial and error and at the same time fix the experience by associating it with the memory of the activity carried out. One of the most playful - didactic tests of the course is undoubtedly the one dedicated to astrophysics Margherita Hack: the game follows the lines of the famous naval battle game, where the student is called to identify and sink all the spaceships hidden in the board in a way such as to identify pieces of one of the most important citations of astrophysics (fig. 26). The game in question stands out from the others by having more of a cultural aspect, and by encouraging students to know a great excellence in the field of astronomy. Margherita Hack is just one of the characters who intervene within the itinerary, the others are Mendeleev, Nicolas Theodore de Saussure, Galileo Galilei, Jean-Antoine Nollet, Robert Hooke, Giovanni Keplero, Hans Adolf Krebs, Walther Flemming. Each character has the task of guiding the student in his discoveries. The choice of introducing the characters in the paths has the specific purpose of contextualizing the topics and facilitating the student in the association of the topics dealt with with the historical character linked to them.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS In the future, we will want to continue to deepen the techniques for creating these environments, trying to take advantage of the new next generation virtual environments, which can also be explored through augmented reality viewers but also low-cost devices such as cardboard. The goal will be to make these environments more accessible on all devices, without registration constraints which are always a limit when dealing with students. At the moment, in fact, Opensim is accessible only from PCs with certain performances and requires the installation of a viewer as well as registration to the grid. Environments such as Mozilla Hubs would instead be accessible simply via a link, even if at the moment it becomes more complicated to create interactions.

CONCLUSION All the experiences reported demonstrate the great versatility of the Escape Rooms: it is possible to create by dealing with any didactic topic and, depending on how the paths are structured, be aimed at students of any age. An escape room implemented within a virtual environment such as Opensim, as also emerged previously, also has the advantage of bringing students into a context close to them such as that of videogames, as in a classic videogame the student is called upon to pursue goals to move forward. It is therefore worthwhile to contextualize the merits and implications that videogames have in our society today (Aica). First of all it should be remembered that video games have now been for almost three generations of men and women present in people’s lives. It can therefore be excluded that these represent a passing

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phenomenon. Video games, on the other hand, are always present in our daily life, having many implications from a social, cultural and educational point of view. Video games also have the great power to appeal to people of all genders and ages, from the youngest to the adults. Their wide diffusion has allowed these masters to be unaware of the new generations, putting them at ease in digital and virtual life. If on the one hand video games have drastically changed our lives, on the other they have always been a battleground for debates that have questioned their educational and pedagogical value. The main accusations leveled against have been to encourage violence, cause social isolation and dependence for those who use it assiduously. The problems illustrated may unfortunately be true in some cases but nevertheless they must not be a limitation regarding the use of videogames, but a starting point in which teaching can play a fundamental role, proposing digital activities aimed at educating the new generations. the correct use of the instrument. Among the main strengths of video games is the production of various cognitive stimuli such as speeding up the response to a stimulus, allowing you to develop multitasking skills. It is therefore necessary, for a teaching in step with the times, to mediate and integrate between traditional knowledge and these new forms of knowledge. From a didactic point of view it is therefore necessary to develop training and reflection courses for teachers who appear to be wary of new technologies; to make the new generations reflect on the value of video games, starting from the question “what’s behind the screen”; develop video games that can be used as teaching tools. Escape rooms and virtual worlds fully respond to these needs that will become increasingly necessary to meet the needs of generations that are increasingly digitally oriented, thanks to their high degree of freedom with which it is possible to develop an activity on multiple disciplinary areas. Now think about how Escape Rooms, and virtual worlds in general, can make their way into our society in this historical period characterized by social distancing due to Coronavirus. From a general point of view, since the emergency began, there has been a progressive approach by several people to virtual worlds such as Opensim, but also to new generation worlds such as Altspace, which can also be explored through viewers . Virtual worlds have, in fact, always fascinated people above all for the possibility of being able to establish confidential relationships between the subscribers to the platform, as if one lived the experience live. From the didactic point of view, with the advent of distance learning, virtual worlds can be seen as a good alternative to simple lessons via web cam. The teacher can communicate with the students, share with them cards or videos on the subjects under study, but above all he can think of having his students realize laboratory experiences. In these circumstances the Escape Rooms can play a fundamental role both from the point of view of the use of the environments previously created by the teacher, and in this case all the strengths that could be analyzed previously emerge, but even more so from the point of view of the realization by students who learn to collaborate and divide tasks and, from the point of view of learning, “learn by doing”, in fact, even if they find themselves dealing with a specific didactic topic for the first time, students learn them and continue to memorize them throughout the realization of the activity, making them their own. At the end of this chapter I would like first of all to thank all the participants in the “Escape Room at Edu3D” project who have made an essential contribution to the chapter, sharing their experience and their observations. I also thank all the Science Escape Room project team for investing in the project, promoting it and enriching it with their essential knowledge in the field of science. A special thanks goes 371

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to Giliola Giurgola, who supported this proposal from the beginning, and who has always put all his passion and experience in coordinating Edu3D, guaranteeing innovative and important initiatives in the field for innovative teaching. On my own account, I can only be happy and grateful for the experiences gained within this fantastic team.

REFERENCES Benassi, A. (2013). Guidelines for the implementation of the idea: Didactics for scenarios. Indire. https:// www.indire.it/content/index.php?action=read&id=1770 Escape Room at Edu3D. (n.d.). Read Book Creator. https://read.bookcreator.com/w1lIILFSwxbxQdtqy0Cwmf60HL13/kjhpp5JhQE2JzGpn40lX2w Edu3D site. (n.d.). WordPress. https://edu3d.pages.it/ Edu3D Blender Site. (n.d.). https://sites.google.com/view/blenderedu3d Giurgola, G. (2013). Didactics in the virtuous worlds: the treasure island. Mathitec Blogspot. http:// mathitec.blogspot.com/p/game-itec.html

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Avatar: Is the character who personifies the user within the virtual environment. Blender: Blender is a free and multi-platform software for modeling, rigging, animation, video editing, composition and rendering of three-dimensional and two-dimensional images. Escape Room: Is a logic game in which the competitors, once locked up in a themed room, have to look for a way out using every element of the structure and solving codes, riddles, puzzles and riddles. iTEC (Innovative Technologies for an Engaging Classroom): It was a four-year research and development project funded by the European Commission, which saw the participation of 26 partners: Ministries of Education, technology suppliers and research bodies. The objectives of iTEC were the innovation of teaching and the dissemination of the use of technologies in schools. Opensim: Opensim is a 3D graphics platform that can be accessed through an avatar (a digital representation of ourselves), and in which it is possible to build your own “world”, freeing creativity and imagination on your PC or becoming part of a of the hundreds of “virtual communities” existing in the world. Prim: Is the basic building block for building all constructable objects in the virtual world. Script: Is a set of instructions that can be placed inside a prim, but not inside an avatar. Avatars can wear scripted items. Viewer: Is a software that allows you to access different virtual worlds. Virtual Worlds: Is a computer simulated environment populated by many users who can create a personal avatar and simultaneously and independently explore the virtual world, participate in its activities and communicate with others. These avatars can be textual, or two-dimensional or three-dimensional graphic representations.

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Challenges and Research in Virtual Worlds and Augmented Reality in the Educational Field Felipe Becker Nunes Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Fabrício Herpich Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Maria Angélica Figueiredo Oliveira Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Kelly Hannel Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

ABSTRACT New technologies and opportunities to modernize and make teaching more dynamic emerge, as well as to switch from the ordinary traditional teaching method to a different format, which makes the student the protagonist of the construction of his knowledge. It is precisely in this context that new forms of use of technology in the educational field emerge, among which are the virtual worlds (MV) and augmented reality (AR), which are the objects of analysis in this chapter. Taking the basic premises on these topics, this chapter aims to help the reader understand the process of development and application of virtual worlds and augmented reality in education in order to discuss the inherent difficulties, practicalities, advantages, challenges, and trends. Thus, this chapter aimed to present the reader with the importance of reflecting on this context, seeking to show how each of these technologies has been applied in the educational field, being based on reports of empirical and academic experiences of the authors and other researchers.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch016

Copyright © 2021, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Challenges and Research in Virtual Worlds and Augmented Reality in the Educational Field

INTRODUCTION Information Technology emerged exponentially in the so-called Industry 3.0, in which there were a series of changes in processes, products and ways of working with technology in the most varied sectors of society. Based on three previous revolutions, the concept of Industry 4.0 is increasingly consolidated within society, with a special focus on technological evolution. The term is adopted to characterize the use of the most modern to produce consumer goods: big data, Internet of things, artificial intelligence and much more (Inoue et al., 2019). It is a relatively new concept, which is the result of new technological knowledge that has been increasingly improved (Kolesnichenko; Radyukova; Pakhomov, 2018). In this context, Silva et al. (2019c) explains that the discussion about Industry 4.0 takes place primarily in the fields of innovation, but, above all, with regard to productivity and the effective implementation of technology in the phases of the production process. It is important to emphasize to the reader that this scope is related to the most diverse sectors of society, among which, Educational is highlighted, in which, it has been defined in the literature as “Education 4.0”. The term “education 4.0” has been used to refer to the knowledge and skills necessary to adapt to the changes brought about by the emergence of Industry 4.0 or the Fourth Industrial Revolution. [...] That is, they are activities that involve a high degree of creativity, human contact, empathy, trust, dialogue, among other (Oliveira, 2019). The creation and adaptation of different types of systems and methodologies favored the incorporation of Information and Communication Technologies into the students and teachers’ lives. According to Hetkowski and Dias (2019), although teachers and students live in a digital culture, with the use of smartphones, social networks, applications, games and the most varied resources that trigger new behaviors, we consider a mismatch between school reality and the use of technological instruments in more interactive learning processes. This is the mismatch and the great challenge of education in contemporary times and in digital culture (Hetkowski and Dias, 2019). New teaching methodologies have emerged as alternatives to be worked on in the classroom, some of which, such as Active Methodologies, already have greater prominence and employment in the academic area. Active Learning Methodologies can be defined as instructional methods that place students at the center of the learning process (Mitre et al., 2008). Therefore, it is in this context that new technologies and opportunities to modernize and make teaching more dynamic emerge, as well as to switch from the ordinary traditional teaching method to a different format, which makes the student the protagonist of the construction of his knowledge. It is precisely in this context that new forms of use of technology in the educational field emerge, among which are the Virtual Worlds (VW) and Augmented Reality (AR), which are the objects of analysis in this chapter. Virtual reality and augmented reality are two of the most powerful tools for education, in which it is still possible to notice that they are not definitively and expressively present in society (Kirner; Siscoutto, 2007). For a more accurate understanding, it is possible to establish a contrast with the main characteristic existing between virtual and augmented reality, an aspect that allows to demonstrate the fundamental difference between these areas of study. Virtual reality allows the user to have the feeling of being immersed in a three-dimensional virtual environment, developed through a computer. Augmented reality seeks to combine the elements of a virtual environment with those of the real world. Azuma (1997) states that in virtual reality, because it is immersed in a synthetic environment, the user cannot see the real world around him, in augmented reality, the user can see the real world, with overlapping or composed virtual objects with the real world. 374

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Virtual Worlds can be defined in a traditional and broad way, as persistent online environments generated by computer, where people can interact, whether for work or leisure, in a way comparable to the real world (Bainbridge, 2010). In a conception more centered on the educational point of view, Orgaz et al. (2012) understand that the Virtual Worlds aim to provide 3D spaces, where the student can transit and experience experiences in a highly interactive environment. In parallel to the Virtual Worlds, there are resources from the use of Augmented Reality, in which, Azuma et al. (2001) consider it as a system that increases, hence its name, or complements the user’s perception and interaction with the real world, through the creation of virtual objects that coexist with the real world. Augmented Reality has emerged as one of the most promising in publications and scientific events, with a great potential for use in the educational field (Hamilton, 2011). Filho and Dias (2019) point out that with virtual and augmented reality being used in education, one can discover, explore, build knowledge, experience countless situations that involve even complex, high-cost and specific techniques, from different courses and areas, which, to be physically explored, would only be possible through sophisticated laboratories. However, through virtual and augmented reality these processes become possible and contribute to meaningful learning (Filho and Dias, 2019). Thus, this chapter seeks to present the reader with the importance of reflecting on this context, seeking to show how each of these technologies has been applied in the educational field, being based on reports of empirical and academic experiences of the authors and other researchers in the area.

Virtual Worlds in the Educational Context Xenos et al. (2017) consider the Virtual Worlds as immersive three-dimensional graphical and interactive online environments, which can be a replica of an existing physical place or an imaginary place, or even places that are impossible to visit in real life due to restrictions, such as high cost and/or security issues. The characteristics present in this environment, such as immersion, collaboration, communication and interaction can create new possibilities, in which students at the moment of carrying out educational activities become more active and explore new learning opportunities in the Virtual World. In this perspective, the user can perceive the virtual world, through a window built by the monitor screen or by a projection screen, or can be inserted in the real world through a helmet (HMD) or multiple projection rooms (caves) and devices of interaction (Kirner and Siscoutto, 2007). Simsek and Can (2016) state that by providing students with the freedom to choose the type of learning material to explore, this makes them active individuals in their learning process, thus developing the impression of authorship during this process. The diversity of resources in this type of environment, taking as an example the use of chat via text or voice, navigating the arranged scenarios and interacting with the elements present in the Virtual World, can generate a favorable scenario for this type of attitude transformation to occur. Among the resources that can be used, there is also the use of multimedia elements, such as videos, sounds, images and even slides in the format of illustrations, in addition to texts and animations. It is important to highlight the possibilities inherent to the development of practical activities and simulations in this type of environment, which demonstrate experiments that are currently difficult to be visualized in real laboratories, due to the costs and/or dangers inherent to their execution with students. Pellas (2014) highlights that interactive simulations provide a plausible illusion, which allows users to have an experience that reflects realistic situations using this type of environment.

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In this way, the Virtual Worlds can provide students with the experimental practice of a particular domain of knowledge, which can be performed with virtual laboratories and 3D objects, intelligent agents, among other factors (Herpich et al., 2016). Chang and Law (2008) also highlight that the use of simulations in the Virtual Worlds has a number of characteristics, which are of special help in the teaching of Sciences, Physics, Chemistry and Biology. In addition to this diversity of benefits, according to Silva and Mercado (2019a), it is also necessary to consider that when working with virtual experiments, the experimental skills to be developed are different from those required in material experimentation, but not for that reason they are less important, produce less results, or say less about the way science is produced and developed. Virtual experiments allow visualizing phenomena and perceiving behaviours that sometimes cannot be observed through material experiments. Therefore, it is essential to understand that the simulations built and used in the Virtual Worlds have a complementary character, and experiments that can be carried out in a material way should not be replaced. This becomes important to build a connective axis, in which material and virtual experiments will complement the construction of new perceptions and learning for students who are interacting with these elements. It is important to note that despite the varied positive signs identified in carrying out educational activities in this type of environment, the Virtual Worlds have limitations in their mode of application, several of these proven during the period of tests carried out in this research. About this, Potkonjaka et al. (2016) explain that this type of environment was not created for educational purposes, requiring training with users, also emphasizing the existing complexity in creating 3D objects, which requires the use of specific software, such as SketchUp and Blender, that provide adequate support for modelling and exporting these elements to the Virtual World. Problems involving difficult access to the environment, due to instability in the Internet connection speed and limited hardware resources, can also be considered as obstacles to its use. Within this context, new solutions that have emerged in recent years, such as Sansar1, offer new possibilities for the use of innovative graphic resources, integration with glasses for the user’s immersion and other elements. But such innovation comes with a high added cost, since they demand more Internet quality and resources of hardware, which, as mentioned previously, becomes an obstacle for schools and places that do not have an adequate infrastructure and with adequate computing power. In addition to these difficulties, there is the learning curve that is necessary for developers to have the opportunity to create simulations and other types of activities in the Virtual World. Avila et al. (2014) emphasizes that, despite the pedagogical potential of Virtual Worlds, teachers still feel significantly the lack of computational skills to deal with such resources. Training teachers and teachers with more years of experience have had the challenge of updating themselves and accepting the oscillation of changes in the classroom, with regard to the use of Technology in Education, in which the former have the benefit of being considered digital natives, that is, they are already contextualized in a highly technological and computerized environment. The absence of support for access using mobile devices can also be considered as one of the main problems currently faced in research developed with Virtual Worlds, as can be seen in the research by Voss et al. (2013). However, despite such limitations, the use of Virtual Worlds has been approached in different teaching areas, mainly in areas that demand experiments and simulations of a practical nature, in which many cases are complex to be reproduced in real scenarios and / or with risks inherent to teachers and students, as well as, there is the issue of high costs involved in some of these processes. 376

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The use of this type of resource requires, in most cases, an interdisciplinary work, in which it is necessary to build a team formed by professionals from the educational, technological and specific areas in question, such as Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, among others. According to Tibola (2018), the technology of the three-dimensional or 3D environment allows to meet the various demands present in the school environment, can rely on solid educational theories and use modern playful techniques.

Augmented Reality in the Educational Context Augmented Reality, still little known in our society, is in full development in research laboratories, presenting a lot of potential for application and at the same time many challenges to overcome and improvements to receive (Tori, 2010). Among the various areas of society that it has been applied to, the educational scope has received prominence in recent years with different technological solutions to assist in teaching and learning in areas such as Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Training, among others. The augmented reality consists of the integration of virtual resources with physical elements of the real world, in which graphic elements conceived through a computer are presented on the screens of the user’s technological devices, simultaneously with the elements of the real environment in which they are found. As established by Milgram and Kishino (1994) as an operational definition of augmented reality, the term is considered to refer to any case in which an otherwise real environment is “augmented” by means of virtual objects (computer graphics). Azuma et al. (2001) cites education as one of the main areas of application of Augmented Reality, as it takes advantage of the ability to present information, adding layers of information about objects and locations, allowing to facilitate the learning process. In addition to this, there is the possibility of using multimedia resources, such as audios, videos, images, texts and visual elements (buttons, arrows, etc.) to assist in the presentation of a visual resource or interactive simulation about a real phenomenon. AR technology can be implemented widely in various learning media; one advantage of this technology that can be used in learning is the ability to provide 3D visualization to students (Chen et al., 2019). This integration of resources makes an AR application rich in details and variations of teaching materials for students, which provides a robust environment to be used by the teacher, as a complement to the contents worked in a traditional way. According to Wu et al. (2013), AR could both allow the development of learning content in 3D perspective, as well as ubiquitous, collaborative and situated learning, and also offer learners the senses of students’ presence, immediacy and immersion, as well as the ability to visualize the invisible. Another aspect for the growth in the use of Augmented Reality in education is largely due to the popularization of mobile technologies, which are allowing access to this type of resource on devices such as smartphones and tablets. It is possible to observe the emergence of Mobile Augmented Reality (MAR), which combines aspects of reality and increases mobile learning (Chatzopoulos et al., 2017). MAR uses resources contained in smartphones and tablets, such as cameras and sensors such as GPS, for the recognition and overlapping of virtual objects in the physical world. For Craig (2013), this concept can represent economy and flexibility in education, since students have and use these devices on a daily basis. In this way, the student can become an active individual in their learning process with regard to the use of AR applications, since it allows the flexibility of times and locations (if you do not need an Internet connection), thus allowing the student interact repeatedly with teaching materials.

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In this sense, Santos et al. (2014) emphasizes that augmented reality offers a different set of characteristics, and thus, it can be used differently from other existing technologies in the educational area, with some of these characteristics being the insertion of annotations in the real world, contextualized visualization, optics and haptics, allowing that in addition to visualizing, users also touch virtual objects (Eck and Sandor, 2013). AR is currently becoming a trend in the education field. Among the numerous benefits and functionalities provided by augmented reality to assist the teaching and learning process of students, multimedia resources are highlighted when implemented with the purpose of contributing to cognitive development, since the use of 3D objects, animations, videos, images and audios, among other available resources, are considered essential characteristics in the approaches developed in the educational area with input from augmented reality (Chang et al., 2014; Harley et al., 2016; Wang, 2017). Based on the data collected in the systematic literature review, it is possible to observe that different multimedia resources are presented in educational approaches that use mobile devices with augmented reality functionality, showing the following resources: images (Chang et al., 2015), videos (Reyes et al., 2016), texts (Cubillo et al., 2015), 3D objects (Wang et al., 2014), audios (Harley et al., 2016), animations (Schmitz et al., 2015), questions (Laine et al., 2016), zoom-in / out (Botella et al., 2011), graphics (Chen et al., 2013), web pages / links (Chiang, Yang and Hwang, 2014a), hypertexts (Furió et al., 2015), maps and physical addresses (Fonseca et al., 2014), chat (Chiang, Yang and Hwang, 2014b), games (Laine, 2018), simulations (Ibáñez et al., 2019), among others. Because this area is in full ascendancy, both in the technology market and in current academic research, there are several frameworks available for building augmented reality applications. As a result, there are also comparative studies seeking to highlight the main advantages between existing platforms, such as Amin and Govilkar (2015) and Jooste, Rautenbach and Coetzee (2016). Regarding the augmented reality frameworks, another important aspect to be observed is the functionalities made available for developing applications with augmented reality resources. The applications can be classified in the categories 3D viewers and Augmented Reality browsers, and the viewers are the applications that enable the user to point the mobile device’s camera at a marker and view virtual objects on screen. The augmented reality browsers, on the other hand, allow the user to perform the tracking of a marker object, which when recognized, enables the visualization of virtual objects and on-screen content (e.g. texts, images and videos) associated with the markers. In addition to the benefits seen in these technologies and discussed throughout this section, another advantage inherent in Augmented Reality technologies concerns the ability to use multimedia resources, which aim to enable the student to interact with images, videos, audios, animations, among other possibilities (Herpich, 2019). One of the technology advantages of AR is supporting how people study to retain information. Yuen, Yaoyuneyong and Johnson (2011) listed an overview of five learning-based AR usage directions including: (a) AR books, (b) AR gaming, (c) discovery-based learning, (d) objects modeling, and (e) skills training for AR in education. According to Yusoff et al. (2010), simulations and virtual and augmented reality provide the basis for situated learning, modeling specific aspects of complex real-world systems, allowing students to experiment and interact with simulations, manipulating parameters or participating in the simulation and observing the results, in addition to enabling the promotion of social interactions between the participants, through multimedia resources, such as 3D objects, images and videos, simulations and animations, which can faithfully represent the phenomena that in the real perspective are impossible to be viewed by students or are only visible through the use of optical and magnifying equipment. 378

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Other benefits made possible by augmented reality are the achievement of higher levels of motivation and user engagement; the 3D visualization of virtual objects interposed to the real ones; the visualization on a scale of phenomena that are not perceptible in the real world and from different perspectives or angles; characteristics that help users to assimilate abstract and complex concepts, facilitating the understanding of a given educational content (Chang et al., 2014; Furió et al., 2015). Such benefits have been essential with regard to the expansion of research in this area, since it becomes viable to increase the possibility of application in schools, which, for example, despite not having computer labs, there is the possibility of using mobile devices of students to view educational content in Augmented Reality. There is even the possibility of using the AR application only by the teacher, and the visualization of experiments is transmitted with the aid of multimedia projectors, which further increases the scope of areas and places that can be used by this resource.

Issues, Controversies and Problems The construction of new educational practices does not result simply from the introduction of technologies, the simple use of these technologies cannot be associated with innovation and improvement of the quality of the teaching-learning process. This insertion needs a previous reflection, which requires research and debates around the theme, in a judicious environment, which considers different perspectives so as not to incur extreme positions (Pedrosa and Zappala-Guimarães, 2019). Virtual Worlds and Augmented Reality in the educational context have emerged as exciting alternatives to enrich and complement the teaching / learning processes. The diversity of resources in this type of environment, taking as an example the use of chat via text or voice, navigating the arranged scenarios and interacting with the elements present in the Virtual World, can generate a favorable scenario for this type of attitude transformation to occur. Therefore, the creation of immersive environments aimed at education requires that several factors be considered, for example, pedagogical objectives and well-defined teaching strategies based on theories of learning, friendly design and objects capable of encouraging interaction between users (Herpich et al., 2014). Because, according to Medina (2004), the learning obtained through the personal experiences of the participants and their interactions with other participants becomes productive, consolidated and dynamic. It is important to note that despite these positive signs identified in carrying out educational activities in this type of environment, the Virtual Worlds have different types of limitations in their application, several of which are empirically proven by the authors of this chapter and by references located in the literature. Potkonjaka et al. (2016) explain that this type of environment was not created for educational purposes, requiring training with users, also emphasizing the existing complexity in creating 3D objects, which requires the use of specific software, such as SketchUp and Blender, that provide adequate support for modeling and exporting these elements to the Virtual World. As for the process of developing a Virtual World, it requires more advanced technological knowledge in information technology and education, which in most cases, is not possible for teachers who do not have knowledge in these areas. This reinforces the finding that an interdisciplinary team is essential for the development of this proposal and adds quality to the work developed. The thinking shared by Jacka (2015) reflects the current situation, in which the author believes that there is a common sense that the Virtual Worlds are in a process of construction, and that there is still much to be done before teachers, students and managers fully adopt this solution as a learning space. Despite the described disadvantages, 379

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the benefits provided in this type of approach have been provoking instigators to proceed in the development of scenarios and simulations with an educational character. In addition, there are still other barriers to be overcome, such as the hardware power needed to use a more robust application, as well as the way of organizing the teaching materials inserted in them. Leão (2019) explains that it is necessary that they become increasingly lighter, cheaper and with less energy consumption. In addition, it is necessary to better understand how to display the data to the user and how to guide him to interact with it. Finally, there is the challenge of social acceptance. Given a system with ideal hardware and an intuitive interface, it is necessary to determine how AR can become an accepted part of the user’s daily life, just as it happened with the cell phone, smartphone, among others (Leão, 2019). Such potentialities can be considered important for the continuity of research in this area, in which it is still necessary to overcome a significant barrier in this environment so that the educational focus gains more strength, which is precisely the issue related to the use of Virtual Worlds in devices furniture. The introduction of new technological resources would be essential for there to be a new expansion in its use in the educational environment, given the ease of access and use by teachers and students from different areas of education. In this perspective, it is important to emphasize that the construction of educational applications with augmented reality resources for mobile devices needs to be articulated from the pedagogical point of view. Aspect emphasized by Christensen, Marunchak and Stefanelli (2013), given that, in addition to the use of computational resources offered by this type of environment, the focus on the educational side, which must be articulated by the teacher, becomes essential and must be carefully established and organized. These aspects can be defined as pedagogical usability, as described by Lakkala, Rahikainen and Hakkarainen (2001), that is, the correspondence between the design of the system and the educational environment, situation and context in which it will be used. It is important to note that despite the various possibilities mentioned above, the use of this type of resource still faces some rejections and difficulties, especially in terms of authorship. This is due to the need to have a learning curve to be spent so that technological solutions can be created in this context, which inevitably becomes a barrier to be overcome by professionals not working in the technology sector. As a palliative solution, the creation of interdisciplinary development teams has been seen and applied in different educational institutions, in which the interconnection of knowledge of people linked to the educational, technological and area to be addressed makes it more flexible in terms of authorship process. In addition, a limitation identified in the use of augmented reality applied to education has also been highlighted, which consists of the evaluation of these pedagogical approaches. Ibáñez and Delgado-Kloos (2018) explain that in many cases, evaluations are carried out with questionnaires developed in an ad-hoc manner by the authors, without a clear definition of what they intend to measure. Despite the aforementioned limitations, it is important to highlight that, if on the one hand, virtual reality needs special equipment, such as glasses, gloves and others, augmented reality does not present this restriction (Bassani, 2019), expanding its scope of application significantly. Augmented reality practices can only be developed with a smartphone with Internet access. In addition to this, in a systematic review carried out by Lopes et al. (2019) on the educational innovations that have emerged with the use of AR in the educational scope, it was identified that a barrier in the development of activities using AR, by the teachers. This problem also falls on the Virtual Worlds, as mentioned previously, being considered one of the main challenges in both areas to be overcome in the future.

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Reflections and Perspectives of AR and VW in education From this point, based on the explanations previously made on the topics related to the Virtual Worlds and Augmented Reality, it becomes possible to clarify to the reader some theoretical and practical reflections that the authors of this work listed based on their expertise and related bibliographies in the literature. Thus, the objective of this section is to present a generalized view of how applications involving Virtual Worlds and Augmented Reality are being dealt with in the educational field, added to possible future trends and perspectives on this scope. It is essential to affirm that the Virtual Worlds and Augmented Reality have gained and have gained significant space in the educational area in recent decades, although their original purposes were not created for the educational area. With regard to the Virtual Worlds, according to a systematic review conducted by Nunes et al. (2016) in this area, there was a rapid and significant growth in publications in different journals and congresses from around the world, between the period 2010 and 2015, with this trend being followed in later years, as can be seen in Figure 1. However, in the last two years it has been possible to note, empirically, that there has been a decrease in the growth of publications in this area, which may be the effect of the absence of new robust updates in the most popular virtual world development platforms, such as the Second Life2 and the Open Simulator3. The introduction of Sansar in the professional and academic environment may prove to be a sign of resuming this evolution, especially with regard to the promise of this application to generate the possibility of authorial creation in an easier way for people who do not have advanced technological knowledge. Despite this, there are still questions related to the reality of computer labs in Brazilian schools, since this platform is considered too robust to be used in machines with less computational power. According to Tibola (2018), a new exploration of virtual educational laboratories and virtual worlds can be carried out through the comprehensive and deep application of gamification concepts, so that aspects such as motivation, engagement, communication, competition, collaboration and cooperation, and learning in this context. In addition to this, another possibility observed in the literature, even if on a smaller scale, is the introduction of new research related to the use of Virtual Worlds with the contribution of Active Learning Methodologies, as can be seen in García et al. (2017). In order to provide greater similarity to reality, the importance of considering the affective dimension in the elaboration of a Virtual World is emphasized, which can provide better results during the performance of the proposed activity for users (Akazaki et al., 2019). In this sense, it was found the importance of the student’s affective dimension, which directly influences the user’s learning. Likewise, it is observed that each work applies Virtual Worlds according to its need, with no user pattern (Akazaki et al., 2019). From the point of view of Scherer (2000), the affective dimension is based on affective states or affect, which includes emotion, humor, motivation, interpersonal postures and attitudes. Emotion can be seen as a high intensity event, synchronized response and short duration (e.g., anger, joy and fear). Humor, on the other hand, can be seen as a low-intensity, diffuse and long-lasting event (e.g., depression, irritation, serenity and calm). Then, the term affectivity arises, which according to Bercht (2006), does not present a precise definition of its meaning, however, it can be understood as the domain of the emotions themselves, the feelings, the emotions, the sensitive experiences and mainly, the ability to get in touch with sensations, that is, the entire affective dimension. The work of Voss (2018) also addresses the investigation of how a student’s motivation can be identified during interaction in the Virtual Worlds, developing a model for identifying the motivation of students interacting in a Virtual World in order to contribute to the learning process. For that, the effort, 381

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independence and trust (EIC) model were chosen. The motivation identification model is based on a set of data collected during the student’s interaction with the MV and on tables that define scores related to the actions performed during the interaction. The results obtained demonstrate the feasibility of the EIC model and point to the possibility of using it to identify the motivation of students interacting in a Virtual World without the need to use a self-report questionnaire (Voss, 2018). Figure 1. Temporal analysis of articles, theories and areas of application Source: Nunes et al. (2016, p. 8).

Another bias that has been constantly addressed by researchers are the areas considered more practical, such as Science, Physics, among others, in which students generally have greater difficulty in under-

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standing the macro and micro phenomena that are studied. Recent research deals with this scope, such as the Thesis elaborated by Nunes (2017), who proposed a teaching method based on Bloom’s Mastery Learning theory and use of Virtual Worlds, being validated in science subjects in elementary school. The results obtained with the method were instigating and positive, with improvements in the learning of the participants in the activities carried out. In addition to this, there is the Physics area, in which recent research shows that teaching Physics can be complemented with the use of static and animated simulations within the Virtual World, in addition to the use of video, chat, images and text resources within this environment. It is important to highlight the possibilities inherent to the development of practical activities and simulations in this type of environment, which demonstrate experiments that are currently difficult to be seen in real laboratories, due to the costs and / or dangers inherent to their execution with students. Pellas (2014) highlights that interactive simulations provide a plausible illusion, which allows users to have an experience that reflects realistic situations using this type of environment. The research carried out by Herpich et al. (2017a) describes an approach to make different learning experiences available in an immersive 3D world called AVATAR, with the aim of creating virtual laboratories to assist in science and teaching learning. AVATAR was designed to follow experiential learning and other relevant educational theories, initially focused on the basic principles of electricity. Other research can also be mentioned, in which they bring a wide variety of topics covered with research in Virtual Worlds in Education, such as the process of engaging users in this type of environment (Tibola, 2018), the study of self-determination with the use of Worlds Virtual to enable self-care in obese people (Sgobbi, 2017), analysis of teacher training for authoring resource creation in Virtual Worlds (Avila, 2014), among other emerging research in the area. In relation to Augmented Reality, Bower et al. (2014) indicate ways in which a system can support pedagogical approaches: through constructivist learning, the incorporation of educational experiments that complement the real world in the classroom, game-based learning and learning that allows investigation through the collection and analysis of data according to the use of virtual models that are manipulated in a simple way and that present relevant information for the investigated subject. Bassani (2019) explains that Augmented Reality practices are already being developed in schools, but still in a timid way, especially when we take into account the works published in the 2015-2017 triennium, specific spaces for sharing practices in the area of ​​Informatics in Education. It is precisely at a point opposite to the reflection of the Virtual Worlds that the Augmented Reality applied in education is currently found, in which a wide growth can be seen in recent years of research in various areas, such as for the teaching of a Foreign Language (Leão, 2019), Sciences (França and Silva, 2019) (Ferreira and Zorzal, 2018), (Vieira et al., 2016), Mathematics (Silva and Vasconcelos, 2019b) (Santos, 2019), Education (Resende, 2019) (Becker, 2019), Physics (Herpich et al., 2018) and (Herpich, 2019), among others. One of the findings discussed in these surveys and effectively cited as beneficial is the possibility of using them on different mobile devices, at any time and place, with reservations if you need an Internet connection to use any AR application. According to Pedrosa and Guimarães (2019), the increased processing capacity of the CPU (Central Processing Unit) and GPU (Graphic Processing Unit) and the presence of certain sensors in the latest smartphones and tablets, such as accelerometers, gyroscopes and connections VGA (Video Graphics Array), HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) and Bluetooth, as well as the integration with other devices, such as VR glasses (Virtual Reality) and manual controllers for interaction with the virtual environment, make the experience in a immersive Virtual Reality system and the use of Augmented Reality, thanks to the presence of, for example, high resolution cameras, mo383

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tion sensors, GPS (Global Positioning System) locator system, step counters and compass (Steed and Julier, 2013) (Ekren and Keskin, 2017). In a systematic literature review by Herpich et al. (2019), a study was carried out to ascertain the state of the art in Mobile Augmented Reality approaches for educational purposes. Based on the selected studies, it was analysed in which areas of knowledge MAR approaches are used in the educational area. It was identified by the authors that the technical requirements used in the development of Mobile Augmented Reality approaches are defined based on the experience of the development team. Most assessments are carried out without appropriate scientific rigor in terms of research design. This shows that there is a need for more consistent and uniform standards in terms of methods for systematically developing and evaluating MAR approaches. And, thus, obtain valid results that can be used as a basis for a decision on the application of such approaches and / or their continuous improvement for education purposes. In addition, new opportunities for interconnecting the physical environment with the use of AR applications have emerged through the creation of teaching materials. According to Leão (2019), since AR allows the expansion of the real environment, through previously determined virtual objects, it is possible to propose printed material integrated with an application, in which resources such as image, audio and video can be made available by mobile devices, by reading QR-Codes inserted in this material, exactly at the points where they must be accessed. Applications that provide opportunities for creating personalized AR visual elements, such as HP Reveal4, have enabled teachers to create their own teaching materials without the need to use code programming. So that emerging technologies do not become just a “new resource” for the inclusion of content, its use must be studied and its potential evaluated, so that its incorporation contributes didactically (Pedrosa and Zappala-Guimarães, 2019). Therefore, studies must be carried out to ascertain the fact that the multimedia resources promoted by augmented reality have the capacity to improve cognitive development (Herpich, 2019). According to Clark (2002), virtual reality is augmented and can be used to make learning more interesting and fun, with the aim of improving motivation and attention, reducing costs when using the object and the real environment, no matter how face is the simulation. It also allows situations that are impossible to be explored in the real world, such as: assembling an engine, accessing a factory control panel, exploring environments such as a workshop or laboratory, using materials, simulating chemical combinations and electrical, as well as making movements in the assembly of a physical structure such as a construction (Filho and Dias, 2019). The authors of the systematic review (Lopes et al., 2019) list some possibilities inherent to the use of AR in education, in which the application in approaches with books and games, in different fields of knowledge, such as Civil Engineering, Architecture, Design and Health Sciences. According to Kurubacak and Altinpulluk (2017), AR provides numerous educational benefits. For students, these benefits can be summarized as: courses’ being fun, reducing cognitive load, increase in motivation and interest towards the course, increased opportunity to ask questions, increase in interaction between students, new opportunities for individual learning, concretizing abstract concepts, rise of success. More practical areas, such as Physics, present instigating research that has addressed the use of simulations to represent macro and micro phenomena of different topics in this area, as can be seen in the research by Herpich et al. (2020). The authors assessed the quality of an educational approach in this context in terms of Usability, Engagement, Motivation and Learning. The results obtained were satisfactory and instigating, in which the four dimensions were evaluated positively, and there was also an important feedback from the participants for improvements in educational resources in augmented reality. 384

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In the area of Geography, a survey by Herpich et al. (2017b) aimed to present an orientation activity to assist in the teaching-learning process of Geography through the use of augmented reality. The results achieved showed that the participants considered the approach to be positive and that the strategy used with the orientation activity, combined with the use of technological accessories, not only collaborated with the visualization of the content, but also allowed to establish the relationship between theory and practice.

CONCLUSION Technological evolution in the educational field is a reality that changes rapidly with each passing day, emerging from this wave of innovations, the most varied types of technological resources and forms of use to be incorporated into the teaching and learning processes. In this scope, the integration of Communication and Information Technologies in the educational field can be seen as precursors to solutions used in the academic environment, such as the use of Virtual Learning Environments, Mobile Devices, Virtual and Augmented Reality, among others. This chapter sought to present an empirical reflection, based on research previously carried out by the authors and other bibliographic references, on perceptions about the use of Virtual Worlds and Augmented Reality in the educational area. According to these possibilities, it was possible to understand that the Virtual Worlds have been considered important complementary resources for teaching and learning in different areas. It falls on this topic to the various barriers that still could not be overcome in the course of the last ones regarding the use of the Virtual Worlds, even in the face of the several researches already conducted. Especially highlighted are the difficulties related to the use on mobile devices and the learning curve for authorial production by teachers. Despite this, the computational and visual power of simulations and interactions in this type of environment can be considered rich and beneficial for learning, being considered an important complementary material in different areas of teaching. With regard to Augmented Reality in education, its exponential evolution in recent years has resulted in a range of research produced in the most varied areas of education. Similar to the computational and visual power of Virtual Worlds in simulations, Augmented Reality has a significant advantage in enabling its use on mobile devices, which has been one of the main means of spreading its use among students in recent years. There are still barriers to be overcome also in this context, which are similar to those previously mentioned in the Virtual Worlds. Therefore, it is necessary to verify the educational process with the support of Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality, and the association with learning theories and educational modalities, always considering the importance of the role of the teacher, who is responsible for the interaction (Pedrosa and Guimarães, 2019). Thus, in order to present reports and reflections on experiences from research already conducted in these areas by the authors, it is expected that the readers of this chapter understand how such technologies are being implemented and applied in the educational field, through the diagnoses presented throughout of this chapter for both areas. It is understood that there are still important challenges to be overcome, but research carried out over the past few years by different researchers has made significant and valid contributions to the improvement of teaching and learning processes in different areas of knowledge with the use of Virtual Worlds and Augmented Reality. 385

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Thus, there is an expectation that the trends cited throughout this chapter may come to fruition in a short period of time, mainly combined with new forms of learning and educational theories, with special emphasis on Active Learning Methodologies. Added to this is the possibility of overcoming the barriers existing in technological environments and mainly related to teachers, so that they can become authors allied with students to expand the use of Virtual Worlds and Augmented Reality in education.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Affective Computing: An area that investigates various elements related to human behavior, such as emotions and affectivity. Augmented Reality: Use of technological resources to present animated or static virtual representations in real world environments. Guidelines: Sets of good practices and general guides that allow establishing a standard for the development of certain actions. Mobile Augmented Reality: Use of technological resources in mobile devices to present animated or static virtual representations in real world environments. Non-Player Character: This is a character that is not played by user, is autonomous and controlled by computer. Systematic Literature Review: Set of procedures and predetermined rules that allow to carry out a survey of secondary studies about a previously defined area and research objective. Virtual Worlds: Are tools that simulate the real world in a three-dimensional environment, providing users the sense of immersion in a controlled environment with many opportunities and experiences.

ENDNOTES 3 4 1 2

Sansar. Available at: https://www.sansar.com/ Second Life. Available at: https://secondlife.com/?lang=pt-BR Open Simulator. Available at: http://opensimulator.org/wiki/Main_Page HP Reveal. Available at: https://www.hpreveal.com/

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Non-Verbal Communication Language in Virtual Worlds Ivonne Citarella National Research Council, Italy

ABSTRACT Over the years, the virtual space has been changing, and the skills acquired by users have been improved, and the avatars, as well as the settings, have graphically become more and more sophisticated. In virtual reality, the avatar without an appropriate animation would move in jerks in a disharmonious way similar to a robot, but endowing it with a particular postural animation, you make a conscious choice of what information you want to transfer with its appearance and its posture. In recent years, research has focused on the study of communication and its importance. The purpose of this contribution is to analyze the animations present in Second Life trying to trace a socio-psychological picture of the nonverbal communication process in a virtual environment.

INTRODUCTION In the 16th century, even Leonardo da Vinci became interested in “interpersonal intelligence” and the importance of observing the behavior of others. Here is what he advised the young artist: “Be vague often times in your strolling to see and consider the sites and acts of men in speaking, contending, laughing or fighting together, what acts are in them, and what acts do the surrounding people, dividers or viewers of these things”. In this trace left by Leonardo we discover all the importance of observation, which allows us to grasp important aspects both within people and within the environment, which surrounds us. Participant observation is, in fact, a methodology that was used in the investigation described in this essay Virtual worlds have hardly been studied by the academic world and it is not easy to find references to compare this work with. This essay wants to impact on the potential of this world, which is believed to stimulate a lot of thoughts on relational processes but also, as will be seen, on communication processes. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch017

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 Non-Verbal Communication Language in Virtual Worlds

The author, starting from her own didactic experience in the field of communication and combining it with participant observation started years ago in the virtual world, decided to examine: 1. What connection exists between the real, or physical, world and the virtual world with respect to communication processes and whether either of the two worlds influences the other; 2. Whether there is a breakdown of the stereotypes of Non-Verbal Communication that, learned in the course of one’s life, are activated spontaneously in the real world and if, instead, they are translated into the virtual world or completely abandoned. Thanks to participant observation, three areas in which the aforementioned communication has developed strongly in recent years were explored: 1. Physical characteristics (The avatar’s body) 2. The avatar’s clothing 3. The movements and postures of the body (Animations) The final purpose of this contribution, starting from the observation of the virtual world most frequented by adults, is to demonstrate the potential of this world to be useful for future projects dedicated to social actors as young people, not only adults, as observed in this survey. Young people could acquire, by playing, greater awareness of the importance of communication, in particular, non-verbal, without excluding the possibility of involving them in acquiring the knowledge of new professional skills aimed at programming in virtual environment.

Non-Verbal Communication (NVC) Communication plays a decisive role in everyone’s life and separating verbal communication from nonverbal communication is not possible because both are part of the communication system as a whole. Non-verbal communication performs several useful functions such as: providing information, managing impression, exercising influence, regulating interactions, and expressing intimacy. While verbal communication is explicit because it uses words, non-verbal communication acts using other transmission channels such as posture and gestures (La Pensée, Lewis, 2014), in the majority of cases spontaneous movements, some of which are handed down from one’s own culture, but which the body unconsciously transmits and which can escape even oneself. Furthermore, Ekman (1982) states that Non-Verbal Communication (NVC) can find its roots in culture where some gestures / emblems summarize a concept socially shared and understood in the community of social actors but at the same time it manifests itself in a completely personal body language that somehow escapes the actor’s own awareness. Non-communication is not possible and within humans that is an innate and necessary condition. The expressive function of non-verbal behavior includes both the communication of interpersonal attitudes and the exchange of information relating to the presentation of oneself. The latter analyzes the aspect of the social actor, its proxemics, its posture and a whole series of information that returns an image of himself (feedback) that influence the reading of the interlocutor (receiver). Therefore, as Burgoon, Guerrero & Floyd (2010) state, there are eight non-verbal codes commonly recognized by academics such as the kinesics, the olfactory, the haptic, the chronemic, the vocal, the 395

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proxemics and the code linked to the physical aspect without excluding human intervention on the environment. Some of these codes are automatically excluded from this investigation for obvious reasons, since the author turns to a virtual field of investigation in which, for example, the olfactory code is not plausible. One more that one could also think of excluding is haptic signals, that refers to communication through contact even if, (although the sense of touch is not feasible in the virtual environment), the author’s experience gained in world gives her reason to believe that even a virtual hug could trigger strong emotions. In fact, during her long presence in virtual worlds, the author believes that the emotions that can be felt in a virtual environment can have the same intensity as those experienced in real life. Here below the author will report the elements observable in the virtual world: • • • • •

stature, physique, face shape, eyes colour, colour and condition of the skin

These elements provide general information about the person, ethnic group, age, gender, state of health, etc. There is no significant relationship between people’s physical conformation and inferred personality based on stereotypes but rather a cultural connotation. Generally following stereotypes correspond to: Slim people: introverted, tense and nervous Fat people warm, extroverted, sanguine Muscle people: strong and energetic. In the case of avatars they replicate connotations of their own culture that ensure attention from the other sex. The relational aspect that develops in the game (a somewhat simplistic term for the impact it has on relationships) such as Second Life is highly engaging and therefore able to excite like real relationships. The silent language of the body, the hidden dimension, as defined by Hall (1959) is instead a code that the author considers valid for the study of non-verbal communication in the world. Proxemics is the study of the relationships between human bodies in three-dimensional space used to describe how people position themselves in space in relation to each other and how different demographic factors such as age and sex alter those behavioural spacings. Hall outlines the notion of personal space, describing four “personal reaction zones” of intimacy around the body: Intimate, Personal, Social and Public (Hall, 1959). Proxemics behaviors are “semi-conscious” and derive from social mediation, cultural influences and the level of intimacy of the participants and they are important because people do not know that they unconsciously distance themselves from others on the basis of these factors. Therefore, they provide a valuable mechanism for analyzing groups of people not only in the physical world but also in the virtual one. Because they are spontaneous these simple mechanisms do not require sophisticated technologies to be reproduced and can be replicated with any avatar. Burgess (1983) tested some of Hall’s claims 396

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by observing groups of people in public spaces and noted that these areas of interpersonal space vary depending on a wide range of factors including age, gender, level of intimacy and cultural background of the people interacting. Proxemics includes those hidden messages because they are not perceived as conscious. Hhowever, they exist in both the sender and the receiver and they are used in the regulation of physical distancing in social relationships. Proxemics is also possible between two avatars and can be reduced to the case in which the type of intimacy turns into a contact or into estrangement / avoidance in the case of the actors deciding to end the relationship. In addition to the arrangement of bodies in space, proxemics also deals with the mutual orientation of those bodies with regard to the gaze. In real life the eyes are a large structure, consisting of nerves and are surrounded by extraocular muscles that can contract thousands of times a day in many different ways. They are excellent channels for transmitting information from the inside to the outside of the individual; strong communicative importance (“glare at”, “look out of the corner of your eye”, “eat with your eyes”, “his eyes shone” are phrases that testify to this). They generate different types of glances with an immediacy that often makes them the preferred communication channel. The pupils dilate and shrink according to the amount of light present in the environment. It has also been shown that if people see something that excites or scares him, their pupils dilate more than would be normal in the existing light conditions and therefore offer additional information to the interlocutor. Adler writes “If we close our ears and do not listen to the words of men, but observe their actions, then we will discover that each of them has given its own individual meaning to life and that all their attitudes, their ways, their gestures, their expressions, the characteristics of the behavior are in harmony with it. ” In this statement it is possible to read the communicative importance of body language. The “theory of equilibrium” proposed by Argyle and Dean (1965) deals with the relationship between mutual gaze and proxemic distance. In essence, equilibrium theory proposes that proxemic spacing and mutual gaze can both be used to indicate intimacy and that people reach a “balance” composed of a distance and an ideal meeting of the gaze that varies with their interpersonal comfort. If one of these factors varies, for example, if the gaze is prolonged or the interpersonal distance decreases, the people interacting often vary the other factor to preserve this balance (Argyle & Dean, 1965). This is also possible in the virtual world when an avatar with an “eye tracker” points the face at an avatar of the opposite sex, prolonging the ‘looking’ time then he/she approaches her/him. Spatial behaviour is an area around a person (personal space) and defense of the same from possible intrusions of others. Spatial behavior includes: • • • •

interpersonal distance body contact orientation posture

The integration of these elements gives rise to what Kendon (1973) defined as “Spatial configuration”. Interpersonal distance Informs about: intimacy and relationship between interlocutor’s dominance relations social roles.

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Hall’s (1966) proxemics study of the use of social and personal space, based on cultural and interaction rules highlighted four types of distances: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Intimate Personal Social Public a. Intimate distance (0-45 cm): area of intimate relationships, of possible contact (activation of the tactile and olfactory apparatus) b. Personal distance (45-120 cm): area of friendships, possibility of contact (activation of the olfactory and visual apparatus) c. Social distance (120-360 cm): zone of formal relationships, absence of contact (activation of the visual and auditory apparatus) d. Public distance (360 cm onwards): area of public situations (visual and auditory apparatus only with amplification)

Changes in interpersonal distance during an interaction can provide a lot of information. Getting closer to a person can express the intention to initiate an interaction; moving away from the interlocutor can signal the desire to interrupt the conversation. Each culture follows its own social norms of regulation of interpersonal distance (e.g. Western versus Middle Eastern) Appearance is an other important part of non-verbal communication and includes physical attributes such as height, eye colour, hair, skin, face shape, attractiveness as well as clothing and other adornments or accessories such as tattoos, jewellery and objects that are characteristic of them, associating them with groups, beliefs etc. Of course, since the social actors in this investigation are avatars, we certainly cannot refer to care of the body in the hygienic sense but rather to observe whether the avatar is neat or unkempt in its appearance. As for the voice code: since the so-called “voice” option is widely used in the virtual world and it includes all the vocalized signals through which messages are expressed such as the tone, the increased volume of the voice, or the famous “resource silences”, strategically used in verbal communication because even silence speaks. These can all be observed in the virtual world, providing an emotional picture of the interlocutors and their relational intentions. All these codes, combined, are part of the broader communication system, an interdependent system with distinctive structural features and specific functions that can also be separated while still carrying out the transfer of information and therefore also communicating independently of the verbal flow. Non-verbal behaviours influence perception to the extent knowledge of it is considered an instructive educational path aimed at improving the skills of managing social relations between people. The non-verbal dimension influences the judgment of superiority / inferiority and friendship /hostility towards others five times more than language and as Mehrabian (1972) states that non-verbal signals are more effective communicating emotions. Mehrabian found that 55% of any message is conveyed through non-verbal communication such as facial expression, gestures, postures, etc.) and only 7% is conveyed through the words and 38% through vocal elements.

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The body language or body communication or “bodily communication” represents the expression of hints or movements of the body, as a privileged and effective communicative element. It has gained more attention in the virtual world over time. It has been reproduced in the virtual world and over time it has gained more and more attention and a new specific sector has been perfected. (Linden Scripting Language -LSL) Thus, the third question arises: •

If it is true that all humans communicate in an unconscious, non-verbal way,, when their avatar represents a social actor, what happens in the communicative process transferred into it and above all what characteristics will their avatar assume? Which codes, of those feasible in the virtual world, will an avatar respond to, since each user will consciously transfer them to their avatar?

Starting from the assumptions of the Laban Movement Analysis (LMA) which is a framework for describing human movement and expression, Laban’s observations cover the following general principles: 1. Movement is a process of change: it is a “fluid and dynamic transience of simultaneous change in spatial positioning, body activation and energy utilization” 2. Change is structured and ordered: due to the anatomical structure of the body, the sequences that follow the movements are natural and logical. 3. Human movement is intentional: people move to satisfy a need, and therefore actions are guided and targeted. As a result, intentions are made clear through our movement. 4. The basic elements of human movement can be articulated and studied: Laban states that there is a compositional alphabet of movement. 5. Movement must be approached at multiple levels to be understood correctly: to capture the dynamic processes of movement, observers must indicate the various components and how they are combined and sequenced The more we deal with the movement of the character, the more mastery we can gain on the nuances of the empathic experience. Empathy is a concept related to human perception of other beings as rational creatures. Empathy is rooted in the virtual environment as the very life of the avatars, running along the path of emotions and social relations, attributing meaning and strength to them thanks also to the development of animations that allow empathy to be expressed in more and more meaningful and more credible ways itself.

The Survey Second Life is the virtual world chosen by the author to conduct this survey on non-verbal communication. This choice is justified by the presence of many objects built into it by users. Not only does Second Life offer the possibility of replicating real life in every moment but it also offers the possibility of investigating and deepening the object being studiedi.e. Non-Verbal Communication, since each user is offered the possibility of customizing their avatar. The author logged into the game for the first time in 2009 and having understood its great potential, continued to interact in it. The author’s first research concerned an aspect linked above all to the earning opportunities of users who, thanks to the versatility of the program, were able to build objects by reselling them and becoming a source of income, even in real life. The great versatility and great intuitiveness of the program for construction and also of computer programming has allowed everyone to become increasingly special399

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ized builders and programmers so that, as happens in the real world, some stylists and builders have established themselves by becoming famous in the field of fashion or construction. The virtual world of Second Life over time has been enriched with many objects and functions but above all it has become increasingly humanizing. With this term the author refers to the fact that the replica of the real world has been increasingly perfected giving the residents the opportunity to live a “second life” by surrounding themselves with objects very similar to those of real life but also perfecting their own appearance, which over time has increasingly improved in its exterior and movements. A strong boost to the virtual economy was given by offering users the ability to create more than one avatar in their own name, while maintaining anonymity. This aspect has had a strong impact on both the economy and relationships as the same user has been able to benefit from multiple avatars by deciding at his discretion to reveal himself or not. The so-called hidden identities of some users can create imbalances. In romantic relationships and friendships can cause breakups, especially when the basis of this choice is the inappropriate use of the second or third avatar to hide any purpose. The author divides users into two categories: those who have no difficulty in declaring who they are in real life and those who decide to remain anonymous. Of course, everything depends on the value given to the game, that is, if you want to consider it only as an opportunity for recreation even by assuming deviant behaviours in which to include a certain libertinage or to stick to a more ‘correct’ behavior, remaining anchored to values of respect, education and morality that you have in real life, without hiding. The testimonies collected by the author make her believe that for most people the virtual world is an opportunity for recreation and that the relationships that are intertwined within it are based on the construction of credibility and feelings such as love and friendship are experienced as “real” emotions despite having been born within a virtual context. From a strictly economic point of view, having more avatars means supporting an additional cost to ensure that it has a pleasant appearance. As the author will explain later in the essay, the outward appearance has become a fundamental element within the game. A good look is what is most aimed at and concerns the whole avatar, from the top of his hair to his toes and involves the majority of users as if even in the virtual world, as in the real one, there has been a approval and this is visible simply by looking around and observing the other avatars. If people learn to analyse their gestures, people will be more able to control them when the time comes. People often notice emotions but they expressed them by using body language. By better selfobservation, people can better understand themselves.

The Body of the Avatar Over the years the virtual space has been transforming and developing thanks to an improvement in the skills acquired by users / avatars in the field of creating or building shapes and skins as well as the reproduction of a large number of objects increasingly similar to those of the real world. The “shape” (the avatar’s body) represents the starting point, the so-called birth (rez-day) in the virtual world of avatar, with a fancy name. The default avatar, body, is assigned when signing up and if the user thinks it is not nice the shape can be improved to the user’s wishes through the marketplace. If it it is not thought to be suitable then there is a large number of shapes on sale in world, in specific stores or on the marketplace shopping sector (the shopping present on the game’s website). With this facility the shape, closest to the user’s wishes may be chosen. Once purchased, it’s possible to keep modifying it and to further customize it. In the survey, the author observes that more men encounter difficulties 400

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customizing their physical appearances and many of them delegate this, even for a fee, to people who are more capable of doing it, by providing them detailed instructions. Some of them commission an avatar resembling their appearance in real life by sharing their own photo to the builders. From this point of view, men seem to be more inclined to dress their avatar rather than modify it while women, on the contrary, are able to customize it with greater dexterity. The introduction of meshes has significantly improved the graphic rendering of all the objects reproduced in the virtual world by giving them a high graphic definition but at the same time, it has weighed down the graphic complexity of the program to the extent that it now requires more and more efficient personal computers. Customizing the avatar is the first step in non-verbal communication. The face, as evidenced by studies in the field of morpho-psychology, is a communicative map in which each part is carefully studied: the height of the forehead, the arching of the eyebrows, the distance of the eyes, the position and width of the mouth, its fullness and fleshiness, the height of the cheekbones, the gaunt or plump cheeks, the size of the nose, and the orientation, up or down. Unknowingly, however, personalizing an avatar combines unconscious wishes and the affirmation of who they are in real life. Consciously it is decided what to eliminate, what the users do not like in their real appearance, while trying to enhance what they believe to be strengths. For example, they choose to have clear eyes, if they don’t have them real life or if they do not have full lips, they opt to have them in in-world. It could also happen that, for example, if the social actor has a certain eye colour in real life that he believes to be a strong point, of which he is very proud, he will meticulously search for the shade that comes the closest to his real life eye colour. The sector dedicated to the replication of the eyes is broad and offers a wide range of eyes both in tone, size and shape. Someone who knows a bit of morpho-psychology could read from the real face and from the face chosen in the virtual world differently but, extraordinarily, something of oneself, even if only in a somatic trait makes both faces similar. The face is the elective area for non-verbal communication. It has over 20 highly contractile muscles that allow different combinations of contracture that generate different directions of the gaze, giving many facial expressions (Parker, 2014) The expressive and communicative function of the face goes hand in hand with phylogenetic development: Animals further down the evolutionary scale express themselves through posture (e.g. birds raise their crest or feathers). Primates are endowed with an elaborate repertoire of facial expressions, due to social life and therefore the need to communicate for individual survival(Ekman group 1982). Human emotions are manifested by facial expressions. There are typical facial movements for each of the fundamental emotions (at least six have been identified): happiness, surprise, fear, sadness, anger, disgust. Choosing facial features that demonstrate sweetness or severity, sensuality or vulgarity will depend on what you want your face and body to communicate. What kind of message do you want to send with your face? A round face will tend to denote a gentle, warm, spontaneous, but also naive and defenceless character while a longer face may stand for an emotional, independent character with a predisposition to be in control of everything. A square face may instead denote narcissism, practicality and a tendency to be methodical. The lips describe something of the person. For example, thin lips may denote a restrained and selective sensuality and a preference for details; full lips, on the other hand, may indicate great sensuality, charisma and self-confidence. 401

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Even the size of the eyes can suggest personal characteristics: large eyes, for example, can suggest very receptive subjects meanwhile small eyes are more used by people who are not very emotional, very reserved and even lying. Reading the face and body of a person with whom you interact in real life, even if only instinctively without having in-depth knowledge of non-verbal communication or morpho-psychology, allows you to do a ‘hot reading’ and if one gets as a feedback a sense of familiarity, he/she will establish a less rigid interaction both in the tone of voice and in the posture, transmitting openness to dialogue. In-world (iw) not only the face, but also the rest of the body, can be changed. A man, for example, can choose to have a fitter or less sporty body, to have the features of a boy or a more mature man but almost never elderly as having a pleasant and youthful appearance is what most aim at. Indeed, in virtual worlds, aesthetic beauty has very high standards that do not go well with the idea of ​​old age as the age of many residents approaches or exceeds 60 years. Having the appearance of a young, muscular and maybe sexy man reinforces the message that in the real world there is a beauty standard, to which the majority of users aspire to and to which they commit a lot of economic resources Deciding to have light skin or to opt for a dark complexion, to have freckles or light eyes are all possible choices when customizing the avatar. Each part of the body is carefully studied and you can change them. You can also change the measurements of the body, by either keeping your real life measurements or completely changing them. After modifying the shape and possibly the skin you can decorate the avatar with accessories, of which there are many, such as eyelashes of any length, hair of all types and colours, moles to add to the face, make-up (eyeshadow, blush and lipstick), sold in various shades, nail polishes, not forgetting tattoos, piercings of all kinds and jewellery. The choice of clothing concludes the transformation. The final result is an image of what the resident sends to the virtual world. The avatar will represent the social actor, as if it were an extension of himself in that world, activating a process of recognition and openness to dialogue even between avatars that, having been personalized, follow the social actor’s characteristics, which are transferred to the avatar. Indeed, it would be difficult to find two identical avatars precisely because each avatar has been customized according to individual criteria.

The Clothing of the Avatar In virtual worlds. as in real life. it’s possible to observer the following elements about clothing: • • • • •

Clothes make-up hairstyle accessories status symbol signals

They provide information on group membership and social identity and are a strong tool for selfpresentation and socialization. These elements contribute to one’s own identity definition of situations and contexts of interaction definition of status and social power such as fashion.

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Fashionable clothing can be classified as a non-verbal communicative element, which pushes people to comply with it in order to gain acceptance by society. Imitating is, above all, a psychological tendency because it satisfies the need for social adhesion and consensus, but also for distinction and change, thus satisfying these two opposing tendencies which belong respectively to the social and individual spheres of a social actor. What people wear, for example, can express conformity to other groups in society, or individuality and personalization, which allows them to distinguish themselves from others. Clothing is a business card that allows us to let others know a part of ourselves: which social stratum we belong to, what work we do, therefore it has a codifying social function and emits a flow of information. In a society of appearances, dress has not only a decorative function. In fact, at first glance, well-dressed refers to the phase of true knowledge, making a good impression will earn points for the social actor. Clothing is a code with a low semantic content, which communicates shared meanings and which changes very often. Communication goes through the para-verbal which manifests itself in the dressing style and / or the objects each individual surround himself/herself with. What people expressed yesterday could be very different from what people expressed today. Its interpretation depends above all on the social and historical background in which people are integrated. The choice of dress is aimed at communicating to others the message people want to convey and the curriculum that people want to introduce themselves, something that represents them externally. Clothes delimit and mark individual time, making it possible for a person to be one and multiple, in formal meetings, in work, in free time, in private life: the passage from one dress to another during the day represents a way to control one’s emotional responses in relation to the stimuli coming from the outside. Looking at the virtual world, what will be the avatar’s choice on dressing? Will a certain greater formality or sensual sobriety be maintained? In order to establish this, the author decided to investigate, on the basis of keywords, the Marketplace which, as it has been said, is dedicated to online purchases, which collects many products offered for sale by stylists and builders. The decision to focus more on the virtual world of Second Life was also dictated by the large amount of products created in the world and offered for sale on the Marketplace in order to define the tastes of users and how they influence sales trends. Undoubtedly, there has been a great development in the production of objects in Second Life over the years that allow users / residents to live a second life as a virtual replica that over time is aimed at always humanizing more and more both the avatar and the surrounding environment. On the Marketplace, many items for sale are dedicated to clothing. That, not only gives an idea of​​ the movement of linden (currency used in the game) but also demonstrates the great attention given to the avatar aspect. All the categories present in the General level are listed below: Categories:Animals, Animated Objects, Animations, Apparel, Art Audio and Video Avatar Accessories, Avatar Appearance, Avatar Components, Breedables, Building and Object Components, Buildings and Other Structures, Business, Celebrations, Complete Avatars, Furry, Gachas, Gadgets, Home and Garden, Miscellaneous, Real Estate, Recreation and Entertainment, Scripts, Services, Used Items, Vehicles, Weapons, Everything Else The Marketplace category called Apparel is made up as follows: Category of Apparels are distributed as following: Children’s items are 140.335, Men’s items are 300.882, Unisex items are 50.430, Women’s items are 1.901.675.

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The price of apparel items are distributed as following: from L $ 0 to L $ 10 are 28.2791 items, from L $ 11 - L $ 100 are 93.1054 items, from L $ 101 to L $ 500 are 1.215.193, from L $ 501 to L $ 1,000 are 66.888, from L $ 1,001 to L $ 5,000 are 29.230, Over L $ 5,000 are 460. An analysis of the data shows that, in the Apparel category, the largest share of items on the marketplace is dedicated to women’s clothing followed by men and then children. Prices start from 0 linden up to over 5,000. The clothing chosen to dress one’s avatar also falls within one of the seven codes of non-verbal communication and which is used to represent the social actor. In the virtual field, a lot of clothing aims to externalize a certain sex appeal for both female and male gender and the wide choice of products allows you to aim for refined, sexy but not necessarily vulgar, casual, aggressive or romantic clothing. Unlike about ten years ago, today it is difficult to meet avatars whose appearance is not carefully crafted because it is possible to develop their appearance without investing large economic resources as there are many products that are available for 0 linden, gifts and promotions. Formal dress is compulsorily required in some important ballrooms and beyond the elegance of the room. The live music, played by good singers and the suitably dressed residents enrich the charm of the ballroom itself. How do the residents choose to dress? By conducting a search in the Marketplace based on the keywords ‘Sexy’, ‘Casual’, ‘Romantic’ the result is the following: Key word: Sexy: Men’s clothing 17.058, Women’s clothing 375.237, Unisex clothing 2.066 Key word: Casual: Men’s clothing 59.969, Women’s clothing 244.916, Unisex clothing 2.742 Keyword: Romantic: Men’s clothing 733, Women’s clothing 15.221, Unisex clothing 40 The data give an idea of users’ ​​ clothing preferences. In all three keyword searches, it can first be noted that the sector that records the highest number of items is that dedicated to women and the number of sexy outfits is far greater than that of casual or romantic clothing. The data dedicated to men’s clothing reveal a higher quantity of casual items. This research suggests that the trend is to dress one’s avatar, especially if female, in a sexy way. This trend is, first of all, the result of the type of culture in which one is continually subjected to the aesthetic canon, with an advertising bombardment promoting statuary bodies, which continually pushes the individual to desire aesthetic features and objects by activating mechanisms that make the social man inadequate and unhappy when he does not respect the standards of consumption. This leads the man to chase an ephemeral happiness towards which the so-called liquid society of Bauman (2017) is reaching out. In fact, as the sociologist states, it is in the creation of a “liquid” society, defined in this way because of that feeling of fleetingness and frustration in which social relations are diluted and become rare, that the search for the sense of self and happiness becomes difficult to achieve. He also affirms that only when we manage to get out of this spiral of consumption, gratification and frustration, to go in search of the values ​​that we have somehow lost or forgotten, in that Other we will perhaps be able to find those bonds and that happiness that we long for.

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“Happiness is a state of mind, body, which we feel acutely, but which is ineffable. A feeling that cannot be shared with others. Nevertheless, the main characteristic of happiness is that of being an opening of possibilities, as it depends on the point of view with which we experience it. […] But there is a second line of evolution of the concept of happiness: happiness as a final state, as an objective to which we must strive. Happiness as a concrete goal, which we have forgotten (Bauman, 2017). Even Goffman (1969) believes that many actions are dictated largely by consumerism, which makes you lose sight of the most genuine relationships and sometimes it shows what they would like it to be, but which it is not. In Second Life the real life status of the residents is not relevant as what matters is who you are in that virtual world and no one cares who you are in real life, if you are poor or rich, if you are a prominent person or an ordinary one. As in real life, in virtual worlds too the fashion fits into behavioral models, which once it is accepted and shared by all, it guarantees the social consensus. Fashions in virtual worlds were born and developed as a form of socialization and this adaptation derives from the influence that institutions have on individuals. Through fashion, individuals define themselves and feel congruent with the social reality. It is an instrument of social cohesion, therefore it can be said that the possession of fashionable goods assists the entry into the group, and the contact with others. Simmel (1996) states: “As soon as the individual side of the situation takes over from the socially compliant one, the sense of modesty immediately begins to act”. So, what is the sense of modesty in a virtual world? Analyzing the trend of fashion in the virtual world oriented towards a sensual fashion it would seem that the sense of modesty could be overcome with greater ease in the choice of clothes. Then, it is probably defined by an internal social consensus, which is diverted into greater disinhibition. Showing off fashionable and sexy clothes, therefore, should not only be considered an act of ostentation, but also a search for approval, without forgetting that the history of mankind is given by a continuous search for a compromise: to merge with one’s social group but at the same time stand out in it with one’s own individuality. From the birth time in Second Life, a new opportunity begins to create friendly or sentimental relationships, for having fun exploring or dancing with friends or alone, or to start a new job. How you move, how you dress, how you talk, how you interact will be the pillars of your identity within the day. They will also become the basis on which your reputation and credibility will be built. This aspect related to the happiness given by possessing ephemeral things for many Second Life residents represents one of the reasons that pushes them to stay in this virtual world where, with few economic resources, everyone can live a second life in which everything can be owned from the villa by the sea or in the mountains, elegant clothes and jewels and, above all, entertainment is guaranteed given the presence of many refined ballrooms or discos and above all the presence of other users. In this regard, during the harsh period of isolation, which was imposed on the Italian population due to Covid-19, the author was able to observe how the virtual world played a secure aggregative role and psychological support. Unlike real life, where physical contact was forbidden and social distancing was imposed, in the virtual world proxemics and contacts were still allowed and this helped the users to overcome the sense of loss and fear in this very complicated period. What was expressed yesterday could be very different from what was expressed today. Its interpretation depends above all on the social and historical background in which it is integrated: it is read differently by every social stratum. The choice of dress is aimed at communicating to others the message we 405

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want to convey and the curriculum with which people want to introduce themselves, is something that represents them externally. Clothes delimit and mark individual time, making it possible for a person to be one and multiple, in formal meetings, in work, in free time, in private life.

The Animations Spatial behavior, such as posture, has an important function for many animals to signal dominance, threat, submission etc. Posture takes shape under the dimensions of dominance, submission and relaxationtension Mehrabian (1969) Kinesics behavior includes: • • •

Body movements (torso and legs) hand and arm gestures head movements

They often accompany speech and indicate affective states during an interaction and they are the non-verbal signals most influenced by the social and cultural context. Another category of non-verbal signals studied within Non Verbal Communication by Kendon (1970) is: •

individuals in interaction (especially in dyads) perform similar movements, imitating each other (mirror body movements) – “interactive synchrony” (e.g. when one of the two moves, the other moves too; when one of the two changes the direction of body movements, the other does too)

•

There are some possible explanations for these interactions: • •

biological: instinct for self-defences and survival in case of danger or learning for imitation; social: “social influence” like other social behaviours, especially if the “influenced” person is in a position of subordination or subjection to the “influencing” person

Among the non-verbal behaviours, hand movements are those most linked to spoken language and those that accompany speech in a more evident way. They seem to follow the cultural rules of the reference language and culture (cultural differentiation) like verbal communication. They are realized in the existing hemisphere in front of the speaker In the hemisphere of gestural space there are three coordinates or axes: a) speaking-external b) right-left c) top-bottom Ekman and Friesen (1969) make the following classification of gestures: Emblematic: can be completely replaced by verbal expressions and they are independent of the presence of verbal language. They have their own semantic meaning. Illustrators have the function of

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accompanying words and their intonation, in order to facilitate the communication. They can serve to qualify, reinforce, contradict communication. Emotional: indicators correlated with an emotional state. Regulators: define the roles of the interlocutors in the conversation, signalling and regulating the maintenance and change of speech shifts. Adapters: related to the satisfaction of physical needs or the expression of emotional states, rebalance a state of tension manifested on a somatic level. Kinesics: head movements involve the neck muscles that regulate the orientation of the head. There is a relationship between orientation of the head and attention: the orientation of the head allows us to understand where or towards whom / what people direct their attention. It is difficult to deduce the object of attention only through the direction of the gaze. The avatar personalization process does not only concern the physical appearance and clothing but also its posture and gestures. In virtual reality, the avatar without appropriate animation would move in jerks, in a disharmonious way similar to a robot but by entrusting it with a particular postural animation, a conscious choice is made on which information to transfer in one’s posture. Within the process examined, two aspects can be distinguished: the communicative and the informative. Non-verbal communicative behavior groups gestures that allow the sender to send a precise signal to the receiver in a conscious way. Interactive non-verbal behavior includes gestures used to influence and change the interactive behavior of others. Intermediate models affirm that body language is neither an expressive nor an exclusively communicative modality but that it presents different levels ranging from expressive behaviors to typically communicative behaviours that have the intention of communicating a socially shared code. In the virtual world, the fine line between communication and information becomes almost imperceptible. The programming of animations in the virtual world of Second Life has had a great boost in recent years as they allow, by adding them to your avatar to “animate” it and make it less robotic through more harmonious movements, which make the avatar move more like a human. It is possible to access two types of animations: 1) those that are worn and attribute the posture and 2) those contained in the objects that, thanks to the animations, allow their use based on multiple choices. The animations in point 1), called Ao. They concern the posture that the actor decides for its avatar to assume when it pauses in place and also decide how it walks. The choice of the Ao is a personal choice available from a wide range, purchasable on the marketplace. These Ao are programmed differently for male and female avatars and contain more animated sequences that last a certain time. However, the duration can be modified (it can be stretched or shortened). Some examples of these kind of sequences may be: arms crossed - hands in pockets - look at the clock - step forward / backward with the arms a little dangling (Figure 1-2)

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Figure 1. ­

Figure 2. ­

Women have a wretched movement with a sequence similar to this: hands behind the back - small turnaround - adjust the hair - hand on the hip (Figure 3) Figure 3. ­

Even the walk is different depending on whether it is a posture programmed to animate male and female avatars and, for example, it can make male avatars and women assume a more or less marked masculine movement, through the accentuation or the absence of hip-swaying. As regards the animations referred to in point 2), a chair-shaped object can contain a series of animations (which can be accessed thanks to the interaction with a menu) for various ways to sit, such as, for example, legs crossed, elongated, gathered etc. The menu, over the years has become increasingly full of animations, providing the choice of a session which not only takes into account the gender but also if it is a single character or a couple that will use it. The number of items relating to Ao present on the Marketplace were approximately 26,878 and by entering the keywords Female, Male, Sexy, Elegant, Cute, Gentleman, Smart, Sweet, Girl, Boy, the search provided these data: 2,850 Ao Female, 2.019 Ao Male, 1.903 Ao Sexy, 1.953 Ao Girl, 1.609 Ao Skin, 628 Ao Boy, 558 Ao Sweet, 407 Ao Elegant, 126 Ao Smart, 69 Ao Gentleman. As can be seen from the extrapolated data, using the keywords in the marketplace, there is a large choice of Ao each characterized by a different movement. This allows Second Life residents to purchase / acquire the most suitable animation to assign to their avatar and above all to decide which type of message they want to send with their posture.

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The author notes the great difference between the real world and the virtual world that takes place: what in real life shares a “hidden message” becomes a conscious action in the virtual world. In fact, by choosing how the actor wants to make the avatar move, the attention is focused on those movements or postures that in real life are spontaneous. Will the choice of the social actor focus on the animation of a macho man or gentleman, an adult or a boy, a provocative or classy woman, shy or elegant in her movements? Will the choice of Ao be guided by how similarly one moves in real life or by how the social actor would like to move? These questions recall another important sociologist with his famous phrase The medium is the message (McLuhan,1967) it could say “the body is the message”. For example, if in real life you unknowingly use your hands while talking, the choice of animation will be dictated by real life feature, which becomes even more important when you have to animate an avatar. Gesticulation is part of those spontaneous movements that belong to the speaker and their movement is aligned with the narration. The hand, in that narrative moment with its movement, is not just the hand but represents the speech that the speaker narrates. In this regard, in addition to a certain posture or walking style, one can choose some hands, reproduced through mesh, called dynamics hands, which make the hands open or close. In this way, they seem more realistic. Of course, in the virtual case we only take into account that gesticulation has its own importance but it cannot in any way replace the story that the hands can communicate while making a verbal narration as stated by McNeill. From what has been explained so far, the author states that once again the theory of the three flows (Citarella, 2017) applied to the observation of non-verbal communication in a virtual environment, allows to acquire an added value. In fact, in addition to the skills that can be acquired in a playful way in the virtual world to make them become real earning opportunities in real life, customizing an avatar means that everyone learns to observe more carefully those gestures that are part of every human being and which are activated automatically and unconsciously in real life. If learned at a younger age, they would allow adolescents to understand much of what is transferred to people unconsciously with the movement of the body and also what people transfer to the audience. In recent years, animation programmers have also produced avatar’s heads with animations, taking another leap forward in the humanization of facial expressions. Once activated by the user, these animations can make the face assume expressions that transfer emotions. As is well known, there are communication channels that reveal emotions more than others, such as, for example, the face and the gaze, which are important vehicles for the transmission of emotional status as they are not directly controlled by the issuer, unless you are not able to simulate an emotional state like an actor. The face is one of the first parts of the body observed by the interlocutor and to be perceived. It is not by chance that the particular sector of non-verbal communication is that of the study of facial micro expressions, lasting less than a second (Ekman, 2009) that allow one to understand if there is an inconsistency between verbal and non-verbal communication in how much non-verbal communication helps to reveal the two processes in action, cognitive and emotional. If, for example, a “deceptive” story is told, the cognitive load increases by lowering the emotional one with a reduction in body movements and eye movements, hands etc. Identifying, recognizing and interpreting facial micro-expressions is possible only after following specific training through the analysis of rapid facial signals, i.e., the contractions of the supra-ocular, orbicular and zygomatic frontal facial muscles. In fact, thanks to micro expressions and their reading, it is possible to trace a lie, for example, as the body will speak inconsistently with respect to the verbal 409

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utterance. When non-verbal communication, which always accompanies verbal language, is discrepant, there is, in fact, the suspicion of a lie (DePaulo, 1992). This discrepancy, of course, cannot be detected in an avatar. Non-verbal communication is not only important for discovering a lie but it contributes to the formation of first impressions, attraction, social influence, emotional expression and other interpersonal processes. According to the author, what is relevant for the purposes of her investigation which have been extended to the face, through a simple programming language encoded by programmers. These new features make life in the game more realistic. It is a constantly evolving path, but it will certainly tend to reach ever higher standards, which will develop more and more harmonious gestures capable of creating emotions. These gestures will also be more effective in sending messages related to non-verbal communication. For example, setting the face on a sequence such as: smile - wink - parted lips expresses a message of sunshine in the character and certainly not gloom and sadness. The smile is equivalent to a program that intervenes on the zygomatic muscle that is raised, the eyes that narrow and the mouth that opens and widens. Furthermore, it is possible to recognize, by their appearance and their facial expression, who may represent a threat because the message they send is of a rude and threatening avatar. There are also expressions of anger that involve frowning, opening the lips The messages of non-verbal communication have the great advantage of being able to be expressed simultaneously while the message linked to verbal communication is unimodal, meaning that the social actors can only express themselves with one word at a time. Furthermore, during a verbal communication flow much more attention is paid to what one intends to express, looking for the most suitable words to convey the message. Instead, non-verbal communication is continuous, independent and spontaneously transferred without paying specific attention to it because it is multi channelled. It’s for these reasons that non-verbal communication is the primary conveyor of emotions because in most cases, non-verbal communication is more effective than words, which are more limited. Moreover, it is able to express feelings that could be more difficult to show to others because emotional expression varies with culture (Sooriya,2017). To give an example, if someone reaches a disco where there are many avatars, the gaze of those present, represented by the “eye tracker”, focuses on the newcomer who is being observed. Its face, its body, the clothes it wears and the first eye contact will speak for him / her, and the first eye contact is identical to when, for example, somebody enters the waiting room of a doctor’s office where other people are waiting for their medical examination turn. The concept of the gaze becomes very interesting within some cultures in which it represents a sign of respect. It would be interesting to understand if some behaviors of that specific culture are maintained in the virtual world or are overcome. Just think of the Mediterranean countries or the Latin American countries called contact cultures that show a greater predisposition to more physical and closer interpersonal contacts, unlike what happens in the North European or Asian culture in which interpersonal contact is very limited. Non-verbal communication can have a different meaning according to different cultures. The introduction of facial expressions in the virtual world has also included the world of children. In fact, the so-called Animesh children created by Zooby have introduced avatars into the virtual world of children who assume, based on their age, facial and body expressions, very similar to those of babies and children. Each age, called stage, corresponds to a phase of growth (raising the head, rotating the body, sitting, crawling, walking, kissing and the vocalization da-da, ma-ma, etc.) (Figure 4) 410

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Figure 4. ­

Imagining having children in a virtual world may seem like sheer madness, but in Second Life, which is commonly called a game but which the author considers as a great sociological experiment, social relations are the priority. The whole virtual world revolves around the social life of users. Friendly or sentimental relationships are created continuously. Inside it is possible to get married, even in a chapel, with a ceremony during which the spouses exchange promises in the presence of a minister of the church, witnesses, bridesmaids and pageboys as if it were a real wedding. Beyond the prejudice that one can have towards these actions, the author wants to highlight how every moment lived in the virtual world is achievable thanks to the many animations that have been created by users and which, as mentioned, have improved over time. with particular attention to the movements and expressions that the moment requires. Each phase of a romantic relationship, from the first meeting to having a baby, is supported by increasingly realistic animation. Having a baby is possible both by adopting it and in adoption institute or it is possible to simulate pregnancies with birth in ad hoc clinics. Pregnancy will bring the changes typical of this event to the shape with the growth of the abdomen until birth. Figure 5. ­

Simulation is one of the strong points of Second Life, used both in the military and in the medical field to allow soldiers or students to carry out experiments that otherwise could not be carried out in real life given their dangerous nature. The idea that behind this game there is a great production of programming that makes the virtual economy flourish may seem excessive but from a sociological point of view one wonders if in addition to the economic benefit, what benefit do users derive from it?

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Users tend to replicate not only their real life relations and behaviours, but also those relations on behaviours which the users fail to achieve in real life, such as marriage or to have a child. Moreover, it commonly happens that users who have a relationship in the virtual world, decide to meet outside the game (offline) and start creating a relationship in real life. Then there are the aspects related to some features of the real life personality that the user decides to hide. Therefore, in the virtual reality they tend to modify these traits. The virtual path brings to light not only a malaise or discomfort linked to the personality but above all a chance for those who are disabled and confined to a wheelchair to move, thanks to their avatar, without constraint. The collateral aspects of this “game” are innumerable. This is why the sense of “Second Life” takes on fullness and concreteness. Paradoxically, it is as if in real life a mask is perpetually worn relating to the role that others expect to be fulfilled; meanwhile the avatar, which is a reproduction of oneself, represents the social actor free to live his life in a way which better suits his\her personality or that is in a better accordance with what he/she wishes to be. Another important dramaturgical model of Goffman (1959) cannot fail to return to mind, according to which personal interactions are influenced by who we are dealing with and, as a consequence, we adopt “masks”, i.e different ways of acting according to our interlocutor. Beyond the avatar there are social actors who can decide to live their virtual reality with the same fears and beliefs rooted in them or start a path of personal knowledge that can help to acquire more self-esteem, since the user may decide to keep hidden their real life identity. The author, who interviewed many people / avatars in the Italian and foreign communities existing in the game was able to deduce from the data collected that their living in the game has brought about changes from the most ephemeral aspect of taking care of oneself for physical fitness to clothing, to a better understanding of the English language, the in-world official language, up to more radical changes concerning the personality such as overcoming shyness, going out etc., and to undertake stable sentimental relationships born in the world and lived offline. Finally, the automatisms related to animations (without which the avatar would be inexpressive) it can be said that over the years the emphasis animations that are created by users, have reached a high degree of refinement and are now able to express emotions. The movements assumed by them will reveal such coordination schemes as to give an instant reading of the ongoing evolution within the game as if you were living in real life.

CONCLUSION Second Life’s slogan: “The virtual world created by users” is a true slogan. Indeed, it is only thanks to the users that this large container has been enriched day by day, from an interpersonal point of view, by giving the opportunity to both meet many people from all over the world and to acquire awareness and skills that otherwise would not have been grasped. It is thanks to the continuous experiments carried out by users, staying in the world and interacting in it with the learning-by-doing mode, that the virtual world has come alive and come to life, transforming this virtuality into a place where imagination and creativity can have free rein by providing spaces freely shared by all to spend moments of relaxation or fun as well as of learning. Interactional skills in the virtual world have always been facilitated by its inherent characteristic of virtual playful lucidity, which allows the elimination of social and territorial distances without the implications of the real world such as social status and income indicators. Just as in the real world, only by 412

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frequenting other avatars, users can determine if a relationship is either a friendship or a romantic relation, but surely what helps in breaking the ice is what each avatar communicates through its own appearance. However, verbal communication through chats, public and private, helps deepening mutual knowledge. This participant observation allowed the author to assess that there is a close connection concerning non-verbal communication within the two worlds, physical and virtual. Therefore, the production of objects and creations aims for a more and more truthful reproduction of the physical world in the three areas this analysis focuses on, which are, as stated at the beginning: 1) Physical characteristics (The avatar’s body) 2) The avatar’s clothing 3) The movements and postures of the body (Animations). In these three areas it was possible to detect advances that have been made in the development of non-verbal communication in virtual worlds so they tend to be more and more like the real world. In particular, that awareness, well-founded by the choice that each social actor makes for their avatar, has increased over the years both by users and by programmers. Furthermore, with their work and their wide choice of animations and objects, avatars were able to reproduce their way of communicating in any environment and in any context more like the real world. Non-verbal communication stereotypes spontaneously learned in the physical world such as proxemics remain the common element that is replicated in virtual environments in the same way as in the real world and which takes place spontaneously. It’s a communicative need transferred to the avatar in an environment in which it could be assumed that the use of chats and the voice could be sufficient to establishing social relationships but this is not so. Non-verbal communication implies a socially shared code and an intentional action of encoding and decoding. The social actor will assign to the avatar certain postures and clothing which will give information about the actor himself even before he actively talks with those he does not know yet. As the author has highlighted in the previous paragraphs, non-verbal communication is an essential component when each user consciously decides to assign a gesture and an aspect to their avatar. Therefore, it is possible to assert that not only are there stereotypes maintained and translated from the real world to the virtual world, but more strikingly when the social actors decide which animation or posture to assign to the avatar that will represent them, they show a significant shift in the awareness of non-verbal communication. The real leap forward was to strengthen the emotions with animations that show on the face but also on the body and the author is sure that the further we will go, the more developments will be made in this field. This one is the added value that, in a playful way the virtual world manages to bring out spontaneously and that should be grasped from a didactic point of view for its strong potential. At the moment Second Life is mostly used by adults who through playing have acquired new skills. Therefore, there would be incredible benefits if adolescents were given the possibility to use a virtual platform. The digital natives, who have an innate familiarity with the digital world, would benefit from a virtual platform, which unlike video games, gives them the possibility to exchange ideas with their peers, a sort of virtual student campus, where imagination and creativity could be developed as an open window on the world where it is easy to get in touch with worldwide communities Adolescents could give free rein to their imaginations and above all they would spontaneously acquire an awareness, which was acquired only slowly by adults with.

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Applying the concept of sharing knowledge and creativity in a context in which the insinuation of negative values ​​such as that of the differences of race, religion and culture does not represent a deterrent, but at the most, the land on which to grow a cohesive community: 1) 2) 3) 4)

observation and learning of non-verbal communication; learning the programming language in a playful environment; earning opportunities in the programming or research sector; learning or perfecting a second language through chat and voice interaction.

Learning by playing is a formula that would offer excellent results not only from the point of view of personal growth but also from the point of view of professional opportunities. Adult users choose the immersive world as a place to meet friends and spend free time or to weave romantic relationships but at the same time deepen their awareness of non-verbal communication in a spontaneous way by transferring its strengths to the real world as well as self-esteem, the knowledge of one’s potential, reputation and credibility which are values ​​that in the real world tend to be repressed by flattening certain personal evolutions. Real life and its observation is the way to expand the expressiveness of non-verbal communication in virtual worlds thanks to which awareness is increasing spontaneously, year after year, involving the users to use it to express their emotions and what they really are, by evolving year after year the program itself.

REFERENCES Bauman, Z. (2017). Meglio essere felici [Better to be happy]. Lit Edizioni Srl. Bavelas, J. B. (1990). Behaving and communicating: A reply to Motley. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 54(4), 593–602. doi:10.1080/10570319009374362 Buck, R. (1988). Nonverbal communication: Spontaneous and symbolic aspects. The American Behavioral Scientist, 31(3), 341–354. doi:10.1177/000276488031003006 Burgoon, J. K.,‎ Guerrero, L. K., ‎& Manusov, V. (2016). Nonverbal Communication. Routledge. Citarella, I. (2017). The Added Value of 3D World in Professional, Educational, and Individual Dynamics. In G. Panconesi & M. Guida (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Collaborative Teaching Practice in Virtual Learning Environments (pp. 275–297). IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-2426-7.ch015 DePaulo, B. M. (1992). Nonverbal behavior and self-presentation. Psychological Bulletin, 111(2), 203–243. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.111.2.203 PMID:1557474 Ekman, P. (1982). Emotion in the human face. Cambridge University Press. Ekman, P., Sorenson, E. R., & Friesen, W. V. (1969). Pan-cultural elements in facial displays of emotion. Science, 164(3875), 86–88. doi:10.1126cience.164.3875.86 PMID:5773719 Goffman, E. (1969). La vita come rappresentazione quotidiana [Life as a daily representation]. Bologna: il Mulino.

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Hall, E. T. (1959). The silent language. Doubleday. La Pensée, E., & Lewis, J. E. (2014). Timetraveller™: first nations nonverbal communication in second life. In Virtual worlds Nonverbal Communication in Virtual Worlds: Understanding and Designing Expressive Characters. ETC Press. Mehrabian, A. (1969). Significance of posture and position in the communication of attitude and status relationships. Psychological Bulletin, 71(5), 359–372. doi:10.1037/h0027349 PMID:4892572 Parker, J. R. (2014). Theatre as virtual reality in Virtual worlds Nonverbal Communication. In Virtual Worlds: Understanding and Designing Expressive Characters. ETC Press. Patterson, M. L. (1983). Nonverbal Behavior: A Functional Perspective. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-14612-5564-2 Simmel, G. (1996). La Moda. SE edizioni. Sooriya, P. (2017). Non-verbal communication. Lulu Publication. Tanenbaum, J., Seif El-Nasr, M., & Nixon, M. (2014). Basics of nonverbal communication. In Virtual worlds Nonverbal Communication in Virtual Worlds: Understanding and Designing Expressive Characters. ETC Press.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Animation Override: Second Life animations are frequently triggered by scripts in order to achieve a variety of effects such as walking, sitting and flying animations, as well as dances, handshakes, hugs, or other things. Avatar: A representative of a real person in the virtual world. Builder: Who creates objects in virtual worlds. Gestures: A type of inventory item that trigger your avatar to animate, play sounds, and/or emit text chat. Linden Dollar: The Linden Dollar (L $) is the virtual currency used as a bargaining chip in the Second Life economy. Script: Created through an in-world editor similar to a text file editor. Key words that perform specific actions or run when an action is performed are highlighted. The language used to write scripts is Linden Scripting Language (LSL), and is an event-oriented programming language. Second Life: An online digital electronic virtual world (MUVE) launched on June 23, 2003 by the American company Linden Lab following an idea of the latter’s founder, physicist Philip Rosedale. It is an IT platform in the new media sector that integrates synchronous and asynchronous communication tools and finds application in multiple fields of creativity: entertainment, art, education, music, cinema, role playing, architecture, programming, business, etc. Skin: A texture that is applied to your classic avatar body and head. Skins provide flesh tones, makeup, and fine shading detail. Voice Chat: Communication optionally by voice.

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Chapter 18

Use of Virtual Worlds for Development of Social Interaction Skills of Children With Special Needs Amir Manzoor https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3094-768X Bahria University, Pakistan

ABSTRACT At a growing rate, educators are realizing academic potential of virtual world and starting to use them to support the development of social skills and learning of children with special needs (CSN). A virtual world could be integrated into different learning contexts to provide a safe, friendly, and supportive multiuser learning environment for CSN. The objective of this chapter is to explore how educators can leverage shared interests of CSN in virtual world to facilitate their social interaction and how educator and technology support can be used to guide this learning process of CSN.

INTRODUCTION Children with special needs (CSN) are children who have a disability or a combination of disabilities that makes learning or other activities difficult. Special-needs children include those who have mental retardation, speech and language impairment, physical disability, learning disabilities, and emotional disabilities (The Jamaica Association for the Deaf, 2020). CSN exhibit some special traits. Some of these traits include difficulties in social and lack of interest (Zelazo et al., 2008). For these children, interacting with other people is a great challenge (Lyall et al., 2017). As a result, these children find it difficult to get accepted by others and improve their academic performance (Reichow &Volkmar, 2010; Mu, 2019). For the purpose of this chapter, the term CSN refers to the children on autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The autism spectrum disorder refers to a broad range of conditions characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech and nonverbal communication. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch018

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The specific cognitive profile of CSN is very important to identify and address specific social developmental needs of CSN (Lanou et al., 2012). Over the years, the growing proportion of CSN has resulted in development of many theories and intervention approaches for CSN. The current research on CSN is focused on sociological and cultural issues of CSN (Mu, 2019). These researchers believe that CSN should be treated as a type of human being that is different rather than a problematic human being that needs to be fixed (Virnes et al., 2015). Besides therapeutic and environmental interventions, researchers have recently started to adopt a strength-based approach to support CSN (Voutilainen et al., 2011; Gunn & Delafield, 2016; Steiner & Gengoux, 2018). The early intervention approaches for CSN avoided the limited interests of CSN (Lewis & Bodfish, 1998). O’Neil (2008) argues that there exists a close relationship between intense interests and strengths of CSN. According to O’Neil, children would engage once they are interested. Learning only happens when children are engaged (Sugata, 2010; MU,2019). To enhance essential social skills of children, it is essential to incorporate the children’s interests in their education programs (Campbell & Tincani, 2011; Dunst et al., 2012; Jordan & Caldwell-Harris, 2012). Recently, researchers have started to focus on interest-based interventions for CSN. To facilitate the above-described transition, we need new technology-integrated pedagogical models (Passerino & Santarosa, 2008). Researchers argue that while ordinary people can use technology to make things easier for them, people with disabilities can use technology to make things possible for them (Oberle et al., 1993). The technology can help support social interactions (Aresti-Bartolome, & GarciaZapirain, 2014). If used appropriately, technology can help discover hidden talent or special interests of a child with special needs. However, educators must work closely with technology specialists to reap maximum benefits from use of technology. According to Eversole, Collins, Karmarkar, Colton, et al. (2016), use of digital devices and playing video games are the most favorite activities of CSN. These children spend twice as much time on playing video games than typically developed children (Mazurek & Engelhardt, 2013). Researchers argue that video game playing by CSN is a waste of time because these games only encourage the violent, anti-social behavior (Pew Research 2008). In contrast, some researchers argue that video games can be helpful to encourage individuals to learn and think cognitively, socially, and morally (Norton-Meier, 2005). Computer games use simulation techniques frequently. A number of researchers found that computer games were helpful for students, including CSN, to increase their motivation/social engagement and enhance their learning (Habgood et al., 2005; Rezaiyan et al., 2007; Ke, 2008; Ke and Abras’s, 2013; MU, 2019). Therefore, educators should perform a deep exploration into role of computer games for supporting teaching pedagogies and student learning. For educators aiming to develop social interaction skills of CSN, virtual worlds offer a wonderful opportunity. In order enhance the social interaction skills of CSN, researchers have experimented with many virtual worlds. These researchers hoped that CSN can use the social interaction skills learnt in virtual worlds in the real world. However, in very limited cases use of digital resources for CSN has proved effective (Mazurek et al., 2015). Minecraft is a very good example of a virtual world that provides CSN ample opportunities of learning and socializing. In social science, a social relation or social interaction is any relationship between two or more individuals. There are many ways we can measure social interaction. We can use the individual’s performance in basic and advanced conversation skills. We can also use the individual’s level of social engagement or the degree of social relationship development (MacCormack, 2016).

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In general, a virtual world can be described as a computer-simulated environment that mimics the real world. A virtual world may include many users. These users can create their own virtual identity. Users use this virtual identity, also called an avatar, to represent themselves in the virtual world and have real-time interactions with each other (Schroeder, 2002). These users of virtual world can simultaneously and independently explore the virtual world, participate in its activities and communicate with others (Bartle, 2003; Cobb, 2007; Moore et al., 2005). Many virtual worlds have their own set of rules that must be followed by all of its users. Users can also create their own customized content in a virtual world. This content is also called user-generated content. One particular feature of virtual worlds is their persistence. A virtual world can continue to exist and evolve with or without any active user interaction with the virtual world. In a virtual world, users can also form social groups. These social groups are similar to the groups they can form in physical world such as teams, clubs, and communities. By forming such communities, users can extend their interaction with each other (MU, 2019). Virtual worlds are particularly attractive to CSN. This is because these children are socially challenged in the real-world environment. For these children, a virtual world can provide many opportunities for developing their social interaction skills. Despite their advantages, virtual worlds do have some shortcomings as well. Researchers argue that CSN can be more prone to cyberbullying in virtual worlds (Kowalski & Fedina, 2011). The CSN can face similar kind of social difficulties they face in the real world. As such, virtual worlds are a great opportunity for CSN to learn the appropriate behavior they can apply in the real world (Marsh, 2010). Gee (2004) proposed the affinity space theory. This theory is focused on the common interests-based social interaction around the virtual world. There exist some virtual worlds designed exclusively for educational purpose. However, these virtual worlds have been criticized for the lack of fun in various activities they provide. There are genuine reasons for this shortcoming. These virtual worlds are developed by educational research laboratories. These laboratories lack the kind of funding and technological support that large gaming companies have. The pace at which gaming companies move cannot be matched by these laboratories. As such, these laboratories are always lag behind in developing virtual worlds that can catch the attention of children. However, this does not mean that an existing or ready-made virtual world should not be used as a research platform. In this chapter, we have chosen Minecraft to discover how virtual worlds can be used to develop social interaction skills of CSN. It provides a 3D virtual environment for its users. Users can use Minecraft to build their personal identities, build different constructs, and interact with each other (Bos et al., 2014). Some prominent environmental features of Minecraft include round-the-clock cycle, different geographies, and different climates. The Minecraft environment is commonly referred to as “World”. The users of Minecraft can create their own worlds. Over the time, users have created a very large number of such worlds that are running in Minecraft. Currently, Minecraft supports two types of gaming modes - Creative mode and Survival mode. Both gaming modes differ with respect to the player survival. While players are free to build and explore in creative mode, they would fight for their survival in survival mode (Brand, & Kinash, 2013). In both gaming modes, the user is free to decide his/her degree of interaction and social engagement with other users (Ringland et al., 2015). Minecraft users enjoy a great degree of freedom to wander, change their user-created world, and pursue tasks. Due to this high degree of freedom, users in Minecraft exhibit a wide range of user behavior (Canossa, 2012; MU, 2019). Over the time, Minecraft has used its unique features to become a powerful tool for teaching/learning. Minecraft is a popular virtual world that is liked by both young children and CSN (Kulman, 2015). Still, a limited number of studies have explored how Minecraft can 418

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provide learning and social benefits to CSN (Cullen et al., 2015; Ringland et al., 2015; Ringland et al., 2016; MacCormack, 2016; Ringland et al., 2017; Stone et al., 2019). This is an important unexplored area that needs further examination. CSN have a natural affinity for technology (Hashim et al, 2015). Still, there exist few studies that explore how the CSN’s enthusiasm towards use of technology can guide their effective learning of social interaction skills. Virtual world is a type of technology in which CSN have shown great interest. Still, the studies exploring the use of virtual world for educating CSN have largely ignored the interplay between the real world and virtual world. As such, there is limited evidence of how mixing the real world with virtual world can benefit learning of CSN. By choosing Minecraft as research platform, this chapter explores how virtual worlds can be used developing social interaction skills of CSN in learning social interaction skills and what are the impacts of using virtual world on the social interaction of these children (MU, 2019). Section 1 of the chapter discusses the social challenges, interests, and strengths of CSN. Section 2 explores the current practices of the educational use of virtual worlds. Section 3 explores use of virtual worlds as an educational tool for CSN. Section 4 provides some specific recommendations / implications to hold the unique interests of CSN in virtual worlds so that these children could be motivated for learning and social interaction. Section 5 would provide concluding remarks and future research areas.

CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS: SOCIAL CHALLENGES, INTERESTS, AND STRENGTHS For many researchers, children with special needs are just culturally different human beings (O’Neil, 2008). To these researchers, a cultural difference of this type is part of human diversity. Activists for of the rights of CSN hold similar point of view. They regard CSN as human beings having a unique biological genetic sequence whose brain function differently than other people (Crespi, 2016). These children possess great potential and can significantly develop themselves if provided with adequate interventions and support. The behavioral pattern of CSN exhibit wide variations. As such, these interventions and support should be tailored to the individual’s needs. At the same time, these interventions and support should be based on sound knowledge of special needs of these children and incorporate contemporary evidence-based strategies (Masi et al., 2017).

Social Challenges For many CSN, being involved in physical and having social interactions world can be a real challenge. In many cases, the only difference between social interaction of CSN and typically normal children is the limited amount of social interaction (Owen-Deschryver et al., 2008; Mintz et al., 2012). Some common social deficits include difficulties in social interaction and developing friendships (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). So many factors can affect the behavioral manifestation from one individual to another (Kanner, 1943). Another issue is the tendency to resist change. This tendency makes it difficult for CSN to adjust their behavior in changing contexts and they often try to keep a distance from the typically normal children. The CSN tend exhibit off-task behavior and avoid engaging in reciprocal interactions (Boutot, & Bryant, 2005; MU, 2019).

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It important to understand here that CSN do exhibit interest in socialization and making friends. They possess enough intellectual capability and are capable of understanding the environment in which they are in. However, in most cases the lack the socialization skills to overcome their social limitations and participate in normal life. Sometimes, CSN can exhibit unusual behavior that is annoying for their counterparts. As a result, the typically normal children opt for socially exclusion and marginalization of CSN. CSN may also be subject to bullying and teasing (Mintz et al., 2012; Goldstein et al., 2014). When CSN face such situation, they suffer from severe anxiety and tend to isolate themselves. Eventually, this anxiety and self-isolation leads to lower quality of life and academic success (Koegel et al., 2013). There exist many theories that have been used to explain the social problems faced by CSN. Psychological theories try to understand these problems by focusing on underlying neurobiological causes. Still, there is no consistent view and a dominant unifying theory is still lacking. Baron-Cohen Leslie, and Frithet (1985) proposed the theory of mind to explain social skill deficits and inappropriate social responses. This theory is a neuroscientific theory that suggests difficulty in empathizing with other people (Baron-Cohen et al., 1999). The mirror neuron theory proposes that a person is unable to provide emotional response in case of misfiring of neurons in the brain. The intensive world theory is a neurobiological theory. According to this theory, CSN tend to avoid social interactions if they face highly unpredictable excessive environmental stimulations (Markram, 2007; Emarkram & Emarkram, 2010). The sensory overloads can make these social interactions more difficult. To accommodate CSN, we need a flexible environment and appropriate forms of interaction. The affinity space theory (Gee, 2004) proposes that advances theory of communities of interest. According to this theory, the bonding among people occur due to their shared activities around specific interests (Obst et al., 2002; Gee, 2008). Learning occurs when people interact and share experiences with each other (Agrifoglio, 2015; Dubé et al., 2005). Some studies argue that many a times virtual social spaces fail to instill a sense of belonging among their participants (Gee, 2004, 2005, 2013; Duncan & Hayes, 2012). Affinity spaces can be many types such as pure virtual spaces, pure physical spaces, or a combination of both. The degree of participation in these spaces differs a lot. In a nurturing affinity space, participants get many opportunities of close interactions with other participants (Bebbington & Vellino 2015). This close interaction provides many opportunities for learning and socialization. Affinity spaces and virtual worlds together can provide many learning opportunities and provide non game-specific knowledge (Gee, 2011). Existing studies are focused on using affinity spaces to enhance language and writing (Wu 2016). Current research is focused on affinity spaces in virtual worlds and how the two can be used together to enhance learning and interactions (Lammers et al., 2012; Pellicone & Ahn, 2018; Jackson, 2016; Wu, 2016; Murphey et al., 2016; MU, 2019). To reduce social difficulties encountered by CSN, different types of interventions (such as therapeutic interventions) have been used along with environmental support (Reichow. & Volkmar, 2010; McMahon et al., 2013). Researchers have identified various evidence-based practices for enhancing the social interaction skills of CSN. Some of the prominent practices include reinforcement, social skills group, visual cueing, and social stories. These techniques can be used individually or in combination to develop a single social skill or a set of skills in CSN (Wong et al., 2015; Panerai et al., 2002; Prizant & u.a, 2006).

The Interests of Children with Special Needs CSN commonly have restricted, circumscribed, and perseverative interests. For example, CSN prefer working with objects, patterns, and symbols (Baron-Cohen at al., 2000). With strong focus of on special 420

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interests, CSN are capable of becoming self-taught experts (O’Neil, 2008; Mottron, 2011). The cognitive strengths and personal styles of CSN derived these special interests (Caldwell-Harris & Jordan, 2014). Crespi (2016) argues that CSN may have high intelligence with specific strengths such as increased focus and professional interests in engineering. Based on this finding, O’Neil (2008) argues that studies are needed to examine these interests/strengths. The restricted interests can consume a lot of the child’s attention and be problematic for potential social interactions (Klin et al., 2007; Spiker et al., 2012). Koenig and Williams (2017) argued that CSN can use their strength-based preferred interests to overcome their anxiety and engage in activities that matches these interests. Many studies have shown that the strength-based preferred interests of CSN are their strengths that can be used to increase their motivation and learn social skills (Boyd et al., 2007; Spencer et al., 2008; Barakova et al., 2014). Therefore, more research is needed to improve the interventions designed for CSN (Klin et al. 2007; Turner-Brown et al., 2011; MU, 2019). Educators often use intense interests to motivate CSN complete activities that are less interesting for them (Boyd et al., 2007; Carnett et al., 2014). This strategy has proved to produce results. However, one drawback is that CSN can get angry if they are unable to tolerate their limited access. CSN tend to exhibit more social engagement if engaged in activities they prefer to perform (Koegel et al., 1987; Dunst et al., 2012). The interests-based activities aimed at increasing social interaction of CSN can induce behavioral changes in CSN without direct interventions (Boyd et al., 2007). Researchers also found that interests-based activities can improve the level of engagement and social initiation of CSN (Koegel et al., 2013). CSN find learning social interaction skills through activities more enjoyable. This is because activities allow them to maintain focus and converse with others about their achievements. The educators also found these strategies easy to implement (Bottema-Beutel et al., 2016; Nuernberger et al., 2013; Gagnon, 2001; Campbell & Tincani, 2011). LEGO therapy is a technique that leverages children’s interest in play to bring about behavioral changes in CSN. LEGO therapy targets skills such as verbal and non-verbal communication and team working (Lindsay et al., 2017). Inclusion of activities into child’s learning programs has proved to be effective in developing social skills of CSN. One reason could be that CSN are motivated to participate and their increased engagement helps trigger natural learning (Dunst et al., 2012). CSN are attracted towards digital technology tools devices (e.g. digital pictures, videos, mobile apps, computer-assisted instruction, video games, and virtual reality) (Ploog et al., 2013; Reichow & Volkmar, 2010; Southall & Campbell, 2015; Virnes et al., 2015). Educators frequently use technology as an intervention strategy to target discrete communication skills (such as verbal speech) to address social interaction of CSN (Paul, 2008; Ascari et al., 2018). There are several examples of such use of technology (e.g. TeachTown and SymTrend). TeachTown is a tool used to improve social understanding and self-help skills (Whalen et al., 2006). SymTrend is used to tackle the identified behavioral problems of CSN (Picard, 2009). Computer-based tools (e.g., email and computer games) are used to provide low and focused stimuli (Benford & Standen, 2011). These digital tools offer social support to help develop connections among participants and form communities of interest. Robots have also been used for teaching basic social interaction skills (Goldsmith & LeBlanc, 2004). Various activities performed on computer and mobile devices (such as games) used as rewards for CSN (Southall, 2013; Cafiero, 2012). Using technology has its advantages and disadvantages. CSN feel comfortable with computer-mediated interactions. Still, the addiction of children to computer-based activities may deepen their social isolation and they become vulnerable to online fraud and bullying due to their limited social knowledge. 421

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CSN also find it difficult maintain relationships in the cyber world. A careful analysis of two important aspects of a software is very important: the individual’s preferences and abilities and the level to which the software can be customized meet these needs. This analysis forms the basis to select a software for a particular intervention program for CSN (Ramdoss et al., 2012). Over confidence in the use of software can lead to frustration and disappointment (Gyori et al., 2015). The cost of software implementation is yet another concern. Not all educators and children have the similar kind of financial resources to afford sophisticated technologies such as virtual reality (Goldsmith & LeBlanc, 2004). The positive impact of using technology with CSN has been demonstrated in many studies. Still, these studies lack rigorous comparison of the benefits of conventional and technologyassisted approaches (Goldsmith & LeBlanc, 2004; Ploog et al., 2013; Southall, 2013). This is an area that requires more research to find a definite answer. Spending more time in front of computers can make CSN addictive video game user (Mazurek et al., 2012; MU, 2019). This addictive video game use can result in oppositional behaviors such as arguing and aggression (Mazurek & Wenstrup, 2013). In addition, the computer becomes the sole source of social interaction for CSN (Parsons et al., 2000). IN a virtual world, CSN can have similar difficulties understanding social cues they experience in the physical world (Parsons & Cobb, 2011). As a result, they tend to limit their interactions with their peers in virtual worlds, (Parsons, Mitchell, & Leonard, 2004).

VIRTUAL WORLDS FOR CSN Overview Virtual worlds have a long history. As they attract a very large number of players, virtual worlds are also called Massive-Multiplayer Online (or MMO) Games. Ultima Online was the first virtual world game that offered a rich and deep virtual world. Ultima Online was focused on community building, playerdriven action. The Ultima Online offered game playing using a variety of playing styles. Meridian 59 was another game that used 3D graphics. Virtual worlds may create a sense of immersion and facilitate easy communication among players (Bartle, 2003; Schroeder, 2008; Girvan, 2018). Virtual reality and virtual worlds are two different concepts. The former refers to a simulated experience that can be similar to or completely different from the real world. Users can use this simulated experience for their imaginary presence (Schroeder 1996). In comparison, virtual worlds are persistent virtual environments i.e., they continue to exist and develop internally even when there are no people interacting with it. In virtual worlds, the participants can interact with each in a similar fashion they interact with each other in the physical world. The environment provided by a virtual world can be single-user or multi-user and it can be textual or graphical (Neale, Cobb, Kerr, & Leonard, 2002). Virtual worlds have many potential uses such as human behavior research. The studies of avatars and their social life in virtual world to learn identity construction, addiction, personal growth, and self-awareness (Chesney et al., 2014; Parmentier, & Rolland, 2009; Sepehr, & Head 2013; Jakobsson, 2006). Virtual worlds have also been used to teach second language, basic programming, and team-building skills (Panichi, 2015; Qiu et al., 2009; Rico et al., 2011).

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Social Interactions Virtual worlds provide rich environments and abundant immersive social contexts for their participants. The participants can perform different types of social activities, interact with each other, build relationships, and learn social interaction skills (Cole & Griffiths, 2007; Donkin & Holloway, 2017; Gallup et al., 2017). For participants of virtual worlds, meeting new people and making friends is the single most important reason for participation (Welles et al., 2014). According to Munn (2012), the kind of interaction participants have in virtual worlds is very different from other online channels such as chat rooms. Some researchers argue that interactions in virtual world often lack the desired emotional support (Steinkuehler & Williams, 2006). According to Schroeder (2002), the studies on virtual worlds should take into account other communication media to see how they fit in an ordinary person’s daily life. With increased participation in virtual worlds, virtual relationships have started to impact real lives of people. It is therefore important to understand how virtual and real life affects each other. It was predicted by Putnam (1997) that in future there will be young people who would be socially isolated and confined to their virtual lives. Some researchers also argued that virtual lives actually pollute the real lives of people (Valentine & Holloway, 2002). In contrast, some researchers argued that participants can gain real-life psychosocial benefits by participating in the virtual worlds. According to Donkin and Holloway (2016), social skills learned in the virtual worlds are helpful to in real-life social relationships. The virtual worlds have the potential to enhance children’s social skill development. There can be different patterns of interactions that take place in both virtual and real world. According to Boellstorff (2008), online and ofñine activities are clearly different from an ontological perspective. According to Ebombari et al., (2015), the reactions of people in virtual worlds and real world are very different. For example, shy people feel less problems communicating in virtual worlds (Hammick & Lee, 2014). Face-to-face communication can be effective in influencing others’ behavior (Jordan, 2009). According to Bartle (2003), we can consider virtual society as a subclass of the societies in the real world. According to Jakobson (2006), virtual worlds arouse real emotions in people. As such, we cannot draw a fixed boundary between the two worlds. According to Welles et al. (2014), virtual world friendships are very similar to real world friendships. People of same age groups tend to interact with each other. As such, there is an overlap between the real and virtual world (MU, 2019).

Facilitating Social Interactions Virtual worlds have some special characteristics. These characteristics make them an excellent for developing social interaction skills of CSN (Newbutt, 2013; Schroeder, 2008; Passey, 2014). Virtual worlds provide a safe environment for interactions with people. Participants can choose perform the same tasks over and over again. Participants can also modify their virtual worlds to simplify complicated social context or behaviors according to their individual needs. The interactions in the virtual worlds can be made more predictable. The visually appealing graphical environment of virtual worlds is more suitable for CSN. The CSN often have intrinsic motivation to use computer-based environments because they can gain experiences of real-life scenarios (Grandin, 2006; Baron- Cohen, Golan & Ashwin, 2009; Georgescu et al., 2014; Mazurek et al., 2012). According to Cobb et al. (2002), virtual worlds offer a fun and interesting place for CSN. They can use virtual worlds to meet their peers on equal footing; help them overcome social anxiety; and practice social skills (Fusar-Poli et al., 2008; Stendal, & Balandin, 2015; 423

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Lester, 2005; Stendal & Balandin, 2015). According to Fusar-Poli et al. (2008), learning can take place in a safe environment that does not penalize mistakes. According to Wainer and Ingersoll (2011), virtual worlds are a promising direct intervention strategy for CSN and some studies have adopted purpose-built virtual worlds for social skills training (Parsons et al., 2000). One example is Asperger’s Syndrome interactive project. This project used a modified version of a virtual city for developing social awareness amongst CSN. The project achieved promising results and CSN participants were able to improve their social reasoning skills and understanding of common social conventions (Parsons & Cobb, 2011; MU, 2019). The COSPATIAL project was a cognitive behavioral therapy program. This project used virtual world games to develop communication and collaboration skills for CSN in a school setting (Parsons et al., 2011). The iSocial project at the University of Missouri was aimed at developing social interaction skills of CSN. The project showed promising results (Stichter et al., 2013). The Brainville project at the University of Texas used a virtual town to teach social interaction skills to CSN with the help of coaches (Words & Koller, 2015). Some educators have opted to use existing virtual worlds to teach social interaction skills to CSN. In one example, the researcher used Second Life to as an intervention strategy to increase engagement in positive behaviors, replicate real-world behaviors, and increase communication with peers, when compared to classroom observations (Newbutt, 2013). In another case, researchers used Second Life to teach social interaction skills using different social scenarios. The outcomes were quite positive (Didehbani et al., 2016). Researchers have also used virtual worlds for developing a variety of skills in CSN (Ramdoss et al., 2011). These skills include empathetic response, recognition of emotions, resolving social conflicts, and process social information. However, most studies are descriptive studies and do not provide empirical or scientific evidence (Wainer & Ingersoll, 2011). The studies have reported mixed results on the use of virtual worlds as an intervention strategy for CSN. All the studies show positive enhancements in social skills. However, the range of enhancement varies (Ramdoss et al., 2011). It has also been revealed that there is no significant difference in social skill enhancement whether we use face-to-face instructions or computer-based instructions. Virtual worlds have the advantage that they can add certain elements of social interaction. These elements allow the educators/parents/coaches to play along with the children in the virtual world (Parsons & Mitchell, 2002). In all cases, it is apparent that intervention strategy and technology have same importance and one cannot be prioritized over the other. According to Parsons et al., (2000), Herreraa et al., (2006), and Southall (2013), life in the virtual world is similar to life in the real world and help facilitate replicate the skills learned to the real world. However, more research is needed to understand the extent to which these skills can be replicated in the real world (Mazurek, 2013) and virtual world cannot be used with all categories of CSN (Parsons et al., 2006). Still, the use of virtual worlds offers a promising intervention strategy for improving social interaction skills of CSN because of their flexibility that can accommodate multiple forms of communication, diverse scenarios, and incorporation of individual preference. All these features are the cornerstones of a successful social skills training program.

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APPLICATIONS OF VIRTUAL WORLD FOR SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Applications in Education For this chapter, we have focused on Minecraft, a popular commercial virtual world. This selection is based on several reasons. Firs, its massive user base of over 100 million users from more than 66 countries clearly shows its appeal to children (Overby & Jones, 2015; Ellison & Evans, 2016). Second, the pixelated and blocky graphics are very appealing for CSN (Kulman, 2015). Third, the relatively inexpensive Minecraft is available on many different platforms (such as PC/Mac, mobile, gaming console) making it extremely accessible. Fourth, the multiple entry points available in Minecraft are very attractive for educators and researchers (Wu, 2016). Minecraft was not originally designed for educational use but has been used in teaching and learning due to unique learning possibilities offered (Olivia, 2012). Minecraft has been used across various disciplines such as computer science, mathematics, engineering, art, language, and social sciences. (Overby & Jones, 2015). Due to increased popularity of Minecraft in classroom teaching, Minecraft Edu was developed. Minecraft Edu provides educators additional tools they can use to adapt Minecraft to their unique teaching needs (Perez, 2016; MU, 2019). Minecraft application uses in teaching and learning are not limited to curriculum use. Mincecraft can be used to enhance children’s creativity and develop important skills such as flexible thinking, feelings management and expression, emotional control, teamwork, and organization (Kulman, 2015; Ellison & Evans, 2016). Researchers and educators have started to use Minecraft for social skills training (Frank et al., 2013). Minecraft could also facilitate the learning of interpersonal skills. In survival mode of Minecraft, players depend on each other to survive in the game. As such, Minecraft can be used to encourage teamwork and provide positive classroom environment as students work together in the virtual world (Risberg, 2015).

A Social Communication Tool Minecraft can be considered a medium of computer-mediated communication in which users often communicate with each other using a variety of formats (e.g., text and sound) (Banakou et al., 2009). Minecraft provides both direct and indirect communication channels to provide further opportunities of socialization (Ringland et al., 2016). For example, Minecraft users can communicate with other users using text messages. These text messages can be sent two ways: through a chat window or third- party modifications. Minecraft also provides tight integration with other social networking platforms (such as Facebook) that helps users connect with each other without using nonverbal social cues (e.g., eye contact) (Mazurek et al., 2015). Children may share their Minecraft experiences on YouTube, discussion forums, or through blogs. All these activities are Minecraft related activities. The new communication modalities offered by Minecraft makes it easier for CSN join a social group that they would find quite difficult to do in real world (Zolymomi & Schmalz, 2017). The researchers have suggested that by playing games in Minecraft, CSN can increase quality of their communication, take initiative, get engaged with others, and focus more on their tasks (Cullen et al., 2015; MacCormack, 2016). Minecraft as both an educational tool and a learning platform has the ability to engage its users and change the way they learn. For CSN, Minecraft opens a whole new world of opportunities of learning (MU, 2019). 425

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THE APPLICATIONS OF VIRTUAL WORLDS FOR CSN Introduction Schools play a critical role in helping learners make the most of technology-based experiences (Klopfer et al., 2009). Gee (2003) argues that teachers and educators differ significantly on their views about how technology should be used. Gee (2011) further argues that educators should allow children to explore their own interests and develop the kinds of passions that drive deep learning what he called affinity spaces. Bommarito (2014) extended the argument offered by Gee (2011) to suggest that children should be allowed to design their own affinity spaces. Minecraft is exceptionally suitable for integrating into the school curriculum and it may be the time for the educators to become more aware of this tool. In the developed world, Minecraft is already very well known in the educational community and an increasing number of educators’ regard Minecraft a valuable tool that can help engage their students in more active learning. In developing world, though, the Minecraft in not very well-known. Researchers have argued that games can have the most profound impact on learning if they are made an integral part of the school experience (Gershenfeld, 2014). Still, traditional schools do feel convinced enough to use computer games in teaching (O’Neill et al., 2020). Even more, a number of experienced teachers consider game playing as an activity that must be avoided in classrooms (Baek, 2008). Sandford, & Williamson (2005) and Wu (2015) argue that this behavior is due to the unawareness of these teachers of the pedagogical possibilities of computer games. This negative attitude towards computer games has been slowing down and it is expected that use of games in teaching and learning will soon become widespread. In one instance, UK-based teachers showed positive attitude towards using games in classroom (Ulicsak et al., 2006). In another case, a majority of US-based teachers showed positive attitude towards using games for classroom instructions (Wu, 2015). With increasing popularity of Minecraft, more and more educators are incorporating it into their classroom activities. Researchers are using Minecraft to collect more evidence of its use to enhance student learning. In one instance, Minecraft was used in primary classes of history and architecture. The results showed that students became more creative (Saez-Lopez et al., 2015). A study called Minecraft Teachers examined teachers’ use of Minecraft. The study concluded that teachers could incorporate Minecraft into their existing classroom practices and use of Minecraft could bring the positive impact on learning and student motivation (Smeaton, 2012). The project imitated in this study has continued to bring together teachers using Minecraft in classroom. Teachers use this platform share their knowledge and best practices and help each other introduce Minecraft to their classroom. The Minecraft Teachers is an example of initiatives that academia is taking to build learning communities about use of virtual world in the teaching and learning. There are other examples involving promoting use of Minecraft in schools. Various talks and contests have been organized to encourage educators and students learn how to use Minecraft for learning and creative activities. Despite a large number of participants, number of educators actually using Minecraft in classroom is low. Use of Minecraft in science classes has shown positive improvements in learning (Wang, 2014). Secondary school teachers have benefited significantly from use of Minecraft in classroom. These schools saw notable improvements in students’ motivation. Still, there is limited research available on use of Minecraft for enhancing learning of CSN in classroom. Use of Minecraft in classroom teaching for enhancing learning is definitely unconventional teaching strategy. Educators would need to 426

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accommodate many different learning styles, adjust their teaching styles and ways of content delivery to maximize the potential impact of Minecraft in teaching.

Teaching and Learning In some instances, educators have integrated Minecraft into their classroom teach various subjects. Some of these teachers have degrees in computer science and some have degrees in non-technical subjects. Some of these teachers have personal interest in digital games and some have little personal interest in new technologies, especially games. Looking at examples of Minecraft’s success stories, these teachers have started using Minecraft to increase the engagement of students and reduce their workload. There were different ways in which Minecraft was introduced in the classrooms. In some cases, students introduced Minecraft to their teachers. In some case, teachers were first introduced to Minecraft during a workshop. Many factors drove teachers’ interest in Minecraft. For some teachers, Minecraft was a powerful creation tool while some used to implement their e-learning strategies. These teachers also encouraged their peers to try various educational mobile apps. These teachers had firm belief in the capabilities of technology to revolutionize the teaching and learning of CSN. As such, they considered Minecraft as an excellent teaching and learning tool especially for CSN.

USES OF VIRTUAL WORLDS FOR CSN Classroom Support In classroom teaching, Minecraft is particularly useful in subjects that involve construction and storytelling. For example, Minecraft might be used in a course where teacher would like students to create a story based on a series of events described in a text book. Students can use different characters available in Minecraft to create a story that would demonstrate their understanding of the story given in the textbook. Minecraft has features that can be deployed in the use of Minecraft as an assessment tool. When it comes to CSN, assessing a student performance is always a daunting task for educators. This assessment becomes a bigger challenge when children does not possess appropriate language skills and is thus unable to express their ideas using appropriate words (Karsenti, Bugmann, & Gros, 2017; Ellison & Evans, 2016; MU & SIN, 2018; Checa-Romero, & Gómez, 2018).

School-Based Virtual Server A safe and protected environment is always a priority for educators looking to enhance learning of their students. Minecraft is one such virtual environment. Users can participate in Minecraft with other users. They have the liberty to setup their own Minecraft servers. In some cases, educator can setup a private Minecraft server whose access is restricted to their students. This way they ensure a very safe environment for their students to socialize and work with each other. To further facilitate students, educators can setup separate servers for beginner and experienced Minecraft users. The server for experienced users can be used for more detailed work such as showcasing students’ projects for public review (Karsenti, Bugmann, & Gros, 2017; Ellison & Evans, 2016; MU & SIN, 2018; Checa-Romero, & Gómez, 2018).

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Interest Clubs and Workshops Educators also use Minecraft in interest clubs and workshops. These interest clubs and workshops can be used to test new ideas before implementing them in classroom teaching. These clubs can also be used to bring together CSN to learn language, mathematics, and social subjects using Minecraft. The Minecraft workshops can be used to introduce new concepts to the students. One example of such concepts is STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) concepts (Karsenti, Bugmann, & Gros, 2017; Ellison & Evans, 2016; MU & SIN, 2018; Checa-Romero, & Gómez, 2018).

A Story Teller The Minecraft can be complemented with other technologies. This way, students can use Minecraft to tell their stories. When students create something in Minecraft, they actually develop a story that is in their mind. They tell this story by creating a storybook in Minecraft. This storybook contains images available in the Minecraft. For example, there is an app called Book Creator. This app allows users to create their own e-books. CSN often face difficulties in expressing themselves. These children can use Book Creator app with Minecraft to create their own e-books that portrays their thoughts in their own words (Karsenti, Bugmann, & Gros, 2017; Ellison & Evans, 2016; MU & SIN, 2018; Checa-Romero, & Gómez, 2018).

Learning Reinforcement Educators can also use Minecraft as a motivational tool to encourage students improve their attitude and increase their engagement in classroom activities. One of the common issues related with CSN is their tendency to either avoid completing the homework altogether or submitting poor quality work. The offer of playing games in Minecraft is lucrative enough for CSN to engage in classroom activities and submit quality homework. As such, Minecraft can be used as an effective motivational tool to bring behavioral changes in CSN (Karsenti, Bugmann, & Gros, 2017; Ellison & Evans, 2016; MU & SIN, 2018; Checa-Romero, & Gómez, 2018).

BENEFITS OF VIRTUAL WORLD-BASED LEARNING Collaboration and Teamwork Collaborative work is one of the most challenging tasks for CSN in school setting. For effective teamwork, CSN need to have certain social skills such as negotiation and active listening. By playing games in Minecraft, CSN have the opportunity to develop these needed social skills for effective teamwork. This is because many tasks in Minecraft require more than one student to complete. These students work seamlessly to complete large scale tasks such as a large model creation. Students have the liberty to choose their role based on their expertise and interest. By doing what they can do best, a team of students can work together to create amazing stuff. Minecraft also provides many opportunities for communication both within a team and with members of other teams. Constructing is a truly collaborative effort. For example, a teacher can provide a passage from the textbook about the building of a bridge. 428

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The teacher can then ask two groups of students to read the passage and construct the same bridge in Minecraft. If the students are able to recreate the bridge, this demonstrates that they understand the passage. Students can also use the Internet to research more details about the bridge. Minecraft promotes this kind of self-learning (Karsenti, Bugmann, & Gros, 2017; Ellison & Evans, 2016; MU & SIN, 2018; Checa-Romero, & Gómez, 2018).

Social Interactions and Relationship Building For CSN, developing and maintaining relationships with their peers in classroom is a difficult task. The collaborative activities in Minecraft provide CSN the opportunities to learn key social skills required to develop and maintain these relationships. When students work together on a project in Minecraft, they get a chance to express their feelings, make suggestions, and seek help. Such positive experiences encourage CSN to transfer these social skills in the real world. In one case, a teacher had a CSN who never called his classmates at home. When offered to complete a task in Minecraft, the same CSN was compelled to take initiative and call his classmates for assistance. Educators can use shared interests such as Minecraft to encourage CSN to build deep relationships with their teachers and other students. When students see other students doing something interesting in Minecraft, they tend to ask how they did it. Students move around in Minecraft to showcase their work to each other. There is strong motivation to interact with each other. This kind of interaction is generally not seen in a normal classroom. This shared learning experience is very different from a normal classroom. Educators also use WhatsApp to encourage students-students and students-teacher interaction. In these groups, students regularly exchange information about Minecraft with their peers and teachers. Students would talk to the teachers, report on their tasks and share their works in Minecraft. This way educators have opportunities to get close to their students. The game playing in Minecraft is a social activity that stimulates the desire of CSN to share work with others in Minecraft. To do so, CSN are compelled to practice social interaction skills that they would normally avoid learning and practicing in real life. Their attitude improves and they start to develop better relationships with their peers (Karsenti, Bugmann, & Gros, 2017; Ellison & Evans, 2016; MU & SIN, 2018; Checa-Romero, & Gómez, 2018).

Active Learning Minecraft puts its users on the driving seat when it comes to learning. Using Minecraft in the classroom can promote active learning by students because every student would like to become and expert and show off others their gaming skills. Often, students choose to use other online platforms such as YouTube to seek solutions when they encounter problems playing a game. They try to understand the content even if it is not in their native language. Most importantly, they try to learn independently which is crucial for their success in both the virtual and real world. When students create some content in Minecraft, they cannot just rely on their imagination rather they need to find information about what they are creating. During this process, they not only enhance their listening, speaking, writing and creative thinking skills but also take their knowledge to the next level (Karsenti, Bugmann, & Gros, 2017; Ellison & Evans, 2016; MU & SIN, 2018; Checa-Romero, & Gómez, 2018).

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Behavioral Problems CSN can differ significantly from each other. Traditional one-way question and answer technique used in classroom is time consuming and can make CSN lose their patience quickly. As a result, these CSN may exhibit behavioral problems. Using Minecraft in classroom, educators can engage students and take their learning to the next level. The CSN have affinity for games like Minecraft and find various activities in Minecraft challenging. They do not feel bored and start to engage themselves in the virtual world to explore, to learn and to play. The games these CSN play have a direct impact on their behavior (Karsenti, Bugmann, & Gros, 2017; Ellison & Evans, 2016; MU & SIN, 2018; Checa-Romero, & Gómez, 2018).

CHALLENGES AND CONCERNS Elaborated Instruction Design The process of integrating Minecraft into the classroom is complex and time consuming. Instructional design and materials preparation requires a lot of planning, time, and effort. This becomes more challenging if the educators are novice in using Minecraft. Nowadays, many students are comfortable in taking the lead and learn by themselves. Still, there are times when educators need to intervene and take the lead of their learning journey. In collaborative projects, educator must facilitate the discussion among students. Some educators use mind-mapping software such as Mind Map to assist students in their project approach and work distribution. Time management is key and educators must manage class time effectively, reminding students about the allotted time and controlling any behavioral issues (such as extreme and inappropriate reactions). Since students learn under the guidance of educator, there must be some rules they follow during their project work. Educators need to possess a lot of experience and wisdom to go through this challenging process (Karsenti, Bugmann, & Gros, 2017; Ellison & Evans, 2016; MU & SIN, 2018; Checa-Romero, & Gómez, 2018).

Online Addiction and Safety To prevent addiction, students should be allocated appropriate time to play games in Minecraft. E ducators can set time limits on the Minecraft servers they create for students. Educators can also restrict survival mode game playing by students to at home only. Educators may also restrict game playing by students only under supervision of the educator. Online aggression and bullying are important issues that must be dealt with using a proactive approach. One way to preventing these issues is to setup a private Minecraft server for the students so that they can be protected potential harassment by strangers. Furthermore, teachers and students can set playing rules together (Karsenti, Bugmann, & Gros, 2017; Ellison & Evans, 2016; MU & SIN, 2018; Checa-Romero, & Gómez, 2018).

Educator-Parent Cooperation In the learning process of CSN, the role of parents is very important. Parents may have concerns that their child may become addicted to Minecraft. On the other hand, parents may be willing to play Minecraft games with their children in order explore how they can facilitate the learning of their children. The 430

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support and understanding of parents is essential for the child’s effective learning. Once children start playing games in Minecraft, they would continue to do so with or without the knowledge of patents and teachers. Educators should share the benefits of Minecraft with parents and take them into confidence. Educators should use this as an opportunity to increase communication and establish partnership between home and school. Teachers and parents can work together to set up the playing rules. Once parents realize the true benefits of integrating virtual world game playing, they can be in a much better position to really help their children learn (Karsenti, Bugmann, & Gros, 2017; Ellison & Evans, 2016; MU & SIN, 2018; Checa-Romero, & Gómez, 2018).

Technical Expertise There exist different versions of Minecraft with respect to functionality and features. For novice educators, it would be a difficult task to decide the appropriate version of Minecraft to be used in the classroom. There is also an educational version of Minecraft designed especially for educational settings. Besides the choice of a particular version of Minecraft, teachers will need to acquire a certain level of technical expertise in order to reap maximum benefits out of Minecraft (Karsenti, Bugmann, & Gros, 2017; Ellison & Evans, 2016; MU & SIN, 2018; Checa-Romero, & Gómez, 2018).

IMPLICATIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS According to Bebbington (2014), CSN have preference for playing games in virtual worlds. The shared values and common interests drive the continued interaction among CSN using virtual worlds (Bebbington, 2014) because CSN only focus on the things that they are interested in (Kanner, 1943). The virtual world activities are very suitable for CSN to engage in social interaction. This is because these are the activities in which they take interest and have a greater chance of obtaining positive feedback (Wright et al., 2014). As such, they actively participate in various activities in virtual worlds. This active participation leads to active and authentic learning (Plavnick et al., 2013). The use of virtual worlds as an intervention program for development of social interaction skills of CSN addresses some of the shortcomings in other social skills training programs. The virtual world is more natural and can be easily setup in a school setting. Educators need to gain certain level of technical expertise to use Minecraft in classroom. The use of virtual world in classroom must be customized according to the unique interests and needs of CSN. The structured play and structured instruction could provide a safe and supportive environment for the development of social skills (MacCormack et al., 2015) in which CSN follow the development trajectory of their peers who are typically developed (Mottron, 2011). Use of virtual world for development of social skills for CSN should not focus on just a discrete skillset since social interaction is a highly contextual experience. The virtual world should also be implemented in the natural environment of CSN. Virtual world and the associated activities provide an environment in which the CSN are motivated. This motivation triggers social interactions and helps develop specific social skills effectively and naturally. Keeping in mind the various academic and social challenges that CSN face, educators need to come up with research-supported and interest-based intervention strategies. Such strategies can provide a motivating environment that can effectively induce learning. Learning social skills through practice is necessary in a meaningful context and environmental adjustments. Virtual worlds offer a promising tool 431

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for social interaction skills training, especially for CSN. Virtual worlds could offer the level of immersion capable to transform the learning landscape by enabling CSN to learn, alongside with their peers. Th environment of virtual worlds provides a high level of anonymous social interaction. The virtual worldsbased activities trigger a high level of positive social engagement which provides CSN opportunities to learn, practice and make a social connection with their peers. Educators using virtual worlds have found satisfactory improvements in social interaction skills of CSN. Therefore, a combination of a virtual world with school curriculum and group-based social skills training could significantly improve the learning of CSN. Minecraft-based learning provides CSN timely feedback and support from their teachers. There are several recommended practices for educators aiming to integrate virtual worlds into the social skills learning of CSN. First, the virtual world should capable of handling different learning contexts and students should be able to play in the same virtual space with one another safely using a private virtual world server. Second, an elaborate education design is crucial in guiding the children to learn. The educators need to provide facilitatation for the the children to set up goals, divide the work in hand, and manage time wisely. They need to continuously look for teaching opportunities as they come and integrate these opportunities with appropriate behavioral strategies.

CONCLUSION This chapter attempts to provide a comprehensive examination of the potential use of virtual worlds to develop social interaction skills of CSN. The chapter has used Minecraft as the research platform which is a popular virtual world. The virtual world has the capability that it can be integrated into a variety of learning contexts. Use of Minecraft in classroom activities can motivate CSN to learn and interact with their peers. They can transfer the skills learned in virtual world to the real world. Virtual world games have enormous potential to be used as an intervention strategy for CSN to support and facilitate development of their social interaction skills. The development of these social interaction skills can enable increased social engagement and positive behavioral outcomes of CSN. In the process of using virtual worlds for developing social interaction skills of CSN, the role of educators is crucial. They use their experience to carefully plan the learning activities and guide/support the CSN in their journey of virtual worlds. Without this, such an intervention program can never be successful. It is important that educators incorporate the interests of CSN in the intervention program. This way they can motivate them to learn. Researchers and educators should be of the potential benefits of integrating a virtual world into their curriculum. They should also explore other ways and tools that can be integrated with virtual world to facilitate the development of social interaction skills of CSN.

FUTURE AVENUES OF THE RESEARCH Researchers should undertake follow-up studies to explore the effect of social interventions when these intervention programs are combined with formal parental training. More studies can be conducted on individual categories of CSN to understand any differences in the development of social interaction skills. Besides Minecraft, there are other virtual world tools available such as Roblox and Second Life. Future studies can explore the use of different virtual world tools to assess their suitability of CSN with different behavioral characteristics. 432

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Children With Special Needs (CSN): The children with special needs (CSN) are children who have a disability or a combination of disabilities that makes learning or other activities difficult. Social Interaction Skills: Social interaction skills are the skills we use everyday to interact and communicate with others. They include verbal and non-verbal communication, such as speech, gesture, facial expression, and body language. Virtual World: A virtual world is a computer-simulated environment. A virtual world simulates the physical world or any imaginary scenarios and may include many users who can create a virtual identity (or a personal avatar) to represent themselves in the world and have real-time interactions with each other.

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Instructional Design and 3D Virtual Worlds: A Focus on Social Abilities and Autism Spectrum Disorder Laura Fedeli https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1509-0323 University of Macerata, Italy Valentina Pennazio University of Macerata, Italy

ABSTRACT Starting from the analysis of the typical difficulties of the condition of autism spectrum syndrome and the literature relating to the effectiveness of the use of virtual worlds, the chapter presents the design and implementation of social stories within a 3D social virtual world, namely edMondo. The environment was used for a second phase of a piloting of a research project about the development of social abilities in children with ASD and involve the use of social scenarios thanks to the interaction with a robot avatar.

INTRODUCTION Currently, to address the difficulties in social skills, typical of people with Autism Spectrum Syndrome (ASD), in addition to the cognitive-behavioral intervention protocols generally provided in rehabilitation, an important role has been attributed to technologies (social media), social robotics and virtual worlds. In fact, these applications create a high degree of involvement for people with ASD because they allow designers to customize the intervention based on the specific characteristics of the user (in case of autism can vary greatly from one person to another), and allow the user with ASD to interact from a safe and reassuring position. Thanks to their potential, these applications are starting to be used not only in the rehabilitation, but also in the educational context (e.g. at school). DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch019

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The use of social media, for example, allows people with ASD to create and maintain communicative interactions more easily than what happens in the physical world (Mazurek, 2013) Asynchronous social media can provide a particularly safe environment for people with ASD because they allows people to (1) communicate and interact by remaining physically in a known environment, which creates a sense of security and control, (2) immediately leave a threatening situation by simply disconnecting the computer (Stendal & Balandin, 2015). Furthermore, in social media the need to understand the normal requirements of face-to-face communication, including social cues, facial expressions and body language, decreases (Mazurek & Wenstrup, 2013). Many studies conducted with robotics have, instead, tried to address the deficient aspects of socioemotional reciprocity typical of the ASD, by intervening specifically on the individual precursors of the Theory of Mind (ToM): eye contact, imitation, attention, human interaction (Charron, Lewis & Craig, 2017; Simut et al., 2016; Warren et al., 2015). Other researches (Costa et al., 2014; Pennazio & Fedeli 2019a, 2019b; Fedeli, Pennazio & Datteri, 2020; Pennazio et al., 2020; Scassellati, 2018) have tried to investigate the overall development of the ToM, that is the ability of people to “mentalize”, to recognize and interpret the behavior of others as the result of mental states similar to theirs, and therefore regulate their behavior based on these mental states. Research conducted with robotics has confirmed that a person with ASD interacts more easily with a robot than with a human interlocutor thanks to its simplicity of communication and relationship. The international literature has also highlighted the usefulness of using virtual environments customized to the needs of people with ASD (Didehbani et.al., 2016; Wallace, Parsons & Bailey, 2017; Fedeli & Pennazio, 2020) and the wide use of “virtual reality” in projects whose primary objective is the development of social and emotional skills through 3D virtual environments (Mesa-Gresa et.al., 2018). Parsons and colleagues (2006) concluded that virtual environments can be a useful tool for the development of social skills in people with ASD, but that it is necessary to adequately design the virtual world so that it can favour the generalization of the skills learned to the real context. Generally, the intervention to help people with autism to cope the difficulties manifested in the area of sociality, involves the use of social stories (which are described in the following paragraphs) therefore, these stories are usually associated with the use of robots and virtual worlds, by acquiring characteristics that make them more effective. Starting from the analysis of the typical difficulties of the condition of autism and the literature relating to the effectiveness of the use of virtual worlds for people with ASD, the contribution presents the design and implementation of social stories within the virtual world “edMondo”; stories to be used in work sessions aimed at acquiring social skills with a child with autism. The work with social stories within the virtual world that we present, follows an in-presence work with the Nao Robot where the child listened to social stories told by the robot and performed activities requested by the robot (for an analysis, see Pennazio & Fedeli 2019a, 2019b; Fedeli, Pennazio & Datteri, 2020; Pennazio et al., 2020).

AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER AND SOCIAL ABILITIES As research on the topic describes, ASD is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a very high incidence rate (Hannah et al., 2020; Ofner et al., 2018). To understand the characteristics of ASD it is necessary to refer to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders fifth edition (DSM-V) (APA, 2013) which identifies the condition of autism

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with two categories of deficit: (1) communicative and interactive-social, (2) behavioral, with restricted, repetitive and stereotyped behavioral patterns. The first area includes deficient aspects of the socio-emotional reciprocity (Tager-Elusberg, Joseph & Eolstein, 2001), which manifest themselves with: an anomalous social approach; the failure in conversational reciprocity; the inability to share interests, emotions, feelings and to initiate and respond adequately to social interactions (APA, 2013). The deficits of non-verbal communication behaviors are also included, necessary for social interaction (lack of eye contact, gestures and their understanding, facial inexpressiveness) and in the management and understanding of relationships (difficulty in adapting behavior to different social contexts and share the game of imagination; lack of interest in peers and consequent impossibility of making friends) (APA, 2013; Pennazio, 2019). The second area addresses the behavior and focuses on: the presence of stereotypes and repetitiveness in movements, in the use of objects and in language; the insistence on “sameness” and adherence to routine; the presence of limited interests, immutable and anomalous in intensity and depth, and finally, on sensory hyper or hyporeactivity in the relationship with the elements present (APA, 2013; Pennazio, 2019). ToM deficits, typical of people with autism are present within the first category. ToM is the human capacity of mindread that is to deduce and consider the thoughts, desires, sensations and emotions of others (Etel & Slaughter, 2019). Its acquisition determines the complex social behaviors that develop already in early childhood (Etel & Slaughter, 2019; Westra, & Carruthers, 2018). Indeed, many studies have shown a significant association between ToM and social skills (Razza, & Blair, 2009), social competences (Imuta et.al., 2016) and social maturity (Peterson et al., 2007). In summary, it is possible to argue that ToM allows people to enter the mental state of others by understanding how people can know, desire and create beliefs (Baron Cohen, 1997; Bölte & Hallmayer, 2011) by emitting, consequently, a social behavior appropriate to the situation. In recent times, Schneider and collaborators (Schneider, Slaughter & Dux, 2014) have highlighted two expressive modalities of ToM: (1) an explicit one that implies the ability to verbal prediction and explanation of the mental states of other people; (2) the other one implicit, that is extrapolated from the spontaneous eye movements of children and from the visual tracking of an object (Etel & Slaughter, 2019; Schneider, Slaughter & Dux, 2014). These elements are language-independent and therefore may be present from the second year of a child’s life (Etel & Slaughter, 2019; He, Bolz, & Baillargeon 2012). According to some researchers (Fong & Iarocci, 2020; Oswald, 2012) Executive Functions (FE) are also involved in the correct development of the ToM in its cognitive and emotional definition. FE are cognitive abilities that allow the person to control and regulate behavior in achieving goals (Best, Miller & Jones, 2009). Two domains of executive functions are important: (1) inhibitory control, i.e. the possibility of inhibiting one’s own perspective when considering that of another person; (2) working memory (WM) i.e. the possibility of keeping both perspectives active in memory. As demonstrated by the literature in the field (Baron Cohen, 1997), some basic cognitive and emotional functions of the ToM exist in people with ASD, what they lack is the ability to apply those functions to daily activities. The degree of ToM impairment differs from person to person (Hughes & Leekam, 2004; Matthews & Goldberg, 2018) and the deficit is not attributable to an emotional problem, but to a cognitive non understanding, known as “inner states” Baron Cohen, (1997). This misunderstanding determines an empathic inability at a double level: (1) cognitive which generates the difficulty of assuming the conceptual point of view of another person (Shantz, 1983) and to recognize his thoughts and feelings (Premack & 446

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Woodruff, 1978); (2) emotional which determines the emission of an inappropriate emotional response in relation to the “emotional state” of the other (Davis, 1994) and the impossibility of constructing adequate social interactions. As Ferri, Candria and Mezzaluna (2020) highlight the guidelines drawn up by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) according to Evidence Based Medicine, and the Autism Guidelines drawn up by the “Istituto Superiore di Sanità” (2011, 2015) highlight that Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (in particular Applied Behavioral Analysis) represents the most effective intervention with people with ASD. This therapy is aimed at modifying the general behavior of the person with ASD to make it functional to the tasks of everyday life, reducing dysfunctional behaviors. This can be useful for improving self-regulatory skills and facilitating the acquisition of greater cognitive and behavioral flexibility. A central part of the intervention consists in teaching behavioral, cognitive and emotional skills useful for modifying thoughts and behaviors, the cause of negative emotional states. Given the difficulties in communicating and identifying and understanding their own and others’ mental states of people with ASD, over the years, specifically structured standardized intervention protocols have been proposed (Ferri, Candria & Mezzaluna, 2020). The international guidelines also recommend interventions for educating one’s own and other people’s feelings and emotions and for facilitating interpersonal communication, therefore these protocols were subsequently modified with the introduction of social stories, visual and technological supports (robotics and virtual worlds) aimed at acquiring social skills in people with ASD (Ferri, Candria & Mezzaluna, 2020). In this regard, our attention is focused on the use of virtual worlds for the implementation of social stories aimed at facilitating the development of social skills in children with ASD.

3D VIRTUAL WORLDS Technology has been widely used in treatments with people with ASD and the number of research projects, scientific publications and meta-analysis addressing teaching/learning processes showed evidences of promising positive results (Grynszpan, et al., 2014; Valencia, et al., 2019). Among available technologies virtual worlds were investigated both in the direction of special needs teacher/educator’s training (Nussli, & Oh, 2015), and in treatments for people with ASD (Didehbani et al., 2016; Mesa-Gresa et al. 2018; Parsons; 2015; Parsons, Mitchell, 2002; Ringland et al., 2016; Stendal, & Ballandin, 2015; Wallace et al., 2017) or other disorders or difficulties (Carr, 2010; Lorenzo et al., 2016). 3D virtual worlds can be categorized in different ways (Bartle, 2004; Fedeli, 2013) by taking into account different parameters of analysis such as user interaction, flexibility, usability and openness. Above mentioned aspects highlight how social virtual worlds that are not task-oriented (like many game-based environments as, for example, World of Warcraft), but, instead, presents a free narrative (such as Second Life and OpenSim) appear to be more appropriate to activate interventions for people with ASD since their flexibility allows designers to adapt the environment to the needed perspective, scenario and characters. The review by Parsons and Mitchell (2002) describes the aspects a virtual world should offer in order to be fruitfully used by people with ASD, specifically in the direction of teaching activities connected to social abilities development. The review (Parsons, Mitchell, 2002) refers to the affordances a virtual world can offer for people with ASD that are connected to: (1) tasks and scenarios (tasks can be presented and easily practised in different scenarios); (2) complexity and flexibility (dif-

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ferent channels of communication and scenarios can allow prompt-fading sequences and different style of response). Parsons (2015) also takes into account the opportunity to involve the user in the design process, a choice that can “reflects a wider understanding about the ethical and practical advantages of gaining insights from the intended user population”. The project here presented was developed by using “edMondo”, an open source 3D social world built by INDIRE (National Institute Documentation, Innovation, Educational Research, Italy) with the aim to offer teachers and their students a free safe environment to be used for educational purposes. The world can, in fact, be only accessed by verified users to guarantee a controlled context where an interdisciplinary approach is encouraged thanks to the presence of a varied population in terms of school grade level and different subject matter interests (from Math to Arts and History just to mention some projects). The virtual world can, thus, rely on a community that is able to support less experienced users and share instructional resources (e.g. objects, building or avatars to be copied and freely used by anyone). The presence of a community, born spontaneously and progressively growing along the last years, is of paramount importance not only for new users (newbie), who can rely on an orientation process to be introduced in the world, but the value of experienced users is to be seen also in the periodical training courses organized around topical themes according to the common needs of the audience. Special attention is given to building and scripting courses where users of any level, from the newbie to the expert ones, can have the chance to learn new tips to advance in their learning experience in the virtual world. The opportunity to build and script both simple and complex objects and the chance to copy free files from the web (Open Simulator Archive files) to be imported and adapted for specific uses is an additional affordance of worlds built with OpenSim technology. But the chance of having user interactions through 3D graphical representations (avatars) is probably the most effective aspect in terms of flexibility of the environment since it allows a full embodiment (Fedeli, 2013; 2016) where the user can communicate by using gestures, postures and all extralinguistic means besides the verbal (oral and written) channels. Embodiment is one of the affordances investigated in the literature as powerful means for the teaching/learning process and has been widely analysed in terms of physical and emotional perceptions felt by users in their avatar representations. Having the possibility to move with your own avatar body into a space and manage the position you wish to keep (proximity and distance) helps the design of social instructional activities like role-plays, “the computer-mediated role-play might present a vital opportunity for individuals to experience different perspectives, which, in turn, might nurture more general skills in mental simulation” (Parsons, Mitchel, 2002, p. 438). Roleplays in virtual world can help approach social stories in a more effective way: “flexibility can be encouraged by providing role-play situations in which the learned rule may not apply every time. It is possible that practising flexible responding in a safe and controlled environment might reduce anxiety in people with ASDs, enabling them to plan what to do next, rather than displaying repetitive, stereotyped behaviours, which may not be helpful in achieving their goal.” (p. 439). Being able to interact in different scenarios practicing the same social story and related social behaviours can help generalize acquired skills since the same situation can be applied in different contexts that can propose a sequential higher level of complexity of the interaction itself. Sessions of interaction occurring in the virtual world can be recorded and can, thus, represent a precious resource to be used offline, either before a real time session in edMondo to make the users familiarize with the environment’s graphical features or after the real time session to recall practiced skills and fix them. 448

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SOCIAL STORIES: AN OVERVIEW Social Stories are an intervention tool conceived by Carol Gray (2000) with the aim of increasing children’s social skills. These are short narratives or rather “scenarios” written respecting some principles that allow children with autism to understand how to behave appropriately in different social situations. Indeed, only a better understanding of a specific social situation allows children with ASD to get an adequate social functioning (Kokina 2010, Vanderborght et al., 2012). Writing social stories requires you to respect some basic steps: (1) set a goal to be achieved (to change an inappropriate behavior, for example), (2) write the text in first or third person, (3) respect clarity and literary precision (children with autism interpret communication literally), (4) uses the support of images. Social stories usually contain sentences with different functions (Tab 1): descriptive, subjective and directive (Gray & Garand, 1993). Table 1. Elements for writing a good social history (Taken from Rowe, 1999; Smith, 2006) Nature of the sentence

Number of sentences per story

Descriptive sentences

Descriptive sentences describe what is happening, where the situation is unfolding and why. Sentences should be as accurate as possible, and should contain words such as “generally” or “sometimes” rather than “always” to avoid literal interpretations and to help the student manage the change.

2-5

Subjective sentences

Subjective sentences describe the reactions and responses of others in the stimulus situation, and sometimes the reasons for these reactions, and can describe the feelings of others.

2-5

Directive sentences

Directive sentences describe the desired responses to social situations, and tell the child, in positive terms, what he should try to do or say in the stimulus situation. Often they begin as follows: “I’ll try to ...”

1

Type of sentence

Gray proposes a standard method for presenting a social story according to which the child should sit at a desk with the adult sitting at his side slightly pushed back. The story is placed on the empty desk in front of the child (this is to focus the child’s attention only on the task to be performed) and the adult reads it from his or her position. In this way, the intervention has a low social component and the child’s levels of unpredictability and anxiety will also be low (Smith, 2006). The effectiveness of the story is not based only on how it is presented to the child but also on its content. Especially at the beginning, the closeness of the content to the child’s interests makes it more engaging. Social stories can be written for a variety of situations and for children of very different ages and with varying degrees of emotional, social and intellectual development. Children do not need to know how to read, but they must be able to pay attention to a short story, written for them and therefore customized according to their needs. Many researches have demonstrated the effectiveness of interventions based on the use of social stories (Adams 2004, Barry 2004, Sansosti 2004) in reference to: problematic behaviors (Crozier, 2007); desirable behaviors (Swaggart, 1995) choice and play behaviors (Barry, 2004) and behaviors of appropriate interaction (Scattone, 2006). Multimedia versions of social stories (Hagiwara & Smith Myles, 1999) and virtual settings (Ke & Im, 2013; Lorenzo et.al., 2016; Parsons & Mitchell, 2002) have been proposed in several studies with

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subjects of different ages and through technological devices of various types such as, for example, multiuser virtual worlds like Second Life (Kandalaft et.al., 2012). The study we present is based on the use of the virtual world edMondo for the creation of social stories.

DESIGNING VIRTUAL SOCIAL STORIES IN EDMONDO: A PILOT STUDY Being edMondo a proprietary virtual world administered by INDIRE the research group had to ask for a permission to use a dedicated space for the project, a land that could be accessed by the educators and the children involved in the experimentation and that could ensure privacy and a comfortable atmosphere thanks to an appropriate design of the space. The land was “equipped” with buildings and environmental facilities to recreate real interactional spaces and routines connected with them. Social stories were, in fact, designed using the affordances of the world already described in the previous paragraphs. Specifically two aspects were taken into account in the design process: the settings and the characters. The land currently presents three functional spaces around three main settings: a school building, a park and a house (Figure 1). The architecture of the land was planned to satisfy the requirements that, in the literature, are outlined as necessary key aspects to create effective activities for people with ASD and development of social skills (Mesa-Gresa et al., 2018; Parsons & Mitchell, 2002). Specifically the pilot study will help check the user experience taking into account the honeycomb diagram by Morville (2014) which shows seven parameters to consider a meaningful user experience, we will skip “findability” since it is not consistent with our case, but the remaining aspects can be of full value: usefulness (is the architecture able to satisfy a learning process to meet user’s need?); usability (is the virtual world and its facilities easy to use?); desiderability (is emotion having a role in the user’s quality experience of the learning process within the virtual environment?); accessibility (is the user with ASD able to navigate and interact in the space thanks to the interface features?); credibility (are the characters and the buildings designed in a way they can simulate reality?); value (the success of the experience can be a step forward in the design of learning experiences in the same environment, but with different users?). Those questions can be matched with the activities that were designed to take place in the environment through the interactions of avatars. When choosing avatars it is needed to reflect on the following opportunities: • • • •

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creating an avatar from scratch using a software for the modelling of 3D humanoid characters (e.g. MakeHuman); using an anthropomorphic avatar chosen among the available freebies with different shapes, skins, gender and age; using a non-human avatar (robot avatar) that, also in this case, can be either created with a 3D modeling software or copied from existing ones; using bots, non-player avatars, that is, graphical representations of a character that are not humancontrolled, but computer-controlled in order to make them perform automated actions.

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Figure 1. Map of the land built for the project

In the case of the project here described the research team decided to rely on already available avatars with the chance to make some changes to make them more familiar to the child involved in the experimentation. Two main avatars were used: a male child avatar and a robot avatar that was designed by Oni Kenkon (license CC-BY-SA) and slightly modified (color and size of some body parts) to make it more similar to NAO, the humanoid robot used for a first piloting step before using edMondo. Social stories and robotics were, in fact, the means used to activate a face to face experimentation started in 2019 on the development of social abilities. The intervention was designed by a multidisciplinary research team affiliated to two Italian universities, University of Macerata and University of Milan Bicocca, with the collaboration of the social cooperative BES (location where the piloting took place) and the clinic for adults with autism spectrum disorder of the public territorial sanitary service Saint Paul and Charles in Milan. The project was designed to be applied with 8 years old children with high functioning autism spectrum disorder (HFASD) with the objective to focus on social abilities by using two different robots: a first phase run in presence with the physical interaction with the robot NAO and a second phase run within edMondo with a virtual interaction with a robot avatar. In the first session run with NAO the child was first tested with TEC (Test of Emotion Comprehension, Pons, Harris, 2000) and then encouraged to follow a guided path that ended with him listening to a social story about the emotion of joy in a context of a birthday party scenario (Pennazio & Fedeli 2019a, 2019b; Fedeli, Pennazio & Datteri, 2020; Pennazio et al., 2020).

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The results of the first phase of the piloting on a methodological perspective (Pennazio et al., 2020), on TEC test and on definition of target behaviours and prompts (Fedeli, Pennazio & Datteri, 2020) helped the research team focus on the design of the second phase to be completed using edMondo as 3D social virtual environment. The design of the virtual session of the intervention was organized around two approaches: (1) a video modeling step (McCoy, Hermansen, 2007) where video recorded interactions in the virtual world propose a sequential set of short social scenes in the context of the birthday party scenario and replicate the first phase of the piloting in terms of target behaviours and inputs; (2) a real time in-world step where the child accesses edMondo and is able to participate in social interactions with the robot-avatar at first and, then, with other individuals (e.g. educators, peers). This step lets the child deeply explore different scenarios for the same social ability. In terms of environmental contexts we can see (figure 2 and 3) four different locations (indoor and outdoor) related to the same interactional scenario, the birthday party and the comprehension and development of social abilities connected to the emotion of joy. The virtual social story is, just like in the interaction with NAO in the first phase of the piloting, the final act of a sequence that, in the video recorded sessions, was organized as follows: •

•

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step 1-2 (Figure 2): the verbal interaction starts outdoor in a comfortable park context where the avatar robot and the child avatar meet for the first time and know each other; the emotion of joy firstly appears in the scenario of birthday party when the child invites the robot and expresses his desire to make friendship; the second scene is indoor in the house already equipped for a party and the interaction focuses on (1) a repetition of statements about routines connected with the birthday invitation (e.g. make a present and related joy of receiving it), (2) the request the robot avatar directs to the child about the expression of joy by asking to participate into a game; this step replicates the exercises done with NAO (e.g. can you draw an happy face?); step 3-4 (Figure 3): in the third video the robot avatar is the only character on the screen: the verbal interaction is meant, here, to occur between the robot avatar and the child who is watching the video with his educator: after a short introduction by the robot avatar the educator will wait till he asks a question and pauses the video to let the child reply. the questions stress the focus on birthday parties, social behaviours and routines and the management of this interaction is up to the educator who will need to check the child reaction; the final step is when the whole social story about a birthday party is told by the avatar robot who sits on a couch with the child avatar; when the story ends the educator can stop the video and ask the child some questions.

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Figure 2. Step 1 and 2

Figure 3. Step 3 and 4

The design of the intervention in the virtual world edMondo has a conclusive step that occurs after the video modelling sessions that are meant as a familiarization process. At the end of the intervention, in fact, the child is expected to access the virtual environment to activate a real time intervention. We need to underline that if in the recorded video the child watches the scene with the perspective chosen by the designer, in the real time sessions the child can explore different point of views (POV: back, front, over the shoulder and first-person/mouselook); the management of different POV has a number of implications on social relations since it helps the person with ASD develop the skill of perspective taking (Parsons, et al., 2006). The same interaction can take place watching either just the interlocutor and the surrounding space (first person POV) or watching yourself while interacting with your interlocutor from different position (back/front). The opportunity to shift from one perspective to the other gives a number of different cues/prompts that can make the communication more effective. Finally, in order to enrich the range of actions in the development of social abilities additional avatars have been built, a female adult avatar to be used by the educator and a set of child robot avatars to be used by the child’s peers in the perspective to include the intervention in didactical inclusive activities at school. The opportunity to let the child use the virtual environment not only in the therapeutic space he is used to, but also with classmates is a challenge that needs to be exploited to enhance the educational effect of the intervention. 453

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The piloting here described is intended to be run, in its first and second phase, with the support of the psychologist and therapist of the child with HFASD in the center he is used to receive the interventions. Even if the child regularly attends primary school the research staff, in accordance with the other profiles involved in the design of the whole project and the child’s family, decided to activate the piloting in the location dedicated to specialized interventions. The results of the piloting will be used also to understand if and with what modalities the social robot NAO and the virtual robot in the 3D virtual world can be introduced at school to involve the whole class in an integrated and inclusive approach for all students. If a shift from the therapeutic space to the daily and social school space would encourage an enhanced action towards the development of social abilities a number of barriers should be considered before adapting the design of the intervention in the direction of an educational/didactical activity to be managed by school teachers. A first obstacle could be the use of the robot NAO whose cost could be not affordable by the school and whose management requires an expertise in the programming area that teachers may not have or may not have the opportunities to get. A different scenario is the one related to the use of 3D virtual worlds that can be used for free and just needs a computer with a good graphics card to be run. But being able to activate an effective instructional action is far beyond the technological devices (computer and /or robotics equipment) and the technical expertise to use them. Teachers should be full aware of the potentialities and limitations of the social interactions that can occur in such virtual environments (3D virtual worlds) in order to plan educational approaches where peers can work in a collaborative way by supporting each other and where activities can satisfy all students in their learning needs in Universal Design for Learning (UDL) direction. The use of an open ended social virtual world can ensure equal opportunities for each student (e.g. in the communication channels) that can be reached by offering a flexible approach (e.g. designing diversified role play scenarios) that can reduce or break down learning barriers. Students’ well-being and engagement in such environments is strictly connected the teacher’s ability to design a comfortable and easily accessible space, this result implies the collaboration between the disciplinary teacher and the special needs teacher who share the same integrated intentional action with the class. A further research direction, thus, could investigate weaknesses and strengths of the use of virtual worlds as an inclusive learning environments where variables such as team work (among teachers), training needs of teachers and students themselves and sustainability of the approach can be analyzed in order to optimize the effectiveness of the design process.

CONCLUSION Socio-emotional skills and communication are among the core symptoms and areas of the deficiency identified in people with ASD. Those difficulties in establishing and maintaining social contacts in children with HFASD can be connected to cognitive aspects which includes ToM and, among others, a pragmatic competence (Frye, 2018). Interventions in the direction of development of such abilities often involve the social story approach (Gray, 2000) which helps contextualizing ordinary scenarios and behaviours through simple communication sequences that aim at presenting, practicing and generalizing daily life situations where the individuals are required to get the ability to understand mental states (thoughts, intentions and beliefs) that can affect reactions and influence the other’s behavior. 454

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How can technology be integrated in intervention for social abilities development? Literature in the field shows a variety of environments, tools and practices that can enhance the impact a social story can have on the identified deficiencies. Multichannel communication and flexibility in the design of the virtual environments allow for an augmented interaction opportunities and, for this reason, 3D virtual worlds build with an open ended perspective appear to be effective and appropriate to activate educational activities based on role-plays according to a social story scenario. The design of a social story in edMondo, a dedicated virtual environment for education, requires a strict collaboration among different profiles, special needs teachers/educators and experts in building 3D virtual scenarios that can meet the needs of students with ASD. The HFASD student himself/herself could contribute in the design process providing useful insights to understand the graphical/functional affordances of the virtual environment for the target audience. The aim of the project, described in its piloting phase in this contribution, is to test how the design of social scenarios can engage the student with ASD first, and then to collect data on its possible use in an inclusive approach for a whole class with students with different needs. Social virtual world like edMondo, in fact, allows a community building even if the privacy and security of the educational interventions can always be ensured thanks to a flexible access to dedicated areas that can be restricted when needed and opened to a wider audience if the case. The major challenge in designing social stories in edMondo and in virtual worlds with similar characteristics is to be able to find a balance between the richness of inputs the environment can offer and the need to modulate them according to the specific audience skills and needs. A wide piloting with a varied population could help predict social behaviours in the virtual environment and offer a chance to increase peer acceptance.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The chapter is the result of a common vision among the authors with the following responsibilities: Laura Fedeli is the author of paragraphs: 3D virtual worlds, Designing virtual social stories in edMondo: a pilot study, Future research directions; Conclusion; Valentina Pennazio is the author of the paragraphs: Introduction, Autism spectrum disorder and social abilities, Social stories: an overview. The design of the piloting in the virtual world is part of a research project that was structured by the authors of the chapter and developed thanks to the effort of a joint contribution by Edoardo Datteri (University of Milan Bicocca, Italy) and the availability of the social cooperative BES (Milan, Italy).

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Autism Spectrum Syndrome (ASD): A lifelong developmental condition whose symptoms are different in each person and imply difficulties in social interaction, speech and nonverbal communication, and may show repetitive behaviors. Social Story: A strategy designed by Carol Gray to deal with and treat social abilities with people with ASD. They are short descriptions/narratives of a specific situation/event which present, in a clear and simple way, information about what to expect in that situation and how to react. Test of Emotion Comprehension (TEC): The result of a systematic research effort on the development of metaemotion abilities in children and aims at offering a tool to assess the components of the comprehension of emotions. Theory of Mind (ToM): The ability of people to “mentalize”, that is, to recognize and interpret the behavior of others as the result of mental states similar to theirs, and therefore regulate their behavior based on these mental states.

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Chapter 20

Affordances in Virtual World Learning Communities Jean-Paul Lafayette DuQuette University of Macao, Macao

ABSTRACT Since the 2000s, much has been made of the potential technological affordances of virtual world education and training. However, despite their potential utilization for useful simulations, virtual worlds are first and foremost open, social platforms. In this chapter, the author will explore both the technical affordances and the oft-ignored social affordances of virtual world learning groups. Drawing from the literature and over a decade of experience with learning communities in Linden Lab’s Second Life, the author will use ethnographic data gleaned from participant observation in two very different learning groups to develop a basic taxonomy of technical and social affordances in avatar-based multi-user online environments. It is hoped that through the rubric provided, educators, researchers, and technology stewards will have a clearer understanding of both the possible benefits and the drawbacks of hosting learning communities in this environment.

INTRODUCTION Before delving further into what avatar-based virtual worlds are and why they should be of interest to researchers and educators, it is important to contextualize them within the current rush to take advantage of online learning environments. Online learning is fast becoming an option for more and more students throughout the world, and demand is only increasing (Seaman, Allen & Seaman, 2018; Ginder, KellyReid, & Mann, 2019). As of 2014, it was estimated that approximately 5.8 million students in the United States take at least one online course as part of their formal post-secondary education (Allen & Seaman, 2016, p. 4). Perhaps just as significantly, there has been an explosion of cost-free online resources for independent learners of every sort, from coaching sites such as the Khan Academy (2020) to online lecture repositories such as TED.com (TED: Ideas worth spreading, 2020). It does not end there, especially in relation to areas like language learning; for example, the Internet is able to engage autonomous language learners with a variety of opportunities to integrate language, content, and culture (Warschauer DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch020

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& Meskill, 2000). As Davidson and Goldberg (2010) stated, “the Internet offers unprecedented access to an enormous range of information and the possibility of an extraordinary range of learning modalities, not all of which have been tested” (p. 23). This makes study of online learning communities one of the most dynamic and fascinating fields within education research. One particular area that requires research is that of online virtual world communities. These communities have been purported to offer a potential nexus of learning, cultural immersion, new media, intercultural encounters, role-play and authentic communication (Svensson, 2003, p. 140). However, when novel communication technologies are implemented, one can never be certain that new modes of discourse and interaction do not vary substantially from modes that the majority of learners are accustomed to (Schwienhorst, 2008, p. 3), and this is to be expected owing to the wide range of participatory and collaborative interaction now possible, at a distance, both synchronous and asynchronous (Davidson & Goldberg, 2010, p. 88). In the case of virtual world learning communities, learning does not take place only during specified lesson times; social engagement itself—both in and outside formal instruction—becomes the site for the creation of knowledge and meaningful academic outcomes. Howe and Mercer (2007) observed that it is often outside of the class that students develop communicative skills (p. 18). Within a persistent environment, the community and community space do not disappear when a user turns off one’s computer; extended discussion, gaming, and other collaborative activities between scheduled classes can occur within this space. Though this is similar to life on a brick and mortar college campus, this kind of situation is less likely to naturally occur in other online forums and course management software. Since the global Covid-19 crisis of 2020, in which many classes have been forced online, the limitations of current course management and video conferencing software have become apparent. Educators and administrators are still scrambling to find more effective options to allow for in-class collaboration and smoother interaction between classroom participants. It is important not to neglect the potential affordances of online virtual world environments, and this chapter is dedicated to providing some sense of what educators and education researchers should expect to find in such platforms, especially Linden Lab’s Second Life. This chapter is presented in four sections. In Background: The Rise of MOOs and MUVEs, the author provides a short history of the evolution of virtual world platforms, with a focus on education research and the use of Linden Lab’s Second Life (SL) platform. SL has had its critics over the years, and this section will conclude with a brief discussion of some common issues, controversies and problems with the platform. The second section, Second Life Research Sites, will discuss the two primary communities studied by the author. The first, Cypris Chat, is an English language learning community, while the second, The Firefly Companion’s Guild is a training school for science-fiction role-players within SL. Culling information from over a decade’s worth of ethnographic research within these two communities, the author explores the rules, strategies and gamification elements that contributed to their extended popularity. The third section, Affordances, synthesizes what the author has learned from his work within the two aforementioned research sites in SL, and provides two sets of guidelines related to technological and social affordances of Second Life educational communities. These two lists hopefully provide the reader with a set of possible benefits of utilizing virtual world communities for education, and is intended for teachers, administrators and researchers considering exploring Second Life and future virtual world platforms as online learning options.

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Finally, the fourth section, Conclusions, will briefly wrap up this chapter’s discussion of virtual world educational affordances. It will contextualize the sudden interest in online educational activities that has occurred during the 2020 Covid-19 outbreak, and will focus on future research avenues. The author will conclude by encouraging the use of preexisting online communities and warning potential users not to neglect the tremendous social affordances of virtual spaces.

BACKGROUND: THE RISE OF MOOS AND MUVES With the rise of broadband networks in the early 2000s, platforms capable of rendering immersive 3D environments for multi-user online usage began appearing. A majority of these early massively multiplayer online platforms (MMOs) were role-playing games like EverQuest, World of Warcraft and EVE Online. A typical PC or console MMO distinguishes itself from other games by its persistent online world, questing and levelling systems; it also places importance on guilds and factions needed for large scale collaboration in battles, trading and access to end-game content. However, some platforms eschewed these game mechanics and focused instead on socializing and content creation. Linden Lab’s Second Life (SL) being the most well-known example. However, SL was far from the first online virtual world to have been utilized by educators. As technology and software developments have progressed, so too has research interest in virtual worlds. It can be argued that the first online virtual worlds were MUDs (multi-user domains/dungeons), epic fantasy themed, text-based role-playing environments hosted on university servers. MUD1 was developed in 1979 (Bartle, 2004), and others followed in the 1980s (Castronova, 2006). These games were locally-hosted client-server applications, accessible to multiple users simultaneously. They were often patterned on the fantasy worlds of J.R.R. Tolkien’s (1954) Lord of the Rings, and they borrowed liberally from table-top role-playing games, in particular, Dungeons & Dragons (Gygax & Arneson, 1973). These programs, often based around university servers, were essentially databases storing text that represented places, items, and computer-controlled opponents. Later on, in the early 1990s, more flexible environments called MOOs (Multi-user domain, Object-Oriented) were developed, distinguishing themselves from MUDs by their customizable nature and a shift in focus from game play to socializing and programming play (Schwienhorst, 2000). LambdaMOO, in 1990, was the first free, open-ended world to be built on a modular architecture that allowed players to add their own content and areas (Curtis, 1992). Although MOOs were designed primarily for entertainment purposes, teaching and educational research have been done within them (e.g.,Kotter, 2002; O’Rourke, 2002; Peterson, 2001). Since these environments were primarily text-based, much research on this time was related to writing, communication, and language instruction. The focus has been on the potential benefits of using computer-mediated communication, including improved motivation (Kelm, 1992), more egalitarian participation patterns (Warschauer, Turbee, & Roberts, 1996), reduced anxiety (Hudson & Bruckman, 2002; Kern, 1995), and increased learner autonomy (Chun, 1994; Peterson, 2008). There have also been studies done specifically on the benefits of virtual environments for second language learning in MOOs. MOOs have been shown to foster development of intercultural competence, because interlocutors were often from different geographical areas (Von Der Emde, Schneider, & Kotter, 2001). Kotter (2003) found that interaction in MOOs is more direct and resulted in more collaboration between learners to negotiate meaning, and Warner (2004) lauded MOOs for their ability to foster language play and risk-taking. Schwienhorst (2008) made a case for MOO use in language and 19 cultural exchange programs, citing his study of tandem

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learning between German and Irish university students. He concluded that MOOs can offer more “data” to students in a flexible context, as well as provide elements that are unavailable in a typical language classroom (p. 167). In summary, because MOOs are international, play-oriented, collaborative, and textbased, they have been considered potentially useful for learning in certain milieus. Although MOOs have been seen as promising learning platforms, since the late 2000s, research interest in virtual worlds has shifted away toward more compelling, graphical 3D environments made possible by advances in graphics and networking capabilities. Improvements in memory capacity, graphics cards and streaming technology allowed software developers to create immersive environments known as virtual worlds or MUVEs, multi-user virtual environments. Bell and Smith-Robbins (2008) defined them as persistent, massively multiplayer spaces on wide area networks in which users represent themselves through semi-autonomous agents now known as avatars. While MOOs and MUDs make use of representation in the broadest sense, in the way users describe their appearance and actions in text, for example, the avatars in this new generation of virtual worlds are more viscerally compelling in their realism and include visuals and audio. In this way, avatar use and MUVE platforms in general have built on the capabilities of text-based environments by adding features, not replacing them (Dede, 2004; Zheng, Young, Brewer, & Wagner, 2009). However, avatars became, in a sense, more limited than the purely imaginary worlds of text, as they are scripted by automated animations and limited appearance options and are thus at least semi-autonomous. Before continuing, a note should be made regarding telepresence (Hillis, 2009), a characteristic that distinguishes text-based virtual worlds, such as MOOS and literature-based, education-focused environments, from MUVEs. Hillis defines telepresence, also referred to as copresence (Schroeder, 2012), as “the experience of presence and the simulation of immediacy by means of a digital, networked communication technology” (p. 81). Text-based multi-user digital environments, including interactive fiction (e.g., Aver, 2012; Rumohr-Voskuil & Dykema, 2012; Taliaferro, 2012) have proven engaging to participants, but lack the sense of telepresence, the illusion of being physically present in a situation with others, that MUVEs manifest. However, this seemingly obvious characteristic is not something that all users recognize as a benefit of MUVE education. Active Worlds was one of the first MUVEs to be explored by education researchers, including many interested in Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL). Developed in the 1990s, Active Worlds allowed individuals and institutions to design their own “worlds,” servers built for a certain theme or purpose. There were also worlds open to all owned directly by ActiveWorlds, Inc. (ActiveWiki, 2015). Although character design was cartoonish, voice chat unavailable, and content creation highly moderated, Active Worlds became the virtual home for thousands of users, and education researchers took advantage of these worlds, primarily focusing their research on environmental affordances. For example, Svensson (2003) explored the interaction of native speaker and non-native speaker communication in his case study, suggesting that the environment fostered a feeling of telepresence and relaxation different from other computer-mediated communication environments. Peterson (2001, 2006, 2008) focused on learner interaction in the Active Worlds MUVE among his Japanese university student participants. Peterson’s (2008) findings supported Svennson’s (2003) contentions and suggested that if learners make the effort to become familiar with the interface, the use of avatars supports a sense of immersion and fosters a high degree of participation and engagement in learning. Also notable is work in Quest Atlantis, an Active Worlds-based environment geared towards quest-based learning for 9-16 year-olds. This multidisciplinary environment was designed to stimulate “transformational play” (Barab, Gresalfi, & Ingram-Goble, 2010) and encourage extracurricular use of classroom learning. Zheng et al. (2009) used the system in their 464

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language learning research among middle-school students in China. The authors concluded that the environment improved self-efficacy among participants and fostered intercultural collaboration skills. Before moving on, it is important to realize that the aforementioned research using MUVEs and Active Worlds have utilized text chat as the primary mode of communication. Accordingly, affordances of the environment that Peterson (2001, 2006, 2008) and Zheng et al. (2009) proposed are based on extended opportunities to review utterances and actions by scrolling up through chat logs, the increased time available by interlocutors to process utterances, the elimination of accent or even pronunciation as an obstacle to communication, and the complete anonymity afforded the user. In contrast, the two studies the author uses here focus on both text and voice chat, with the default often being voice-based interactions.

Linden Lab’s Second Life The most popular MUVE – and the one most associated with education – is Linden Lab’s Second Life (SL). The author’s studies in this chapter primarily took place in SL, currently the most well-known and most popular MUVE. SL was created by Linden Lab in 2003 (Guest, 2007). Although the number of active SL residents has always been impossible to calculate with certainty (owning to many users having more than one Second Life account), approximately 900,000 accounts were accessed every month in 2015 (Weinberger, 2015), with over 31,000 sims being simulated by thousands of servers (Tateru Nino, 2011). In contrast to similar platforms (e.g., ActiveWorlds, Twinity), Second Life was developed primarily as a virtual space for user content creation; nearly every environment, object, and programming script found there has been developed by users using the free creation tools available in the SL browser or through other modeling tools. This freedom provides residents with an unprecedented amount of creative possibilities. Second Life residents take part in a wide variety of activities. Some spend time in sims dedicated to games or role-play; however, most residents also spend time chatting about their offline lives, creating virtual goods, studying, and shopping; as of September 2020, Linden Lab’s virtual currency floats at about $250 L to $1 USD. This has led to two separate, but not entirely exclusive groups of residents: immersionists and augmentationists (Llewelyn, 2008). Immersionists use their avatar as a truly “second life.” They typically do not discuss life outside of SL, at least not in public chat, and do not use SL’s voice chat feature because it limits anonymity. As Hillis (2009) stated, as an immersionist the point is to “live virtually and ‘persistently’ in the environment that one constructs and then renovates as one’s own and as one desires, and to do so while coexisting, like a character in a novel, with other residents within that setting” (p. 162). Augmentationists, on the other hand, see Second Life as simply another platform for play, socializing, and education. Complete anonymity for them is unnecessary, and indeed an annoyance, as it would prevent them from discussing their real lives, and voice chat is not anathema, though text chat might still be the primary mode of communication. However, it is important to note that these are essentially labels of convenience; immersionists can take part in out-of-character (OOC) chat in private messages or bracketed in parentheses, while augmentationists can dabble in role-play (RP) in some areas while remaining themselves in others. That said, this distinction proves useful later in discussion of possible common characteristics of successful virtual world learners. There have been broad discussions of Second Life as a social phenomenon in attempts to come to grips with how users interact on the platform. In Coming of Age in Second Life, Boellstorff (2008) examined different aspects of social life on the platform from an ethnographic perspective that informs the author’s own. In this seminal work, he explored concepts related to virtual place and time, includ-

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ing discussion of virtual land and lag. He looked at personhood, how one’s embodiment in their avatar could be perceived, and intimacy, including sexuality and addiction. Finally, he described instances of community, including popular pastimes and griefing, as well as political economy. Boellstorff (2008) concluded that interaction in Second Life is representative of “the age of techne” (p. 21), an era in which humans “craft themselves” (p. 57), highlighting the importance of what Balsamo (2011) later terms technological imagination. Boellstorff’s work offers a comprehensive look at different aspects of Second Life, yet his observations do not, and do not claim to, account for the variety of experience possible on the platform. Also, for an ethnographic study, it is unusually reticent in discussing details of the author’s relationship with his participants or specific events in which data was collected; without this context, it is easy to incorrectly assume that the data presented is broadly representative of behavior on the platform. For example, as Boellstorff was not particularly interested in education, but was intrigued by how avatars potentially reflected user identity, he seemed to emphasize immersionist rather than augmentationist perspectives. Other studies have also explored aspects of social life in Second Life. Adrian (2009) looked at how social order was created out of a seemingly anarchic platform, and concluded that participants were collaborating on the creation of a platform-wide civil society. Lastowka (2009) looked at the legal ramifications of who owns what in a platform designed specifically with user created content in mind. Sant (2009) described his positive experiences with live music and the performing arts in Second Life. Finally, since 2013, Bernhard Drax has highlighted notable Second Life residents in his Drax Files series on YouTube. Through over 43 episodes (as of January 2017), Drax has highlighted uniformly positive personal stories related to Second Life, including episodes related to historical simulations (2013a), Parkinson’s disease (2013b), use in a Texas A&M chemistry class (2014a), use with amputees (2014b), and a variety of other topics. Although these short videos do not represent a critical examination of the Second Life environment, they nevertheless provide a counterpoint to some of the critiques explored later.

Educational Institutions in Second Life Several tertiary educational institutions at one time or another offered classes in Second Life. There were for-profit language schools such as Languagelab.com (Erard, 2007) as well as libraries and universities, famously including Harvard Law School and Stanford (Lim, 2009). There is little research available on semester-long or ongoing classes, but there have been smaller, quasi-experimental studies done in university classes. For example, Andreas, Tsiatsos, Terzidou, and Pomportsis (2010) looked at how 29 collaborative learning techniques could be utilized in virtual environments, and they concluded that activities in Second Life could supplement face-to-face learning. Other positive pedagogical experiences can be found throughout the literature, with a specific focus on training and simulations. Broadribb, Peachey, Carter, and Westrap (2009), utilized role-plays to train staff and students at the UK’s Open University. Wiecha, Heyden, Sternthal, and Merialdi (2010) looked at Second Life use in a postgraduate training program, and suggested that use of the platform increased confidence among participants. Bani and his colleagues involved with the University of Pisa’s Arketipo project focused on learning through collaborative reconstruction of historical buildings (Bani et al., 2009), and they detailed how instructors linked history, multimedia production, and 3-D modeling in the Second Life environment. Similarly Ball, Capanni and Watt (2008) examined how Second Life could be used in collaborative landscaping. Anderson (2009) investigated instructor immediacy in Second Life, and concluded that through their avatars, instructors could and do portray nonverbal immediacy behaviors, behaviors that decrease the negative

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psychological distance between teachers and students, which she tied directly to research by Andersen (1979) on positive outcomes related to effective learning and motivation. Finally, Belei, Noteborn, and de Ruyter (2009) saw the Second Life economy as a powerful learning tool in marketing, while Gu, Gul, Williams, and Nakapan (2009) found the collaborative nature of Second Life beneficial to students in a design course. Although these papers are uniformly positive in their praise of Second Life as a learning environment, they all focus primarily on the platform as a boon to job training simulation. The Schome Park Programme (Twining & Footring, 2010) was perhaps the most ambitious Second Life educational experiment to date, a pilot for an educational system that would ideally “support people learning throughout (participants’) lives, from the cradle to the grave” (p. 53). This project, hosted by the UK’s Open University, took place on the now defunct Second Life Teen Grid. It offered a studentcentered, project-oriented curriculum, an alternative to traditional classroom instruction. The Schome Park Programme set out to find “what (future) educational systems might be like” (The Schome Park Programme, n.d.). Although short-lived, the project led to a greater understanding of ways in which virtual world education could replace classroom learning, and how ethnography is useful in virtual worlds research because such environments are essentially “deeply cultural, human world(s), that can be approached through an interpretive, ethnographic stance” (Gillen, 2010, p. 88). The ethnographic approach was integral in Gillen’s formulation of a skills set for virtual worlds literacy, a set she could not have formulated without participant observation.

Best Practices in Second Life Education There has been limited discussion on best practices in teaching and curriculum design in Second Life . Notably, Lim (2009) outlined what he calls his Six Learnings framework as a way for educators and administrators perhaps unfamiliar with virtual worlds to begin conceptualization of curriculum design in Second Life: 1. Learning by exploring—related to exploration of structured or unstructured installations, communities and landscapes 2. Learning by collaborating—related to joint problem-solving activities and other forms of structured inquiry 3. Learning by being—related to explorations of self and identity 4. Learning by building—related to activities that require the construction of virtual items and programming scripting 5. Learning by championing—related to activism and social causes from real life 6. Learning by expressing—related to the productive expression of “inworld” activities to those in “real life” including blogs, podcasts and machinima (video production in virtual worlds) that create a greater public understanding of virtual worlds learning (pp. 7-9). Lim said that this framework was “broad and largely generic in its envisaged application…arguably the nature of many proposed contributions to a nascent corpus of theory (in this case the theory of informing pedagogies for virtual worlds)” (p. 10), and he admitted that research on education in virtual worlds was still in its infancy. Still, he pushed for a progressive curriculum that made use of the Second Life environment as a tool for self-exploration and an opportunity to connect offline activism to Second Life communities. Lim’s contentions are supported by the conclusions of other researchers. Saunders,

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Rutkowski, van Genuchten, Vogel, and Orrego (2011), utilizing theories of spatial learning (Biocca & Levy, 1995; Couclelis & Gale, 1986), asserted that activities that include exploration in virtual worlds can accelerate effective learning of spatial 41 concepts. Tang, Zhao, Cao, and Inkpen (2011) agreed that collaboration in online educational projects, specifically synchronous collaboration, is essential despite the difficulties present. Hillis (2009) and Akkerman and Bakker (2011) both agreed that virtual worlds are important for identity exploration and role exchange between teachers and learners, and echo Block’s (2003) and Huang’s (2011) contention that identity creation can be important in learning a new language. Barson and Debski (1996) posited that design projects are one way to effectively contribute to a learning community. Freire (1996) contended that championing of social causes within the classroom is a moral imperative, and Hung and Chen (2008) similarly asserted that promotion of successful virtual learning environments should be a part of what learners do within these worlds. Although Lim’s ideas are exploratory, they are supported by researchers and theorists. There have also been other broadly theoretical discussions of best practices and the unique affordances of virtual environments, and like Lim’s taxonomy, their conclusions inform this chapter. Coffman and Klinger (2007) discussed the potential for studying art and design. Sheehy (2010) predicted that innovative spaces for learning that centered on social engagement might develop naturally adjacent to designated educational spaces and indeed, this phenomenon is explored more fully in this research. Warburton (2009) outlined both the opportunities and challenges of using Second Life in the university classroom, concluding that the move to such complex virtual environments is anything but certain because of these challenges. The complexity of teaching in Second Life was also mentioned by Carr, Oliver, and Burn (2010) who discussed the “pain barrier” (p. 18) in use of virtual worlds for education, the learning curve that must be overcome before bafflement and annoyance turn to enjoyment of the environment. Finally, Thackray, Good, and Howland (2010) observed how the roles of learner and instructor are broken down in virtual worlds when learners might actually be more proficient at use of the learning interface, the Second Life browser, than the instructors themselves. These studies have provided insights for prospective virtual world instructors and researchers; they also introduced issues such as the inclusive education of marginalized individuals, the fostering of student confidence and engagement, and the breakdown of static barriers between staff and learners. All of these perspectives proved useful in analysis, yet they were more about potential than reality.

Criticisms of Second Life Before moving on to the next section, it is important to address criticisms that the Second Life platform has weathered since its release in 2003. These complaints have come from Second Life residents, as well as businesses and educators. Four broad areas are briefly addressed here: critique of the technology, critique of Linden Lab’s business model, critique of the community, and critique of SL’s use for education. Although these criticisms do not appear to have had a direct impact on the opinions expressed by most participants of this study, they inform the context, and for some, perhaps, the stigma, of learning on the Second Life platform. The first criticism is that Second Life does not work on every computer. SL was never designed for inexpensive computers with low technical specifications. Although high speed Internet connections and relatively powerful graphics cards are now ubiquitous, this was not the case in the 2000s. Residents without the recommended hardware or Internet connection had to reduce their graphics preferences or experience lag, crashes, or other technical problems. Despite initial enthusiasm, hardware requirements

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sometimes made use of Second Life cost prohibitive for many individuals and institutions (Glogowski, n.d.). Consequently, this led to a stratification of experience among residents; enthusiastic Internet early adopters, PC gamers and professional designers often enjoyed a vastly smoother and more immersive experience than the general public. In more recent years, as computers have become more sophisticated, this issue has become less of a problem, but machines that have no trouble rendering high quality content in online games can still stutter in SL. The sprawling, interconnected nature of the Second Life network still makes it vulnerable to short term problems with voice chat, instant messaging, and a variety of other issues related to the display of one’s avatar and immediate virtual surroundings. Criticism of Linden Lab’s business model comes on two fronts. As stated above, the SL user economy is focused on the creation and sale of virtual goods. However, Linden Lab’s primary income is derived not from managing or taxing user-created content, but through the rental of server space: virtual land. Compared to the microtransactions used to purchase virtual goods, land can be expensive; as of September 2020, rental of a full region (server) can cost as much as $349 USD as a start-up fee with an additional monthly cost of $229 USD (Land detail, n.d.). Second Life was designed as an open sandbox, a term used in gaming to refer to digital environments with nonspecific goals (Breslin, 2009), a playground for technoliberalism, a “distinctive combination of distrust of vertical authority, faith in technology, and faith in the emergent effects” of the platform (Malaby, 2009, p. 16). Yet because land use is often prerequisite, SL can become “an expensive hobby for those who want to run a virtual business,” admitted Linden Lab CEO Ebbe Altberg (Au, 2015b). This stratification of possibility along economic lines seemed incongruent with Linden Lab’s otherwise egalitarian business model. On another front, companies such as Reuters, Nike, Sony-BMG and Toyota that initially saw promotional opportunities for both virtual and 27 real world products (Layton, 2006), gradually pulled out of Second Life when they realized that advertising in Second Life was not reaching their target demographics. Perhaps the criticism most frequently leveled at Second Life in the popular media is not related to the platform itself, but at the culture of SL residents. Linden Lab has very few restrictions regarding what users choose to do within Second Life. This freedom has allowed groups and sims dedicated to pornography, adult-oriented role-play, and virtual prostitution to flourish. Beyond the sexual content, griefers in Second Life roam well-populated servers. They sometimes disrupt other Second Life residents’ interactions by playing loud music into their microphones, using offensive chat and inworld items, or utilizing tools that allow them to create lag or actually crash Second Life servers. Despite banning some universally offensive behavior, such as sexual roleplay involving child avatars (Glogowski, n.d.), Second Life has a reputation as a platform in which deviant behavior is tolerated. This is the reason why Twitch, a popular platform for live online video game broadcasts, refuses to livestream Second Life (Au, 2015a). Finally, Second Life has faced specific criticisms from educators and university administrators. SL has a learning curve. Students (and instructors) must have basic computer literacy and typing skills, as well as time to practice with the SL browser before they are able to participate in most activities. Students who come into SL with experience playing certain MMOs might have little problem understanding how to move and interact within the environment (Malaby, 2009, p. 82), but teachers must usually assume the worst and spend several sessions practicing with the Second Life browser before most educational activities can take place. Additionally, as has been previously mentioned, Second Life requires relatively high-end hardware, a pass through university firewalls, and the participation of a student body that might question the face validity of learning through what might be considered a video game. It is no wonder that many universities that once flocked to Second Life have gradually withdrawn their support for the platform and maintain their online campuses purely for promotional reasons (Hogan, 2015). 469

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Very little of the above criticism has a direct bearing on the following educational research that has been done within Second Life nor on the Cypris Chat or Companion’s Guild communities used as exemplars. However, it is important to realize that the legitimacy of the platform has faced harsh criticism, and Second Life residents themselves can find their participation stigmatized as an addiction to fantasy (Clarke, 2012). Despite negative public perception of the platform and the initial enthusiasm and later abandonment of Second Life by some ‘early adopters’, many researchers have seen the potential for education within the Second Life environment.

SECOND LIFE RESEARCH SITES Since its inception in 2003, Second Life has been home to many educational groups. Some have been for-profit or university affiliates, but most have been volunteer organizations. These communities have provided classes and activities related to a wide variety of topics including SL browser training, scripting and building, physical science, psychology, religion, human sexuality, and relationship counseling. In this chapter, the author looks at two groups. The first is Cypris Chat, an English as a Foreign Language community the author studied for his doctoral dissertation in education at Temple University (DuQuette, 2017). The second is the Firefly Companion’s Guild, a role-playing etiquette school based on Joss Whedon’s Firefly television series (Whedon, 2002) but also influenced by Japanese geisha culture and Tibetan Buddhism. In both cases the author did participant observation as a member and instructor, more than 11 years in Cypris and 4 years in the Companion’s Guild. Both groups are still relatively active, and the author continues to volunteer within them.

Cypris Chat Cypris Chat Cypris, was founded in late 2008 by Mike McKay, and has offered volunteer-taught English classes since 2009 (DuQuette, 2011). It developed as an essentially emergent phenomenon. McKay and the author had met offline and were interested in developing a project in which our offline English classes could interact outside of class. As we taught at different universities within Japan, Second Life seemed an ideal platform for our students to use to reduce shyness and encourage collaborations with a safe group of strangers online. Unfortunately, because of logistical reasons and university firewalls, a collaboration never happened between our students. However, we were able to work with our students separately in an area known as English Village created by Paul Preibisch. It was there that McKay met ‘Mystie’, ‘Himiko’ and ‘Show’, three Japanese residents who were looking to take English classes in SL. Mystie offered to let McKay temporarily use virtual land she had been gifted and in December 2008, McKay started the Cypris Chat group. The author was brought on as a volunteer instructor and in-house researcher. A brief description of the Cypris environment and mission statement is warranted here. After a few experiments in design, and with input from Mystie, McKay settled on both a design philosophy and a mission statement in 2009. The area was designed to function as a park or community space, not a school. The space contained a welcome area with a calendar and staff pictures, a chat ring around a campfire as the main teaching space (Figure 1), a Tahitian-themed bar for dancing and musical events, and a sandbox for construction of virtual items. All of these reflected popular activities within Second Life: chatting, dancing and collaborative building.

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Figure 1. Cypris Chat Ring, April 15, 2019 (photo courtesy of FionaFei)

In the 2008 mission statement, McKay outlines the four principles of Cypris, which are posted in the welcome area: 1. Share - After joining our family, members should find ways to share what they have learned or done in Second Life. Tell us where you have been, what you have seen. Show us your safe toys, clothes, avatars and gadgets. Sharing promotes communication. 2. Respect - Second Life is very different from real life, but it is real for many of us. We all come from different cultures, different backgrounds and with different reasons for spending time in SL. We might not understand each other but we both have the same goal, to learn or teach. 3. Respond - Share your opinions about Cypris. Let us know what you think. Help us make this community a better place for you. Your feedback is what makes Cypris so great. Your opinion matters the most. Help each other with learner/teacher feedback. Communicate mistakes and successes. 4. Be Active - Speak. Talk. Ask questions. Say something. We are not passive learners, we are active! In order to improve, we must practice. To practice we must participate. To participate we must SPEAK! Less text chat and more voice chat. We are here to help our members improve their ability to communicate in English. Members were encouraged to share their ideas and their transferable virtual items; the sharing of items and scripts was a common occurrence in SL, especially among long term residents. Respect reflects Cypris’ philosophy of openness towards members from all cultures and orientations. Respond was included to encourage involvement in the development of the group. Finally, Be Active encouraged

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constant practice and use of voice chat (a relatively new feature that still is not popular in many segments of the SL population). With this framework in place, Cypris opened its virtual doors to the SL public. In essence, Cypris is an international not-for-profit English as a foreign language practice group. The focus is on spoken English (again, somewhat unusual for a Second Life community, where text chat is the norm); there are classes or activities offered on my most days, but members will congregate to socialize or play virtual card or board games as well. At its most popular, Cypris membership floated at around 500 members, but as of 2020, there are closer to 50-75 active members. 10 staff members run weekly (or twice weekly) activities in different time zones, and it is still arguably the most popular place for free English learning currently still active on the Second Life platform

Cypris as an Online Community Unlike a typical SNS, Cypris is still segregated along RL (real life) and SL (Second Life) lines; although some members post ads or snapshots of their Cypris experiences in Facebook, there is little crossover between one’s online and offline acquaintances. Also, although many members do know about each other’s offline personae through Facebook or Skype, anonymity is the default setting (just as it still is in most of SL). Several staff members who I have volunteered alongside for years have never revealed their identities beyond their country of origin. However, though ties are weak in a sense, there is a willingness to share at Cypris reminiscent of Internet early adopters. Part of this is the Second Life culture itself, in which sharing transferable virtual objects (dance animations, accessories, gestures, etc.) is common behavior even among strangers. Again, at Cypris this attitude is actually codified within its mission statement: After joining our family, members should find ways to share what they have learned or done in Second Life. Tell us where you have been, what you have seen. Show us your safe toys, clothes, avatars and gadgets. Sharing promotes communication. (McKay, 2008) This policy has led Cypris members to better appreciate what is possible within the SL environment itself, which in turn encourages members to return again and again to SL and to Cypris. Reciprocity at Cypris corresponds to Constant, et al’s (1996) definition based on the bolstering of self-identity; people share objects, animations and links freely not only to advertise their generosity, but to create an environment where this kind of behavior is the norm. Two distinct communities of practice (Wenger, 1998) at Cypris provide motivation for different users. Technology stewards (Wenger, White & Smith, 2009) and volunteer instructors like McKay himself banded together to share and experiment with new ideas for pedagogy and language learning research. These tutors and activity leaders (myself included) frequently observe each others’ classes, attempting to gain new perspetives on teaching. Learners, on the other hand also formed tight-knit relationships based on their motivation for independent language learning. They commonly share online reading materials and links to other areas in SL friendly to language learners. Above and beyond romantic relationships (the author has personally witnessed three SL wedding ceremonies between members at Cypris), members exhibit just the multiplexity that Wellman & Gulia (1995) predicted. In other words, they leverage their SL friendships to connect on other platforms as well. Core Cypris members interact not only on the SL platform, but on the Cypris website and also on the accompanying Facebook group (again, this does not imply they are using their RL names or photos, however). More recently, some of the younger members also congregate on Skype. The interactions

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across multiple platforms allow members to contact each other whether they are in front of their PC or not, and leverage social networking sites to reinforce the community while at the same time always centering primary interaction within SL. The virtual community of Cypris also has a direct effect on members’ offline existence. Members have reported being more confident in speaking English offline. The have also claimed that the practice they receive online has given them the self-confidence to speak with foreigners in English in their RL. They have additionally mentioned job opportunities that opened up to them that had been previously inaccessible thanks to their increased language ability. In many cases, rather than insulating them from offline existence, their experiences have opened them to relationships with people from around the world. As Wankel and Malleck (2010) state, “the digitally connected world affords opportunities for individuals to cultivate cosmopolitan perspectives through individual experiences of online friendship” (p. 11). Cypris members include those in comparatively isolated communities, individuals from various religious backgrounds that might prohibit offline discussion with those outside their communities (or those of the opposite sex) and individuals with various mental and physical disabilities; within the group, they are not treated differently than any other members. This leads to the question of whether or not Cypris has diversified participants’ circles of friends and colleagues. Most would agree that it certainly has, and for a somewhat counterintuitive reason: Cypris members are discouraged from discussing religion, politics and topics related to sex. Although many might assume that self-censorship is not usually conductive to a healthy community, this ban has allowed members to forge close relationships with individuals from different religious and social backgrounds. This has on occasion led to conflict, in which people with vocal religious beliefs, for example, chaffed at the rules; on the whole, however, this ban (and a rule explicitly encouraging respect for all members) has fostered an egalitarian group unhampered by concerns about race, religion, nationality or social class. Unlike the primarily North American male user base of the early 1990’s, Cypris memberhip is much more eclectic, with most members coming from Asia, Europe and the Middle East. Finally, it should be noted that Cypris members would argue that their virtual community is “real”. There are several reasons. First, it is clear than participation in SL is what Wankel and Malleck (2010) call a “nonpretense activity”, a category of interaction they strive to distinguish from role-play: ...the problem in the Second Life virtual world is the underdefined boundary between pretence and nonpretence activities in Second Life citing examples where avatars may be engaged in both activities in the same space...the aspect of Second Life that the author(s) flag as potentially risky...is the problem of continuity; when the serious and the escapist applications of Second Life are taken as homogenous. The author(s) argue...that this might lead to an inappropriate undervaluing of the serious activities in Second Life (such as online classes from accredited universities). (Wankel & Malleck, 2010, p. 13) Cypris members are simply not role-playing within the community; they may keep their real lives anonymous, but they are not pretending to be someone else per se. This distinction between immersionist (role-playing) and augmentationist philosophies within Second Life is crucial to an appreciation of educational groups on the platform (Llewelyn, 2008). While immersionists are truly playing out a “Second Life” divorced from their real one, augmentationists are using their interaction to directly improve their real life existence. Additionally, it is real because the language Cypris members learn there often has immediate applicability to offline contexts. Cypris members have also sent each other presents by mail, communicate 473

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by Skype and (on occasion) visit each other in RL. Core members attend activities several times a week, and spend time socializing together before and after class, either at Cypris itself or in other areas of SL. In this way, the affordances of the environment (avatar use, voice chat and a familiar graphical space) actually improve on the strong points of the specialist-oriented newsgroups of Wellman and Gulia’s day, fulfilling their predictions for online community better than any groups could in the early ‘90s. Why is Cypris Chat worth examining as an exemplar of virtual world education? First, factors contributing to Cypris’ longevity have to be examined. Despite the potential for new types of language learning communities in virtual worlds, there are few examples available of such groups that have maintained such robust participation over an eight year period. Universities, including Harvard and Stanford (Shepherd, 2007), along with private language schools like LanguageLab (Au, 2011) were quick to see the potential for learning within Second Life, but many educational institutions have gradually pulled out of the platform for various reasons. Cypris Chat, on the other hand, although experiencing membership expansion and contraction that mirrored the overall increase and decrease in popular interest in Second Life, has been able to maintain an enthusiastic group of learners and volunteer tutors since 2008. An analysis of Cypris as a community facilitates a greater understanding of characteristics that might influence the survival, or encourage the creation, of similar online language learning groups. The second issue is that it is unclear just how language learning takes place in a community like Cypris, in which there is no clear distinction between language learning, practice, and socializing. The Second Life platform lends itself to different interaction styles and possibilities compared with typical offline classroom environments, and Cypris staff themselves have been quick to point out that the group is not a school. Conclusions about how teaching and learning occur in such online groups can only have be drawn after direct observation. There has previously been no detailed examination of a virtual world English language learning community that could provide a potential model for the different types of learning and teaching that could be implemented in Second Life. In order to provide a road map for educators potentially interested in taking advantage of the benefits of SL instruction, a more detailed understanding of its workings was required.

The Firefly Companions Guild The other model of online education to be referenced here is not exclusively an educational group at all; it is a role-playing community. The Bó’ài Hónglián House of the Firefly Companion’s Guild in Second Life (Varahi Lusch, n.d.) is a fan community based on recreating the world of Joss Whedon’s Firefly, a short-lived science-fiction series that lasted only one season. The Companion’s Guild (C.G.) in Second Life is not based on general role-play in the Firefly universe, but on one particular group in the series, a sophisticated group of space courtesans represented by Inara Serra (played by Morena Baccaran). The group has two main roles. First, it provides companion role-players for other Firefly role-play events within SL, as well as within similar compatible role-play groups and events within Star Trek, Star Wars and Dune communities. Second, and more importantly, it provides a two -year training regimen for prospective companions, one that includes classes on both role-playing and the invented traditions of the community, but also classes deemed appropriate for a sophisticated and exotic space courtesan in the Firefly universe. This includes brief introductions to Chinese and Japanese language, poetry, Buddhism and other classes dependent on member interests and talents. The C.G. is a study in contrasts from Cypris. Although the community is not entirely immersionist, especially outside of social events where everyone is in character (IC), discussion of offline identiy is

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comparatively rare. Text chat is the preferred method of communication; Voice is reserved for certain classes and is usually only used by instructors or event leaders. Although many CG members keep in touch via Facebook groups and Chat, most use FB accounts created for their avatars, and anonymity is the norm. Member motivation for learning is different as well. While Cypris members learn a language that can be used on or offline, CG members primarily learn in order to role-play within SL. Participation within the CG is encouraged by a grading system. The different grades assigned to CG members reflect the roles they perform within the community. Grading Days happen at the end of every term and promotions are given according to attendance and participation. The minimum requirement for progressing from one acolyte grade to the next is attendance of five classes between Grading Days (Fig. 2). There are seven levels, though only the first five are available to male members. Figure 2. Firefly Companion’s Guild Grading Day, September 3, 2017.

Below is a list of roles in the Companion’s Guild as outlined by the High Priestess Varahi Lusch, along with their description as explained in an official CG notecard: 1. Companion Acolyte - These are ungraded acolytes just starting out as they learn about our community and decide how much they would like to settle in. They are new minds to the mix of our diverse community and relate their ideas and feedback to their older siblings as they progress towards their first Grading Day. 2. Flamingo/Hummingbird Acolyte - These are the new teachers of the Guild, they teach traditional open classes and also bring their own style to our community by bringing new ideas approved by the High Priestess.

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3. Phoenix Acolyte - These acolytes study privately the 4 Enjoyments learning to understand and communicate them well in preparation for their potential registration as Companions. They also are often assigned to assist Companions with outreach projects and houses. 4. Registered Companion - Companions are the representatives of the Companion’s Guild by way of communicating its heart out into the ‘Verse. They provide encounters defined by the booking of some or all of the 4 Enjoyments and are sometimes allocated an outreach house on other sims/ planets. 5. Priestess - The Priestesses help maintain the community that trains and supports each other. They assist in setting up and nurturing Older Sister/Brother - younger sister/brother relations and settles new acolytes in. 6. High Priestess - The High Priestess steers the Guild’s projects, maintains the Companion bookings and blacklist, and teaches the private classes of the Guild. She is rarely available for casual chatting and appointments must be made to see her as she is always busy on some planet or other While Cypris Chat’s four precepts are focused on encouraging participation in the community, the Companion’s Guild mission statement primarily focuses on tolerance, role-play etiquette and selfactualization. Here is the list of affirmations as outlined by the group leader, Emily Rogers: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

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Everybody’s different. Be welcoming and patient to visitors and people who are learning about us. No Guns and only pre-arranged metered combat. The Companion’s Guild is run by women and works on feminist principles. We believe all to be beautiful and strong in themselves. The Companion’s Guild is not meant as anyone’s ‘everything’ in Second Life, everyone is free to have alts or other social lives alongside. That said, when attending our events or wearing our group tag please try to represent our Guild fairly. Acolytes do not roleplay as Companions in this group at any time during their training as this would be confusing. Respect and network with your elders. Please speak with your elders about any large changes in roleplay or your emotional life that affect your participation in the Guild, esp any concerns or worries that come up. Acolytes should feel free to roleplay permanent residence at their allocated Companion House if they wish, further roleplay on other sims is not required. Report any of your problems that do come up straight to your older brothers and sisters. Those in teaching grades or higher will decide if the Priestesses should become involved. Feel free to quiz your elder sisters and brothers, they can give you advice and clarification and you can draw on their experience Be committed to developing awareness, mindfulness and relaxation. Do not ‘tell tales’ on your brothers and sisters. What is important here is your own progress not the progress of others. This is also a polyamorous community where people are allowed to handle the style of their relationships with a certain amount of privacy, without comment. A true Companion teaches with every step, all eyes upon her or him, as we train and follow the path of acolyte and companion we should remember this and try to practice it.

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15. All acolytes and Companions are requested to put the Companion’s Guild in the picks section of their profile by copying the text from the High Priestess’ profile. 16. Make a point of reading the books in the library of your allocated Companion House when you have free time. Figure 3. Buddhwheel in Second Life (photo courtesy of FionaFei)

BuddhaWheel: Role-Playing Within Role-Playing Here a rather lengthy aside is required to describe CG group leader Varahis’s use of her BuddhaWheel game (Rogers, 2006) within the CG. Independent game studio Sarasvati Arts published the BuddhaWheel board game as a way to foster an understanding of Buddhist – specifically Tibetan Buddhist – thought. Subtitled “A game of many lives, for any number of players of any age”, the BuddhaWheel board game was designed by the U.K.’s Emily Rogers and illustrated by an unnamed Tibetan artist in India. In the official rules, it is described as Based on the Wheel of Life – drawn by Buddha to enlighten a king who had no time to study scripture. The Wheel contains the unend-ing cycle of birth-and-death. Permanent happiness can only be attained by leaving the Wheel entirely, attaining liberation…(Rogers, 2004) The board is delineated into six categories: Hell, Hungry Ghost, Animal, Human, Demi-God and God. The starting (and restarting) position is in the center of the board, and through the luck of the die, one ends up being born into one of these six worlds. Rogers’ usage of a Second Life version of BuddhaWheel in the Guild (Figure 3) is the way in which the role-play breaks down learning inhibitions.

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The first way is the identification one has with one’s story within BuddhaWheel, and this is found within both the physical and digital versions of the game. Regardless of one’s beliefs in relation to concepts such as karma and reincarnation, the experiential nature of the game bypasses those preconceptions. In a private discussion in an April 2018 discussion with “L.”, a graduate of the Guild’s program, she admitted that although the Guild had not turned her into a Buddhist, she had realized that she was operating under a perception of concepts like attachment that she had not previously perceived. L. continued on about her experiences with BuddhaWheel, saying during the last session I played in, it struck me that one’s progression through various types of being wasn’t a locked in, hierarchical thing. You had things to learn and do regardless of whether you were a Hell beast or god. (Rogers) pointed out that one of the revolution-ary aspects of the Buddha’s teachings was to give the untouchables and other low-caste Hindu a path to enlightenment the Brahmin claimed didn’t exist for them. (“L”, 2018) Through Rogers occasionally provided context or explanation during the games, more often than not she simply reminded players when it was their turn and what card piles to choose from. When players read their own cars, and receive congratulations or condolences from other players, the story becomes their own, and they began to identify with it. This experience is further personalized in the God and Hell Realms, where players are asked to provide their own heavenly or hellish scenarios that they might be experiencing. By identifying with a partly scripted, partly improvisational story, players learn Buddhist concepts without explicit instruction. Although monthly Buddhwheel games were not mandatory to the CG’s course of study, they provided a link to the Buddhist teachings implicit within much of the Guild’s curriculum (including the short meditation sessions preceding each and every class and various CG ceremonies. Buddhawheel in the Guild was used as a way to teach religious concepts through play motivated by the desire to be better role-players. Why is the CG worth looking at as a model of virtual education? Or course, the course content is noteworthy, a two-year program blending role-play training and etiquette with self-actualization based on Kadampa Buddhist principles (Gyatso, 1997). However, it is the form of gamification present that makes it of particular interest. In typical gamification, a focus on challenges, rapid feedback, visible status changes and social engagement (Dicheva, Dichev, Agre & Angelova, 2015) embodies an approach to ‘playing to learn’. However, the CG flips this on its head, by embodying the same characteristics but with the goal of ‘learning to play’. This not only makes it a fascinating exemplar of SL education, but also provides a counterbalance to the more traditional system in place at Cypris. In summary, although the study of two groups is hardly a representative sample of virtual world learning communities – or even SL ones – these two case studies exemplify two contrasting styles of learning groups. The first is decidedly augmentationist. Cypris members use Voice to communicate, discuss their offline lives freely, connect with each other on social media and never role-play outside the context of classroom activities. The second is primarily immersionist. CG members use text chat, rarely discuss their offline lives, connect on social media through pseudonym accounts and role-play as fictional characters for much of their time. With both of these groups having survived for more than a decade as of this writing, the author was curious about two things: What have community members acknowledged are the affordances in their communities which have motivated their extended participation in the group? What factors have contributed to these groups overall longevity when other similar groups have disappeared? A list of 18 coded categories have been compiled from responses, 9 technical affordances and 9 social ones.

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AFFORDANCES Some caveats should be mentioned before continuing. This is not an exhaustive list; again, it is primarily based on interview data and field notes from the author’s participant observation of Cypris Chat and the Companion’s Guild in Second Life between 2008 and 2020. There is considerable overlap between several of these categories, as well as a tendency to compare some affordances to offline alternatives and others to current online ones. References to and examples from Cypris Chat (Cypris) and the Companion’s Guild (CG) are used throughout.

Technical Affordances of Virtual Learning Communities 1. Convenience Perhaps lacking in specificity, this was nevertheless oft mentioned by Cypris students as an advantage of learning in virtual worlds. Availability of offline educational resources is often dependent on where one lives and the circumstances of one’s lives. In Cypris, the prohibitive proximity of offline classes and schools was often a contributing factor to continued engagement in the group. Many members of both Cypris and the C.G. lived in rural areas, were at home taking care of children or otherwise restricted from attending offline classes. This included women from Muslim-majority countries like Malaysia and Saudia Arabia who had fewer opportunities to study and socialize out of the home (especially with men). It must be noted, however, that familiarizing oneself with the Second Life user interface might require more time and effort for some users than would be necessary for conferencing software like Skype or Zoom. Professing convenience as an advantage of virtual world learning must take into account the level of patience and familiarity potential participants might have with immersive online environments. 2. Cost Classes in virtual worlds communities are often free or much less expensive than their brick and mortar counterparts. Taking into account potential commuting and materials costs for attendance of real world classes, classes in Second Life are substantially more affordable for users. Also, visual aids, costumes and learning materials are often also cheaper and easier to create and utilize. However, Second Life is best experienced on high-end computers with fast internet connection speeds. Individuals with older computers or unstable connections often experience “lag”, a term casually used by SL users to indicate slower loading times, drops in frame rate and software crashes. Also, although account and avatar creation are free in Second Life, server space is not. If you are an instructor or technology steward who wishes to reserve a full region for educational usage, you must pay for the server space. At Cypris and the C.G. the cost of virtual land is paid through community donations or by the group leaders themselves. 3. Safety Linden Lab has provided residents and landowners with a robust set of tools to protect themselves from trolls and griefers, including the individual ability to block potentially offensive users as well as ban avatars from private land. Compared to those taking classes at a community college night school, for example, activities in SL are relatively risk-free when it comes to personal safety and safety of personal

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information. However, this does not mean that it is impossible for a persistent troll or griefer to cause trouble within communities. At Cypris, for example, one such bad actor has used multiple avatars to harass members and disrupt activities for almost a decade; there has also been a case of cyberstalking at Cypris, in which one female member is still targeted for harassment (DuQuette, 2020). 4. Accommodation of disabilities Cypris and the C.G. both have several active members with mental and physical challenges. At Cypris, we have had members confined to a wheelchair because of illness and those diagnosed with conditions such as autism, dementia and even schizophrenia. The head of the C.G., Varahi, has epilepsy and has experienced seizures during role-play events; however, due to the leeway generally given during SL interactions and the assistance of other members, this has rarely prevented her from full participation as group leader. Physical and mental challenges that might hinder extended attendance to physical or video conferencing classes may be less prohibitive in SL communities. 5. Multimodal communications Participants can use several methods of communication in SL, which provides immense flexibility in educational settings. This was especially clear within language learning classes at Cypris. If for example, the teacher uses voice chat to teach in SL, students wanting to ask a question or clarify a point have many options. They can use public voice chat to directly ask a question to the teacher as one would in a RL class. Also, one could post the question to public text chat, or one could send a private instant message (IM) to the instructor or to another student. Finally, a student could send a notecard with their question to the instructor or others, or start a private group voice or text chat channel if the situation required it. Multimodal communication can motivate shy or slower learners to participate in learning situations they might not normally feel comfortable contributing to. 6. Ease of Gamification Simply because some residents consider the SL platform itself to be a game does not mean that gamification is necessarily intrinsic to virtual world learning. Gamification in learning is related to bringing elements such as competition and rewards into educational contexts, and both groups studied here used gamification elements to encourage extended engagement in the group. For several years, Cypris utilized a ranking system that provided members a way to gauge their progress, and this was linked to the external webpage. As shown earlier, the CG had a much more extensive system, in which attendance and participation in the curriculum allowed members to “level up” at end of semester closing ceremonies. This included a new group title as well as new responsibilities and a new uniform. The ease at which titles can be given within groups in reward for participation was the common gamification element present in both groups. 7. Spatial representation and exploration There are certain aspects to classroom teaching – especially language teaching – that are hard to simulate within a traditional classroom environment. One of those is spatial navigation. Activities related

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to giving directions can be fully acted out in a 3D simulation in SL, as opposed to being approximated on a 2D map (DuQuette and Hann, 2011). Information gap activities related to moving furniture, for example, can lead to more language use and negotiation of meaning in 3D environments as well. Another is exploration. Second Life is made up of thousands of user-created areas, many of them open to the public. Both Cypris and the C.G. utilized field trips as ways to both educate members and promote their group. This included trips to art galleries, historical recreations of cultural landmarks and various social events. At Cypris, these activities were also lessons in giving and receiving directions, in which students were given clues to certain locations and then were responsible for assisting each other to find said locations through use of directions, landmarks and the SL mini-map. 8. Availability of Internet resources during activities Both teachers and learners within SL classes are only a click away from extra-platform resources on the Internet. In Cypris classes, members routinely search for clarification using Internet search engines during class and share related content links in public text chat. At a reading circle activity in Cypris, for example, one student did not know what the word “crane” meant in English. Within seconds, another student had searched for it on Google and presented a Wikipedia link (DuQuette, 2010). Granted, offline students may also be able to search similarly via search engines on their cellular phones, but in SL the speed that information can be searched for and shared is significantly greater. 9. Collaborative building The building tools included in the SL browser allow for participants to collaborate in real time on SL building. This allows teachers to provide content creation assignments limited only by the imagination (and patience) of their students. At Cypris, although the main layout was designed by two of the founding members, other members have added different areas, some permanent, some seasonal. The CG is even more dependent on collaborative building, as the community is broken up into several different houses, each built by the head Companion of that house, but overseen by the Guild leader who makes certain that certain characteristics are present in each house (e.g. a classroom with a meditation bell, and bunks for house members).

Social Affordances of Virtual Learning Communities It seems significant that during the author’s decade of research within the Cypris Chat and the Companion’s Guild, the aforementioned technical affordances were rarely mentioned in interviews and discussions related to why participants enjoyed learning and teaching in Second Life (DuQuette, 2017). Instead, the author observed and the participants reported being motivated by the following social affordances: 1. User-specific anonymity in interaction Second Life residents are not required to link their account to their RL identity, nor are they required to have any personal information (or any information at all) in their public profile. This means the default position for privacy is anonymity. Default anonymity can be a problem for security reasons in which griefers and stalkers have free rein to be malevolent (DuQuette, 2020), However, it does allow for

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a variety of social interactions that allow the user to release just as much personal information as they desire. In general, most members of Cypris Chat were comfortable talking about their offline identities, as discussion of real world issues often fueled in-class discussion. Close relationships in Cypris are those in which members share information about their real lives. Krotoski (2009) came to similar conclusions in his psychological study of a Second Life community; the strength of a social network on the platform could be estimated in terms of how much offline information members shared with each other. Krotoski examined trust and closeness through measures not applicable to Cypris members; for example, he measured trust by likelihood that one would allow another resident to freely modify one’s avatar, or the likelihood one would become a Second Life partner, an online spouse, to another member (p. 19). These sort of relationships were relatively rare at Cypris. On the other hand, students in the CG focused much more on discussion of role-play and their interactions within SL; most members refrain from discussion of RL and things like age, location and gender are not common knowledge for many members. For some, it is a matter of opening up to those they trust. For others, SL is completely separate from their RL, and they resist any discussion of offline identity. Admittedly, there are members of Cypris who never engage in discussion related to their offline existence and there are Guild members who openly discuss their real lives, both in SL and on the associated Facebook group and chat. The bottom line is learners are not forced to provide more information than they are comfortable with. This appears to facilitate communication among many types of individuals. 2. Borderless interaction In the current era of international social networking, this may seem a pedestrian point, but participants at Cypris routinely praised the ability to regularly interact with those in other countries. Foreign language learners in rural or otherwise less than cosmopolitan settings may find it difficult to practice their language of study with native speakers from other countries. Interacting in synchronous text and voice conversation with people from around the world is useful in both illuminating the commonalities that we often forget bind us together, while at the same time exposing us to other perspectives. In fact, it is only through SL that some members were able to have discussions with others outside their family circle. 3. Extra-curricular socializing One disadvantage of RL teacher-student interaction is the codified formality that prevents extracurricular socializing in the name of professionalism. However, in SL, socializing between classes was one of the major draws for students. In fact, at Cypris, most learners felt it was even more important than formal classroom-style interaction. One attendant result of both socializing and playing together on the same platform is a sense of comradarie that forms between group members. Within Cypris, this interaction was entirely platonic. In the CG, however, both friendships and romantic connections between members were relatively commonplace. Bonds of friendship and romantic love between members contributed to extended participation within the group. 4. Role-play (as training simulation):

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Through the use of the Star Trek: The Next Generation inspired holodeck at Cypris, teachers were able to recreate various environments like restaurants, banks and airports to use in situation-based language practice activities. In the CG, training for virtual tea ceremonies was given at various locations, utilizing scripted teapots, cups and utensils. Short-term classroom role-plays are nothing new in the language classroom, but the ease with which convincing environments can be simulated is something that brought fun and a sense of authenticity to situation and task-based activities. 5. Role-play (as identity play): Role-play as a persistent character within the group is something that happens in communities like the CG. Learners participate in the group through a persona appropriate to the fantasy world they are co-creating with other participants. The way this can affect actual learning is dependent on the sort of role-play underway. It can be a hindrance. For example, the author once role-played in a high school sim in which to play in-character would mean to play as a restless, rebellious teenager. But in the case of the Companion’s Guild, in which members were ostensibly training to be sophisticated courtesans and councilors in various other role-play groups, it became an affordance. Look at role-playing in the CG. One aspect of training within the Guild is the development of the confidence and background knowledge necessary to role-play as a wise and sophisticated courtesan in the Inara Serra mold. Individuals who might otherwise balk at learning about esoteric Tibetan mysticism became more open-minded because they felt this is what their characters within the Guild would do; just as clerics within a Dungeons & Dragons campaign might learn about their own patron deity in order to improvise with more realism during play. Companion acolytes within the Guild submit to lessons about eastern philosophy (and poetry, language and etiquette) as part and parcel of role-play itself. That is not to say that all players are in character (IC) during Buddhawheel games, for example. Players sometimes reference offline, out of character (OOC) topics. However, the motivation to play BuddhaWheel seriously is often connected to players’ motivation to improve their own role-play within the Guild and Second Life as a whole. 6. Use of avatars in transformative representation This is similar to role-play, but focuses on the perceived benefits of intentional representation of oneself in ways that increase confidence or more accurately reflect how one wants to be perceived compared to RL. One may represent oneself with one’s avatar in any manner they wish. In Cypris and the CG, there are men who wish to represent themselves as women and vice versa. There are senior citizens who want to represent themselves as 20 year olds. Some individuals and groups are more judgmental than others; some profiles proudly claim that they are “voice verified”, which essentially means they are not gender switching. But the possibility to find acceptance in a form one is most comfortable with is a powerful motivating factor for some. It is a factor that may keep learners returning to virtual world classes. 7. Traditional lessons decontextualized from compulsory study. The joy of independent learning is not exclusively the purvey of education in virtual worlds. However, this was undeniably important to many participants at Cypris. Many participants felt comfortable with lessons similar to one’s they might have experienced at RL private language schools or universi-

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ties without the pressure of grades or other extrinsic motivational factors beyond their control. In other words, the lessons themselves were similar to onerous courses members had previously taken as part of compulsory brick and mortar education, but the lessons gained appeal by virtue of their inclusion in a voluntary SL community. The fact that the SL platform was not specifically an educational one also added to certain participants’ enjoyment. 8. Minimizing anxiety Anxiety can cause shyness or reluctance to fully engage in learning because of fears related to possible embarrassment or failure; in language learning, Gardner & MacIntyre (1993) see language anxiety as “the apprehension experienced when a situation requires the use of a second language with which the individual is not fully proficient”, this apprehension being characterized by “derogatory self-related cognitions ..., feelings of apprehension, and physiological responses such as increased heart rate”. The fact that participants are not being graded is certainly one reason they are more willing to take risks in learning, but avatars seem to provide a way to ameliorate the effects of anxiety as well. Students lacking confidence because of their appearance, age or disabilities may find the use of an avatar liberating, in that they can intentionally project the image they want to. Those who are not confident at speaking can use text and vice-versa. 9. Identification with the platform culture Participants in online virtual world education come from a wide variety of countries, socio-economic situations and age groups. However, despite their disparate backgrounds, both instructors and learners in virtual worlds share something in common: they enjoy interacting on the platform. Although Second Life is made up of various communities with often very differing foci, there is an overarching comraderie between residents that provides an instant connection. Even if participants are from very different backgrounds, the culture of Second Life itself provides fodder for discussion and common gripes and challenges.

CONCLUSION The use of virtual worlds has been on a steady decline since 2010. The ascendance of popular social networking sites accessible by either PC or mobile devices has had a crippling effect on Second Life’s user base. As a platform for online communities—educational and otherwise—Second Life is slowly but steadily shrinking. In 2013, Linden Labs estimated that around 1,000,000 232 users accessed the platform monthly (Linden Lab, 2013), but that has shrunk to 900,000 in 2016 (Malberg, 2016). As of this writing, Second Life is celebrating its 17th year of existence, an impressive lifespan for an online platform and community. Yet there is a tangible sense that SL is on the decline, and with Linden Lab’s Samsar platform no longer in development, it has felt like the Oasis of Ready Player One (Cline, 2011) will have to wait for another generation. That said, the current generation of virtual world communities has not entirely disappeared. The ones that have managed to maintain an active user base represent exemplars that ought to be studied for the lessons they may teach us about the future of online learning paradigms. Although pseudo-experimental

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research with small groups of inexperienced participants may allow us to judge the viability of bringing inexperienced students into virtual world classes, longitudinal, ethnographic research of classes of experienced virtual world users may provide researchers a broader view of what may be possible in the future. Again, since the Covid-19 outbreak in early 2020, there has been a noticeable resurgence in interest in virtual worlds learning. As both primary and tertiary education have been forced online in dramatic fashion, instructors are learning firsthand about the limitations of video conferencing software like Skype and Zoom. At the author’s own university, online students were often reluctant to use their cameras or ask questions, and teachers and administrators were wondering if there were alternate, affordable platforms that reduce social anxiety and allow for different kinds of collaboration. It is hoped that this simple, research-based breakdown of both technical and social affordances of virtual online environments will provide a basic rubric for instructors and administrators looking for creative ways to keep their students motivated to learn. It is also hoped that educators looking to utilize virtual worlds in their classes and projects do not neglect preexisting communities like Cypris and the CG. Understandably, there is often resistance to the idea of work with potentially unreliable collaborators, especially among university instructors and administrators. However, making the decision to scale the learning curve of a platform like Second Life alone is a daunting task for many; getting advice and assistance from education-minded volunteers already familiar with the environment can arguably be the greatest social affordance of all for virtual world instructors.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Affordance: A characteristic of an environment that make learning possible in a certain way. Augmentationist: A description of a virtual world user who is interested in using their platform as a tool, not as a vehicle to create an entirely separate online identity. Avatar: An icon, character, or graphical representation of a user. Immersionist: A description of virtual world users who create an entirely separate identity through role-play and their avatar. Second Life: A well-known virtual world platform initially developed by Philip Rosedale and Linden Lab. Telepresence: The illusion that one is physically present in the same space as someone else. Virtual World: A persistent, computer-simulated environment populated by many users.

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Chapter 21

Prosumers Building the Virtual World:

How a Proactive Use of Virtual Worlds Can Be an Effective Method for Educational Purposes Mario Fontanella Edu3d, Italy Claudio Pacchiega Edu3d, Italy

ABSTRACT With the development of new digital technologies, the internet, and mass media, including social media, it is now possible to produce, consume, and exchange information and virtual creations in a simple and practically instantaneous way. As predicted by philosophers and sociologists in the 1980s, a culture of “prosumers” has been developed in communities where there is no longer a clear distinction between content producers and content users and where there is a continuous exchange of knowledge that enriches the whole community. The teaching of “digital creativity” can also take advantage of the fact that young people and adults are particularly attracted to these fields, which they perceive akin to their playful activities and which are normally used in an often sterile and useless way in their free time. The didactic sense of these experiences is that we try to build a cooperative group environment in which to experiment, learn, and exchange knowledge equally among all the participants.

INTRODUCTION If traditional societies based the centrality of their experiential area in the succession of seasons, a consequence of the primacy of agricultural work, industrial societies had the experiential center in the relations of production, considered as the sign of the self-realization of the individual. The contemporary DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch021

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 Prosumers Building the Virtual World

era has experiential centrality in consumption and in its evolution in prosumerism. (Piergiorgio Degli Esposti, 2015) With the development of new digital technologies, the Internet, and mass media, including social media, it is now possible to produce, consume and exchange information and virtual creations in a simple and practically instantaneous way. Think of websites like YouTube, Wikipedia, Instagram, Flickr, but also stores (marketplaces) and dedicated sites for the purchase and sale of artistic digital semi-finished products such as Deviant Art, Sketchfab or for multimedia applications and games such as Steam itself or the stores of Android, Apple or gaming platforms such as Steam, Unity. As predicted by philosophers and sociologists in the 1980s, a culture of “prosumers” has been developed, which means communities where there is no longer a clear distinction between content producers and content users and a continuous exchange of knowledge that enriches the whole community. At the same time, the skills of digital creativity are increasingly in demand in the professional market, especially in the field of marketing, in the field of entertainment (cinema, music, art), and in the same area of Education and Training (Report on World Development 2016 - The World Bank). The teaching of ‘digital creativity’ can also benefit from the fact that young people and adults are particularly attracted to these fields. They perceive akin to their playful activities and are typically used in a sterile and useless way in their free time. Both the authors have experienced that it is possible to build a cooperative group environment to test, learn, and exchange knowledge equally among all participants. In particular, they experimented with ways of learning that allow enhancing people’s creativity by motivating them to learn in a more in-depth and rewarding way, and in turn to teach others even when they do not feel sufficiently prepared, to understand better the complexity of the context in which they operate. Within the same educational path, the creations of the various participants can be shown, shared, and remixed, favoring the “opensource” circulation of the works produced to progressively create increasingly complex settings and ideas, without having to use pre-built materials provided by companies or individuals, mostly not cheap and not within reach of most educational institutions. As will be seen shortly, the didactic activity can be developed along different complexity lines, in which the material generally needed for these experiences can be basic or optional. Before proceeding with the analysis of the necessary skills and technical tools, it is essential to consider what assumptions this study is based on:

1. SOME BASIC CONCEPTS 1.1 Prosumer: The Origins In 1972, Marshall McLuhan and Barrington Nevitt proposed in their book Take Today that every consumer in the field of household electricity could become a producer in turn. This concept became very realistic with the advent of renewable energy at home. The futurologist Alvin Toffler in 1980, in the book The Third Wave, coined the term “prosumer” by combining the terms producer and consumer, predicting that the roles of producer and consumer would merge, giving life to a new category of users. Toffler indicated in the First Wave the settled agricultural society that replaced the hunter-gatherer cultures (Neolithic Revolution), while in the Second Wave the society of the industrial era (transition from the Iron Age to the Steel Age), which began in Western Europe and later spread throughout the

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world, a society based on mass-production, mass-distribution, and mass-consumption, but also on mass-education, mass-information, and entertainment, as well as on weapons of mass destruction. The Third Wave is the post-industrial society (a definition by the American sociologist Daniel Bell), most countries have been in since the late 1950s. In the future development of this last kind of society, Toffler envisioned a highly saturated market as the mass production of standardized commodities would begin to satisfy consumers’ basic demands. To continue the increase in profits, the companies would have started a mass customization process, which is the mass production of highly personalized products. However, to achieve a high level of customization, consumers needed to take part in the process above all in defining the aesthetic design characteristics of the products.

1.2 Prosumer: The Current State Much of this transformation took place online; with the advent of web 2.0, the consumer can adopt a proactive and participatory behavior; through social networking, where the user creates his own page and offers his multimedia products to others’ judgment. Therefore, it was possible to witness a real media genre’s birth, user-generated content (UGC, User’s generated content). There are many examples in different fields of application: YouTube (video), Spotify (music), Instagram, Pinterest (images), renewable energy, narration (shared creation of texts), shopping guide (Amazon, Nike, Booking, TripAdvisor), 3D Printing, video games, educational. Now, much of this transformation is also being useful to reconsider learning, to take into account the gap that is likely to create between the student’s daily relational dimension and that in which he is immersed within the school dynamics, as already highlighted by Kathleen Bell Welch in his article Electronic Media: Implications of the “Third Wave” View of Electronic Media in 1981: When students leave a Third Wave home in the morning to enter a Second Wave classroom for the day, the result is sure to be counterproductive. Rather than fearing the reproduction of the “relevance” syndrome of the sixties, however, teachers can use the awareness of change, such as that which Toffler provides, to design the guidelines necessary for developing a framework for synthesis. Idealistically teachers advocate the teaching of how to learn as well as what to learn. Electronic media, while providing much of the what of learning both inside and outside the classroom, can also provide the how in the process of synthesis. The next basic concept can help us glimpse a possible scenario for adapting teaching and learning methods to current changes.

1.3 Gamification This term refers to the application of game-design elements and game principles in non-gaming contexts. Gamification seeks to engage people to experience more involvement and fun in daily activities through play. The objectives are many, including loyalty, creating harmony between people in team formation, solving problems, and changing the habits of users. The principle underlying Gamification is to use the game’s dynamics and mechanics: Points, Levels, Rewards, Badges, Gifts to stimulate some primary instincts of a human being, such as competition, status, rewards, and success. The implementation of

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playful mechanics is one of the most effective methods to involve people in the activities of a site or an offered service. In this case, the user no longer acts as a passive user of information but becomes active using the site’s gamified product. Beyond the boundaries of teaching and game-based learning (GBL), you can find several examples of Gamification with a substantial impact on everyday life (e.g., see: Top 10 gamification examples and fun theory: https://youtu.be/CFeeSANGGlA).

1.3.1 How to use new Technologies and Gamification for Educational Purposes There is some evidence that these new technologies and their applications in education can contribute to increase, among the others, motivation, engagement and critical thinking in students, and positively support knowledge transfer. (Curcio, Dipace, Norlum, 2016) Although the use of Gamification in education is becoming more and more popular every year, it is not easy to apply a gamification paradigm to classrooms. Furthermore, many teachers have much bias towards games, especially those involved in the “kill a monster” model. However, there is a notable category of games called “sandbox games” or “open-ended”. Open games with multiple gameplay solutions and options, sometimes called sandbox games, are especially useful for modding and personal expression. Squire (2008) refers to games as “spaces of possibility”, in which multiple trajectories of experience can lead to new ways of learning (Olson 2010). Gamification at school facilitates cooperation, stimulates interest, produces positive competition, enhances excellence, and motivates Special Educational needs and Specific Learning Disorders students. New technologies and Gamification can appear to be an end in themselves and apparently in contrast with traditional teaching methods. It is not necessary to use new technologies in an integral and absolute way. These techniques can often be a starting point and a stimulus to continue the lesson with other more “traditional” tools. It is interesting to note that some of these techniques linked to the use of the Internet and computers (and therefore potentially sedentary) can create efficient educational paths, manual and even physical activities to be done outdoors in some cases, even sports. As an example, some scenarios can be considered to structure a history lesson in upper primary and lower secondary school classes, dividing the class into teams of 5-6 each time (ideal group size to make sure everyone can actively participate): • • • • • • •

design a 3D environment create a glossary or a 3D museum create a storytelling experience (theater) set up a treasure hunt (e.g., in a specific environment divided into rooms) create a route, a journey (e.g., a railway or a boat on a river), in which each stage is in some way a sort of reconstruction of some of the concepts to be described create tournaments, challenges, competitions between groups regarding questions and answers with the relative score (incremental or decremental) create a series of thematic Escapes Rooms in a Virtual Environment, in which the group or the single user is faced with didactic logic games, based on a sequence of puzzles to be solved and questions to be answered, to leave the room, having acquired the educational objective of the lesson.

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An introductory lesson explaining the tools available will always be needed and material on the topic in question (which can be consumed offline). Students need to understand that they can put it into practice quickly and have fun. The final product of each experience can also be recorded in a video and shared. Relative to what happens, for example, in Europe, a consortium made up of universities and ministerial bodies launched a research and development project between 2012 and 2014 on the possible use of playful activities in schools, as reported by Nicola Whitton in his Games for Learning (2013): The Making Games in Collaboration Project (MAGICAL) aims to bring game building into the mainstream by focusing on the development of 21st century skills: collaboration, problem-solving, creativity, and digital literacy in particular. MAGICAL is an EU-funded Lifelong Learning Partnership project, with partners in the UK (ESRI), Belgium, Finland, Italy, and Greece. It aims to develop a curriculum to support trainee teachers to design and run lessons based on collaborative game building and evaluate the use of game-building in school contexts. As well as providing the technical and game-design skills, the training program also encompasses issues such as the embedding of active learning through games and the changing role of the teacher; in effect, the project aims to promote cultural change as well as simply present a new pedagogic technique. The MAGICAL project is about to enter its second year, which will see the partners work with trainee teachers to promote and support game-building, who will, in turn, use the methods with their own learners in schools. A series of in-depth case studies will be carried out in schools in each participating country to consider the value of game building from a variety of perspectives, including the learners themselves, teachers, parents, and school support and managerial staff. The project, which saw 37 classroom pilot projects in 5 countries (BE, FI, GR, IT, UK) and involved more than 600 students and over 100 teachers, was included in the Success Stories and Good Practices of the Erasmus+ program (source: tinyurl.com/magicaldoor). Logically, Gamification can also present pitfalls in education. For example, it can lead students to be more motivated by the rewards than by the learning process, obtaining an opposite effect to the desired one. One could speak of the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Still, it remains a crucial aspect that must be clear to the teacher: no technology and no operating mode can ever replace the teacher’s educational and social skills, but rather provide him with additional tools to operate and facilitate his work. It is, therefore, up to the teacher to avoid students from being more interested in external rewards than perceiving passion for the subjects they study. Some helpful links to deepen the question: • • • •

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http://gamification-research.org The Gamification Research Network (GRN) - Website http://hcigames.com/gamification/3-inspiring-ways-gamification-used-education 3 Inspiring Ways Gamification Is Being Used in Education – Article and Videos https://www.iste.org/explore/In-the-classroom/5-ways-to-gamify-your-classroom 5 ways to gamify your classroom – Article https://yukaichou.com/gamification-examples/top-10-education-gamification-examples The 10 Best Educational Apps that use Gamification for adults in 2019 - Article and Videos

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There is still one last essential concept, relating to a possible key element to better understand the picture in question, before moving on to the more purely technical aspects.

1.4 The Community of Practice (Cop) The term community of practice and learning refers to a group of individuals united by the same purpose: to produce and share knowledge on specific topics while acquiring awareness of their knowledge; following a common interest and code, the members of these communities aim for collective improvement. Therefore, within the CoP, there is no predetermined hierarchy, but mutual help is applied. The roles are assumed from time to time according to the skills and learning needs of the participants. Those who join this type of organization aim for a shared intelligence model. There are no private or individual spaces; everyone shares everything. While not a new application, the definition “Community of Practice” dates back to the cognitive anthropologist Jean Lave and the educational theorist Etienne Wenger (Situated Learning, 1991). They recognize such groups of people as an effective method for promoting learning by sharing information. Wenger will later expand on the concept in his 1998 book Communities of Practice. For Wenger, it is possible to speak of CoP if they are actively present in the common and essential interaction between them: Cooperative Learning, Diversity and Partiality, Mutual Relationships. Going beyond the mere expressions of CoPs at an amateur level, Masoud Hemmasi and Carol M. Csanda in 2009 studied and highlighted how these communities, which at first glance may seem antagonistic to the commercial world, can not only coexist but also support the work of companies, bodies and professional organizations: Although conventional teams have been highly successful over the years, Communities of Practice appear to provide additional benefits by being more responsive in dealing with the opportunities and challenges of today’s rapidly changing environment, growing global competition, and the ever advancing information technology. Communities of Practice can provide organizations with a way to capture tacit or implicit knowledge by connecting people with similar interests, allowing them to capture information and make it accessible to the organization at large. Some examples of widespread and well-known communities of practice can be found in the so-called Fablabs (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fab_lab); in the groups of Open-Source Software (OSS) developers and other Open Collaborations, such as the Internet forums, mailing lists and web communities (the so-called OcoP – Online Communities of Practice); and in groups defined as commons-based peer production (CBPP), such as those that manage well-known projects, such as Linux, Wikipedia, SETI@ home and Mozilla Firefox, to name a few. Again Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_community_of_practice) among the advantages of this type of collaboration reminds us that: OCoPs give beginners, who might not feel comfortable sharing their knowledge, an opportunity to learn from veteran colleagues beyond their immediate geographic area through observation and absorption of information and dialogue. The veterans lend a degree of legitimacy to the community, as well as to the experiences of the new members. The result is an atmosphere of mentorship for novices. As new practitioners gain understanding and expertise, they are become more comfortable with sharing their own backgrounds and perspectives with the OCoP further expanding the field of knowledge.

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Parallel to the concept of Community of Practice is developing that of Facilitator for learning; a person within the group who helps participants understand common goals and plan how to achieve them without taking a particular position in the discussion. In practice, an educational facilitator has the same level of knowledge of both education and the subject as a teacher but structures the work with students so that they can take as much responsibility as possible for their learning. The facilitator’s job is to support everyone to do their best thinking. To do this, the facilitator encourages full participation, promotes mutual understanding and cultivates shared responsibility. By supporting everyone to do their best thinking, a facilitator enables group members to search for inclusive solutions and build sustainable agreements. (Sam Kaner, 1996) These premises were necessary to understand the cultural transition highlighted in this study, the transformation underway that affects all social actors, and that allows everyone to become the creator of cultural content and not just a mere consumer or user, possessing the knowledge and means to do so. The following paragraphs are structured precisely in this direction and are aimed at those who have an interest in developing educational content. The next section begins a review of some more purely technical knowledge, the so-called “tools of the trade”. For this analysis, the choice focused mainly on those tools that are easy to find and low cost, preferably free and open source. Without, in any case, discarding some commercial solutions, specifying their nature, they are interesting from a technical point of view or dissemination among users (therefore popular and consequently guaranteeing a relatively easy retrieval of information and support).

2. SOME TOOLS IN PRACTICE As in the Middle Ages, when mass literacy began with regard to the written word, and reading was distinguished from writing, where reading was essential for the accomplishment of the magic associated with sacred “scriptures”, while writing was assimilated to divine attributions, a new way of creating and distribute content has emerged in our age. Modern writing is the possibility of producing 3D contents that can be used both in virtual worlds and through integration with the surrounding environment in the so-called augmented reality. With all peoples the word and writing are holy and magical; naming and writing were originally magical operations, magical conquests of nature through the spirit, and everywhere the gift of writing was thought to be of divine origin. With most peoples, writing and reading were secret and holy arts reserved for the priesthood alone. (Herman Hesse) The process of defining a three-dimensional shape in a computer-generated virtual space is called 3D modeling, a subset of CAD (Computer-Aided Design) where a computer is used to facilitate the design process. This process is composed of several phases, depending on the complexity of the result to be achieved. At the end of which is obtained a “modeled” object, named 3D model, created from simple shapes up to complex models of high polygons. Generally, modeling is the first step in a series of subsequent operations that will determine the result. To create a video game or any other application

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with real-time graphics, users, therefore, need a graphics engine that generally allows the same game to run on multiple platforms. It is time now to examine some useful programs for creating 3D models that can be used in virtual environments; at the end of this paragraph, users will find useful resources to deepen the subject, an operation not possible in this work due to space and context limits.

2.1 Blender: 3d Modeling Software Blender (https://www.blender.org) is the leading open-source system that allows anyone to design arbitrarily complex 3D architectures that can be inserted into virtual worlds, but also for the creation of photographs, videos, and more. Knowing how to use Blender is equivalent to the ability to “write” and edit 3D content that can then be imported into virtual worlds or processed through photographs and videos or used in games such as Minetest, Unity, Unreal Engine, or integrated into augmented reality experiences. It can provide photorealistic renders thanks to the integrated rendering engine called Cycles. Some effective alternatives to Blender, for example, Rhino or Autodesk Maya (although they are sometimes available for free or at reduced prices for schools), imply dependence on companies that essentially aim for profit-making purposes that are not always adequate for educational needs.

2.2 Sketchup: 3d Modeling Software Sketchup (https://www.sketchup.com) is a program that has a less steep learning curve than Blender, but also more limited in functions and is oriented a little more towards architectural works. The two software think entirely differently. Sketchup is available for free for home use. There is an educational version and a paid pro version.

2.3 Unity and Godot: Graphic Engines Unity (https://unity.com) is a graphics engine that allows the development of video games and other interactive 3D content. As well as Unreal Engine (https://www.unrealengine.com), a graphics engine developed by Epic Games, it represents the de facto standard for the production of 3D content for virtual worlds and VR (starting from objects built, for example, with Blender). Unity is “free” but run by a commercial company that imposes fees if the made game becomes popular. Godot (https://godotengine.org), on the other hand, is an open-source implementation that can be freely used for the construction of games and virtual environments, including multi-user ones. Another open alternative for building virtual environments is Love and Love VR. As announced, at the end of this review of essential tools, some useful resources are listed to facilitate learning and the possible theoretical study of some general aspects. At the same time, in the next paragraph, the readers will find various sources to find ready-made material to use in how much can be changed according to their needs. • •

A list of notable 3D modeling software, computer programs used for developing a mathematical representation of any three-dimensional surface of objects, also called 3D modeling. https://www.instructables.com/id/Intro-to-3D-Modeling

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A very in-depth tutorial to understand the basic concepts in 3D modeling. https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Blender_3D:_Noob_to_Pro/Tutorial_Links_List Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Tutorial Links List, a categorized list of Blender tutorials written or spoken in English. Blender’s features include 3D modeling, UV unwrapping, texturing, raster graphics editing, rigging and skinning, fluid and smoke simulation, particle simulation, soft body simulation, sculpting, animating, match moving, rendering, motion graphics, video editing, and compositing. https://learn.unity.com/tutorials Courses and tutorials on designing and developing projects in the Unity game engine. Fundamental topics and key points are covered, such as: C # Survival Guide - Functions and Methods; Setting up a VR-Enabled Project with Unity and the XR Interaction Toolkit; How to publish to Android; Using Animation Rigging: Damped Transform, and many others. https://docs.godotengine.org/it/stable/community/tutorials.html A list of third-party tutorials and resources created by the Godot community, many recommended as an easy introduction for beginners. Very useful for approaching this open-source software development environment designed to allow people to create video games. https://ita.calameo.com/read/002652204386fd247f56e A guide to computer animation for tv, games, multimedia, and web. Basic concepts, history, and development of digital animation. The text also includes information on how to write the synopsis, screenplays, and storyboards, how to characterize the characters and convey the story.

2.4 Resources on The Net Whether designing a complex game, 3D building models, anatomical parts, or furniture elements, it does not necessarily mean that people would have to start from scratch to construct their settings. On the web, there are various resources, free or paid, which allow people to download basic models to modify and insert in their project and ready-made projects to be used directly. Likewise, several of these platforms will enable people to upload, share, or sell their creations. Below is a shortlist of some of the major sites that offer these resources for free or for a fee, for personal and business use (some of these sites require prior registration). •

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Sketchfab (https://sketchfab.com/) is a platform where it is possible to distribute your models for free under Creative Commons licensing, buy and sell models in the Sketchfab Store, browse 3D content in third-party apps using API, from low-poly and game-ready 3D assets to real-world 3D scans. Cospaces Edu (https://www.cospaces.io/edu/) is a 3D visualization tool that makes the creation of virtual spaces. It is possible to easily create virtual objects and spaces through a browser app, selecting environments, characters, and objects from a library and adapting them individually. Accessible in VR mode via smartphone and a Cardboard or headsets. Cospaces allows students of any age to build their 3D creations, animate them with code, and explore them in virtual or augmented reality. Available as a free or subscription version, the platform allows teachers to manage their classes and follow the work of each student.

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Google Poly (https://poly.google.com/) is a website created by Google to allow users to upload, distribute and download 3D objects in a free library containing thousands of 3D objects for use in virtual reality and reality applications increased. The Smithsonian Institution (https://3d.si.edu) is an educational and research organization with an annexed important museum, administered and financed by the United States government; The Smithsonian houses 155 million objects, samples, books, and archives, being able to exhibit only a small percentage of its collections; therefore makes a great effort to try to digitize these resources making 3D models available to the public. Stlfinder (https://www.stlfinder.com) is a search engine for free models for 3D printing from the major repositories on the Internet. Free3d (https://free3d.com) offers free 3D models for personal use and paid models for commercial use, with the possibility to upload and sell your creations. MakerBot’s Thingiverse (https://www.thingiverse.com) is a design community for browsing, creating, and sharing 3D printable elements. The use of the Creative Commons license is encouraged so that anyone can use or modify any project. Turbosquid (https://www.turbosquid.com/it/Search/3D-Models/free) provides 3D models for game developers, news agencies, architects, visual effects studios, advertisers, and creative professionals. Archive3D https://archive3d.net): Free 3D Models and Objects Archive. 3dsky (https://3dsky.org) allows authors of 3D models to share their works and sell them to customers who wish to buy access to 3D models

After this preview of some of the main “tools of the trade”, the next step is to review some of the possible and most common feasible applications, orienting ourselves mainly in the direction of training and teaching.

3. SOME APPLICATIONS I realized if you can change a classroom, you can change a community, and if you can change enough communities you can change the world. (Erin Gruwell) As seen in the paragraph on the practical use of new technologies and Gamification for educational purposes, the possibilities that arise are different and vary according to one’s budget, the time available to design, develop and implement them, as well as, obviously, to the type of audience to which they are offered. The possible application scenarios are different and will be analyzed in summary; the choice will have to fall between developing projects to be used through Multi-User Virtual Environments (MUVE) 2D and 3D in specific virtual reality or augmented reality or mixed reality applications. To facilitate this task, it is necessary first to understand some fundamental differences between these solutions. When we talk about virtual reality (VR) we refer to a three-dimensional surrounding environment, not real but simulated, in which the user is able to interact thanks to the combination of hardware and software devices that offer a totally immersive experience (Giulia Salomone, 2019).

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Immersiveness is what makes the difference comparing virtual reality to augmented reality. To access a virtual reality experience a VR headset is needed, capable of guaranteeing a 180° field of view and sensors that transmit the movements of the body and head of the user to make the movement in that space realistic. In this analysis, a paragraph has been dedicated explicitly to VR headsets. Augmented reality (AR), on the other hand, allows you to add relevant information generated by the computer to existing reality through apps loaded on mobile devices, such as smartphones, tablets, or specifically dedicated glasses, which interact with the space in which you are immersed through the camera of the device itself. This means that the augmented reality experience will never be completely immersive. Instead, it is a Mixed Reality (MR) experience, a setting in which AR and VR mix. In this case, the real world and the digital world merge, and the virtual objects are not only introduced into the surrounding reality, but the user can interact with them as if they were physically present. In practice, the user acts “physically” in both worlds, breaking down the basic concepts of reality and imagination, thus obtaining a unique experience, whether for play or work. This experience can still be enriched by the playful factor, as emphasized by Rubio-Campillo (2020), who reports on the importance of play in the learning process: The strong sense of embodiment does not happen in other media because it requires a high degree of interactivity and immersion that is simply not possible while reading a book or watching a movie. The way a video game is approached by a player is also unique. In essence, a game is a problem waiting to be solved. The structure of any game is organized as a sequence of increasingly difficult challenges that the player needs to solve using an explicit set of possible actions; this player will engage with a learning process for a simple yet powerful reason: it is the only way to achieve success in the game. Game challenges are based on abstract mechanics that can be enriched through background and narrative, which sometimes can play a major role within the player’s experience. On a practical level, it is evident that different levels of immersion correspond to different levels of complexity concerning the learning curves necessary to develop applications in the respective environments. Fortunately, the open-source formula of most of the available platforms helps a lot in finding semi-finished or ready-to-use material, as well as finding the information necessary also to assume a certain level of autonomy in the implementation of one’s educational projects.

3.1 Augmented Reality Apps A simple application of these concepts can be found in Augmented Reality Apps, which have recently become increasingly popular thanks to the spread of mobile devices (tablets or smartphones). For example, talking books or postcards can be created with images that, once framed by a smartphone or tablet camera, come to life through specific apps, allowing us to view videos or dynamic images with sound accompaniment. A virtual situation is thus created, which integrates with the real environment in which it is inserted, giving the user new perceptual nuances compared to printed paper’s static experience. Similarly, museum installations can be created that reproduce in space (always mediated by the use of a mobile device) architectural or environmental elements that allow visitors to have a perception that is no longer two-dimensional or imaginary but three-dimensional by seeing the real measurements of the

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object. Thus, also returning the real impact with the user (e.g., https://youtu.be/uZ6g8FxZaRY - Making of Big Lonely Doug, an augmented reality project realized in the National Gallery of Canada). An interesting example of an augmented reality application, which this time involves a three-dimensional physical object and not a flat surface, is a commercial object known as the Merge Cube (https:// mergeedu.com/cube), a simple rubber cube with which you can interact through mobile devices with specific apps (e.g., Object Viewer, Anatomy+ or Galactic Explorer) or using a simple virtual reality headset, such as the Google Cardboard or its dedicated AR/VR headset (https://mergeedu.com/headset), relatively inexpensive, designed for children and compatible with the most modern iOS and Android smartphones. The available apps cover the different educational areas, both in science and in the humanities. Besides, everyone can upload their creations, made with Blender or other 3D creation software, scan a real-world object, or download a 3D model from an online library, then upload and use it on the cube. Google Cardboard is also the name of a virtual reality (VR) platform developed by Google to encourage interest and development in VR applications. It is based on using one’s telephone placed on the back of a low-cost viewer, made with folding cardboard, equipped with special lenses (https://arvr. google.com/cardboard). Specifically, for educational purposes, Google has created Google expeditions (https://edu.google. com/products/vr-ar/expeditions), an immersive teaching and learning tool. With a list of around 800 “expeditions” to choose from, a teacher can lead their class on guided tours through virtually reconstructed objects and environments. As regards the feedback obtained by students in the practical experiences of using AR in the field in the educational area, what was reported in 2014 by Antonioli, Blake, and Sparks (see references) is very interesting: Overall, students reacted positively to using AR technology both in and outside of the classroom. AR is a fairly new development within the field of education, and there are areas that students c reported that need improvement. Annetta et al. (2012; as cited in Benford and 2003) listed four educational uses to AR mobile technology, which are in no particular order: field science, field visits, games, information services, and guides. AR games can be played independently or dependently. Researchers, teachers, and students alike were very pleased to find more collaboration while using the AR technology... Some helpful links to deepen the question: •

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https://www.immersivelearning.news/2019/08/15/report-immersive-experiences-in-education Immersive Experiences in Education - Report (August 2019) A newly published white paper investigates the pedagogical theory and use cases for deploying mixed reality in the classroom. https://www.educationcorner.com/augmented-reality-classroom-education.html Using Augmented Reality in the Classroom – Article by Becton Loveless Some practical indications on how to design an augmented class https://edu.google.com/products/vr-ar/ Virtual and augmented reality for educators and students – Website A site created by Google for Education to accompany educators and institutions in the design of educational paths that use augmented reality and virtual reality tools. Some case studies. https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.google.android.stardroid

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Sky Map is a hand-held planetarium for your Android device. – App Example of augmented reality application for educational use. Originally developed as Google Sky Map, it has now been donated and open-sourced. https://studio.gometa.io Metaverse: create interactive content in augmented reality – Website Example of a platform for the creation of gamification experiences. “Place Experiences at specific locations with QR codes or GPS locations. Collect digital items, create your own Pokemon Go. Make it a giant citywide hunt or just in your building or backyard.” https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327940479_Augmented_Reality_Experience_Initial_ Perceptions_of_Higher_Education_Students Augmented Reality Experience: Initial Perceptions of Higher Education Students – Survey A survey study realized by Irfan Sural, Asst. Prof. at Eskisehir Osmangazi University (Turkey), Faculty of Education, intends to explore the candidate teachers’ opinions about using augmented reality (AR) in classrooms.

3.2 Virtual Environments A virtual environment (VE) is a shared application on the network. This computer-simulated 3D online environment allows a user to interact with that world and other users and their possible works. In this way, the user can explore spaces of all kinds and experience sensory experiences that often combine the playful dimension with the educational or informative one. From the development of the so-called virtual worlds, it is possible to create immersive virtual environments (IVE) capable of involving users in different degrees of immersion, with physical, psychological, and emotional participation experienced. The doors have also been opened to the experimentation of immersive teaching capable of reproducing real didactic scenarios, both in the school environment and in the medical and safety at work fields, just to name a few. Since the beginning, the area has expanded thanks considerably to wireless technologies, reducing the necessary devices’ size and minimum requirements in terms of technology and, finally, economic demands. Simultaneously, this technological evolution has resulted in an increase in the complexity of the environment and the involvement of users immersed in more realistic situations and, therefore, more expendable in training. After the source code of the Second Life client became opensource and free software in 2007, many seemingly similar environments have been developed over the years from that code. In this research, among the various SL emulators, only OpenSim is considered (because it has a community of enthusiasts and a relatively broader support structure), before moving on to the description of the most recent virtual environments.

3.2.1 OpenSim OpenSim (http://opensimulator.org) is an open-source server platform for hosting virtual worlds (grids). This online 3D graphics platform can be accessed via an avatar (a digital representation of ourselves), only in the “Desktop” version. Every user can build his own “world” or visit the various virtual islands (sims) created by other users and be part of one of the hundreds of “virtual communities” existing in the world. OpenSim has been used by several Italian schools thanks to the Literacy effort in virtual worlds carried out by Indire (the National Institute for Documentation, Innovation and Educational Research, the Italian Ministry of Education’s oldest research organization - https://www.indire.it/en) in his virtual

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world “Edmondo” reserved only for educators and their students. Opensim has over 3000 members in the connected Facebook group, 400 monthly active avatars, and over 350 sims (Hypergrid Business Last Update: 8/21/2020 - https://www.hypergridbusiness.com/statistics/active-grids). The largest Italian OpenSim grid, Craft, also hosts free educational initiatives aimed at teachers and non-teachers.

3.2.2 Minecraft Minecraft is a sandbox-type video game; with its open-source counterpart Minetest, Minetest is very educationally valuable with regards to coding and other useful skills, as it relies on LUA as a programming language for editing that can be easily taught to children and is widely used for adding interactions to games.

3.2.3 High Fidelity High Fidelity (https://www.highfidelity.com) is an open-source software where you can create and share virtual reality (VR) experiences. Strongly oriented towards socialization, High-Fidelity is available for Mac and Windows both in the “Desktop” version and in the VR version on Steam and Oculus. Unluckily, High Fidelity did shutdown in January 2020, so it is no more available unless one chooses the opensource continuation called Vircadia. (https://vircadia.com)

3.2.4 Sansar In Sansar (https://www.sansar.com), users can create 3D spaces where people can, through a personalized avatar, share interactive social experiences, such as playing games, watching videos, and chatting together. This 3D platform is built by the company that made “Second Life”, and it works in both virtual reality headsets (including Oculus Rift and HTC Vive) and Windows computers (desktop mode). It is free (with paid options) but not open-source, and for this reason, it may not be the ideal solution for educational institutions.

3.2.5 Mozilla Hubs Hubs (https://hubs.mozilla.com)) is a VR chat, an experimental open-source project compatible with virtual reality, which allows you to communicate and collaborate with other people, organize meetings, and virtual events. In practice, 3D space can be created directly from the browser, and others can be invited to join each other’s virtual room communicating to them the room link. It is possible to organize conferences, courses, exhibitions, or only a place to virtually meet and converse with friends by sharing images, videos, and 3D models. Hub allows a strong level of customization related to both usable avatars and the platform’s branding itself. Also functional without a VR device, Hubs work on most browsers, and it is available on mobile, desktop, and VR devices.

3.2.6 AltSpacevr (Altvr) A Unity-based social VR platform that provides a tool to load the worlds created by the game engine directly on the platform, allowing to create exhibitions, live shows, meetups, and classes for free. Acquired

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by Microsoft in October 2017, Altvr (https://altvr.com) is usable in virtual reality with Oculus headsets (even the small GO one), VIVE, and also from Windows 10 and Mac Os.

3.3 VR Headsets (HMD – Head-Mounted Display) Applications At present, it is possible to experience virtual reality environments with special headsets (HTC-Vive [https://www.vive.com], Oculus Rift [https://www.oculus.com], or other brands that follow the Windows Mixed Reality WMR project [https://bit.ly/3mx9XEy]) accessing libraries of experiences, including games and applications, with over 2000 titles. While major headsets require high-performance computers and graphics cards (although minimum requirements are gradually decreasing), the latest models under development provide standalone operation (all-in-one), freeing the user from wires or the need to have a high level performing PC. Virtual reality headsets, particularly those with 6 degrees of freedom, where it is possible to move effectively and intuitively in the environment following digital reconstruction, allowing to experiment with games and situations otherwise impossible to achieve in real life. A series of virtual reality applications, such as Tilt Brush, Google Blocks, and many others, allowing to draw and sculpt directly in virtual reality. Some virtual reality applications such as Beat Saber or RecRoom illustrate how headsets can also create sports and recreational simulations even in conditions of multiuse with people distant in other cities and countries that speak different languages. The problem of the unit cost of the devices is one of the main obstacles to possible large-scale use of these tools in professional training, except for small realities able to face the total cost. Some other reportable mixed reality applications are: • •

vTime XR (https://vtime.net), a free cross-platform and cross reality (XR) social network that allows groups of up to four users to switch to virtual reality augmented reality with a customized avatar in a private chat room, choosing an environment among those available. Spatial (https://spatial.io), a meeting environment, allows users to create a lifelike avatar and work as if next to each other, using all of their favorite existing tools and any device, including VR/AR headsets, desktop, or phone to participate.

More information and practical examples on this topic can be obtained by consulting the websites, publications, and articles listed below, selected from those currently available online, based on the type of proposals considered most like this research: • • •

• •

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News and Resources for Educators - Website The possibilities of virtual reality in education, focusing on apps and research-backed effective uses of virtual reality in the classroom. Virtual Reality in Education: an overview - Article Education is driving the future of VR more than any other industry outside of gaming. Here is why virtual reality gets such high marks for tutoring, STEM development, field trips, and distance education. http://bookstoread.com/etp Educational Technology Magazine - Website The magazine for managers of change in education. The Immersive Education Initiative - Website

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A non-profit international collaboration of educational institutions, research institutes, museums, consortia, and companies. Teaching & Learning with Technology - Blog Digital Cultures 2020 — Online - Website Inaugurated in 2017, the Digital Cultures Festival acts as an international platform for meetings between digital culture professionals and enthusiasts. https://elearningindustry.com/virtual-reality-augmented-reality-education Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality In Education - Article This article describes how virtual reality and augmented reality are already being used to implement primary and secondary education. https://arvrtech.eu/blog/top-5-benefits-of-virtual-reality-in-education Top 5 Benefits of Virtual Reality in Education – Article http://www.msc-les.org/proceedings/vare/2018/VARE2018.pdf The 4th International Conference of the Virtual and Augmented Reality in Education - September 17-19, 2018 - Budapest, Hungary – Report http://ieeevr.org IEEEVR Conference - Past Conferences reports 4. HOW TO LEARN

Basic games literacy promotes GBL (Game-based Learning) although it may not be limited to education. However, teachers are required to acquire such literacy skills as they should be aware of good games and understand the importance of games selection impacting on the successful GBL implementation (Becker, 2017). The acquisition of this literacy enables educators to access educational games and experience of gameplays at a degree of ease, which caters for the needs of young learners and reduce the personal resistance due to lacking support in digesting basic technological knowledge. (Chen, S., Zhang, S., Qi, G., & Yang, J., 2020). Nowadays, the usability perspectives of the material made public and exposed on the net are subject to a much more sustained rate of variation than in the past; taking training as an example, the development of online communities of practice has profoundly changed the possibility of learning (and teaching) through courses available on the web, passing from an individual relationship between the user and the material studied to the interaction between multiple users of the same material. There has therefore been a transition from a first passive phase of Computer Based Training (CBT) to the current one in which distance learning has become a possible collective and active event: the user becomes part of a community with whom to share the knowledge of information, keeping pace and choices, according to one’s aptitudes. As with many other subjects, current learning methods allow anyone to access the tools seen before independently as self-taught, through various existing publications and video tutorials, or by attending courses in the classroom, online, or in a virtual environment. In the cases considered in this study, there are several courses available for a fee that can provide recognized certifications, but also many free classes organized by volunteers from informal communities of practice composed of teachers and enthusiasts, not valid for credits or certificates having official value but still useful for training adequate skills and creating networks of mutual relationship and exchange of information between end-users.

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As in the previous paragraphs, some of the learning resources available online are listed to facilitate those who may be interested in being able to quickly access the courses available on the topics covered in this study. As mentioned for the above lists, a simple web search can produce many more up-to-date results, including face-to-face courses and different learning methods. •

Udemy (https://www.udemy.com) is an American massive open online course (MOOC) provider. “As of Jan 2020, the platform has more than 35 million students and 57,000 instructors teaching courses in over 65 languages. There have been over 400 million course enrollments. Students and instructors come from 180+ countries, and 2/3 of the students are located outside of the US.” (Learn about Udemy culture, mission, and careers | About Us. Udemy About. Retrieved 2020-09-09) Edu3D (http://edu3d.pages.it) is an Italian online community of practice (OcoP) in CraftWorld an Open Sim grid (http://opensimulator.org/wiki/Grid_List). The idea is to build an immersive 3D cultural environment for distance learning and for sharing educational experiences. It is an innovative teaching improvement system based on online tutoring and coaching. The project supports a community of practice in a multi-user virtual 3D environment, consisting of avatars, laboratories, interactive activities, tutorials, events, simulations, role-playing games, and educational objects. In summary: create an online Educational environment for all those who use virtual worlds as new learning scenarios. LinkedIn Learning (https://www.linkedin.com/learning) is an American subsidiary of LinkedIn that offers paid video courses on entrepreneurship, creativity, and technology taught by experts in these fields. The offer is enriched with dozens of new classes every week. Raywenderlich.com (https://www.raywenderlich.com) is a community site focused on creating high-quality programming tutorials. 2323+ articles, 4700+ video, and screencasts with a course of 77 lessons (6 hours) on Unity, 10 of which are free. Coursera (https://www.coursera.org) is another platform that offers free university courses in Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC) format, with hundreds of free classes, on-demand video lectures, homework exercises, and community discussion forums. Paid courses provide additional quizzes and projects as well as a shareable Course Certificate upon completion.

•

• • •

Some useful YouTube channels for tutorials and courses: • • • • • • •

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https://www.youtube.com/user/AndrewPPrice Blender Guru https://www.youtube.com/c/SurfacedStudio Surfaced Studio (FILMMAKING, VFX, and 3D) https://www.youtube.com/c/PolygonRunway Polygon Runway (3D illustrations and use 3D for web) https://www.youtube.com/c/CGGeek CG Geek (Blender Tutorials, Tech Reviews, Visual Effects, CG Shorts) https://www.youtube.com/c/MozillaMixedReality Mozilla Mixed Reality https://www.youtube.com/c/Zenva Zenva (Courses for creating 2D and 3D games) https://www.youtube.com/c/PlayfulTechnology

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Playful Technology (Tinkering with technology and making playful experiences) https://www.youtube.com/c/ArduinoStartups Augmented Startups (Tutorials on AI & AR Apps in Unity and Python)

5. A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE At the end of this analysis, it may be useful to touch on a real example: the high school teacher’s course presentation. According to the principles set out above, the course described below was taught by one of the authors and ended a few weeks before the writing of this study.

5.1 Didactics through Virtual, Augmented, and Mixed Reality and IoE (Internet of Everything) Applications Participants will be shown a complete methodology for creating interactive scenarios autonomously built to support classroom activities for joint production among students and using materials prepared or collected from open-source or public domain libraries. In addition to material production, it is taught how to structure it in interactive experiences to be used with the materials available (first of all, Android smartphones with Google Cardboard, portable Oculus like Go / Quest, and sophisticated headsets like Oculus Rift / HTC Vive). It is not mandatory to have an Oculus, to attend the laboratories of this course, it is sufficient to use: • • • •

an Android smartphone that supports Google Cardboard, therefore smaller than 6”. A device to wear the mobile phone as a Cardboard V2 viewer equipped with a click button, the Merge VR Headset is recommended. Windows PC / laptop or MacOS 64 bit powerful enough to run Blender 2.83, Unity 2019.3, and Mozilla Hubs login browser. (With adequate free disk space, about at least 10GB free). It is essential to have a 3-button mouse with a wheel. Without a mouse, many functions become very difficult, if not impossible, to perform.

The methodology used uses the already consolidated methodologies used in the teaching projects for teachers carried out in recent years, which uses upside-down class techniques, with: • • •

the production or use of textual and multimedia materials already available online or produced when necessary. Stimulus meetings and explanations of any critical points of the actual implementation in a laboratory way during the meeting and individually or in groups by the participants of all the concepts explained as they are presented. Exchange of experiences between students using a shared forum/blog, to be able to structure subgroups of people with common interests who can carry out mini shared projects.

The training objectives aimed to create specific skills in teachers both in the use of tools and in the application of innovative teaching methodologies and strategies. The goal is to enhance learning with

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new forms of Media Literacy, deepening the relationship between content and the creative expansion of knowledge through Augmented Reality as well as the relationship between body, play, simulation, invention, creativity, participatory culture with the help of Virtual Reality. Tools and strategies were also investigated for using Augmented Reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and mixed reality (MR) in the pedagogical context. A total of 25 people and 5 observers participated in the course from several Italian cities, and among them there had been many teachers and some school principals. The participant or team had to produce a VR Experience as follows: • • •

project sheet specifying the objectives and the methodology undertaken. Construction of a supporting exhibition environment (small building platform room). Multimedia contents to view (images, sounds, videos, or links to web pages that can be clicked by the project). Three-dimensional models to insert. Navigation paths to be created with arrows or numbers or with panels. Use at least five reference points in the room, e.g. ◦◦ Introduction. ◦◦ Object / Experience 1. ◦◦ Object 2. ◦◦ Object 3. ◦◦ Thanks, greetings, contact references, and any attributions.

• •

The final task had been evaluated based not only on the Mozilla Hubs environment created but also on a short .mp4 movie with an audio description or a presentation that explains how the environment works. The possibility of direct interaction with touch objects/minigames is not foreseen in this course. Special attention will be paid to the Mozilla Hubs virtual world that allows users to create in a reasonably easy and accessible way even for students with no particular coding experience and with minimal tools such as computers and mobile phones. The course is carried out in e-learning mode, using the following tools: • • •

WebEx for live streaming, interaction with participants. Classroom for the definition of multimedia materials, recordings, and assigned tasks. Discussion forum for offline discussion by participants and where to show their productions. The course was structured into 6 2-hour meetings. The scheduled meetings are as follows:

Introduction The structure of the course will be described, the course’s objectives, the presentation of the tools for accessing virtual reality (mobile PC viewers), and the Mozilla Hubs environment will begin to be described given its particular ease of access. At the end of the first meeting, participants should be able to list viewers and PCs with advantages and disadvantages and be able to enter a Mozilla Hubs room from their computer.

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1. Workshop and task: take a 360° photo or take it from Google Maps or other freely distributable content sources. 2. Mozilla Hubs In the second meeting, participants will see how to create and share a scene for Mozilla Hubs using even just a PC, to create content from open-source scenes and objects traceable on the net. Laboratory and task: Create a scene with Spoke (the web-based tool used to build a room in Mozilla Hubs), where to insert prefabricated elements taken from the marketplaces such as Sketchfab or Poly. 3. Blender Part one This part is dedicated to seeing how Blender can build elementary objects and a minimal environment (room) following the Low Poly logic. A complete Blender course is impossible to do in very few meetings. Therefore, the work will focus on how to produce elementary contents such as stools, tables, or bottles. 4. Unit and carton In this lesson, participants will learn how to import some of the Low Poly content designed with Blender (table, stool, or bottle) and how to export this content to an apk application that can be used via mobile with Google Cardboard. With the possibility of navigation on stage. 5. Oculus Go / Quest hints and Blender insights. Hints on how to create the same navigable scenes, usable on Oculus Go or Quest. A deepening of Blender will be done in particular for texturing and reviewing how to make some of the participants’ artifacts. 6. FINAL PROJECT The last meeting will focus on the design of an elementary educational path to be experienced in VR; the task will be done for Google Cardboard or for Mozilla Hubs depending on the abilities of the participants (Mozilla Hubs is simpler, Unity is a little more difficult). Participants will be described how to design and implement it. In this example, the element relating to Gamification is little highlighted but is manifested in the relational dimension between teacher and students and in creating competition and mutual support between the students themselves. This can also be effectively done with the help of interactive forums and direct communications when doing homework correction. It is necessary to experiment with different methods until the teacher finds the right ones adapting to the class, especially in distance learning practices, where personal interaction is further mediated by technological means. The proposed case mainly involves the use of HMD (with VR headset) applications; many other experiences are based, however, on the creation and use of an online educational environment on the OpenSim platform. In any case, a key element concerns teacher training, which can include transversal methodological indications for the use of virtual worlds as new collaborative learning scenarios and a wide-ranging, innovative, and effective teaching with infinite possibilities for development in the digital

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field. All these platforms can be a good tool to facilitate the acquisition of specific professional skills and the dissemination of significant and transferable experiences and materials in different fields of application.

Annotation on MOZILLA HUBS This product had been recently developed by Mozilla Foundation (starting in 2018), and it is already a revolutionary approach that completely remodels the way we see Virtual Worlds and Virtual Reality with an easy-to-adopt, almost trivial learning curve, where anybody can create or participate to a virtual event in a matter of just clicking a couple of links in a standard browser like Firefox or Chrome. The main intent was to bring the browser paradigm used by Internet browsers to the virtual worlds community, and so far it is providing already a big amount of features that are important in the educational world. Here are some strong points in Mozilla Hubs (MH) compared for instance to OpenSim (OS). 1. Very easy one-click access for participating MH allows a simple link to be followed directly from a blog post or an email where you can get full access to the 3D world. In contrast, OS needs to download a separate viewer and need a learning task that can take hours if not weeks to be used in full. 2. Privacy and access control Rooms in MH can be easily created specifying a revocable key for access so that teachers can control who is participating. The same thing with OS is quite complex and involves access to SysAdmin configuration 3. Instant 3D building and content creation. Room creators and even participants can easily build from free marketplaces like SketchFab or Poly just specifying the address of the model and tapping the magic wand. The same easy access is possible to insert built-on-the-fly text, images, audio, movies, and even an animated model. In OS building process is particularly difficult needing a lot of extra effort even for trivial tasks, such as inserting text. 4. Wide access from all platforms. Participants can use their own devices, including smartphones, tablet, VR Headset, PC, etc, while OS only allows PC From the Weak Points in MH compared to OS here a couple of things: 1. The general quality of Avatars in MH is quite low compared to OS, but this has been a compromise to allow MH to run on even smartphones. The same happens for high-quality scenes where OpenSim allows for much realistic reproduction of buildings and people.

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2. OS allows for sophisticated scripting allowing much more interaction from participants, like interactive quizzes and escape rooms. With MH you have to work around this either with auxiliary smartphone applications interacting with your virtual world via QR code or with some tricks. 3. OS is being organized in bigger entities called Grids, where there is an interaction with many other realities, other schools, or other creators like in SecondLife or even among grids, MH instead tends to focalize the work only on the room or set of room defined by a single creator school. This on the other hand can be positive for being sure that no intruder can enter MH rooms. CONCLUSION Technology is an extension of the brain; it is a new way of thinking. It is the solution humans have created to deal with the difficult new context of variability, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity. Wise integration of evolving and powerful technology demands a rethinking of the curriculum. (Marc Prensky, 2013). In this analysis, the meaning of “prosumer” was addressed by combining it with other essential concepts, such as Gamification and the “learning community”, and observed how the new communication and virtualization technologies had enabled a transformation in all these three areas, effectively creating an exciting fusion. Especially for distance and face-to-face training and teaching. A merger that consolidated the prosumer’s status, further weakening the distinction between producers and users of contents, favoring a continuous exchange of knowledge that enriches the entire community. The didactic sense of these experiences lies in constructing a cooperative group environment in which to experiment, learn and exchange knowledge on an equal basis between all the participants, without high costs, therefore within reach of many, if not all. It emerged that for some of these experiences, the costs are very low and often limited to the owner of a mobile device or a PC. The next step was, therefore, to meet some of the 3D construction tools currently available, such as Blender (and other open software) and their role in the production of 3D objects, animations, and multimedia visual effects. The items that are created in the modeling process can then be imported and used in virtual worlds such as Second Life, OpenSim, Minetest (“old” generation virtual worlds), but also High Fidelity, Sansar (virtual worlds usable with VR headsets), or to produce game environments using Unity and Godot, engines that allow you to design games or learning environments. For each specific area of interest, useful links have been provided to facilitate research by readers interested in deepening the topics covered and finding resources to be used immediately in practical experimentation. Day after day, the web is enriched with exciting content produced not only by professionals involved in commercial processes triggered by the introduction of dedicated software in the markets but also by individuals and groups of enthusiasts interested in sharing their knowledge with other people for free. This generates a proliferation of sites, tutorials, videos, manuals, the quality of which must be assessed case by case, an aspect that has been considered in the realization of this study. The purpose of this short paper is to try to condense and share the author’s experience in the field, based on several years of participation and agency in the Edu3D community of practice and learning. This virtual community has its “headquarters” in the multi-user 3D environment “Open Sim”. It operates thanks to the competence and creativity of teachers, technicians, and experts who are passionate about digital architecture and innovative teaching and who voluntarily share experiences and open-source content. The activities take place in “flipped classroom” mode, a collaborative method of sharing knowledge that has led us to closely know the strengths of the convergence of that convergence mentioned in the first

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lines of this conclusion. During these years of online and face to face courses, workshops, internships, and conferences, many teachers have approached virtual worlds, have learned to build their avatar and customize their environment, taking their “first steps” while having fun and appreciating the immersion and the didactic value of “learning by doing”, feeling “protagonists” and participating with curiosity and amazement in the use of cheap and straightforward VR / AR tools. Each participant can acquire skills which, in most cases, can then be transferred into their professional activity by involving students and collaborators and in turn, creating interest and motivation to collaborate and reduce distances, not only in terms of scholastic knowledge, thanks also to that intrinsic transformative power of working not with others but together with others, feeling equal, respecting the roles.

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Szymusiak, T. (2015). Prosumer – Prosumption – Prosumerism. OmniScriptum GmbH & Co. KG. The World Bank. (2016). World Development Report 2016. Expanding opportunities, 100-146. Toffler, A. (1980). The third wave: The classic study of tomorrow. Bantam. Trentin, G. (2008). Apprendimento in rete e condivisione delle conoscenze [Networked learning and knowledge sharing]. Franco Angeli. Viola, F. (2011). I Videogiochi nella Vita Quotidiana [Video games in everyday life]. Arduino Viola Editore. Wang, Y. (2020). Integrating Games, e-Books and AR Techniques to Support Project-based Science Learning. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 23(3), 53–67. Welch, K. (1981). Electronic Media: Implications of the Third Wave View of Electronic Media. English Journal, 70(5), 86–88. doi:10.2307/817390 Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511803932 Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. M. (2002). Cultivating Communities of Practice. HBS Press. Whitton, N. (2013). Games for Learning: Creating a Level Playing Field or Stacking the Deck? International Review of Qualitative Research, 6(3), 424–439. doi:10.1525/irqr.2013.6.3.424 Wu, H. (2016). Video Game Prosumers: Case Study of a Minecraft Affinity Space. Visual Arts Research, 42(1), 22–37. doi:10.5406/visuartsrese.42.1.0022 Yamada-Rice, D., Mushtaq, F., Woodgate, A., Bosmans, D., Douthwaite, A., Douthwaite, I., Harris, W., Holt, R., Kleeman, D., Marsh, J., Milovidov, E., Mon Williams, M., Parry, B., Riddler, A., Robinson, P., Rodrigues, D., Thompson, S., & Whitley, S. (2017). Children and Virtual Reality: Emerging Possibilities and Challenges. http://digilitey.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/CVR-Final-PDF-reduced-size.pdf

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Augmented Reality (AR): An interactive experience in which objects residing in the real world are enhanced by computer-generated information, sometimes through multiple sensory modalities. Cardboard: A low cost VR viewer, designed to favor the development and commercial diffusion of virtual reality, which allows you to transform any smartphone into a perfect and functional Virtual Reality Viewer. Digital Cultures: A concept that practically expresses the relationship between people and technology, describing how technology and the Internet are shaping the way we interact as human beings, or how we behave, think and communicate within society. Gamification: It is the application of game design elements and game principles in non-gaming contexts in order to solve problems or learn in a fun and facilitated way to make the learning curve less steep, also allowing to improve user involvement.

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Graphic Engines: A software development environment designed to allow people to create video games for consoles, mobile devices, and personal computers. Head-Mounted Display (HMD): A display device, worn on the head and used, with different shapes and structures, in many fields, including games, aviation, engineering and medicine. Modeling: In 3D computer graphics, it indicates the process of developing a mathematical representation of any surface of an object (inanimate or living) in three dimensions using specialized software. The result of this process is called a 3D model. Online Community of Practice (OcoP): Also defined as a virtual community of practice (VCoP), it is formed by a group of people united by the common interest in a specific field, each with their own level of specific experience, who participate together in a shared learning process that develops through Internet with a view to sharing knowledge. Prosumer: A combination of the words supplier and consumer that can identify six different types of behavior regarding the interaction between user and acquired goods: do-it-yourself prosumer, selfservice prosumer, personalized prosumers, collaborative prosumers, monetized prosumers and economic prosumers. Virtual Environments: Computer-generated spaces that can contain objects that can be manipulated and people. These can be text-based virtual reality or multi-user chat or games, 2D interactive environments, as well as immersive 3D environments, i.e. real immersive virtual reality environments (virtual, augmented, or mixed).

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Teaching Archaeology in VR: An Academic Perspective Nevio Danelon Department of Classical Studies, Duke University, USA Maurizio Forte Department of Classical Studies, Duke University, USA

ABSTRACT The authors discuss their experience at Duke University and, more specifically, at the Dig@Lab, a core research unit of the CMAC (Computational Media Art and Culture) program in the Department of Art, Art History, and Visual Studies. This community of scholars and students represents a new branch of experimental teaching in digital humanities with the participation of students and faculty from the humanities, engineering, computer science, neuroscience, and visual media. In particular, the Dig@Lab studies the impact of virtual reality in cyberarchaeology and virtual museums.

INTRODUCTION After a long period of development and disillusion over the potential of virtual reality, a new digital era is opening tangible and relevant perspectives for research and education. This is due to the large-scale use of low-cost devices (VR headsets, Oculus, HTC, Google VR, and the like) and digital games. Goldman Sachs (Equity Research, January 13, 2016) predicted in January 2016 that virtual reality will overhaul TV by 2025 with a potential market of $ 0.7 billion. We saw more recently an extraordinary technological improvement in the virtual reality headset market, particularly for games and VR applications. Portability, technological standardization, low costs, and ergonomics determined the success of these devices. The game industry and social media boosted the market of VR in different directions, but what about research and education? How did Universities and research institutions act in this last decade of applications in 3D visualization? The authors discuss their experience at Duke University and, more specifically, at the Dig@Lab, a core research unit of the CMAC (Computational Media Art and Culture) program in the Department of DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch022

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Art, Art History and Visual Studies. This community of scholars and students represents a new branch of experimental teaching in digital humanities with the participation of students and faculty from the humanities, engineering, computer science, neuroscience, and visual media. In particular, the Dig@ Lab studies the impact of virtual reality in cyberarchaeology (Forte 2010, 2015) and virtual museums. This research work started in 2013 with the development of immersive applications for the DiVE (Duke Immersive Virtual Environment, fig. 1), installed in 2006 and discontinued in 2018. The DiVE was one of the first fourth 6-sided CAVE-like systems in the United States. It was a 3 by 3 by 3 m stereoscopic rear projected room with head and hand tracking and real time computer graphics. All six surfaces—the four walls, the ceiling, and the floor—were used as screens onto which computer graphics is displayed. The lab implemented several archaeological projects for the DiVE: “Virtual Digging Project at Çatalhöyük” (2014-16; Forte 2010, 2014)1, “the Villa of Livia” (2012-13), “Akrotiri” (2015). All of them were designed for a collaborative experience since the DiVE could host up to seven users simultaneously. In fact, we designed a series of virtual classes for this environment, giving the students specific tasks to accomplish in the 3D space (Appelbaum et al. 2017). One of the biggest issues we faced in the DiVE was the lack of a routine use for research and teaching. Every project in three-dimension had to be specifically redesigned for this environment and all the models rescaled for this purpose. Also, it was a limited collaborative space, given the constraints of the space and the lack of reciprocal interaction among the users. The new generation of portable systems (such as Oculus, HTC headsets and the like) completely replaced the old VR devices and virtual reality started to be a mass phenomenon. Several academic institutions started to introduce VR and gaming technologies in their curriculum and in research projects in the humanities but very randomly and without specific strategies. In the United States, some classes are hosted in visual studies, design, computer science, anthropology, architecture and in digital humanities more in general. At Duke University we introduced interdisciplinary undergraduate classes on gaming, Unity 3D, digital archaeology, virtual museums, digital heritage, and 3D visualization. Every class has a lab component and the students are committed to deliver articulated digital projects at the end of the semester. The rapid acceleration of didactic activities in virtual reality, in particular in the digital humanities, paved the way to more advanced forms of learning, but with several question marks about this digital impact and communication. Are multitasking and 3D environments able to release a greater amount of information? Can we learn quickly and more efficiently in virtual reality? What kind of metrics shall we apply for the evaluation of this digital approach? In short, what is/will be the impact of VR technologies in human learning? All these questions should consider that each level and kind of interaction involves different body engagements and the output of sensory information depends on this. Haptic and kinesthetic are the most used for research and teaching tests (Hamza-Lup and Stanescu 2010); in our case we designed a digital archaeological exhibit based on this approach (see paragraph below).

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Figure 1. DiVE (Duke University): Virtual Digging Project at Çatalhöyük.

Table1. Itemized definition of different categories of body interactions (Oakley et al. 2000). Term

Definition

Haptic

Relating to the sense of touch

Proprioceptive

Relating to sensory information about the state of the body (including cutaneous, kinesthetic and vestibular sensations)

Vestibular

Pertaining to the perception of head position acceleration and deceleration

Kinesthetic

Meaning the feeling of motion. Relating to sensations originating in muscles, tendons and joints

Cutaneous

Pertaining to the skin itself or the skin as a sense organ. Includes sensation of pressure, temperature and pain.

Tactile

Pertaining to the cutaneous sense but more specifically the sensation of pressure, rather than temperature and pain

Force feedback

Relating to the mechanical production of information sensed by the human kinesthetic system.

More in general, our lab experiments before the COVID lockdown seemed to indicate that a combination of multiple digital media can produce a deeper and more articulated experience rather than a single

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application. In particular a kinesthetic-haptic interaction involves a higher level of digital embodiment.

Cyberarchaeology Cyberarchaeology is a branch of archaeological research concerned with the digital simulation of the past. In that sense, the past is seen as generated by the interaction with multiple virtual scenarios and by the creation of different digital embodiments (Jones and Levy 2018; Forte 2010, 2014, 2015). In other terms, cyberarchaeology designs a potential past where the core experience is in the simulation process rather than in the reconstruction. This approach recalls the multivocal attitude of virtual environments which can lead to new and unexplored interpretations: the generation of a multiple past. The term also recalls the ecological cybernetics approach based on the informative modeling of the organism-environment relationships (Bateson 1979) and it was inspired by the second order of cybernetics (Bateson 1972) which studies how observers construct models of other cybernetic systems. In this case, the observer is part of the system, so it is object and subject of observation. The cyberarchaeologist observes data in action, VR interactions and 3D environments but at the same time he/she is part of the same system. At the same time, it is possible to compare empirical data in the field, like archaeological excavations or artifacts and virtual simulations. The goal of these simulations is to envision multiple interpretations, each of them consistent with specific methods. In several publications Maurizio Forte compared the static format of Virtual Archaeology with the dynamic-digital outcome of cyberarchaeology. The main difference is that in a static virtual reconstruction, there is just one direction of learning/informational exchange: the content is predetermined, like in a movie or in a static image. On the opposite, in cyberarchaeology feedback and interactions are multidirectional and multivocal. The boundaries between imaginary/evocative/reconstructed data and empirical reality is hybrid, smooth and undefined. Cyber worlds in archaeology comprehend data recorded, reconstructed, and simulated (Forte 2010, 2014, 2015): the interaction between these domains is the booster of the interpretation. In fact, the focus of the discipline is on the cybernetic feedback/ enaction/embodiment and not just in the virtual content. The interpretation is provided by interaction and it is malleable. Virtual reality plays a central role in cybearchaeology because the informational process is based on the reciprocal real-time interaction user-environment. In fact, cyberarchaeology aims to investigate the past through the interaction with multimodal simulation models of archaeological datasets in different areas of knowledge. The cognitive-interpretive process is accomplished through an interaction-feedback loop in digital environments and through a kinesthetic feedback. Since the cyberarchaeology approach is based on multiple feedback and digital embodiment, it creates new perspectives of learning and content co-creation. The user is part of the system and, because of the interaction, co-creates new forms of knowledge.

Frame and Frameless Systems Human access to digital information is historically based on a frame for visualizing any kind of content. A picture needs a frame, a computer needs a screen, even in the earliest VR immersive caves the users watched projected walls and the empirical space around them. In short, the frame is the core of the performance, the place where we recognize the users’ feedback. It is important to recall that VR tools

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in the last decades were mainly based on framed systems, giving the users the capacity to distinguish the boundaries between empirical and digital reality. On the opposite, for frameless we intend tools or applications not embedded in a screen, CAVE or any dispositive with a frame describing the location of the digital performance (inside the frame or through the frame). For example, the visual perception by VR headsets (Oculus, HTC Vive and the like) is fully immersive, because the user cannot distinguish between empirical and virtual space. Like in a picture, the frame delineates the target, the visual narrative, and the action point of the performance. Frameless will also mean any 3D projection or floating models projected/augmented in the real world: at that point real/empirical and virtual will coexist in the same space and with the same ontology. In that case, digital and empirical realities will coexist in the same space but without a clear distinction between ontologies: what is perceived as real will be real. The frame is the cybernetic place where the virtual performance acts and recalls the interaction. The frame around a picture, if we consider this frame as a message intended to order or to organize the perception of the viewer, says “Attend to what is within and do not attend to what is outside. “Figure and ground, as these terms are used by gestalt psychologists, are not symmetrically related as are the set and nonset of set theory. Perception of the ground must be positively inhibited and perception of the figure (in this case the picture) must be positively enhanced …” (Bateson 1972, 187). In other terms: • •

Any message, which either explicitly or implicitly defines a frame, ipso facto gives the receiver instructions or aids in his attempt to understand the messages included within the frame. (Bateson 1972) The frame in cybernetic terms represents the interface between ontologies: in the picture the frame distinguishes the interpretation, the visual difference between what is observing and what is observed, the focal direction of the context: “… the human animal, because it interposes a semiotic screen between mind and external environment … can drive from inside the perception, getting free from the direct influence of the external environment” (Bateson 1972).

In our research work on virtual reality, the distinction between “framed” and “frameless” systems is relevant because perception and cybernetic feedback are different and, consequently, the learning process. For instance, the frame is still an empirical marker which distracts the brain to be entirely engaged in a virtual space. The perception of cyberspace is different if we use a VR headset (frameless) or if we use a desktop application (frame). Also, the digital embodiment cannot be the same in a frameless simulation. For example, in gaming applications the user feedback is deeply influenced by the level of immersivity, interaction design and realism. Collaborative activities (Forte, Kurillo and Matlock 2010; Forte and Bonini 2010) improve and accelerate the learning process since they stimulate reciprocal feedback and collective experiences. In fact, the technological evolution of the digital world is already very much oriented to frameless systems: skin sensors, augmented reality, fusion reality, holograms, and mixed realities force the brain to perpetuate the virtual experience. This hyperreality is designed to amplify the empirical world rather than replace it. We hypothesize that a multimodal digital interaction/simulation of the same content can foster and accelerate the learning process and to increase the embodied action. We name this approach “digital redundancy”, and this method was applied to the case study of the Basilica Ulpia in Rome, in the Trajan’s Puzzle Project (https://trajanspuzzle.trinity.duke.edu/). According to Gregory Bateson: “The message 522

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material is said to contain “redundancy” if, when the sequence is received with some item missing, the receiver can guess at the missing items, with better than random success. It has been pointed out that, in fact, the term “redundancy” so used becomes a synonym of patterning. It is important to note that the patterning of message material always helps the receiver to differentiate between signal and noise. (Bateston 1972, pp. 413-4). According to this definition of patterning, digital or media redundancy is not aimed at the duplication of content, but rather than at the diversification of the visual and multisensory content.

The Trajan’s Market Exhibit In 2017, 1900 years after the death of Emperor Trajan, the Dig@Lab (Duke University), in collaboration with the Museum of the Imperial Fora in Rome, designed a temporary exhibition with innovative, experimental content focusing on the architectural complex of the basilica Ulpia in the Trajan Forum. The emperor Trajan (53-117 AD) was one of the most successful Roman soldier-emperors, and presided over the greatest military expansion in Roman history, leading the empire to attain its maximum territorial extent at the time of his death. The Forum is an extraordinary example of high imperial architecture begun during Trajan’s principate (A.D. 98-117) and finished by his successor, Hadrian, in A.D. 128. Ammianus Marcellinus (A.D. 330-395) described it as “a gigantic complex ... beggaring description and never again to be imitated by mortal men”. The monumental complex represents a very sophisticated example of political propaganda by its use of symbols, iconography, ornaments, colors, textures, and materials. In short, the Forum was “a biography in stone” that revealed by storytelling and metaphor the life of the emperor as he progressed from mortality to divinity. The main focus of this complex is the Basilica Ulpia, a monumental, covered space particularly linked to the memory of the legions. On its façade there were simulacra militaria, namely banners and trophies. The original shape of the building is well known, but much of the iconographic apparatus of the decoration is still unstudied, and this was the principal focus of our contribution. In fact, the study of these important architectural fragments could reveal an entire new chapter of ancient art history, providing very new interpretations. The exhibit consisted of four main installations: a scale model made of three-dimensional printed parts, an augmented reality application, a series of holograms, and an interactive table based on tangible interfaces. In addition, a web-based digital repository was created to store and disseminate digital copies of architectural fragment specimens coming from the basilica. Indeed, most of the fragments kept in the museum deposits are not accessible to scholars and visitors. Since 1985 over 40,000 fragments originating from the imperial fora have been collected in the deposits created when excavations were carried out earlier in the 20th century. This seemingly huge number of finds represents a small percentage of the enormous quantity of marble facings and sculpted blocks used in the construction and decoration of the Imperial Forum District. Over the last 20 years, works carried out in the deposits of the forums have focused on the treatment and restoration of these fragments. Unfortunately, most of them are not visible or accessible to the public. The reconstruction of their architectural context and the original appearance of the forum complex are the basis of study for the Museum of the Imperial Fora project. The digitalization of this large-scale dataset is fundamental for approaching a correct interpretation and reconstruction of the Forum of Trajan and for understanding the visual impact, the narrative and symbolic content of the decorations. The recomposition of all these fragments is one of the key challenges of the next decades for archaeologists and art historians.

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Figure 2. 3D-printed mockup of the Basilica Ulpia in Rome.

The title “Trajan’s Puzzle Project”2 recalls the challenging work aimed at the recontextualization and reconstruction of the building architectural and decorative apparatus (Georgopoulos 2014). Figure 3. CAD model of the Basilica Ulpia.

For the making of the first installation, the basilica Ulpia—measuring 117 x 55 meters—was reduced to a 1:80 scale model (fig. 2). This work was a pioneering example involving the creation of an architectural mockup based on the most recent reconstructive studies of the building (Bianchi et al. 2011). The purpose of the model is to propose an accurate architectural recontextualization for the fragments

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of the decorative apparatus. The architectural model was entirely conceived in 3D CAD based on the drawings published in the reconstructive studies. Some of the tables of the recently published volume Atlante di Roma Antica (Carandini and Carafa 2012) containing plans, elevations and sections of the basilica have been digitized. The high-resolution scans were imported into a CAD modeling software and scaled to fit the metric system. Subsequently, the drawings were aligned and oriented to serve as a reference for the three-dimensional modeling. The elements of the plans were retraced in vector graphics with polygonal shapes and therefore extruded to generate three-dimensional geometries based on the heights taken directly from the vertical elevations and longitudinal sections (Fig. 3). The mockup of the building was printed out of polymerized resin by laser stereolithography (SLA). Given its size, the model was cut into 17 sections to fit the maximum size of the printer platform. This involved a complex work of geometric simplification of the original model that was not initially conceived for 3D printing. To allow the printing of individual sections, each element must in fact have a single, completely closed polygonal surface, a feature not present in a complex model such as the one developed in CAD. The polygonal structure that defines the surface of the models (mesh) was regenerated at sub-millimeter resolution by means of semi-automatic remeshing techniques which required computing power and conspicuous processing times. In this way it was possible to generate models suitable for three-dimensional printing with good geometric detail. The various sections of the model (fig. 4) were glued together and uniformly colored to form a three-dimensional cutaway of the building that also offers a view of the interior. The purpose of the mockup was to provide a different sensorial experience as a haptic installation meant for visually impaired or blind visitors. In the original project, the installation had to be integrated with panels printed in relief representing three-dimensional decorations of the friezes to be placed along the sides of the building in correspondence with the façade and the apses. In this way we intended to communicate to the public the architectural context to which the surviving sculptures belong. The haptic installation fruition proved to be more challenging, as the threedimensional printing of these architectural parts involves overcoming the fragility of the tiniest items not suitable for intensive manipulation by the public.

Figure 4. 3D-printed parts of the mockup before assembling.

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Figure 5. Holographic prints of the Basilica Ulpia.

This haptic installation has its symmetrical correspondent in another installation that involves sight rather than touch, implementing the concept of media and sensory redundancy. The holographic print of the building (fig. 5) allows the visitors to explore the monument inside out, simply by walking around the installation. Holograms can display three-dimensional images on two-dimensional supports, offering the illusion of a stereographic vision without the need of any digital support. The photopolymer film was laser-printed by Zebra Imaging company using innovative holographic technology that offers full parallax, meaning that by changing the angle of view one can see all sides of the building. The holographic prints are autostereoscopic, and therefore they do not require special eyewear or electrical devices but only a

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source of light, intense enough to illuminate the whole hologram. The technology used for holographic printing is based on the physical phenomenon of interference and light diffraction. Furthermore, this installation is a multi-channel holography, capable of showing different content depending on the point of observation. Visitors can see the interior of the building, without the visual obstacle of the roofs, just by walking to the rear of the building. This allows an almost “anatomical” view of the monument without the intervention of other technological support such as stereoscopic eyewear that could impact the visitor’s experience. In this case the holographic production was realized starting from a 3D CAD model. Technically, it is a fully analog product obtained from its digital counterpart. Figure 6. Hologram of the sphinx frieze.

As a complement of the main full-parallax hologram of the Basilica Ulpia, the installation was integrated with smaller horizontal-parallax holograms representing apotropaic motifs, such as sphinxes and griffins, which were part of the original decoration of the friezes. For some of them, we proposed an integrative reconstruction of the sculptural surfaces of the blocks showing the mere recomposition of the fragments on one side, and the fully reconstructed scene on the other (fig. 6). Most of the reconstructive work was based on stylistic comparanda or better-preserved specimens which were reused in

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later buildings. To carry out the integrative reconstructions of the gaps, we adopted the digital sculpting technique, an almost artisanal computer aided production consisting in reshaping mesh-based geometries through a virtual tool set managed by a graphic tablet. This task closely resembles artisanal handicraft in that it requires almost clay sculpting abilities and a detailed knowledge of the subjects depicted on the reliefs (fig. 7). Figure 7. Digital sculpting of the sphinxes in zBrush (courtesy of Julia Liu).

TITA (tangible interactive table for archeology3) is an interactive haptic installation aimed at the graphic recomposition of the panels with weapons originally located on the façade of the Basilica Ulpia. The fragments of these panels were found during the excavation of the building, whose façade overlooking the forum square depicted the celebration of the Dacian wars and the triumph of the victorious army. The decoration of the façade attic was made up of Dacian prisoners’ statues alternating with panels representing weapon stacks and holding a crowning with inscriptions in honor of the legions. About 400 fragments of white marble of Luni were found. They were characterized by a high-quality artistry and a variety of weapons and armor. The repertoire of the panels uses motifs of Greek-Hellenistic and Macedonian origin and shows references to the architectural decoration of the forum, especially in the decoration of the shields. Armors, tunics, helmets, various weapons and their containers, military donations, banners, and musical instruments are carved on oval and round shields, sometimes overlapping. This prototype was entirely conceived and built at Duke University as a pilot project. It is a portable digital-interactive table that allows the user to manipulate three-dimensional downsized replicas of the frieze’s fragments. The interaction with each piece on the table allows access to computer graphics ani-

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mations that explain the iconographic apparatus in its complexity (fig. 8). The purpose of this installation was to provide alternate ways to communicate complex narrative content and to acquire information on the single artifacts. The possibility of direct contact with objects is important for individualizing the experience and creating one’s own perceptual awareness of the object, combining different sensorialities such as touch, vision, and interactions. TITA was entirely designed and built by Duke University and NC State University using low-cost microelectronics and 3D printers. It is an open-source project entirely made with limited investments in materials. In the future it can be easily distributed via the network and anyone can print the contents and build it easily, even for home use. At the Museo dei Fori Imperiali it will be used as an advanced application for teaching and collaborative learning. Figure 8. TITA (Tangible Interactive Table for Archaeology).

It is somewhat difficult to comprehend this iconographic composition in its complexity from a few fragments, considering also that many of these objects were depicted stacked on top of each other. TITA is meant to break down the figurative composition showing each item separately and accompanying the illustrations with explanatory captions. Unfolding these hidden narratives embedded in the decorative details requires advanced technologies and, at the same time, unobtrusive devices not impactful for the

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museum fruition and visitor’s experience. In the near future, augmented and mixed reality will be able to perform this task more and more effectively. Most recent VR headsets are already provided with frontal cameras allowing users to access an augmented reality experience on an archaeological site or in a museum. This will shift the learning paradigm from a linear caption-driven narrative approach to a goal-oriented one where the visitor has the ability to explore and disclose the contents following and fueling his curiosity. The Augmented Basilica Ulpia4 (fig. 9) is an application for smartphones or handheld systems that projects a virtual three-dimensional reconstruction of the monument on its two-dimensional plan. In this way it is possible to highlight the spatial relationships between the architectural context and the location of the single friezes through an optical superimposition. In museums, AR has great potential because it can enrich environments, architectures and artefacts with additional information that would not fit exhibition spaces. Visitors can search for content accessing it through their own personal device (smartphone or similar). The main purpose of the whole project was to provide new communication approaches to the museum collections based on a series of haptic, analogue, and digital installations. We proposed a narrative recomposition of the basilica Ulpia friezes in which ancient artifacts and new technologies intertwine to produce new knowledge. The repetition, multiplication and overlapping of digital and analogue content produce a perceptual redundancy which helps to fix knowledge in the visitor’s mind. Three-dimensional prints and holograms are themselves quasi-digital artifacts, meaning that the models are produced by means of digital techniques and workflows whereas the final output is an analogue artifact. The digital models of the basilica and its architectural fragments were used to produce very highfidelity three-dimensional replicas. This technique offers unprecedented and still largely unexplored opportunities for museum collections ranging from the original artifact recomposition (its fragments are kept in different museums) to a potential reconstruction (missing parts are reconstructed based on stylistic comparanda). This project somehow reconsiders the future role of museums, where digital and new media will gradually integrate the originals with highly accurate copies capable of multiplying their use and distribution. The cognitive experimental relevance therefore does not focus on the originals but on the understanding of the whole, of the architectural context, of the artistic, political, and social value of Trajan’s work. The copies, printed in three dimensions from digitized originals, give us a glimpse of a future in which the artifact is manipulable, tangible, available to the public in different forms and “exists” as it communicates. It can therefore be touched, handled, or even played with, without the awe dedicated to the original specimens. In broad terms, the project offered numerous opportunities for Duke University students to participate in a collaborative design project that crosses multiple domains—art historical investigation and iconographic analysis, historical contextualization, archaeology and the digital communication of its artifacts, software engineering, computer vision techniques, digital design and fabrication technologies, open source communities, etc.—and thus represents the type of interdisciplinary collaborative effort that is a hallmark of Duke in the digital humanities and cross-disciplinary programs. Since 2016 we have offered 3 positions for independent studies for undergraduate students. In the following years Duke Engage was able to involve 8-15 students in Rome and 1-2 Duke faculty for continuing the work of digital recording and archaeological interpretation of the fragments of the Trajan’s Forum.

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Figure 9. Augmented Reality Application of the Basilica Ulpia.

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Teaching in VR As of 2020, the future of virtual reality (VR) in education seems more certain than ever. Distance learning was already considered critical to the future of education before the pandemic outbreak and now has suddenly become a necessity. VR would naturally integrate distance learning to recreate the sense of community where both students and teachers are replaced by digital representations of themselves, namely avatars (Forte and Kurillo 2010b). In this scenario, not only teachers can individually interact with students, but students can also interact with each other as in a real class. Moreover, teachers can teleport their class into pre-made lesson-scenarios that students can explore and interact with at their own pace. This largely furthers the learning process and student engagement. Archaeology and art history are among the disciplines that would most benefit from VR, being mostly visual and spanning across centuries and civilizations. Unfortunately, very few VR scenarios are currently available to cover a minimum range of topics for starting a VR-based class. Among the most interesting ones, the Nefertari Journey to Eternity5 shows a digitally scanned model of the Egyptian queen’s tomb with millimetric accuracy where users can explore its rooms and interact with hieroglyphs and paintings. During the 2019 course on Egyptian Art and Archaeology at Duke University, students had the opportunity to experience a full-immersive visit to Nefertari tomb using HTC Vive Pro headset. The experience proved to be beneficial in that it promoted active learning even if it was not yet a collaborative one. Given the availability of only one headset and the inability for the computer to manage multiple users at the same time, nobody was able to see the user in action as a cybernaut other than watching at a conventional screen showing a monoscopic representation of his field of view. Soon the single user experience will be replaced by a collaborative environment where each user is able to see the others in the same space (Sra and Schmandt 2015). Teachers will hold their classes directly in virtual museums or archaeological sites, be they faithful representations of real places or a utopian cyberspace aimed at presenting a simulated historical environment. To this extent, VR can shorten the distances and cut the costs of education programs abroad, being available at any time throughout the year. Moreover, VR allows for a task hitherto deemed impossible: time travel, albeit in a simulated historical context. Ideally, it might be even better than staying on the actual sites, as it will be possible to show the content arranged by historical era, hiding those items out of context, or even propose an interpretative simulation/reconstruction of an archaeological site (Georgopoulos 2014). In 2015 the Dig@Lab held a special topic seminar within the Virtual Museums class focused on the virtual reconstruction of lost and endangered heritage (Levy et al. 2018) such as museum artifacts and sites destroyed or damaged by ISIS and other conflicts in Iraq and Syria (Hatra, Nineveh, Nimrud, Palmyra) as well as natural catastrophes such as the earthquake in Nepal. Every student team designed, produced, and presented a project focusing on a specific case study of virtual reconstruction. As an example, Visualizing Khorsabad Project produced a Virtual Reality app about the Assyrian citadel of Dur Sharrukin (present Khorsabad, Iraq) with the ideal twofold goal of virtually reunifying the original reliefs and statues spread among several museums, as well as to provide an architectural context for the museums’ collections. The app was developed in Unity and allows for a full immersive visualization of the citadel through Oculus Rift head mounted display.6 The creation of VR contents for education is going to be the real challenge since it may take some years of research and development (mostly 3D modeling and programming) but once they are available to educational institutions, as well as the public, we will witness a major revolution in the field of teaching and learning. VR contents for archaeology and art history need to be well designed and suitable to

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meet the scientific standards in terms of historical accuracy and data transparency (Bentkowska-Kafel and Denard 2012). Students can also get directly involved in the digital production as creators of original contents rather than being end-users only. Usually, 3D modeling or programming are time consuming activities that are not compatible with the limited timeframe of a school semester. A way to get around this limitation is the availability of pre-made assets (3D objects and script libraries) which would make the task easy even for non-professional 3D modelers and developers. Computer game industry and, specifically, game engine platforms such as Unity or Unreal have so far provided versatile solutions for experimental courses in virtual archaeology and virtual museums. The high levels of student engagement and the promotion of active learning will be the most important achievement of this new digital revolution in education. At any rate, this kind of virtual classroom is not a replacement for more traditional teaching approaches based on school texts. The adaptation process will be gradual and based on the increasing availability of digital content. Cyber-students in art history and archaeology will take a chance to exploit their natural exploration instinct through a wide range of topics available in VR. If a picture is worth a hundred words then a 3D model is worth a thousand, and a virtual reality scenario a million, but before we can successfully implement VR learning in higher education, the production of contents needs to reach high quality standards following the best practices tested over the years. This will lead to the development of new spin-off sectors (from advanced digital publishing technologies to the development of peer-to-peer live streaming VR platforms) as well as the creation of new job opportunities in the sector.

CONCLUSION AND NEW RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES We discussed the impact of virtual reality in cyberarchaeology and digital humanities at Duke University and the case study of the Trajan Puzzle Project as an example of digital/media redundancy. The key goal of digital redundancy is to deliver a recurring message in different media with the same visual-haptic narrative, in our case the reconstruction of the Basilica Ulpia. The visual and tactile imagination of a Roman monument and its architectural decorations centralize the role of digital material culture in an archaeological museum, the Museum of Imperial Fora. The digital, haptic, and visual correlation between a virtual artifact, the installations, and the empirical artifacts, the objects displayed at the museum stimulate new questions and hypotheses. Different interactions develop a specific kinesthetic feedback according to the virtual trigger used in that context and the ontology of the content. For example, a hologram, a 3D print, a tangible interactive table, an augmented reality app, a VR headset create distinct levels of embodied simulation. We assume that this approach can accelerate and increase the learning process, but we do not have yet a valid system of testing and validation. In short, it is a theoretical assumption based on the principles of second-order cybernetics but without empirical evidence at neuroscientific level. What happens in the brain? What is the relationship between brain and kinesthetic learning (Gallese 2000)? An important cognitive challenge concerns the use of VR is to evaluate its cognitive impact at bio-cultural and unconscious level. For this reason, in 2020 the Duke Dig@Lab started a new research project on virtual reality and neuroarchaeology (supported by the Bass Connections grant) with the scope to investigate virtual spatial embodiment by EEGs, eye-tracking systems and neuroscientific tests. The main goal is to investigate and evaluate neuroscientifically archaeological spatial embodiment and data-modeling (empirical and

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digitally reconstructed) in different scales (site and landscape) and through different technologies. The comparative study of spatial embodiment in the physical and real world. In fact, it is possible to assess the user experience of the scenarios created in VR by measuring neural activity by means of electroencephalography (EEG) and portable eye tracking systems, which is already instrumented to test neural makers of visual-motor engagement in virtual reality (Appelbaum et al. 2017; Clements et al. 2018; Rao et al. 2018). By EEG tests it is possible to gain a more sensitive assay of neural and perceptual engagement in the immersive environment and to acutely test for attentional and adaptation effects as users explore the archaeological models. This study begins by prototyping immersive virtual reality that enables the digital recreation and visualization of ancient spaces. The visual inspection of a confined space, like an altar, a burial site, a “plaza” or a Roman basilica, also implies the activation of a performative level of experience through the triggering of embodied simulation (Ingold 2000; Lesure 2005). Thus, the perception of space can be deeply influenced by social status, aesthetic impact, cultural awareness. The perception of space in an archaeological excavation and the visual engagement can be quite different if we compare archaeologists and the general audience. The first ones will show a deeper focus on some regions of interest and high dwell time, the second, a more holistic interest in the empirical space. We expect to see a similar situation in the virtual space. Neuroscientific evidence on the relationship between the motor system, the body and the perception of space, objects, and the actions of others, showed that such notion of vision does not hold anymore. Vision is multimodal: it encompasses the activation of motor, somatosensory and emotion-related brain networks (Gallese 2014; Gallese Sinigaglia 2011). The study of ancient embodiment can be correctly approached by virtual reality because in a digital ecosystem it is possible to visualize and study potential activities and affordances in 4D (Gibson 1979). In fact, embodied relations are ruled by multiple meanings/affordances: in a house, an object can be linkable with other objects and/or activities but it can act differently according to space, time, and context. In architecture, a public monument can be experienced differently in relation to the observer, the spatial perception, the symbolic impact among many other factors. We need to study how these embodied relations are connected with their neurophysiological correlates (Gallese and Cuccio 2015), like those exemplified by the parieto-premotor cortical networks mapping space, objects and actions (Rosa and Tweedale 2005). The space around us is defined by the motor potentialities of our body. Motor neurons also respond to visual, tactile, and auditory stimuli. Embodied simulation is also triggered during the experience of spatiality around our body and during the contemplation of objects (Crossland 2012). The Dig@Lab produced several virtual reconstructions of ancient cities, landscapes and artifacts for museums and research purposes.7 We developed projects integrating perceptual technologies, including desktop virtual reality (Oculus Rift), immersive virtual reality (Duke Immersive Virtual Environment, DiVE), augmented reality (for tablets and smartphones), holograms (zSpace), and haptic devices (“Tangible Interactive Table for Archaeology”). These technologies and interactive designs challenge different human skills, interactions, and learning experiences and provide research platforms for future studies. Currently, we are studying virtual omnidirectional locomotion with biomechanical and electroencephalographic recording. We employ psychophysical and psychological means to empirically measure perceptual judgments of scale, distance, symbols, colors, specific architectural features, and particular objects in virtual context. We will use Likert scale questionnaires to ascertain perceptual experiences of the virtual scenarios, focusing on the visual and auditory dimensions of episodic memory and the

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topography of buildings, the spatial relations among architectural features, the location of key objects, the symbolic imagery embedded in the scenarios, and the sounds generated to simulate performative experience of the virtual spaces. A first ongoing experiment concerns the simultaneous recording of EEG activity and eye tracking during an immersive walkthrough of a virtual excavation (fig.10, Vulci, Italy). In this case the combination of EEG and eye tracking can indicate the level of engagement and kinesthetic virtual learning of the user. This research project is still in its embryonic phase, but it will help us to better understand how models, interactions and virtual scenarios can influence our spatial memory and learning skills in cyberarchaeology. Figure 10. EEG used in cyberarchaeology.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The success of several education and research projects at Duke University is due to the collaboration with a large community of undergrad, grad and MA students in Art, Art History, Visual Studies, Archaeology, Engineering and Computer Science. For the Trajan Puzzle Project we especially thank Lucrezia Ungaro, Julia Liu and Adam Spring. Sponsors of the project: Dig@Lab, Duke University, Department of Classical Studies, Duke University, Department of Art, Art History and Visual Studies, Duke University, Bass Connections ISC (Information, Society & Culture). Duke University, Duke Innovation & Entrepreneurship, Duke University, Franklin Humanities Institute Museum & Library Initiative, Duke University, Art and Science research grant, Duke University, Wired! Lab, Duke University, Delmas Foundation, 3D Systems. Special thanks also to Todd Berreth, NC State University, for developing the tangible interactive table for archaeology (TITA).

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REFERENCES Appelbaum, L. G., Clements, J. M., Rao, H. M., Khanna, R., Zielinski, D. J., Lu, Y., Vittatoe, K., Potter, N. D., Kopper, R., & Sommer, M. A. (2017). Changes in EEG and movement kinematics accompany sensorimotor learning in immersive virtual reality. Cognitive Neuroscience Society, 24th Annual Meeting. Bateson, G. (1972). Steps to an ecology of mind. The University of Chicago Press. Bateson, G. (1979). Mind and Nature. A Necessary Unit. Hampton Press. Bentkowska-Kafel, A., & Denard, H. (Eds.). (2012). Paradata and transparency in virtual heritage. Ashgate. Bianchi, E., Brune, P., Jackson, M., Marra, F., & Meneghini, R. (2011). Archaeological, structural, and compositional observations of the concrete architecture of the Basilica Ulpia and Trajan’s Forum in Comm. Humm. Litt, 128, 73–95. Carandini, A., & Carafa, P. (2012). Atlante di Roma Antica (Vol. 2). Academic Press. Clements, J. M., Kopper, R., Zielinski, D. J., Rao, H. M., Sommer, M. A., Kirsch, E., Mainsah, B. O., Collins, L. M., & Appelbaum, L. G. (2018). Neurophysiology of visual-motor learning during a simulated marksmanship task in immersive virtual reality. Proceedings of the 2018 Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces. 10.1109/VR.2018.8446068 Crossland, Z. (2012). Materiality and embodiment. In M. C. Beaudry & D. Hicks (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Material Culture Studies. Academic Press. Forte, M. (2010). BAR International Series: Vol. 2177. CyberArchaeology. Academic Press. Forte, M. (2014). Çatalhöyük: A Digital approach for the Study of a Neolithic Town. In R. Tamborrino (Ed.), Digital Urban History: Telling the History of the City at the age of the ICT Revolution (pp. 1–10). CROMA. Forte, M. (2015). Cyberarchaeology: A Post-Virtual Perspective. In D. T. Goldberg & P. Svensson (Eds.), Humanities and the Digital. A Visioning Statement (pp. 295–309). MIT Press. Forte, M., & Bonini, E. (2010). Embodiment and Enaction: a Theoretical Overview for Cybercommunities. In M. Ioannides, A. Addison, A. Georgopoulos, L. Kalisperis, A. Brown, & D. Pitzalis (Eds.), Heritage in the Digital Era. Multi-Science Publishing Co. Ltd. Forte, M., & Kurillo, G. (2010b). Cyber-archaeology and metaverse collaborative systems. Metaverse Creativity, 1(1), 7-19. doi:10.1386/mvcr.1.1.7_1 Forte, M., Kurillo, G., & Matlock, T. (2010). Teleimmersive Archaeology: Simulation and Cognitive Impact. In M. Ioannides (Ed.), Proceedings of Euromed Conference, Cyprus, 2010 (LNCS 6436, pp. 422–431). Springer. Galles, V., & Sinigaglia, C. (2011). What is so special with Embodied Simulation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(11), 512–519. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.09.003 PMID:21983148

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Gallese, V. (2000). The inner sense of action: Agency and motor representations. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 7, 23–40. Gallese, V. (2014). Bodily Selves in Relation: Embodied simulation as second-person perspective on intersubjectivity. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 2014(369), 20130177. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0177 PMID:24778374 Gallese, V., & Cuccio, V. (2015). The paradigmatic body. Embodied simulation, intersubjectivity and the bodily self. In Open MIND. Frankfurt: MIND Group. Georgopoulos, A. (2014). 3D virtual reconstruction of archaeological monuments. Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, 14, 155-164. Gibson, J. (1979). The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hamza-Lup, F. G., & Stanescu, I. A. (2010). The haptic paradigm in education: Challenges and case studies. The Internet and Higher Education, 13(1-2), 78-81. Ingold, T. (2000). The Perception of the Environment. Essays on Livelihood, Dwelling and Skill. Routledge. Jones, I. W. N., & Levy, T. E. (2018). Cyber-archaeology and grand narratives: Where do we currently stand? In I. W. N. Jones & T. E. Levy (Eds.), Cyberarchaeology and grand narratives. One World Archaeology. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-65693-9_1 Lesure, R. G. (2005). Linking Theory and Evidence in an Archaeology of Human Agency: Iconography, Style, and Theories of Embodiment. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 12(3), 237-255. Levy, T. E. (2018). At-Risk World Heritage, Cyber, and Marine Archaeology: The Kastrouli–Antikyra Bay Land and Sea Project, Phokis, Greece. In T. Levy & I. Jones (Eds.), Cyber-Archaeology and Grand Narratives. One World Archaeology. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-65693-9_9 Oakley, I., McGee, M., Brewster, S. A., & Gray, P. D. (2000). Putting the feel in look and feel. In Proceedings of ACM CHI 2000. ACM Press. 10.1145/332040.332467 Rao, H. M., Khanna, R., Zielinski, D. J., Lu, Y., Clements, J. M., Potter, N. D., Sommer, M. A., Kopper, R., & Appelbaum, L. G. (2018). Sensorimotor learning during a marksmanship task in immersive virtual reality. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 58. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00058 Rosa, M. G. P., & Tweedale, R. (2005). Brain maps, great and small: Lessons from comparative studies of primate visual cortical organization. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 360(1456), 665–691. doi:10.1098/rstb.2005.1626 PMID:15937007 Sra, M., & Schmandt, C. (2015). MetaSpace II: Object and full-body tracking for interaction and navigation in social VR. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1512.02922.pdf

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Cyberarchaeology: Differently than virtual archaeology, cyberarchaeology does not convey specific peremptory reconstructions of archaeological contexts rather it represents a real cognitive investigation tool since the user is not a passive spectator but a scholar or a student who tries to formulate new reconstructive hypotheses by interacting with archaeological datasets in a virtual environment. Digital Archaeology: Is a branch of archaeological science involving the application of information technology and digital media. It includes the use of digital photogrammetry, 3D reconstruction, virtual reality, geophysical prospection tools, and information systems, among other techniques. Virtual archaeology, cyberarchaeology, and computational archaeology, which covers computer-based analytical methods, can be considered subfields of digital archaeology. Virtual Archaeology: The term refers to the use of computer-based simulations of archaeological excavation contexts and sites. It is mainly visual and aims to show specific reconstructive hypotheses in a one-way communication process from the scholar who validated the reconstruction to the end-user, generally the public or students of archaeology.

ENDNOTES 1



4 5 6 7 2 3

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https://pratt.duke.edu/about/news/recreating-catalhoyuks-historical-excavation-virtual-reality (Accessed 30/08/2020). https://trajanspuzzle.trinity.duke.edu/ (accessed 30/08/2020). Project developed in collaboration with NC State University and designed by Todd Berreth The app was developed in collaboration with a Duke MA student, Vijay Rajkumar https://store.steampowered.com/app/861400/Nefertari_Journey_to_Eternity/ (accessed 30/08/2020). https://diglab.duke.edu/projects/visualizing-khorsabad (accessed 30/08/2020). https://diglab.duke.edu (accessed 30/08/2020).

Section 3

Artificial Intelligence and Its Potential for Improvement of Society

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Chapter 23

Designing Intelligent Tutoring Systems With AI: Brain-Based Principles for Learning Effectiveness Roberto Trinchero University of Turin, Italy

ABSTRACT This chapter describes the research problems inherent the design of effective intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) based on cognitive neuroscience research (brain-based approach) and evidence-based education. Effective student-ITS interaction requires a thorough understanding of the brain processes that underpin learning. The knowledge of these principles allows you to select optimal pedagogical strategies to monitor and guide the process. AI-based tutors have great potential in constantly adapting teaching content and tactics to the changing cognitive needs of the individual student in order to foster deep understanding, increase motivation, and develop a sense of self-efficacy in the learner. The brain-based approach can give ITSs a significant increase in effectiveness in promoting learning.

INTRODUCTION Research on intelligent systems that can support learners in learning process have seen an important debate since 80’s. AI seemed immediately a concrete possibility to provide efficient ways for the individualized education (Beck, Stern, Haugsjaa, 1996; Shute, Psotka, 1996; Mark, Greer, 1999; Ohlsson, Mitrović, 2006; D’Mello, Graesser, 2010; Szalay, Bahçeci, Gürol, 2016). In 1982 Sleeman and Brown coined the term “Intelligent Tutoring Systems” (ITS) to refer to a software capable of supporting learning by providing tutorial services that demonstrate “intelligence” in this role. ITS is defined “a computer learning environment that helps students master knowledge and skills by implementing intelligent algorithms that adapt to students at a fine-grained level and that instantiate complex principles of learning.” (Graesser, Hu, & Sottilare, 2018). Features of ITSs are grown following the posDOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch023

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 Designing Intelligent Tutoring Systems With AI

sibilities of AI technologies and, from the beginning, have delineated new opportunities for virtual learning environments (VLE). ITSs can offer the scaffolding of a tutor 7 days a week and 24 hours a day. ITSs can “learn” interacting with the learner and adapt their scaffolding to the exigence of the moment. The system generates exact questions, explanation, examples, counterexamples, sessions of practice, illustrations, activities or demonstrations, tailored to the learner by dynamic adaptation of content and form. ITSs have been shown to be as effective as expert human tutors (Kulik, Fletcher, 2016; VanLehn, 2011; Bloom, 1984) in one-to-one tutoring for well-defined domains (e.g., mathematics or physics) and significantly better than traditional classroom training environments (Graesser, Rus, & Hu, 2017). The main advantages are in a real possibility of individualized instruction and in a powerful opportunity of constant and capillary learner monitoring during the whole learning process, gathering data useful for learning analytics purpose (Siemens, 2013). Despite advancing in ITS theory development, ITSs are not so widely diffused in training and education. A possible reason is that it is very difficult and expensive to create exhaustive knowledge bases about topics or domains, so this effort is worthy only if scale economies can be realized, e.g. in military training, basic courses, etc. The difficulty increases if the interface between ITS and expert domain requires programming or other complex interaction (Aleven, McLaren, Sewall, Koedinger, 2009). Another problem is the flexibility of the knowledge base. Good tutoring in arithmetic, for example, requires a “basic” knowledge base and an “advanced” knowledge base taking into account arithmetic applications in the real world of today (that are different from applications in the real world of twenty years ago). Contents and user interfaces that look dated, make the ITS unusable. The investment in building an ITS is only worthwhile if it can update itself automatically, through interaction with learners but also with experts that feed continuously the knowledge base. A “static ITS” is not a good investment. A “learning and self-updating ITS” maybe. In this contribution we focalize some principles useful to design “effective and self-updating ITS”. This means on the one hand to interact with students in order to recognize, in fine-grain level, their cognitive state, how they think, feel and learn, and the most appropriate tactics and strategies to propose an effective tutoring, on the other to interact with experts in order to elicit and to “grasp” their expertise. The limits inherent to the process of inferring the learner’s cognitive state from his performance was a big failure of ITSs of the past. No wonder that the diffusion of ITS in school and training is so limited. Contemporary IA and web collective applications offer several opportunities to improve this self-updating process. Virtual intelligent assistants like Google Assistant, Siri, Bixby, Alexa, Cortana, and other chatbots are now in our everyday lives and demonstrate the opportunities of man-machine natural language interaction. Similarly, image recognition offers a simple way to communicate with the machine. These technologies can be very useful to implement a new generation of ITS. Chatbots can be trained to answer several questions that a learner may pose to ITS, with speech and drawings, and can use AI to recognize problems and formulate solutions.

Background A good tutoring intervention is always the result of applying a precise plan. To be complete and effective, a ITS must represent and manage subject matter knowledge, learners’ reasoning and behavior, teaching tactics and strategies, goals and sub-goals, in order to generate flexible tutoring plans, able to detect mismatches between learner acquisitions and system expectations and revise the plan (or generate a new plan) to face this mismatching. The tutoring action is representable with an OPDCA cycle: Observe–Plan–Do–Check–Adjust

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(Deming/Shewhart cycle; Deming, 1986), a constantly updating plan, guided by the outcomes of the learner and by the learning goals. Building a good plan requires an organization of domain knowledge, an analysis of learner status, several individual teaching actions. The moment-to-moment behavior of the tutor originates in the execution of that plan, that represents a kind of “meta-knowledge” that drives the behavior of the ITS. In the traditional ITS architecture four components are considered (Fadel, Holmes, Bialik, 2019; Alfaro et al., 2020): the domain knowledge model (what is taught, in terms of knowledge, abilities and competencies), the student model (whom is taught, in terms of learning models and current state of the learner on defined knowledge, abilities and competencies), the tutor model (how is taught, in terms of tutoring tactics and strategies) and the user interface (how the interaction takes place, including both the expert’s and the pupil’s side).

THE DOMAIN KNOWLEDGE MODULE The basic component of ITSs is the knowledge base, which contains “what is being taught”. The knowledge base contains the representations of one or more experts about a topic, a situation or a knowledge area. Three main types of knowledge representation are used (Paviotti, Rossi, Zarka, 2012): a) Rule-based models, where knowledge has the form of production rules that make explicit the reasoning path that the expert(s) does to face a task about a particular situation. The key idea is that there are a limited set of procedures or processes that lead to a correct solution, and the procedures or processes that are outside of them are incorrect. This representation is suitable for problems that can be resolved with division into subproblems, definition of identifiable steps and progression, encoding of the steps as a set of production rules. b) Constraint-based models, where the knowledge has the form of requirements that a solution to a task must accomplish to be considered a “good solution”. There are skills that cannot be taught as methods or procedures but admit a set of required constraints. Constraints may derive from the practitioner’s acting and can be considered as absolute requirements (what the solution has to be) and prohibitions (what the solution has not to be), or as preferences (what the solution should be) and warnings (what the solution should not be). The key idea is that all correct solutions share the same features, and other solutions are incorrect. The set of constraints for each task defines expected results and acceptable behaviors of the learner. Constraint model can be used for ill-defined problems, that: 1) start from an initial state not precisely defined; 2) have a goal state non precisely defined and several possible solutions, even incompatible one with another; 3) the solving processes and the allowable operations may be different. c) Expert system models, where the knowledge has the form of an expert system that contains fact, concepts, procedures and meta-knowledge (e.g. strengths and weaknesses), derived from the expertise of one or more human problem solvers. The key idea is that all correct solutions to a task must be compatible with the set of solutions that a human expert can give in this situation. The system chooses key variables and connects the knowledge elements that has in its repository to compose one or more solution. In this model, the solution paths and strategies to find the best solutions are multiple, the initial state and the goal state are clear and solution paths can be expressed as sequences of actions. This approach is particularly promising for illstructured domains where: 1) the domain itself do not always allow a well-defined ontology, unanimously accepted by the community; 2) the context plays an important role in defining what is a “good” solution to a task; 3) the reduction implemented with a rule-based or constraint-based model would lead to an unacceptable simplification.

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This tripartition reflects the tripartition of knowledge structuration (Table): high-structured knowledge (defined by rigid steps), semi-structured knowledge (defined by constraints), low-structured knowledge (defined by assertions). Table 1. Example of knowledge structuration for ITS High-structured knowledge

Semi-structured knowledge

Solutions procedures

Compatibility grid for solutions

Solution 1 Solution 2 … Step 1 Solution step: … Step 2 Step 3 …

Solution 1 Solution 2 … Constraint 1 How the solution is compliant with constraint: … Constraint 2 Constraint 3 …

Low-structured knowledge Textual in-depth description of solutions Solution 1: … (fact, concepts, procedures, meta-knowledge) Solution 2: … (fact, concepts, procedures, meta-knowledge) Solution 3: … (fact, concepts, procedures, meta-knowledge) …

These approaches are not rigidly alternative: ITSs can combine more than an approach to accomplish different types of needs. Technically, the knowledge base is made up of a repository of teaching materials and metadata that are useful to retrieve and compose them into teaching sequences.

The Student Module / Team Module The student module is the core component of an ITS and implements a student model. This module contains all the knowledge the tutor needs to teach effectively, e.g. the student’s cognitive (knowledge, abilities, competences), affective (engagement level, confusion, frustration, …), motivational (intrinsic, extrinsic), and other psychological states, and their evolution as the learning process advances. The student model is a dynamic model: it must gather explicit and implicit data from the learner, use these data to create a dynamic representation of his/her knowledge (by tracking the learner’s progress from problem to problem), and builds a profile of strengths and weaknesses relative to the learning goals (Anderson, Corbett, Koedinger & Pelletier, 1995). This profile lets the system to provide instructional activities that will be most beneficial to the student at that time. The student model is often viewed as an overlay (subset) of the domain model, which changes over the course of tutoring, and feeds the tutoring model, that makes decisions about tutoring strategies, tactics and actions. In a collaborative learning environment, the student model can be integrated by a team model, which is the equivalent model for a learning group. The team model tracks progress toward team learning goals and monitors the teamwork states that moderate or influence team and individual learning and performance (Sottilare, 2018). Team models are more complex than individual learner models since the team’s performance is not simply the sum of individual performances. Two components are important to build an effective student model. The first includes the state and the needs of the learner, in a longitudinal perspective. The second includes the effective ways to acquire new knowledge, abilities and competencies, selecting optimal instructional strategies. This second component will be explored further in the chapter.

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The Tutor Module ITS is a “teacher” that interacts with a learner and offers opportunities of individualized instruction and extensive practice in relation to predefined goals. The tutor module implements a tutor model (also known as the pedagogical model or the instructional model) takes the domain and learner models as input and selects tutoring strategies, tactics, actions and steps, about what the tutor “should do next” at any point of the exchange. The tutor model contains the “pedagogical theory” of the ITS. In the 80’s ITSs, typically the system gives to the student the theory and worked-out examples. The learning paths are predetermined and no adaptivity was foreseen. Contemporary ITSs are largely adaptive and present focused stimuli and activities to the learner to maximize learning effectiveness. A good ITS gives opportunity to the learner to work always in his zone of proximal development (ZPD, Vygotsky, 1978). The system can pose questions and understand answers, determining from these the learner’s knowledge, abilities and competencies and using this information for subsequent actions, taking into account also “social intelligence” aspects (e.g. to offer encouragement when needed, to provide help when the student is confused, to ignore negligible errors, to avoid criticizing of the same mistakes over again, to avoid making student perceive negative emotions related to his/her actions, and so on). The pedagogical model can be also influenced by the knowledge representation used by ITS: 1. For rule-based ITSs, the tutor module tracks the path of the learner across the rules and works on the simulation of possible paths. Consequently, the tutor drives the learner to a solution provided by one or more “correct” sequences of action to achieve the unique “good” solution or one of the “good” solutions. Specific feedback is activated in violation of these sequences. The learner must follow step by step the correct sequence(s) during the development of the solution and each action receives a feedback according to the correct modality/ies to execute the task itself, modalities that must be all foreseen, in the same way possible errors must be foreseen. The feedback is accurate and the suggestions are used to bring the students on specified paths. A compatible teaching approach can be problem solving modelling: instruction is based upon presentation of ideal solution models and the verify of learning it is always possible to distinguish the good answers from the bad ones. 2. For constraint-based ITSs, the tutor module checks if the learner violates a constraint during the execution of a task and activates a specific feedback that drives the learner to avoid it. The set of constraints gives the learner some possibilities of creativity in his/her action: a solution is correct if it does not violate any constraint. A compatible didactic approach can be hypotheses generation and testing: the instruction is based upon guiding the learner to formulate sensate hypotheses (by presentation of constraints) and to test them with the help of the system (e.g. in a simulation environment). Good answers derive from application of tested hypotheses. 3. For expert-systems ITSs, the tutor module emulates the decision ability of a human expert, and his/ her skill in modelling a problem and reflect on his/her own solutions. The ITS not accompanies the learner towards one or more pre-set solutions or constraints but orients him/her to describe and clarify the situation, to pose the “right” questions, to reason on possible solution processes. A compatible didactic approach can be Socratic questioning to stimulate reasoning about situations, tasks and possible solutions. The feedback derives from comparison between the learner solutions and the “ideal” solutions generated by the expert knowledge base. The answers are not “right” or “wrong”, but more or less compatible with the expert answers. Feedback aims to stimulate the reflection process on action, also by explaining differences between learner’s solution and expert’s solutions. This process can active 544

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self-regulating learning. The learner can be creative in his/her action but is difficult for the system to analyze the appropriateness of the solutions.

The User Interface The user interface is a very important component for the effectiveness of ITS. It interprets the user’s contributions through various input media (speech, typing, clicking, drawing, moving) and produces output in different media (text, diagrams, animations, agents). Some recent systems have incorporated natural language interaction (Graesser, 2016; Johnson & Lester, 2015; Nye, Graesser, & Hu, 2014; Al-Emran, Shaalan, 2014), speech recognition (D’Mello, Graesser & King, 2010; Litman, 2012, Bell, Dzikovska, Isard, 2012), and the sensing of learner emotions (D’Mello et al., 2008; Baker, D’Mello, Rodrigo & Graesser, 2010; D’Mello & Graesser, 2009; Brawner, Holden, Goldberg, Sottilare, 2011; D’Mello, 2013). Who is the “user”? Users are both the learner and the expert that creates the knowledge base. Reasoning from knowledge-domain expert’s perspective, it is worth pointing out that a significant amount of time is required to develop and fill the domain knowledge model, in terms of rules, constraints or expert-knowledge structures, and this amount of time means a significant cost of implementation, especially for ill-defined knowledge domains. A good ITS must include an authoring tool that allows the construction of the domain knowledge simply by interacting with domain experts, posing them problems and questions, tracking their problem-solving activities in paradigmatic cases and answers to strategic questions. Perspective is more complete if many experts participate in design, also in different roles (e.g. one or more expert formulates strategic questions and other experts propose possible answers, right and wrong, to reconstruct all the possible cases). Any further interaction with new experts can enrich the knowledge base. This interface facilitates the construction of an ITS because it requires low technological competencies from experts and reduces the time and costs of developing and updating. Similarly, on the learner side, the system must “learn” about student’s characteristics by interacting with him/her in normal tutoring activities, to delineate profiles of knowledge, abilities, competences, useful to propose individualized paths. “Learning from the experts” about knowledge domain and “learning from the learners” about the learners themselves are the challenge for AI-based ITSs. In the ideal situation, the ITS converses in natural language with one or more experts, reads drawing and interprets images, acquires and integrates knowledge from all sources and then converses with the learner, makes diagnostic evaluation and delivers the right activities to work in his/her ZPD. The “transparency” of the user interface is fundamental for the sustainability of the ITS training process. The dialogue ITS-domain expert can have different forms in relation to the knowledge base type: 1. For rule-based ITSs, the user interface must support the expert in performing the cognitive task analysis in order to construct a task model for a problem or a problem set, by posing questions like “What operation must be done for achieve this goal …?”). The task model contains the possible solution paths and strategies. Task models derive from a goal decomposition tree and are usually represented as sets of production rules, tagged with keywords and annotated with hints or other educational information (model-tracing). Tags and annotations add to knowledge a meta-knowledge level that facilitates the reconstruction of the reasoning processes operated by the expert and by the learner, and can support a wide variety of tutoring services, such as: 1) assessing the reasoning process of the learner, using the

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rules that he/she has applied as evidence; 2) suggesting the next steps to the student, in relation to previous reasoning; 3) giving demonstrations of “good” paths of reasoning. 2. For constraint-based ITSs, the user interface must support the expert to make the constraints for the solution explicit, e.g. in a simulation environment helping the expert to find many solutions and to make explicit the common characters of them. On the learner side, the user interface must support the learner in formulating and checking hypotheses of solutions that do not violate the constraints. 3. For expert-systems ITSs, the user interface must support the expert in reproducing the problem space by observing his/her reasoning and behavior in facing complex cases, describing in-depth cases and interventions. Each case is unique and no generalization is admitted; it is only possible to establish relations of similarity and transferability. On the learner side, the “Socratic dialogue” aims to stimulate reflection and comparison between his/her reasoning/behavior and the reasoning/behavior of the expert. The aim is to identify appropriate strategies, to manage the uncertainty, and to transfer strategies from one case to another in according to case similarity.

A MODEL TO DESIGN EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES IN AI-BASED ITS To provide adaptive instruction, the ITS must have a strategy which translates its tutorial goals into teaching actions. Considering research on teaching and learning strategies is central for the building of effective systems. In the past, adaptive instruction (Waxman, Wang, Anderson & Walberg, 1985) tried to tailor instruction considering several characteristics of the student: initial competence, educational goal, learning style and learning rate. The problem is that no explicit models of how a subject learn was considered. This level is often implicit. The research in cognitive neuroscience (Anderson, 2009; Geake, 2009) and the evidence-based approach in education (Hattie, 2009, 2012; Calvani & Trinchero, 2019) have produced a vast knowledge base on the ways humans learn. Important references are: a) Hebbian learning model (HLM; Hebb, 1949; Geake, 2009): HLM is a neuroscientific theory claiming that learning is a neuronal process that our brain uses to represent the regularities that derive from sensory stimuli. These regularities lead to the constitution of cell complexes that memorize the mental representations built from the experienced information and allow our brain to produce new ones, connecting and transforming the existing representations in relation to the new acquired stimuli. Starting from these elements, the subjects build mental structures (schemas), models and principles that constitute their knowledge base. b) Cognitive load theory (CLT; Paas, Tuovinen, Tabbers, & van Gerven, 2003): basic assumption of CLT is that humans have a capacity-limited and temporaneous working memory which interacts with an unlimited and durable long-term memory. CLT states that humans transfer acquired knowledge and skills by means of a mechanism of schema construction and automation. Using a mental chunking mechanism, multiple elements of information are aggregate as single elements in cognitive schemas, which can be automated by means of practice. This automated knowledge can bypass working memory during mental processing and avoid its limitations. Working memory manages the practice that constructs schemas to be stored in long-term memory. c) Research on Executive functions (EF; Diamond, 2012): EFs are mental functions needed when people process stimuli and find several possible solutions for a problem. In the Diamond’s model (2012) there are three core EFs: inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Inhibitory control is responsible for the control of behavior (e.g. overriding habitual or automatic responses, exerting self-control and discipline), of attention (e.g. using selective or focused attention) and of emotions (e.g. to avoid acting impulsively). Working memory holds information in mind and processes it. It is useful for making sense of something that

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requires holding in mind what happened earlier and relating it to what is happening now; this is the case of linguistic information and mathematical problem solving (e.g. reordering items, understanding causes and effects, relating pieces of information, abstracting general principles). Cognitive flexibility helps subjects to change perspectives (e.g. to see something from another point of view), way for “see” the problem (e.g. think outside the box), and be flexible to adjust the behavior to the situation (e.g. changing priorities, admitting errors, taking advantage of unexpected opportunities). From these research issues, several principles can be derived, and these principles can orient the design process of an ITS: 1. Representation principle. In accordance with HLM, the regularity in the stimulus, intended as coherence and stability, is a key aspect, and the learning/teaching actions that insist on these regularities favor the construction of stable representations. The ITS must present the stimuli associated to the domain knowledge in a way that facilitates the construction of learner knowledge representations, and these stimuli must be regular, for example: a) maintain coherence between verbal and visual information presented to the learner; b) prevent cognitive overload, furnishing only and exactly the information needed in that moment; c) use same terms to denominate same concept; d) use advanced organizers (Ausubel, 1968) to give a structure to the information presented to the learner; e) maintain a rigid coherence between expositions and feedback. 2. Repetition principle. HLM states that the neuronal complexes wired together build and maintain their connections through the concomitance of activations and its repetition over time. All innate (e.g., walking, grasping, speaking) and non-innate (e.g. reading, writing, solving math problems) abilities require repetition to be consolidated into stable mental structures. Repetition generates, strengths and maintains the wiring: what is recalled, observed, used repeatedly tends to remain in the stable repertoire of learning, the rest tends to be forgotten. The ITS must provide repeated stimulus in order to reinforce the learner’s knowledge representations, by: a) returning several times on the key topics in order to reinforce the corresponding representations; b) repeating several times the exercise of a skill that the student wishes to learn, in order to improve the mastery and fluidity of application (Peladeau, Forget, Gagne, 2003). 3. Meaning principle. Cell complexes, build as described by HLM, do not represent the reality but the subjective meaning that learner assigns to reality, and this processing starts from human perceptive systems through operations of categorization (e.g. if we see an image depicting a middle-aged woman in a classroom speaking to a preteen audience and showing a map, it is normal for us to assign the meaning “teacher giving a geography lesson” to the situation). Meanings are decisive to constructing mental representations, while perceptive details tend to be forgotten. The ITS must pose attention on how the stimuli generate meaning in learner, through: a) providing students precise definitions of the specific concepts for a topic, monitoring the correct understanding by the learner; b) encouraging the systematic learner’s activity of formulating questions and hypotheses about meaning. 4. Interpretation principle. The assignment of meaning makes use of pre-existing mental representations owned by the learner. Mental representations are both the instrument and the product of the activity of meaning construction. Problems in learner pre-existing representations (e.g. not knowing the contexts in which to place certain events, missing precursor needed for understanding, having a “poor” vocabulary) lead to problem in the process of meaning construction. The ITS must control which learner’s knowledge representations are involved in significance assignment to the stimulus, by: a) proposing specific activities to activate and monitor previous knowledge and interpretative models of the learner, and using this information to re-align him/her on a condition of learning readiness (mastery of the knowledge, skills 547

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and competences that form the basis for understanding the concepts to be explained); b) adapting the exposition of subject matter to these previous knowledge and interpretative models (e.g. using concrete examples if the learner is not yet able to apply abstract conceptualizations); c) reminding the needed precursors by naming, locating or explaining it (e.g. “Remember the meaning of…”). 5. Progression principle. Since subjects assign meaning to new information using representations already built in the past, it is important in a learning/teaching path to present the stimuli in the right progression. This means breaking down complex concepts and problems into simpler units, defining propaedeutic sequences, ensuring that learners acquire a good mastery of the basic concepts before moving on to more complex concepts. The ITS must: a) take care of the progression of the displayed contents (order effect: the same contents presented to the students in a different order give different results, Langley, 1995; Ritter, Nerb, Lehtinen, 2007); b) connect the activities to a sequence of progressively more difficult objectives (e.g. from remembering basic information to describing artifacts, applying procedures, formulating hypotheses and posing questions); c) propose activities that stimulate students to move from a concrete and immediately comprehensible reasoning to a more abstract and conceptual one (e.g. present concrete examples and then describe a target as a generalization of the precursors). 6. Reorganization principle. The new information experienced by the learner and interpreted through the pre-existing mental representations lead to the modification of these representations. Numerous random elements intervene in this process of recombination and reorganization, due for example to margins of ambiguity in the interpretative process. The ITS must monitor the reorganization process acted by the learner as consequence of received stimuli, by: a) proposing short and frequent assessment moments, to monitor the correctness of the representation building process during the process itself; b) proposing activities that help the learner to become aware of the gap between his/her representations before and after the acquisition of new information (for example by answering questions such as “What did you learn in this module…? ”, “How your way of seeing questions has changed?”); c) asking the student to formulate explicit links between the information previously possessed and the new acquired information (“How does this topic relate to what you already knew previously?”). 7. Reconstruction principle. When the learner constructs mental representations, he/she tends to retain the general meanings of the topics (the “essence of things” that emerges from the interpretative process) rather than the perceived details. The memory for details, especially the less relevant ones, requires a reconstruction process (Anderson, 2009, 187-188), through which the learner fills the gaps in their representations by means of plausible inferences. This allows to improve and strengthen the representations themselves (if the learner reconstructs them starting from a limited number of details, Zaromb & Roediger, 2010) and to overcome the cognitive impasses due to memory gaps, but can generate false memories and misconceptions. The reconstruction process generates new representations, which can subsequently be rebuilt over and over again: the reconstruction modifies the memory, sometimes improving it, sometimes distorting it. It is important that students learn to distinguish plausible reconstructions from less plausible ones, data elements from inferred ones, well-reconstructed elements from questionable ones. The ITS must support the learner in the generation of good reconstructions, by: a) guided activities in which students have to reconstruct a structured set of information (for example a graphic representation, a map, a speech, a procedure, ...) starting from a limited number of fundamental elements of it (e.g. reconstructing an heard story starting from a synthetic plot, reconstructing a seen drawing starting from a few details, reconstructing the meaning of an experience starting from a few elements of it); b) guided activities in which learners have to autonomously deepen a given topic and then explain their results to the system, that performs an evaluation. 548

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8. Automatization principle. Once a certain stimulus has been stably “wired” in a cell complex, subsequent recoveries and uses become automatic (Anderson, 2009, 85). We pass from a stage in which the conscious control given by EF operates throughout the entire process (for example when a child first learn to read single letters and then entire words) to a stage in which these processes become increasingly rapid and automatic and we no longer need to think explicitly about what we are doing. Automation reduces the amount of neural resources needed to process a stimulus and brings this process below the conscious level (Kiesel, Kunde, Pohl et al., 2009). Representations whose use has been automated remain relatively stable even after long periods of inactivity (Anderson, 2009, 244-248). The ITS must support the learner in the automatization of his knowledge, by: a) proposing session of deliberate practice, in which the learner can exercise particular skills in a guided and repeated way, in order to make them progressively more fluid and automatic (Ericcson, 1993; Brabeck & Jeffrey, 2011); b) proposing specific activities that work on the critical points (those that require effective automation) of the subject matter, in order to move progressively to higher-level problems (e.g automatize the operations of calculation in order to solve complex arithmetic problems, see Cho, Ryali, Geary, Menon, 2011; Rosenberg-Lee, Barth, Menon, 2011); c) using distributed practice, that propose re-application of acquired skills over time, rather than concentrated in a single moment (Hattie, 2009, 2012; Clark, 2010). 9. Feedback principle. The representations constructed by the learners are potentially different one from each other, because they depend on the pre-existing representations, on the use of them, and on the interpretative choices of the learners. Not all representations are good representation (e.g. adhering to the provided models o compatible with posed constraint): the process of signification can generate misconceptions and erroneous, superficial or incomplete representations. The role of bidirectional feedback is important: from learner to ITS, that permits the ITS to test the goodness of the of the learner’s representations, and from ITS to learner, that permit the ITS to propose different and correct interpretative and action models (Hattie, 2009, 2012). The ITS must: a) propose systematic and periodic assessment activities for testing learners’ representations, followed by specific and detailed feedback, in a logic of formative assessment; b) propose activities of comparison and confrontation of representation constructed by different learners, in order to give examples useful as models and self-assessment source. 10. Focusing principle. The construction of good representations is easier if the learner is helped to focus on the right details of the subject matter (e.g. in the demonstration of a mathematical theorem, highlighting important parts or, in an interpretation of a literary product, highlighting the key terms and expressions). Orienting the learner’s selective attention mechanism avoids cognitive overload and optimizes the use of working memory processing resources. The ITS must: a) guide the students’ attention to the important elements of the topics: key-concepts and procedures in relation to learning objectives, important details in a discussion, fundamental relation between entities; b) use assessment as a means to communicate what is important and what is less important, for example initial assessment that insists on the same (explicit) objectives as the final tests. 11. Modeling principle. Neuronal complexes are formed not only by direct experience but also by vicarious experience (Bandura, 1977), observing and imitating the behavior of another individual. Learners can learn from paradigmatic examples and models and not only from direct experience. The ITS must: a) propose step-by-step demonstrations of how a problem is solved or a task is carried out (worked examples, Clark, Nguyen, Sweller, 2006); b) propose problem solving teaching (Ferguson‐Hessler & Broekkamp, 2001; Felmer et al., 2015) activities, based on guided practice (the ITS explains the solution steps one at a time and the student executes them), annotated practice (either the ITS and the student justifies the steps as they are being executed), corrected practice (the ITS immediately corrects any incorrect step 549

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12.

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of the student and hints at the correct step), sheer drill (the ITS does not intervene unless the learner asks for help). Processing principle. For a good assignment of meaning to the received information, it is important not to stop at the superficial level but to go to a deeper level (deep processing, Anderson, 2009, 151-152). Deep processing helps to connect more concepts and areas of knowledge to build rich and articulated representations. Deep processing implicates the use of multiple cognitive operations and lead to better retention and application (Anderson, 2009, 152 and 171-172). The ITS must stimulate deep processing of information provided, by: a) proposing activities that stimulate students to exercise a plurality of cognitive operations (e.g. not only ask “what happened” but also “how it happened” and “why it happened”, find distinctive particulars and differences between cases, state and defend personal opinions) that insist on the same contents; b) proposing activities that connect different representative codes (Fiorella, Mayer, 2015): text and schemes (learning by mapping), text and images (learning by drawing, learning by imagining), text, images and motor activities (learning by enacting, also using motion sensors such as those of video game consoles); c) promoting moments of Socratic and deepening dialogue, in order to compare and elaborate ideas, analyze cases, and test the strength of the build mental representations (man-machine cognitive interaction). Retrieving principle. The practice of frequently retrieving information from long-term memory improves memory recall (Anderson, 2009, 163-166). The typical example is assessment: when the learner is called to carry out a proficiency test, he must recall and use his/her mental representations and these cognitive operations lead to their strengthening (test-potentiated learning, Arnold, McDermott, 2012). This is valid for close-ended (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006) and open-ended responses (with even greater effect, Kang et al., 2011). The ITS must stimulate the frequent retrieving of long-term memory content by learner, by: a) proposing frequent activities of assessment-for-learning and assessment-as-learning (Earl, 2014) in which students are stimulated to recover and use what they have previously learned in a variety of situations. b) proposing activities in which learners must construct self-explanations (learning by self-explaining, Fiorella, Mayer, 2015) and explanations for others (learning by teaching). Contextualization principle. The neuronal circuits corresponding to the contents to be learned are activated together with the neuronal circuits corresponding to the contexts in which these elements are learned (Geake, 2009). This produces context-dependent learning. The contextualization of stimuli (especially for familiar contexts for learners) has a positive effect on learning but does not play in favor of an immediate and automatic transfer. The ITS must contextualize information and use strategies to promote learning transfer, by: a) presenting the links between stimuli and context and use context information to facilitate the recall of concepts; b) propose learning experiences that are as close as possible to the context in which the learning outcomes will be expressed and evaluated (e.g. flight simulators that put future pilots in typical situations, Clark, 2010); c) inserting specific cues in the didactic materials that help the learner to recognize contexts and situations in which the contents can be applied and to adapt content to several contexts (Clark, 2010; Clark, Nguyen, Sweller, 2006); d) carrying out a specific work of de-contextualization, abstracting regularities and principles, and re-contextualization, guiding learners to recognize new contexts and situations to which such regularities and principles can be applied (transfer strategies, Hattie, 2012). Self-regulation principle. The efficacy and efficiency of mental representations depends on the goodness of the representations themselves but also on the ability of the person to quickly recognize when representations are adequate or not and changing them to find new, more suitable ones (Zimmerman, 2008). The ITS must promote self-assessment and self-regulation, by: a) proposing activities that work

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on the metacognitive thinking of the learner (e.g. self-verbalization of the thought processes in tackling a task or solving a problem, Hattie, 2009, 2012); b) proposing activities that involve systematic reflection on one’s own mistakes (Clark, 2010, 229), with specific debriefings that reconstruct and modify the chains of reasoning of the learner; c) proposing systematic self-assessment activities (Andrade & Valtcheva, 2009) to guide the learners to self-monitor and self-correct their weaknesses; d) giving value to attitudes as concentration, persistence and self-control (e.g. staying on a task until it is finished, delaying the gratification connected to a task, resisting the temptation to act impulsively). 16. Emotion principle. The construction and consolidation of neural cell complexes is favored by emotions, be they positive or negative. Memories have often an emotional dimension. What generates positive emotions can arouse interest, increase intrinsic motivation (study for the pleasure of learning) and therefore commitment to learning activities. The reward associated with extrinsic motivation (reward seeking behavior, e.g. study in view of a reward, Geake, 2009) can also be a source of positive emotions. Both mechanisms are largely used by games. The ITS must provide an involving and addictive learning experience, by: a) proposing to the learners optimal challenges (Harter, 1978) adequate to their current level of preparation, neither too simple (they would be boring), nor too difficult (they would generate frustration and rejection), whose overcoming can lead to an increase in the learner’s self-esteem; b) using game-based techniques to associate positive emotions to the specific learning content, paying attention not only to cultivating learning but also to the pleasure of learning; c) arousing the learners’ curiosity by triggering anticipation mechanisms (e.g. asking them to imagine how the text they are reading continues). 17. Individual differences principle. The process of construction and automatization of mental representations occurs at different speeds in different learners. The visible effect is that there are learners who learn more quickly and others who learn more slowly. In addition, each learner has a different baggage of foreknowledge so the same training actions can lead to completely different outcomes in different learners. The ITS must personalize training paths to take in account the individual differences, by: a) detecting the specificities of each learner and consequently proposing activities that motivate learners insisting on their strength points and work systematically to remediate their weak points; b) using structured but flexible didactic strategies, composed by a wide range of pre-implemented instructional actions (explanations, demonstrations, simulations, problem posing, problem solving, …); c) allowing the student to proceed at his own pace on the didactic materials provided. 18. Intentionality principle. In addition to differences, there are preferences. Human beings choose the directions in which to invest their cognitive resources, in terms of goal-directed behavior and conscious attention on the task. The choice can be dictated by intrinsic (pleasure in engaging) or extrinsic (obtaining rewards) motivations. Even a choice initially dictated by extrinsic motivations can lead over time to develop intrinsic motivation. The ITS must take in account the individual preferences and interests of the learners and involve them in the activities, by: a) stimulating connections between subject matter and personal interests of the learner; b) reducing performance anxiety in machine-driven tasks (where a human teacher can generate anxiety, a machine can put the learner in the best conditions to minimize the stress associated with the task); c) putting the emphasis on the learner’s progress as result of the learner’s efforts, encouraging intentional and conscious practice; d) helping the learner to analyze the steps taken in carrying out a task, in order to find errors, non-productive choices and possible alternative strategies, improving the learner’s sense of self-efficacy. These principles are valid for all learners and topics and consent to build an ITS around a model of “how people learn”. The logic is: to construct artificial teachers, we must first discover how to teach, and to discover 551

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how to teach we must first discover how to learn. Implementing these principles, the ITS become an effective mediation instrument to interface experts and learners.

SOME PARADIGMATIC EXAMPLES Can real ITSs, in this moment, implement the principles listed above? Only partially. Here a brief description of some paradigmatic examples of ITSs: a) Stat Lady. Stat Lady is a system developed to implement experiential learning to involve students in real-world examples and problems (Shute, Gawlick, 1996). Basic assumption is that learners come to new learning situations already possessing knowledge structures which can be used as a sort of cognitive loom on which to interweave new knowledge and skills. StatLady empowers and encourages learners, using realworld examples for problem-solving scenarios. Concepts to be learned are embedded in familiar situations (to draw on prior knowledge), and examples vary to show the range and limits of applicability of the concepts. b) CTAT (Cognitive Tutor Authoring Tools). CTAT is a suite of authoring tools that are relatively easy to learn also for nonprogrammers (Aleven, McLaren, Sewall, Koedinger, 2006). CTAT implements a programmingby-demonstration system that enables the users to create software without coding by only demonstrating the behaviors that the software should implement. Using generalized examples allows to represent acceptable solution paths for a given problem by means of “behavior graphs” created by drag-and-drop techniques. These graphs demonstrate how problems can be solved and can be edited with a dedicated graphical tool. CTAT can recognize a wider range of correct student behavior than only the solution steps that the author demonstrated and supports the author in the creation of large numbers of isomorphic or near-isomorphic problem instances. c) MATHia. MATHia is an adaptive 1-on-1 math learning platform that mirrors a human coach. It offers AI-driven “hyper-personalization”, coaching support, detailed reporting and predictive analytics to track student progress. The system analyzes every keystroke and action that the student takes, delivers just-in-time feedback and adjusts its behavior to the learning needs of the moment. It effectively implements the logic of formative assessment. MATHia lies on a “cognition and motivation” approach (Ritter, Sinatra, Fancsali, 2014). Activities are based on active learning, problem solving, work samples and fluency tasks. The basic conception is that students’ beliefs about the nature of intelligence, their goals within a learning task, and their perception of expectations about them have strong effects on their academic performance. The system considers these instances: students are encouraged to go beyond their fixed mindset to achieve further goals. Learning goals are emphasized and clarified: having a clear focus, the student shows a better immediate performance. The opportunity for personalization allows students to feel more engaged with the activities, thus providing for deeper learning to occur. d) Beetle II. Beetle II is a tutorial dialogue system designed to accept unrestricted language input and to support experimentation with different approaches to tutoring. The Beetle II architecture supports the understanding of student explanations by using techniques from computational linguistics to analyze complex student utterances and generate feedback automatically (Dzikovska et al., 2010). The system is designed to ask students to explain their answers, to give detailed feedback and to support students in arriving at the correct explanations without the system resorting to short-answer questions, and without having to hand-author every tutorial response. The system is based on a course developed by experienced instructional designers for use in a human-human tutoring study, without consider the possible limitations of a computer-based tutor. The instructional design interleaves short presentations of information with interactive exercises, activities and 552

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discussion. The activities use an electronic circuit simulator and many of the activities follow the “predictverify-evaluate” cycle, in which students are asked to predict the outcome of an activity before conducting an experiment using the simulator, and then discuss the actual outcome and its implications for the underlying principles. e) ASSISTments. The ASSISTments system (Feng, Heffernan, Koedinger, 2010) is a derivative of Cognitive Tutor (Anderson et al., 1995). It aims to assist students in learning the different skills needed for the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS) test, and at the same time to assess student knowledge to provide teachers with fine-grained assessment of their students’ knowledge. The particularity is that it assists while it assesses. The system allows students to proceed at their own paces: students are expected to proceed at their own rate letting the mastery learning algorithm advance them through the curriculum. The system uses a simplified pseudo-tutor, called an ASSISTment, and consists of a single main question followed by a tutoring session for assistance. The main question will be presented first and can be treated as an assessment task for which students need to submit an answer. In contrast to a traditional testing environment, students can request assistance if they don’t know how to answer the question. Assistance to students is available either in the form of a hint sequence or a set of scaffolding questions. Hints are messages that provide insights and suggestions for solving a specific problem. Each hint sequence ends with a bottom-out hint which gives the student the answer. Scaffolding questions are designed to lead the student one-step-at-a-time to the solution and each step addresses specific skills needed to answer the original question. Students must answer each scaffolding question to proceed to the next scaffolding question. When students finish all the scaffolding questions, they may be presented with the original question again to finish the problem. Additionally, constructive feedback called “buggy messages” are provided to students if certain anticipated incorrect answers are selected or entered. For problems without scaffolding, a student will remain in a problem until the problem is answered correctly and can ask for hints which are presented one at a time. f) Area9 Lyceum. Area9 Lyceum is a system designed for employee training. Area9 Lyceum implements “continuous self-assessment”: a formative assessment system that continually monitors how confident the user feels about his/her knowledge. If user give the right answer but this result is marked as “low confidence result”, the system will provide additional related questions to develop the user’s sense of confidence and avoid right but randomly chosen answers. This allows a full personalization of learning, and the user’s confidence in their responses is used in the adaptive process. g) AutoTutor. AutoTutor is a pedagogical agent that converses with students in natural language. It uses the simulated dialogue of a human tutor as pedagogical strategies. AutoTutor helps the students to comprehend difficult concepts and manage their emotions as they tackle them (Graesser, 2016). The main idea of AutoTutor is that ITS can be improved by good pedagogical principles. Conversational agents can precisely specify what the agent expresses and does under specific conditions, whereas for humans is difficult to exhibit such precision. In addition, human tutors avoid sometimes negative feedback, sacrificing accuracy to promote confidence and self-efficacy in the student. From the computer the students expect accuracy than politeness: a negative judge obtained from computer has not the same impact of a negative judge obtained from human tutor. AutoTutor balance politeness and accuracy. It is designed to adapt to the knowledge and emotional states of the learner and has demonstrated efficacy in tracking the student’s knowledge and adaptively generating dialogue. The challenge is to build an ITS that combines all these aspects and those described previously, in order to build a generation of ITSs capable of being more effective than human tutors.

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CONCLUSION This chapter aims to provide methodological issues to realize ITS that can provide instruction tailored to the needs of individual learners, as “the best of teachers” can do. Crucial moments of the process are: a) the representation of domain knowledge in a form appropriate to the structure of the discipline; b) the assessment of prior learner’s knowledge and strategies, in order to find incomplete representation and eradicate misconceptions; c) the delivery of new knowledge in a way that promotes the integration in prior learner’s knowledge structures, and facilitates practice and transfer; d) the promotion of learner’s metacognitive strategies, self-assessment and self-regulation; e) the trace of dynamic profiles of learner’s progress, the prediction of possible failures and the change of tutorial strategies if poorly effective. The application of the brain-based approach principles can lead to detailed reconstruction of how the learner views discipline, encode a task and perform cognitive operations to accomplish it. The contemporary and future challenge is to implement a machine that can observe what a particular student does, step by step, and predict how he/she will reason and what he/she will do in response to a particular stimulus, explaining also the reasons for these reasoning and behaviors. This level of “comprehension” of the learner would allow the machine to diagnose accurately the need of the learner, to tailor the tutoring actions on those needs, to generate tasks with a dedicated structure for each learner, and to work clinically on misconception, distorted knowledge, erroneous procedures, false principles, and incorrect facts. This dynamically adaptive instruction needs a very large knowledge base consisting of several hundred of cases encoding both correct o acceptable domain knowledge and typical errors (Conati, 2009). Hence, the quality of ITS is strictly connected to: 1) an effective capability to “learn” subject matter from interaction with many experts, integrating various positions and points of view, in a variety of knowledge domains; 2) an effective capability to diagnose a wide range of learner’s characteristics (cognitive, affective and motivational) relevant to subject matter; 3) an effective capability to adapt its tutoring actions to needs of the learner (e.g. presenting subject matters in a variety of ways, optimizing cognitive load, giving detailed and personalized feedback also in open-ended problems, maintaining explicit connections between actions and learning goals, implementing element of “social intelligence” for personalization), using a rich and articulated repertory of tactics and teaching strategies; 4) an effective capability to promote exchange and collaboration between learners, favoring dialogue, collaborative knowledge construction and connection of experiences; 5) using “transparent” interfaces in the interactions experts-ITS and learners-ITS (e.g. supporting natural dialogue and image recognition), also to facilitate the communication with persons with disability. An ITS of this type would not be a substitute but an assistant of the teacher/trainer, helping him/her to implement real individualized instruction path. Is it possible? Is it realistic? Technology says: maybe. But we cannot be sure until we try. “The most effective way to do it, is to do it” (Amelia Earhart).

REFERENCES A-level results: almost 40% of teacher assessments in England downgraded. (2020). The Guardian: https:// www.theguardian.com/education/2020/aug/13/almost-40-of-english-students-have-a-level-results-downgraded Ahuja, A. S. (2019). The impact of artificial intelligence in medicine on the future role of the physician. The National Center for Biotechnology Information: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6779111/ AI for Kids (AI4K). (n.d.). AI Singapore: https://makerspace.aisingapore.org/courses/ai4k/

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Artificial Neural Network. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_network Automated Essay Scoring. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_essay_scoring BBC News - Computer AI passes Turing test in ‘world first’. (n.d.). https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27762088 Cheung, S. (2017). Will teachers be replaced by technology (robots, the internet, etc.) in the future? Quora. https://qr.ae/pN2YZj Claudine Badue, R. G.-S. (2019). Self-Driving Cars: A Survey. https://arxiv.org/abs/1901.04407 Computer Software. (n.d.). In Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/information-system/Computersoftware#ref218051 COVID19 Global Forecasting (Week 5). (n.d.). Kaggle. https://www.kaggle.com/c/covid19-global-forecastingweek-5/overview/description David ReinselJ. G. (2018). https://www.seagate.com/files/www-content/our-story/trends/files/idc-seagatedataage-whitepaper.pdf Dick, P. K. (2007). Blade Runner: (Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?). Del Rey Books. https://books. google.com/?id=n0pzCsR6yDQC DvorskyG. (2013). https://io9.gizmodo.com/how-much-longer-before-our-first-ai-catastrophe-464043243 eCraft2Learn. (n.d.). https://ecraft2learn.github.io/ai/ Eye-catching advances in some AI fields are not real. (2020). https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/05/ eye-catching-advances-some-ai-fields-are-not-real Fang, K. (2019). Will Technology Ever Replace Teachers? https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2019/04/01/ will-technology-ever-replace-teachers/#448f27554279 Flash Crash. (n.d.). https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/flash-crash.asp#:~:text=A%20flash%20 crash%2C%20like%20the,rapid%20pace%20to%20avoid%20losses Hao, K. (2020). AI still doesn’t have the common sense to understand human language. https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/01/31/304844/ai-common-sense-reads-human-language-ai2/ Heuristic. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(computer_science) History of artificial intelligence. (n.d.). In Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ History_of_artificial_intelligence Hodges, A. (2014). The Turing Test, 1950. https://www.turing.org.uk/scrapbook/test.html How Widely Spoken is English in Italy? (n.d.). https://howwidelyspoken.com/. https://howwidelyspoken. com/how-widely-spoken-english-italy/ Jacob Devlin, M. (2018). BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understanding. https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.04805

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Jakub Hvězda, T. R. (2019). Context-Aware Route Planning for Automated Warehouses. https://arxiv.org/ abs/1901.07422 Kording, T. P. (2019). What does it mean to understand a neural network? https://arxiv.org/pdf/1907.06374.pdf List of NP-complete problems. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NP-complete_problems Liu Yufeia, S. S. (2020). Review of the Application of Artificial Intelligence in Education. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, 12(8). https://www.ijicc.net/images/vol12/iss8/12850_Yufei_2020_E_R.pdf Luckin, R. H. (2016). Intelligence Unleashed. An argument for AI in Education. Pearson. https://static.googleusercontent.com/media/edu.google.com/en//pdfs/Intelligence-Unleashed-Publication.pdf Machine Learning. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning Marco Polignano, P. B. (2019). ALBERTO: Italian BERT Language Understanding Model. http://ceur-ws. org/: http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2481/paper57.pdf MNIST Database. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MNIST_database Mohdin, A. (2020). Downgraded A-level students urged to join possible legal action. The Guardian. https://www. theguardian.com/education/2020/aug/13/downgraded-a-level-students-urged-to-join-possible-legal-action Narrow AI. (n.d.). https://deepai.org/machine-learning-glossary-and-terms/narrow-ai NGStaff. (2018). https://neurogadget.net/2018/03/08/difference-general-ai-narrow-ai/56652 No Skynet: Turing test ‘success’ isn’t all it seems. (2014). New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/ article/2003497-no-skynet-turing-test-success-isnt-all-it-seems/ NP-Completeness. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-completeness Open Learning. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_learning Pearson. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_plc Perrone, G., Vecchio, M., Del Ser, J., Antonelli, F., & Kapoor, V. (2019). The Internet of things: a survey and outlook. IET Digital Library: https://digital-library.theiet.org/content/books/10.1049/pbce122e_ch1 Team, D. (2019). Pros and Cons of Artificial Intelligence – A Threat or a Blessing? DataFlair. https://dataflair.training/blogs/artificial-intelligence-advantages-disadvantages/ Team, T. S. (n.d.). Funny Machine Translation Errors. Star. https://www.star-ts.com/languages/funny-machinetranslation-errors/ Translatotron, I. (2019). An End-to-End Speech-to-Speech Translation Model. https://ai.googleblog. com/2019/05/introducing-translatotron-end-to-end.html Trivedi, K. (2019). Multi-label Text Classification using BERT – The Mighty Transformer. https://medium. com/huggingface/multi-label-text-classification-using-bert-the-mighty-transformer-69714fa3fb3d

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Turing Test success marks milestone in computing history. (n.d.). University of Reading. http://www.reading. ac.uk/news-and-events/releases/PR583836.aspx Walker, G. a. (2019). Social and Emotional Learning in the age of virtual play: technology, empathy, and learning. Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning, 12(2), 116-132. https://www.emerald.com/ insight/content/doi/10.1108/JRIT-03-2019-0046/full/html#sec004 Wang, D. A. K. (2016). Deep Learning for Identifying Metastatic Breast Cancer. https://arxiv.org/abs/1606.05718 Why schools in India need to teach coding. (2019). The Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/ blogs/poverty-of-ambition/why-schools-in-india-need-to-teach-coding/ Writers, S. (2012). 10 Ways Artificial Intelligence Can Reinvent Education. Online Universities.com. https:// www.onlineuniversities.com/blog/2012/10/10-ways-artificial-intelligence-can-reinvent-education/ Yippy. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yippy

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Brain-Based Learning (BBL): The principle that teaching methods, lesson designs, and school programs should be based on the latest scientific research about how the brain learns. Evidence-Based Education (EBE): The principle that education practices should be based on the best available scientific evidence (from research in teaching, learning and school effectiveness), rather than tradition, personal judgement, or other influences. Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS): A computer learning environment that helps students master knowledge and skills by implementing intelligent algorithms that adapt to students at a fine-grained level and that instantiate complex principles of learning.

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Chapter 24

How Can Education Use Artificial Intelligence?

A Brief History of AI, Its Usages, Its Successes, and Its Problems When Applied to Education. Claudio Pacchiega Edu3d, Italy

ABSTRACT AI, artificial intelligence, has recently made a big leap, especially in the field of ANI (artificial narrowed intelligence), meaning that now we are starting to have decent tools that can be useful in teaching. After the surge in importance of the distant learning techniques due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, many educators have found themselves lost in dealing with an overwhelming excess of electronic information from their students, either via chat, email, documents, videos, or multimedia material. This chapter tries to delve into the difficulties of using affordable techniques for generating valid synthetic information such as rating homework or understanding if students are correctly following distant lessons. Since this is still an early subject, much more study and tests must be done to understand the full usability of automated AI tools in this (educational) context.

INTRODUCTION AI, Artificial Intelligence has recently made a big leap, especially in the field of ANI (Artificial Narrowed Intelligence), meaning that now we are starting to have decent tools that can be useful in teaching. After the surge in importance of the distant learning techniques due to the COVID19 pandemic in 2020, many educators have found themselves lost in dealing with an overwhelming excess of electronic information from their students, either via chat, email, documents, videos, or multimedia material. This chapter tries to delve into the difficulties of using affordable techniques for generating valid synthetic information such as rating homework or understanding if students are correctly following DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch024

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 How Can Education Use Artificial Intelligence?

distant lessons. Since this is still very an early subject, much more study and tests must be done to understand the full usability of automated AI tools in this (educational) context. The content is separated into 6 main topics: What is AI? Since AI is still not completely understood by most of the Educators, an extensive recap of what is AI and its history since 1950 has been provided, Big Data and Neural Networks are heavily related to AI, and current AI successes are strongly connected with these new paradigms, so the basis for these technologies is also explained. Where has it successfully being used? Many fields and examples where AI has been particularly strong and successful are listed. Where and how has it being used in Education? Having a grasp of these concepts, we can then try to understand where AI and Big Data had already experimented in Education. To be sure the actual state of implementation is quite primordial so do not expect much concrete. Teaching AI. Furtherly we will extend this concept in a section where we try to show that even if the actual techniques of direct AI can be challenging to implement in ordinary teachers’ day life, we can plan to set the AI itself as a valuable teaching and experimental subject which is extremely interesting for students at any level. Strong and Weak points of AI in Education. Finally, we try to understand which are the current criticism of the way AI is being used so far and show that AI can be useful as a general paradigm extending the already existent “coding” competencies that are going to be replaced or extended very soon with AI concepts.

What is AI? Artificial Intelligence had become quite vast during the circa 70 years of existence, covering a significant number of different concepts, artifacts, methodologies, and the technology behind has various and different techniques and methods. The history of Artificial Intelligence (AI) began in antiquity, with myths, stories, and rumors of artificial beings endowed with intelligence or consciousness by master craftsmen. The seeds of modern AI were planted by classical philosophers who attempted to describe the process of human thinking as the mechanical manipulation of symbols. This work culminated in the invention of the programmable digital computer in the 1940s, a machine based on the abstract essence of mathematical reasoning. This device and the ideas behind it inspired a handful of scientists to begin seriously discussing the possibility of building an electronic brain. (History of artificial intelligence, n.d.) The term AI was officially created in 1956 during the conference at Dartmouth College, in Hanover, New Hampshire, but almost everybody knows the quite important Turing Test invented by Alan Turing in 1950. Alan Turing, in this famous test, tried to make a brain experiment, called ‘imitation game’, where a judge was to chat with an invisible subject via blind messages such as on paper and only based on the actual conversation the judge could have misidentified the computer as human. While in the beginning, AI was considered a science which would have given almost immediate results in one generation (20 years), it is still in its infancy. The Turing Test is supposed to define the so-called “Strong AI,” meaning an artifact that can be “misidentified as a human” and this task so far

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did not succeed in any measurable way, even if there had been many experiments some of them available online. Some of them claimed to have passed the Test. In 2014 a chatbot had been misidentified, after a 5-minute chat, as a 13-year-old boy named Eugene Goostman living in Ukraina by 33% of judges. The creators of the bot included Vladimir Veselov, born in Russia, and at that time living in the United States. This result cannot be considered a real success according to many scholars, since the time allowed was too short, the “intelligence” of a 13 yo child is not the “pinnacle of human intelligence” and chat-onlyinteractions without a context are currently considered not enough to state intelligence: see for instance (No Skynet: Turing test ‘success’ isn’t all it seems, 2014). We all know from the annoying captchas received in recent web usage that computers have an intrinsic deficiency in understanding what a traffic light or a pedestrian crossing is or the meaning of a sentence, especially if using contextual references or ambiguities. It is quite famous the case of the intrinsic uncertainty of the trophy/suitcase example which is obvious to understand by a human, but impossible to sort out by an AI without an in-depth knowledge of the full common-sense semantic.The failure of a genuine understanding of the spoken language is prone to potentially embarrassing errors made by AI-assisted services and can disturb or ruin the outcome dependent on this understanding. Some researchers (Hao, 2020) did use the “Winograd Schema Challenge” test, a successor of the Turing Test, created in 2011 as a set of 273 questions, to rate the common-sense understanding of sentences where only one word is changed in a sentence, triggering a completely different meaning of the sentence itself. Such words are named “triggers”. An example of such a trigger is the change of “large” to “small”, in the following two sentence: The trophy doesn’t fit into the brown suitcase because it’s too large. The trophy doesn’t fit into the brown suitcase because it’s too small. To be intelligent an AI must understand to which object the “it” pronoun refers.In the first case, the pronoun refers to the trophy, while the same pronoun in the second sentence is referring to the suitcase. Having assessed that, and thanks to the undeniable successes we have had with neural networks (see next chapter) we can state that there is a form of AI called “Weak AI”, which has been pretty successful in doing something that even ten years ago would have been impossible for computers. Narrow AI refers to situations where artificial intelligence systems can be used to cope with a very well defined and limited task. However, Weak AI (or Narrow AI) even if successful has many problems and must be used with extreme care to avoid disasters like already happened in the last decade. In May 2010 a big incident happened in the Stock Exchange market when the Dow Jones Industrial Average fell over a thousand points (equivalent to 9%) for 5 minutes, vanishing $1 trillion in market value. After 20 minutes 600 points were recovered. That incident is now remembered as the 2010 Flash Crash, being the secondlargest oscillation in history and the biggest decline in only one day. That incident was due to an erratic response of AI procedures dealing with automated Stock transactions. See (Dvorsky, 2013) The current evolution for AI seems to be in the collaborative usage of AI tools to help experts in making decisions in severe cases, and in general, in supervising the output of those tools. In critical medical applications, the cooperation of AI with experts did provide excellent results, as reported by (Ahuja, 2019) surely the future of medicine must include AI as a useful partner to go along with expert doctors. Automated systems can browse and distill billions of documents, studies, and case outcomes in a matter of seconds, while a human especially when overworked can easily forget patients’ vulnerabilities and drug’s side

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effects. AI can also assist in surgery when using augmented reality applications. A useful measure of the benefits of AI and Expert collaboration is shown in this experiment in the identification of metastatic breast cancer from sentinel lymph node biopsies. In 2016 an extended test was done measuring error rates in a Hospital when using AI or just expert diagnosis alone and in conjunction. In this case, AI diagnosis alone has an error value of 7.5%, compared to 3.5% of expert doctors. In comparison, the combination of human expertise and AI suggestion can lower the error to 0.5%. Thus, although the pathologist alone is currently superior to our deep learning system alone [7.5%], combining deep learning with the pathologist produced a major reduction in pathologist error rate, reducing it from over 3 percent to less than 1 percent. More generally, these results suggest that integrating deep learning-based approaches into the work-flow of the diagnostic pathologist could drive improvements in the reproducibility, accuracy, and clinical value of pathological diagnoses. (Dayong Wang, 2016) So, in the end, we should consider AI as a complementary tool and not as a replacement of human competence. This concept will be shown even more critical when considering AI in the educational environment (and in almost every other context) where soft skills and empathy attitudes are currently only shown by humans. The emphasis on empathy has been stated by many studies, for example (Walker, 2019), where this attitude is essential to complete the ethical and morality of students and their ability to think abstractly. Also, empathy education is needed to grow children healthy in the new age of the Internet, eLearning, and video gaming.On a Literature source, from the famous book from Philip K. Dick, the Turing Test adaptation to discriminate android vs. humans was based on animal empathy since most of them had been destroyed during the “Big War” in 1992: [The test is] A very advanced form of lie detector that measures contractions of the iris muscle and the presence of invisible airborne particles emitted from the body. The bellows were designed for the latter function and give the machine the menacing air of a sinister insect. The VK is used primarily by Blade Runners to determine if a suspect is truly human by measuring the degree of his empathic response through carefully worded questions and statements. (Dick, 2007)

Big Data Concepts and Neural Network (Machine Learning) Big Data has assessed itself as a quite valuable asset in the scientific computing domain during the latest ten years. Scientific experiments, space observations, statistical data from any branch of human activity, including humanistic works are keeping in generating a massive collection of mainly unstructured data that in general cannot sit on a single computer, and is continually ready to change with new updates. This huge data universe and the way to deal with its browsing, processing, searching, and inference is generally called “Big Data”. This completely remodels the computing field and the way of dealing with algorithms rediscovering some of the most obscure mathematical theories developed in 1930 1940 and considered impossible to have any effective usability in practice.We are currently overflown by vast amounts of data coming from the most various sources, especially with the advent of the Internet and the Internet of Things. The term ‘Internet of things’ (IoT), coined in 1999 by Ashton K., has attracted and attracts a multitude of research and industrial interests. Whatever domain we take into consideration, from housing to precision

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agriculture, from retail to transportation, from infrastructure monitoring to personal healthcare, from urban mobility to autonomous vehicles, just to mention a few, is going to be supported by each daysmaller and smarter devices (i.e., things) able to collect data and to push them to the Internet. Gartner Inc. expects that by 2020, 26 billion objects will be connected to the Internet and, by 2022, a typical family home will contain more than 500 connected smart objects. (Giovanni Perrone, 2019) Currently, almost every electronic device in our cars, in our houses and the usage of the computer itself is producing an amount of information which is impossible to scan manually. Any scientific, military, administrative research is continuously producing Petabytes 10^15 bytes (1 PB is the equivalent of 1,000 Terabytes or 1,000,000 Mbytes) of information or even Zettabytes 10^21 bytes (ZB). A major company producing computer memories foretells (David Reinsel, 2018) that the total amount of data produced by the digital society would grow from 33 Zettabytes in 2018 to 175 ZB by 2025.Just to be clear, right now, YouTube alone is producing dozens of hours every second (!), and you can check it live1.The importance of being able to analyze these enormous amounts of data is the base for Big Data analysis.Big Data analysis can do standard non-AI related activities, like for instance • • •

Querying the data for the presence of a word (Search Engines search) Providing statistical analysis of related data (Counting, Average standard deviations, other statistical indexes) Algorithms for exact computing problems, like for instance finding the path between two location or assigning resources to tasks,

The computational power to find out precise answers to some outstanding tasks can be experienced every day with our smartphones, such as: • • • • •

Translation from one language to another Natural Language understanding Decoding the content of scanned books Automated Clustering and classifications And many others

Becomes impossible or unfeasible or too slow, needing days or even years centuries and practically infinite time to have a complete exact solution. Many of the mathematical algorithms useful for exact problem solutions show an exponential growth of CPU-usage, memory usage, and time usage even with a short number of inputs, say 10 or 100, while the standard situations involve often thousands, millions of inputs. When this does happen, we say that the algorithms do not scale.In computational complexity theory we can find some problems that can be easily solved using some kind of “brute force search”, but this can be done only when the number of entities to deal with is relatively small maybe 10 or even less. These problems have a so-called complexity order formula that tries to relate the number of resources needed (time, CPU, disk space) as a function of the number of entities involved. Given n as the number of elements to process we have something like O(n) meaning that we need to have a fixed amount of more resources for every newly added element to consider, and thus are considered fully scalable. On the other hand, there exist many problems that are soon producing a huge number of possibilities for each newly added element. Think about the problem

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of the back-half of the chessboard legend where the inventor of Chess asked the king one rice grain for the first square and doubling that amount for each of the subsequent 63 squares. When we will arrive at the 64th square we cannot fill it since the entire world cannot produce the amount of rice needed even in centuries.These kinds of problems are not scalable and unsolvable using standard maths methodology or at least not at a human scale. When dealing with such non-scalable problems AI can be of help, since it can use a kind of simplification in the exploration of the solutions using heuristics. A heuristic is a typical thing that human intelligence can do very well for example when finding the “optimal” parking for their car. Usually, they don’t bother to park the car in the optimal spot (minimal distance from the place where they want to go) but accept to park the car in an acceptable spot, avoiding to process a potentially infinite amount of changing information. This approximation is also being taken by most AI technologies that are giving answers to problems in a reasonable time but no guarantee exists that the answer is the perfect answer. Thus, we need alternative methods to deal with all these data with proper simplifications. One generic methodology successfully used in the latest decade is called Machine Learning. Machine learning (ML) is the study of computer algorithms that improve automatically through experience. It is seen as a subset of artificial intelligence. Machine learning algorithms build a mathematical model based on sample data, known as “training data”, to make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed to do so. Machine learning algorithms are used in a wide variety of applications, such as email filtering and computer vision, where it is difficult or infeasible to develop conventional algorithms to perform the needed tasks. Machine learning is closely related to computational statistics, which focuses on making predictions using computers. The study of mathematical optimization delivers methods, theory, and application domains to the field of machine learning. Data mining is a related field of study, focusing on exploratory data analysis through unsupervised learning. In its application across business problems, machine learning is also referred to as predictive analytics. (Machine Learning) The current particularly successful solution for ML is the usage of Neural Network (and more recently Deep Neural Networks), which are quite good in being taught how to distill heuristic information from massive data amounts like that available in Big Data activities. In computer science, artificial intelligence, and mathematical optimization, a heuristic (from Greek εὑρίσκω “I find, discover”) is a technique designed for solving a problem more quickly when classic methods are too slow, or for finding an approximate solution when classic methods fail to find any exact solution. This is achieved by trading optimality, completeness, accuracy, or precision for speed. In a way, it can be considered a shortcut (Heuristic) Neural Networks, even if referring in the name to the human brain cells, are quite different systems. They rely on very sophisticated and mathematic ways of processing outputs from inputs given a specified starting weight on input signals and an appropriate method for combining them.More precisely, an Automated Neural Network:

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… is based on a collection of connected units or nodes called artificial neurons, which loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. Each connection, like the synapses in a biological brain, can transmit a signal to other neurons. An artificial neuron that receives a signal then processes it and can signal neurons connected to it. The “signal” at a connection is a real number, and the output of each neuron is computed by some non-linear function of the sum of its inputs. The connections are called edges. Neurons and edges typically have a weight that adjusts as learning proceeds. The weight increases or decreases the strength of the signal at a connection. Neurons may have a threshold such that a signal is sent only if the aggregate signal crosses that threshold. Typically, neurons are aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform different transformations on their inputs. Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer) to the last layer (the output layer), possibly after traversing the layers multiple times. (Artificial Neural Network) The logic behind using NN is to be able to provide a considerable amount of inputs and to “train” a NN from predefined labeling, I.e., providing the expected output from each input. The NN is initialized to random values and has a high error giving random outputs, then tries to adjust each internal weight in such a way to reduce the errors for the provided examples.Applying this to a practical example, for example, to speech recognition, we can give a vast amount of talking segments and assign them to each the written form. After being trained, a Neural Network can write down itself a new recording based on previous Training received. The resulting trained NN with its weights is called a model. A graphical example is done with the MNIST database of numeric images. Here, many samples of handwritten numbers with their labeling is being provided to a NN as Training. The NN can generate a model able to understand new handwritten numbers even if not having “seen them before”: The MNIST database (Modified National Institute of Standards and Technology database) is a large database of handwritten digits that is commonly used for training various image processing systems. The database is also widely used for training and testing in the field of machine learning (…) The MNIST database contains 60,000 training images and 10,000 testing images. (….) An extended dataset similar to MNIST called EMNIST has been published in 2017, which contains 240,000 training images, and 40,000 testing images of handwritten digits and characters. (MNIST Database) This process can be extremely computationally intensive, so pre-trained models are available on the Internet that one can use to parse various knowledge domains, for example, Natural Language sentences even in different languages than the standard English.In general, for NLP, one of the most advanced models is BERT, which stands for Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers. According to various tests, it sharply improves the text understanding in eleven tested natural languages, improving the rate or textual “recognition” to an incredible level of 80-90%, compared with previous models having only 70-80% of reliability.Bert is so sophisticated that it can be used for complex tasks such as next sentence prediction, sentiment classification, intent detection, question answering, and more. There is also an Italian model available for Italian NLP called AlBERTo see (Marco Polignano, 2019), this model has been particularly tailored to the language used in social networks, specifically on Twitter. It has been used to detect subjectivity, polarity, irony detection on Italian tweets.

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Figure 1. A sample of the images used to train a neural network

One powerful yet problematic aspect of NN is that it is often quite challenging to explain why they are reacting the way they do, I.e., there is no clear explanation of their behavior, they simply exist and train themselves from the inputs proposed, see for instance (bold is mine): When we build networks that solve image recognition at human-like performance or are strong at playing the game of Go we ended up using a few computer screens worth of high-level computer code. We undeniably understand these lines of code, and we teach how these systems work to students in our deep learning courses who also obtain a meaningful understanding. After Training we have the full set of weights and elementary operations. We can also compute and inspect any aspect of the representations formed by the trained network. In this sense we can have a complete description of the network and its computations. And yet, neither we, nor anyone we know feels that they grasp how processing in these networks truly works. Said another way, besides gesturing to a network’s weights and elementary operations, we cannot say how it classifies an image as a cat or a dog, or how it chooses one Go move over another. For neural networks there is no doubt that the understanding that we can currently have about their properties after learning is massively more shallow than the understanding that we have about the code used to train it: the rules for its development and learning. (Kording, 2019) One of the quite interesting things is that all the technology needed to train NN can be either easily downloaded on a personal laptop using opensource solutions written in “simple” python language, for instance, you can download CONDA2 and then start to install powerful libraries for Machine Learning like TensorFlow, TuriCreate and similar applications. Also, it is possible to do a lot just using free online tools like Google Colab,3 where an efficient and productive metaphor, called Notebook, can be used to quickly visualize and manipulate vast amounts of data (see chapter 6 for more details).As stated in the

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following chapters, the difficulty of setting up and analyze data can be no much tricky than playing a typical videogame. There is even an online challenging website offering free formation and challenges that can be solved alone or in a group in an interesting gamification teaching opportunity (see Kaggle4 and following chapter 6 for details).Deep Neural Network, as we will see in the next chapter, has been tremendously useful to allow effective use of Narrow Artificial Intelligence in everyday people usage.

Successful “Narrowed Artificial Intelligence” Application Some of which are very valuable for Educators as general tools when preparing classes, documenting a lesson, or help with translation.As we have written before the AI had been quite quiet for decades after the initial big hypes in 1950, 1970, and 1990, when scientists were convinced that in another 20 years the AI will have become on age and able to do most of the human intellectual activities. As it is very clear to everybody this goal has not been achieved yet (and probably will need some centuries to do something usable), but there are now many companies making big usage of AI techniques and whenever you open your smartphone or browse the internet you are constantly exposed to Weak AI applications working decently.The fields where Narrowed AI has been successfully applied are now quite numerous, and here is a non-exhaustive list with a brief description: • • • • • • • • • • •

• •

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Check fraudulent Credit Card usage by analyzing suspect behaviors. All social media like Facebook are using AI to do face-recognition, X-rate filtering, post recommendation, and sometimes autocompletion of our sentences or translation. Siri, Alexia, or Google Home can understand vocal commands for searching music or doing simple actions like turning on or off lights in the house. Navigators like Google Maps can find out the best paths avoiding traffic jams and other problems, or even considering previous user preferences Recommendations from Amazon and other Online shops heavily use AI to help in finding what to buy next or missing pieces matching what is being currently purchased (batteries, refills, and some other related parts other users usually purchase together). Search Engines can alter the order of listings to make more interesting things to appear in first positions, and autocomplete the search, and even to autocorrect inputs. House cleaning robots use AI to avoid obstacles and be sure to clean everywhere. Similar algorithms have been used for real robots exploring Mars or other difficult places. Robots are used in an automated warehouse to be able to store and retrieve goods quickly. Here the main problems are two: 1) to assign in an efficient way robots to fetch that particular good and 2) to plan collision-free trajectories for each particular robot. See (Jakub Hvězda, 2019) Self-Driving Cars Here self-driving cars must have a perception system able to self-localize the vehicle, mapping obstacle, detecting moving obstacles, see and recognize traffic signalization. They also need to have a decision-making system such as planning the route, understand, and decide local simple problems. See (Claudine Badue, 2019) Automatic translators. Already available even for spoken languages on smartphones. Although automated translators

 How Can Education Use Artificial Intelligence?

We can undoubtedly assess that most of these tools by themselves have changed the world of Education for teachers and students during the latest 15 years.The most important aid for Education comes from search engines. Matched with the availability of significant and diffuse material, sometimes very exhaustive, the entire process of gathering documentation, text, images video is now considerably more comfortable than in the middle XX century.In those old times, it was needed to go “in person” out of your house to get books in a University Library, and often you needed to go to another city or even another State or Country, to get full and reliable information about a specific subject or to prepare a lesson.Now just using the AI contained in a search engine, a teacher can start from the central core of the lesson and extracts all the relevant information related, and can choose which one to delve in and at which level. The recommendation system is also trained by user habits and previous usage of the engine so that it is very likely that it can find handy information without losing much time.Be warned, however, that finding reliable information on the Web sometimes can be a real challenge, and the risk to stumble in a false or fake source is relatively high. AI or other online resources can sometimes help in understanding if a website is reliable or not. Also, search engines can put some bias on which kind of information is shown. Just as a quick example, let us take an example with the search of the word “Artificial Intelligence”. Not many know, but there is a helpful search engine named Yippi which is the successor of Clusty, which main activity was the automatic classification of results into clusters. Starting from August 2019, Yippy’s main page states their searches are powered by IBM Watson, considered one of the best AI programs able to perform the right search delivering fair search results based on balanced algorithms. As shown, it is reasonably easy to deduce the discipline of the related application, looking at the left column, and it is possible to drill down at freedom. The same search on Bing will give Or Wolfram Any of these search engines are trying to help us in delving into specific branches of the word under search “Artificial Intelligence” and do not leave us alone in the dark, or worse, misleading us towards false and non-related pages. This example shows that not every search engine is the same; in this case, Google is just providing a flat article list relying on Wikipedia, instead of building up a clustered semantic network. The other mighty thing AI is giving us is the automated translation of pages from foreign languages. Suppose we were interested in how Japan sees AI looking for AI in Arabic we almost surely will get many articles in Arabic, such for instance We have the possibility of translating the page automatically to our language (in my case, Italian). But the English translation is something like Instead of something completely unintelligible like this: AI is also available to subtitle a certain number of videos on YouTube automatically and can even subtitle (apparently this feature is only working in English) conferences held in Microsoft Teams, Google Meet, or Zoom).This feature can be essential to be able to access educational material, which is only written in a particular language and not in English, or to make our informative content available to people not speaking English. In Italy, for instance, even among the teachers, the ability to understand spoken English is sadly minimal. According to (How Widely Spoken is English in Italy?) it appears that only one-third of Italians can speak English, but of these only a minimal fraction can speak it fluently, limiting to compose or understand very basic sentences.While the quality of the translation is often a bit poor, especially for convoluted syntax or language-specific shortages, it is usually enough to understand the general meaning of a document, at least.Text from a language to another is noticeable of higher quality 567

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than the speech-to-text, so the second one sometimes can make a speech non-understandable. Still, many errors are there, so Automated Translations should be supervised extensively, especially if they are to be used in formal situations.An example of funny translation is reported by (Team t. S.) when translating to French, but the same is happening in Italian: the sentence: “A School of Fish was spotted in the sea” Figure 2. The Yippy search engine

The original sentence in English means that a group of fishes is swimming in the sea, while the French translation means that a school (schools where kids go) full of fish was in the sea. The same

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problem happens with Sharks if you look for “Sharks swim in schools” you get the same result: sharks swimming in colleges. Figure 3. Bing search engine.

The translation is thus taken out of context since the right phrase to translate “a school of fish” would have been “un banc de poisson”. Google and all the other machine translation engines we tested made the same mistake. (Team t. S.) It seems that the AI is improving itself, at least a bit. Trying the same translation now (August 2020) with the same example and got the right answer (!) Unluckily at this moment, sharks are still swimming inside the buildings among children. The on-the-fly translation process is still in its infancy, and last year Google presented translatotron which seems to be able to translate from one language to another without needing to pass through an intermediate written language and preserving the original voice:

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Figure 4. Wolfram Alpha search engine

Speech-to-speech translation systems have been developed over the with the goal of helping people who speak different languages to communicate with each other. Such systems have usually been broken into three separate components: to transcribe the source speech as text, to translate the transcribed text into the target language, and (TTS) to generate speech in the target language from the translated text. Dividing the task into such a cascade of systems has been very successful, powering many commercial speech-to-speech translation products, including .In ““, we propose an experimental new system that is based on a single for direct speech-to-speech translation without relying on intermediate text representation. Dubbed Translatotron, this system avoids dividing the task into separate stages, providing a few advantages over cascaded systems, including faster inference speed, naturally avoiding compounding errors between recognition and translation, making it straightforward to retain the voice of the original speaker after translation, and better handling of words that do not need to be translated (e.g., names and proper nouns). (Introducing Translatotron: An End-to-End Speech-to-Speech Translation Model, 2019)

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Figure 5. Google search engine

Figure 6. Search in Arabic

Some examples from Spanish to English can be found online5.

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Figure 7. Translated result from Arabic

Figure 8. Arabic original

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Figure 9. School of Fish

Another interesting application of AI useful for teaching and presentation is a tool that automatically translates sketches and handwritten texts to geometrical forms and actual computer text. This possibility can be quite crucial when using diagrams and a whiteboard.

Already Experimented Educational AI Applications After a lengthy, but needed, introduction to AI, Machine Learning, Neural Networks, and some notable Narrowed AI Implementations also quite useful for Education, now is time to explore if and how specific AI methodologies have been implemented for educational purposes. Unluckily AI has been used only experimentally and is still in its infancy, so we do not have full-fledged methods available, but only some sparse hints and recommendations. Also, the technology required to implement such experiments can still be missing, intimidating, and time expensive. In the next chapter, we will try to offer a more simple attempt to introduce AI in Education as a subject, without trying to use complex already made AI tools, which are still missing for the most part.

Figure 10. Current translation

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Intelligent Education According to some scholars (Liu Yufeia, 2020), “Intelligent Technologies” are already used in educational contexts. In 2019 an International Conference held in Beijing, after having stated that AI had been successfully applied in various human activities, suggested that all countries should formulate policies and explore effective strategies and promote artificial intelligence as an educational innovation: In summary, it is found that artificial intelligence technology has been used in many different aspects in Education, from promoting education innovation, assisting the teaching and learning processes, and managing smart campus life to providing useful information to the stakeholders. In the context of 21st century, the use of artificial intelligence technology in Education is undeniable. Artificial intelligence technology is very much needed in the future to ensure effective teaching and learning process among teachers and students and will be (Liu Yufeia, 2020) The specified ten main fields of application are the following: 1. Automatic Grading System. see below for some deepening notes, 2. Interval Reminder. Students need a way to remind them how to revise their knowledge, and this can be different from student to student. 3. Teacher Feedback. It is when students comment on the teacher’s performance, AI can be used to enter it as a chat instead of filling a questionary. 4. Virtual Teacher. It is a chatbot that answers the questions of the students. It has experimented with a virtual Jill Watson, who was considered by students as a real tutor following their answers. Jill was a computer with an IBM AI software. There is also a company in London providing Math Whizz, which is a software for online tutoring. The software, through constant chatting with the students, can understand if the students have problems and tell the difficulties they meet. 5. Personalized Learning. Each student learns at their rhythm speed. So, there can be bots that can understand which materials are needed for each student and which assignments should be done based on their respective learning speeds. 6. Adaptive learning collects students’ results and determines which kind of learning model they have so that the modules are tailored to their learning model. For instance, some students prefer a gamification approach, while others can be ok with the standard method. 7. Augmented Reality / Virtual Reality helps in magnifying the learning possibilities, allowing the students to experience otherwise impossible activities like walking on the bottom of the ocean, flying, and other specific tasks and or simulations. 8. Accurate Reading systems that can present the same content in different forms according to different readers and the vocabulary can be adapted to the learner’s reading level. 9. Intelligent Campus is a system that can help students in their campus activities, like finding the next lecture hall, how to get homework or how to contact a professor, and other facilities related activities. 10. Distance Learning. AI can be used to make up the gap between student and teacher.

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Automatic Grading System deepening This seems the most advanced project where AI seems to make the most signs of progress and that can help teachers when using Distance Learning methodology. These are automated programs rating student works. They are especially useful when there are too many students to be able to grade each of them manually (with Covid19 distant learning, this can become a real problem). This has been used for instance in Wolfie is an Israeli Music education application. Automated grading can be easily done with Google Classroom defining an auto-graded quiz. While auto-graded systems have been used in STEM disciplines for many decades, being a simple checking if a student did answer the correct answer is almost trivial for a computer, But here we are particularly interested in AI automated grading, i.e. using some kind of NN (neural network) and training, on natural unstructured texts written by students. This can also happen in a technical quiz when the teacher asks open questions where answers are not categorized. There is an interesting ongoing discipline strictly related to this named AES, (Automated Essay Scoring, nd), regarding ways to automatically rate essays from a training set of already manually rated examples. Competition can be found on Kaggle (see next sections), where Hewlett Packard is offering money for the winner of the contest, solving efficiently this problem6. So far the most advanced solution has an 81% score to rate correctly new essays, having an error rate of about 20%.Note that even with human rating the agreement of a rating on the same work among different teachers is a percentage 53% - 81% so the 81% score achieved so far can be considered a fair success. AES has been criticized on various grounds: 1. over-reliance on surface features of responses, 2. insensitivity to the content of responses and creativity, 3. vulnerability to new types of cheating and test-taking strategies. Several critics are concerned that students’ motivation will be diminished if they know that no human will read their writing. Among the most telling critiques are reports of intentionally gibberish essays being given high scores. While all these fields can be interesting, there are some overlaps in the ten specified areas, and what is surprising is that AI has been connected to AR/VR experiences. It would be good if, from this brainstorm, a more compacted non-trivial kernel of AI Educational Modules can be proposed in a standard way so that teachers worldwide can test them with their students.

Intelligent Education According to Pearson According to Pearson7 and UCL Knowledge Lab in London, there were in 2016 already stable applications for AI in Education. In (Luckin, 2016) is stated that even if AIEd might appear alienating, possibly reducing the actual human approach of the teachers, they allow for a more personalized, flexible, inclusive, and engaging learning experience. Not only it is possible to respond to what is being learned, but how it is learned and how the student feels. AIEd can also help the teacher to create more sophisticated learning environments that would otherwise be impossible. AIEd can enable collaborative learning, a difficult task to do by one teacher alone, for example helping in forming working groups.

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Some of the proposals in this publication can be summarized as follows, but the more interesting in my opinion is the “collaborative learning” in a Virtual Environment. The other parts are probably still very experimental and very difficult to put in practice. 1. Intelligent Tutoring Systems ITS, they simulate 1:1 tutoring, as an example a. BUGGY which is using AI to teach essential addition and subtraction, the tools were used to diagnose student errors and offer a way to fix the errors b. Neural Networks can help, but as previously stated, it is quite often challenging to understand the rationale for each proposal done by the NN. c. ITalk2Learn system was designed to help young students learn about fractions 2. Create Models for learners cognitive and affective states 3. Use dialogue to engage students in discussions, questions, and answering. 4. Use open learner models to promote reflection and self-awareness Open learning is an innovative movement in education that emerged in the 1970s and evolved into fields of practice and study. The term refers generally to activities that either enhance learning opportunities within formal education systems or broaden learning opportunities beyond formal education systems. Open learning involves but is not limited to: classroom teaching methods, approaches to interactive learning, formats in work-related Education and Training, the cultures and ecologies of learning communities, and the development and use of . While there is no agreed-upon, comprehensive definition of open learning, central focus is commonly placed on the “needs of the learner as perceived by the learner.” Case studies illustrate open learning as an innovation both within and across academic disciplines, professions, social sectors and national boundaries, and in business and industry, higher education institutions, collaborative initiatives between institutions, and schooling for young learners. (Open Learning, n.d.) 5. Increase learner motivation and engagement through the usage of meta-cognitive scaffolding such as dynamic help or narrative framework. 6. Use social simulation models, encourage students to interact with people with target knowledge (for instance, learning a language the student can be encouraged to talk with native speakers). Collaborative learning is much needed since students collaborating in a community can foster a higher outcome than learning alone. However, since collaboration among learners is not a spontaneous process, then AIed can try to provide the tools for it.For instance, there can be • • •

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Intelligent virtual agents, bots acting as an expert participant (coach or tutor), a virtual peer, or somebody whom the other students can teach and fix errors. Intelligent moderation, alarms that can be AI-driven to understand if the students are going off topics, or repeating errors and misconceptions and so require human intervention Adaptive group formation. AI can help in forming a cooperating group of people similar-minded so that they can work together.

 How Can Education Use Artificial Intelligence?

Here we have a direct reference to “Intelligent Virtual Reality,” which can be a valuable tool to support learning in authentic environments. This fact links AI to Virtual Worlds concept which has shown major interest in the latest 10 years with SecondLife, OpenSImulator and others. But here is envisioned a Virtual World full of intrinsic AI characters. To be sure, AI has been already extensively used in video games to play intelligent NPCs (Non-Player Characters). Virtual reality for learning works similarly. It provides authentic immersive experiences (the subjective impression that one is participating in a realistic experience) that simulate some aspect of the real world to which the user would not otherwise have access (such as dangerous environments or somewhere geographically or historically inaccessible). Research has shown that giving opportunities for students to explore, interact with, and manipulate aspects of a simulated world, perhaps investigating ‘what if’ scenarios, (such as, ‘what if there is a drought?’), enables them to transfer what they have learned to the real world. (Pearson, n.d.) Virtual Reality alone is useful for teaching purposes but becomes “Intelligent” when augmented with AI agents, such as automated interactable objects, or Virtual Agents. Many studies have demonstrated that immersion in intelligent virtual reality can enhance educational outcomes, enabling students to construct their own individual understanding of the world being explored. Some have also been shown to have the potential to release what Chris Dede, a leading learning scientist, calls ‘trapped intelligence’ – that is, they allow low-achieving students to build their self confidence by shifting their self image from being a poor academic performer to, for example, a successful virtual scientist. (Pearson, n.d.)

AI is Reinventing Education Even if being eight years old, this article is still being cited and republished when talking about AI applications in Education. While we may not see humanoid robots acting as teachers within the next decade, there are many projects already in the works that use computer intelligence to help students and teachers get more out of the educational experience. Here are just a few of the ways those tools, and those that will follow them, will shape and define the educational experience of the future. (Writers, 2012) Summarizing this article repeat why and where AI can be used in Education: • • •

AI can automate tedious, repetitive admin activities like grading ◦◦ This especially useful for multiple-choice and fill-in-the-blank testing AI can adapt to student needs. See Khan Academy8, which is tailored to K12 students and teachers. AI can point out where courses need to improve

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Coursera, a massive open online course provider, is already putting this into practice. When many students are found to submit the wrong answer to a homework assignment, the system alerts the teacher and gives future students a customized message that offers hints to the correct answer. (Writers, 2012) • • • •

AI can tutor students. It can be feasible for the most straightforward education skills but still tricky, if not impossible, for higher concepts. AI can make trial-and-error learning less intimidating. Since AI is not a real person, students can feel they are studying in a judgment-free environment, especially when AI can offer improvement solutions. AI can shift the role of the teacher to that of a facilitator, mainly when flipped classroom techniques are used. AI can change where, from whom, and how students acquire their skills. Students can use free educational resources such as Coursera, Udemy, or other University websites to get the knowledge they need.

As stated at the beginning of this chapter the effective usage of AI for a standard teacher is currently quite unfeasible since there is no out-of-the-box solution that can be easily downloaded from the Web or used as a cloud service. Except for the teachers who are currently involved in Virtual Worlds assisted experiences, the only viable solutions is to use tools like Google Classroom or some assistance tools from videoconference companies (Teams from Microsoft), or online correctors as Grammarly, but each of these has very limited usage of AI.

AI AS A SPECIFIC TEACHING SUBJECT (THE NEW CODING) As already stated, AI can be efficiently used as a paradigm by online companies/institutions like Universities, Coursera, Udemy, and others. These institutions can get powered by huge computer companies like Google, Microsoft, Apple, and sometimes these services are offered free of charge or with minimal expense. However, similarly to what has already happened with Coding, a subject that has had a significant surge in teaching during the latest ten years, we suggest that AI can be a new kind of study subject, and can be used to help new students to adapt to the new challenges of the next 10 20 years.As stated by this Indian article: Coding is about much more than teaching technology. It incorporates logic, problem-solving, and creativity in an engaging way for children of all ages. The non-cognitive skills that children develop through coding lessons are even more beneficial to young learners than the technical skills they acquire. Coding allows students to be creative without being wrong. If something doesn’t work, students must figure out why and determine how to fix it. Coding is the process of continually making mistakes, learning from them, and correcting them. Coding requires creativity and critical thinking – future-ready skills, that, along with collaboration and communication, are essential. Best of all, Coding allows students to create content, rather than simply consume it – and that’s a must-have skill for functioning in today’s tech-driven world. (Why schools in India need to teach coding, 2019)

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Similar reasoning can be applied to teaching AI and Big Data techniques for solving problems. One unique feature of teaching AI is that to be able to obtain a meaningful answer the “Data Scientists” (this is the name assigned to people who train NN and try to apply them to practical situations, must be very creative, use a lot of lateral thinking, and get to know many different Scientific subjects ranging from statistics to maths, to visual presentation and much more.Also, one essential activity is the cleaning, normalization, and rearranging of initial data and the numerical transformation texts or data can undergo to obtain a set of numerical “features”.Due to the extreme complexity hidden in this orchestration, it is quite important that the kids learn this as an intuitive ability and not as explicit complex reasoning.

For Kids It is not necessary to be a professional to learn the basics of AI, also Kids, and try to learn a bit of Machine Learning and Neural Network if properly tutored, after all, it is just another game.However, based on the experiences made so far worldwide, it seems that kids below ten years usually are not suitable for doing such experiences, although there is no explicit limit.For instance, the AI Singapore website suggests a program suitable for 10- 12-year-old kids: AI for Kids™ is a program to introduce artificial intelligence (AI) to primary school children through blended learning and hands-on workshops. This curriculum, designed by AI Singapore’s very own AI engineers in partnership with NUS High students, teaches participants machine learning concepts and how to use popular tools such as Scratch and Microsoft Azure’s Cognitive Services to build basic AI applications. (AI for Kids (AI4K), s.d.) There are also other websites offering educational programs for kids for instance The eCraft2Learn project is offering a solution using “the Snap!”9 which is using the same block-metaphor as Scratch language Here some explanation from the site The eCraft2Learn project developed a set of extensions to the Snap! programming language to enable children (and non-expert programmers) to build AI programs. The blocks are available as projects with examples of using the blocks as well as libraries to download and then import into Snap! or Snap4Arduino. It is possible to download the files needed to run most of the blocks and projects described here without an Internet connection. (eCraft2Learn, s.d.) When using these extensions, it is possible to enable projects to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

have sprites speak in over a hundred languages, have sprites listen to speech in over a hundred languages. And to recognize sounds, see using the camera, do arithmetic on words, create, train, and use deep learning neural networks. Miscellaneous AI blocks (style transfer, image embedding, and using Wikipedia and Yahoo Weather).

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Figure 11. Scratch ML

AppsForGood10 is offering some basic AI classes free online for kids of primary and secondary. Here is a checklist of the activities that are requested for the children to complete in this class. 1. 2. 3. 4.

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Explain what you think ‘machine learning’ means. Complete the questions in Activity 1.1. Try out the Quick, Draw tool. Try out the Teachable Machine tool.

 How Can Education Use Artificial Intelligence?

5. Build a machine learning model in Scratch in Activity 1.3. 1. Log in to machine learning for kids and select the car or cup project that your teacher has set up. 1. Click ‘Teach’ and drag and drop at least ten images into each category (open two browser windows to make this easier). 2. When your teacher has trained the model click ‘Back to Project’, then the ‘Scratch’ button. Click on “Open in Scratch” and load the car-or-cup project 3. Amend the Scratch code to include the machine learning blocks (see handout for how to do this). 4. Run the model and review how well it has sorted the images. 6. Experiment with your machine learning model e.g. add another category or confuse the model with different data. 7. Review information on facial recognition and answer questions in Activity 1.5 in your workbook. 8. Watch the video and add ideas for using image recognition to ideas worksheet. There are a lot of other resources11, for instance, consider this STEM Learning12, STEM Learning, and the UK Department for Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy have created resources for teaching the principles of artificial intelligence. These resources include Machine Learning for Kids projects, supplemented with teaching notes, presentation materials, prompt cards, and practical “unplugged” activities AI Family Challenge13, The AI Family Challenge is a free, hands-on AI education program for families. They use Machine Learning for Kids and supplement it with a lot of additional support, such as technical coaches and mentors, a structured lesson plan, and supporting videos. The program is based around a competition that challenges children to think of their own AI project ideas, with the support of their families and technical mentors. Raspberry Pi14 The Raspberry Pi Foundation provides resources for Code Clubs, with step-by-step instructions for a variety of creative projects. Their machine learning pathway includes a variety of projects from Machine Learning for Kids. AIinSchools15. The AIinSchools program provides a free lesson plan for teachers to explain AI to Year 9 (aged 13-14). It includes both unplugged classroom activities, and programming activities for training neural networks on GPUs running on AWS. Magenta.js demos: magenta.tensorflow.org Online toys that demonstrate different aspects of machine learning, using TensorFlow.js Google Experiments: experiments.withgoogle.com

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Simple online experiments to start exploring machine learning, through pictures, drawings, language, and music.

WHICH TOOLS ARE AVAILABLE FOR STUDENTS 15-19 AND OVER. We already stated the existence of an online website named Kaggle16, which has the following definition: Kaggle offers a no-setup, customizable, Jupyter Notebooks environment. Access free GPUs and a huge repository of the community published data & code. Kaggle is a subsidiary of Google, and it is geared at educating AI students and people all over the world, offering a free and powerful environment based in the cloud where everybody can exercise and compete via specific competitions.The competitions are special tasks that are to be completed by teams to analyze and understand current data on various subjects. For instance, right now, there are still some competitions on Covid-19 data in progress. Kaggle is launching a companion COVID-19 forecasting challenges to help answer a subset of the NASEM/WHO questions. While the challenge involves developing quantile estimates intervals for confirmed cases and fatalities between May 12 and June 7 by region, the primary goal isn’t only to produce accurate forecasts. It’s also to identify factors that appear to impact the transmission rate of COVID-19. You are encouraged to pull in, curate, and share data sources that might be helpful. If you find variables that look like they impact the transmission rate, please share your finding in a notebook. As the data becomes available, we will update the leaderboard with live results based on data made available from the Johns Hopkins University Center for Systems Science and Engineering (JHU CSSE). We have received support and guidance from health and policy organizations in launching these challenges. We’re hopeful the Kaggle community can make valuable contributions to developing a better understanding of factors that impact the transmission of COVID-19. (COVID19 Global Forecasting (Week 5), s.d.) While the task is quite complicated and is something on the edge of current technology, it is appealing at least to try for students in the 15 – 19 year-age. There are other less intimidating competitions like for instance the classical one where you are asked to analyze Titanic data This is the legendary Titanic ML competition – the best, first challenge for you to dive into ML competitions and familiarize yourself with how the Kaggle platform works. The competition is simple: use machine learning to create a model that predicts which passengers survived the Titanic shipwreck.

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Figure 12. Kaggle competitions

People must be trained to complete this kind of competition successfully, and Kaggle offers in-house classes teaching from the basics how to deal with various software and specializations. Here a list of the courses offered. This way of engaging students is fantastic and allows anybody to start to contribute to the human cause actively. Figure 13. Titanic competition

As written on the first page, Kaggle allows the sharing of something named Jupyter notebooks, yes, with the Y because it is using PYthon as “lingua franca”. As we will see, a Jupyter notebook is an efficient way to document statistics, inferences, and graphical results of research AND embed the AI code used to

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solve it, allowing other people to run the code while reading their documentation. This interactive way of documenting and experiencing has been proven useful in teaching and should also be considered by Educators, especially when teaching STEM or any numerical analysis.For instance, taking the Titanic competition, students can see the initial data, which is a file with all passengers, their characteristics, and the important information if they survived or not. The participant is invited to check the work made by all the other participants and to submit its work, which then is evaluated and rated, giving a leaderboard. There is also a place where people can discuss and share experiences comments.The entire experience looks like a game but is useful to grow skills in the participants.While Kaggle is interesting (and since 2017 is Google affiliates), Google has its own AI gym available named COLAB17, which has more significant firepower and can be used with a fee by big companies wanting to analyze real data.This Colaboratory (shortened in Colab) allows everybody to freely experiment with AI at a professional level using the latest technologies available like the already noted Bert for linguistical analysis.

CRITICISM IN USING AN AUTOMATED METHODOLOGY IN EDUCATION When considering the trade-off of using AI, we can say we have a lot of advantages and some disadvantages, for instance, the minus can be summarized in 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

AI comes with a high cost No human replication No matter how smart a machine becomes, it can never replicate a human. No improvement with Experience Creativity is not the key for AI Unemployment (Team D., 2019)

AI lacks mature products, readily available to everybody, and customizable to our needs. While some results appear indeed astounding, we should be quite critics to not waste too time and money on this until finding a real kill application. Not much progress has been achieved recently in this field as stated by Science Magazine Artificial intelligence (AI) just seems to get smarter and smarter. Each iPhone learns your face, voice, and habits better than the last, and the threats AI poses to privacy and jobs continue to grow. The surge reflects faster chips, more data, and better algorithms. But some of the improvement comes from tweaks rather than the core innovations their inventors claim—and some of the gains may not exist at all, says Davis Blalock, a computer science graduate student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Blalock and his colleagues compared dozens of approaches to improving neural networks—software architectures that loosely mimic the brain. “Fifty papers in,” he says, “it became clear that it wasn’t obvious what the state of the art even was.” (Eye-catching advances in some AI fields are not real, 2020) When we consider the usage of AI as a co-educational tool, while we already have asserted some benefits which can be useful, we still need to remember that a Teacher cannot be substituted by automated tools (at least presently).We still need to teach

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• • • • •

Empathy and Compassion Ethics Creativity Tolerance Patience

Those are all things generally missing (so far) in most of the technical disciplines and to AI.Rivers of Ink have been written on this subject, and an entire Fiction or at least a good part of it (Science Fiction) was born to address this perplexity versus Androids and Robots, which are incarnating in the popular sentiment what we are now defining as AI.Apart from the already cited “Blade Runner, or Do Androids dream of electric sheep”, there are plenty of books written mainly in the 1950 – 1970 dissecting the idea that there is a problem when dealing with artificial intelligence. Isaac Asimov wrote18 more than 37 short stories and six on this subject.This alone as a Historical, Philosophical, Literature topic can be taught to children and students of any age, and it is indeed particularly stimulating for any kid’s age.Coming back to the central question, what about teachers if AI can replace them? Some intelligent answers can be from Quora: Robots, or rather computers, will replace a lot of teaching and even replace most teachers. Learning online is becoming increasingly popular, but for the most part, students need motivation and guidance to choose the right course and material to suit their needs. That guidance and motivation, even if the teaching is done through another medium (i.e. videos, or interactive software) is the main role of a teacher. Learning to cater for a student’s individual need, knowing when to push them, when to be sympathetic, the pace, the difficulty, different forms of explanations, whether they need extra classes, whether they need to work with brighter students or weaker ones, and a whole host of other little things that teachers know or learn by experience will be difficult for robots to emulate. (Cheung, 2017) As stated by Katie Fang, Founder & CEO at SchooLinks.com, when asked if AI can replace teachers, she answered that only repetitive tasks such as homework rating or material preparation should be automated. At the same time, the human touch of a living being is fundamental for a correct student psychological growth. It is as simple as this, will you teach your students to do monotonous tasks like data entry or low skilled tasks that can be automated, in hopes that they can eventually add value to society in exchange for a stable pay? I think the answer is no. “We are all made of our experiences, and whether these experiences are online or offline, human interaction is what powers it.” I would argue that how teachers create, shape, and engage students in these experiences is the most important value add. (…) let the program handle the error checking, while counselors have meaningful discussions with students about why they’re choosing courses and how that will impact their future. That experience is going to be much more beneficial for the counselor and the student than checking for graduation requirements ever could. (Fang, 2019) As a last remark on the Ethical and Juridical problems that can happen when using automated technologies, there is right now a big problem in the UK with the A-level algorithms used to rate students after the Covid-19 explosion.

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Teachers in England had nearly 40% of their A-level assessments downgraded by the exam regulator’s algorithm, according to official figures published on Thursday morning as sixth-formers around the UK received their results. A-level entries awarded A or A* increased to an all-time high in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland with 27.9% securing the top grades this year. But figures released by Ofqual showed that 39.1% of the 700,000 teacher assessments submitted in England were lowered by one or more grades during its standardization process, compared with just 2.2% of assessments that were upgraded. (A-level results: almost 40% of teacher assessments in England downgraded, 2020) As often is the case, this is just a technology, and the fact it can be for good or for the bad is still in the hands of who and how it uses it. For AI to be a feasible solution in human life, it must be held responsible for the decision it is taking explaining very precisely why and how it comes to some conclusions - and we have already noted that Neural Networks cannot answer these questions. Failing to answer these fundamental inquiries will make all the benefits worthless. We hope that the next big evolution in AI will be to motivate its conclusions!

REFERENCES A-level results: almost 40% of teacher assessments in England downgraded. (2020). Retrieved from The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/education/2020/aug/13/almost-40-of-english-students-have-alevel-results-downgraded Ahuja, A. S. (2019). The impact of artificial intelligence in medicine on the future role of the physician. Retrieved from The National Center for Biotechnology Information: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC6779111/ AI for Kids (AI4K). (n.d.). Retrieved from AI Singapore: https://makerspace.aisingapore.org/courses/ai4k/ Artificial Neural Network. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_network Automated Essay Scoring. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_essay_scoring BBC News - Computer AI passes Turing test in ‘world first’. (n.d.). Retrieved 8 18, 2020, from Bbc. com: https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27762088 Cheung, S. (2017). Will teachers be replaced by technology (robots, the internet, etc.) in the future? Retrieved from Quora: https://qr.ae/pN2YZj Claudine Badue, R. G.-S. (2019). Self-Driving Cars: A Survey. Retrieved from arxiv.org: https://arxiv. org/abs/1901.04407

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Computer Software. (n.d.). Retrieved from Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/topic/informationsystem/Computer-software#ref218051 COVID19 Global Forecasting (Week 5). (n.d.). Retrieved from Kaggle: https://www.kaggle.com/c/ covid19-global-forecasting-week-5/overview/description David Reinsel, J. G. (2018). Retrieved from seagate.com: https://www.seagate.com/files/www-content/ our-story/trends/files/idc-seagate-dataage-whitepaper.pdf Dick, P. K. (2007). Blade Runner: (Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?) Del Rey Books. Retrieved 8 18, 2020, from https://books.google.com/?id=n0pzCsR6yDQC DvorskyG. (2013). Retrieved from https://io9.gizmodo.com/how-much-longer-before-our-first-aicatastrophe-464043243 eCraft2Learn. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://ecraft2learn.github.io/ai/ Eye-catching advances in some AI fields are not real. (2020). Retrieved from ScienceMag.org: https:// www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/05/eye-catching-advances-some-ai-fields-are-not-real Fang, K. (2019). Will Technology Ever Replace Teachers? Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/ quora/2019/04/01/will-technology-ever-replace-teachers/#448f27554279 Flash Crash. (n.d.). Retrieved from investopedia.com: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/flash-crash. asp#:~:text=A%20flash%20crash%2C%20like%20the,rapid%20pace%20to%20avoid%20losses Giovanni Perrone, M. V. (2019). The Internet of things: a survey and outlook. Retrieved from IET Digital Library: https://digital-library.theiet.org/content/books/10.1049/pbce122e_ch1 Hao, K. (2020). AI still doesn’t have the common sense to understand human language. Retrieved from https://www.technologyreview.com/: https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/01/31/304844/aicommon-sense-reads-human-language-ai2/ Heuristic. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(computer_science) History of artificial intelligence. (n.d.). Retrieved 8 18, 2020, from Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_artificial_intelligence Hodges, A. (2014). The Turing Test, 1950. Retrieved 8 18, 2020, from https://www.turing.org.uk/scrapbook/test.html How Widely Spoken is English in Italy? (n.d.). Retrieved from https://howwidelyspoken.com/: https:// howwidelyspoken.com/how-widely-spoken-english-italy/ Introducing Translatotron: An End-to-End Speech-to-Speech Translation Model. (2019). Retrieved from https://ai.googleblog.com/2019/05/introducing-translatotron-end-to-end.html Jacob Devlin, M.-W. C. (2018). BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understanding. Retrieved from arxiv.org: https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.04805 Jakub Hvězda, T. R. (2019). Context-Aware Route Planning for Automated Warehouses. Retrieved from arxiv.org: https://arxiv.org/abs/1901.07422

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Kording, T. P. (2019). What does it mean to understand a neural network? Retrieved from arxiv.org: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1907.06374.pdf List of NP-complete problems. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ NP-complete_problems Liu Yufeia, S. S. (2020). Review of the Application of Artificial Intelligence in Education. Retrieved from International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change Volume 12, Issue 8, 2020: https://www.ijicc. net/images/vol12/iss8/12850_Yufei_2020_E_R.pdf Luckin, R. H. (2016). Intelligence Unleashed. An argument for AI in Education. Retrieved from London Pearson: https://static.googleusercontent.com/media/edu.google.com/en//pdfs/Intelligence-UnleashedPublication.pdf Machine Learning. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning Marco Polignano, P. B. (2019). ALBERTO: Italian BERT Language Understanding Model. Retrieved from http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2481/paper57.pdf MNIST Database. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MNIST_database Mohdin, A. (2020). Downgraded A-level students urged to join possible legal action. Retrieved from The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/education/2020/aug/13/downgraded-a-level-students-urged-tojoin-possible-legal-action Narrow AI. (n.d.). Retrieved from DeepAI.org: https://deepai.org/machine-learning-glossary-and-terms/ narrow-ai NGStaff. (2018). Retrieved from https://neurogadget.net/2018/03/08/difference-general-ai-narrowai/56652 No Skynet: Turing test ‘success’ isn’t all it seems. (2014). Retrieved from New Scientist: https://www. newscientist.com/article/2003497-no-skynet-turing-test-success-isnt-all-it-seems/ NP-Completeness. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-completeness Open Learning. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_learning Pearson. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_plc Team, D. (2019). Pros and Cons of Artificial Intelligence – A Threat or a Blessing? Retrieved from DataFlair: https://data-flair.training/blogs/artificial-intelligence-advantages-disadvantages/ Team, t. S. (n.d.). Funny Machine Translation Errors. Retrieved from Star: https://www.star-ts.com/ languages/funny-machine-translation-errors/ Trivedi, K. (2019). Multi-label Text Classification using BERT – The Mighty Transformer. Retrieved from https://medium.com/huggingface/multi-label-text-classification-using-bert-the-mighty-transformer69714fa3fb3d Turing Test success marks milestone in computing history. (n.d.). Retrieved 8 18, 2020, from University of Reading: http://www.reading.ac.uk/news-and-events/releases/PR583836.aspx

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Walker, G. a. (2019). Social and Emotional Learning in the age of virtual play: technology, empathy, and learning. Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning, 12(2), 116-132. Retrieved from https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/JRIT-03-2019-0046/full/html#sec004 Wang, D. A. K. (2016). Deep Learning for Identifying Metastatic Breast Cancer. Retrieved from arxiv. org: https://arxiv.org/abs/1606.05718 Why schools in India need to teach coding. (2019). Retrieved from The Times of India: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/poverty-of-ambition/why-schools-in-india-need-to-teach-coding/ Writers, S. (2012). 10 Ways Artificial Intelligence Can Reinvent Education. Retrieved from Online Universities.com: https://www.onlineuniversities.com/blog/2012/10/10-ways-artificial-intelligencecan-reinvent-education/ Yippy. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yippy

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Accuracy: AI and ML technology use algorithms to analyze data and make predictions based on that information. Although reports indicate that AI programs can be at least 95% accurate on a regular basis, AI programs cannot determine whether or not the data being analyzed is accurate, so usually overall accuracy is much lower but normally higher than 80%. AIED (Artificial Intelligence in Education): Applying artificial intelligence technology to the field of education and using it in students’ learning at schools. Algorithm: A non ambiguous and clear specification of how to solve a problem or a class of problems, think to Cooking Recipes but with more complex logic. Artificial Intelligence (AI): Intelligence apparently shown by machines. AI studies built devices able to perceive their environment and take action. Informally devices able to learn and to solve problems. Big Data: Data sets that are too large and cannot sit on a single computer or storage device. Deep Learning: Is a kind of ML where multiple layers of Neural Networks interconnected are used. It has proven in last years that the accuracy of predictions greatly improves. Heuristic: A way to reach a non-perfect or optimal solution in a very complex problem. Heuristics are relatively simple shortcut or “rule of thumb” that can help in solving problem even if the problem is not perfectly solved. Machine Learning (ML): Is specifically involved with the training of Neural Networ and evaluation of accuracy of predictions. Neural Network: A promising new AI technique involving trainable sets of simple nodes (neurons). The network can be instructed to produce an acceptable numerical output giving some defined numerical input. Since text, images and almost everything can be represented by numbers NN can be used to define Algorithms in implicit ways, giving examples of what to do instead of explicitly programming every step.

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ENDNOTES 3 4 5 6 7 1 2

8 9



12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 11

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https://everysecond.io/youtube https://docs.conda.io/ https://colab.research.google.com https://www.kaggle.com/ : https://google-research.github.io/lingvo-lab/translatotron/ https://www.kaggle.com/c/asap-aes Pearson plc is a multinational publishing and education company headquartered in London, England. It was founded as a construction business in the 1840s but switched to publishing in the 1920s. It is the largest education company and was once the largest book publisher in the world. In 2013 Pearson merged its Penguin Books with German conglomerate Bertelsmann. In 2015 the company announced a change to focus solely on education. (Pearson, n.d.) https://www.khanacademy.org/ https://snap.berkeley.edu/ https://www.appsforgood.org/courses/machine-learning https://machinelearningforkids.co.uk/#!/links#top stem.org.uk curiositymachine.org raspberrypi.org aiinschools.com https://www.kaggle.com/ https://colab.research.google.com/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_series

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Chapter 25

Toward the 4th Agenda 2030 Goal: AI Support to Executive Functions for Inclusions Rita Tegon https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1225-1806 Liceo Classico “A. Canova”, Treviso, Italy

ABSTRACT The 2030 Agenda settles inclusion as a crucial goal. The index for inclusion underlines a set of resources to guide educational agencies through a process of inclusive development. One interesting model to achieve it is the Universal Design of Learning (UDL) framework, whose roots lie in the field of architecture and cognitive neuroscience. It provides options to enhance the executive functions also with the support of assistive technologies: studies have recently contributed to investigate how AI-innovated Educational Management Information Systems (EMIS), apps, and learning assessments can offer to the teachers the opportunities to differentiate and individualize learning, to diagnose factors of exclusion in education, and predict dropout, dyslexia, or autism disorder. After a discussion on the state of research and on the preparatory concepts, the chapter presents examples of AI-supported tools, and how they can scaffold executive functions; it wants also to urge a future-oriented vision regarding AI and to re-think the role of education in society.

INTRODUCTION This paper assumes as a starting point that, according to UNESCO the 2030 Agenda (2015), inclusion is settled as a crucial goal in social, civil, and educational contexts, as an overarching principle whose golden rules can give visible size and form to its sparkling friend, equity. Both must be ensured to every person everywhere and a primary role in this is played by education (that is a fundamental and enabling human right and a public good), and, in consequence, by schools (goal 4). DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch025

Copyright © 2021, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Toward the 4th Agenda 2030 Goal

The Index for Inclusion (Booth, 2011) underlines a set of resources to guide schools through a process of inclusive development; they are expected to go beyond the idea of special educational needs, to focus more to the contexts limitations rather than the individual ones, and to move forward, becoming capable to welcome any child, thanks to the support of flexible policies and practices. Among the numerous models present in the educational landscape it can be interesting to consider the ones having an alliance with the cognitive neurosciences, also assisted by the analysis of storaged data. And this is exactly the case of the Universal Design of Learning (UDL) framework, a compelling alternative to a standardized model of education, originated in the Eighties in the USA in the Centre for Applied Special Technology (CAST, 2020). In particular, to achieve inclusion, UDL provides options to the executive functions, which allow humans to pay attention, to overcome impulsive and short-term reactions at their environment, to plan effective strategies for reaching goals, and to modify strategies as needed: in short, they allow learners to take advantage of their environment. It can be observed that an alliance between UDL principles and AI can be disruptive to enhance inclusive learning environments. So, it is not surprising if the 2020 edition of MLW (Mobile Learning Week) the United Nations’ flagship event on Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education, held from 2 to 6 March 2020 in Paris under the theme Artificial Intelligence and Inclusion, has been designed to steer the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) towards the direction of inclusion and equity in and through education core values underpinning the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and digital opportunities for all (UNESCO, 2019 bis). Also the Stanford’s AI Index 2019 Report remarks that Artificial Intelligence has applicability across all 17 of the Nations Sustainable Development Goals (2019). And on the other hand, many studies (Laanpere et al., 2014; Luckin et al., 2016; Mayer-Schönberger & Cukier, 2014; Montebello, 2018 e 2019; Kirkland, 2018; Tuomi, 2018) has recently contributed to investigate the ways in which AI can help improve learning opportunities for students and management system. An interesting attempt to capture the dynamic portrait of Artificial Intelligence, one of the most influential forces in the world today, is the Tortoise’s Global AI Index (2019): it analyzes how 54 countries are driving and adapting to AI’s accelerating development and still concerns can not be denied: among the others, is pointed out the fact that AI biases are increasing, and potentially threatening equity and inclusion. But, if AI has the means to disrupt inequity in schools, or make it much worse, we have to be aware that AI systems are only as good as the data, and algorithms that are put into them: bad data can contain implicit racial, gender, or ideological biases. So, it must be remarked the need by one hand to mitigate human biases in AI, on the other to increase among educators and policymakers the awareness of AI technologies and their potential impact and to develop a future-oriented vision regarding AI, to re-think the role of education in society. Yet, the whole issue of the negative impact that digital technologies have on human behaviour and cognition is not denied, but deliberately omitted here: in fact, despite the critical issues, no doubt emerges about its huge impact in supporting teachers in offering differentiated and individualized learning, learners can be tutored and supported also outside the classroom and AI-innovated Educational Management Information Systems (EMIS) and AI supported learning apps can be used to precisely diagnose factors of exclusion in education and predict dropout, dyslexia, or autism disorder (Pedro, 2019). Before moving onto the discussion, we point out that examples of AI-innovated Educational Management Information Systems (EMIS) and apps supporting executive functions like attention, memory, and planning will be presented.

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MODELS FOR INCLUSION IN EDUCATION: THE UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING908 In the last decades, there has been a growing effort to implement inclusive education around the globe. The UNESCO Education 2030 Framework for Action (2016) emphasizes inclusion and equity as laying the foundations for quality education. However, although most teachers tend to approve inclusion, implementing inclusion in mainstream classrooms poses considerable challenges for general education teachers, who are required not only to modify their teaching methods according to the special needs of their students, but at the same time also to maintain a high standard of achievements. Many studies in pursuit of models have analyzed attitudes and practices toward inclusive schooling: in a meta review, Van Mieghem, Verschueren, Petry, and Struyf (2018) pointed out that most of the research on inclusive education is done on attitudes toward inclusive education, teachers’ professional development, inclusive practices, students’ participation, and critical reflections on inclusive education research. An interesting open source taxonomy of the educational landscape, mapping traditional and emerging models of managing, teaching, learning, and assessing also for inclusion is provided by HolonIQ (2020) a global education market intelligence firm, that analyzed over 60.000 organizations, 500.000 apps and considered 3 million schools, colleges, and universities around the world. A prominent recent example is Brain health INnovation Diplomacy (BIND), a novel form of diplomacy that aims to manage technological innovation on brain health developed from a team of diverse experts from six countries and 23 institutions with the Global Brain Health Institute (GBHI) of the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), and the Trinity College Dublin (Ternes, 2020). Messiou (2016) analyzed the published articles in the International Journal of Inclusive Education between 2005 to 2015 to identify topics and methodologies used in studies of inclusive education. His paper highlights the fact that most of the studies are only concerned with certain groups of learners and that a limited number make use of collaborative, transformative approaches. But it must be underlined that paying attention only to some students, rather than on all, does not mean to respect the principles of inclusive education. This is a robust argument that suggests referring to the Universal Design of Learning (UDL) framework, a compelling alternative to a standardized model of education, originated in the Eighties in USA in the Centre for Applied Special Technology (CAST). Its strength has been confirmed by a meta-analysis conducted through an empirical research, containing pre- and post-testing, published in peer-reviewed journals between 2013 to 2016: results from this analysis suggest that UDL is an effective teaching methodology for improving the learning process for all students (Capp, 2017). UDL concept first focused on how computer technology could enhance learning for students with learning disabilities. But now research shows its potential to benefit right all students, inasmuch as it provides important support to those with invisible disabilities, as well as those who have undiagnosed or unreported learning needs. Learners can navigate a learning environment and express what they know in different ways. For example, individuals with significant movement impairments (e.g., cerebral palsy), those who struggle with strategic and organizational abilities (it is the case of executive function disorders: executive functioning skills may be compromised as a result of a learner being fatigued or stressed, or of a learner having a disability that affects these functions like autism spectrum disorders, traumatic brain injury, ADHD, dyslexia), those who approach learning tasks very differently or have language barriers, and the ones who prefer to express themselves in speech, but not in written text, and vice versa. 593

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UDL approach, conceived to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all learners, has its roots in the field of architecture and cognitive neuroscience. In fact, recent research on neuroplasticity (Osiurak, 2018) shows that tools and technology do not only shape the way we think, but they can also shape the brain itself. Effective use of the UDL framework activates the recognition, strategic, and affective brain networks needed for learning to take place as we can see in Figure 1. The three networks are connected and work together and if all brains share these characteristics, individual brains differ significantly. Figure 1. Illustration of the brain with the strategic networks

Source: (Cast.org. 2020)

UDL also provides options to the executive functions: associated with networks that include the prefrontal cortex, in short, they represent the highest level of the human capacity to act skillfully, modifying strategies as needed; in fact, they allow learners to take advantage of their environment overcoming and steering impulsive reactions, and instead setting long-term goals, planning effective strategies to reach them, and monitoring their progress. However, it must be added that executive functions have very limited capacity due to working memory. It is of critical importance that educators are aware that executive functioning is actually reduced when they are absorbed to perform lower level tasks, and in the case of information and cognitive overload (Kahneman, 1973) and that the executive capacity itself can be reduced due to some sort of higher level disability or to lack of fluency with executive strategies. The UDL framework strives to develop executive functions by supporting lower level skills, so that they require less executive processing, and by supporting higher level executive skills and strategies, to make them developed and therefore more effective. According to UDL framework, the resources, and tools themselves are not what makes a lesson or learning experience, but all learners should be allowed to use appropriate tools and should not be imposed barriers to the use of assistive technologies to support learning goals. So, if now in the technological field, we are witnessing an impressive development of Artificial Intelligence, it seems to be interesting to investigate its role in supporting a truly inclusive learning environment according to the criteria that underlie the UDL framework.

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EDUCATIONAL DATA MINING, LEARNING ANALYTICS AND AI IMPACT ON TEACHING AND LEARNING To develop a better understanding of the impact of AI on teaching and learning, the relationship between Educational Data Mining (EDM), Learning Analytics (LA) and AI in Education (AIED) should be outlined. According to Rienties (2020), while all these fields are focused on understanding learning and teaching using technology, each has a relatively unique or common perspective on which theoretical frameworks, methods, and ontologies might be appropriate. So, first it is useful to share a definition of the three areas that in fact could seem quite blurred. For a richer insight into the specific features of EMD and LA it is suggested to turn to Siemens (2012). In short, EDM refers to developing, researching, and applying computerized processes to find patterns in wide collections of educational data, patterns that would otherwise be hard or impossible to analyze due to their enormous volume. Data of interest is not restricted to the interactions of individual students with an educational system (e.g., navigation behavior, input to quizzes and interactive exercises), but might also include informations from students collaboration (e.g., text chat), administrative data (e.g., school, school district, teacher), and demographic data (e.g., gender, age, school grades). It provides detailed information about a student’s characteristics or states, such as knowledge, motivation, metacognition, and attitudes. In consequence, a key theme in educational software research is modeling the individual differences between students, in order to enable softwares to respond to individual differences. Ifenthaler (2019 bis) defines LA as “the use of static and dynamic information about learners and learning environments, assessing, eliciting and analyzing it, for real-time modeling, prediction and optimization of learning processes, learning environments, as well as educational decision-making”. But LA is only one promising component of AI in education: the following stage is the implementation of algorithm, or AI-based solutions in the field of education. AI per se should be thought as an interdisciplinary and complemented by learning sciences (pedagogy, psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, sociology, and anthropology) phenomenon. Its purpose is to develop adaptive, integrative, flexible, personal, and effective learning environments that complement classical/traditional education, and training formats. However, its definition still remains widely disputed due to the variety of definitions and understandings about it. While there is not a single definition provided from the different literature of what AI might be, it broadly refers to “computers which perform cognitive tasks, usually associated with human minds, particularly learning, and problem-solving” (Baker, 2019). It is an umbrella term used to describe several methods such as machine learning, data mining (DM), neural networks or an algorithm (Zawacki-Richter, 2019). A valuable contribution to the definition of AI is provided in the context of AI Watch, the Commission knowledge service to monitor the development, uptake, and impact of Artificial Intelligence for Europe (Samoili, 2020). Through a qualitative analysis in a selected set of 29 AI policy and institutional reports (including standardization efforts, national strategies, and international organizations reports), 23 relevant research publications and 3 market reports, from the beginning of AI in 1955 until today, according to the 52 experts of the High-Level Expert Group (HLEG) on Artificial Intelligence of the European Commission (2019), AI Watch definition is: Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems are software (and possibly also hardware) systems designed by humans that, given a complex goal, act in the physical or digital dimension by perceiving their environment through data acquisition, interpreting the collected structured or unstructured data, reasoning on the knowledge, or processing the information, derived from this data and deciding the best action(s) to take 595

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to achieve the given goal. AI systems can either use symbolic rules or learn a numeric model, and they can also adapt their behaviour by analyzing how the environment is affected by their previous actions. We could also dig deeper and see that AI is parted into two different groups as depicted in Figure 2: strong and weak. Weak AI, also known as narrow AI, simulates human cognition, but does not have self-consciousness: it is limited to a specific or narrow area, and systems are designed to carry out some particular activities. AI research actually concentrates on narrow and weak AI in e.g. automated driving, personal assistants, machine translation, stock trading, medical image analysis, smart weapons, pattern and image recognition, fact checking, contextual recommendations and others. Strong AI systems, also known as general AI, are systems with cross-domain capabilities (play chess, drive a car, write a poetry): they would have mind, including self-awareness and sense of identity, and carry on tasks considered to be human-like, like solving problems, learning and teaching itself, and planning for the future (IBM Cloud Learn Hub, 2020). Machine learning and Deep learning are a sub-fields of AI. Figure 2. Strong and weak Artificial Intelligence Source: made from the Author

Research works on AIED dates back to early 1970s; it was started by a group of AI researchers motivated to understand the profound association between Education and AI, with its main concerns on knowledge representation, reasoning, and learning. From then on, several international conferences (notably AIED conference), committees, proceedings, social events were significantly growing. In the current scenario, the greatest contributors in this area are the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence (IJAIED) Computer and Education, and the International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (Zawacki, 2019). So, if basically, AI, LA and EDM are the three research communities encompassing the concept of technology enhanced learning and how to utilize the available digital data to improve the quality of education (Labarthe, 2018), however, the relationship between these three communities should be addressed to understand their respective impact on education. The emergence of new concepts and technologies like Blended Learning and e-Learning (Alexander, 2019) has given rise to an enormous amount of data, which can be used by EDM and LA to predict student’s learning behavior, progress, and potential risks

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of a student. According to a recent analysis performed by Labarthe et al. (2018), all three communities are centered towards students, learning and usages, with EDM and LA communities imposing its focus on data, whereas AI does not focus on data. The relationship between AI, EDM, LA and Computer based Education and the fields and subfields involved are depicted in Figure 3. Figure 3. The relationship between AI, EDM, CBE, and LA Source: (Xieling, C., et alii 2020)

So, we can say that, although there are few commonalities between EDM, LA and AI, the main concept that distinguishes it from each other is that, EDM focuses on providing automated decisions and predictions using machine learning algorithms; LA focuses on visualizing the data to give better insights into the student’s learning experience and helps to further optimize the learning environment; AI focuses on providing intelligent agents and tutors through AI facilitated learning platforms. As traditional classrooms have been replaced by digital and tech driven classrooms, AI is intervening in today’s and future education in response to the need of highly personalized learning, and also to serve and support the educational institutions at every level, from administrators, to teachers and students, extending de facto human capabilities and possibilities when properly used.

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As AI is now high on the policy agenda, it may appear that AI should be applied in as many educational settings as possible. But it must be assumed that AI will not only make existing education more efficient, but that it will also change the context where learning occurs and where it becomes socially relevant. Through a systematic review of research on Artificial Intelligence applications in education, Zawacki (2019) finds that the four notable areas (and closely connected to each other) of AI applications are profiling and prediction, intelligent tutoring systems, adaptive systems and personalization, assessment and evaluation. Each category is narrowed down to several subcategorized AI applications and contributes to support a different learning artifact. AI tools such as student support chatbots (AI driven Personalized Instructional and Dialogue systems), Intelligent Tutoring Systems (AI supported system replacing teacher-student tutoring) and Assessment tools can be potentially used to advance the capabilities of LA. In the foreseeable future, AI in education is going to serve as a supporting component to further enhance LA: as it is possible for one teacher to teach very many students in online environments, but difficult to know what the students learn, one of the great promises of AI is to do large-scale LA in such environments. For instance, AI is often proposed to be used to objectively measure student learning by scoring test results overtaking teacher bias. Neural AI and machine learning can easily learn to categorize students based on their test results, if provided appropriate human-labeled examples of data. It is not clear, however, whether test results are really reliable markers of learning. To support learning, it could be more important to measure individual development than average performance in standardized tests. Many projects are trying to explore the use of AI for automatic test generation and assessment, as student testing plays an important role in many educational systems. Much of this work is aimed at automating summative assessment, with a promise also of reducing teacher workloads. Current AI systems are very effective at integrating information and using it for real-time pattern recognition from diverse and varied data sources. For example, AI systems that have data on both individual student history and peer responses, can relatively easily check and diagnose student homework. Accumulated formative evaluations may, therefore, make high-stakes testing obsolete to a large extent. About this, Cope (2020, p. 13) highlights a series of contrasts between traditional assessment artifacts, and e-learning ecologies where AI has exploited new opportunities for the processes of learning. By “traditional assessments,” he does not just mean pen-and-paper; he also includes computer-mechanized reproductions of traditional select response and supply response assessments. The implications for learning are broad, to the extent that assessment drives institutionalized education, and changes in assessment will change education. He claims that things are profoundly wrong with traditional pedagogy and its assessments, and perhaps for the era in which we now live, irredeemably so. But Artificial Intelligence surely promises a new way forward for assessment and education. Even if, as highlighted by a range of reviews, most of these innovations have been localized in small lab studies, or in a single course, or specific context, with limited large-scale adoption within and across institutions (Herodotou et al., 2020), however, in developed countries interesting opportunities are outspreading. A huge of applications is being tested across public and private initiatives alike. Some examples from developing countries open a discussion regarding the possibilities and risks involved in bringing AI-powered software to personalize learning (UNESCO, 2019). But are also presented cases studies on how AI technology is helping education systems use data to improve educational equity and quality. Concrete examples on AI’s contribution to learning outcomes, access to education and teacher support from China, Brazil and South Africa are explored. Case studies on how AI is helping with data analytics in education management from United Arab Emirates, Bhutan and Chile are presented. Are also examined the curriculum and standards dimension of AI and how learners and teachers are prepar598

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ing for an AI-saturated world, with examples from the European Union, Singapore and the Republic of Korea. Many interesting uses have been also presented at the UNESCO Mobile learning week 2019 Artificial Intelligence in Education (UNESCO 2019 bis). They are divided in three main focus areas: ensuring inclusive and equitable use of AI in education, leveraging AI to enhance education and learning and promoting skills development for jobs and life in the AI era. An interesting example is FramerSpace (2020) an open source UNESCO MGIEP’s indigenously designed platform to create next-generation digital courses to support personalized, collaborative and socio-emotional learning: it supports curriculum designers, policy-makers, content developers, teachers and learners (13+) using the Libre pedagogical framework (The Blue Dot, 2020) that integrates storytelling, games and gamification, inquiry, reflection and dialogue. But we will discuss about it more deeply in the next pages. Still, also according to the IBM white paper - based on four research inputs, in-depth interviews with 47 educational providers and 6 vendors in the USA, India, South Africa and the UK, a survey of 126 IBM interns based in the UK, interviews with 3 IBM Watson partners who are working on cognitive systems for educators, and social listening from over 150,000 tweets relating to conversations around education (King, 2016) -, most educational establishments are only using limited analytic capabilities as we can see in Figure 4; but data-driven cognitive technologies and systems can enable personalized education and improve outcomes for students, educators, and administrators. Figure 4. Most educational establishments are only using limited analytics capabilities Source: (King, 2016)

Ultimately, and even more, education experiences can be transformed and improved when data and cognitive systems can accompany the students throughout their life-long learning journey. In fact, as cognitive systems understand, reason, and learn, they are a disruptive paradigm, wholly different from the one until recently used, based around human defined inputs, instructions (code) and outputs. In short, this means that these are systems that think, and can extend the educators capabilities by providing deep domain insights and expert assistance through the provision of information in a timely, natural and usable way. Cognitive systems with advanced analytic capabilities will not substitute the art and craft of teaching, but will be complementary to it, will play the role of an assistant in order to enhance intervention speed, minimize drop-out rates by developing better candidate selection processes, based on more reliable data, identify students who may need additional assistance, provide a richer analysis of why students fail texts, ensure that students are at the optimum level of achievement. To be effec-

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tive, cognitive education services need to offer to the students immersive experiences. They also have to reduce the administrative overload on the teacher, to give her time back to teach. Such an innovation can assist in improving student outcomes, but yet should be applied in contest and under the auspices of human caring. The teacher-to-system relationship does not have to lead to a dystopian future in which the teacher is the sparring partner of the algorithm or vice versa. Anyway, must be clear that the teacher role changes to a higher worth plane, with less spotlight on exercise creation/formal addressing and an expanding center around encouraging, training and personalizing as we can see in Figure 5. Figure 5. Evolution of education Source: (King, 2016)

According to Tuomi (2018), AI-based approaches have shown a remarkable potential in special needs education, for example, in the early detection of dyslexia. A well-published example is the Swedish company Lexplore (2020), that has developed a system that quickly scans for students at risk and detects dyslexia by tracking reader eye movements. The system, best Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning at the 2020 Edvocate Awards, uses data-based pattern recognition, and the company is now expanding to the US and UK, offering school and school-district wide scanning. Have been also successfully developed AI-based programs for the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. (ADHD). In particular, child-robot interaction seems to enable new forms of diagnostics and special needs educational applications (e.g.: Avatarion, 2020). AI is also well suited for predictive/diagnostic tasks: it is used to diagnose student attention, emotion, and conversation dynamics in computer-supported learning environments in an attempt to generate optimal groups for collaborative learning tasks, and to recognize patterns that predict student drop-out (Nkambou, 2018). Large datasets are crucial for training the systems to do this effectively. As was pointed out above, this is a major ethical bottleneck: in fact, to provide feedback for learning, students’ behavior has to be actively monitored. This determines technological needs with related ethical and regulatory issues to discreetly monitor students, for example, using video analytics and remote eye monitoring. Systems that use less detailed data to provide advice are ethically less problematic. For example, students can now receive course advice at the University of Berkeley using a framework that relies on neural artificial intelligence technologies originally developed for natural language processing and machine translation (Pardos, 2018). Traditional knowledge-based intelligent tutoring systems have struggled with the challenge of creating student models, partly because there is no obvious way to create representations of student models in complex domains and in realistic context of learning. Neural AI, however, if sufficient amounts of data are available, can produce student models. Given enough data, machine learning can probably cre-

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ate student models that are good enough to be of practical value. Neural AI can also learn patterns of interaction and associate these with pedagogically relevant clusters, so that a teacher can have a better understanding of the ways in which students think and how they can be effectively guided. AI systems can provide such diagnostic data also to the students, so that they can reflect on their metacognitive approaches and possible areas in need of development. New pedagogical possibilities will also be created by rapid developments in natural language processing and AI-based human-machine interfaces. For example, as conversational robots and learning companions become more and more accessible, learning by teaching robots shows some promise. Affective computing and emotion AI will be important components of such systems. In addition, real-time machine translation opens up new language learning possibilities, and AI programs can be used, such as translating texts written by students to help them compose texts that better convey what the student wanted to communicate. We refer to AI-innovative Educational Management Information Systems (EMIS), an integrated information and documentation formula that gathers, stores, processes, analyzes and disseminates information for the planning and management of education. They are widely used for education leaders, decision-makers and managers at the regional, local and school levels and for the generation of national statistics. AI algorithms are able to make data-driven decisions to boost school education with vast data gathered from EMIS. AI-enhanced EMIS would have a much stronger capacity to automatically analyze the data and generate data dashboards at both the school and national levels. Moving forward, AI driven EMIS even opens up a potential for developing predictive decision-making algorithms. While this remains a very nascent area in EMIS development, more countries, both developed and developing, are interested in transforming their current EMIS from a school-based aggregated administrative data management system into an integrated and dynamic learning management systems that can effectively support real-time decision-making in every aspect of education sector management (UNESCO, 2019). Now, if from what has been said it can be inferred that AI has mostly a positive impact on learning, however, it is not so obvious that it is always beneficial or relevant for human improvement: as Vygotsky pointed out long time ago (1956), the development of many cognitive capabilities that define advanced forms of thinking are based on their social relevance and have weak immediate relevance for an individual learner. To get to the point, one can ask what is the effect of AI on human cognition and human brain development. More generally, this is a matter of technical co-evolution and the human mind. Friedrich Engels’ influential unfinished essay, “The Part Played by Labour in the Transition from Ape to Man” (1966), emphasized the specialization of knowledge, the division of productive labour, and the role of technology, arguing that the growth of the human brain and society is fundamentally linked. Labour, states Engels in the beginning of his essay, is the prime basic condition for all human existence, and this to such an extent that, in a sense, we have to say that labour created man himself. As stated above, tools and technology do not only shape the way we think, but they can also shape the brain itself. Therefore, one might wonder if the use of AI technologies affects the function of human brains in learning. Recent study, in particular (Osiurak, 2018), indicates that there are crucial stages in brain growth. Cognitive technologies can, therefore, have quite impactful consequences when used during such critical

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periods. Then, it is to be observed that, computer programs scale up very well, and AI can easily scale up bad pedagogical ideas. In general, AI can be used in three essentially different ways that may have different implications for the development of human cognitive capabilities both in children and adults. First, AI can support existing capabilities. When competences are understood as combinations of domain specific expertise and behavioral repertoires, AI can reduce the need for human knowledge, experience, and skill, and emphasize the importance of behavioral repertoires. As a result, humans do not necessarily need to learn domain specific knowledge that earlier was required for competent behavior. Second, AI can speed-up cognitive development and create cognitive capabilities that would not be possible without technology. Third, AI may reduce the importance of some human cognitive capabilities, or make them obsolete. For example, as AI can convert speech to text and vice versa, dyslexia may become socially less important than it has been in the past. However, although in cases such as dyslexia and dyscalculia AI may have clear benefits for individuals, the overall impact is not easy to predict. From a pedagogic point of view, it may sometimes be more beneficial to use AI to help people to develop competences that allow them to overcome difficulties in reading and counting, instead of using AI to make redundant skills that underpin important cognitive capabilities.

DIGGING DEEPER IN EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS After a short review of the definition and relationship between LA, EDM, and AI and having seen huge of effects of AI on teaching and learning, and on the whole school system, we now return to the main focus of the present paper, namely inclusion. The forms of exclusion are different and have different impacts. However, of great weight is exclusion due to cognitive weakness, in relation to disable, cognitive borderline and neuro-atypical people, and (normal and pathological) cognitive ageing. Unlocking the secrets of the brain has become a pressing issue for the market (Global NeuroTech Industry Landscape Overview, 2020), scientists, governments, and companies across the globe. There are five reasons the future of brain enhancement is digital, pervasive, and bright says CEO and Editor-in-Chief of SharpBrains, an independent market research firm tracking applied neuroscience and member of the Global Council on the Future of Human Enhancement: they are the fact that 7.5 billion human brains need help to thrive in the Fourth Industrial Revolution, that lifelong neuroplasticity means all those brains can be enhanced, that mobile, sensing, wearable technologies, coupled with AI, provide a new platform to harness that neuroplasticity, that entrepreneurship and investments are fueling accelerated growth and, finally, professionals are stepping up to help ensure appropriate use (Fernandez, 2017). In fact, there are seven large-scale brain projects seeking to reach the holy grail of neuroscience. Thankfully, the International Brain Initiative is helping coordinate all the existing national-level brain projects as can be seen in Figure 6. In addition, the organization for the Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Global Neuroethics Summit are actively exploring the ethical implications of brain research; also the World Economic Forum is convening a cross-sector Global Future Council on Neurotechnologies to help advance an ethical framework for technology development and widespread adoption (Rommelfanger, 2018).

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Figure 6. The International Brain Initiatives Image

Source: (GNS delegates and Rommelfanger et alii, 2018 Neuron via The World Economic Forum. Adapted from OECD, 2017. Table 2.1.)

So, if the heart of cognitive functioning are executive functions, intervening to support their development is a social commitment and an investment in students’ lifelong trajectory of achievement both in academic and in the complexities of social and emotional contexts (Durlak, 2011). About this, the OECD’s annual Education at a Glance results (2019) are a clear warning of the social and economic costs we will pay if problems in our education system are left unaddressed. Therefore, it is worth considering carefully scientific understanding of the brain: in recent years are offered powerful tools to combat the challenge and research has shown that brain fitness activities stimulate cognitive development and prime the brain for learning by improving key executive function skills that are also inextricably linked to social emotional learning (SEL). Effective brain fitness interventions during childhood and adolescence produce striking results in improving the executive function skills and prosocial behaviors, and these are more accurate predictors of academic readiness and life success than IQ or any other performance markers: so, there is an important need of offering affordable and effective solutions to today’s educational challenges; there is an important need of cognitive training, mindfulness, and executive function skills curricula (Blair & Razza 2007, Morrison et al. 2010 Ahmed, 2018). An interesting sample of ten validated programs is now presented in the evidence-based study to improve student outcomes provided by BrainFuture, a USA nonprofit dedicated to improving human outcomes by assessing and advancing the practical applications of new scientific understanding of the brain (BrainFutures, 2019). The term executive function, obscure only a few decades ago, is now encompassing a widespread use. There is also a growing interest in targeting EF for intervention, because it is widely recognized that executive functions are malleable throughout childhood and adolescence, but few educational approaches, so far capitalize on the malleability of neural networks, and target executive functions for intervention, and it is an empirical evidence that yet few schools can structure learning environments to support the development of executive functions (Serpell, 2016). EFs, as top - down monitoring and controlling processes, are the higher-order neural processing in the brain that take place in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), the front most part of the brain near the forehead. As is shown in figure 7, EFs are essential to learning, planning, reasoning, problem-solving, goal-directed

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action, and self-motivation. But social, emotional, and physical health for cognitive health are crucial, because stress, lack of sleep, loneliness, or lack of exercise each impair EFs. As has already been stated above, EFs are trainable and can be improved with practice, including diverse methods tried thus far (Diamond, 2013). There is general agreement that there are three core EFs: inhibition (including selfcontrol/behavioral inhibition and interference control/ selective attention and cognitive inhibition), working memory, and cognitive flexibility. From these, higher-order EFs are built such as reasoning, problem solving, and planning (Bailey, 2018). Figure 7. Map of EFs and Regulation-Related Skills. Source: (Bailey, 2018)

Inhibitory control means being able to overcome a strong internal predisposition or external lure by regulating one’s focus, actions, feelings, and/or emotions, and instead doing what is more acceptable or essential. Without it, one would depend on conditioned responses, impulses, and old habits of thought pulling this way or that. Thus, inhibitory control gives the chance to change and to choose how to react and to behave. It can also save us from making fools of ourselves. Inhibitory control of attention (interference control at the level of perception) activates selectively attention and focusing on what has been chosen, suppressing distraction to other stimuli. Such a selective attention is essential, as needed also at a cocktail party when we want to screen out all but one voice.

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Working Memory involves the ability to hold attention on a concept or task long enough to complete an association or to generate a conclusion or new thought. The term describes a combination of cognitive processes for managing information, integrating new information with existing ones, and collating results into new information. For making sense of everything that happens over time and for reasoning, working memory is crucial. Additionally, it is crucial for many key academic tasks, including making mathematical calculations without the use of a calculator, considering alternative solutions to a problem, and making connections between seemingly unrelated things (Diamond, 2013). Long-term memory is important since it is where basic concepts and strategies that are often involved in learning are stored. Functional memory is used to tackle it when something new is experienced. To move that information into long term memory, it often takes time and practice. To help with this process, is used a technique called spaced repetition. It involves repeating what has to be retained, but extending the practice over several days, in short, spacing this repetition out. This is why tackling procrastination is so incredibly important: in fact, procrastination and memory are two topics intimately related, because building solid chunks of long term memory, chunks that are easily accessible by the short term memory, takes time. Procrastination is a keystone bad habit that influences many important areas of life, and shares features (a trigger, a routine, rewards and the belief it can be overcame) with addiction that offers an immediate feeling of pleasure, a temporary excitement and relief. Cognitive Flexibility is the ability to shift from one mind state or task to another, often responding to environmental stimuli, like a teacher’s instruction, or to new social demands. It is necessary for reorganizing priorities and thinking creatively about a problem. It is believed to build upon both working memory and inhibitory control, and includes the skills of attention shifting and attention control. It is also essential for considering another person’s perspective (Bailey, 2018). The best way to learn is, in fact, interleaving., i.e. practicing jumping back and forth between problems that require different types of approaches, concepts, procedures, techniques or strategies, because knowing how to use just a particular concept, approach, or problem solving technique is not enough, and it must also be known when to use it. So, if practice and repetition is important in helping build solid neural patterns to draw on, it’s by interleaving that one begins thinking more independently through flexibility and creativity. EFs are consistently correlated with academic performance. As stated above, during the early years, EFs predict school readiness and achievement better than IQ does. Furthermore, teachers report EFs as the most important determinants of success in the classroom, and teacher ratings of attention, working memory, and inhibitory control predict both literacy and math achievement from kindergarten to sixth grade. EFs also matter long after school entry; their influence is maintained through elementary school and into middle and high school (Best et al., 2011). So, there is no doubt about the importance of EFs in school achievement and their measurement is a challenging issue, essential for both diagnostic purpose and evaluation of the effectiveness of the intervention. Concurrent associations between academic performance and EFs are robust with different measurement methods and, across different academic domains, including reading, math, and science. For an in-depth research review, please refer to Jacob and Parkinson (2015). However, among the various resources it is worth mentioning The Executive Function Mapping Project Measures Compendium, whose purpose is to provide information about the range of measures available to assess EFs and other regulation-related skills (Bailey, 2018). Finally, it must underlined that also the training context matters: studies of computer-based cognitive training are frequently conducted in highly controlled research settings, and assessing effectiveness is difficult, without implementing these interventions in the real world, such as in schools with teachers in charge of administration (Hill, Serpell, & Faison, 2016). In addition, it is worth noting that the transfer 605

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is not promoted by technology and whether cognitive training programs transfer to areas other than the one trained is not well established, so that the role of educator/teacher mediation keeps on being crucial. Now, the aim of the following chapter is to present tools and platforms supported by AI to enhance the development and improvement of executive functions.

AI Support to Executive Functions Assessment, Development and Improvement: Examples It’s obvious that the influence of digital technologies on learning is both negative and positive. And strictly referring to EFs, AI biases can negatively influence business leaders EFs says Santiago (2019). But the section hereunder (Table 1) is a glimpse into examples of positive impact AI based EMIS and application for EFs improvement, mainly attention and memory, behavioral inhibition, tackling procrastination through recalling and interleaving, and flexibility. They are provided by philanthropic engagements and private sector initiatives and are presented regardless of the country in which they have been developed. Of each product the name, the main objectives, the access link and the access link to the underlying research are provided. The list is not meant to be exhaustive, but just to provide a sample of examples.

Some Caveat about AI Technology Implementation It can not be denied that there are several critical issues, risks, and limitations with the implementation of AI technology in education. We point out some that are more widespread: poor teacher adoption, lack of data understanding, fear factor (teachers may feel that AI technology could ultimately replace them and will therefore be reticent to push forward initiatives using the technology); non counting that an adoption at scale requires support from multiple stakeholders (parents, students, teachers, administrators and policymakers) and this can be difficult to achieve quickly. Besides there is a subject limitation: AI will not be relevant and/or suitable to all subjects. For instance, in realistic subjects with a strong subjective element for evaluation, such as drama, theater, food technology and physical education, personalized learning and automated grading are unlikely to work. A further hitch is investment: in fact, deployment of AI technology at scale is expensive. Other critical issues can be found in ethics and transparency in data collection, use and dissemination: this is likely the single biggest risk of AI deployment in education as so much personal data is needed for success (Renz, 2020). A robust cybersecurity and data privacy strategy is integral to success, but without a correspondingly comprehensive data collection, which forms the basis for the derivation of statistical models, the development of forecasts and thus for optimized and individual learning possibilities, LA and algorithm or AI-based solutions can not be created. It becomes clear here that the responsibility for the correctness and timeliness of the data is partly in the learner himself, while the provider must guarantee the state of the art, the reliability and the validity of the evaluation process (Ifenthaler 2019). There are also reports of restricted freedom of movement when it comes to the release of data in educational institutions. Especially in European countries, this transparency is often regarded as an inappropriate control (GDPR, 2016).

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Table 1. Examples of positive impact AI based EMIS and application for EFs improvement Product Accelium Atentiv

BitBrain BrainPower Braingame Brian

Main purposes Link Decision making, problem solving https://www.accelium.com/ Training of cognitive functions: focused and sustained attention, cognitive and behavioral inhibition, https://www.atentiv.com/ divided attention, interference control, and self-regulation https://www.bitbrain.com/ Working memory, processing speed neurotechnology-products/completeand sustained attention solutions/cognitive-enhancement-lab Working memory, attention, https://brain-power.com/ inhibition Visuospatial working memory, http://en.gamingandtraining.nl/ inhibition, cognitive flexibility

Century

Interleaving

https://www.century.tech/

C 8 Science

Working memory. attention, inhibition

https://www.c8sciences.com/

Cerego

Memory, spaced repetion

https://www.cerego.com/

Cignition Cogmed Cortexio

Working memory, attention Working memory, attention Memory, spaced repetion

https://fs.cignition.com/schools https://www.cogmed.com/ https://cortexio.com/

Duolingo

Memory, spaced repetition

https://www.duolingo.com/

Edaptio Forest FramerSpace Focusmate

Memory, spaced repetition Attention, procrastination Decision making Procrastination

https://edaptio.com/ https://www.forestapp.cc/ https://framerspace.com/ https://www.focusmate.com/

Habitica

Procrastination

https://habitica.com/

Hypocampus

Memory

https://www.hypocampus.se/

IBM Watson

Personalization

https://www.ibm.com/mysupport/s/ topic/0TO50000000Qei8GAC/watsoneducation-classroom?language=it

Intendu Luminosity

Behavioral control, attention, multitasking, self-initiation, working https://www.intendu.com/ memory, planning Speed of processing, short-term memory, working memory, problem https://www.lumosity.com/en/ solving

Mindstrong

based on cognitive functioning research, can help detect troubling mental health patterns by collecting data on a person’s smartphone usage

https://mindstrong.com/

OpenFace

Attention analysis (attention avoids information overload and helps working memory)

https://github.com/TadasBaltrusaitis/ OpenFace

Play Attention Rocky.ai Supermemo Tali Train

Working memory, spatial memory, shortterm memory, planning, and attention Procrastination (generally for leadership coach) Memory, spaced repetition Selective attention, control, inhibition and focus training

https://www.playattention.com/ourprograms/home-license

Informations https://www.accelium.com/copy-of-method-es https://www.atentiv.com/science.html

https://www.bitbrain.com/blog/science-research https://brain-power.com/research/ http://en.gamingandtraining.nl/research/ https://www.century.tech/news/how-does-centurys-aiwork/ https://www.c8sciences.com/science/ https://support.cerego.com/hc/en-us/ articles/115002428083-What-s-the-science-behindCeregohttps://fs.cignition.com/cblog/tag/efficacy-study https://www.cogmed.com/working-memory/research https://blog.cortexio.se/category/research/ https://research.duolingo.com/papers/settles.acl16.pdf https://research.duolingo.com/ https://edaptio.com/about-us https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/3377170.3377172 https://mgiep.unesco.org/framerspace https://www.focusmate.com/science https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309917555_A_ perspective_on_blending_programming_environments_ and_games_Beyond_points_badges_and_leaderboards https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339028725_ Correlating_Working_Memory_Capacity_with_Users_ Study_Behavior_in_a_Web-Based_Learning_Platform https://www.edsurge.com/news/2016-12-07-a-siri-forhigher-ed-aims-to-boost-student-engagement https://www.intendu.com/research/ https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/ journal.pone.0134467 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41746-018-0018-4. epdf?author_access_token=1fkxgrWFDiXA56Xo3FNw ztRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0OnwA2ULxdpjVjnH6_ONh4 aMjDGX12gUIPFKIwdmlEHzMld4VXIWQ8VP-uKOE kOWVA766wwmKMpJ4oaUwlvmzV5egYSCTYHoYE S9AlkGyQG4g%3D%3D https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338025344_ Attentive_or_Not_Toward_a_Machine_Learning_ Approach_to_Assessing_Students’_Visible_ Engagement_in_Classroom_Instruction https://www.playattention.com/empower-your-mind

https://www.supermemo.com/it

https://www.rocky.ai/post/artificial-intelligence-andcoaching-the-rise-of-the-digital-coach http://www.super-memory.org/help/smalg.htm

https://talihealth.com.au/

https://talihealth.com.au/research/

https://www.rocky.ai/

Source: made from the Author

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A lack of vision and fragmentation about AI implementation is also to be reported: “Adoption of AI in education is accelerating. Massive potential but hurdles remain” says the HolonIQ Global Executive Panel (2020). The HolonIQ’s AI technology Applications Framework identifies five key triggers driving uses of AI in education: Vision, Voice, Natural Language Processing, Algorithms and Hardware. And the panel, 377 executives from over 25 countries, and representing the full range of education institutions, education technology and services companies and enablers such as government, investors, accelerators and incubators, identified as the leading source of impact Algorithms followed by Natural Language Processing /Linguistics, Voice-based AI applications followed by hardware and vision. Adoption of AI is increasing and plans for adoption differ across the various organizations, but the lack of vision is a common critical issue. Most of the remainder declared the intention to adopt AI in short or medium term and 5% responded that they have no interest in adopting AI at all. Almost half of the respondents reported that the biggest barrier to adoption of AI in education is the lack of a clear AI strategy, and a lack of AI talent (45% of respondents) represents the second largest barrier overall. But the vision for the use of Artificial Intelligence crosses almost all functional boundaries and can come with significant costs: so, it is not surprising to see leadership and technical infrastructure identified as barriers to adoption. The Dutton overview of National AI Strategies, continuously updated, confirms the above, and mostly fragmentation (2018). To address these critical issues widely shared by experts, the World Ecomic Forum (2019) developed a framework to guide governments that are yet to develop a national strategy for AI or are developing such a strategy. The framework will help the teams responsible for developing the national strategy to ask the right questions, follow the best practices, identify and involve the right stakeholders in the process and establish the right set of outcome metrics. In short, the framework helps to create a “minimum viable” AI strategy for a nation. Also algorithmic prejudices are a big shadow weighing on the future of Artificial Intelligence systems. Prejudices (bias) make them unreliable, partial and potentially dangerous. A background to the topic with the aim to clarify what is meant by cognitive biases is provided by Ellis (2018); an interesting cognitive bias codex is designed by Manoogian (2017). In “Busted! The Truth about the 50 Most Common Internet Myths” (Spielkamp, 2020): we read, in fact, that the neutrality of algorithms is a myth, as humans still develop them for specific purposes. As we would not qualify these definitions as neutral, so neither is the algorithm that acts on their basis. The Council of Europe, in a recent statement (2019), also warns against the risk of “social discrimination” caused by algorithms. These claims suggest two opportunities, says Silberg (2019): the first is the opportunity to use AI to identify and reduce the effect of human biases. The second is the chance to optimize AI systems on their own, from how they use data to how they are created, implemented and used, to prevent them from perpetuating human and social prejudices or generating their own prejudices and related challenges. Many leaders in developing and studying AI technologies are working to provide resources for organizations seeking to deploy AI fairly. They include the following efforts, as reported from QuantumBlack, a McKinsey company specializing in analytics and AI, that published a paper on operationalizing risk management in machine learning, including explainability and bias, which has been presented at ICML’s AI for social good workshop (Silberg and Manyika, 2019): New York University ‘s AI Now Institute releases annual reports, now in their third year, offering one of the longest-running research series on AI bias reports; additional academic efforts include The Alan Turing Institute’s Fairness, Transparency, Privacy group, the Ethics and Governance of Artificial Intelligence Initiative affiliated with the Berkman Klein Center at Harvard, the MIT Media Lab, and the Stanford Institute for Human-Centered AI; the 608

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European Commission’s report Ethics guidelines for trustworthy AI includes a checklist of questions about bias and fairness; Google AI has released a collection of recommended practices for fairness and other important AI issues in accordance with its AI principles; to treat people fairly, Microsoft has provided guidelines for conversational AI bots: the guidelines are part of the AI values of Microsoft, including AI Fairness 360, an open-source tool kit to test and minimize bias, that has been developed by IBM, and Microsoft has made its fairness platform available on GitHub; guiding principles and questions have been published by FAT / ML (Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency in Machine Learning), which has developed into the FAT* conference (2020); the Partnership on AI, with the participation of leading technology and civil society organizations, has a Fair, Transparent, and Accountable AI working group; the Algorithmic Justice League, founded by Joy Buolamwini, a Ghanaian-American computer scientist and digital activist based at the MIT Media Lab, aims to catalogue biases and offers auditing of algorithms; AI4ALL, a nonprofit organization, focuses on developing a diverse and inclusive pipeline of AI talent in underrepresented communities through education and mentorship of high school students, in collaboration with leading AI research universities. All this is to confirm that the problem of AI biases is well known and significant, but the research community is working hard to tackle it, to pave a safer path to AI implementation.

CONCLUSION Education is a complex and dynamic field that covers important social, economic, cultural, intellectual and personal factors and performs at global, national, local, and personal scales. However, information and data about education and the innovation that is occurring throughout the system, are still fragmented and anchored in their local environment, making cooperation across contexts difficult, thus hindering material innovation in the sector. So, a global collective shared encompassing vision about AI in education is needed and, in fact, several initiatives are growing in this regard. Furthermore, human judgment is still crucial to ensure AI supported decision making fairness and to guide biases. Human intervention is also essential in supporting transfer and in reinforcing the reflection on fundamental elements of learning that is cognitive functions (i.e. metacognition). Nevertheless, the role of cognitive systems, AI-enhanced EMIS and applications, to support the improvement of cognitive functions, in particular EFs, as they are trainable and can be improved for learning outcomes and human wellbeing, is already a fact whose worldwide growth is massive. So, we can say that AI is a common good to be known, guided and valued, but beyond the opportunities, there are also many challenges that revolve around: developing a robust public policy view on AI for sustainable growth, ensuring AI’s inclusion in education, developing quality and inclusive data systems, bolstering AI research in education, dealing with ethics and transparency in data collection, use and dissemination, preparing teachers for an AI-powered education as stated by UNESCO (2019). Moreover, to use AI in a pedagogical and meaningful way, teachers must improve digital skills; AI developers must learn how teachers work and build solutions that are sustainable in real-life environments. In a few words, there is a need for systemic and ad-hoc teacher training, because traditional learning and evaluation have become anachronistic.

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Jacob, R., & Parkinson, J. (2015). The Potential for School-Based Interventions That Target Executive Function to Improve Academic Achievement: A Review. Review of Educational Research, 85(4), 512–552. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654314561338 Kahneman, D. (1973). Attention and effort. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a07f/fad799cffee3ef6a2b33f4a56bffcc5b747d.pdf?_ga=2.186576170.2026873836.1598602642-306137250.1598602642 King, M., Cave, R., Foden, M., & Stent, M. (2016). Personalised education. From curriculum to career with cognitive systems. IBM Education. https://www.ibm.com/thought-leadership/technology-marketresearch/personalised-education-quiz/dist/files/ibm-white-paper.pdf Kirkland, R. (2018). The role of education in AI (and vice versa). McKinsey & Company. Laanpere, M., Pata, K., Normak, P., & Põldoja, H. (2014). Pedagogy-driven design of digital learning ecosystems. Computer Science and Information Systems, 11(1), 419–442. doi:10.2298/CSIS121204015L Labarthe, H., Luengo, V., & Bouchet, F. (2018). Analyzing the relationships between learning analytics, educational data mining and AI for education. 14th international conference on Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS): Workshop Learning Analytics, 10-19. Lexplore. (2020). https://www.lexplore.com/ Manoogian, J., & Benson, B. (2017). Cognitive Bias codex. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Cognitive_Bias_Codex_-_180%2B_biases,_designed_by_John_Manoogian_III_(jm3).jpg Mayer-Schönberger, V., & Cukier, K. (2014). Learning from Big Data: The Future of Education. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Messiou, K. (2017). Research in the field of inclusive education: Time for a rethink? International Journal of Inclusive Education, 21(2), 146–159. doi:10.1080/13603116.2016.1223184 Montebello, M. (2018). AI injected e-learning: the future of online education. doi:10.1007/978-3-31967928-0 Montebello, M. (2019). The ambient intelligent classroom. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-21882-9_6 Morrison, F. J., Ponitz, C. C., & McClelland, M. M. (2010). Self-regulation and academic achievement in the transition to school. In S. D. Calkins & M. Bell (Eds.), Child Development at the Intersection of Emotion and Cognition (pp. 203–224). Am. Psychol. Assoc. Nkambou, R., Roger, A., & Julita, V. (2018). Intelligent Tutoring Systems. In Proceedings. Programming and Software Engineering.14th International Conference. Montreal: Springer International Publishing. Now, A. I. (2020). New York University. Retrieved October 23rd, 2020. https://ainowinstitute.org/ OECD. (2019). Education at a Glance 2019:OECD Indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing. doi:10.1787/ f8d7880d-en Osiurak, F., Navarro, J., & Reynaud, E. (2018). How our cognition shapes and is shaped by technology: a common framework for understanding human tool-use interactions in the past, present, and future. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 293. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00293

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Pardos, Z. A., Zihao, F., & Weijie, J. (2018). Connectionist Recommendation in the Wild: On the utility and scrutability of neural networks for personalized course guidance. Cornell University. https://arxiv. org/abs/1803.09535 Pedró, F., Subosa, M., Rivas, A., & Valverde, P. E. (2019). Artificial intelligence in education: challenges and opportunities for sustainable development. https://www.gcedclearinghouse.org/resources/artificialintelligence-education-challenges-and-opportunities-sustainable-development Perrault, R., Yoav, S., Brynjolfsson, E., Clark, J., Etchemendy, J., Grosz, B., Lyons, T., Manyika, J., Mishra, S., & Niebles, J. C. (2019). The AI Index 2019 Annual Report. AI Index Steering Committee, Human-Centered AI Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. Renz, A., Krishnaraja, S., & Gronau, E. (2020). Demystification of artificial intelligence in education. How much AI is really in the educational technology? International Journal of Learning Analytics and Artificial Intelligence for Education, 2(1), 4–30. Rienties, B., Simonsen, H., & Herodotou, C. (2020). Defining the Boundaries Between Artificial Intelligence in Education, Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, Educational Data Mining, and Learning Analytics: A Need for Coherence. Frontiers in Education, 5. Advance online publication. doi:10.3389/feduc.2020.00128 Rommelfanger, K.S., Jeong, S.J., Ema, A., Fukushi, T., Kasai, K., Ramos, K.M., Salles, A., & Singh, I. (2018). Neuroethics questions to guide ethical research in the international brain initiatives. Neuron, 100, 19–36. Samoili, S., López Cobo, M., Gómez, E., De Prato, G., Martínez-Plumed, F., & Delipetrev, B. (2020). AI Watch. Defining Artificial Intelligence. Towards an operational definition and taxonomy of artificial intelligence. EUR 30117 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. doi:10.2760/382730 Santiago, T. (2019). AI bias: How does AI influence the executive function of business leaders? Muma Business Review, 3(16), 181-192. doi:10.28945/4380 Serpell, Z. N., & Esposito, A. G. (2016). Development of Executive Functions: Implications for Educational Policy and Practice. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3(2), 203–210. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732216654718 Siemens, G., & Baker, R. (2012). Learning analytics and educational data mining: Towards communication and collaboration. ACM International Conference Proceeding Series. 10.1145/2330601.2330661 Silberg, J., & Manyika, J. (2019). Notes from the AI frontier: Tackling bias in AI (and in humans). McKinsey Global Institute. https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Featured%20Insights/Artificial%20Intelligence/Tackling%20bias%20in%20artificial%20intelligence%20and%20in%20humans/ MGI-Tackling-bias-in-AI-June-2019.pdf Spielkamp, M. (2020). Busted! The Truth about the 50 Most Common Internet Myths. Verlag HansBredow-Institut. https://www.internetmythen.de/en/?mythen=myth-42-algorithms-are-always-neutral

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Ternes, K., Iyengar, V., Lavretsky, H., Dawson, W., Booi, L., Ibanez, A., & Eyre, H. (2020). Brain health INnovation Diplomacy: A model binding diverse disciplines to manage the promise and perils of technological innovation. International Psychogeriatrics, 1–25. doi:10.1017/S1041610219002266 The Blue Dot. (2020). Reimagining Learning Spaces for Uncertain Times. UNESCO MGIEP. https:// d1c337161ud3pr.cloudfront.net/files%2Fd0682ab5-7f94-492d-ab68-b7110a3b6764_The%20Blue%20 DOT-Issue%2012.pdf The Global AI Index. (2020). Tortoise. https://www.tortoisemedia.com/intelligence/ai/ Tuomi, I. (2018). The impact of Artificial Intelligence on learning, teaching, and education. In Policies for the future. Publications Office of the European Union. UNESCO. (2019a). Artificial Intelligence in Education: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Development. unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000366994 UNESCO. (2019b). Artificial Intelligence in education: compendium of promising initiatives: Mobile Learning Week 2019. Paris: UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ ark:/48223/pf0000370307 UNESCO. (2016). Education 2030: Incheon declaration and framework for action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4: ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000245656 United Nations General Assembly. (2015). Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. unfpa.org/resources/transforming-our-world-2030-agenda-sustainabledevelopment#:~:text=On%2025%20September%2C%20the%20United,2030%20Agenda%20for%20 Sustainable%20Development.&text=We%20are%20committed%20to%20achieving,a%20balanced%20 and%20integrated%20manner Van Mieghem, A., Verschueren, K., Petry, K., & Struyf, E. (2018). An analysis of research on inclusive education: A systematic search and meta review. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 1–15. doi:10.1080/13603116.2018.1482012 Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and Language. The MIT Press. WEF (World Economic Forum). (2019). A Framework for Developing a National Artificial Intelligence Strategy Centre for Fourth Industrial Revolution. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_National_AI_ Strategy.pdf Xieling, C., Haoran, X., Zouc, D., & Gwo-Jen, H. (2020). Application and theory gaps during the rise of Artificial Intelligence in Education. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence. https://www. sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666920X20300023?via%3Dihub Zawacki-Richter, O., Marín, V.I., & Bond, M. (2019). Systematic Review of Research on Artificial Intelligence Applications in Higher Education – Where are the Educators? Int J Educ Technol High Educ, 16, 39. doi:10.118641239-019-0171-0

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Algorithms: A set of rules or instructions given to an AI, neural network, or other machines to help them learn on its own; classification, clustering, recommendation, and regression are four of the most popular types. Bias: Machine learning bias, also sometimes called algorithm bias or AI bias, is a phenomenon that occurs when an algorithm produces results that are systemically prejudiced due to erroneous assumptions in the machine learning process. Cognitive Computing: A computerized model that mimics the way the human brain thinks. It involves self-learning through the use of data mining, natural language processing, and pattern recognition. Data Mining: The process of analyzing datasets in order to discover new patterns that might improve the model. Data Science: Drawing from statistics, computer science and information science, this interdisciplinary field aims to use a variety of scientific methods, processes, and systems to solve problems involving data. Deep Learning: The ability for machines to autonomously mimic human thought patterns through artificial neural networks composed of cascading layers of information. Educational Data Mining: Is concerned with developing, researching, and applying computerized methods to detect patterns in large collections of educational data. EMIS: An EMIS can be defined as a system for the collection, integration, processing, maintenance and dissemination of data and information to support decision-making, policy-analysis and formulation, planning, monitoring and management at all levels of an education system. Executive Functions: The executive functions are a set of processes that all have to do with managing oneself and one’s resources in order to achieve a goal. It is an umbrella term for the neurologically-based skills involving flexibility, memory and self-regulation. General AI: An AI that could successfully do any intellectual task that any given human being currently can. This is sometimes referred to a strong AI, although they aren’t entirely equivalent terms. Machine Learning: A facet of AI that focuses on algorithms, allowing machines to learn without being programmed and change when exposed to new data.  Neural Network: Also called a neural net, this is a computer system designed to function like the human brain. Although researchers are still working on creating a machine model of the human brain, existing neural networks can perform many tasks involving speech, vision, and board game strategy. UDL: Universal Design for Learning is a way of thinking about teaching and learning that helps give all students an equal opportunity to succeed. Weak AI: Also called narrow AI, this is a model that has a set range of skills and focuses on one particular set of tasks. Most AI currently in use is weak AI, unable to learn or perform tasks outside of its specialist skill set.

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Chapter 26

VLE Meets VW Matthew Montebello University of Malta, Malta Vanessa Camilleri University of Malta, Malta

ABSTRACT The use of artificial intelligence (AI) within a learning environment has been shown to enhance the learning environment, improve its effectiveness, and enrich the entire educational experience. The next generation of intelligent learning environments incorporates the immersion of learners within virtual worlds while still offering the educational affordances and benefits of the online environment as a teaching medium. In this chapter, the current implementation of the virtual learning world (VLW) is presented bringing together a number of previous initiatives that integrated AI within a virtual learning environment (VLE) as well as the employment of a virtual world (VW) as learning environments. The realisation of the first VLW prototype provided numerous insights that provide valuable recommendations and significant conclusions to assist in taking the virtual learning environment to the next level.

INTRODUCTION Universities and other higher educational institutions have been employing the evolving ICT technology in a number of ways before the turn of the century. The Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) is one of numerous endeavors to provide educational content to learners while providing a medium for educators to correspond in some way with their same learners. Basic VLEs allow assessment functionalities as well as course management interfaces that are directly sourced from the institution’s information system. Even though these features seem to satisfy the educational needs that the institution seeks to provide (Beastall & Walker, 2007; Oliver, 2005), a number of educational researchers questioned such a medium and expected a deeper and much more effective learning environment that truly enriched the process that learners deserve (Stiles, 2007; Craig, 2007; Alhogail & Mirza, 2011). The issues documented are not only those related to inadequate implementation (Dublin, 2004), unemployed features (Sharpe, Benfield, & Francis, 2006), cultural issues (Alhogail & Mirza, 2011), and acceptance or adoption DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch026

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 VLE Meets VW

concerns by learners (Govindasamy, 2002), but additional ones that are far more deeper rooted in the academic significance of employing such learning environments. The question here is whether or not we are taking full advantage of the digital medium and the affordances it provides to create an intuitive and andragogical-sensitive environment in-line with the ever-evolving digital backdrop that learners instinctively associate themselves with. Such a learning environment not only provides the necessary academic functionality expected from the traditional VLE, but additionally supports and affords features that add value to the educational experience. In this chapter we will be presenting an intelligent learning environment that is not only virtual and digital, but also social-network-like within a virtual world educational space. Our extensive experience in social-network like learning environments (Montebello, et al., 2018), together with the use and purposing of 3-dimensional virtual worlds within an educational context (Camilleri, de Freitas, Dunwell, & Montebello, 2017), as well as both in combination (Camilleri, Dingli, Mifsud, Montebello, & Seychell, 2012), has led us to harness and apply both technologies in tandem in an effort to add value and optimize the learning environment beyond any VLE expectation. The rest of the chapter is organized as follows. The next section gives a short background on VLEs, followed by a similar background on Virtual Worlds (VWs). Our highly-published social-network like learning environment, called Scholar, is thoroughly covered in the fourth section highlighting the seven e-learning affordances that are excelled within this rich VLE. Finally, we present the merging of both worlds by describing into detail how the VLE meets the VW in our attempt to investigate and develop the next generation of VLEs thereby adding value and assisting in enhancing e-learning effectiveness. We close the chapter with numerous recommendations and conclusions we draw from our experiences in developing this innovative and ground-breaking VLE.

THE VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT (VLE) The history of Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) can be traced back to the inception of the WorldWide Web (WWW) itself as educators took advantage of this available medium right away to share resources with their learners. The main role of the VLE in this context was merely that of a repository whereby educators communicated with their learners asynchronously by uploading files and links to resources to be accessed and employed to supplement the educational process that traditionally was held Face-to-Face (F2F) in a physical classroom. Unfortunately, numerous educators and higher education researchers refer to such use of a VLE as an online learning methodology (Mäkelä, Kiltti, Vilpola, & Tervonen, 2012) creating the impression that the VLE embodied the entire educational process when in reality the VLE served solely as a medium to support teaching through the easy distribution of content. The functionality integrated within VLEs eventually evolved and included additional useful services that further assisted educators, amongst which are to supplement the interaction with their class in an asynchronous way (Craig, 2007), to integrate student information systems (Goslin, Hofmann, & Gray, 2009), as well as linking student data through the administrative information systems (Beckton, 2009). Some available VLEs include Moodle (Goslin, Hofmann, & Gray, 2009) that is notoriously employed by numerous educational institutions due to the fact that it is open source and supported by a massive community that makes it ideal when issues need to be resolved. This easy to integrate learning environment is highly intuitive due to its simplicity but complicated to administer and limited in functionality (Putnik, et al., 2013). Other open source VLEs include Sakai (Carmichael, Procter, Laterza, & Rimpiläinen, 2006), Ilias (Bednar, Husár, Hricova, Liptáková, & Marton, 2013) and ATutor (Singh & Singh, 2010).

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Another VLE worth mentioning is Blackboard (Bradford, Porciello, Balkon, & Backus, 2007) that was specifically designed for higher education and made available over multiple devices while allowing the integration of resources from numerous third-party providers. This powerful VLE provides alternate and fast feedback, attempts to enhance the way educators and learners communicate, and keeps a log of activities simply to keep a record (Martin, 2008). However, the learning curve is not the easiest as faculty struggled to intuitively make productive use of the VLE (Carnevale, 2003), while inefficiencies and platform issues have been consistently been reported (Servonsky, Daniels, & Davis, 2005). Virtual learning environments still remain a vital and valid portal to supplement and assist educators and learners alike both in face-to-face classical delivery and in online education in higher education, as well as, in a mixture of both in blended delivery. VLEs provide numerous functionalities that not only enhance and facilitate the communication medium even if only asynchronous, they potentially assist educators in reaching their goals and objectives through the adoption and use of technology that ultimately aim to educate learners. How can we enhance such a medium to add further value to the learning process? How can we integrate this tried and tested mode into an intuitive and familiar environment that both learners and educators can easily and efficiently get accustomed to in a way that they can seamlessly and efficiently yield academic benefits through the proper and effective adoption of numerous digital tools? In the next section we will be looking at Virtual Worlds as the medium to deploy our next generation VLE by maintaining the functionalities described in this section while taking advantage of the different medium. This will be done through the use of our own VLE that goes beyond the traditional VLEs described here but which still requires the adoption of an optimized medium.

VIRTUAL WORLDS (VWS) The concept of employing a Virtual World (VW) to simulate an artificial world based on the real counterpart in a way that users or visitors can interrelate with others through the adoption of an avatar, has been around for over forty years, and yet the idea of employing such a medium is still considered innovative and not employed to its full potential (Acosta, Santos, Vargas, Martin-Gutierrez, & Orihuela, 2013). Numerous higher education institutions have adopted VWs in one way or another to embrace the life-like medium that enabled learners to actively engage in the learning process (Wrzesien & R.M., 2010). Content can easily be shared and distributed over VWs (Petrakou, 2009), while the inclusion of artefacts and educational objectives makes it possible to develop social clusters that enable users to communicate, share knowledge, and collaborate (Kumar, et al., 2008). The immersive nature of VWs, coupled with the possibility of interactions that can come close to face-to-face communication, provide social experiences that emotionally and realistically serve their purpose (Carey, 2007). Our experiences with the employment of VWs has already led us to experiment with their application to the academic domain. We proposed a virtual assistant (Camilleri & Montebello, 2008) within a VW in an endeavor to support users within the same VW to navigate the environment as well as contributing in developing and presenting new knowledge. The virtual avatar, that had the shape and form selected by the learner, provided a stimulating conversation in real time as part of the educational process. Additionally, this initiative enabled us to gauge and report on the increased effectiveness to maintain student engagement while generating a community of learners. This virtual community provided real-time feedback as continuous interactions within the VW amongst learners with similar learning objectives as well as with

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members of faculty made it possible to reach such objectives together with the distribution of resources and content. In another attempt to employ VWs within an educational context we reconfirmed the effectiveness of this medium within an academic environment. In that study (Camilleri & Montebello, 2010) we outlined the design of the measurement of interaction processes in virtual spaces used for e-learning. Similar studies have complemented our findings as other researchers (Anstadt, Bradley, & Burnette, 2013; Acosta, Santos, Vargas, Martin-Gutierrez, & Orihuela, 2013) have over and over again reported the benefits that VWs provide to the academic arena as well as to the training and upskilling of workers within industry. These studies have shown the effectiveness of VWs to improve the learning process as related capabilities like communication, collaboration, knowledge sharing, collective intelligence, and feedback could easily be implemented as part of the andragogies adopted by the educators involved. They report that VWs provide new grounds to experiment with innovative educational platforms as realistic interactions provide the missing links that other virtual environments lacked. Acosta, Santos, Vargas, Martin-Gutierrez, & Orihuela (2013) recreated the entire campus, similar to other campuses recreations, to enable ubiquitous learning spaces and thereby taking full advantage of the digital environment to provide academic experiences. More research is required in this area even though VWs have been shown to enhance the effectiveness of e-learning and online education as the increased use of the digital medium exploded over the years. Virtual learning environments with their specific characteristics like the inclusion of avatars, the immersive sensation, and interactions between learner avatars, virtual academic assistants and other VW components, provide the ideal fertile arena to take VLEs to the next level. How can we transform and transfer all that happens in a real F2F interaction to a VW? How can we still take advantage of the affordances provided by the digital within a VLE to further enhance and add value to the next generation VLE? In the next section we will report on how we embraced these new e-learning affordances within an innovative VLE that we have made use of and tested for a number of years, and which now can be adopted and integrated as part of a VW. The attributes of VWs will be further employed in the following section to deploy our VLE as we address the main objective of this chapter where the VLE meets the VW in an actual prototype that is to be employed and tested.

THE SCHOLAR VLE In this section we report on our VLE that will eventually be employed as part of the VW in an effort to propose and investigate the next generation VLE. We have delivered numerous educational courses over these last four years through the use of our own e-learning portal called Scholar (Cope & Kalantzis, 2017) shown in Figure 1. This social network-like VLE was specific developed to take full advantage of e-learning affordances that the digital medium permitted and is deeply grounded within a reflexive pedagogical rationale. The philosophy behind Scholar is based on Bloom’s theoretical recommendations (Bloom B., 1968) that focusses on mastery learning, as well as, the educational model of new learning affordances (Kalantzis & Cope, 2012). Mastery learning empowers learners by providing them ample opportunities to master the educational content and to demonstrate their achievement at their own pace before proceeding further in their learning process (Anderson, 1976; Bloom B. S., 1971; Caroll, 1963; Slavin, 1987). As stated by Bloom (1968) himself, the “basic task in education is to find strategies which will take individual differences into consideration but which will do so in such a way as to promote the

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fullest development of the individual” (p. 3). The epistemological reasoning behind Scholar embraces Bloom’s philosophy amongst which is the assumption that learners have the potential of reaching the required level of knowledge for a specific topic before progressing to the next, as long as they are given ample required time and the correct timely feedback. Our empirical studies (Montebello, et al., 2018) have shown that such a methodology enables higher student retention compared to the classical teachercentered methodology. Similar studies (Kibler, Cegala, Watson, Barkel, & David, 1981; Wachanga & Gamba, 2004), have also reached the same conclusions, together with a higher level of knowledge transfer, elevated interest levels, as well as, improved students’ attitudes due to the added possibilities to achieve and demonstrate mastery of content. Figure 1. Scholar VLE Interface (Cope & Kalantzis, 2017)

Scholar subscribes to the notion of formative assessment especially in an interactive medium like online learning environments, as it allows learners to earn credit for the achievements at distributed periods of time along their learning process while receiving timely feedback thereby increasing their chances of mastering a topic (Ibabe & Jauregizar, 2010). Additionally, such online platforms enable educators with the chance to concentrate on the knowledge and content aspect rather than consuming precious time from tedious recurring marking and administrative work (Motamedi & Sumrall, 2000).

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Even in this case a number of related studies (Kreiner, 2006; Lin, Liu, & Yuan, 2008; Melton, 2008; Zhang, 2010) have collaborated our findings and argue that mastering content is made easier through the online portal. In Scholar, as expected in a web-based VLE, the use of multi-media is greatly employed both to deliver content but also to empower learners to post new knowledge and/or comment. The use of multi-media is a significant improvement on the traditional VLEs discussed earlier and the fact that Scholar enables users to employ text, images, videos, hyperlinks, audio and even documents aligns with the use and integration of multi-media as part of the organized presentation of educational content (Andresen & VanDenBrink, 2013; Babiker & A., 2015; Dwyer, 1993). Learners, especially digitally enabled users, are highly addicted to multi-media when accessing content online and having their multi-media enabled VLE available during their learning process provides an additional incentive to perform. Both teachers and students can employ a variety of media to share content and create new knowledge when posting comments and when sharing content. As a matter of fact, selecting the appropriate medium and selecting the most advantageous mode has been shown to improve and augment learning (Cope & Kalantzis, 2013). The integration of multi-media within the VLE has also been shown to foster and support interaction between the different VLE users as well enables the clear and motivating distribution of content, while providing alternate ways to deliver knowledge, messages and feedback (Andresen & VanDenBrink, 2013). This directly reflects the potential of the inclusion and use of multi-media in academia and within VLEs, as research has shown that learners’ motivational levels are boosted as their unique interests and education al needs are catered for (Andresen & VanDenBrink, 2013). Having said and shown the potential of multi-media, care need to be taken to ensure the correct employment and duly applied integration of multi-media in a way that is authentically genuine and transformational from the conservative didactic teaching methodologies (Cope & Kalantzis, 2013). It would be improper and counter-productive to simply push together a number of different media items simply to ensure multi-media is being employed as communication not only is required to be natural and meaningful, but should express the author’s intentions in a way that it employs the appropriate medium through the most suitable channel. A highly useful and state-of-the-art capability that is incorporated within Scholar is the use learning analytics as the underlying software captures, in the background, all the minute and granular data generated by the learner. This data could be in the form of activities performed, post submitted, updates made, feedback given, as well as the creation and submission of artefacts. The data collected is used to provide credit as part of the formative assessment, as well as employed to extract new academic information about the learner that is employed to further add value to the learning experience. Such functionality is typical of Intelligent Adaptive Learning (IAL) systems that keep track of all the learner’s activities to further guide the same learner’s educational process grounded in sound learning principles. The IAL platform ensures to customize the entire process to the individual and unique educational needs of a learner while adjusting the learning plan with the appropriate pace and direction. Projects that investigate IAL systems (Hou & Fidopiastis, 2016; Herder, Sosnovsky & Dimitrova, 2017) have shown over and over again that such systems are highly effective learning environments as well as provide ideal platforms for training transfer. Scholar, similar to an IAL platform, subscribes to the new media as they have transformed the way the education system operates, transitioning to a new and exciting e-learning ecologies, as coined by Cope and Kalantzis (2017). Such a term is used to understand and appreciate the learning environment as an ecosystem as it integrates the multifaceted relationships between educators, learners, content, media, and learning spaces themselves. Such considerations encapsulated within this e-learning ecology has a 621

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direct impact on the people involved, their working relationship, the way the learning space is configured, their exposure to knowledge in content and form, as well as to the items within that space whether knowledge content or measurable outcomes created by the learners. This is significantly important and decisive to the creation of the proposed VLE with the VW as all three factors come together, namely, people, content, and space as collaborated by our own research (Cope & Kalantzis, 2013; 2016).

e-Learning Affordances We integrate the concept of the new e-learning ecology through the integration of seven affordances that represent an “agenda for new learning and assessment” (Cope & Kalantzis, 2017, p. 3) that underlines the associations between content and education as novel andragogies are re-tuned and rectified in a way that define and accentuate this specific ecology that address the current digital academic scenario to represent the educational needs and requirements of learners and educators alike. The seven e-learning affordances are depicted in Figure 2 followed by an elaboration of each of the affordances that form the pillars of our reflexive ideology. 1. Ubiquitous Learning: Access to the educational process anywhere is the first affordance that the digital has enabled and that the VLE as well as the VW are also ubiquitously accessible. Such an affordance dismantled the walls of the traditional classroom and in our case, it provided the support to develop an entire world where our students are free to roam over a networked environment with the luxury availability of a rich content and information over the World-Wide Web (WWW) together the potential of crowdsourced knowledge. Scholar is available online and thereby easily subscribes to this e-learning affordance. Similarly, the proposed next generation VLE is available over the WWW and thereby ubiquitously accessible; 2. Active Knowledge Making: The potential to create and generate new knowledge artefacts through the integration, amalgamation, and curation of existent resources by creating or discovering novel connections between the pieces of information is possible and achievable. Such scholarly outcomes are based on students’ current knowledge as well as on additional available knowledge which they have access to and the means and know-how of how and where to acquire it. The skill, creativity and intellect to actively conceive such knowledge outcomes is an affordance in itself that only the digital made available. Scholar provides such a functionality through the crediting of knowledge artefacts that can easily be submitted over the same interface and are captured by the underlying learning analytics; 3. Multimodal Meaning: The affordance provided by this new digital media endows learners with the capacity to curate and reframe the acquired and rediscovered knowledge in multimodal ways, where the classic narrative can potentially be supplemented by graphical representations, audiovisual resources, and dynamic data as well as alternate media. This new genre of rich outcomes empowers learners to creatively select and make use of the appropriate mode to embody their artefact put together from a combination of their own understanding, knowledge, and available resources. The underlying system is gauged to credit the learners for the richness of their creations through the analytics tool that encourages those who have an affinity to be creative and innovative. A rich editing interface is provided over Scholar enabling the integration of Youtube videos, images, audio clips, and multi-formatted text.

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Figure 2. The seven e-learning affordances (Cope & Kalantzis, 2013)

4. Recursive Feedback: Providing feedback to others is as educational as receiving timely feedback about your own work in a way that learners and educators can easily comment, provide comments, encourage each other, recommend improvements and recursively engage in a constructive critical thinking loop. Such a cycle animates learners to perform better while fostering a healthy educational ecosystem within which learners can flourish and shine. Learners are able to post comments and reply to other comments in a recursive way over Scholar as its social-network-like nature actively engages learners and credits them for such feedback. Additionally, Scholar allows peer reviewing as an education allowance that is also credited through the underlying analytics tool. 5. Collaborative Intelligence: Group work was never so easy as the digital technology provides a plethora of tools for learners, educators, and others from the online crowd to assist, contribute, and share their knowledge. Learners can virtually put their heads together and interactively create a knowledge artefact irrespective of wherever each person is situated, and regardless of the device or the platform employed by each individual contributor. Collaborating on a task does not necessarily have to be in real time but individual learners can co-author a piece of work asynchronously through a common digital medium like Scholar as it provides ample space for learners, or as referred

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in Scholar, peers, to engage in highly social activities through the common community they form part of; 6. Metacognition: Scholar enables and encourages learners to think about their own thinking as well as about the thinking of others when providing feedback and reacting to others’ feedback. Such an effective activity grants a valuable implicit educational experience as it enables the same learners to reflect and ponder about the topic at hand, the feedback given, and what or how to act in response to the feedback they have been given. Similar to posting within a social network interaction, learners employ the most appropriate medium, be it a photo, a video clip, an emoji or a piece of text, while ensuring they sustain their argument or point to make with factual information. This rich multimodal interaction unearths weak areas as well as strengths while enabling learners to think in a critical way as well as polishing their creative and reasoning skills. Scholar enables such an affordance through the recursive feedback functionality as learners are encouraged to participate as done in any social network; 7. Differentiated Learning: Customizing the learning process has been documented to enhance the e-learning experience (Montebello, 2017). Scholar makes it possible through the continuous monitoring of the learner’s activity while making use of the different functionalities available. Every activity, task, post, feedback, or use of a resource is recorded for individual students and given credit for it through a graphic visualization, shown in Figure 3, that synthesizes every granular detail that will contribute to the learning analytics generated for each specific learner (Cope & Kalantzis, 2016). Such tailoring of content, assessment, and environment is instrumental as a learning incentive and an important affordance made possible through the digital (Montebello, 2018b). Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the main contributing technology in this case and is instrumental in processing the learner-related data through the application of Machine Learning (ML) techniques to generate a unique learner profile. The learner profile specific to the unique learner is further employed to perform automated recommendations, academic suggestions, adapted personalized projections, as well as, accurate assessment evaluations (Montebello, 2014). The learning analytics functionality present in Scholar takes advantage of this affordance as the underlying software captures every granular data point generated by the learner. This will remain to be made available when Scholar is deployed over the VW.

VIRTUAL LEARNING WORLD (VLW) The chapter reaches its climax in this section as we bring together the enriched VLE Scholar that was presented in the previous section with the VW environment to present the next generation VLE whereby learners and educators can move around with the help of their avatar within the Virtual Learning World (VLW). This simulated reality-like environment exhibits all the same educational functionalities and instructional capabilities that are found in Scholar but augmented with the help of the VW features that are characterized by the immersive powers and additional effects that include immediacy, interactivity, and persistence.

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Figure 3. Scholar Differentiated Analytics

Figure 4. Students interacting within the VLW

The VLW, seen in Figure 4, we developed in Second Life (SL) (Anstadt, Bradley, & Burnette, 2013; Kumar, et al., 2008) takes full advantage of the VW’s features that render them ideal educational environments. The immersive nature of these 3-dimensional worlds appeal to learners as additional affordances (Aldrich, 2009) can be taken advantage of in conjunction with those mentioned in the previous chapter. Identity, considered one of the most notorious VWs affordance (Thomas & Seely Brown, 2009), highly affects the immersive factor once learners experience the physical sensation of the third dimension. Additionally, communication, considered also a fundamental feature within an educational process, is even more compelling within a VW like SL as learners and educators can orally communicate amongst themselves, which has never been the case with any of the existent VLEs. A group of thirty undergraduate students at the University of Malta accepted and volunteered to experiment and experience the utilization of the VLW as part of their learning experience. Apart from the immersive sensation that the added dimension provided to their experience, the auditory communication coupled with the visuals of actually witnessing their peers and tutors in the form of avatars, helped incredibly to bind and keep alive the virtual community of learners and educators. To the contrary to any other VLE, this experi-

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ence was something that these digital natives were used to and felt comfortable with. The community of learners, that according to McGonigal (2011) maintains VWs alive and actively effective, looked forward to their virtual learning experience as it provided an authentic and real life feeling even though simulated transcending the fantasy world yet providing a learning space that they can connect with. Additionally, VWs are notorious for role-playing (de Freitas, 2006), which is ideal to establish situational experiences that provide ample educational scope and that are somewhat impossible to experience within a traditional VLE. Csìkszentmihàlyi (1991) argues that a state of flow is possible through immersion, and learners felt engaged at an emotional level as they were actively challenged within SL to progress through their educational experience. As the avatars interacted with the educational content deposited as SL objects and resources, they contributed to the VW in a persistent way as documented by researchers when investigating the changing behavior of users within VWs (Reeves & Read, 2009). This existential concept within the VW even when the learner avatar is absent, provides an additional credibility factor that renders the entire VLW more successful and effective. Learners had access to all the functionalities provided within the Scholar VLE as soon as they interacted with virtual screen distributed around the SL virtual learning space and accomplished their academic tasks as if they had physically visited the faculty building in person. Submitting posts, creating knowledge artefacts, providing feedback, accessing content and dealing with assessments were all possible, with the additional bonus of synchronously interacting with their peers as well as being credited for all the achievements and dealings. The fact that learners are being embodied by their avatar, which happens to be another VW affordance (Blascovich & Bailenson, 2011), further facilitates and assists the same learner to consider the spatial sensation within the VW into a real perceived place (Thomas & Seely Brown, 2009). Figure 5 shows a scene from the VLW whereby a traditional conference hall similar to the one within the faculty has been constructed within SL and employed within the project. This transformation from the actual physical learner persona into his or her digital agent avatar rendered within the VLW is an important and fundamental concept that apart from having deep educational connotations, subscribes to “the idea that users intend to return to a virtual world having conceived of it as a ‘place’ in which they have had meaningful experiences” (Goel, Johnson, Junglas, & Ives, 2011, p. 749). Figure 5. A classical conference hall within the VLW

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We assessed our VLW in line with similar VW studies within an academic arena that evaluated the learning effectiveness within a Virtual World. Numerous case studies have been documented (de Freitas & Maharg, 2011) whereby different assessment methodologies had been employed that subscribe to the same formative assessment ideology we subscribe to within Scholar. Active knowledge making, self-efficacy, creative writing, critical thinking, and multi-modal meaning are explored and taken into consideration by the underlying software that contributes to the individual learning analytics generated. The VLW, similar to the Scholar VLE, does not include summative assessment whereby snippets of memory are recalled to gauge how much facts, procedures and retrospective judgements a learner manages to replicate in a most unnatural way. Providing proof of knowledge acquisition through factual representation and knowledge artefacts created as part of the learning process while providing recursive feedback all through the process is much more representative and genuine.

CONCLUSION The future of Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) is instrumental in the success of both e-learning and face-to-face modes of instruction as the way learners interact with other learners, educators, educational content, and other knowledge resources. In our attempt to optimize such an environment and transition to the next generation of VLE we propose and deploy our enriched social-network-like VLE within a Virtual World (VW) to take advantage of both the e-learning affordances provided by the digital, as well as the affordances provided by the 3-dimensional VWs. The knowledge we acquired from deploying the Virtual Learning World (VLW) that brings together the Scholar VLE and the Second Life VW, together with the experiences we garnered while making use of the same VLW with a class of thirty IT undergraduates, has been documented within this chapter but still requires rigorous and empirical investigation. The enthusiasm and eagerness shown by the students as well as the two educators to take the VLW further and evolve it into a fully-fledged university-wide campus replica is testament enough to confirm the positive and productive feeling acquired from this project. The VLW initiative presents an attempt to set the pace towards the next generation VLE with a compatible VW concept. This chapter demarcates the beginning of a promising way forward as more research work and experimentation characterizing the future of VLEs and Content Management Systems.

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Camilleri, V., & Montebello, M. (2010). Social E-Spaces: socio-collaborative spaces within Virtual Worlds. In 7th International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC2010). Valletta, Malta: LREC. Carey, J. (2007). Expressive Communication and Social Conventions in Virtual Worlds. The Data Base for Advances in Information Systems, 38(4), 81–85. doi:10.1145/1314234.1314249 Carmichael, P., Procter, R., Laterza, V., & Rimpiläinen, S. (2006). Sakai: A Virtual Research Environment for Education. Research Intelligence, (96), 18–19. Carnevale, D. (2003). Study of Wisconsin professors finds drawbacks to course management systems. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 49(43), 26. Caroll, J. B. (1963). A Model of School Learning. Teachers College Record, 64, 723–733. Christakis, N., & Fowler, J. (2011). Connected: the Amazing Power of Social Networks and How They Shape Our Lives. HarperCollins Publishers. Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (2013). Towards a new learning: The Scholar social knowledge workspace, in theory and practice. E-Learning and Digital Media, 10(4), 332–356. doi:10.2304/elea.2013.10.4.332 Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (2016). Big data comes to school: Implications for learning, assessment and research. AERA Open, 2(2), 1–19. doi:10.1177/2332858416641907 Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (2017). e-Learning Ecologies. New York: Routledge. Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (2017). Scholar’s New Analytics App: Towards Mastery Learning. https:// cgscholar.com/community/community_profiles/new-learning/community_updates/54189 Craig, M. (2007). Changing paradigms: Managed learning environments and Web 2.0. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 24(3), 152–161. doi:10.1108/10650740710762185 Csìkszentmihàlyi, M. (1991). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. HarperCollins Publisher Inc. de Freitas, S. (2006). Learning in Immersive Worlds: A review of Game-based Learning. JISC, 1-73. de Freitas, S., & Maharg, P. (2011). Modelling Learning Experiences in the Digital Age. In S. de Freitas, & P. Maharg, Digital Games and Learning (pp. 1–41). Continuum International Publishing Group. Dreambox. (2017). Intelligent Adaptive Learning: An Essential Element of 21st Century Teaching and Learning. Whitepaper DB014-202. http://www.dreambox.com/ whitepapers/intelligent-adaptive-learningthe-next-generation-technology Dublin, L. (2004). The nine myths of elearning implementation: Ensuring the real return on your e-learning investment. Industrial and Commercial Training, 36(7), 291–294. doi:10.1108/00197850410563939 Dwyer, C. (1993). Multimedia in Education. Educational Media International, 30(4), 193–198. doi:10.1080/0952398930300402 Goel, L., Johnson, N., Junglas, I., & Ives, B. (2011). From Space to Place: Predicting Users’ Intentions to Return to Virtual Worlds. Management Information Systems Quarterly, 35(3), 749–771. doi:10.2307/23042807

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Goslin, K., Hofmann, M., & Gray, C. (2009). Development of a Moodle course content filter using meta data. 9th IT&T Conference at Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland. Govindasamy, T. (2002). Successful implementation of e-Learning Pedagogical considerations. The Internet and Higher Education, 4(3-4), 287–299. doi:10.1016/S1096-7516(01)00071-9 Herder, E., Sosnovsky, S., & Dimitrova, V. (2017). Adaptive Intelligent Learning Environments. In E. Duval, M. Sharples, & R. Sutherland (Eds.), Technology enhanced learning: Research themes (pp. 109–114). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-02600-8_10 Hou, M., & Fidopiastis, C. (2016). A generic framework of intelligent adaptive learning systems: from learning effectiveness to training transfer. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomic Science. Ibabe, I., & Jauregizar, J. (2010). Online Self-assessment with Feedback and Metacognitive Knowledge. Higher Education, 59(2), 243–258. doi:10.100710734-009-9245-6 Kalantzis, M., & Cope, B. (2012). New Learning: Elements of a Science of Education. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139248532 Kibler, R. J., Cegala, D., Watson, K., Barkel, L., & David, T. (1981). Objectives for Instruction and Evaluation. Allyn and Bacon. Kreiner, D. S. (2006). A Mastery-Based Approach to Teaching Statistics Online. International Journal of Instructional Media, 33(1), 73–80. Kumar, S., Chhugani, J., Kim, C., Kim, D., Nguyen, A., Dubey, P., Bienia, C., & Kim, Y. (2008). Second Life and the New Generation of Virtual Worlds. Computer, 41(9), 46–53. doi:10.1109/MC.2008.398 Lin, H.-T., Liu, E.-F., & Yuan, S.-M. (2008). An Implementation of Web-based Mastery Learning System. International Journal of Instructional Media, 35(2), 209–220. Mäkelä, M., Kiltti, P., Vilpola, I., & Tervonen, J. (2012). Suitability of a Virtual Learning Environment for Higher Education (Vol. 3). The Electronic Journal of e-Learning. Martin, F. (2008). Blackboard as the Learning Management System of a Computer Literacy Course. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 4, 138–145. McGonigal, J. (2011). Reality is Broken. Joanthan Cape. Melton, K. I. (2008). Using Modified Mastery Assignments to Increase Learning in Business Statistics. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 6(2), 239–245. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4609.2008.00169.x Montebello, M. (2014) Artificial Intelligence to the Rescue of E-Learning. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies, EDULearn14 (pp. 7029-7038). Barcelona, Spain: Academic Press. Montebello, M. (2017). Personalised e-Learning. In 12th International Conference on e-Learning ICEL17 (pp. 152-158). Orlando, FL: ICEL. Montebello, M. (2018a). AI Injected e-Learning. The Future of Online Education. Studies in Computational Intelligence Series. Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-67928-0

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Montebello, M. (2018b). Assisting Education through Real-Time Learner Analytics. In 48th IEEE Annual Frontiers in Education (FIE) Conference (pp. 133-139). San Jose, CA: FIE. Montebello, M., Cope, W., Kalantzis, M., Searsmith, D., Amina, T., Tzirides, A., & Haniya, S. (2018). Deepening e-Learning through Social Collaborative Intelligence. In 48th IEEE Annual Frontiers in Education. IEEE. Montebello, M., Cope, W., Kalantzis, M., Searsmith, D., Amina, T., Tzirides, A., ... Haniya, S. (2018). Multimodal Mastery Learning. In 2nd International Conference on Education & Distance Learning. Nice, France: ICEDL. Motamedi, V., & Sumrall, W. (2000). Mastery Learning and Contemporary Issues in Education. Action in Teacher Education, 22(1), 32–42. doi:10.1080/01626620.2000.10462991 O’Reilly, T. (2005). What IsWeb 2.0 Design Patterns and Business Models for the Next Generation of Software. https://www.oreilly.com/pub/a/web2/archive/what-is-web-20.html?page=1 Oliver, R. (2005). Ten more years of educational technologies in education: How far have we travelled? Australian Educational Computing, 20(1), 18–23. Petrakou, A. (2009). Interacting through avatars: Virtual worlds as a context for online education. Computers & Education. Putnik, Z., Ivanovic, M., Mudrinski, Ž., Welzer, T., Hölbl, M., & Beranič, T. (2013). Usability and Privacy Aspects of Moodle - Students’ and Teachers’ Perspective. Informatica (Vilnius), (37), 221–230. Reeves, B., & Read, J. (2009). Total Engagement: Using games and virtual worlds to change the way people work and businesses compete. Harvard Business Press. Servonsky, E., Daniels, W., & Davis, B. (2005). Evaluation of Blackboard as a platform for distance education delivery. The ABNF Journal, 16(6), 132–135. PMID:16382797 Sharpe, R., Benfield, G., & Francis, R. (2006). Implementing a university e-learning strategy: Levers for change within academic schools. Research in Learning Technology, 14(2), 135–151. doi:10.3402/ rlt.v14i2.10952 Singh, M., & Singh, S. (2010). A Novel Gridbased Resource Management Framework for Collaborative e-Learning Environments. International Journal of Computers and Applications, 10(4), 11–14. doi:10.5120/1471-1987 Slavin, R. E. (1987). Mastery Learning Reconsidered. Review of Educational Research, 57(2), 175–213. doi:10.3102/00346543057002175 Stiles, M. (2007). Death of the VLE?: A Challenge to a New Orthodoxy. The Journal for the Serials Community, 20(1), 31–36. doi:10.1629/20031 Thomas, D., & Seely Brown, J. (2009). Why Virtual Worlds Can Matter. International Journal of Learning and Media, 1(1), 37–49. doi:10.1162/ijlm.2009.0008 Wachanga, S. W., & Gamba, P. (2004). Effects of Mastery Learning Approach on Secondary School students’ achievement in Chemistry in Nakuru District, Kenya. Egerton Journal, 5(2), 221–235.

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Wrzesien, M., & Alcañiz Raya, M. (2010). Learning in serious virtual worlds: Evaluation of learning effectiveness and appeal to students in the E-Junior project. Computers & Education, 55(1), 178–187. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.01.003 Zhang, A. B. (2010). The Integration of Mastery Learning in English as a Second Language (ESL) Instruction. International Journal of Instructional Media, 37(1), 91–102.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Andragogy: The art and science of teaching adult learners. Usually taken for granted however effective teaching requires specific skills and experience. Educators can employ a plethora of teaching strategies to optimize the use of the learning medium selected. Artificial Intelligence: The use of computer science techniques to develop computer programs in an attempt to simulate human behaviour. These programs perform tasks that usually require a human to do and thereby convey a sense of added value when compared to simple computer tasks. Avatar: A graphical representation of a human user or the user’s own character or persona. Such representation is usually either in the form of a 2-dimensional image as an icon over WWW chats, forums, bulletins, as well as over VLEs, or otherwise in the form of a 3-dimensional figure that wither resembles the real user in some way or even fantasy characters as in games or virtual worlds. Crowdsourcing: The use of online users to collectively contribute and aggregate information towards a common goal. Initially coined by Jeff Howe and Mark Robinson to describe the way commercial entities outsourced tasks to the crowd over the World Wide Web. Customization: The process of tailoring or changing the content, environment, or the surroundings according to the specific needs and preferences of a unique user. Customization of services or products are notoriously of an elevated value as the user is given the feeling of being given special or preferential treatment thereby being more effective and useful (Montebello, 2018a). E-Learning: Is learning on Internet Time, the convergence of learning and networks. e-Learning is a vision of what corporate training can become. E-Learning is to traditional training as eBusiness is to business as usual. Different versions and generation of e-learning exist as technologies evolved over the years. E-Learning Affordances: The additional functionality and capability that the digital has made possible providing a rich learning experience that previously was not possible through traditional teaching. Some of these affordances include ubiquitous learning, active knowledge making, multimodal meaning, recursive feedback, Collaborative Intelligence, metacognition, and differentiated learning (Cope & Kalantzis, 2013). Face-2-Face (F2F): A mode of delivery within the education/training arena when the educator and learners meet and interact directly in a physical location, as opposed to alternate virtual interaction that can substitute F2F where educator and learners participate in the educational process over the WWW. Intelligent Adaptive Learning (IAL): Intelligent adaptive learning is defined as digital learning that immerses students in modular learning environments where every decision a student makes is captured, considered in the context of sound learning theory, and then used to guide the student’s learning experiences, to adjust the student’s path and pace within and between lessons, and to provide formative and summative data to the student’s teacher. This type of learning tailors instruction to each student’s

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unique needs, current understandings, and interests, while ensuring that all responses subscribe to sound pedagogy (Dreambox, 2014). Learning Analytics: All the data generated by learners when interacting with a learning environment is saved and processed in a way to be employed as further information is extracted that is specific to a unique learner. Such analytics provide customized information as well as making use of all the data points collected to assess the learner’s performance (Montebello, 2018b). Learning Technologies: Different media, technology-based applications and tools that can be used to facilitate and support learning. Learning technologies also include the 21st century digital practices that would require a specific set of skills and attitudes. Machine Learning (ML): Software algorithms that enable the application of AI techniques as the employ the processing of data to add value and incrementally improve automatically as they learn from the extracted information. The learning process is through the analysis of the masses of data available and identifying patterns while performing decisions based on the algorithm programmed by the AI developer. Personal Learning Environment (PLE): A combination of personal academic tools, services and communities that a learner makes use of. Electronic personal learning spaces are traditionally made up of two components, namely, a personal learning network and a personal learning portfolio. Social Networks: This term refers to the connections between individuals in a community. Christakis and Fowler (2011) define this as “an organized set of people that consists of two kinds of elements: human beings and the connections between them. Real, everyday social networks evolve organically from the natural tendency of each person to seek out and make many or few friends, to have large or small families, to work in personable or anonymous workplaces” (p. 13). Virtual Learning Environment (VLE): This term broadly encompasses virtual spaces that are used for learning. Such environments can include Learning Management Systems (LMS), Multiuser Virtual Environments (MUVEs), Virtual Worlds (VWs), and Serious Games. Virtual Learning World (VLW): A proposed learning space made available online through the integration of an advanced VLE called Scholar within a VW called Second Life in an attempt to enhance the learners’ education process. Virtual World (VW): Sometimes referred to as a 3-dimensional virtual space, this computer-simulated that is inhabited by avatars that impersonalize real human users. The avatars can interact with each other as well as with objects within the same VW. Web 2.0: O’Reilly (2005) coined this term to demarcate a phase within the evolution of the WWW whereby websites allow user-generated content thus encouraging web user to author, contribute, share, and distribute their own and others material. Social media were a direct result of this particular phase that also has dynamic characteristics in contrast to previous static read-only counterparts. World Wide Web (WWW): The massive knowledge base of information spread over the global network of servers known as the Internet. Different generations of WWW represent the evolution of how this technology has radically changed over a short period of time from a read-only, to a read-write and share.

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Chapter 27

Artificial Intelligence and K-12: How to Explain?

Muhammet Demirbilek Faculty of Education, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Artificial intelligence (AI) is a part of our everyday life. Having artificial intelligence will be vital for careers in science and engineering, which is the important part of the STEM curriculum. Most of us are aware of existence AI-powered services and devices, but hardly anybody knows about the technology behind them. Therefore, educational institutions should prepare the next generation in school with artificial intelligence literacy and the underlying concepts including algorithms, big data, and coding. Like classic literacy, which includes writing, reading, and mathematics, literacy in AI/computer science will become a major issue in the future. Furthermore, with AI literacy, pupils also receive a solid preparation for subsequent studies at university level and their future career. Currently, computer science education in school does not focus on teaching these fundamental topics in an adequate manner. This chapter will exploit understanding AI and how AI works in daily life and offer teaching methodologies to explain how AI works to K-12 learning environments.

INTRODUCTION If anyone search for “inventions that changed the world”, a plethora of lists will arise. Can be imagined those any of those lists what our life would be like without any of the items listed. Let’s imagine living without electricity? How about a world without the wheel or antibiotics? We have grown used to inventions that make our life easier to the point that we take them for granted, and we are not fully aware of the big impact that they have on our society. We forget that many inventors, researchers and scientists had to step in to get us where we are now. STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) is ubiquitous, and it’s been an amusement changer for the complete of humankind (Idin & Donmez, 2018). It has expanded dramatically in recent decades. STEM was present from very early on when human being invented the wheel using the laws of physics to make people’s everyday lives easier. The early form of STEM was manufacturing with human hands then replaced by machines during the first DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch027

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industrial evaluation in the middle of 18th century leading to an increase in industrial products. One of the important STEM invention was the steam engine. As a result, new modes of transportation such as steam powered locomotives and ships developed (Catterall, 2017). In the middle of 19th century, with the discovery of petroleum and electricity, the source of power was shifted to those resources (Chesky & Wolfmeyer, 2015). Then the second industrial revolution come to stage. It was a period of great progress on science and discoveries. Inventions of these period were bulb, aircraft, telephone, radio, penicillin, antibiotic etc. Without these inventions, life of today would not be imagined. The third industrial revolution comes at the second half of the 20th century which brings digitalsation of machines leading to an increase in mass production (Catterall, 2017). The third industrial revolution had an enormous impact on the communication and media with the arrival of the Internet in addition to affecting manufacturing jobs. Most of the jobs that were previously done by human body force and employees on the factory are now done by engineers, designers, IT specialists. Hence, new technologies require different skills Thanks to STEM we see, touch and use thousands of products, software, apps, tools, devices in daily lives. For instance, the Internet helps us to connect to the people from all over the world thanks to STEM. According to Barr (2018) we are on the fourth industrial revolution or Industry 4.0 because of the way we manufacture products as a result of the digitization of production. The fourth industrial revolution is the adoption of computers and automation with agile and self-ruling systems powered by artificial intelligence and machine learning. Mankind is on the verge of gaining all the advantages of artificial intelligence (AI) as a commodity, but this also brings up some questions: • • •

Does having AI at our disposal mean that humans will be entirely displaced in factories, and if yes, how does one prepare for future skills? Will manual work become obsolete and will the skills of manual workers become unnecessary? Even more to the point, can education endorse all future students with the right skills before the fourth industrial revolution?

Utilizing hands-on-experiences and providing learners with tools to disclose their potential to change the future are the basic nature of STEM education (Nistor, et al, 2019). Therefore, there is need to revolutionize and update the STEM education by taking into account the digital competencies that students should have in the future. One of these crucial digital competencies is AI. The AI concept is a part of STEM subject which should be taught in the K-12 setting in order to prepare our generation to the future jobs that many of us has not even knew their names (Popovici & Mironov, 2019). AI has already emerged as daily part of our life such as smart household devices, smartphones application (Google Assistant, Siri), online shopping recommendation algorithms, Facebook friend suggestions, and YouTube vide suggestions. Having deep AI competencies will be indispensable condition for careers in STEM industry. Hence teaching AI competencies will become increasingly important part of the STEM curriculum. Most of us know that there are intelligent devices, robots and services. However, few people know very little about the technology behind them. Therefore, it will be very important for the young generation studying in schools to know the basics of artificial intelligence, algorithms, data structures and coding (Southgate, et all, 2018). AI is becoming increasingly pervasive in applications that users interacting with technology however user understanding of these technologies is quite limited (Long & Magerko, 2020). Therefore, there is a need for what competencies students need to effectively understand, use, and critically evaluate AI based technologies. Furthermore, algorithms that works behind AI tools are obscure for the users who do not know them what they are interacting with. These lack of knowledge 635

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may limit understanding and effectively use and critically evaluate AI that everyday used. Like media literacy, AI literacy will be a very important topic in the future. Furthermore, students with AI literacy and competencies will have a tremendous advantage in their university education and future careers. AI competencies and fundamentals are not adequately focused in most K-12 schools and universities. Literacy refers to “the ability to express ourselves and communicate using written language” (Long & Magerko, 2020, p.2). According to Long and Magerko (2020, p.2) AI literacy refers to “a set of competencies that enables individuals to critically evaluate AI technologies; communicate and collaborate effectively with AI; and use AI as a tool online at home and in the workplace”. Based on Long and Magerko’s AI literacy definition, AI literacy is also related with digital literacy, computational literacy, scientific literacy and data literacy. AI will shape our future more than any other innovation in the 21st century (Southgate et al, 2018). Students having lack of AI understanding will soon find themselves feeling left behind. When they wake up, they will see a world that is full of artificial intelligent powered tools and services more like an illusion (Manini & Sabri, 2017).

A BRIEF HISTORY OF CAN MACHINES THINK? The Artificial Intelligence term was first coned by an American computer scientist, John McCarthy, at the first artificial intelligence conference at the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence (DSRPAI) hosted by himself in 1956. But the studies to understand if machines can think and act lays the beginning of 20th century. The article written by Vannevar Bus titled “As We May Think” in 1945 prosed a system to improve our understanding of knowledge (Nilson, 2010). Five years later after first AI term coned, Alan Turing, a British Mathematician, worked to decrypt complex German naval force communication messages and explored the mathematical possibility of AI (Nilson, 2010). Turing introduced the Turing Test in his paper “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” in which he argued how to set up intelligent machines and how to assess their intelligence. In 1950’s computers were lacking a key prerequisite for intelligence (Huang & Smith, 2006). They only execute comment and could not store them. Specifically, computing machines could be ordered what to do but could not recall what they did. Moreover, computing machines were also highly expensive. Therefore, only rich companies and a few prestigious universities could afford having of these machines. Advancement in computing in between 1957 and 1974 lead improvements to flourish AI such as storing more information, becoming much faster, cheaper and more accessible (Nilson, 2010). In 1980 Edward Feigenbaum introduced expert systems which were widely used in industries It is a system that mimicking decision-making process of human expert. In 1990s and 2000s many remarkable developments of AI had been achieved (Nilson, 2010). IBM Deep Blue chess playing computer was defeated world’s chess master Kasparow in 1997. For the first time a computer won a chess game against the world champion which was a big step forward in AI decision making system. Respectively, Dragon Systems developed and adopted a speech recognition software on Microsoft OS, Kismet robot that could recognize and display human emotions developed by Cynthia Breazeal and Google’s Alpha Go defeated Chinese Go champion, Ke Jie, in 2017 (Nilson, 2010). Now we live in the age of AI and big data which means that computers have the capacity of collecting lots of information to process. In the near future, application of AI will be everywhere from banking to marketing in every aspect of our daily life.

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WHAT IS AI Recently we often hear and read the following words: Smart phones, smart board, smart watches, smart TVs, smart washing machines, smart robots, spam filters and even smart cars. These are just several examples of AI daily use. For example, passenger airplanes use an AI autopilot system which is early use of the AI technology. According to New York Times report the average flight of a Boing commercial plane includes only seven minutes of human controlled flight (which is generally reserved only for takeoff and landing). Dramatic advances in software and coding have turned everyday things with extraordinary capabilities. There is an algorithm behind these smart devices which called Artificial Intelligence (AI). Tools with AI technologies simplify our daily lives and increase our ability to solve complex problems. There are different definitions of what AI is. Most of them are related to the same idea: AI is a computing algorithm focused on providing computational systems that have learned to recognize patterns in data, make predictions and decisions in the same way as human would do. It is a computational based artificial system capable of solving problems autonomously without human intervention. According to NITI Aayog: National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence,” AI refers to the ability of machines to perform cognitive tasks like thinking, perceiving, learning, problem solving and decision making. Initially conceived as a technology that could mimic human intelligence, AI has evolved in ways that far exceed its original conception.” (NITI Asyog, 2018). Encyclopedia Britannica defines AI as the ability of a digital computer or computer-controlled robot to perform tasks commonly associated with intelligent beings (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020). In other words, it can be defined as the application of computing on both machines and software in order to perform task as human being.

AI IN EVERYDAY LIFE Every day, we can hear from the large amount of people’s feeling at mercy of dramatic advancement of information and communication technologies although a few actually understand what they are. If you ever browse movie suggestion in Netflix or use Google Assistant to find best restaurant around you or tell Alexa to order a pizza to your address you are probably interacting with AI more that you realize. AI and machine learning are the part of computer engineering and science that makes machines act as they are imitating of human intelligence. Therefore, it is not only a machine learning algorithm to drive an autonomous vehicle by following traffic rules but it is also learnt from the big data it collects during the driving along the road smart traffic light will also be part of daily life (Southgate et al., 2018). In the near future we will see more AI applications. For example, in transportation Autonomous cars and flying taxies will soon be part of our daily life. Furthermore, intelligent home and service robots will be a part of our home service machines. AI powered diagnosing programs will take place of doctors in hospitals. In education, AI promises many changes to enhance teaching and learning at all levels specifically in personalized learning. Many schools will start using plagiarism detectors for regular text which relies on a having a huge database of books magazine and journals to check the students’ homework. Moreover, teachers will not grate student essay in the future. Reading essays take an enormous amount of time. AI powered robo-readers will grade essay instead of teachers. In social network when you upload a photo of your friends to Facebook, it automatically recognizes faces and suggest friends to tag. To do this, Facebook AI to recognize the faces. Instagram is using AI to identify the contextual meaning of emoji. Pinterest using AI application to recognize objects in photos, images and suggest visually similar pins.

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Online shopping searches already powered with AI algorithms which lists relevant products related to search made. We see Product recommendations on online shopping such as “customers who viewed this item also viewed” and “customers who bought this item also bought” websites powered by AI algorithms Baker. These are a few examples how AI affect our daily life. It is hard to predict the future with AI powered machines.

HOW AI WORKS? “Our intelligence is what makes us human, and AI is an extension of that quality.” – Yann LeCun Professor, New York University Computers are good at following process. For instance, if anyone gives a computer sequences of steps to execute a certain task, it will easily be able to complete the task. In this case steps have not big importance but algorithm. Pseudocode utilizes English articulations to make a layout of the steps for a chunk of computer program to function. Software engineers call these steps an algorithm. An algorithm may be a set of particular steps that figure out the problem or perform a task (Salon, et al, 2019). In other words, algorithm can be described as the way to be followed for the solution of any problem. In other words, the algorithm can be defined as expressing verbally or in written how the data will be entered into the computer from which peripheral unit, how the problem will be solved, which steps will be taken to get results, how and where the result will be written. While preparing the algorithm, the necessary actions for the solution should be described in detail by considering the priority order (Zare, 2019). For example, the algorithm for finding the sum of two given numbers is written as follows. Algorithm: Step 1 - Get Started Step 2 - Read First Number Step 3 - Read Second Number Step 4 - Add Two Numbers Step 5 - Stop In the algorithm, the order of steps is vital in order to execute the task properly. In order to solve a problem with the help of computer, the problem should be analyzed and an algorithm should be developed (Estevez et al., 2019) Solving a problem using flowcharts or pseudocode step by step is called algorithm. The role of programmers is to control the logic of the algorithm. If there is a mistake in the way to solve a problem with an algorithm, the mistake is called as a logical error. In order to test algorithms to make them free from errors, programmers check their algorithms by imputing the data. Coding is written format of the algorithm into a programming language (Zare, 2019). Therefore, a computer programmer deals with three concepts to complete the task: Input, Processing and output. Input is a data which comes from an external or internal source. Processing is the manipulation of the data based on the algorithm. Output is the information that produces by the software based on the input data (Bau et al., 2017) We utilize algorithms to predict events and solve problems. It can be as simple as printing a number or as difficult as who the weather will be in the coming month or wo will win the election which will take place in the next year. For example, predicting the weather forecast for 2021. First of

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all, what we need is a lot of date which we called it “Big Data”. For instance, weather data from 2007 to 2020. 80 percent of this data will be used as labeled data and 20 percent of the data will be used as a test data (Goodfellow & Bengio, 2016). At this stage AI take place and use 80 percent of the data as a train data. The train data will be feed into computer. The prediction algorithm is learning from the train data which has been fed into computer. The next step is to test the algorithm. In this stage 20 percent of the test data will be used (Goodfellow & Bengio, 2016). The machine is feed with the test data. The computer gives the output. The output given by machine needs to be verified by the machine with the actual output of the data in order to check its accuracy. If the result of the model is not satisfactory, the algorithm is revised to give the precise output or at least somewhat close to the actual output. Once the algorithm of the model is satisfied then the data is feed into the model in order to predict weather forecast for the year 2021 (Holmes et al., 2019). When more data is being feed into the machine, the probability of having more precise output is increase. These is how AI works. AI works with big data. So that the system learns from the patterns of the big data using iterative processing and smart algorithms.AI takes raw data such as sound text, images to process it. Therefore, it senses. The next step, AI thinks about the received information and how it relates to what it recognizes and has learn previously. Then AI performs task or action based on the information processed. AI uses the outcome as a feedback. A flow of the AI process where actionable insights are an outcome of the predictive analysis and hence the decision making

TEACH AI IN SCHOOLS AI has already become part of our daily life. We are living in the age of Google Home, Alexa, Spotify playlists, You Tube recommendations. Most of us know about the AI’ role that we receive services and the devices we use. However, most of us hardly know about the technology and algorithm behind the AI. Therefore, being knowledgeable and familiar with AI will be a vital competency for careers in STEM field in the near future. Teachers should prepare students in schools with digital competencies including algorithms, big data structures, and coding. Why help students to understand and create AI programs? First of all, students may become motivated and empowered to produce AI powered tools and applications. Second, they may learn about reasoning, perception, and human behavior in the process of building perceptive apps and AI tools. Finally, students may understand and learn about machine learning, deep learning, AI and other advanced technologies that are changing the world. AI will be the power of the future and shape the global digital economy. Many countries are working hard to keep up with the AI trends with the initiatives to get their students ready to ready for the future STEM jobs in the industry and services. AI can be engine of the future social development and economic growth. Therefore, the next generation should be trained and educated in order to harness effectively to potential of AI. Hence teachers should also be trained to make next negation AI ready. Educators face dramatically changing demands, which require new competencies, skills, and attitudes. The ubiquity of AI powered devices, systems and applications, in particular, requires educators to develop their AI competencies. These new competencies, skills and attitudes should enable learners to seek, evaluate, use and create information, thereby empowering them to participate effectively in the knowledge societies. Long and Magerko (2020) seventeen competencies focused on AI education for learners who has not technical background. These competencies are: (i) Recognizing AI; (ii) Understanding Intelligence; (iii) Interdisciplinarity; (iv) General vs. Narrow; (v) AI’s Strength & Weaknesses; (vi) Imagine Future AI; (vii) Representations; (viii) Decision Making; (ix) Machine Learning Steps; (x) Human Role in AI; (xi) Data Literacy; (xii) Learning

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from Data; (xiii) Critically Interpreting Data, (xiv) Action & Reaction; (xv) Sensors; (xvi) Ethics; (xvii) Programmability. There also fifteen design consideration set by Long and Magerko (2020) to develop AI literacy curriculum. These are (i) Explainability; (ii) Embodied Interactions; (iii) Contextualizing Data; (iv) Promote Transparency; (v) Unveil Gradually; (vi) Opportunities to Program; (vii) Milestones; (viii) Critical Thinking; Identity, (ix) Values & Backgrounds; (x) Support Parents; (xi) Social Interaction; (xi) Leverage Learners’ Interests; (xii) Acknowledging Preconceptions; (xiii) New Perspectives; (xv) Low Barrier to Entry. These competencies and design considerations are in early stage of AI teaching and need to be expanded to accommodate new developments in AI.

AI ALGORITHMS The purpose of AI driven technologies is to transform computers and computer-controlled robots and vehicles into a human-like act and think. How human thinks, and decide, learn, and work when solving a problem. AI is accomplished by using the outcomes this approach. It is a way of making computational models of human behavior and thought. It is a computational system that behave intelligently and rationally. The goal of artificial intelligence is to create expert systems that make decisions and act like humans, and even learn and advise. AI is a multidisciplinary science such as computer science, mathematics, psychology, engineering, biology, neuroscience and linguistic. The concept of algorithms helps us to approach problems step by step solution (Baker et al., 2019). Algorithms instruct computers to perform certain tasks. These tasks can be taking data from inputs, processing and analyzing it then provide desired outcomes and make decisions. Algorithms help students the concreate understanding of concepts. Students subconsciously use these concepts are their daily life practices such as conditional logic, iteration and sequencing. There are the basics of to learn how to code. Major AI algorithms are machine learning, neural networks, deep learning, cognitive computing and decision trees. AI and machine learning are not the same concepts. Machine learning is a disciple that system can learn from the existing data and adjusting changing its behavior based on the dynamic data. Hence, the program has the capability to learn and adopt without being precisely programmed. Machine learning has the roots from numerical optimization and statistics. Machine learning is a sort of computer program that can learn by itself without any modification by a human. It covers techniques in supervised and unsupervised learning for applications in analytics, data mining, and prediction (Chang et al., 2019). As human, machines can learn by its own from past examples and experiences. Based on machine learning the machine can attempt to change or correct its algorithm when required. Common algorithms used for machine learning are random forests, decision trees, find-s, artificial neural networks. Machine learning algorithms can be categorized clustering, regression, reduction, detection and classification, etc. It acts as a computing engine to perform complex tasks and recognize patterns such as prediction, estimation, classification and anomaly detection (Lake et al., 2014).

Artificial Neural Networks The development of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) is inspired by the biological neural networks that humans have in their brain. ANNs is one of the basic algorithm of the machine learning to figure out patterns within the very complex data for a human to figure out and teach the machine to distinguish. There are multiple layers between the input and output layers. The network moves through the layers

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calculating the probability of each output. Data coming from input in ANNs required to produce output data by processing operations are carried out in intermediate layers to provide the output (McGovern et al., 2011).

Deep Learning Deep learning is a subset of machine learning representation of data. Deep learning is a machine learning algorithm based on learning multiple levels of representation. While machine learning facilitating simpler concepts, deep learning works with ANNs which are designed to imitate how human learn and think. In deep learning a massive amount of data is analyzed to perform the task repeatedly in order to improve the outcome step by step (Sengupta et al., 2020). Deep learning refers to training multiple layers of abstractions / features from data and trying to discover representation that makes decision easy.

Cognitive Computing Cognitive computing is a process using a blend of machine learning, ANNs, AI, and contextual awareness, sentiment analysis to solve daily problems like a human being (Noor, 2015). It is a technology that utilizes data mining and machine learning to intimidate human cognitive processes. The purpose of cognitive computing is to create decision making models and computational models based on how human brain works and psychology to establish computers systems with the abilities of knowing, feeling and thinking (Lytle et al., 2019). Some may have thought that cognitive computing is the synonymous of AI. However, there are substantial differences between cognitive computing and AI. While AI refers to making decisions like a human brain, on the other hand cognitive computing refers to enhancing and supporting human decision making process. Cognitive computing is not about coding, processing, data storage, data flows and handling. It is about analyzing data, contextual understanding, recommendation, and machine-human communication. Key attributes of cognitive computing are adoptive, interactive, iterative and stateful, and, contextual

HOW TO TEACH AI In the near future almost all industrial systems will be transformed by data. Today’s kids as a 21st professional, will increasingly be expected to be data-driven and use it in their profession and to bring value to the profession. The concept of AI for machines is the same concept what happens in the human brain when learning and acting to produce outputs by coding. In the simplest terms, AI is imitation of human’s decision making and mental process by man-made tools. AI is basically solving problems that require time and experience of human more easily by machines. AI is a part of our daily live and will be pervasive in our everyday life. Teaching AI can be integrated into every discipline. Students may benefit more from hands on approaches to learn AI. Seymour Papert and Cynthia Solomon are the pioneers of first idea to teach AI concept in 1972 (Papert & Solomon 1971). With Turtle robot and LOGO programming these researchers aimed to explore AI concept. Students needs to understand role of AI. Learning AI may improve students creative thinking and having solution oriented mindset. When making students AI aware and AI readiness is a vital task to prepare

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them 21st century. Students are witnessing many applications of AI every day. They are witnessing cars parking themselves, Google suggestions on when writing email, Facebook friends suggestions, smart houses etc. Hence, it is essential that student should be taught and understand and later able to expand their knowledge on this domain. When you ask students in primary school what is artificial intelligence, they would have no idea what AI is except for robots or something. However, almost everything will have AI someday in the near future. Therefore, I would be better for them to start learning it from now. To start teaching AI, it would be better to spark curiosity and encourage of the students. There are three steps to implement this approach which I call it as “why, what and how” tripod. “The why” is a way to motivate student by providing the motivations with the past. Giving an historical context about the technology students use every day and motivating them why they use it in order to make sure they figure out of these tools. Second, asking “the what” questions to spark curiosity of students. Question everything as long as it is respectful. Teachers may apply this making sense of everything in students’ surrounding, analyzing cause and effect of natural phoneme. For example, you may ask, what would happen if you woke up one morning and all the devices, cars, robots in the World could suddenly communicate with you in our own language? Finally, “the how” question to show students in what ways they could imagine. Doing so teacher would allow students realize topics worth to explore and learn. Bloom’s Taxonomy explains a way to think about what kind of cognitive process that students engage with knowledge (Armstrong, 2018). In order to engage student more in learning and motivate them, teachers may also facilitate motivational questions such as “why do computers exist? “how the technological tools were invented and why they are existing” Showing Alan Turing biography movie’s trailer may also spark their interest to learn more about AI. The objective of AI teaching to student is to develop a readiness for understanding and appreciating Artificial Intelligence and its application in our lives by Helping students understand AI and its applications through activities, games based learning, and multisensory learning to become AI-Ready. Furthermore, allowing students to construct their own meaning of AI through interactive engagement on hands-on activities (Alimisis, 2009). AI learning requires active participant of learners during the lecture. Constructivist approach supports involving students’ actively in the learning process. Using constructivist to prepare AI curriculum is the most effective way to allow student to engage and learn the AI concepts (Resnick, 2017). Williams et al., (2019) developed four principles to prepare AI curriculum: Hands-on learning, End-to-end learning, transparency and tinkerability, and creative explorations. Hands on learning refers to make the toolkit interactive and let students guide themselves through activities. End-to-end learning refers to have students to play role in every step of developing a complete system, from training to operating a complete functioning system. Transparency and tinkerability refers to select algorithms and provide feedback. Creative exploration refers to embed the AI algorithm in a playful and creative activities. That allows student to make meaningful deductions. Williams et al. (2019) suggest three key design considerations for the future AI concept teaching for young students who are novice on programming and with limited experience on robotics. The first one is “connect to students”. It refers to make relatable and straightforward analogies for the nice learners. This allows them to make connections to the robot’s mind and understand the AI algorithms. The second is “open the black box”. Novice learners can learn by interacting with a robot in order to understand robot’s reasoning. Allowing students to play games may also help students to understand the AI concepts. The third is “interactive feedback”. Interactive sensory feedback may help young students to understand programming and AI concepts (Sullivan, 2016).

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AI concepts and the role AI in daily life for primary school’s students can be taught in a fun way. Introducing AI for elementary kids by learning through videos and printable activities and gamification without involving coding. In order to make AI concepts simple to elementary school students, the topic can be taught with asking the following questions: Can the machine be biased? Can the machine cause us harm? How good is the machine with language? How does the machine learn? How does the machine know how to write? These questions are essential to grasp the basic concepts of AI. AI cannot be separated from other disciplines. The evaluation and development of AI is closely and mutually interlinked with other disciplines such as Mathematics, English, Science, and Social Science. As a part of STEM, AI skills are an important part of our world’s ongoing development, and we need all our young people to start gaining basic skills in these areas to be a well-prepared addition to the workforce. One of the most innovative technological concepts currently available is the idea of using robots for AI teaching. Robotics is a fascinating field that can benefit students from elementary school all the way up to graduate courses. They can help you deliver lessons in AI concepts crucial to modern education. The activity of programming a robot and even building one from a kit is an ideal way to teach technology and engineering skills. It can help children naturally learn and adapt to the useful principle of computational and AI thinking. AI concepts are closely related with coding skills. Coding is a skill that anyone can learn, and it’s a huge part of many different career paths. Knowing basic coding skills will be essential in the future, and teaching kids to code in the classroom can make a huge difference in their cognitive abilities and future opportunities. Learning code in the classroom helps students develop problem solving and analytical reasoning skills that will help them succeed in anything they do. Learning to code also helps children construct, analyze, and learn on their own, all skills that will be necessary in the workplace, and in higher education. Because code touches nearly everything we do in modern life, knowing how to code is a type of literacy that every student should learn. Just like any other subject, coding can be fun with a little creativity, and students will be better prepared to take on the world and fuel their own dreams.

A Sample AI Lesson Plan Idea Explaining the concept of AI and explaining AI algorithms does not really enable students to understand it clearly. The best way to explain it to let students interact with AI in real life working tools such as designing experiments with Teachable Machine, mBlock, Snap, Machine learningforkids, cognimates, semiconductor with Google, and distill.pub. Hence, students think about how tasks and experiments completed in order to understand how AI works better. The Turing test is an attempt to assess a machine’s intelligence by testing its ability to mimic human behavior. Alan was the British code-breaker and helped decode German messages during the world war III. The touring test is named after him. It is an imitation game. Before students play the game teacher may initiate a discussion to the class while asking questions: Could machines show human levels of intelligence? Furthermore, teacher may provide more information with daily examples of AI use. For instance, have you ever used a commercial website with an online chatbot? It may take time to realize that it was not human after asking a few questions and receiving answers. The other question teacher may ask to the class is How do computers compare in measures and types of intelligence? In this discussion, teacher may provide examples from IBM’s Big Blue chess playing machine which can beat the world’s best chest players and autonomous, which are aware of surroundings and movements in order to deal with complex traffic conditions. Then teacher moves on to the Touring Test game activity. In

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the touring test activity, Students investigate and categorize types of artificial intelligence to determine a protocol for the Turing Test. For this kind of activity, three students are needed. One student will act as a computer answering questions using only the answers provided. The second will act as a human answering questions as they see fit. Both student should be out of the classroom. The third student will transfer their answers back to students in the classroom which must then determine which is the human and which is the computer. If the student guesses incorrectly, the machine has passed the Touring Test. A Sample lesson plan for computer vision and mages: Can a computer guess emotion? In this lesson students are introduced the concepts of Machine Learning and AI using Teachable Machine tool by Google. Teachable Machine is a free online experiment that lets students experiment with machine learning activities using a web browser. In this activity students will explore how training data is used to enable a machine learning model to classify new data. In order to implement this lesson, plan in the classroom, teachers should familiarize students with the Teachable Machine application such as showing help videos of Teachable Machine, allowing student to play with the program and show examples to the students how it works. Teachable Machine is a web-based tool that makes creating machine learning models fast, easy, and accessible to everyone. It uses files or capture examples in real-time. In order to do imagine classification utilizing Teachable Machine computer in the classrooms should have cameras, Teachable Machines allows to create training sets. Before starting the activity teachers should discuss emotions with students in the classroom and introduce the idea of AI to students. The lesson would be the first step of introducing image classification, which is a key application of AI. In this proposed lesson plan the learning outcomes are: Describe the key facial features that help us recognize a person’s emotions. As a warm-up activity teacher start to the activity with a question: How does a machine learn? After asking the question have the students brainstorm silently on their own and share with their peers then share with the class. The next step allowing student to watch a video about “what is machine learning?” Before starting the activity teacher remarks to the class about what are machine learning and AI? As a sample remarks: Computer and machines can recognize patterns of objects and make decisions without explicitly programmed. We called this concept as machine learning. In this activity you will be supplied the data to train Teachable Machine The data will be emoji such as happy face, sad face. What if we could train the computer to tell the difference between happy face and sad face. The AI recognizes the emoji as “happy” and “Sad” shown a complete red with percentage (100%). Teacher explains to students that computers can be programmed to think like a human being. Teacher asks to students if they think a computer could guess human emotions? Could the computer decide if a human is happy or sad? Teacher explains to the class that instead of using a photo of students, students will use an emoji. Teacher instructs to students the following: Please use the tool Teachable Machine. Teachable Machine tool lets you train up to recognize happy and sad face emoji without having to code to recognize inputs and match them each to a particular output. You will use this pre-decided model to test the AI to see how well Teachable Machine recognizes a happy or sad emoji. In order to conduct the activity, you will need Internet connected computer and web cam. To do your activity student should follow the following steps: Step 1: Create one class as the background which is the view of the webcam. To do this edit ‘Class 1’ and label it as ‘Background’. Record images using the webcam.

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Step 2: Edit ‘Class 2’ and label as ‘Happy’. Record images of smiley emojis. Use printed images or student drawn emojis held in front of the webcam. Step3: Finally add a Class, edit ‘Class 3’ and label it as ‘Sad’. Record images of sad emojis. Use printed images or student drawn emojis held in front of the webcam. Step:3 Train the model, then test it using happy and sad emojis. Discuss how well the AI recognized the happy and sad emojis. Step 4: Students may add a further class to Teachable Machine in addition to “Happy” and “Sad” emoji such as surprised or angry. Teacher ask student to come up with new ideas with their own training data to test Teachable Machine such as guessing flower, pet type, number, leaf, bird sounds. After the activity discuss how well Teachable Machine do? Teacher discusses the question with class. As seen in the sample activity, AI refers the imitation of human intelligence by machines in way that we think as smart. Machine learning is an application of AI. With machine Learning concept, the machine was provided with lots of samples of the data and tell the machine what we would like to do with it. Then the Machine can figure out how to achieve the goal on its own by learning and adopting its strategy to achieve the goal. In the sample activity above, students feed the Teachable Machine with images of emojis via webcam. The more data the student provided to the machine, the more likely the AI will correctly classify the inputs as the appropriate emotion. Teachable Machine gives a confidence value as percentage and the bar filled or partially filled by a color. The confidence value shows us with an indication of how sure the Teachable Machine is of its classification. Classification refers to a learning technique use to group data based on features and attributes.

TOOLS FOR AI TEACHING AI is the new frontier for future STEM related technologies. According to McKinsey Global Institute 75 percent of companies will have AI related interaction by 2025 (McKinsey Global Institute, 2020). Therefore, it is vital for students including STEM teachers learn how AI works and how it can be used to improve daily life and productivity. Learning how AI works will soon become an important competency. There are great tools available online that teachers could utilize to teach how AI works. Most of them free of charge or affordable. Today there are platforms develop for student to learn about AI:AI programing with eCraft2Learn, Machine Learning for kids, Cognimates, Teachable Machine, and Experience with Google are online platforms that allow students to build projects using these AI services by programming block based programs or other coding tools.

Google’s Teachable Machine Google’s Teachable Machine is a tool developed by Google to understand how machine learning work and make available to everyone. It is a browser-based platform where students can train classifiers for their own image, sound and gesture recognition algorithm. With Google’s Teachable Machine student are able to create simple and effective algorithms using a browser such as identify patterns on images, and audio. Image classification models can be exported and integrated into your own applications and platforms. Teachable Machine uses a small number of samples to distinguish objects with an ordinary

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desktop computer. (Google, 2020). Teachable Machine may help students to grasp machine learning basics and how AI works. In addition to train three classes, the new version of Teachable Machine lets users define more classes such as pose data, audio clips, and your own dataset for the training. Therefore, teachers can use Teachable Machine as a project-based learning tool by assigning students to create machine learning models for their projects without writing any machine learning code. Then, students may use their models in their own sites, apps, and integrate other projects. For example, a student may want to build a model using a picture of her/him and a picture her/him dog. What she/he needs to do is just open up Teachable Machine and record samples of her/him and samples of the dog. Then click to train. Teachable Machine allows the user to upload model and host it online. It is flexible and works to train a model based on the examples the user provided. The training occurs in the same computer. Teachers may use Teachable Machine as a part of a curriculum that requires to teach middle school students to teach AI through hands on experience.

Snap AI is a popular topic both in computer science and industry. But many teachers think that AI is very complex and magic. However, it not magic due to new tool. Snap is one of them. Snap is an extended reimplementation of Scratch which known as block coding tool by MIT. It is a programming environment that has extended features and libraries of the Scratch. More complex programming can be created through its libraries. Snap has a visual programming language, which is written Java Script and run in any browser. Snap can help students to understand more the behavior of perceptive robots and apps in order to understand how AI works. It can also be used to teach computational thinking concepts. Its visual block-based programing language allow children to use Snap (Jatzlau, 2019). As an extension of the Snap, the eCraft2Learn project is developing a programming language to enable children (and non-expert programmers) to build AI programs. It uses Snap that support first-class data structure and functions and easy to define new block using Java Script without manipulating the source code. Snap can be used individually but also incorporated into a curriculum.

Experiment with Google Experiment with Google’s artificial intelligence platform including voice assistant tools, image recognition methods and best practices for business. It is a showcase for simple experiments that make easier for users to explore machine learning, through sounds, pictures, drawings, language etc. Users can create machine learning models without coding knowledge: https://experiments.withgoogle.com/

Cognimates A Scratch-like platform allows users to play with artificial intelligence and machine learning, including work with Alexa, vision recognition, Twitter, a variety of robotics systems, and more (Marques et al., 2020). Students can use Cognimates to create programming activities and learn how to build games, program robots, and train their own AI models. Cognimates combines a set of Stratch extensions that gives opportunity to access features such as speech generation, speech recognition, text categorization, object recognition, and robot control APIs (Druga et al., 2018): https://cognimates.me

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Machine Learning for Kids Machine learning for kids provides hands-on experiences for training machine learning systems and creating projects with them. The tool allows users to collect examples to recognize and using these examples user be able to train a computer to recognize. Users can also make a game in Scratch that uses the computer’s ability to recognize text, numbers, images and sounds (Machine Learning for Kids, 2020). Machine Learning for Kids introduces machine learning concepts by providing hands-on experiences for training machine learning systems in order to grasp how Machine Learning algorithm works behind. Machine Learning for Kids provides a user friendly and guided environment for training machine learning models to recognize numbers, images, sounds, or text. Machine Learning helps children to create projects and build games with the machine learning models they train for Kids by adding models to educational coding platforms Scratch and App Inventor: https://machinelearningforkids.co.uk/

eCraft2Learn eCraft2Learn has extensive resources in its library for beginners to understand how machine learning works. The eCraft2Learn platform has a child friendly interface powered by Snap. Users of eCraft2Learn required to provide their own Application Program Interface keys from AI cloud providers such as Google, IBM or Microsoft (Kahn & Winters, 2020): https://ecraft2learn.github.io/ai/

TensorFlow Playground TensorFlow Playground is an interactive visualization tool to dig into backpropagation and artificial neural networks learning (Thomas 2018). It is suitable for university students to explore backpropagation and artificial neural networks applications: https://playground.tensorflow.org

The Cozmo Robot The Cozmo robot is a commercial STEM platform designed with built-in computer vision for educational tasks. It can move and recognize faces and manipulate objects, path planning, speech generation, and custom maker detection. It has Python based SDK allowing to access to the basic functionalities of the robot and cubes.

Calypso for Cozmo Calypso for Cozmo is a rule-based visual programming language for Cozmo that add the speech recognition feature to the robot in addition to landmark-based navigation. It supports for state machine learning programming (Touretzky, 2017).

AI4children AI4children is a platform offers AI and Machine Learning Education Tools Powered by the Dalton Learning Lab. The Dalton Learning Lab provide services that allow teachers to teach Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning to students utilizing the widely adopted programming language Scratch. It incorpo-

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rates a number of Scratch extensions as a coding medium for the children, such as a chatobot extension, home automation, image recognition, classification, and teaching the computer how to play the Flappy Bird game, accompanied with lesson plans and materials for educators: https://www.ai4children.org/

Luden.IO Game Luden.io is a game platform offers players to familiar with concepts and process of Machine Learning. The game assigns a role to the player as a machine learning specialist to use visual programming to complete client’s project. The task includes understanding of the concepts of neural network and machine learning. It is a simulator of a machine learning specialist who uses visual programming to make his living: https://luden.io/wtl/

Tomorrowcorporation.com Tomorrowcorporation is a human resource machine game envıronment for children. Students as a player are required to solve puzzles and problems by coding multiple agents such as workers. It allows to learn concepts such as parallel computing, debugging, and optimization: https://tomorrowcorporation. com/7billionhumans

ETHICS AND AI Artificial intelligence adds a new dimension to ethical issues in linked to real life applications of its use. AI powered technologies are becoming more pervasive in daily life. According to report by Accenture Research and Frontier Economics, the impact of artificial intelligence on future economic growth is predicted to be enormous (Purdy, & Daugherty, 2017). The report also indicates that AI is projected to increase the profitability rate of industries by 38% on average by 2035. The promise of AI in industry applications are better decision making and increased experiences. Advances in data collection and processing, neural network and machine learning algorithms allowed dramatics developments in AI field. Machines now can execute certain tasks once required human intelligence. Thanks to algorithms machines could adopt to new data, learn perform without being programmed once they could only do the rigidly defined. Hence, AI has been used to solve problems with extended capabilities such as identifying relevant information in texts, recognizing speech, identifying images, drawing conclusions, forecasting, and synthesizing information. With AI algorithms, machines learn and make decisions by themselves without human direction but this requires a serious responsibility. If the necessary arrangements are not made, these technologies may cause serious problems in the future. Most of use are not aware of the complexity of AI controlled devises and their ability to learn from their own experiences and act based on what they learn and perform beyond the scope of the designers’ intent of the technologies. These may cause some legal and ethical difficulties that we should be aware of and increase awareness of ethical issues of AI. AI powered technologies and devices may be misused or behave in unethical, unpredicted ways even they may be harmful to the human. There are concerns over the military use of AI. For instance, self-ruled automated robots would reduce the number of human casualties, but robots would be left to make decisions on their own. However, there are concerns over whether an AI can distinguish between civilians and combatants. There is no clear

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way to determine who is accountable for a mistake made by AI powered robots. Human Rights Watch calls for the ban of production of these “killer robots”. Is the use of AI guided missiles a person using a tool to kill the enemy, or is it the AI who is doing the killing? Is it ethical to lay the blame of attacking enemies on the AI program? To what extent can we replace humans with AI and robots in war? Another example, when self-driving car is travelling along the road and suddenly the road splits. Imagine that on one road, 5 people were laid on the ground with their hands tied and fixed on the ground. In the other road, similarly a person laid on the ground with their hands tied and fixed on the ground. How does the self-driving car decide which route to take? There is no single answer to this question. Moreover, there are numerous situations in which such a decision may need to be made (Edmonds, 2013). People with different cultural and religious backgrounds will answer this question differently. For example, a Buddhist monk would prefer to sacrifice the life of one person in order to save five. But how will a vehicle driven by artificial intelligence make a decision in such a situation? It will be inevitable for the self-driving car exposed to such a situation to crash. If AI enriched self-driving cars, robots go wrong they can cause physical harm or injury. In real world, trials of autonomous cars have already resulted in several fatalities and injuries. Even AI algorithm can cause harm. An AI powered medical diagnosis software might, for example, result the wrong diagnosis, or a biased credit scoring AI algorithm might cause someone’s loan application to be wrongly rejected. Hence, the question arises of whose life should be prioritized - passengers, pedestrians or none. In this case, questions also arise: What actions are legally permissible? What should be the basis for such decisions? Who should ultimately be held accountable? This issue should have been addressed by regulators and discuss in schools in order to increase awareness of ethical and legal issues that AI would bring to our daily life in the near future. Countries such as Germany, United State of America, are making legal regulations and making selfdriving car manufacturers be held responsible for any injury or loss of life (Brożek & Jakubiec, 2017). In the near future, we all will be discussing questions. For example, is it ethical to have AI working in positions such as therapist, judge, police officer and customer service. Even though Artificial Intelligence has potential to further enrich our lives in the future, does the society accept the services AI provide, especially considering the potential loss of rights and privacy?

AI AND THE FUTURE Industrial and governmental organizations are harnessing the power of AI algorithms and applications that are already revolutionizing a wide range of economic sector that has already started to impact our daily lives including education, marketing, transportation, communication, finance, and customer services. AI technologies has the potential to solve grooving problems around the world such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and resource use. Therefore, skills in AI are becoming an increasingly important part of basic literacy in today’s knowledge economy. In the future intelligent machines will be part of our daily life. But having thinking machines raises questions regarding ethical issues of these smart machines. What are the ethical implications of these technologies in our daily life? How can we make sure that these smart machines do not harm humans? Are those machines will have moral values? For instance, until last decade when people think about a robot they regard it simply a machine to do a certain task, which might be controlled remotely by a person or it might be controlled a computer program for a specific purpose. However, what if the robot thinks like a human. The robot has artificial biological neurons that thinks and acts as human? In the near future will all be discussing these developments and many

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social and ethical issues and questions. Will the robot that has brain like human or think like a human, then could it or should it, have rights that a real human has? Would the robot rather than humans, make decision for the future? Hence, how should we prepare next generations for the near future where we will discuss all these questions? In order to prepare the next generation for the future with an artificial intelligence, we should educate and train them as AI literate and expert. Because, I the near future, AI will have a significant impact of human life. Dramatic increase visibility of AI in Daily life and industry led many educational institutions to rethink and expand the provision of integrating AI into curriculum. Many students may not be aware of how AI will shape and influence their future life and career. If they were aware of AI’s future role to shape industry and daily life, they would want to learn more about AI and how it works. However, there are barriers to get into in the field of AI. These are a lack of awareness and exposure to educational materials (Zare, 2019). As an abstract concept understanding AI has been challenging for learners when they do not have computer science background. Therefore, it is vital task to introduce AI to the future generation and help them understand and grasp importance and impact of AI on society. Enabling hands on activities of AI is a good step towards achieving this goal. Visual programming and block-based languages are well positioned tools to help students in appreciating how AI works forward. In addition, creating and training AI for simple games in the browser using a blockbased language may spark students’ motivation.

REFERENCES Armstrong, P. (2018). Bloom’s taxonomy. Center for Teaching. Vanderbilt University. https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/ Baker, T., & Smith, L. (2019). Educ-AI-Tion Rebooted? Exploring the Future of Artificial Intelligence in Schools and Colleges. NESTA. Barr, B. (2018). What is Industry 4.0? Here’s A Super Easy Explanation For Anyone. Forbes. https:// www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2018/09/02/what-is-industry-4-0-heres-a-super-easy-explanationfor-anyone/#9117e849788a Bau, D., Gray, J., Kelleher, C., Sheldon, J., & Turbak, F. (2017). Learnable programming: Blocks and beyond. Communications of the ACM, 60(6), 72–80. doi:10.1145/3015455 Brożek, B., & Jakubiec, M. (2017). On the Legal Responsibility of Autonomous Machines. Artificial Intelligence Law, 25(3), 293–304. Catterall, L. G. (2017). A Brief History of STEM and STEAM from an Inadvertent Insider. The STEAM Journal, 3(1), 5. Advance online publication. doi:10.5642team.20170301.05 Chang, C.-W., Lee, H.-W., & Liu, C.-H. (2018). A Review of Artificial Intelligence Algorithms Used for Smart Machine Tools. Inventions (Basel, Switzerland), 3(3), 41. doi:10.3390/inventions3030041 Chesky, N. Z., & Wolfmeyer, M. R. (2015). Introduction to STEM Education. In Philosophy of STEM Education: A Critical Investigation. The Cultural and Social Foundations of Education. Palgrave Pivot. doi:10.1057/9781137535467_1 Druga, S., Vu, S., Likhith, E., Oh, L., Qui, T., & Breazeal, C. (2018). Cognimates. https://cognimates.me

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Edmonds, D. (2013). Would You Kill the Fat Man? The Trolley Problem and What Your Answer Tells Us About Right and Wrong. Princeton University Press. Encyclopedia Britannica. (2020). https://www.britannica.com/ Estevez, J., Garate, G., Lopez-Guede, J. M., & Graña, M. (2019). Using Scratch to Teach Undergraduate Students’ Skills on Artificial Intelligence. arXiv:1904.00296 [cs.AI]. Evangelista, I., Blesio, G., & Benatti, E. (2018). Why are we not teaching machine learning at high school? A proposal. Proc. of the World Engineering Education Forum – Global Engineering Deans Council. 10.1109/WEEF-GEDC.2018.8629750 Goodfellow, I., Bengio, Y., & Courville, A. (2016). Deep Learning. MIT Press. Google. (2020). Teachable Machine. https://teachablemachine.withgoogle.com/ Holmes, W., Bialik, M., & Fadel, C. (2019). Artificial Intelligence in Education: Promises and Implications for Teaching & Learning. The Center for Curriculum Redesign. Huang, T., & Smith, C. (2006). The History of Artificial Intelligence. https://courses.cs.washington.edu/ courses/csep590/06au/projects/history-ai.pdf Idin, S., & Donmez, I. (2018). A metaphor analysis study related to STEM subjects based on middle school students’ perceptions. Journal of Education in Science, Environment and Health, 4(2), 246–257. doi:10.21891/jeseh.453629 Jatzlau, S., Michaeli, T., Seegerer, S., & Romeike, R. (2019). It’s not Magic After All - Machine Learning in Snap! using Reinforcement Learning. In 2019 IEEE Blocks and Beyond Workshop (Blocks and Beyond). Memphis, TN: IEEE. Kahn, K. & Winters, N. (2020). Constructionism and AI: A history and possible futures. Proceedings of Constructionism 2020. Kahn, K. M., & Winters, N. (2017). Child-friendly programming interfaces to AI cloud services. ECTEL 2017: Data Driven Approaches in Digital Education, 10474, 566-570. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/ uuid:12124254-acce-4c11-a540-19e74530798d Lake, B. M., Salakhutdinov, R., & Tenenbaum, J. B. 2015. Human-level concept learning throughprobabilistic program induction. Science, 350(6266), 1332–1338. doi:10.1126cience.aab3050 Long, D., & Magerko, B. (2020). What is AI Literacy? Competencies and Design Considerations. In Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI 20. New York: Association for Computing Machinery. 10.1145/3313831.3376727 Lytle, N. (2019). Use, Modify, Create: Comparing Computational Thinking Lesson Progressions for STEM Classes. Proc. of the Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education, 395–401. 10.1145/3304221.3319786 Machine Learning for Kids. (2020). machinelearningforkids.co.uk

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Marques, L. S., Gresse von Wangenheim, C., & Hauck, J. C. R. (2020). Teaching Machine Learning in School: A Systematic Mapping of the State of the Art. Informatics in Education, 19(2), 2020. McGovern, A., Tidwell, Z., & Rushing, D. (2011). Teaching Introductory Artificial Intelligence through JavaBased Games. Proc. of the 2nd Symposium on Educational Advances in Artificial Intelligence. Nistor, A. (2019). Bringing Research into the Classroom – The Citizen Science approach in schools. Scientix Observatory report. April 2019, European Schoolnet. Noor, A. K. (2015). Potential of cognitive computing and cognitive systems. Open Engineering, 5(1), 75–88. doi:10.1515/eng-2015-0008 Papert, S., & Solomon, C. (1971). Twenty things to do with a computer. Academic Press. Popovici, Istrate, Mironov, & Popovici. (2019). Teachers’ Perspective on the Premises and Priorities of STEM Education. Scientix Observatory. http://www.scientix.eu/documents/10137/752677/Scientix-Bringing-Research-into-the-Classroom-April2019-online-v1.pdf/ccce91ff-def6-4bee-89c5-71ab83405ebb Purdy, M., & Daugherty, P. (2017). How AI boosts Industry Profits and Innovation. Accenture. https:// www.accenture.com/ca-en/insight-ai-industry-growth Resnick, M. (2017). Lifelong Kindergarten: Cultivating Creativity Through Projects, Passion, Peers, and Play. MIT Press. doi:10.7551/mitpress/11017.001.0001 Sengupta, S., Basak, S., Saikia, P., Paul, S., Tsalavoutis, V., Atiah, F., Ravi, V., & Peters, A. (2020). A review of deep learning with special emphasis on architectures, applications and recent trends. KnowlBased Syst. doi:10.1016/j.knosys.2020.105596 Solon, B., Hardt, M., & Narayanan, A. (2019). Fairness and Machine Learning. http://www.fairmlbook.org Sullivan, A. A. (2016). Breaking the STEM Stereotype: Investigating the Use of Robotics to Change Young Childrens Gender Stereotypes About Technology and Engineering (Ph.D. Dissertation). Tufts University. The McKinsey Global Institute. (2020). https://www.mckinsey.com/mgi/overview Touretzky, D. (2017). Computational thinking and mental models:From Kodu to Calypso. Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE Blocks & Beyond Workshop. Williams, R., Park, H. W., Oh, L., & Breazeal, C. (2019). Popbots: Designing an artificial intelligence curriculum for early childhood education. In Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (Vol. 33, pp. 9729-9736). Academic Press. Zare, H. (2019). Hands-On Artificial Intelligence and Cybersecurity Education in High Schools. Unpublished.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS AI: Artificial intelligence. Algorithm: Refers to a set of instructions designed to perform a specific task. ANN: Artificial neural network. Big Data: A term that describes the large, diverse set of information. Expert System: A computer program to provide capabilities similar to those of a human expert when performing a task. LOGO: Refers to an educational programming language. Machine Learning: An application of artificial intelligence that aims to teach computers how to learn and act without being explicitly programmed. STEM: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Turing Test: It is an imitation game to determine whether or not a machine can think intelligently like human.

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Computers and Artificial Intelligence in Future Education Michael Voskoglou https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4727-0089 Graduate Technological Educational Institute, Greece

ABSTRACT This chapter focuses on the role computers and artificial intelligence could play for future education in our modern society of knowledge and globalization. The rapid industrial and technological development of the last 150 years has caused radical changes to the traditional human society. As a result, formal education at all levels, from elementary to tertiary, faces the great challenge of preparing students for the forthcoming era of a new but not yet well-known industrial revolution, characterized by the internet of things and energy and the cyber-physical systems controlled through it. It is concluded that it is unlikely for computers and other “clever” AI machines to replace teachers in the future, because all these devices were created and programmed by humans. It is therefore logical to accept that they will never be able to achieve the quality and independence of human thought. However, it is certain that the role of the teacher will dramatically change in future classrooms.

INTRODUCTION The rapid industrial and technological development of the last 150 years caused radical changes to our lives and behaviours, transforming the traditional and mainly agrarian human society of the last centuries to a modern society of knowledge and globalization. Machines especially designed for massive industrial production, computers, robots and various other “clever” mechanisms and methods of Artificial Intelligence (AI) have already replaced humans in an increasing number of routine jobs. This continuous development of new technologies could create many new, yet unforeseen jobs in the future. As a result, formal education, from elementary school to university, is faced with the great challenge of preparing students for a new way of life in a rather uncertain future of the forthcoming era of a new, but not yet explicitly known, industrial revolution, as the outcomes have not yet been fully determined. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch028

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 Computers and Artificial Intelligence in Future Education

The objective of the present work is to express some thoughts about this challenge and the difficulties connected to it. In no case, however, can this chapter be considered as an attempt to fully analyse the topic mentioned above, because such an effort requires hundreds of pages, as most of the subjects related to education need to be integrated. The focus here is turned mainly to the role computers and AI could play in future education and the risks associated with this perspective. The rest of the chapter is organised as follows: In the Background Section the traditional learning theories and teaching methods are exposed and a connection is made between the past industrial revolutions and the forthcoming new one, which could be characterised as the era of the Internet of Things and Energy (IoT & E) and the Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) controlled through this type of advanced Internet. The Main Focus of the chapter discusses the role of computers and Computational Thinking (CT) in modern education, the recent developments and perspectives of introducing methods and mechanisms of AI to education and in particular of Case-Based Reasoning (CBR), Bayesian Reasoning and Fuzzy Logic (FL). Future directions of research and final conclusions follow, and the chapter closes with a list of references and additional readings, as well as a summary of the key terms and definitions contained therein.

BACKGROUND Traditional Learning Theories and Teaching Methods Learning is one of the fundamental components of the human cognitive action. In psychology and education, it refers to a process that combines cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences for acquiring or enhancing one’s knowledge and skills. Volumes of research have been written about learning and many theories and models have been developed by the specialists for the description of its mechanisms. There are three main philosophical frameworks under which learning theories fall: • •

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Behaviorism, a theory established by the American psychologist John B. Watson (1878–1958), which considers learning as the acquisition of new behavior based on environmental conditions and discounts any independent activities of the mind (Cherry, 2020). Cognitivism, which replaced behaviorism during the 1960¢s as the dominant theory for the process of learning and argues that knowledge can be seen as a process of symbolic mental constructions and that learning is defined as change in individual’s cognitive structures (Wallace et al., 2007). More explicitly, the learning process involves representation of the stimulus input, i.e., use of the contents of one’s memory to find the suitable input information, interpretation of the input data to produce the new knowledge, generalization of this knowledge to a variety of situations and categorization of it in the already existing learner’s cognitive schemas. In this way the individual becomes able to retrieve, when necessary, the new information from his/her proper cognitive schemas and to use it for solving related problems. Changes in the learner’s behavior are in fact observed, but only as an indication of what is occurring in his/her mind. In other words, cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain the brain-based process of learning. Constructivism, a philosophical framework based on Piaget’s theory for learning and formally introduced by von Clasersfeld during the 1970s, which suggests that knowledge is not passively received from the environment, but is actively constructed by the learner through a process of ad-

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aptation based on and constantly modified by the learner’s experience of the world (Taber, 2011). This framework is usually referred as cognitive constructivism. The synthesis of the ideas of constructivism with Vygosky’s social development theory (McKinley, 1996) created the issue of social constructivism (Crawford, 1996). According to Vygosky, learning takes place within some socio-cultural setting. Shared meanings are formed through negotiation in the learning environment, leading to the development of common knowledge. The communities of practice (CoPs), for instance, are groups of people, experts or practitioners in a particular field, with a concern for something they do and they learn how to do it better as they interact regularly, having therefore the opportunity to develop personally and professionally (Dodler & Fien, 2013). The basic difference between cognitive and social constructivism is that the former argues that thinking precedes language, whereas the latter supports the exactly inverse approach. The role of teaching is to promote the learning of the corresponding subject. However, while theory provides means for analyzing learning, the process of teaching remains to a great part theoretically unsupported. In fact, theories help to analyze and explain, but they rarely provide direct guidance for practice. Some decades ago, the dominant teaching method used to be the explicit instruction (EI), which is mainly based on principles of cognitivism. The teacher is in the “center” of this method and tries with clear statements and explanations of the learning context and by supported practice to transfer the new knowledge to students in the best possible way (Smith et al., 2016). The main criticism against EI is that it may prevent conceptual understanding and critical analysis (Kinard, 2008). Therefore, many teachers, adopting ideas of constructivism, enriched the EI with a series of challenging questions so that to keep an active discourse with students, as a means to promote critical thinking. However, following the failure of the introduction of the “new mathematics” to school education, constructivism and the socio-cultural theories for learning have become very popular during the last decades as a basis for teaching and learning, especially among teachers of the elementary and secondary education. New teaching approaches have been introduced, like the problem-based learning (Voskoglou, 2010), the application-oriented teaching (Voskoglou, 2005), the inquiry-based learning through creative exploration (Jaworski, 2006), the formation of CoPs among students and teachers (Voskoglou, 2019a), etc. A typical teaching method developed according those lines is the “5 E’s” instructional treatment. The acronym “5 E’s” is due to the five successive phases of that treatment including engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration and evaluation (Voskoglou, 2019b). The “5E’s” method promotes the fruitful interaction among students and teachers and facilitates the production of the new knowledge on the basis of prior knowledge and experiences. Attempts to introduce such kind of approaches for teaching mathematics in university departments of positive sciences have also been reported in the literature (Lahdenpera, 2019, Voskoglou, 2019c, etc.), but the findings are rather intertwined. Much progress has been made in the last 20 years on analyzing the processes by which students come to understand mathematical ideas (mathematical cognition) and how numeracy is acquired (numerical cognition). Experimental psychology, neuroimaging, and single cell recording experiments have converged to identify how these basic skills are used to support the acquisition and use of abstract mathematical concepts (Gallistei, 2005). Predictive mathematical models are used nowadays to better understand how humans conceptualize information. For example, in Martinez-Garcia, et al. (2019) a model is presented that mimics pre-learned patterns of behavior through fractional differential equations. Also, in (Martinez-Garcia, et al., 2016), the effects of different delay time in human response to assess human workload state are studied, etc. 656

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The Past Industrial Revolutions and the Forthcoming Era of the Internet of Things and Energy A revolution is defined in general as a rapid and massive series of changes that lead to a radical transformation of human society. It could be a social, political, economic, industrial or other kind of revolution, but involves changes into the core of society. The First Industrial Revolution (1IR), which began in the UK’s textile factories at the end of the th 18 Century and spread throughout the world, involved the gradual replacement of manual labor by mechanical production, where machines were used mainly as power sources. The parallel development in the transportation sector led to the establishment of big industries and companies on a national and later on an international level, for which new scientific functional and management methods had to be developed (Voskoglou, 2016). Various names and definitions have been proposed for the several industrial revolutions that took place since then. According to the World Economic Forum (WEF), the first industrial revolution, characterized by mechanization on the basis of steam and water power, was followed by a second one, which started in the middle of the 19th Century. The Second Industrial Revolution (2IR) used the power of electricity for the mass production of large quantities of standardized goods in assembly lines. However, some social thinkers believe that the 2IR, which ended by the middle of the 20th Century, must be regarded as an inseparable part of the 1IR (Rifkin, 2011). The Third Industrial Revolution (3IR), or according to Rifkin’s (2011) view the 2IR, is also known as the era of automation. This revolution, which began in the 1940’s, was mainly characterized by the development of electronics, automated production and the gradual replacement of the human hands by computers as means of control (Voskoglou, 2016). In conclusion, the combined effects of the past three industrial revolutions have replaced manpower and animals with machines, making mass production of goods possible and leading human society to its current digital era. However, there were undesirable effects as well, such as the negative environmental impact, caused mainly by the unlimited use of coal and petrol and nuclear energy accidents. The economies of many countries are in danger of collapse and the people of the poor countries are suffering with no recovery in sight. Facing the prospect of a new collapse of the global economy, we desperately need a new economic plan that could lead us into a better future. The idea of a forthcoming new industrial revolution has surfaced at the beginning of the 21st Century (Anton et al., 2011). New York Times bestselling author Jeremy Rifkin, a famous social thinker of our time, introduced the term 3IR for this new revolution. In two books published in 2011 and 2014 (Rifkin, 2011, 2014) he describes how Internet technology, renewable energy and 3D-printing are merging to form this powerful revolution. The new technology will, for instance, facilitate the distribution of electrical energy or allow smart home and household devices to communicate via the internet. Consequently, a new advanced IoT & E will be created, providing energy at the right time and place, and goods and services anytime at any place. The term Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) has an almost identical meaning as Rifkin’s 3IR. It was first introduced by Professor Klaus Schwab, Founder and Executive Chairman of the WEF, in an article published in “Foreign Affairs” (Schwab, 2015). In a recent book (Schwab, 2016) Prof. Schwab argues that we are already at the beginning of the 4IR. The 4IR is about the emergence of CPS which will be controlled through the Internet by computer programs. Examples of CPS are autonomous automobiles and control systems, distance medicine, robots, etc. The world now has the potential to improve the ef-

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ficiency of services and organizations greatly and even find ways to regenerate the natural environment from some of the damages caused by previous IR’s. However, Schwab (2016) also expresses serious concerns about the great potential risks associated with 4IR in his book. He stresses that our current political, business, educational and social structures need to be fundamentally changed in order to smoothly absorb the resulting 4IR shifts and maximize profits in order to create a better future for our society. This was the theme of the 2016 WEF annual meeting in Davos, titled “Mastering the 4IR”. It should be noted that Germany’s industrial plan promoted the term Industry 4.0 only for the subset of the 4IR in industry. Furthermore, at the 2019 WEF annual meeting, Japan promoted another round of developments called Society 5.0.

MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER Computers in Modern Education It is hard to deny that in our modern society of knowledge and information computers are a valuable tool for teaching and learning. The wealth of information in the hands of students and the animation of figures and representations provided by educational software can serve to increase the students’ imagination and problem-solving skills. The rich variety of data and resources will help teachers keep their students engaged in the classroom. These are just some of the benefits obtained by using computers in education. In recent years, an innovative teaching method known as Flipped or Reverse Learning has been promoted using computers. Flipped learning, which has its roots in the work of Lage, Piatt and Tegla (2000), is a mixed process involving both online and face-to-face teaching. It requires turning around the daily didactic processes which we are accustomed to. In fact, the student’s acquisition of new knowledge happens outside the classroom by using digital platforms and technological tools that specialists or teachers have developed. Aaron Sams and Jonathan Bergmann (2012) were able to develop online audiovisual teaching materials, thereby enabling students to study regardless of factors such as place and time. On the other hand, what was traditionally undertaken as homework is done in class with the supervision of the teacher in order to favor the productivity of learning and the autonomy of the students and allow more time for practicing, problem solving and deepening of content (Lee et al., 2017). The ideas of social constructivism for learning are used in the development of the flipped learning teaching model. Some years ago, it was believed that teaching required human-to-human contact, but today’s technology allows us to do much of this virtually, using computers, videos, etc. Consequently, distance learning will become an inseparable part of our lives in future. The CoPs are groups of people, being experts or practitioners sharing a craft or profession. They interact regularly, which allows them the opportunity to develop themselves personally and professionally (Wegner, 1998). By using the Web, virtual CoP’s appear to be a very promising tool for Education, especially for developing countries, where people, due to budgetary constraints, do not have many opportunities to travel abroad to participate in conferences, seminars, educational exchanges, etc. Students and teachers from different countries can form such CoP’s for learning particular subjects, while education teachers and researchers can promote teaching and the research on teaching (Voskoglou, 2019a). However, there are also reports in literature that speak against the use of computers in classrooms. For example, a study published by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology found that students who were prohibited from using laptops or digital devices in lectures and seminars did better in their exams

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than those who were allowed to use computers and access the Internet (see https://seii.mit.edu/research/ study/the-impact-of-computer-usage-on-academic-performance-evidence-from-a-randomized-trial-atthe-united-states-military-academy/). Tom Bennet, who led a UK government-commissioned review on smartphone used in classrooms, noted that even the brightest students appeared to be distracted by the presence of digital devices (see http://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/sep/13/mobile-phoneimpact-school-lessons-scrunity). In contrast, a study published by the London School of Economics found that banning mobile phones in classrooms improves the outcomes of low-achieving students, but has no significant impact on high-achievers (see http://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/may/15/ mobile-phone-bans-improve-school-exam-results-research-shows). In general, computers should not be viewed as tools that can perform miracles by solving any kind of problems, but rather as machines performing operations in high speed, therefore enabling users to dedicate their time to quality reasoning and ideas (Einhorn, 2012). Since a computer is created and programmed by humans, the old credo “garbage in, garbage out” is still valid. Nevertheless, through programming it is possible to enter information and get output results almost at the speed of light. On the other hand, the practice of students having to do all kinds of calculations is likely to continue, or else people will gradually loose the sense of numbers and symbols, the sense of space and time, and they will become unable to create new knowledge and technology (Voskoglou & Buckley, 2012).

COMPUTATIONAL THINKING IN PROBLEM SOLVING Problem Solving Problem-Solving (PS) is a very important component of the human cognition affecting our lives for ages (Voskoglou, 2011, 2016). Most authors (Polya, 1973, Schoenfeld, 1983, Green and Gillhooly, 2005, Martinez, 2007, etc.) agree that a problem could be considered as an obstacle to be overpassed in order to achieve a desired goal. A problem, however, is mainly characterized by the fact that you don’t know exactly how to proceed about solving it. According to Schoenfeld (1983), if a problematic situation can be overpassed by routine or familiar procedures (no matter how difficult!), it is not a problem, but simply an exercise of the individual’s ability to tackle successfully this situation. The kind of a problem dictates the kind of the cognitive skills needed to solve it; e.g. linguistic skills are required to read and debate about a problem, memory skills to recall already existing knowledge being necessary to solve it, etc. G. Polya, a Mathematics Professor of Hungarian origin at Stanford University, who introduced the use of heuristic strategies as the basic tool for tackling a problem’s solution (Polya, 1945, 1954) is considered as the pioneer of the systematization of the PS process. Polya proposed also Discovery as a method for teaching mathematics (Polya, 1962/65) which is based on the idea that any new mathematical knowledge could be presented in the form of a suitably chosen problem related to already existing knowledge. Early work on PS focused mainly on the description and analysis of the PS process. The Schoenfeld’s (1980) expert performance model is an improved version of the Polya’s framework for PS. Its real goal is that it provides a list of possible heuristics that could be used at each step of the PS process, which, according to Schoenfeld, are the analysis of the problem and the exploration, design, implementation and verification of its solution. Much of the emphasis that has been placed during the 1980’s on the use of heuristics for PS was based on observations that students are often unable to use their existing knowledge to solve problems. It was concluded, therefore, that they lack suitable general PS strategies.

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Several other explanations were also presented later disputing the effectiveness of the extensive teaching of heuristics and giving more emphasis to other factors, like the acquisition of the proper schemas, the automation of rules, etc. (Owen & Sheller, 1989). What it has been agreed by many authors (Green & Gillhooly, 2005, Halpern, 2003, Matlin, 2005, etc.), however, is that a problem consists of three main parts: The starting state, the goal state and the obstacles, i.e. the existing restrictions which make difficult the access from the starting to the goal state. And while, during the solution of the same problem, the first two parts are more or less the same for all solvers, the last part may hide many ways of tackling it, which could differ from solver to solver. As a result, more recent studies have focused mainly on solvers’ behavior and required attributes during the PS process. The Multidimensional PS Framework of Carlson and Bloom (2005) is based on the development of a broad taxonomy of PS attributes that have been identified as relevant to PS success. Schoenfeld (2010), after a many years research for building a theoretical framework, concluded that PS is an example of a goal-directed behavior, under which a solver’s “acting in the moment” can be explained and modelled by an architecture involving knowledge, goals, orientations and decision making which depends on subjective values that could differ from solver to solver. In conclusion, PS is a complex cognitive action, directly related to the knowledge stored in the solver’s mind. Therefore, it requires a combination of several modes of thinking in order to be successful.

Traditional Modes of Thinking in Problem Solving Apart from the very simple and often automated thought (e.g. when performing calculations), other traditional modes of thinking required for PS include critical and statistical thinking and analogical reasoning. The nature of the problem dictates the modes of thinking required to be solved. Critical thinking (CrT) is a higher mode of thinking involving analysis, synthesis and evaluation of the existing data, actions which give rise to other ones, like predicting, estimating, inferring and generalizing the corresponding situations (Halpern, 2003). When a complex problem is encountered, it has to be critically analyzed: What is the problem, what is the given information and so on. CrT, therefore, is involved in application of knowledge to solve the problem. CrT plays also an important role in the transfer of knowledge, i.e. the use of already existing knowledge for producing new knowledge. A particular attention has been also placed by the experts on the use of analogical reasoning for PS (Voskoglou & Salem, 2014). In fact, a given problem (target problem) can be frequently solved by looking back and by properly adapting the solution of a previously solved similar problem (source problem). The use of computers, in particular, enables the creation and maintenance of a continuously increasing “library” of previously solved similar problems and the retrieval of the proper one(s) for solving a new analogous problem. This approach is termed as Case-Based Reasoning (CBR) and is widely used nowadays in many sectors of the human activity including industry, commerce, healthcare, education, etc. CBR will be examined in detail later in this chapter as a methodology of AI. Statistical thinking (ST) is the ability to use properly existing statistical data for solving problems related to randomness (Voskoglou & Athanassopoulos, 2020). Consider, for example, the case of a high school employing 40 in total teachers, 38 of which are good teachers, whereas the other two are not good. A parent, who happens to know only the two not good teachers, concludes that the school is not good and decides to choose another school for his child. This is obviously a statistically wrong decision that could jeopardize the future of the child. ST, however, must be combined with CrT for obtaining the correct solution. In fact, going back to the previous example, assume that another parent, who knows

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the 38 good teachers, decides to choose that school for his child. His child, however, happens to be interested only for the lessons taught by the two not good teachers and not for those taught by the 38 good teachers. In this case, therefore, the parent’s decision is wrong again due to lack of CrT. In conclusion, CrT driven by logic and ST based on the rules of Probability and Statistics are necessary tools for PS.

Computational Thinking The rapid development of technology in recent decades has led to new complex technological problems, the solution of which requires the combination of CrT with a different way of thinking called Computational Thinking (CT). The term CT was first introduced by S. Papert (1996), who is widely known as the “father’ of the Logo software. However, it was brought to the forefront of the computer society by Jeannette Wing (2006), who describes it as “involving solving problems, designing systems and understanding human behaviour based on principles of computer science”. CT includes the analysis and organization of data, the automation of problem-solving and applications involving abstract, logical, algorithmic, constructive thinking and modelling thinking that synthesizes all previous mind-sets in order to find solutions for problems (Liu and Wang, 2010). CT, however, does not suggest that problems have to be solved exactly in the same way as a computer solves them. Voskoglou and Buckley (2012) viewing the problem as an obstacle/challenge needing a solution presented two alternative approaches to clarify the relationship between CrT and CT during the PS process (Giannakopoulos, 2012). The first approach is a 3-D model that could be used to conceptualize the PS process of complex technological problems. In this model, the three components of CrT, CT and existing knowledge act simultaneously on the problem at hand. The model is based on the hypothesis that, if there is sufficient background knowledge, the new, necessary for the solution of the problem, knowledge is triggered with the help of CrT; then CT is applied and the problem is solved. This approach is graphically illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The 3-D PS model

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In case of simpler problems, the 3-D model could be transformed to the linear form of Figure 2. In this case, the existing knowledge is extracted and critically analyzed, as soon as awareness of the problem is reached. The problem solver then delves into his/her knowledge base and uses/applies the knowledge to solve the problem by thinking in a computer-like manner. Figure 2. The linear PS model

Computer science is not only programing, it is an entire way of thinking, which has become now part of our lives. All of today’s students will go on to live a life heavily influenced by computing. Consequently, there is a need to be trained in thinking computationally as soon as possible, even before starting to learn programming (Kazimoglu et al., 2011). The best way, however, to learn CT explicitly/ thoroughly is through programming. In fact, programming employs all the components of CT and provides a framework suitable for studying not only computer science, but all sciences. In thinking like a computer scientist, students become aware of processes that need to be analysed within an algorithmic framework. Thus, CT forms a new way of thinking that has the potential to bring about positive changes in society.

APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE TO EDUCATION The Multidisciplinary Science of Artificial Intelligence AI is a branch of Computer Science focusing on the theory and practice of creating intelligent machines which mimic human reasoning and behavior, i.e. being able to think, hear, talk, walk and even feel (Kastranis, 2019, Mitchell, 2019, etc.). In particular, AI aims to make computers capable to learn from data and make autonomous improvements without depending on commands of a program (computational intelligence). In this way computers could become able to build smart models and even to better replicate copies of themselves! The term AI was first coined by John McCarthy (1927-2011) in 1956, when he held the first academic conference in Dartmouth College, USA, on the subject (Moor, 2006). The commemorative plaque of the 50th anniversary of the conference placed in Dartmouth Hall in 2006 is shown in Figure 3. However, the effort to understand whether machines can truly think began much earlier, even before Alan Turing’s abstract “learning machine” invention in 1936, which proved the capability to simulate the logic of any computer’s algorithm (Hodges, 2012).

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Figure 3. The Dartmouth Hall Commemorative Plaque

AI being a synthesis of ideas from mathematics, engineering, technology and science (Figure 4, Voskoglou & Salem, 2020a) has rapidly developed since then creating a new situation that has the potential to generate enormous benefits to the human society. The spectrum of AI covers many research areas and technologies, like knowledge engineering, data mining, reasoning methodologies, cognitive computing and modeling, machine learning, natural language processing and understanding, artificial planning and scheduling, vision and multimedia systems, intelligent tutoring and learning systems, etc. Figure 4. The Interdisciplinary Science of AI: A Graphical Approach.

This section discusses recent advances and perspectives of the introduction of AI methods and mechanisms to education (Holmes et al., 2019). The attempt to “replicate” teachers by using computers started during the 1970s. Between 1982 and 1984, several studies in the US proved that students who received individual tutoring performed much better than those who didn’t. Therefore, a new effort started

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to re-create the individual tutoring in a computer (adaptive learning systems). AI focuses in general on developing personalized curricula based on each student’s specific needs. Figure 5. Squirrel’s engineering team working in the laboratory.

AI in Education of China A grand experiment has started recently in China that could change the way that people learn (Yang, 2019). Squirrel is one of the first China’s companies to pursue the concept of an AI tutor. Squirrel’s innovation

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is in its granularity and scale. For every course it offers, its engineering team works with a group of master teachers to divide the subject into the smallest possible conceptual pieces (see Figure 5, retrieved from https://www.technologyreview.com/s/614057/china-squirrel -has-started-a-grand-experiment-inai-education-it-could-reshape-how-the). Middle school mathematics, for example, is divided to pieces like rational and irrational numbers, properties of a triangle, calculation of areas, Pythagorean Theorem, etc. The target is to determine and treat a student’s difficulties in each topic in the best possible way. Unlike Squirrel, Alo7, another big company of China, has developed an online learning platform meant to supplement a traditional classroom. AI implementation is at its beginning in elementary education of China, but in a more advanced level in higher education, especially in the field of civic education. Therefore, Chinese students are prepared and work together to create the proper situation for the future education.

Online Teaching The human-to-human contact that was necessary some decades ago for teaching can nowadays, thanks to the technological progress, be replaced in a great part by virtual teaching using computers, videos, etc. Consequently, it is certain that the distance learning, which is usually referred as e-learning, will become very important for our lives in future. In e-learning the learning materials are sent electronically to remote learners via a computer network (Goyal, 2012). For instance, the virtual CoPs through the Web appear as a very promising tool for teaching and learning mathematics, and not only, especially for developing countries, where people, due to budgetary constraints, it is not easy to travel abroad for participating in scientific, vocational and educational activities (Voskoglou, 2019a). E-learning is also a very useful training tool for the modern companies and businesses, which want to be sure that their staff and partners are equipped with the adequate information and skills needed for their jobs.

Machine Learning Machine Learning (ML) is the practical part of AI focusing on the construction of smart machines that mimic human behaviour. The term ML comes from the idea that an algorithm learns from a training dataset. In supervised learning both input and desired output data can be considered teachers and are classified to provide a learning basis for future data processing. In unsupervised learning on the contrary, only the input data is given and the algorithms can work freely to learn more about the data. As a simple example of the former case, we consider the sequences of positive integers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, … as input and 1, 4, 8, 16, 25, 35, 49, …. as output, which indicates the raising to the second power. Applications of supervised learning are typically broken down into two categories, classification, where the output value is a linguistic expression (e.g. true or false) and regression, where the output is a real value (e.g. price or weight). If some of the input data is labelled with output information, we speak about semi-supervised learning (Das et al., 2015).

Smart Learning Systems Using the Internet, researchers have recently utilized ML techniques to develop a new generation of web-based Smart Learning Systems (SLS) for various educational tasks. A SLS is a knowledge-based software used for learning, which acts as an intelligent tutor in real teaching and training situations. Such

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systems have the ability of reasoning and of providing inferences/interactions/interfaces and recommendations by using heuristic, interactive and symbolic processing and by producing results from the big data analytics (Salem & Parucheva, 2018, Salem, 2019). The successive phases for developing a SLS are: •

• •

Construction of the knowledge base, involving collection, acquisition and representation of the required knowledge. The success of the task presupposes the choice appropriate in each case, amongst the many existing, technique (e.g. lists, trees, also semantic networks, frames, production rules, cases, ontologies, etc.) that fit better to the knowledge domain for a solution to the problem. Selection of suitable reasoning and inference methodology, e.g. commonsense, model-based, qualitative, causal, geometric, probabilistic or fuzzy reasoning, etc. Selection of intelligent authoring shells, which allow the course instructor to easily enter the knowledge domain without requiring computer programming skills. Those shells facilitate the entry of examples/exercises including problem statements, solution steps and explanations and the integration of suitably developed multimedia course wear by the specialists. The examples may be in the form of scenarios or simulations. In addition to the course knowledge, the instructor has the possibility to specify the pedagogical instruction, i.e. the best way to teach a particular student, and to choose how to assess actions and determine student mastery. The most common authoring shells are DIAG, RIDES-VIVIDS, XAIDA, REDEEM, EON, INTELLIGENT TUTOR, D3 TRAINER, CALAT, INTERBOOK, and PERSUADE (Salem & Nikitaeva, 2019).

In conclusion, the efficiency of a SLS is based on the selection of the appropriate knowledge representation technique and reasoning methodology and the choice of suitable authoring shells. Therefore, from the technical point of view, a SLS is complex to build and difficult to maintain.

Ontological Engineering Ontological Engineering is a popular methodology for constructing the knowledge-base of a SLS. The term “ontology” has its roots to philosophy and metaphysics, and refers to the nature of being. The ontologies used in computer science are knowledge-based intelligent systems designed to share knowledge among computers or among computers and people. Those types of ontologies include a relatively small number of concepts and their main objective is to facilitate reasoning. In intelligent educational systems, ontologies are used in the search for learning materials and pedagogical resources on the internet or as a chain, playing the role of a “vocabulary” among heterogeneous educational systems (multi-agent systems) that have been programmed to communicate with each other (Tankelevcience & Damasevicius, 2009, Cakula & Salem, 2011).

Case-Based Reasoning CBR is another popular methodology for developing the knowledge-base of a SLS. CBR is the process of solving problems based on the solutions of similar problems that have been previously solved. For example, a physician who heals a patient based on therapy previously used on patients with similar symptoms, or a lawyer who predicts a particular outcome in a trial based on legal precedents, are using the CBR methodology. The use of computers enables the CBR systems to preserve a continuously

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growing “case-memory” of previously solved problems, referred to as past cases. Each time, the suitable problem can be retrieved from the case-memory for solving a given new problem The CBR methodology is graphically analyzed in Figure 6 (Voskoglou & Salem, 2020b). Figure 6. CBR Methodology

CBR is often used where experts find it difficult to articulate their thinking processes when solving problems. This is because acquiring knowledge in a classical knowledge-based system would be extremely difficult in such cases, and would likely produce incomplete or inaccurate results. When using CBR, the need for knowledge acquisition can be reduced to characterizing cases as an information source. CBR, as an intelligent-systems’ method, enables information managers to increase efficiency and reduce costs by substantially automating processes. However, the CBR approach, apart from commercial and business purposes, has got a lot of attention over the last decades in education as a new approach to PS and learning (Voskoglou, 2008). In fact, the CBR methodology organizes knowledge with reference to previous problems. Each case typically contains a description of the problem plus a solution and/or the outcomes. The knowledge and reasoning process used to solve the problem are not recorded, but they are implicit in the solution. This structure/process treats knowledge in a lesson-oriented manner and facilitates the automatic generation of tests and exercises. CBR’s coupling to learning occurs as a natural by-product of PS. When a problem is successfully solved, the experience is retained in order to solve similar problems in future. When an attempt to solve a

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problem fails, the reason for the failure is identified and remembered in order to avoid the same mistake in future. This process is termed as failure-driven learning. Thus, CBR is a cyclic and integrated process of solving a problem, learning from the experience, then solving another new problem, etc. Figure 7. Graphical representation of the CBR process

Effective learning in CBR, sometimes referred to as case-based learning, requires a well worked out set of methods in order to extract relevant knowledge from the experience, integrate a case into an existing knowledge structure and index the case for later matching with similar cases. In addition to the knowledge represented by cases, most CBR systems also use general domain knowledge. Representation and use of this domain knowledge include the integration of the CBR method with other methods, for instance, rule-based systems or in-depth-models such as casual reasoning/commonsense. The overall architecture of the CBR system must determine the interactions and the control regime/relationship between the CBR method and the other components. The driving force behind the CBR methods comes largely from the ML community and is regarded as a sub-area of ML. In fact, the term CBR not only refers to a particular reasoning method, but also to a ML paradigm, which enables sustainable learning by updating the case base after a problem has been solved. CBR first appeared in commercial systems in the early 1990’s and since then has been used to create numerous applications in a wide range of domains including diagnosis, help-desk applications, assessment, decision support, design, etc. Organizations as diverse as IBM, VISA International, Volkswagen, British Airways, NASA and many others have already made use of CBR. Despite the fact that the CBR methodology has been proved to be effective in most cases, critics of CBR argue that it is an approach which accepts anecdotal evidence as its main operating principle. But, without statistically relevant data there is no guarantee that the generalization is correct. There is, however, recent work which develops CBR within a statistical framework and formalises case-based inference as a specific type of probabilistic inference. Thus, it becomes possible to produce case-based predictions equipped with a certain level of confidence. CBR has been formulated for computers and people as a four-step process involving the following actions: • • •

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R1: Retrieve from the system’s library a suitable past case. R2: Reuse this case for the solution of the given problem. R3: Revise the solution of the retrieved case for solving the new problem.

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•

R4: Retain the revised solution for possible use with similar problems in future.

Through the revision, the solution is tested for success. If successful, the revised solution is directly saved in the CBR library, otherwise it is revised and evaluated again. If the final result is a failure, the system tries to compare it to previous similar failures (transfer from R3 back to R1) and uses the information in order to understand the present failure, which is finally saved in the library. A graphical representation of the above process is shown in Figure 7 (Voskoglou, 2017a). More details about the history, development and applications of CBR can be found in Voskoglou & Salem (2014) and in the references provided in this paper corresponding to earlier studies on CBR, in Leake (2015), etc. Figure 8. Smart Technologies and Robotics in Education

Social Robots in Education A social robot is an AI machine that has been designed to interact with humans or other robots. Social robots may understand speech and facial expressions, and are used at home, in customer service, in education, etc. (Taipale et al., 2015). Cynthia Breazel was one of the first to develop such robots in MIT (Breazel, 2002). Examples of applications in education are the robot Tico that has been designed to improve children’s motivation in the classroom, the robot Bandit, which has been developed to teach social behaviour to autistic children, etc. A characteristic sketch about the introduction of smart technologies and robotics in Education, is shown in Figure 8 (Voskoglou and Salem, 2020a). That sketch has been presented by Prof. Salem in the 23rd International Conference on Information and Software Technologies (ICIST 2017) that took place between 12 and 14 October 2017 at the Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania

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Bayesian Reasoning and Fuzzy logic Probability theory and FL are among the main mathematical tools used in AI applications. Edwin T. Jaynes (1922-1998), Professor of Physics at the University of Washington, was the first who argued that Probability theory could be considered as a generalization of the bivalent logic reducing to it in the special case where our hypothesis is either absolutely true or absolutely false (Jaynes, 2011). Many eminent scientists have been inspired by the ideas of Jaynes, like the expert in Algebraic Geometry David Mumford, who believes that Probability and Statistics are emerging as a better way for building scientific models (Mumford, 2000). Probability and Statistics are related areas of mathematics, having however fundamental differences. Probability is a theoretical branch of mathematics which deals with predicting the likelihood of future events. On the contrary, Statistics is an applied branch of mathematics, which tries to make sense of observations in the real world by analyzing the frequency of past events. Nevertheless, both Probability and Statistics have been developed on the basis of the principles of the bivalent logic. As a result, they are tackling effectively only the cases of the existing in real world uncertainty due to randomness and not those due to imprecision. In cases of imprecision, the theory of Fuzzy Sets (FS), introduced by Zadeh (1965) and its further stage FL, which is an infinite-valued logic that generalizes and completes the traditional bi-valued logic, come to bridge the existing gap (Kosko, 1993). Fuzzy mathematics has found today many important applications to almost all sectors of human activity (Klir & Folger, 1988; Chapter 6, Voskoglou, 2017b, Chapters 4-8, etc.). For more details about the history, development and the basics of FS and FL the reader may look at Voskoglou, 2019d, Section 2). Courses on fuzzy mathematics and FL have already appeared in the curricula of several university departments (Voskoglou, 2019e) and it is expected to expand rapidly in the near future. Since Zadeh introduced the concept of FS and in order to comfort more effectively the uncertainty caused by the inaccuracy that characterizes many situations in science, technology and our daily life, various generalisations of FS have been proposed (type-2 FS, interval-valued FS, intuitionistic FS, hesitant FS, Pythagorean FS, complex FS, neutrosophic sets, etc.), as well as several alternative theories (grey systems, rough sets, soft sets, etc.); for more details see Voskoglou (2019f). Let us now turn our attention to Bayesian Reasoning, which has been recently proved to be one of the most important parts of Probability Theory. Given two intersecting events A and B, it is straightforward to check (Schuler & Lipschutz, 2010) that

P( A / B) =

P( B / A) P( A) P( B)

(1)

Equation (1), which calculates the conditional probability P(A/B) with the help of the inverse in time conditional probability P(B/A), the prior probability P(A) and the posterior probability P(B), is known as the Bayes’ theorem (or rule, or law). In other words, the Bayes’ theorem calculates the probability of an event based on prior knowledge of conditions related to that event. However, when applied in practice, the Bayes’ theorem may have several interpretations. In social sciences, for example, it describes how a degree of belief expressed as a probability P(A) is rationally changed according to the availability of related evidence. In that case, the probabilities involved in the Bayes’ theorem are frequently referred as Bayesian probabilities, although, mathematically speaking, Bayesian and conditional probabilities are actually the same thing.

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Figure 9. Thomas Bayes (1701-1761)

The value of the prior probability P(A) is fixed before the experiment, whereas the value of the posterior probability is derived from the experiment’s data. Usually, however, there exists an uncertainty about the exact value of P(A). In such cases, considering all the possible values of P(A), we obtain different values for the conditional probability P(A/B). Therefore, the Bayes’ rule introduces a kind of multi-valued logic tackling the existing due to the imprecision of the value of the prior probability uncertainty in a way analogous to FL. Consequently, one could argue that Bayesian Reasoning constitutes an interface between bivalent logic and FL.

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The Bayes’ rule was first appeared in the work “An Essay towards a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances” of the 18th century British mathematician and theologian Thomas Bayes (Figure 9). This essay was published by Richard Price in 1763, after the Bayes’ death, in the “Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London”. The famous French mathematician Laplace (1749-1827), independently from Bayes, pioneered and popularized the Bayesian probabilities. In general, although the Bayes’ rule is a simple consequence of the equation calculating the value of a conditional probability, Bayesian reasoning has been proved to be very important to everyday life situations (Horgan, 2015) and for the whole science as well (Athanassopoulos & Voskoglou, 2020, Voskoglou & Salem, 2020b). Recent researches give evidence that even the mechanisms under which the human brain works are Bayesian (Bertsch McGrayne, 2012)! As a result, the smart machines of AI that mimic the human behaviour are supplied with Bayesian algorithms in order to be able to recognize the corresponding structures and to make autonomous decisions. The physicist and Nobel Prize winner John Mather has already expressed his uneasiness about the possibility that the Bayesian machines could become too smart, so that to make humans to look useless (http://edge.org/response-detail/26871)! Consequently, Sir Harold Jeffreys (1891-1989), a British mathematician who introduced the concept of the Bayesian algorithm and played an important role in the revival of the Bayesian view of probability, has successfully characterized the Bayesian rule as the “Pythagorean Theorem of Probability Theory” (Jeffreys, 1971).

Can the AI Machines Replace Teachers? AI’s impressive advances in education have led a number of professionals and social thinkers to believe that teachers will be replaced by “clever” teaching education machines in future. Parallelising the two situations, they remind that “when cars were invented, horses became obsolete”. However, many others believe that this will never happen. Learning information is indeed valuable for the students, but the most important thing is to learn how to reason logically and creatively. The latter seems to be impossible with only the help of the computers and other “clever” AI devices, since all those devices have been created and programmed by humans. Consequently, although many of these devices impressively exceed the speed of the human brain, it is logical to accept that they will never be able to achieve the quality of thinking of the human mind and sense of humanity.

How to Teach Artificial Intelligence? Given all those important and rapid applications of AI that have been discussed above and many others as well, it is a good time to consider what young people need to know about AI and information technology. Efforts on this direction have been already recorded in the literature (Filippova & Hrusheva, 2015, Yang, Sun & Huangh, 2019, etc.). The subject, however, is too wide and rather out of the purposes of the present chapter, to be discussed in detail here. Thus, we simply copy the following statement of Vanderk Ark (2020), which in our opinion puts epigrammatically the theme on its right basis: “First, everyone needs to be able to recognize AI and its influence on people and systems, and be proactive as a user and citizen. Second, everyone should have the opportunity to use AI and big data to solve problems. And third, young people interested in computer science as a career should have a pathway for building AI”.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS This chapter focused mainly on the role of computers and AI in future education and the risks that lie behind this perspective. Although it has been concluded that it is unlikely computers and other “clever” AI devices to replace teachers for educating students in future, it is certain that the role of the teacher will change dramatically in future classrooms. An interesting direction for future research is, therefore, to examine the new role of the teacher. This requires changes or even a complete replacement of traditional teaching methods as well as the proper use of the new technological tools, both in and out of the classroom; as well as-familiarisation with the ideas and techniques of distance learning, etc. Obviously, this kind of research is closely related to the changes that the upcoming 4IR will bring about in society, and the effects which are not yet known exactly. Consequently, preparing our society at large and our students, in particular, to smoothly accommodate these changes is another important direction/impulse for future research.

CONCLUSION The discussion performed in this chapter leads to the following conclusions: •

• •

•

The upcoming, but not yet explicitly defined, new industrial revolution (the fourth according to Schwab, or the third according to other social thinkers) could be characterized as the era of IoT & E and the CPS. It has the potential to change our lives by bringing humanity to a better future, provided our society is ready to accept the dramatic changes that will follow. Formal Education today faces the major challenge of preparing students for a new way of life (and thinking) in the upcoming 4IR era, with rather uncertain future prospects. In this work, the important role that computers and AI could play in future education and the risks that lie behind this perspective were discussed. However, it is rather an illusion to believe computers and other “clever” AI machines will replace the teachers for student education in the future, since all these machines were created and programmed by humans and, although many of them outperform people in speed, it is unlikely that they will ever be able to argue like humans do. Examining the changing role of teachers in future classrooms and the ways to prepare society to smoothly accommodate the dramatic changes in our lives the forthcoming 4IR will bring about are two important areas of future research.

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Mitchell, M. (2019). Artificial Intelligence: A Guide for Thinking Humans. Parrar, Straus and Gtraux. Moor, J. (2006). The Dartmouth College Artificial Intelligence Conference: The Next Fifty years. AI Magazine, 27(4), 87–91. Mumford, D. (2000). The Dawning of the Age of Stochasticity. In V. Amoid, M. Atiyah, P. Laxand, & B. Mazur (Eds.), Mathematics: Frontiers and Perspectives (pp. 197–218). AMS. Owen, E., Sweller, J. (1989), Should problem solving be used as a learning device in Mathematics? Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 20, 322–328. Papert, S. (1996). An exploration in the space of Mathematics Education, Int. Journal of Computers Mathematics, 1(1), 95-123. Polya, G. (1945). How to solve it. Princeton Univ. Press. Polya, G. (1954). Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning. Princeton Univ. Press. Polya, G. (1962/65). Mathematical Discovery (Vols. 1–2). Wiley and Sons. Polya, G. (1973). How I solve it: A new aspect of mathematical method. Princeton University. Rifkin, J. (2011). The Third Industrial Revolution: How Lateral Power is Transforming Energy, the Economy and the World. Palgrave - McMillan. Rifkin, J. (2014). The Zero Marginal Cost Society: The Internet of Things, the Collaborative Commons and the Eclipse of Capitalism. St. Martins Press. Salem, A.-B. M. (2019). Computational Intelligence in Smart Education and Learning. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Information and Communication Technology in Business and Education, (pp. 30-40). University of Economics. Salem, A.-B. M., & Nikitaeva, N. (2019). Knowledge Engineering Paradigms for Smart Education and Smart Learning Systems. Proceedings of the 42nd International Convention of the MIPRO Croatian Society. Salem, A. B.M. & Parusheva, S. (2018). Exploiting the Knowledge Engineering Paradigms for Designing Smart Learning Systems. Eastern-European Journal of Enterprise Technologies, 2(92), 38-44. Schoenfeld, A. (1980). Teaching Problem Solving Skills. The American Mathematical Monthly, 87, 794–805. Schoenfeld, A. (1983). The wild, wild, wild, wild world of problem solving: A review of sorts. For the Learning of Mathematics, 3, 40–47. Schoenfeld, A. (2010). How we think: A theory of goal-oriented decision making and its educational applications. Routledge. Schuler, J., & Lipschutz, S. (2010). Schaum’s Outline of Probability (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. Schwab, K. (2015). The Fourth Industrial Revolution. https://www.weform.org/ press/2015/fourthindustrial-revolution

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Schwab, K. (2016). The Fourth Industrial Revolution. Crown Publishing Group. Smith, J. L. M., Saez, L., & Doabler, C. T. (2016). Using explicit and systematic instruction to support working memory. Teaching Exceptional Children, 48, 275–281. Taber, K. S. (2011). Constructivism as educational theory: Contingency in learning, and optimally guided instruction. In J. Hassaskhah (Ed.), Educational Theory. Nova Science Publishers. Taipale, S., Vincent, J., Sapio, B., Lugano, G., & Fortunati, L. (2015). Introduction: Situating the Human in Social Robots. In Social Robots from a Human Perspective (pp. 1–17). Springer. Tankelevcience, L., & Damasevicius, F. (2009). Characteristics for Domain Ontologies for Web Based Learning and their Applications for Quality Evaluation. Informatics in Education, 8(1), 131–152. Vander Ark, T. (2020). How to Teach Artificial Intelligence. forbes.com/sites/tomvanderark/2020/02/12/ how-to-teach-artificial-intelligence/?sh=463b7c2fseac Voskoglou, M. G., & Buckley, S. (2012). Problem Solving and Computers in a Learning Environment. Egyptian Computer Science Journal, 36(4), 28–46. Voskoglou, M. G., & Salem, A-B. M. (2014). Analogy-Based and Case-Based Reasoning: Two Sides of the Same Coin. International Journal of Applications of Fuzzy Sets and Artificial Intelligence, 4, 5–51. Voskoglou, M. G. (2017b). Finite Markov Chain and Fuzzy Logic Assessment Models: Emerging Research and Opportunities. Createspace independent publishing platform (Amazon). Voskoglou, M. G. (2005). The application-oriented teaching of mathematics. Proceedings of the International Conference on Mathematics Education, 85–90. Voskoglou, M. G. (2008). Case-Based Reasoning: A Recent Theory for Problem-Solving and Learning in Computers and People. Communications in Computer and Information Science, 19, 314–319. Voskoglou, M.G. (2010). Problem-solving as a component of the constructivist view of learning. The Journal of Educational Research, 4, 93–112. Voskoglou, M. G. (2011). Problem Solving from Polya to Nowadays: A Review and Future Perspectives. In R. V. Nata (Ed.), Progress in Education (Vol. 22). Nova Science Publishers. Voskoglou, M. G. (2016). Problem solving in the forthcoming era of the third industrial revolution. International Journal of Psychological Research, 10(4), 361–380. Voskoglou, M. G. (2017a). An Absorbing Markov Chain Model for Case-Based Reasoning. International Journal of Computers, 2, 99–105. Voskoglou, M. G. (2019a). Communities of practice for teaching and learning mathematics. American Journal of Educational Research, 7(6), 186–191. Voskoglou, M. G. (2019b). A Markov chain representation of the 5 E’s instructional treatment. Physical and Mathematical. Education, 3, 7–11. Voskoglou, M. G. (2019c). Comparing teaching methods of mathematics at university level. Education in Science, 9, 294.

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Voskoglou, M. G. (2019d). Methods for Assessing Human-Machine Performance under Fuzzy Conditions. Mathematics, 7, 230. Voskoglou, M. G. (2019e). An Application of the 5 E’s Instructional Treatment for Teaching the Concept of Fuzzy Set. Sumerianz Journal of Education. Linguistics and Literature, 2(9), 73–76. Voskoglou, M. G. (2019f). Generalizations of Fuzzy Sets and Relative Theories. In M. Voskoglou (Ed.), An Essential Guide to Fuzzy Systems (pp. 345–353). Nova Science Publishers. Voskoglou, M. G. & Athanassopoulos, E. (2020). Statistical Thinking in Problem Solving. American Journal of Educational Research, 8(10), 754–761. Voskoglou, M. G., & Salem, A.-B. M. (2020a). Benefits and Limitations of the Artificial with Respect to the Traditional Learning of Mathematics. Mathematics, 8, 611. Voskoglou, M. G., & Salem, A.-B. M. (2020b). Bayesian Reasoning and Artificial Intelligence against COVID-19. International Journal of Scientific Advances, 1(1), 74–78. Wallace, B., Ross, A., Davies, J. B., & Anderson, T. (2007). The Mind, the Body and the World: Psychology after Cognitivism. Imprint Academic. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge University Press, UK. Wing, J. M. (2006). Computational thinking. Communications of the ACM, 49, 33–35. Yang, X. (2019). Accelerated move to AI in China, ECNU. Review of Education, 2, 347–352. Yang, Y., Sun, J., & Huang, L. (2019), Artificial Intelligence Teaching Methods in Higher Education. Proceedings of SAI Intelligent Systems Conference: Intelligent Systems and Applications, 1044-1053. Zadeh, L. A. (1965). Fuzzy Sets. Information and Control, 8, 338–353.

ADDITIONAL READING Denning, P. J. (2009). Beyond computational thinking. Communications of the ACM, 52(6), 28–30. doi:10.1145/1516046.1516054 Qualls, J. A., & Sherrell, L. B. (2010). Why computational thinking should be integrated into the curriculum. Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges, 25, 66–71. Salem, A.-B.M., & Voskoglou, M.Gr. (2013). Applications of the CBR Methodology to Medicine. Egyptian Computer Science Journal, 37(7), 68–77. Williams, R. L. (2005). Targeting critical thinking within teacher education: The potential impact on Society. Teacher Educator, 40(3), 163–187. doi:10.1080/08878730509555359

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Yadav, A., Zhou, N., Mayfield, C., Hambrusch, S., & Korb, J. T. (2011), Introducing Computational Thinking in Education Courses, Proceedings of the 42nd ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 465-470. 10.1145/1953163.1953297

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI is a branch of Computer Science that focuses on the creation of intelligent machines which mimic human reasoning and behavior. Bayesian Reasoning: The Bayes’ theorem calculates the conditional probability P(A/B) of an event A to happen when the event B has already happened, with the help of the inverse in time conditional probability P(B/A), the prior probability P(A) and the posterior probability P(B). Since the changes of the value of P(A) result to different values of P(A/B), Bayesian Reasoning defines a multi-valued logic treating the existing due to the imprecision of the values of P(A) uncertainty in a way analogous to fuzzy logic. Therefore, Bayesian Reasoning could be considered as an interface between bivalent and fuzzy logic. Recent researches acknowledge the important role of Bayesian reasoning to everyday life and AI applications and for the whole science in general. Case-Based Reasoning (CBR): CBR is the process of solving problems based on previously solved similar problems (past cases). The use of computers enables a CBR system to build a continuously increasing “library” of past cases and to retrieve them for solving new problems. Computational Thinking (CT): The term CT, coined by Jeannette Wing in 2006, describes solving problems, designing systems, and understanding human behaviour based on the principles of computer science. CT includes analysing and organising data, automated problem solving and using it to solve similar problems. Nowadays, CT has become necessary to solve complex technological problems. If sufficient background knowledge is available and the necessary new knowledge is acquired through critical thinking, CT may help to solve the problem. CT is actually a hybrid of several other modes of thinking, like abstract, logical, algorithmic, constructive and modelling thinking, which summarises all previous modes for solving the corresponding problem. Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS): Systems controlled through the Internet by computer programs, such as autonomous automobiles, autonomous control systems, distance medicine and robots. Flipped Learning (FL): FL is a mixed process that involves both online and face-to-face teaching and requires turning around the didactic processes to which we are accustomed. The students acquire new knowledge outside the classroom through the use of digital platforms and technological tools. On the other hand, the homework is done in the classroom under the supervision of a teacher in order to promote the adequacy of learning and student autonomy and increase the time spent to practicing, problem solving and deepening of content. Fuzzy Logic (FL): An infinite-valued on the real interval [0, 1] logic, defined with the help of the concept of the Zadeh’s fuzzy set, that extends and completes the traditional bivalent logic and has found nowadays applications to almost all sectors of the human activity. Industrial Revolutions (IRs): A revolution is generally defined as a rapid and massive series of changes that lead to a radical transformation of human society. The first IR (1IR) began at the end of the 18th century and was characterized by the replacement of manual labour based on steam and water power. The second IR (2IR) began in the mid-19th century, used the power of electricity and was characterized

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by the mass production of goods. The third IR (3IR) started during the 1940’s and is characterized as the era of automation, in which computers replaced humans as means of control. The upcoming fourth IR (4IR), although not yet explicitly known, could be described as the era of the Internet of Things and Energy and Cyber Physical Systems. Some social thinkers consider the 1IR and 2IR as the 1IR, which makes the upcoming 4IR to be considered as the 3IR. Internet of Energy (IoE): This refers to the upgrading and automating of electricity infrastructures for energy producers and distributors. The IoE allows energy production and distribution to function more efficiently and cleanly with less waste. It is connected to the IoT. Large energy consumers, such as heaters, washing machines and boilers could be switched on when there is sufficient energy in the grid. Internet of Things and Energy (IoT): This is a system of interrelated mechanical and digital devices that interact via the internet without requiring human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_of_things). Products which use IoT technology are typically in the field of “smart home” like lighting, heating, security systems, cameras, appliances. Amazon’s Alexa is another example of the IoT, providing services such as music, mail orders or switching smart home devices on and off in response to spoken commands. Social Robots: Social robots are AI devices to interact with humans and other robots. They may understand speech and facial expressions, and are used at home, and in customer service, education, etc. Examples of educational applications include the Tico robot, which was developed to improve children’s motivation in the classroom, and the Bandit robot, which was developed to teach social behaviour to autistic children, etc.

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Role of Technology in Using Artificial Intelligence to Improve Educational Learning Challenges With Reference to India Seema Sahai Amity University, India Sharad Khattar Amity University, India Richa Goel Amity University, India

ABSTRACT Artificial education intelligence (AIEd) is one of the emerging educational technological fields. A most logical question which comes up is, Is it possible to ensure quality in higher education? Can use of AI and sister technologies help us deliver in the mission? Will it be able to tackle all or most of shortcomings in the field of education? This study aims in a systematic review to provide an overview of AI applications research in education. Technology use in education and learning has undergone a remarkable transformation in the education sector. In order to accomplish this purpose, a quantitative analysis approach was used by open end questionnaire for a survey of scholars. This chapter examined the possible impacts of artificial intelligence on universities. The empirical findings indicate that the knowledge of AI is declining and there is a need to disperse knowledge of technology in higher education.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch029

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 Role of Technology in Using Artificial Intelligence to Improve Educational Learning Challenges

INTRODUCTION Artificial Intelligence (AI), one of the new age technologies is making great inroads into each and every domain, may it be the manufacturing, health, automobiles, service, education, banking, retail and many others. As it essentially entails mimicking human intelligence by machines and doing the same tasks a human would do, requires a multidimensional view of a complex problem, which at first may seem simple. Precise definition of AI may elude us but at the same instant one has to be aware of the fact that when it is applied in various fields including the paradigm shifts it can generate within the limitations and constraints. At the core of AI we have the machine learning algorithms, which build a mathematical model. This is a logical follow up on sample data. The end result is helping us to make decision without actually having make an explicit effort for the same. Other sister technologies are also complimentary to AI. For instance if AI helps us to predict, then Data Mining makes an intelligent analysis from the huge amount of data to come to a logical conclusion. Block chaining gives the requisite security to digital exchanges where ‘blocks’ are considered as digital information being stored in a ‘chain’ the public database. The list of such technologies is long with each contributing in ensuring viability of AI. There has to be clarity in the understanding of what AI is in current scenario and what developments it will bring in future when widely implemented in society. This will be the only way to appreciate the prospects that artificial intelligence (AI) creates. AI can make new approaches of work of teachers, students and education per se, and it can also modify culture in ways that bring about new challenges to educational institutions and the field of education. A few of the important contributions that AI has made in the humanity are mentioned. Stanford researchers were able to use AI to use frontal-view X-ray images to diagnose 14 forms of medical conditions, exceeding the human diagnostic precision for pneumonia (Rajpurkar et al., 2017). The Google CEO, Sundar Pichai, in May 2018, caused a bustle when he demonstrated in his keynote an AI device, Duplex, that could independently arrange phone appointments, making people believe that they are talking to another human being. It might be easy to imagine that AI is quickly overpowering society with its intelligence by developing self-driving vehicles, talking robots, and the flood of other AI miracles, and to obtain all the good and evil powers granted to it in popular culture (Tuomi, 2018). To become qualified, people need an era; a high school diploma no longer promises lifelong work opportunities. Now that the economy has changed from manual workforces to knowledge workers, there is a need to modify skills and qualifications and individuals need to be prepared to change occupations as many times as they can in a lifetime. Lifelong learning entails lifelong schooling, which in turn includes understanding teachers, good resources and committed time. Information and improved individual efficiency are the driving force of an information society. Knowledge staff use more data and execute more tasks. Digital technology has made drastic changes in culture, but education has only been slightly altered so far. Earlier inventions (e.g., film, radio, television) were touted as educational savers, but almost all had little effects, partly because they did not strengthen previous educational instruments, but instead only automated or repeated existing teaching techniques. The confluence of the Internet, artificial intelligence, and cognitive science, on the other hand, presents a potential that varies qualitatively from that of previous innovations and goes beyond merely duplicating current teaching processes. The potential effect of IT on education and schools is uncertain, but it is likely to generate a turning point impacting all quadrants. By taking advantage of advances in artificial intelligence and cognitive science and by harnessing the full power of the Internet, educators can augment and redefine the learn-

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ing process. In combination with reduced hardware costs, computing power leads to an increased use of computing in all academic fields. AI can create new learning and teaching practices possible and an innovative social, cultural and economic framework for education can be created. In this chapter a few questions have been addressed. How can AI in education be conceptualized and what are the ethical implications, challenges and risks are considered? What is the nature and scope of AI applications in the context of higher education? Which careers and occupations will become obsolete soon? In a world where AI is commonly used, which are the qualifications or skills needed? How can teaching be improved by AI? Can AI judge students fairly? Because of AI, do we need fewer classrooms? Does AI support individuals with learning difficulties? AI can do many things well, and several things it cannot do. However, to be able to forecast plausible futures, it is important to understand some main characteristics of current AI. Also both dimensions of AI has to be looked into; the worthy and the disagreeable. Thinking in context to our questions and based on the past literature we can throw light on how AI will be used in context of education and learning. The following issues are addressed in this chapter alng with the clear objectives being defined in later section. 1. Artificial Intelligence can Automate Simple Educational Tasks, such as Grading While AI can never fully excel in eliminating the human division, it gets pretty close. Teachers will now automate classes with virtually all forms of multiple choices, and the full assessments and automatic graduation of student writing could be not far away. 2. Technology can be Tailored to Student Requirements The introduction of higher stages of individualized learning is the major way in which artificial intelligence impacts education from children’s school to graduate school. Part of this is occurring in rising numbers of interactive systems, games and applications. The programmes fulfil the student’s expectations, concentrate mainly on other subjects, repeat items that students do not learn and usually allow students to work at their own speed irrespective of what it is. 3. It will Suggest Locations to Develop Courses Teachers may not often know the holes and resources in their lessons that may lead the students to be mystified on certain topics. Artificial intelligence is how this dilemma can be answered. Coursera, a massively free online course provider, is currently introducing this. If a sufficient number of students notice that the wrong answer is given to a task, the machine warns the instructor and sends a direct note to prospective students to give a right response. 4. Students may be Assisted by AI Tutors in Addition Although things are certainly possible for human tutors that computers do not see much, at least not yet, students tutored only in zeros and ones by tutors. Any artificial intelligencia-based tutoring services also exist which can support the students with basic algebra, writing and other subjects aren’t perfect to help students practise high-quality thought and imagination, which real-world teachers always need to do.

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5. AI-Led Projects may Offer Valuable Guidance to Students and Educators In addition to supporting teachers and students in crafting courses that are custom-made to their needs, AI will also provide input on the growth of the entire course. Schools use AI systems to track the progress of students and notify professors if there might be issues with student success, especially those with online offerings. 6. It Could Change the Teacher’s Position Teachers still have a role to play in education. However, what that role is and what it requires will change with intelligent computing systems, thanks to the modern technologies. As we have already discussed, AI can carry on activities such as helping students in graduation, and thereby, help students enhance their education and can also replace real world teaching. However, AI can also be used for a variety of other areas of education. In most cases, however, the function of the teacher becomes that of facilitator. Teachers complement AI classes, support students who battle and provide students with human contact and knowledge.

DEFINING ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE The mention of artificial intelligence brings to mind a supercomputer, a device with immense computing capabilities, including adaptive behaviour, such as sensor inclusion, and other capabilities that enable it to have cognition and functional capabilities that are human-like, and that actually enhance interaction with human beings on supercomputers. In short, Artificial intelligence is an artificially controlled robot’s capacity to perform tasks similar to human beings’ intellectual abilities, such as the capacity to think, discover meaning, and learn from past experiences. As defined by Nilsson Artificial intelligence is the operation that makes computers intelligent, and intelligence is the quality that allows an individual to work in its environment properly and with foresight. According to that description, many things are intelligent: people, animals, and some computers. (Nilsson, 2011) AI’s aim is to build technology that enables machines to function as smart agents. According to Kaplan and Haenlein, AI is the power of the system to identify and learn from external data correctly and to use learning to accomplish particular objectives and tasks. (Tuomi,2018) has defined three types of AI: data-based, logic-based and knowledge-based. According to him the data based AI refers to artificial neural networks. Here, formal logical operations were done by these artificially created neural networks. This further directed to the notion of the computer being and artificially created brain as the similarity between the two were exemplary. Neural AI systems require a lot of data and then develop basic behavioral models. The logical theorists believed that they created machines that could think as the newly invented machines worked logically and derived all inferences logically. The knowledge-based system started in its primitive form with “expert system” which was developed to perform all routine decision based on certain data. These decisions were all structured decisions. This knowledge-based system has today expanded and has become useful on unstructured and semi structured

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decisions. These unstructured decisions are taken by the top level of management of any organization. This capability of AI helping in unstructured decisions is also based on a lot of data that is accumulated. Current developments in the arena of AI have displayed that the gigantic reservoir of data has proved helpful in making AI more powerful in imitating the human brain and inducing such reactions in the environment. Activities like behavior of robots and simpler processes like object recognition and image processing. Also, the use of sensors and understanding its stimulus is based on technology and data availability and another advanced feature of technology is to convert certain environmental reactions into data that can be read and understood. Since high-profile comments have been made by some economists, philosophers, and scientists about the forthcoming advent of super-intelligent AI systems that will potentially replace humans in countless areas of human life, it may be helpful to notice that most recent AI learning models are cognitive abilities that most closely resemble biological instincts. Many assumptions about the future of AI were based on historical technological growth extrapolations. One of the main functions of the modern teaching system is that it develops skills that empower individuals to take part in the economic sphere of life. The history of educational systems is closely associated to the growth of industrial society, and in industrial societies and their everyday lives, wage labour is still a central organising principle. Hence, education is also understood as a means of jobs in high-level policy discussions. This leads education to be the motivator of economic growth and productivity. It is for this reason that AI should be perceived from the perspective of generating work and employment. To this, there are diverse views. Some people claim that technology especially AI, is taking away jobs. Yet others claim that it creating jobs for certain types of skills. This dilemma will appear to continue whenever some new technology comes into implementation as it leads to a kind of disruption. A broad perspective on social change is important when considering the social, economic and human effects of AI and its connection to educational policies. In the education sector, Artificial Intelligence has brought a revolution, transforming the way we learn. For students, it makes learning more personalised and easy. It helps to increase each individual learner’s amount of time spent. Artificial intelligence is expected to in the following ways, have a transformative effect on education. AI has the ability for both academic institutions and teachers and professors to simplify complicated administrative tasks. Teachers spend much of their time grading assignments, assessing essays, and providing meaning to student responses. Initially, AI in education took the form of computers and computer-related systems, and later took the form of a forum for web-based and online education. Embedded systems have made it possible to use robots to perform teacher-like or instructor-like tasks in the form of cobots or humanoid robots as teacher colleagues or autonomous teachers, as well as chatbots. Using these platforms and resources has aided or boosted the productivity and effectiveness of teachers, resulting in a deeper or better standard of instruction. Similarly, AI has provided students with enhanced learning opportunities since AI has made it possible to tailor and personalise learning materials to students’ needs and capabilities. In order to devote more time with one-on-one pupils, AI helps assess assessments. AI can automate the collection and ordering of paperwork. It is assumed that AI would offer more value than this. Developers of software are discovering ways of writing answers and essays. It would also reduce overhead cost and reduce the size of employees needed for a particular task. Robots can motivate and build digital content with their grammatical strength. AI’s new innovations are also interactive material, such as multimedia lectures and video conferences. Content digitalization 685

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has hit the classroom already. AI can help digitise textbooks or develop personalised interfaces for learning accessible to students of all ages and grades. When educational institutions implement AI, contact with teachers or professors becomes simpler. Your learning does so. Generally, students are unable to contact their tutors outside classroom hours or emails. Smart tutoring programmes, still use data from a single student or a group of students to specifically work with them and give them feedback. This AI application is still in its preliminary phase, however, technologists believe that it could act as a full-fledged digital professor and support students without any hassle with their educational needs. AI will help us grow fresh ideas and abilities to solve problems. Technologists believe that the original classroom lecturer will no longer be a human being and will be substituted by a robot in the coming years. Augmented reality will also be part of the classroom as well. Via gesture recognition technology, virtual human guides already respond to humans. Education both at basic and higher level leverages the economic growth of any country. Education has the strength to make any human being a resourceful citizen who can partake in the economic growth of any country. This aspect has to be comprehended in the correct context that it is this potential development of individuals what is being targeted. The best of results will only be achievable if the distinction and quality become a part of basic framework of education so be able to utilize the resources optimally. Education also empowers people to be able to respond to any adverse situation arising in their life. It is a catalyst for a country to change age old detrimental social values which are hindrance to development and gives a platform for people to think logically. The higher education system of India is a large one with nearly 1000 Universities, 40,000 colleges and over 10,000 standalone colleges. The enrolment in these institutions has been gradually developing over the years. But for the education system to deliver in a most effective approach, the restrictions and constraints that are being faced are to be overcome with some really innovative processes and techniques. The education system faces enormous challenges. One of the principal challenges is that of capitals. The percentage of share of public spending is dismally low. Also various distinctions between the quality offered by central, state funded institutions and private institutions. There are several of so called elite institutions which have made a name for themselves. The admissions into these always elude many because of the restricted seats. Another way of looking at this is the best of education is unavailable to all those wanting to do so. On the other side reports by many an organizations say that majority of graduates from Indian Universities are not employable. This indeed is a dichotomy. On one side we have some of the paramount Universities and colleges and on the other the poor findings on employability of Indian graduates. Some other shortcomings also include shortage of quality teachers and lack of good infrastructure. This places unnecessary burden on the registered faculty members who have to dilute their teaching quality. Their useful time otherwise would have been very gainfully employed in doing qualitative research and improving other processes related to the teaching . Another important aspect is of talent being drained out of the country in pursuit of better opportunities elsewhere where both recognition and financial rewards are too good a lure for somebody to refuse. The entire investment of the state in shaping up this talent goes waste. In any part of the world, brain drain is the movement of qualified human capital for trade, education, etc. In developed countries, however, improved living standards and quality of life, higher incomes, access to new technologies, and more secure political environments draw talent from less developed areas. Most migration is from developing countries to developed ones. This is of rising concern worldwide.

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Over the past many decades, the implementation and acceptance of new learning and teaching technologies has rapidly grown. Looking through the present prism, it is easy to ignore the disagreements storming in the institutions about enabling students to use what is perceived to be rudimentary technology. Technologies originally intended to support people with disabilities, such as spell checkers, text-to-speech, zoom facility, predictive text, speech-to-text and search engines, are now being used on regular basis. The use of these techno-logical solutions was later extended, and now we see them in allpersonal computers, mobile devices or wearable devices as generic features. To further improve the quality, a number of measures like accreditation and ranking system have remained instituted to allow the institutions to plan their roadmap for the forthcoming years. The National Assessment and Accreditation Council and National Institutional Ranking Framework are two such proposals by the University Grants Council of India. Other initiatives like Internationalization of Higher Education by permitting Foreign Educational Institutions to set up their bases in the country will also go a long way in improving quality. One of the most challenging aspect in a democratic set up is ensuring greater equity. To put is simple terms quality education should not be denied to talented and deserving students. AI is largely distinguished by its capacity to accelerate, exaggerate, and intensify the problems surrounding it – for good and bad alike. Although consideration of AI has penetrated both the public consciousness and government agendas in other sectors – from guns to healthcare – AI in education lags far behind. There are resources for learners, such as adaptive learning platforms that ‘personalize’ content based on the strengths and limitations of a student. There are teacher-facing resources, such as those that automate marking and administration (one government-backed pilot in China saw children getting their homework marked with a computer in around 60,000 schools). Those are all welcome inventions. What is required urgently is the need for new policies to resolve the growing stresses on our education system – from disproportionate teacher workload to deficiency of social mobility – and many of the resources outlined in this chapter have the potential to change our school system dramatically. For learners, all this is virtuous news, as AI can be a great helper for a teacher. Some educators, however, fear the advancement of AI and that it could fully eliminate the function of the coach. The roles of teachers are not in danger of being replaced by robots-while literacy or maths can be taught by artificial intelligence systems, the more nuanced impartation of social and emotional skills will still remain in the human domain. Nevertheless, meaningful progress does not happen without a concerted effort, and there is a vast break between the vision of future success and the reality, which exists. There is still a significant confusion surrounding AI ‘s role in the future of education, however waiting for this to clear will be destructive. A lot can be done by using AI to shape the future positively. Governments have to support much of the actions. Political support and public funding is very important in implementing technology at such a large scale. The realistic application of technology and its use by teachers must be given priority, as they can eventually choose how to use AI software. AI does not mean the ‘rise of robots’ in classrooms to make teachers unneeded. Instead, we need to plan for the teacher’s role will be amplified and developed in collaboration with the skills.(Costin, 2017)

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Figure 1. What AI can do in Educational Learning

RELATED LITERATURE AND PREVIOUS STUDIES AI as a Learning Tool It has been said that five issues that would support: (1) mentors for each learner; (2) twenty-first - century learning skills; (3) learning-enhancing engagement data; (4) widespread access to global classrooms; and (5) lifetime learning. It describes instructional systems with AI technology that currently support richer learner understandings and provide new opportunities for researchers to examine immense data sets of instructional activity from broad databases, containing fundamentals of learning, consequences, motivation, and public interaction.(Woolf, Lane, Chaudhri, & Kolodner, 2013) Personalized learning is represented using quantitative resources that improve student and community experience, represent and evaluate, and provide data for the creation of new theory. A difference in the attribute of the interaction between student and teacher was seen by Garito(Garito, 1991) way back before the new age technologies came in in a big way. Garito termed it a ‘historical’ development. These developments can be seen more clearly today. One of the disruptive techniques for customising the experience of multiple learning classes, students, and tutors is Artificial Intelligence.(Lisa Plitnichenko, 2020) According to Plitnichenko this is how methods for artificial intelligence can be used to optimise research processes. Firstly, through Personalised education: creating a customised study schedule for each learner based on their knowledge gap. This way, AI customises studies according to the individual needs of the student, increasing their effectiveness. Secondly produce Smart content: This may include digital lessons based on digital texts made with the help of AI. Visualization techniques and simulations with the support of AI can also be used. Third is the simplification of tasks with the support of AI. Like, grading, interacting and assessing through AI. Fourthly, outside of the classroom, personal tutoring and counseling for students help students keep up with the course and keep their parents from failing to explain algebra to their children. For teachers, AI

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 Role of Technology in Using Artificial Intelligence to Improve Educational Learning Challenges

tutors are excellent time savers, since they do not need to waste extra time explaining tough subjects to students. Fifthly, and the most important, For students with learning disabilities, AI technology opens up new ways to communicate. AI offers students with special needs access to education: deaf and hard of hearing, visually disabled people with dyslexia etc. The above insights given by Plitnichenko encompass almost all areas that AI can contribute in the vast area of education.

AI for Instructors The instructive effects of new technologies on how scholars study, teaching and changing institutions has been explored. Recent technical developments and the growing pace of higher education adoption of emerging technology are being explored to anticipate the future essence of higher education in a planet in which artificial intelligence being part of the structure of our universities. When implementing these innovations for teaching, studying, student support, and administration, we recognize some obstacles for higher education institutions and student learning, and explore further avenues for study.(Popenici & Kerr, 2017) The area of instruction and education in higher education poses a very diverse set of challenges, as AI solutions have the capability to structurally alter university administrative services. Artificial intelligence solutions are linked to assignments that can be automated, but can not still be used as a solution to more complex higher education tasks. There is a new buzz regarding AI possibilities in education, but there are reasons to remain focused of the actual boundaries of AI algorithmic solutions in complex higher education learning efforts. (Popenici & Kerr, 2017) It has been told that learning analytics, counseling, guiding learners and also improving quality of course material can be enhanced through using AI.(Bhari & Jetawat, 2017). They went further to say that in India there is a deficiency of quality teachers and AI could help improve it.

AI Enhanced Applications Since the early 1980s, and until recently, AI educational applications have been available. Centered primarily on the knowledge-based approach. The most influential research line Smart Intelligent tutoring systems were involved, or ITS. These structures use a smart tutoring system architecture focused on awareness. The knowledge-based method, now widely known as “gofai”, has historically been used for these systems (good-old-fashioned-AI). They were active mostly in relatively small and unambiguous areas such as mathematics and physics. Intelligent tutoring environments have also become an important source of data for learning study, as student activity and learning can also be tracked in ITS environments in great detail.(Tuomi, 2018). Artificial intelligence (AI) is arguably the technological driving force of the major half of this century, which will change almost every sector, if not all human endeavors. Globally, companies and governments are pouring massive amounts of money into a very large variety of implementations, and billions of dollars are being financed by thousands of start-ups. It would be simple to conclude that AI would not have an effect on education. On the contrary, there are profound possibilities yet and may be overhyped as well.(Wayne Holmes, Maya Bialik, 2019) Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIEd) is some of the newly evolving areas of educational technology according to numerous international reports. Although it’s been around for around 30 years,

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educators still don’t know how to take benefit of it on a wider scale and how it can have a noteworthy impact on higher education and learning.(Zawacki-Richter, Marín, Bond, & Gouverneur, 2019) Ai has let to a great change in teaching activities in Mexico and that has led to job satisfaction amongst teachers in higher education (Olaskoaga-Larrauri, Rodríguez-Armenta, & Marúm-Espinosa, 2020) Academia incorporates and uses IA for management, studying, tutoring, training and appraisal around the world. Innovative learning methods have totally revolutionized worldwide school programmes with the implementation of the amalgamating technologies. The large area of growth has been taken into account, too, by China in its education sector after the medical and automotive industries. As one of the most important developed countries, India leads the pattern and also takes advantage of advanced technologies and AIs in the education sector. Both foundations in the curriculum, management and learning framework take advantage of AI ‘s development at a rapid rate. AI simplifies administrative activities, regardless of whether the process of entry or internal management are relevant. Not just that, AI also allows teachers and coaches to review, review and monitor the success of students by reviewing their assessments and activities, correcting answers and instructions and personalising their personal learning experience. In order to achieve its full potential, the Indian education system evolves at a slow speed and needs more study. It is usually said that by introducing AI as a methodology for promoting educational evidence-based activities, the link between AIEd and Education can be improved. AI provides educational professionals with unique resources to generate proof of their activities that the larger educational community can inspect and replicate. AI information elicitation and representation methods can enable practitioners to participate in computer design thinking, and this can generate freedom for practitioners to identify, build and inspect their real-world practises at a low level of representational detail.(Porayska-Pomsta, 2015) Currently in AIEd, research and development takes place in small and desirable pockets, often by researchers with and without limited funding. The effect being that many of the apps never step past the prototype stage, at which point most of the learnt material is lost.(Luckin, Holmes, Griffiths, Griffiths, & B., 2016) The use of artificial intelligence in education varies by state and country. For example, in South America, the report found that artificial intelligence technology is often used in the learning of the English language, as students and adult learners communicate with chatbots to practise and improve their language skills. Nevertheless, AI technology implementations to mainstream K-12 curricula are “fairly small around the world,” (Davis, 2019) (Goksel & Bozkurt, 2019)Goksel & Bozkurt in their study concluded that adaptive learning, personalization and learning styles, expert systems and smart tutoring systems, and AI as a potential component of educational processes are the main themes in AI study. To make human lives more comfortable and lead to the development of human growth, AI and other featured AI technologies exist. However, it would be a mistake to think that technology adaptation is good by default; rather, before completely incorporating AI into educational processes, one needs to look at it critically. Karsenti questioned whether there was a need to train teachers to work with AI. He opined if teachers are trained in the use of AI, it would help avoid abuses of technology. Importantly, the effort of the teacher remains most significant for AI to make a real contribution to academic achievement, and for all students. Since intelligent robots will change the workplaces of tomorrow, it is important that students should start planning for the new reality. In all of this, technology players must not be allowed to have the supreme say.(Karsenti, 2019) According to him AI is a tool of immense potential, and one that we have

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to learn to make best use of. Finding the right equilibrium between the time-honored teaching traditions that have been handed down for centuries and the modern possibilities offered by AI is a major challenge. The Indian context as studied by Gurumurthy, says that AI has made learner centered learning. It is important to postulate an encouraging policy framework so that instructors are encouraged to consider the different choices available for content and pedagogy and determine what to use and how. Furthermore, AI would become another force that would prevent teachers from adopting AI’s preferred material and pedagogical decisions in their practise.(Kasinathan, 2019) There is a consensus in education and learning that the effect of AI has a benefit-risk duality. Policy makers would need to analyse the possible benefits and drawbacks of AI in order to rethink education systems in the AI era. It has been said by Hilty and Mader that AI can promote personalization and efficiency in both the fields od teaching and learning.(Mader & Hilty, 2018). To further elaborate, for teachers to focus more on students with difficulties, AI may help build a healthier professional atmosphere. Teachers spend plenty of time on repetitive and administrative activities such as assignments and answering commonly asked questions in school environments over and over again. A dual teacher model involving a teacher and a virtual teaching assistant, who can take over the repetitive role of the teacher, frees up the time of teachers, allowing them to concentrate on student guidance. Computer assisted learning is the solution for this. Online asynchronous discussion groups play a central role with regard to computer-supported collaborative learning. AI systems are used to track asynchronous discussion groups based on AI techniques such as machine learning and shallow text processing, thereby providing teachers with information on the discussions of learners and support for guiding the interaction and learning of learners. AI is not only used for the grading of multiple choice assessments, but also for other performance appraisal forms. Intelligent tutoring programmes paired with a speech recognition AI system are used by language learning systems, such as the Duolingo app, to fulfil the individual needs of learners as they learn the language. As required, pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar are practised. Dialogues in the language to be learned may be performed between the app and the learners. (Ayoub, 2020)Ayoub in his study said that the possibilities for AI to support education are so broad that Microsoft recently commissioned IDC research on this subject to understand where the company can benefit. The results reflect the strategic nature of AI in education and demonstrate the need to make AI’s commitment a reality for technologies and skills. While the vast majority of leaders recognise the need for an AI strategy, the finding shows that they may lack guidance about how to execute one. It is also important to have access to experts who can handle technology and put the right systems in place as an AI initiative progressively expands and becomes more sophisticated. Institutions need instruments, technology, and expertise to gain a foothold in AI. To save teachers time with things such as grading papers, collaborative intelligence resources will be available so that teachers and TAs can spend more time with students. AI will use behavioural signs to help recognise struggling students and give them a push in the right direction. For organisations that accept it, AI has the potential to become a great equaliser in education and a crucial differentiator. Schools that accept AI in clever ways will demonstrate greater student success and inspire their learners to join tomorrow’s workforce.

CHALLENGES AND RISKS ASSOCIATED USING AI IN EDUCATION (Aldosari, 2020) Conducted a qualitative research and analyzed that there existed less awareness about applying AI in Saudi in the area of education. By this he concluded that advantages and disadvantages of

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AI in the academic method has to be conveyed to them. The introduction of the New age technology has brought up a lot of challenges and requires drastic changes in the working of a university. The formats that are focused on artificial intelligence promise a very significant improvement of education with an unparalleled qualitative standard for all the different levels of enhancement. Basically, to give students an effective personalization of their learning according to their teaching and also managing to incorporate the various ways of human interaction and to satisfy their demands of technologies (Ocaña-Fernández, Valenzuela-Fernández, & Garro-Aburto, 2019). The biggest challenge for the university of the new era lies in the urgent need for digital talents to be prepared, built, developed and applied in order to train better practitioners and to be able to understand and improve the technical environment according to their needs and to introduce universalization. This drastic change has to be done immediately to keep pace with the changing environment. While many instructors are unaware of its nature and, above all, of what it consists of, this technology is already being applied in the higher education sector. It was witnessed that the subject is of worldwide importance and that the works on this topic is still at an incipient level. It is said that while artificial intelligence is a reality, there has been no consolidation of the science output regarding its implementation in higher education.(Hinojo-Lucena, Aznar-Díaz, Cáceres-Reche, & Romero-Rodríguez, 2019) The amazing growth in the internet and computer penetration have given rise to the first major reform in the Indian education system, and now is the time to re-integrate AI in the Indian system. Moreover, it is important for AI to strengthen and develop the young person’s skills in line with existing demands on the markets in the higher education sector and in graduate courses. Professional education, cloud computing, IA, algorithms for computers and robotics are some of the key areas of study to be overhauled as quickly as possible. The original aim of AI may be defined as “developing techniques that simulate human comprehension.” AI currently has the task of delivering a wide variety of applications for the automation of learning design at multi levels in education. Scholar research on artificial intelligence in education have been performed in various areas, such as intelligent teaching systems, large open online courses and an immersive learning environment, with the goal of influencing student education experts. The study reveals that AI is the foundation of any intellectual tutoring programmes that are capable of natural language processing (NLP) and that this helps to improve skills such as self-reflection, address deep questions, solve disagreement problems, generate imaginative questions and make choices. However, we witness an introduction of educational assistance for pédagogical agent (talk agent) allowing learners to use a wide variety of content in the best way possible. Much of the development achieved in AIED to date is linked to each other such as personalising learning environments and pedagogical frameworks in the MOOC focused on the learner paradigm and the paths in education. In addition, Intelligent Tutoring Programs (ITS) experiments offer outstanding examples of how AI strategies facilitate the production of customised instructional learning environments. As discussed earlier, AI lives on data. AI has recently been instrumental in developing new strategies for teaching and learning that are now being explored in various contexts. The advantage of every AI application is that if there is more reliable information available, it becomes more accurate. Significant quantities of data are used by every AI programme, and then knowledge is built on it. AI and Machine Learning has been two areas that have evolved and have influenced the education field. In India the challenges of applying these technology in education are unique and cannot be compared to other nation. The biggest challenge is that of reliable data. Government as such has been trying to get data from all educational fields . However, there is still a big gap between the actual data 692

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and the collected data. The reason for this could be the lack of updation of previous data. The second challenge is that, being a vast country, many educational institutions have not maintained previous data as technologies like ERP has still not been implemented. In India, the digital divide is a great challenge in implementing AI and other tools in the educational Institutions. On one end we have top class Institutes with latest infrastructure in the world, on the other hand there are colleges with minimum infrastructure. For successful implementation of AI in education, policy reforms have to be developed, and teacher preparation at all levels across the country’s length and breadth must be made mandatory. Even if the government comes up with a policy measure to train teachers, teachers must make efforts to plan, understand and comprehend the latest technical possibilities that can help education through digital and AI-powered instruments. In making this happen, MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) can be of great help. In the wider sense of the mission and purpose of education in society, the threats and challenges associated with the use of AI in education must be seen. The challenges to the use of AI in education in India pose many barriers to the successful and useful implementation of AI for All’-the most prominent being the lack of basic infrastructure and low levels of digital literacy. Likewise, the risks associated with the use of AI cover a number of legal and social conundrums, such as privacy breaches, the accumulation of information and control in the hands of technology firms, as well as the job mobility and digital labour effect.(Chamuah & Ghildiyal, 2020) Several AI applications provide students with career consulting and mentorship and match students with potential skills and work. These run the risk of framing education priorities entirely through market or product-driven reasoning, requiring particular skills or profiles and discarding others. In India, the new Personal Data Protection (PDP) bill has many consequences for the protection of data collected by schools and other educational institutions, suggesting that several of the current data practices of schools and other educational institutions Schools will have to undergo modifications, such as enrollment, assessments and day-to-day school running, as schools collect many layers of student data, from personal information such as names and health data to academic achievement records. In addition to concerns about the use of child data, there is also anxiety about the increasing importance and centrality of data for various education-related processes and practises and their effects. Data is used to track the activities of students, evaluate teachers, assign career paths and provide loans to access education. The role of technology has long been a contentious concern in the classroom, sparking arguments about how much time young children need to screen, or how much technology impacts cognitive growth of children. Now that one of the world’s most groundbreaking artificial intelligence (AI) innovations has arisen, the conversation is just as vibrant. AI has now been a trustworthy assistant in the classroom, beginning with graduation and other logistical duties from teaching boards to supplying students with customised schooling. But without the threats there’s no such degree of complexity. The award-winning scholar, Joe Fatheree, says “we need to go ahead, but carefully,” pointing to dangers such as stress, possible damage to the human ego, privacy concerns and other ethical consequences. Sir Anthony Seldon, co-founder of the Center of Ethical AI Education, in an EdTech podcast on AI in education, calls for protections to be placed in place that mitigate the “evil side of AI.” Continuing measures such as the introduction of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the European Commission’s Trust-

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worthy AI Guidance have already discussed issues of transparency, integrity and stability. However, people need at least a simple awareness of this technology to communicate with AI “critically and efficiently.” Organisations concentrate not only on improving expertise for people (DigComp), but also for teachers (DigCompEdu) who have to be able to use AI in a meaningful manner. Moreover, concrete criteria, legal standards and strategies directed at teaching must be established and teachers must participate. However, AI exists here and a balance must be reached between its economic consequences and its tremendous educative capacity. The danger and uncertity surrounding AI should be overlooked. Of all the areas of life in which artificial intelligence would have an impact, education may well be the largest. This is because it is so important to understand, and also because current provision also leaves much to be desired. They are under-valued in most countries and burdened by ludicrous paperwork. They are human as well which implies they are variable. Think back to your own school days: how many of your teachers were positively inspirational? As many as 10% of them? How many would have been unacceptable? That probably leaves somewhere between OK and mediocre, a big majority. One of the tragedies of modern education is that it is uncommon for teachers to give or obtain positive input.(Chace Calum, 2020) This is not the responsibility of teachers in general. In today’s education system, they are an active ingredient, but they are costly and not scalable. I have entered our daily lives and any potential result of its use should be investigated. If it is also used in our education systems, particularly for children, it would be reasonable to ask whether these technologies can “deviate” and whether this could impact students’ mental and behavioural growth. The anticipation is that researchers will explore AIEd studies and the potential impacts on pupils that use them, may have, deviating or not.(Zanetti, Iseppi, & Cassese, 2019) It is possible to recreate various types of environments with intelligent virtual reality by applying AI to replicate certain elements of the real world and let people immerse themselves in it. This is one where you can communicate in unique ways with the elements. In the research or in-depth review of several topics, this may be beneficial. Another interesting application is to mimic daily scenarios to guide the learner to understand various ways of behaving. In contemporary AI science, critical voices have been raised against over-optimism. Less has been written about AIED’s high standards and their possible effect on education. In contemporary AI science, critical voices have been raised against over-optimism. Less has been written about AIED’s high standards and their possible effect on education. In modern AIED, there are both promises and challenges to the instructor. The field continues to be in a state of hype in some ways, but there is a potential for maturing like other hype regions and with particular applications in everyday teaching and learning activities. The scenario that looks promising is one where teachers have more time for things that are best done by humans, assisted by AIED systems that take care of the tasks that are best performed by machines. Contemporary AIED undoubtedly seems like a hype, but as depicted in the hype curve of a Gartner, an initial overenthusiasm, followed by disappointment, always leads to an eventual understanding of the importance and role of a technology in the particular domain.(Humble & Mozelius, 2019) To exploit machine-learning capabilities for education as the AI field moves forward, product developers and publishers will need to address important challenges and concerns, including gaining access to the appropriate training data sets, navigating and complying with data privacy regulations, protecting against algorithmic bias, and enhancing model transparency to increase the users’ faith and confidence. (Murphy, 2019)

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When the person or group members retire or are no longer available to the company, AI applications may provide permanency that prevents the information from being lost. As long as the importance of the issues and decision scenarios stays unchanged, the life of the information encapsulated in an AI system could be as long. AI also allows the creation of a learning potential that can be used to extend the application’s existence and usefulness further.(Chowdhury & Sadek, 2012)

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF ROLE OF AI IN EDUCATIONAL LEARNING Figure 2. Conceptual Framework

AI may have both a positive and a negative effect on teaching in formal education. As AI is now high on the policy agenda, it might seem that in as many educational settings as possible, AI should be implemented. When a modern, promising technology arises, and when technology’s limitations and the complexities of implementing it are often not fully understood, technology can appear to open up completely new possibilities to solve old problems.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The AIED has the potential to educate and understand from the perspective of individual education and the implementation of adaptive language education. Past studies have, however, shown that quality

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education is a dynamic and innovative career, requiring innovation and naturalness where individuals are not so easily substitutes as in other sectors. It shows effective teaching and needs a constant degree of innovation, versatility, improvisation and spontaneity with regard to the regular non academic issues and problems in the classroom, which are well-known for their lack of even the most sophisticated AI programmes. However, the connection between artificial intelligence technology and education is one of the key aspects of this analysis in order to deepen our understanding of how the change towards interactive and participatory workflow processes would influence the relation structure. In this review the body of information is extended by contributing to studies on the interdisciplinary perspective on artificial intelligence in education, by showing the connexion between artificial intelligence and education. The objectives of the study are as follows: 1. Measure the performance and cooperation of the implementation of artificial intelligence technology between the learners relative to the conventional learning model. 2. Exploring how teachers could enhance their performance in teaching through artificial intelligence. The table below shows the factors that were taken based on the conceptual framework depicted earlier. Each factor has been describes with the variables that help in measuring the same Table 1. Constructs/Factors and its items under study CONSTRUCTS

DESCRIPTION OF PERCEPTION

Measures

Learning Environment

The degree to which an individual believes that using AI will help him or her to learn better

LE1 ---Perceived usefulness LE2 ----perceived effectiveness LE3---- meeting needs LE4---- motivates you

Teaching Strategies

The degree of ease associated with teaching and its effectiveness

TS1----- easy to use TS2--- less time to learn this technology TS3---- does not require technical expertise

Content Generation and Evaluation

The degree to which using AI helps the teacher to develop content and evaluate the student

CG1----large database of material CG2---easily accessible and modifiable CG3---Built-in feature of evaluating students CG4—Better assessing tools

Personalized user experience

The degree to which AI helps the teacher and student get a personal touch

P1--technology easily customizable P2—Technology easily operable. P3---interactive

Language behaviour

The degree to which the language of communication can be used

L1---availability of a number of languages L2---Easy translation where needed

Instruction Material

Refer to documents provided to teachers for their classes

IM1---comprehensive database available IM2--- assistance when problems occur IM3---In format available for sharing with students IM4---easily editable

Each of the above factors, also referred to as constructs has been measured by each item mentioned in the corresponding ‘measures’ column. The short form of the items has been mentioned also. The survey had one question per item and then data was compiled using SPSS and further analysis was done on it.

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THE PROPOSED STUDY From the literature review related to this research, the researchers created a conceptual framework of the research as shown in Figure 2 and the researcher determined 5 hypotheses for statistical testing (H1-H5). H1: learning environment has improved with AI H2: Teaching strategies have improved using AI H3: Content generation and evaluation has become easier with AI H4: There is a personalized user experience due to AI H5: Instruction materials more comprehensive than earlier

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS In order to carry out a comprehensive analysis on the actions of the target group the study will follow a qualitative approach, semi formal face-to - face interview and questionnaire.

Study of Population and Analysis Directors, lecturers and students from knowledge and learning centres in India. About 567 responses were received from total target of 1000

Research Tool Data from primary and secondary sources. Primary data will be obtained by Semi-structure interviews, while secondary data is primarily from journals, conference papers on artificial education intelligence (AIEd) and other well-known articles and tools including Elsevier, the essence of Springer, UNESCO artificial education sectors for research.

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION Hypothesis Testing A regression analysis of all factors were done to prove the necessary hypothesis. H1: learning environment has improved with AI

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Table 2. Coefficients of LE & AI(Learning Environment & AI) Dependent Variable: LE Unstandardized Coefficients

Model

B 1

Standardized Coefficients

Std. Error

(Constant)

1.347

.082

AI

.699

.020

t

Sig.

Beta .864

16.219

.000

33.796

.000

The regression equation can be presented as Learning environment= 1.347 +.699* AI u. This indicates there is a strong positive relation between AI and Learning environment and further paves the path to accept that Learning Environment is significantly influenced by AI. It also means that change in the learning environment is effected 70% with the implementation or enhancement of AI. H2: Teaching strategies have improved using AI Table 3. Coefficients of TS &AI (Teaching Strategies & AI) Dependent Variable: TS

B 1

Standardized Coefficients

Unstandardized Coefficients

Model

Std. Error

(Constant)

3.43

.150

AI

.043

.042

t

Sig.

Beta .053

22.962

.000

1.048

.295

The above table shows that the regression equation can be presented as Teaching Strategy= 3.443 +.043*AI. This indicates there is a positive relation between Teaching Strategy and AI and further paves the path to accept that AI significantly influences Teaching Strategy . It further indicates that teaching strategy changes 0.043 time the enhancement of AI H3: Content generation and evaluation has become easier with AI Table 4. Coefficient of CG & AI (Content Generation & AI) Dependent Variable: CG Unstandardized Coefficients

Model

B 1

Standardized Coefficients

Std. Error

(Constant)

3.66

.127

AI

.091

.035

t

Sig.

Beta .139

28.829

.000

2.765

.006

The above table shows that the regression equation can be presented as Content Generation and evaluation = 3.66 +.091* AI. This indicates there is a positive relation between Content Generation

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and Evaluation and AI and further paves the path to accept the hypothesis. This shows there is 0.091% change in content generation and evaluation with every unit change in AI H4: There is a personalized user experience due to AI Table 5. Coefficient of P & AI (Personalized user experience and AI) Dependent Variable: P

B 1

Standardized Coefficients

Unstandardized Coefficients

Model

Std. Error

(Constant)

3.069

.182

AI

.05

.048

t

Sig.

Beta .051

22.396

.000

1.013

.311

The above table shows that the regression equation can be presented as personalized user experience = 3.069 +.05* AI. This indicates there is a positive relation between AI and personalized user experience and further paves the path to accept that AI significantly influences personalized user experience. This shows there 0.05% change in personalized user experience with every unit of change in AI

Table 6. Coefficient of IM & AI (Instruction Materials & AI) Dependent Variable:IM

B 1

Standardized Coefficients

Unstandardized Coefficients

Model

Std. Error

(Constant)

4.01

.198

AI

.06

.048

t

Sig.

Beta .053

19.203

.000

1.06

.289

H5: Instruction materials more comprehensive than earlier

Table 7. Overview Of The Hypothesis HYPOTHESIS NO.

HYPOTHESIS

SUPPORTED/NOT SUPPORTED

1

H1: learning environment has improved with AI

Supported

2

H2: Teaching strategies have improved using AI

Supported

3

H3: Content generation and evaluation has become easier with AI

Supported

4

H4: There is a personalized user experience due to AI

Supported

5

H5: Instruction materials more comprehensive than earlier

Supported

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The above table shows that the regression equation can be presented as Instruction materials = 4.01 +.06* AI. This indicates there is a positive relation between AI and Instruction materials and further paves the path to accept that AI positively influences Instruction materials. This shows a 0.06% change in Instruction material with every unit change in AI.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH As per analysis, the hypotheses are supported as shown in the following table As per the objectives, it has been concluded that the role of teachers has to change to that of facilitator and learner because AI is going to replace many tasks of teachers, however, without the teachers’ input that role of AI would be redundant. Secondly, teachers have to accept that AI is going to help them in the process of teaching rather than assume it to be a threat on their jobs. The first objective of Artificial Intelligence being able to automate simple educational tasks, such as grading has been proved by Hypothesis 3 as well as by the literature that has been reviewed in this chapter. (Mader & Hilty, 2018) The second point of technology being tailored to student requirements was addressed in hypothesis 1 which stated that learning environment has improved due to artificial intelligence. The third point of locations being suggested to develop courses has been discussed in the literature (Lisa Plitnichenko, 2020) The fourth point of students being assisted by AI tutors is supported in the hypothesis 2 as well as in literature. (Tuomi, 2018). The discussion of AI led projects offering valuable guidance to teachers as well as students has been discussed in all the hypothesis to a great length. The last point of changing a teacher’s position has been greatly discussed in the literature as well as hypothesis 1 and hypothesis 2. It should be kept in mind that education is eminently a human-centered activity, not a solution centred on technology. The idea that we can rely solely on technology is a risky road, despite rapid advances in AI, and it is important to keep concentrating on the idea that people can recognise problems, criticise, identify threats, and ask important questions that can start with issues such as privacy and security as well as creativity which is an intrinsic human quality. The field of teaching and learning in higher education poses a very different set of challenges, as AI solutions have the ability to structurally alter university administrative services. Artificial intelligence solutions are linked to tasks that can be automated, but can not yet be used as a solution to more complicated higher education tasks. The difficulty of processors to detect irony, sarcasm and ridicule is defined by different attempts that are reduced to shallow solutions based on algorithms that can look for factors such as the repeated use of punctuation marks, the use of capital letters or key phrases. In higher education, the function of technology is to enhance human thought and to increase the educational process and not to reduce it to a set of content distribution, control, and evaluation procedures. With increase in AI solutions, staying alert and seeing that technology does not monopolise education process and this has to be tackled by educational institutions. Students can start to work alongside AI. As most children are familiar with digital technologies by the time they are of school age, it is important to teach them the skills they will need to succeed in a

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digital workplace. Adding AI to education, and the future workforce will be better prepared to meet the uncertain challenges of tomorrow’s workplace. AI-based methods have shown promise in special needs education for example in the early detection of dyslexia.66 A well-published example is the Swedish company “Lexplore,” which has built a device that searches for at-risk students easily and detects dyslexia by monitoring eye movements of the reader. The technology uses data-based pattern recognition, and the business is now spreading to the US and UK, providing broad scanning for schools and school districts. AI-based programmes for the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder were also successfully developed (ADHD). Child-robot interaction, in particular, seems to allow new types of diagnosis. For further research, the same study can be done in semi-urban and rural areas. Also effect of income can be studied.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS AI: Artificial intelligence. AIED: Artificial intelligence in education. Educators: Teachers. Intelligent Automation: Altering the ways humans and machines interact. MOOC: Massive open online courses. New Age Technology: Current technology. Online Courses: Courses offered through a virtual mode. Robots: A machine, especially one programmable by a computer, capable of carrying out a complex series of actions automatically.

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About the Contributors

Gianni Panconesi graduated in Pedagogy. He holds a Master in “Methods and Technologies for e-Learning” and one on “Profile and Functions of the Consultant for School Improvement”, then he attended further Qualification Courses like: “Digital Didactics”, “IBSE approach in science education”, “Mobile devices in the classroom”, “Coding in your classroom” and “Learning how to learn and teach in Cyberspace”. He knows and uses the Virtual Worlds since 2007, owning a place in SecondLife and Opensim where hosts several training courses on scripting and on using software like Blender and Photoshop, supporting those who want to better know the Virtual Reality to understand its possible use in teaching and learning. He edited the publication “Handbook of Research on Collaborative Teaching Practice in Virtual Learning Environments” (IGI Global, 2017). He is co-founder of the Association “Esplica - non profit”, cultural and scientific divulgation Laboratory in the Digital Age, addressed to young people at the school and to adults in developing their LifeLongLearning. He has experience as a teacher in high school, has been a teacher in TFA university courses for the qualification of new teachers for italian schools and has led courses for teachers of various school for the knowledge of Virtual Worlds. He holds a qualification as TPP (Professional Communication Technician), is a journalist enrolled in the Journalists’ Order and deals with Media Literacy in a pedagogical-didactic perspective. Maria Guida is a researcher at INDIRE, a public research institute whose main mission is to sustain the evolution of the Italian educational system through technology-enhanced teachers training, system actions for improvement and innovation. At INDIRE Maria has had an active role in teacher training National Programs (i. e. the mandatory training programs for Newly Qualified Teachers). She collaborated with the University of Florence too, as a tutor for Mathematics and Physics postgraduate students in the TFA, the specialization course for soon-to-be teachers. She has been working for years (2007 onward) in the research “Immersive Education”, which investigates 3D virtual environments and their educational potential. At European level she is involved in STEM education with a focus on the active and studentcentered learning, which she has driven for years her research to, because she could identify it, through studies and experiences, as an element of strong contrast to the dropout phenomenon. *** Lucia Bartolotti, a teacher of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in upper secondary schools for almost 30 years, is also a teacher trainer and the administrator of the Google Suite platform in her Institution. Being also an Edmodo Certified Trainer, during the first phase of the COVID-19 pandemic



About the Contributors

(March to June 2020) she also voluntarily provided nationwide support and assistance to the schools that were using the Edmodo Learning Management System in order to reach their pupils. Annalisa Boniello PhD Doctor in Earth Science, Doctor in Natural Science, Professor in Science, Director of Middle School Vanessa Camilleri’s lectures at the Faculty of ICT. Her work is in the area of human-computer interaction, virtual reality applications, and serious games. Before she joined the Faculty of ICT she lectured at the Faculty of Education, where she was teaching Computing in Education, as well as Educational Technologies (including open education, and eLearning) for a number of years. These experiences have contributed to Dr Camilleri’s strong beliefs in inter-Faculty collaboration. She is also a great believer in quality Education that is a key factor for success in today’s world, and that is further enhanced by the digital possibilities and technology applications that are driving much of what makes up our society. Her publications are mostly in the areas of autonomous learning projects and possibilities and her current research interests are in the field of Virtual Worlds for Education and Serious Applications. She is also involved in 2 funded projects that deal with the the use of games for learning. Together with teaching, research constitutes a very important component in Dr. Camilleri’s academic career. However this doesn’t deter from where possible contributing to the Faculty’s other administration duties such participation in sub-committees. Alessandro Ciasullo, Ph.D., https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6271-2554, Researcher of Education at University of Naples Federico II, Department of Humanities, and member of the B.E.S. Bio Educational Sciences Research Group that promotes the diffusion of bioeducational sciences in pedagogical research. He teaches Education at courses for Pre-service Teachers PF24. Editorial coordinator for BEC Brain Education Cognition section of RTH Research Trends in Humanities international open access journal, he has published several national and international articles concerning bioeducational sciences, music learning, special needs environments design, emotions in education, and spatial education. URL: https:// www.docenti.unina.it/alessandro.ciasullo. Letizia Cinganotto is a full time Researcher at INDIRE (National Institute for Documentation, Innovation and Educational Research), Italy. She holds a PhD in Synchronic, Diachronic and Applied Linguistics. She has far-reaching experience in continuous professional development for teachers, teacher trainers, head teachers. She is a member of different working groups and scientific committees on CLIL and languages both at national and international level. Her main research areas are language learning/ teaching, CLIL, Technology-Enhanced Language Learning, school innovation, teacher training. She has presented papers at national and international conferences and published articles and chapters in peerreviewed journals and recently four volumes on CLIL. She is a reviewer and a member of the Editorial Board of different peer-reviewed journals. She is a member of the ECML “Pluriliteracies” consultancy team. Ivonne Citarella, Sociologist, collaborating since 1988 with the National Council by publishing surveys on the theme of the female labor market and immigration. She publishes surveys on Italian local welfare with La Sapienza University of Rome. She publishes the survey conducted on the spread network of antispeciesism, too. Since 2009 she comes close to virtual platforms in which conducts a 796

About the Contributors

survey, still in progress, on social and personal relationships and expertises that activates in it and bring the economic benefits in real life sometimes becoming the main source of income. Her current research projects are oriented to the use of virtual platforms in education in particular their application in the training paths of alternation work-school. Murat Coban graduated from Erzurum Atatürk University, Kazım Karabekir Faculty of Education, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technologies (CEIT) in 2004. In the same year, he was appointed as a Computer Teacher to Bayburt. He worked in Bayburt between 2004-2009. In 2009, he started to work as a lecturer at Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University (AİÇÜ) Vocational School. He completed his graduate education at Atatürk University, Department of CEIT in 2012 and started his PhD education. After completing his doctorate education in 2017, the researcher has started to work as a lecturer at AİÇÜ, Faculty of Education, Department CEIT. The researcher works on subjects such as digital games, augmented reality, virtual worlds, virtual reality and instructional design. Alessandra Conti is Prof. in primary school, Expert in Counseling and Olistic Science. Nevio Danelon, Ph.D., was a Postdoctoral Associate in the Department of Art, Art History & Visual Studies at Duke University where he researches and experiments with the use of digital technologies applied to cultural heritage visualization and archaeological investigation. Nevio began his scholarly inquiry in history during his MA in Ancient History at the University of Pisa, Italy and then he received his Ph.D. in Oriental Studies defending a doctoral dissertation in Egyptian archaeology. His Ph.D. project dealt with the topographic reconstruction of Memphis, the dynastic capital of Egypt, by collating classical sources and the clues emerging from satellite imagery. In addition, he gained experience on architectural and virtual environments modeling working as a render artist and 3D modeler in Italy. He has joined the Department of Art, Art History & Visual Studies at Duke University in 2013 as a visiting scholar thanks to a scholarship for the Regium@Lepidi project and the support of Lions Club Reggio Emilia. He is now a core member of the Dig@Lab, digital archaeology laboratory, where he takes part in different archaeological excavations and projects in Vulci (Italy), Rome, Catal Hoyuk (Turkey), and Knossos (Crete). Muhammet Demirbilek is an Associate Professor of Educational Technology in the Faculty of Education at Suleyman Demirel University in Isparta /Turkey. He earned his doctoral and master’s degree in Educational Technology from the University of Florida. He also holds B.S. and M.S. degrees in electronics engineering from Istanbul University. He worked as a graduate faculty and visiting Assistant Professor in Digital Worlds Institute at University of Florida (2013-2014) and Post-Doctoral Researcher at Games, Learning, and Society (GLS) at the University of Wisconsin-Madison (2008-2009). His research interests include the impact of digital media and computer games and simulations on teaching and learning. How new media (e.g web 2.0, online social networks, mobile media) . His recent research interests are the effects of online bullying, learning analytic, big data analysis, using mobile games to improve social skills of kids with autism. How augmented reality games on handheld computers designed and used for formal and informal education. How social media, online social networks, and mobile media restructure thinking, values, actions, education, community, and culture.

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About the Contributors

Jean-Paul DuQuette was born in Newport Beach, California in 1972. He has an M.A. in English as a Second Language from the University of Hawaii and an Ed.D from Temple University, Philadelphia. He studies language learning and education in virtual world environments. He is a founding member of Cypris Chat in Second Life, an English learning community active since 2008. Jean-Paul uses ethnographic research of existing virtual world groups to explore the affordances of online games and sandbox environments. He currently teaches English and linguistics at the University of Macau, and lives there with his wife Miwa and his son Alexander. Laura Fedeli is associate professor in didactics and special pedagogy in the Department of Education, Cultural Heritage and Tourism at the University of Macerata (Italy). She has a Master of Science in Instructional Technology and Distance Education and a PhD in E-Learning, Knowledge Management, and Psychology of Communication. Her field of research is mostly focussed on teacher training and educational technology, areas of interest that she has also explored through her commitment to several European projects. She has authored books, book chapters, and articles from an international perspective on the above-mentioned fields. Mario Fontanella is an IT technician in high schools and has been involved in communication, telecommunications, and information technology since 1983. His main area of interest concerns technological evolution in the humanistic context (digital humanities). He collaborates as a volunteer in the Edu3D learning community, mainly in the documentation of organized events and as a tutor in video shooting courses from virtual worlds. Maurizio Forte, PhD, is William and Sue Gross distinguished Professor of Classical Studies Art, Art History, and Visual Studies, Bass Chair and Director and founder of the DIG@Lab at Duke University. His main research topics are: digital archaeology, classical archaeology and neuro-archaeology. He was professor of World Heritage at the University of California, Merced, (School of Social Sciences, Humanities and Arts) and Director of the Virtual Heritage Lab. He was Chief of Research at CNR (Italian National Research Council) of “Virtual Heritage: integrated digital technologies for knowledge and communication of cultural heritage through virtual reality systems”, Senior Scientist at CNR’s Institute for Technologies Applied to the Cultural Heritage (ITABC), and Professor of "Virtual Environments for Cultural Heritage" in the “Master of Science in Communication Technology-Enhanced Communication for Cultural Heritage” at the University of Lugano. He received his bachelor’s degree in Ancient History (archaeology), and a Diploma of specialization in Archaeology, from the University of Bologna, and his PhD in Archaeology from the University of Rome “La Sapienza”. He has coordinated archaeological fieldwork and research projects in Italy as well as Ethiopia, Egypt, Syria, Kazakhstan, Peru, China, Oman, India, Honduras, Turkey, USA and Mexico. Since 204 he is director of the Vulci 3000 Project. Richa Goel is Assistant Professor-Economics and International Business at Amity International Business School, Amity University Noida. She is a Ph.D. in Management and has a journey of almost 18 years in academic and consistently striving to create a challenging and engaging learning environment where students become life-long scholars and learners. Imparting lectures using different teaching strategies, she is an avid teacher, researcher, and mentor. She has to her credit a number of publications in reputed national and international journals accompanied with participation in conferences.She is serving as a 798

About the Contributors

member of review committee for conferences journals and acting as Lead Editor of Annual International Referred Journal and Research Coordinator with Amity International Business School. Her area of interest includes Economics, Business Law, Human Resource Management and Diversity Management. Kelly Hannel is Doctor degree in Computers in Education at Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul in 2017. Fabricio Herpich has a Ph.D. in Informatics in Education at the Graduate Program in Informatics in Education (PPGIE) at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2019). Master in Computer Science in the Graduate Program in Informatics at the Federal University of Santa Maria (2015). Specialist in Web Applications by the Federal University of Rio Grande (2015). Graduated in Internet Systems at the Federal University of Santa Maria (2013). He works in different projects and academic research related to the area of information technology in education, in themes of implementation of immersive virtual environments in 3D, augmented reality, applications for mobile devices, and, currently, neuroscience applied to education. Sharad Khattar is currently serving as an Associate Professor in Amity University, Noida since Dec 2011. His fields of interest are Operations Management, Decision Sciences and Service quality Management. His degrees and qualifications include M.Tech (Industrial Engineering and Management) from IIT, Kharagpur, MBA(Finance), B.Tech (Electronics) from Military College of Electronics and Mechanical Engineering, B.Sc from JNU, Delhi and PG course in Management from IMT, Ghaziabad. Before taking up his present appointment he has served in Armed Forces as an equipment advisor in engineering corps, scientist in Defense and Research Development Organization (DRDO) and also had a stint in the Corporate in the Technical Equipment support department. Lidija Kralj is an e-Learning and project manager, professor of Mathematics and Computer Science with 30 years of experience. Past three years she was the Assistant Minister in the Ministry of Science and Education, leader of comprehensive curricula reform, and several international and national projects in Croatia. Lidija is a member of expert workgroups for the development of national education strategy, primary education curriculum, the use of ICT in education, and the Computer science curriculum. Expert in EU workgroups for safer internet and digital education, author of digital learning resources, online courses, webinars and textbooks, advisor and teacher trainer for 20 years. Simona Lamonaca is a literature and social studies teacher in secondary education school Istituto Rinnovata Pizzigoni in Milan. She is graduated in Modern Literature at the Study’s University in Milan and in Violin at Conservatory of Music in Bari. Before she started to work in the school she was journalist: for seven years she was editor in chief of the italian magazine “Musica e dischi”. She is very fond of technology. She had experimented in her personal life the power of virtual Worlds, Social Networks and many other web tools giving new possibilities in people’s communication. So she brought these instruments in her daily work, because she believes that they are a powerful way to improve learning today. She used her journalist past for the creation and direction of a Communication Lab 2.0 at school, and her web tool’s knowledges in creative projects with her students, for example using virtual worlds in didactic.

799

About the Contributors

Amir Manzoor holds a PhD in Management Sciences. He is a graduate of NED University, Pakistan, Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS), Pakistan and Bangor University, United Kingdom. He has more than 15 years of diverse professional and teaching experience working at many renowned national and internal organizations and higher education institutions. His research interests include Ecommerce, Strategic Management, Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), Project Management, Supply Chain Management, Data Analysis, and Technology applications. Alberta Mazzola is a certified psychologist and psychotherapist. She graduated in “Dynamic and Clinical Psychology for Person, Organization and Community” and achieved a Diploma in “Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, Clinical Intervention and Analysis of Demand”. She is the founder and director of “Studio Confini. Psychology and psychoanalisys” (Italy), where she actually works, providing psychosocial research-intervention projects for the development of coexistence systems, as well as psychological counselling and psychoanalytic psychoterapy. Martha Mendez is e-learning consultant and Educational coach. Gamification and virtual reality expert. Linguist, researcher skilled in higher education, in English virtual instruction and in Corporative Training. An experienced curriculum designer and developer for undergraduate and graduate programs. Educational technology resources and material creator for e-learning and b-learning methodologies. International presenter in EdTech. Published author and book and article reviewer for different publishing companies and international conferences. Facilitator of communicative skills and communicative interaction in English and Spanish through video- conferencing platforms. Martha is a Certified Gamification Expert and designer and holds a Master’s degree in Applied Linguistics to English as a foreign language and a Master’s degree in Teaching English as a Foreign Language from Universidad de Jaen (Jaen, Spain). She is a Specialist in Applied Linguistics in English Teaching from Universidad La Gran Colombia (Bogotá, Colombia) and a Professional in Modern Languages, Universidad de Los Andes (Bogotá, Colombia).  Matthew Montebello is a full professor at the Department of Artificial Intelligence at the Faculty of ICT, University of Malta and an adjunct professor at the College of Education at the University of Illinois in Urbana Champaign. Before joining the University in 1999 with a PhD in Computer Science he was already heavily involved in Education in secondary schools after graduating in 1990 at the University of Malta B.Ed.(Hons) degree. Having obtained an extensive teaching experience and having been involved with the introduction of computer labs through the Ministry of Education, he proceeded to switch to the Computer Science domain when he pursued his post-graduate studies obtaining a Masters and a Doctorate at the Cardiff University in Wales in 1996 and 1998 respectively. Furthermore in 2009 and 2016 he also completed an M.A. and an Ed.D. (Higher Education) specialising in the application of Artificial Intelligence to e-learning. Nofal Nagles Garcia is Industrial Engineer, expert in autonomous learning and Ph.D in Business Science. He have an extensive experience in the design, creation, and orientation of courses for open and distance education, and especially in e-learning. His experience is also related to Operations Management, Technology Management, Knowledge Management, Innovation, Strategic Thinking, Strategic Management, Organizational Transformation, Organizational Resilience, Trends and prospects of virtual education, Autonomous learning, among others. He is skillful in the creation and design of learning 800

About the Contributors

activities focused on the development of competencies, design and development of instructional material in various formats including multimedia, hypermedia for face-to-face and distance education. Nofal is a researcher and a published author. He holds a Ph.D degree in Business Science from Universidad Antonio de Nebrija and he is a specialist in Quality Management Process and Innovation from Universidad EAN, a specialist in pedagogy for autonomous learning from Universidad UNAD, and an industrial Engineer form Universidad de America. Ana Nobre is currently an Professor at the Open University where she has been teaching since 1998, having previously been a professor at the Sorbonne University. He completed his PhD in Didactologie des Langues et des Cultures Étrangères. As a researcher, she dedicates herself to Didactics of eLearning, to Open Education and Open Educational Resources and recently to Gamification. Felipe Backer Nunes is Doctor in Informatics in Education (PPGIE) at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS). Master in Computer Science from the Post Graduation Program in Informatics (PPGI) of the Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM) (2014). Has experience with Virtual Worlds, Pedagogical Agents, Virtual Learning Environments, Distance Education, Mobile and Ubiquitous Computing, Context and Quality of Context, Learning Trajectories. Currently, I work with Virtual Worlds and Intelligent Agents applied in education in different areas of teaching. As future directions, I intend to continue in this area of research and expand the scope of work to research involving serious games applied in education using Unity. Natalie Nussli, Ed.D., is a graduate from the Monterey Institute of International Studies and the University of San Francisco. She is now a faculty member at the University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland (FHNW) at the Institute of Primary Education where she currently trains pre- and in-service primary school teachers. Natalie emphasizes the importance of inquiry-based learning, reflective practice, and feedback processes in her teaching. Her research interests revolve around teacher training in three-dimensional virtual worlds, the use of virtual discussion groups to promote reflective practice, culturally responsive teaching in virtual learning environments, intentional design of online teaching and learning environments, and the unique affordances of virtual worlds for special education purposes. Michelina Occhioni is a chemist graduated from Università del Salento with a Biology major, After her degree, she has been working for 13 years in a chemical plant laboratory with analytical expertise in water and oil analysis, gas-chromatography, Infrared and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopies and pollution problems. In the period 2001-2019 she has been a mathematics and science teacher in Middle Schools (K6 – K8 grade) in Apulia (Italy), with a strong interest in developing new teaching methods for science education. In 2011 she started a server to run and manage Techland, a virtual world she created for educational purposes based on Opensimulator. She is also the promoter of the website www.virtualscience. it. Currently, she is carrying out a PhD program on Geoscience Education at the International School of Advanced Studies of University of Camerino (Italy), where her research project concerns the use of Virtual Worlds in Geoscience teaching and she published several scientific papers on this topic. She is also actively involved in teachers’ professional updating.

801

About the Contributors

Kevin Oh, Ph.D., is an associate professor at the University of San Francisco in the Learning and Instruction department. After completing his doctorate in special education at the University of Virginia, Kevin accepted a position at the University of San Francisco where he currently trains pre-service and in-service teachers in general education and special education programs. In his current position, Kevin emphasizes the importance of teacher training and the critical role of using data to provide important feedback for in-service teachers. In sum, he prepares teachers to utilize technology appropriately and effectively, and to investigate how technology can be integrated into the curriculum for high-need students with disabilities in urban school settings. Maria Oliveira is Bachelors in Computer Science, specialist in Informatics in Education, It has master in Production Engineering and PhD in Informatics in Education at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul - Brazil. Has experience in university education, high school and digital literacy in Education of Young and Adults. Currently she works at the Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology Farroupilha and acts in the areas of computer programming, database, media in education. His current research focuses in the collaborative learning in digital environments and has as future interests the investigation of affective aspects in peer learning in professional education. Claudio Pacchiega is a Senior Scala/Developer, PhD in Computer Science, expert in BigData and Artificial Intelligence solutions for companies. Since 2007 disseminator in SecondLife, OpenSim and from 2011 to 2018 consultant for Italian Educational Ministry (INDIRE) for teaching new technologies, Virtual Worlds, 3D Modeling, Virtual Reality. Currently heavily involved in VR and Virtual Reality divulgation teaching to teachers and schools how to produce their Virtual Content from scratch using state of art Software like Blender3D, Unity. founded the Edu3d community of practice. Eleonora Paris is a Professor of Mineralogy at University of Camerino (Italy), teaching to geology and cultural heritage students, carrying out studies about new materials from waste and environmental mineralogy. Moreover, she coordinates a research group on Geoscience Education which includes a PhD program dedicated to in-service science teachers. The group published several papers and book chapters on Geoscience education. Valentina Pennazio is Associate Professor in Special Pedagogy and Didactics at the Department of Education, Cultural Heritage and Tourism at University of Macerata (Italy). She has been involved in several researches and European projects in the field of inclusion for students with disabilities (specifically autism spectrum, motor disabilities) and investigates on the effectiveness in the use of technologies in the early childhood school contexts with a focus on robotics. She is author of books, book chapters and articles with an international impact in the above-mentioned fields. Stephen Petrina is a Professor in the Department of Curriculum and Pedagogy at the University of British Columbia. He specializes in how we learn media & technology across the lifespan, and especially how students and teachers innovate in classrooms, labs, workshops, makerspaces, and virtual spaces. He has published in various fields including Media Studies, Science and Technology Studies (STS), Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics education (STEM), and Curriculum Studies. He is currently researching the philosophy of media and technology for children and youth.

802

About the Contributors

Seema Sahai is an Associate Professor in IT & Operations at Amity International Business School, Amity University Noida. She is a Ph.D. in Management and has a journey of 23 years in academic and consistently striving to create a challenging and engaging learning environment She has to her credit a number of publications in reputed national and international journals accompanied with participation in conferences. She has a corporate experience of 2 years and has many projects to her credit. She is Head of the Department of IT & Operations at AIBS. She has been organising the Women Leadership Summit during INBUSH (International Business Horizon) research conference at AIBS for the last 5 years. Rita Tegon Graduated in Classics at the University of Padua and science of legal services at the University of Perugia, teacher of Latin and Greek in Treviso. Earned a Master Degree of Trainer for Communication at the University of Chieti. Certified in the Feuerstein Method. Trainer of managers and teachers in innovative education programs and school system improvement. Former member of the Lab. for Educational Research of the University of Venice, teaching in the courses that enable teachers to teaching at the Universities of Venice and Verona. Tutor in the Department of Political Science, Communication and International Relations at the University of Macerata. Priority areas of research and testing are Digital Literacy, Media Education, assessment of skills, assessment for the improvement of school systems. Enrolled in the National Institute of Documentation and Educational Research register as national school improvement consultant. Designer and coordinator of Web 2.0 class, Digital Officer at her school, expert EACEA (KA3-ICT) and digital author for over a decade dealing in digital storytelling, multi-cross-media communication, VW pedagogies, video annotation. Michael Thomas is Professor of Education and Chair of the Centre for Educational Research (CERES) at Liverpool John Moores University in the UK. He is the author or editor of over thirty books and peer reviewed special editions and founding editor of four book series, including Advances in Digital Language Learning and Teaching (Bloomsbury), Digital Education and Learning (Palgrave), and Global Policy and Critical Futures in Education (Palgrave Macmillan). Among his other books on CALL are Project-Based Language Learning with Technology (Routledge 2017) and Language Teaching with Video-Based Technologies (Routledge 2020). Michelangelo Tricarico is a doctor in electronic and communications engineering, in the field of virtual worlds he participated in the development of various activities by collaborating with various teachers of all levels. He is currently tutor within the virtual learning community, Edu3D. Roberto Trinchero is Full Professor of Experimental Pedagogy at the Department of Philosophy and Education of the University of Turin. His research interests are in empirical research in education, cognitive enhancement, evidence-based practice in education and evaluation. Michael Gr. Voskoglou (B.Sc., M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D. in Mathematics) is currently an Emeritus Professor of Mathematical Sciences at the Graduate Technological Educational Institute of Western Greece. He used to be a Visiting Researcher at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (1997-2000), a Visiting Professor at the Universities of Warsaw (2009), of Applied Sciences of Berlin (2010) and at the National Institute of Technology of Durgapur, India (2016). Prof. Voskoglou is the author of 16 authored and 3 edited books and of more than 500 papers published in reputed mathematical journals and proceedings of international conferences of about 30 countries in the five continents (2020 Google Scholar Citations: 803

About the Contributors

2401, H-index 21). He is also the Editor in Chief of the “International Journal of Applications of Fuzzy Sets and Artificial Intelligence” (ISSN 2241-1240), reviewer of the AMS and member of the Editorial Board or referee in many mathematical journals. His research interests include Algebra, Fuzzy Sets, Markov Chains, Artificial Intelligence, Philosophy of Science and Mathematics Education. Julie Willcott is currently acting as Education Product Manager for zSpace. Prior to 2015, she spent 20 years teaching science at the high school and community college level. In 2013 she was recognized as an Apple Distinguished Educator for her innovative uses of technology in education. Jennifer Jing Zhao is a Research Associate and President of Canada-China Comparative Education and Cultural Society. As a research associate and instructional designer, her research focus is Media and Technology Studies in the Department of Curriculum and Pedagogy at the University of British Columbia. With the emphasis on design and engineering cognition, she explores the interconnections between technology and learning within a How We Learn Media & Technology (across the lifespan) Framework in New Media Research Laboratory (n-MRL) at Faculty of Education in the University of British Columbia. She also reviews educational programs focusing on curriculum and learning designs, manages eLearning and educational resources, facilitates faculty professional development and delivers workshops. As the President of Canada-China Comparative Education and Cultural Society, Jennifer Jing Zhao facilitates research exchange and partnership, dedicated to make educational and cultural research more accessible and useful to society, facilitates cooperation among universities and governments in Canada and China, and further supports educational and social innovation in Canada and China.

804

805

Index

360 Degree Content 1, 16 3D Modeling Programs 352, 491

A accuracy 531-532, 553, 561, 563, 589, 639 active learning 66, 84, 166, 171, 183, 204, 315, 374, 381, 386, 426, 429, 495, 531-532, 552 Active Methodology 59, 388 Actualism 191, 209 Adaptative 85 adaptive environments 189 Affective computing 386, 393, 601 affordance 448, 482, 484, 490, 622, 624-626 Agenda 2030 316-317, 325, 331, 334-335, 339, 591 AI 20, 33, 45-46, 55-58, 70, 196, 244, 259, 264, 508, 539-540, 554-556, 558-561, 563, 566-567, 569, 573-589, 591-592, 595-602, 606-609, 611-616, 624, 630, 633-655, 660, 662-665, 669-670, 672673, 676, 678-703 AI literacy 634, 636, 640, 651 AIED 558, 575-576, 589, 595-596, 681, 689-690, 692, 694-695, 697, 703 algorithm 45, 178, 211, 552, 586, 589, 595, 600, 606, 608, 615, 633, 637-642, 645, 647, 649, 653, 662, 665, 672 algorithms 44-46, 48-49, 56-57, 211, 539, 557, 561-563, 566-567, 584-585, 589, 592, 597, 601, 608-609, 615, 633-635, 638-640, 642-643, 645, 648-650, 665, 672, 682, 692, 700 Andragogy 270, 632 Animation Override 415 ANN 653 Archaeology 514, 517-518, 520, 528-529, 531-537 Artificial Intelligence (AI) 20, 70, 559, 579, 584, 589, 592, 595, 616, 624, 634-635, 637, 654, 679, 682, 689, 693 Artificial Intelligence in Education 57, 59, 539, 555, 558, 588-589, 599, 613-614, 651, 674, 689-690,

692, 696, 701-703 asynchronous 5, 10, 54, 132, 165, 171, 174, 183, 185, 203, 270, 284, 319-320, 339, 415, 445, 461, 617-618, 691 augmentationist 465, 472, 477, 490 augmented reality (AR) 1-2, 373-374, 390, 501, 503, 509, 515 Autism Spectrum Syndrome 444 Automatic Grading 574-575 autonomy 53, 66-67, 73, 85, 182, 191, 196, 198, 237, 270, 300, 350, 462, 489, 501, 658, 679 avatar 24, 31-32, 34, 38, 197, 200, 261, 286-287, 297, 299-300, 306, 312, 320, 323, 327-329, 372, 383, 394-404, 407-410, 412-413, 415, 418, 443-444, 448, 450-453, 463-465, 468, 473, 478, 481-483, 488, 490, 503-505, 513, 618, 624, 626, 632 avatars 17-18, 23, 25, 29, 31-35, 39-40, 134, 144, 237, 285, 318-319, 321, 323, 328, 331, 339, 344, 372, 391, 394, 396-400, 402-404, 407-408, 410, 412-413, 422, 433, 441, 448, 450-451, 453, 463, 465, 468, 470-472, 474, 478-479, 482-483, 504, 507, 511, 514, 531, 619, 625-626, 628, 631, 633

B Bayesian Reasoning 655, 670-672, 678-679 bias 22, 30, 382, 494, 567, 598, 608-609, 612-613, 615, 694 Big Data 45, 58-59, 374, 559, 561-563, 579, 589, 612, 629, 634, 636-637, 639, 653, 666, 672 Bioeducational science 189 bioeducative sciences 190, 206, 209 Bloom’s Taxonomy 76, 82, 121, 138-139, 642, 650 BuddhaWheel 476-477, 482, 488 builder 327-328, 331, 415

C Cardboard 370, 499, 502, 508, 510, 515  

Index

Career and Technology Education 1, 16 Case-Based Reasoning (CBR) 655, 660, 679 CAVE Virtual Reality 236 challenges 6, 17, 19-20, 30, 33-34, 36-38, 41, 51, 53, 55-56, 58-59, 62-63, 84, 98, 102, 106, 113, 123, 132-134, 140, 144, 167, 174, 183, 189, 194-195, 198, 201, 205-206, 211, 217, 269, 277, 285, 304, 306, 324, 335, 373, 377, 380, 385, 393, 416, 419, 430-431, 467, 477, 479, 483, 489, 494, 496, 501, 515, 522, 536, 550, 566, 578, 581-582, 593, 603, 608-609, 613-614, 627, 681-683, 686, 689, 691694, 700-703 children with special needs (CSN) 416, 443 citizenship 212, 221, 294, 305-306 CLIL 267-268, 272, 278, 285-287, 289, 292 cognitive analysis 61-62, 76, 78, 80-81 cognitive computing 615, 640-641, 652, 663 collaborative learning 15, 66, 71, 74, 78, 117, 145, 156, 159, 164, 166, 171, 179, 181, 321-322, 331, 341-342, 465, 484, 510, 528, 542, 575-576, 600, 613, 691 collaborative work 4, 61-63, 74-75, 77-78, 80-81, 84, 120, 271, 294, 307, 354, 428 communication 2, 19-21, 24, 29, 31, 33, 40, 49, 53, 57, 64-65, 74-75, 86-87, 89, 91, 94-96, 98-99, 101102, 105, 109, 112-113, 115, 120, 124, 126-128, 130, 132-133, 137, 140, 153, 165-167, 170, 183, 197-199, 205, 210-213, 218-222, 225-226, 228, 230-235, 250, 252, 254, 256-257, 260-261, 272, 274, 285, 300-301, 306, 310-311, 317-319, 323, 333, 344, 374-375, 381, 385, 394-399, 401-404, 406-407, 409-410, 413-416, 421-425, 428, 431, 433, 435, 437, 439-440, 442-443, 445-449, 453455, 461-464, 470-471, 474, 479, 481, 485, 488, 512, 518, 529, 537, 554, 578, 592, 613, 618-619, 621, 625, 629, 635-637, 641, 649, 676 Communication 2.0 210, 212, 228, 230, 234-235 community of practice 86, 91, 268, 271, 273-274, 284, 291-292, 302, 342, 360, 433, 496-497, 507, 512, 516 Companion’s Guild 460-461, 469, 473-476, 478, 480, 482, 489 competence 17-24, 28, 30, 32-36, 39-40, 42, 76-77, 85, 154, 165, 180, 198, 200, 203, 207, 235, 270, 275, 278, 280, 287-288, 334, 336, 437, 455, 457, 459, 462, 486, 512, 545, 561 competences 62, 65, 67-68, 71-72, 75-76, 84-85, 87-90, 99, 116, 125, 268, 273, 275, 278, 284, 286-287, 289, 293, 305, 307, 322, 333, 335, 446, 542, 544, 547, 602 Computational Thinking (CT) 655, 661, 679 806

context-aware learning 163, 168 Coronavirus 8, 14, 45, 58, 119, 129, 139, 343, 371 COVID-19 1, 4-6, 12-15, 18, 46, 54-55, 84, 86, 89, 91, 94, 99-100, 107, 115, 117, 125-126, 129, 131, 137-139, 230, 331-332, 334-335, 405, 461-462, 484, 558, 582, 585, 678 creativity 2, 36, 41, 46, 70, 76, 84, 113, 144-145, 195, 222, 228, 271, 273, 276, 284, 286, 293-294, 305, 307, 309, 319, 322, 335, 344, 350, 352, 355-356, 360, 372, 374, 412-415, 425, 435, 441, 485, 491492, 495, 507, 509, 512, 535, 543, 555, 575, 578, 584-585, 588, 605, 622, 643, 652, 700 Croatia 86-87, 89-91, 93, 99, 102, 109, 116-117 Crowdsourcing 632 cultural competence 17-24, 28, 30, 32-36, 40, 42, 180 culturally relevant pedagogy 37, 39, 163 Culturally Responsive Pedagogy 163-164, 181, 183 customization 53, 300, 318, 493, 504, 632 cyberarchaeology 517-518, 520, 532, 534-537 cybernetics 517, 520, 532 Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) 655, 679 Cypris Chat 460-461, 469-470, 473, 475, 478, 480-481

D data mining 389, 563, 595, 612-613, 615, 640-641, 663, 682 data science 49, 615 deep learning 31, 45, 55, 58, 426, 556, 561, 565, 579, 589, 596, 615, 639-641, 651-652, 703 digital archaeology 518, 537 Digital Cultures 506, 515 digital divide 11, 15, 153-154, 159-160, 204, 308, 310, 317, 693 Digital Intelligence 43-48, 50, 54-55, 59 digital technology 1, 50, 55, 117-118, 126, 153, 421, 487, 491, 623, 682 distance learning 39, 50-53, 86-87, 94, 98-99, 102, 104-108, 117, 119, 121, 137, 181, 202, 231, 255, 271-272, 332, 336, 338, 343, 371, 506-507, 510, 531, 574-575, 611, 628, 631, 658, 665, 673 distance teaching 86-87, 90, 97-99, 115, 117, 119, 139, 334 distance teaching and learning 87, 90, 97, 115 dressing 403

E edMondo 284, 301, 444-445, 448, 450-453, 455, 504 Education With DI 59 Educational Data Mining 389, 595, 612-613, 615

Index

educational environment 54, 199, 203, 205, 257, 373, 380, 507, 510, 561 Educational Management Information Systems 591592, 601 educational practices 11, 43, 54-55, 58, 379, 489 Educational Technology 8-9, 14-15, 18, 35-41, 83, 156-158, 160, 178-183, 204, 206, 256, 288, 312314, 336, 339, 387-388, 390, 393, 434, 436-437, 441, 456, 490, 505, 513-515, 613, 628, 675, 689, 701, 703 educational triangle 46-47, 57, 60 educators 2, 9, 18, 32, 35, 38, 40, 47-48, 117, 120-122, 126, 131, 133, 137-139, 144, 153, 157, 163-167, 169, 171, 173, 175, 178, 196, 202, 236-237, 251253, 271, 300-303, 305, 308, 314, 320, 416-417, 421-422, 424-432, 450, 452, 455, 460-462, 466468, 473, 484, 502, 504-506, 514, 558-559, 566, 584, 592, 594, 599, 614, 616-625, 627, 632, 639, 648, 682, 684, 687, 690, 703 e-learning affordances 617, 619, 622-623, 627, 632 Embodied Cognition 209 Emerging Technologies 208, 384, 486, 596 EMIS 591-592, 601, 606-607, 609, 615 engaging learning interactivities 61 Erasmus 293, 305-306, 309, 353, 495 ethnography 440, 460, 466 executive functions 166, 446, 456, 546, 591-592, 594, 602-603, 606, 611, 613, 615 Expert System 83, 541, 653, 684 extended reality 1-2, 16

F Face-2-Face (F2F) 632 facilitation 170 Firefly 460-461, 469, 473-474, 489-490 Flipped Learning 654, 658, 675, 679 Flipped Learning (FL) 679 Fuzzy Logic (FL) 655, 679

G Gambling Addiction 210, 227, 235 game-based learning 63-64, 254, 267-268, 273-276, 279-280, 284-285, 287, 289, 291-292, 313, 383, 393, 435, 494, 506, 513, 629, 675 gamification 52-53, 56-57, 63-65, 71, 119, 121, 139, 183, 268-269, 278-279, 285, 287-291, 316, 321, 353, 381, 461, 477, 479, 493-495, 500, 503, 510, 512, 515, 566, 574, 599, 643 gaming 64, 120, 140, 146, 149-150, 155-159, 161,

179, 228, 237, 258-261, 274, 276, 290, 378, 418, 425, 429, 436, 461, 468, 492, 505, 518, 521, 561 General AI 596, 615 Graphic Engines 498, 516 guidelines 17, 21, 57, 99, 138, 154, 166-167, 169, 177, 179, 200, 204, 255, 272, 285, 306, 308, 318, 320, 327, 331, 360, 372, 393, 447, 461, 493, 609, 611, 675

H Head-Mounted Display (HMD) 516 heuristic 56, 178, 260, 555, 563, 587, 589, 659, 666 HIGHER DISTANCE EDUCATION 50, 177 HTC Vive 236, 239, 243-244, 248-250, 252, 504, 508, 521, 531

I immersion 28, 32, 41, 145, 155, 194, 199, 236, 238-239, 241-242, 244, 248, 251, 253, 255-256, 258-259, 261, 285, 300, 303, 312, 315, 326, 336, 344, 354, 356, 375-377, 393, 422, 432, 461, 463, 501, 503, 513, 577, 616, 626 immersionist 464-465, 472-473, 477, 490 immersive virtual reality 160, 256-259, 383, 392, 458, 513, 516, 533, 535-536 Immersive VR 257, 261 immersive worlds 267-268, 273-276, 279, 285-288, 291-292, 312, 629 implicit 33, 148, 152, 169, 193, 198, 200, 206, 209, 446, 477, 496, 542, 545, 589, 592, 624, 667 inclusion 29, 33, 52-53, 132, 134, 151, 164-165, 221, 294, 384, 421, 437, 483, 591-593, 602, 609-610, 618-619, 621, 684 Index for inclusion 591-592, 610 Industrial Revolutions (IRs) 679 instructional design 17-22, 28-31, 33-34, 38-40, 42, 57, 126, 129, 164, 180, 254, 276, 301, 314, 339, 430, 444, 552, 675 Intelligent Adaptive Learning (IAL) 621, 632 Intelligent Automation 703 Intentional Design 163 intercultural competence 20-21, 36, 42, 462 internet addiction 140, 142, 146-152, 155-157, 159, 161, 235, 387 Internet Game Disorder 140 Internet of Energy (IoE) 680 Internet of Things and Energy (IoT) 680 Istituto Rinnovata Pizzigoni 210, 235

807

Index

J journalism 210-212, 215-220, 222-223, 225, 232, 234-235

K K-12 1-2, 4-6, 8-11, 13-14, 16, 38, 257, 634-636, 690, 702 Keywords: Virtual Learning Environment 616 kids 32, 147, 155-156, 159, 216-222, 226, 228-229, 231, 233-234, 291, 306, 350, 354, 437, 554, 568, 579-581, 586, 641, 643, 645, 647, 651

L language learning 39, 41, 46, 50, 84, 180, 254, 267268, 274-275, 278-279, 285-289, 291, 460-464, 471, 473, 479, 483, 485-490, 601, 691 learning activities 19, 31-32, 43, 46, 62-67, 72-73, 75-78, 81-82, 165, 171, 177, 179, 237, 432, 550, 644, 694 learning analytics 41, 75, 200, 540, 595, 611-613, 616, 621-622, 624, 627, 633, 689 learning communities 40, 58, 182-183, 202, 426, 460461, 473, 477-478, 480, 491, 576 learning environments 17-18, 21, 28-32, 34, 39-41, 48, 53, 55, 57, 59, 61-62, 82, 141, 145, 153-154, 158-159, 163, 165, 167, 173, 178-181, 183, 189190, 194-201, 203-209, 234, 237, 242, 250-251, 254-256, 267, 271, 278, 285, 287-289, 293, 297, 300, 308-310, 312, 314, 318, 320, 336-339, 360, 385, 387, 392, 414, 439, 442, 454, 460, 467, 489, 512, 514, 540, 575, 592, 595, 600, 603, 616-621, 627-630, 632, 634, 692 learning technologies 18, 35, 40, 61-63, 180, 182, 236, 255, 273-274, 630, 633 Liceo 119-122, 125-127, 129, 135-136, 138-139, 591 Liceo Petrarca 120-122, 125-127, 129, 135-136 Linden Dollar 415 Literature analysis 140-143, 148 lockdown 119-120, 122, 125, 128-129, 133, 135-136, 138-139, 230, 310, 331, 334, 519 logo 215, 641, 653, 661, 674

M Machine Learning (ML) 563, 589, 624, 633, 665 machinima 288, 290-291, 316, 319-325, 327-331, 335, 337-340, 435, 466 mass media 140, 146-148, 152, 339, 491-492 808

meaningful learning 163-164, 171, 173, 178-179, 181-183, 375, 390 Media Education 210, 219, 225, 235 media redundancy 517, 522, 532 mentor 90, 93, 100, 106-107, 117 mentors 86-93, 95-96, 98, 101-102, 104-117, 306, 581, 688 meta-analysis 156, 175, 237, 241, 254, 257, 260-261, 435, 447, 457, 514, 593, 610-611 Mike McKay 469 Minecraft 165, 214, 228, 267-268, 270-271, 273-274, 276, 283, 286-288, 290, 292-294, 297-298, 302303, 305-310, 315, 417-419, 425-442, 504, 515 mixed reality 1-2, 16, 207, 390, 393, 500-502, 505, 507-509, 514, 529 Mobile Augmented Reality 377, 384, 387-389, 391, 393 Mobile Pedagogy 163 modeling 38, 183, 257, 261-262, 319, 322, 326-327, 329, 332, 335, 342, 345, 347, 352, 372, 378379, 438, 450, 452, 458, 464-465, 491, 497-499, 512-513, 516, 520, 524, 531-532, 549, 595, 663, 675, 702 MOOC 36, 40, 48, 64, 83, 507, 692, 703 Moodle 43, 45, 50, 52-53, 87, 91, 114, 143, 166, 199, 267, 269, 272, 284, 287, 292, 311-312, 617, 630-631 MUVEs 143, 299-300, 303, 318, 339, 460-464, 633

N natural language 540, 544, 553, 558, 562, 564, 600601, 608, 615, 663, 692 neural networks 433, 558-560, 563, 565, 573, 576, 579, 581, 584, 586, 589, 595, 603, 613, 615, 640, 647, 684 New Age Technology 692, 703 Non-Immersive VR 236, 240, 257, 261 Non-Player Character 393 Nonverbal Communication 20, 394, 414-416

O Online Community of Practice (OcoP) 507, 516 online courses 6, 19, 40, 48, 56, 63-65, 82-83, 178, 181-183, 198, 277, 287-288, 507, 692-693, 703 OpenSim 267-268, 270-271, 273-274, 276, 281, 287288, 290, 292-293, 301, 303, 318, 327, 336, 343-345, 347-350, 352-356, 358-360, 370-372, 447-448, 503-504, 510-512 OpenSimulator 18, 22, 31, 34, 292, 300, 316, 318-319, 322, 393, 503, 507, 577

Index

P pandemic 1, 4, 6, 8-9, 11-15, 50, 54-55, 84, 86, 99, 112, 115-117, 119, 121, 127, 129-131, 136-139, 171, 202, 204, 211, 230-231, 310, 335, 531, 558 pedagogical innovation 43, 137 Pedagogy Wheel 139 Personal Learning Environment (PLE) 271, 633 post-secondary 1-2, 4-10, 12, 14, 16, 314, 460 presence 4-5, 14, 20, 32, 39, 41, 43-44, 49, 95, 115, 124-126, 129, 131, 143, 145, 151, 160, 165, 189, 194-195, 198-199, 202-204, 236-239, 241-242, 244-261, 263, 299-300, 377, 383, 386, 396, 399, 405-406, 411, 422, 441, 446, 448, 451, 463, 514, 561-562, 659 prosumer 492-493, 512-513, 515-516 psychoanalysis 142 PuecherInside 212-213, 215, 224, 226-227, 232-235 Puentedura 119, 121, 124-126, 128, 138-139

R Remote or Distance Teaching 139 remote teaching 5, 10-11, 119, 124, 127, 131, 135-136 robots 44, 46, 50, 421, 445, 451, 554, 566, 577, 585586, 601, 610, 635, 637, 640, 642-643, 646, 648-649, 654, 657, 669, 674, 677, 679-680, 682, 685, 687, 690, 703 role-playing 47, 51, 143, 158, 161, 228, 276, 283, 341342, 460, 462, 469, 472-473, 476, 482, 507, 626

S SAMR 119, 121, 124-129, 134, 136, 138-139 scenarios 2, 23-24, 30-32, 44, 48, 61-62, 67-69, 71, 73-82, 85, 145, 164, 169, 171, 239, 268, 275, 278, 285, 300, 304, 317, 319-323, 325, 328, 331, 339, 341, 344, 350-351, 360, 369, 372, 375-376, 379-380, 423-424, 443-444, 447-449, 452, 454455, 477, 494, 500, 503, 507-508, 510, 520, 531, 533-534, 551, 577, 666, 694-695 school 4-11, 13, 15-16, 38-39, 45-47, 49-51, 57, 86-87, 91, 93, 95, 98-102, 105, 107-109, 112, 115, 117, 119-130, 132-133, 136-141, 146-147, 152-154, 158, 160-161, 166, 169, 174, 178, 183, 191, 196, 200, 203-205, 207, 210-215, 217-236, 242, 268-269, 273, 275, 277, 279, 286-287, 291, 293295, 300-301, 305-311, 313, 316-318, 321-322, 326-328, 331, 333-336, 341-342, 347, 349, 351, 353-356, 358-359, 362, 364-365, 369, 374, 377, 383, 386, 391-392, 424, 426, 428, 431-432, 435,

437, 439, 441, 444, 448, 450, 453-454, 458, 461, 465, 469, 473, 478, 482, 493-495, 503, 508-509, 512, 532, 540, 557, 568-569, 573, 579, 595, 600602, 605, 609, 612, 629, 631, 634, 642-643, 646, 651-652, 654, 656, 659-661, 665, 682-683, 687, 690-691, 693-694, 700-701 Script 48, 111, 221, 281, 347-348, 350, 356, 372, 415, 448, 464, 532, 646 SDGs 317-318, 324-325, 331, 335, 339, 592 seamless learning 163-164, 167-169, 171-172, 174175, 177-183 Second Life 143-144, 157, 159-161, 165, 199-201, 267, 276, 298, 303, 305, 311-315, 318, 320, 337, 381, 393-394, 396, 399-400, 403, 405, 407-408, 411-413, 415, 424, 432, 447, 450, 460-462, 464473, 475-476, 478, 480-488, 490, 503-504, 512, 625, 627-628, 630, 633 secondlife 318-319, 393, 488-489, 512, 577 SEL 119, 121-122, 137, 139, 603 self-regulation 72-73, 78, 80, 82, 85, 151, 158, 166, 172, 550, 553, 612, 615 serious game 300, 302-304, 306, 311, 315, 386 SGDs 316 shared interests 416, 429 situated learning 169, 197, 209, 254, 275, 293, 297298, 302, 307, 309, 312, 377-378, 393, 496, 514 Smart Learning Systems 665, 676 social abilities 444-445, 447, 451-455 Social and Emotional Learning 99, 114, 119, 121, 131, 137-139, 178, 556, 589, 611 social interaction 315, 416-424, 429, 431-432, 438, 443, 446, 640 social interaction skills 416-421, 423-424, 429, 431432, 443 social networks 87, 117, 126, 218-219, 222, 225, 233, 374, 438, 564, 629, 633 Social Robots 669, 677, 680 social skills 31, 65, 73, 212, 221, 235, 306, 416-417, 420-421, 423-425, 428-429, 431-432, 434-442, 444-447, 449-450, 457-458, 495 social stories 420, 444-445, 447-451, 455-457 social world 315, 448 social worldKeywords: Virtual World 293 Special Education Needs 209 Spin-off 329, 339, 532 standards 4, 7, 9, 17, 28, 30, 32, 38, 42, 76, 179, 320, 327, 338, 384, 388, 402, 404, 410, 532, 564, 598, 686, 694 Steam VR 243, 259 STEM 117, 316, 324, 335, 389, 428, 505, 575, 581, 584, 590, 634-635, 639, 643, 645, 647, 650-653 809

Index

storytelling 74, 285, 294, 316-317, 319, 323, 332, 335, 427, 494, 522, 599 sustainability 11, 41, 61-62, 74, 76, 80, 84-85, 89, 316-317, 321, 324-328, 330-336, 338, 454, 544 synchronous 5, 10, 31, 41, 54, 126, 132, 144, 164-165, 170-171, 174, 182-183, 185, 270-271, 274, 284, 287, 319-320, 339, 415, 461, 467, 481, 487 system usability scale 236, 244, 253-254, 263 systematic literature review 85, 157, 378, 384, 389390, 392-393

Unity 3D 243, 260-261, 518 Universal Design for Learning 21, 163-164, 166, 177-180, 182-184, 205, 454, 591, 593, 610, 615 usability 25, 59, 235-236, 238-239, 241-242, 244-248, 250-255, 257-261, 263, 275, 286, 328, 380, 384, 447, 450, 506, 558-559, 561, 631 user experience 17, 25, 27, 36, 41-42, 197, 253, 255, 450, 531, 533, 697, 699

T

video lessons 86, 98-102, 104-112, 115, 328, 335 videogames 40, 146, 150, 285, 320, 341, 358, 365, 370-371, 491 Virtual Archaeology 520, 532, 537 virtual environments 2, 37, 53, 63, 86, 105, 144-145, 156-157, 160, 179, 195-196, 198, 200-203, 205, 241, 253, 255-256, 258-259, 271-272, 298, 302, 312-313, 316, 318-319, 336-338, 341-342, 362, 370, 413, 422, 435, 439, 441, 445, 454-455, 458, 462-463, 465, 467, 487, 489, 498, 500, 503, 514, 516, 520, 619, 628, 633 virtual learning environment (VLE) 143, 199, 292, 616-617, 627, 633 virtual learning scenarios 61-62, 67-69, 71, 73-78, 80-82 Virtual Learning World (VLW) 616, 624, 627, 633 virtual reality 1-2, 13-16, 18, 144-145, 155, 160, 194, 199, 205, 207-208, 236, 238, 242, 253-263, 290, 300, 312, 373-374, 380, 383-385, 387, 391-392, 394, 407, 412, 415, 421-422, 436, 445, 456-458, 485, 489, 491, 500-502, 504-506, 509, 511, 513518, 520-521, 531-533, 535-537, 574, 577, 694 Virtual World (VW) 143, 616, 618, 627, 633 virtual worlds 18, 20-21, 29, 31-36, 38, 41, 84, 140-146, 152, 155-160, 165, 189, 195, 208, 214, 254, 260, 275-276, 282, 285, 289-291, 293, 295-305, 307313, 315-322, 324, 326, 328, 332-339, 341-344, 347-349, 353, 358, 363-364, 371-376, 379-381, 383, 385-386, 389-394, 396, 402, 405, 413-420, 422-424, 426-427, 431-433, 438, 444-445, 447, 450, 454-456, 458-460, 462-463, 466-467, 473, 478, 482-491, 497-498, 503, 507, 510-513, 577578, 616-618, 627-633 voice chat 415, 463-464, 468, 470-471, 473, 479 VR 1-2, 4, 13-14, 18, 20, 33, 236-253, 255, 257, 259, 261, 285, 383, 498-502, 504-505, 508-515, 517518, 520-521, 529, 531-533, 535-536, 575

teacher training 12, 58, 87, 201-203, 267-269, 271, 278, 283-285, 287, 312, 314, 343, 383, 386, 458, 510, 514, 609 teachers’ professional development 86, 91, 117-118, 593 teamwork 47, 71, 86, 104, 108-109, 112-113, 118, 197, 228, 259, 347, 358, 425, 428, 542 teamwork in virtual environments 86 Techland 316, 321-329, 331, 333-335, 338, 340, 439 technology 1-2, 4-16, 18, 20, 32, 35-41, 48-50, 55, 69, 71, 74, 83, 85, 98, 117-118, 120, 124-126, 130131, 136-142, 144-149, 152-158, 160-162, 165, 169, 171, 173-175, 178-183, 194-195, 197-199, 201-204, 206-208, 233, 236-238, 250, 252, 254, 256-257, 259-261, 271-272, 275, 286, 288-291, 293, 297-298, 302-303, 305, 311-314, 316, 320, 324, 335-336, 338-339, 351, 357-358, 372-374, 376-380, 387-393, 416-417, 419, 421-422, 424, 426-428, 434-442, 447-448, 455-456, 460, 462-463, 467-468, 471, 478, 484-488, 490-491, 495-496, 502-503, 505-508, 512-515, 525-526, 537, 554-556, 559, 564-565, 573-574, 578, 582, 584, 586-587, 589, 592-596, 598, 601-602, 606, 608-609, 612-613, 616, 618, 623-624, 627-628, 630-631, 633-635, 637, 639, 641-643, 651-653, 657-659, 661, 663, 669-670, 672-673, 675-676, 680-696, 700-703 teleport 243, 261, 325, 355, 359, 531 telepresence 64, 256-257, 259-260, 463, 490 Turing Test 554-556, 559-561, 586-588, 636, 643644, 653

U ubiquitous learning 163-164, 170-171, 177-178, 180183, 310, 619, 622, 632 UDL 21, 163-164, 166-167, 174-175, 179, 454, 591594, 615 810

V

Index

W Weak AI 560, 566, 596, 615

Web 2.0 149, 156, 235, 288, 493, 629, 633 World Wide Web (WWW) 633

811