Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education: Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy 2020056177, 2020056178, 9781799872757, 9781799872771

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Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education: Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy

Copyright © 2021. IGI Global. All rights reserved.

Aras Bozkurt Anadolu University, Turkey

A volume in the Advances in Educational Technologies and Instructional Design (AETID) Book Series

Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest

Published in the United States of America by IGI Global Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA, USA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2021 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Bozkurt, Aras, editor. Title: Handbook of research on emerging pedagogies for the future of education: Trauma-informed, care, and pandemic pedagogy / Aras Bozkurt, editor. Description: Hershey, Pennsylvania : Information Science Reference, [2021] | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “The main purpose of this book is to evaluate the interruption of education, especially during the Covid-19 pandemic, report best-practices, identify the strengths and weakness of the educational systems, provide a base for emerging pedagogies”-- Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2020056177 (print) | LCCN 2020056178 (ebook) | ISBN 9781799872757 (Hardcover) | ISBN 9781799872771 (eBook) Subjects: LCSH: Critical pedagogy. | Distance education--Computer-assisted instruction. | COVID-19 (Disease)--Influence. Classification: LCC LC196 .E93 2021 (print) | LCC LC196 (ebook) | DDC 371.33/4--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020056177 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020056178 This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Educational Technologies and Instructional Design (AETID) (ISSN: 2326-8905; eISSN: 2326-8913) British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the

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authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. For electronic access to this publication, please contact: [email protected].

Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest

Advances in Educational Technologies and Instructional Design (AETID) Book Series Lawrence A. Tomei Robert Morris University, USA

ISSN:2326-8905 EISSN:2326-8913 Mission Education has undergone, and continues to undergo, immense changes in the way it is enacted and distributed to both child and adult learners. In modern education, the traditional classroom learning experience has evolved to include technological resources and to provide online classroom opportunities to students of all ages regardless of their geographical locations. From distance education, Massive-Open-Online-Courses (MOOCs), and electronic tablets in the classroom, technology is now an integral part of learning and is also affecting the way educators communicate information to students. The Advances in Educational Technologies & Instructional Design (AETID) Book Series explores new research and theories for facilitating learning and improving educational performance utilizing technological processes and resources. The series examines technologies that can be integrated into K-12 classrooms to improve skills and learning abilities in all subjects including STEM education and language learning. Additionally, it studies the emergence of fully online classrooms for young and adult learners alike, and the communication and accountability challenges that can arise. Trending topics that are covered include adaptive learning, game-based learning, virtual school environments, and social media effects. School administrators, educators, academicians, researchers, and students will find this series to be an excellent resource for the effective design and implementation of learning technologies in their classes.

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Coverage • Curriculum Development • Game-Based Learning • Web 2.0 and Education • Hybrid Learning • Instructional Design Models • Collaboration Tools • K-12 Educational Technologies • Virtual School Environments • Online Media in Classrooms • E-Learning

IGI Global is currently accepting manuscripts for publication within this series. To submit a proposal for a volume in this series, please contact our Acquisition Editors at [email protected] or visit: http://www.igi-global.com/publish/.

The Advances in Educational Technologies and Instructional Design (AETID) Book Series (ISSN 2326-8905) is published by IGI Global, 701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033-1240, USA, www.igi-global.com. This series is composed of titles available for purchase individually; each title is edited to be contextually exclusive from any other title within the series. For pricing and ordering information please visit http://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-educational-technologies-instructional-design/73678. Postmaster: Send all address changes to above address. © © 2021 IGI Global. All rights, including translation in other languages reserved by the publisher. No part of this series may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphics, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information and retrieval systems – without written permission from the publisher, except for non commercial, educational use, including classroom teaching purposes. The views expressed in this series are those of the authors, but not necessarily of IGI Global.

Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest

Titles in this Series

For a list of additional titles in this series, please visit: http://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-educational-technologies-instructional-design/73678

Simulation and Game-Based Learning in Emergency and Disaster Management Nicole K. Drumhiller (American Public University System, USA) Terri L. Wilkin (American Public University System, USA) and Karen V. Srba (Saint Francis University, USA) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 290pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799840879) • US $195.00 Applications of Work Integrated Learning Among Gen Z and Y Students Trevor Gerhardt (University of West London, UK) and Paulette J. Annon (London School of Economics, UK) Business Science Reference • © 2021 • 345pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799864400) • US $215.00 Career Ready Education Through Experiential Learning Karen Rasmussen (University of West Florida, USA) Pamela Northrup (University of West Florida, USA) and Robin Colson (University of West Florida, USA) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 305pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799819288) • US $195.00 Practical Perspectives on Educational Theory and Game Development Fabio Perez Marzullo (Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 300pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799850212) • US $185.00 Advancing the Power of Learning Analytics and Big Data in Education Ana Azevedo (CEOS:PP, ISCAP, Polytechnic of Porto, Portugal) José Manuel Azevedo (CEOS:PP, ISCAP, Polytechnic of Porto, Portugal) James Onohuome Uhomoibhi (Ulster University, UK) and Ebba Ossiannilsson (International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE), Norway & European Distance and e-Learning Network (EDEN), UK & Swedish Association for Distance Education (SADE), Sweden) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 296pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799871033) • US $195.00 Machine Learning Approaches for Improvising Modern Learning Systems Zameer Gulzar (BSAR Crescent Institute of Science and Technology, India) and A. Anny Leema (VIT University, India) Information Science Reference • © 2020 • 300pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799850090) • US $195.00

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Developing Mathematical Literacy in the Context of the Fourth Industrial Revolution Edgar Oliver Cardoso Espinosa (Instituto Politécnico Nacional, ESCA Santo Tomas, Mexico) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 236pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799838685) • US $195.00

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Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest

Copyright © 2021. IGI Global. All rights reserved.

This book is dedicated to all educators and instructional/learning designers who ensured continuity of education during the COVID-19 pandemic. All our efforts are to create a better world and to make education accessible for anyone who pursuit knowledge.

Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest



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List of Contributors

Alkış Küçükaydın, Menşure / Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey............................................ 328 Allegri, Chiara / Porto dei Piccoli, Italy........................................................................................... 401 Altinpulluk, Hakan / Anadolu University, Turkey............................................................................ 209 Altunçekiç, Alper / Gazi University, Turkey..................................................................................... 284 Ballard, Kelly M. / Bryn Athyn College, USA...................................................................................... 44 Battal, Ali / Selçuk University, Turkey................................................................................................. 66 Boldrini, Giulia / Porto dei Piccoli, Italy.......................................................................................... 401 Bozkus-Genc, Gulden / Anadolu University, Turkey........................................................................ 386 Camurati, Gloria / Porto dei Piccoli, Italy....................................................................................... 401 Charamba, Erasmos / University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa............................................. 421 Dennis, Michelle / Adler University, USA........................................................................................... 82 Ekici, Murat / Usak University, Turkey............................................................................................. 127 Falk, Audrey Faye / Merrimack College, USA................................................................................... 347 Gentile, Amber / Cabrini University, USA.......................................................................................... 44 Goksel, Nil / Anadolu University, Turkey........................................................................................... 269 Grant-Smith, Deanna / Queensland University of Technology, Australia........................................ 169 Gurgur, Hasan / Anadolu University, Turkey.................................................................................... 386 Hamutoglu, Nazire Burcin / Eskisehir Technical University, Turkey................................................ 101 Inel Ekici, Didem / Usak University, Turkey..................................................................................... 127 Kayaduman, Halil / Inonu University, Turkey.................................................................................... 66 Kesim, Eren / Anadolu University, Turkey........................................................................................ 230 Kılınç, Hakan / Anadolu University, Turkey...................................................................................... 191 Lelli, Colleen / Cabrini University, USA.............................................................................................. 44 Maggiore, Alice / Porto dei Piccoli, Italy.......................................................................................... 401 Orbon, Kate / Merrimack College, USA........................................................................................... 347 Ossiannilsson, Ebba S. I. / Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden............................. 16 Payne, Ryan / Queensland University of Technology, Australia........................................................ 169 Perasso, Giulia / Porto dei Piccoli, Italy........................................................................................... 401 Rodgers, Devery J. / California State University, Long Beach, USA................................................. 145 Ryan, Mark Patrick / National University, USA............................................................................... 250 Sani-Bozkurt, Sunagul / Anadolu University, Turkey....................................................................... 386 Taskiran, Ayse / Anadolu University, Turkey.................................................................................... 368 Ünveren Bilgiç, Eminer Nur / Sakarya University, Turkey............................................................... 301 Uysal, Cigdem / Anadolu University, Turkey..................................................................................... 386 Xiao, Junhong / Shantou Radio and Television University (Shantou Open University), China............ 1  

Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest

Table of Contents

Preface................................................................................................................................................xviii Acknowledgment...............................................................................................................................xxiii Section 1 Emergency Remote Teaching and Learning Chapter 1 From Equality to Equity to Justice: Should Online Education Be the New Normal in Education?........ 1 Junhong Xiao, Shantou Radio and Television University (Shantou Open University), China Chapter 2 Resilient Sustainable Education for the Future of Education: Emerging Challenges............................ 16 Ebba S. I. Ossiannilsson, Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden Chapter 3 Navigating the Barriers Presented by the COVID-19 Pandemic: Refections and Innovative Educational Solutions............................................................................................................................ 44 Colleen Lelli, Cabrini University, USA Kelly M. Ballard, Bryn Athyn College, USA Amber Gentile, Cabrini University, USA

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Chapter 4 The University Instructors’ Opinions About Emergency Remote Education in Turkey........................ 66 Halil Kayaduman, Inonu University, Turkey Ali Battal, Selçuk University, Turkey Chapter 5 Best Practices for Emergency Remote Teaching................................................................................... 82 Michelle Dennis, Adler University, USA Chapter 6 A Road Map for the COVID-19 Pandemic Process to Ensure Quality of Assurance Active Learning Strategies in Online Learning Environments: How to Plan, Implement, Evaluate, and Improve Learning Activities................................................................................................................ 101 Nazire Burcin Hamutoglu, Eskisehir Technical University, Turkey

Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest





Chapter 7 Factors Infuencing Student Engagement During COVID-19 Emergency Remote Teaching............. 127 Murat Ekici, Usak University, Turkey Didem Inel Ekici, Usak University, Turkey Chapter 8 An Ethnographic Phenomenology of Pandemic Pedagogy: K12 Teachers’ Choices for Student Learning............................................................................................................................................... 145 Devery J. Rodgers, California State University, Long Beach, USA Chapter 9 Enacting Care-Ful Engagement in the (Post)Pandemic Care-Less University.................................... 169 Deanna Grant-Smith, Queensland University of Technology, Australia Ryan Payne, Queensland University of Technology, Australia Chapter 10 Opinions of Field Experts on Practices That Will Increase the Motivation Levels of Learners During the COVID-19 Pandemic Process........................................................................................... 191 Hakan Kılınç, Anadolu University, Turkey Chapter 11 Determination of Preschool Teacher Candidates’ Views on the Learning Management System Used in the COVID-19 Pandemic Process.......................................................................................... 209 Hakan Altinpulluk, Anadolu University, Turkey Chapter 12 The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Field of Economics of Education: An Analysis Based on Digital Skills........................................................................................................................ 230 Eren Kesim, Anadolu University, Turkey Chapter 13 An Analysis of Fully Synchronous Pandemic Secondary Education.................................................. 250 Mark Patrick Ryan, National University, USA

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Chapter 14 Good Vibes Only: Learning English at a Distance Within Pandemic Pedagogy................................ 269 Nil Goksel, Anadolu University, Turkey Chapter 15 University Instructors’ Views on Distance Medical Education Activities........................................... 284 Alper Altunçekiç, Gazi University, Turkey Chapter 16 Implementation Example for the Structured Mathematics Teaching in Learning Environments During the Pandemic Period................................................................................................................ 301 Eminer Nur Ünveren Bilgiç, Sakarya University, Turkey

Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest



Section 2 Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy Chapter 17 Intolerance of Uncertainty Experienced by Faculty of Education Students in the COVID-19 Pandemic and Their Strategies to Cope With Uncertainty:................................................................. 328 Menşure Alkış Küçükaydın, Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey Chapter 18 Pedagogy of the Pandemic: Refections of Mother-Scholar-Practitioners........................................... 347 Audrey Faye Falk, Merrimack College, USA Kate Orbon, Merrimack College, USA Chapter 19 Psycho-Social Well-Being of Young Learners During Emergency Remote Teaching: General Scope and Suggestions for Improvement............................................................................................. 368 Ayse Taskiran, Anadolu University, Turkey Chapter 20 Empowering Teachers Who Work in Inclusive Practices: E-Coaching............................................... 386 Cigdem Uysal, Anadolu University, Turkey Sunagul Sani-Bozkurt, Anadolu University, Turkey Gulden Bozkus-Genc, Anadolu University, Turkey Hasan Gurgur, Anadolu University, Turkey Chapter 21 Play Specialist-Based Intervention in the COVID-19 Era: Crisis and Opportunities of Change – An Experience From Italy.................................................................................................................... 401 Giulia Perasso, Porto dei Piccoli, Italy Giulia Boldrini, Porto dei Piccoli, Italy Alice Maggiore, Porto dei Piccoli, Italy Chiara Allegri, Porto dei Piccoli, Italy Gloria Camurati, Porto dei Piccoli, Italy

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Chapter 22 The Power of Inclusion: Embracing Multilingual E-Learning Opportunities in Science Education.. 421 Erasmos Charamba, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 439 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 500 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 507

Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest

Detailed Table of Contents

Preface................................................................................................................................................xviii Acknowledgment...............................................................................................................................xxiii Section 1 Emergency Remote Teaching and Learning Chapter 1 From Equality to Equity to Justice: Should Online Education Be the New Normal in Education?........ 1 Junhong Xiao, Shantou Radio and Television University (Shantou Open University), China Due to its role in addressing school closures amid the COVID-19 pandemic, emergency online education (EoE) is politicized and assumed to be the new normal in the post-crisis age. This chapter aims to answer the following questions: Should online education be the new normal for all, and if not, what should it be like? After briefy introducing how the world ensures educational continuity and distinguishing EoE from conventional online education, it examines education in the discourse of sustainable development goals, EoE from an equality-equity-justice perspective, and lessons learnt from EoE. It is argued that instead of OE, the new normal for all should be a package of solutions able to cater for learners of various types, minimizing inequality and inequity to allow as many people as possible to access quality education and hence enhance educational equity and justice. Issues related to the new normal are then discussed. The chapter concludes by calling on educational stakeholders to use this crisis as an opportunity to think about how to fx our already ailing educational system.

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Chapter 2 Resilient Sustainable Education for the Future of Education: Emerging Challenges............................ 16 Ebba S. I. Ossiannilsson, Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic afected all economic sectors and disrupted many areas of our lives, especially education. More than 1.7 billion learners in over 200 countries around the world were afected, and these numbers will continue to increase in 2021 and beyond. Therefore, the efects of the COVID-19 pandemic must be understood in order to be better prepared for future disruptions. There is a need to recognize that education is an investment in rebuilding. The key lessons learned are that the future of education needs to be rethought without forgetting the past. Certainly, there is room for improvement in the technical area, but most importantly, it is critical to recognize the social dimensions of learning and education. This conceptual chapter provides a review of the literature on several global initiatives to shape the futures of education by focusing on resilient open education for all in the context of social justice, human rights, and democracy.

 

Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest



Chapter 3 Navigating the Barriers Presented by the COVID-19 Pandemic: Refections and Innovative Educational Solutions............................................................................................................................ 44 Colleen Lelli, Cabrini University, USA Kelly M. Ballard, Bryn Athyn College, USA Amber Gentile, Cabrini University, USA As educators and students navigated the changes amid COVID-19 and the switch to on-line learning, there became a critical need to identify and address the challenges experienced by all. This chapter highlights the fndings and recommendations of a study that surveyed over 400 educators to gather their perceptions of the barriers presented by COVID-19 and their experiences as they adjusted to educating students during a pandemic. The COVID-19 Educator Impact Survey developed by the researchers focused on educators’ perceptions of the impact of COVID-19 on instructional practices, emotional health, and student learning. Innovative practices to create a more equitable education with the intentional inclusion of Trauma Informed Practices and the newly created Guideposts for Trauma Informed Strategies are described. These guideposts can serve as recommendations for stakeholders with the goal of reimagining pedagogical practices and educational policies including trauma informed frameworks related to equity, access, and social-emotional learning skills for vulnerable populations. Chapter 4 The University Instructors’ Opinions About Emergency Remote Education in Turkey........................ 66 Halil Kayaduman, Inonu University, Turkey Ali Battal, Selçuk University, Turkey

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This study explores university instructors’ opinions regarding emergency remote education practices during the COVID-19 pandemic. This research included 248 university instructors from 29 universities in Turkey. The fndings revealed the instructors’ positive and negative opinions, educational preferences, and support demands. While instructors found the process useful in terms of cost-efectiveness, providing individualized learning environments, and supporting ubiquitous learning, their negative opinions stemmed from course-, student-, technology-, and instructor-related factors. The instructors demanded support in technology and training aspects, and they preferred face-to-face education rather than blended and distance education. This study suggests considering the technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) framework for professional development programs. As well, it emphasizes the importance of open educational resources and collaboration eforts at the institution level to share digital resources to eliminate the digital divide and digital literacy issues. Chapter 5 Best Practices for Emergency Remote Teaching................................................................................... 82 Michelle Dennis, Adler University, USA Unforeseen events, such as the global pandemic COVID-19, have the potential to necessitate abrupt closures of the physical campuses of higher education institutions. In these situations, emergency remote teaching procedures may be implemented to enable the continuation of courses and reduce the magnitude of disruptions to the learning process for students and faculty members. In this chapter, the author will evaluate best practices for the design of emergency remote teaching, faculty preparation, and student support. Further, the author will explore efective communication strategies for the delivery of information regarding procedural changes to students and faculty.

Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest



Chapter 6 A Road Map for the COVID-19 Pandemic Process to Ensure Quality of Assurance Active Learning Strategies in Online Learning Environments: How to Plan, Implement, Evaluate, and Improve Learning Activities................................................................................................................ 101 Nazire Burcin Hamutoglu, Eskisehir Technical University, Turkey The damage caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in the feld of education on a global scale has caused many school closures worldwide and prevented many students from beneftting from the educational services in a limited way. In order to overcome this situation, educational institutions had to switch to distance education applications. This study provides a roadmap and aims to identify teaching and learning activities in an online learning environment considering the learning outcomes to ensure the quality assurance with the basis of SMART goals and “Gagne’s Events of Instruction” model by including active learning strategies. Assessments were completed by the alternative approaches, such as self-evaluation, peer evaluation, and evaluation by the instructor. Finally, based on the identifed scenarios, an eclectic model of scenario which is called “FlipHyb” is presented. Chapter 7 Factors Infuencing Student Engagement During COVID-19 Emergency Remote Teaching............. 127 Murat Ekici, Usak University, Turkey Didem Inel Ekici, Usak University, Turkey Student engagement is an important construct of education that is strongly correlated with the quality of learning outcomes. Educators have long been looking for ways to increase student engagement. It has become even more critical in the global COVID-19 pandemic where schools and universities switched to entirely online as a consequence of school closures. This chapter reports on the results of a comprehensive study on student engagement during emergency remote teaching. The aim of this study is to take a snapshot and explore the efects of personal and institutional variables on online student engagement. Research data was collected from 1,027 Turkish university students from both state and private universities. Data analysis showed that having a personal computer, owning a room for study and household internet connection, perceived information and communication self-efcacy, past e-learning experience, as well as course delivery format afect behavioral, emotional, and cognitive aspects of online student engagement.

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Chapter 8 An Ethnographic Phenomenology of Pandemic Pedagogy: K12 Teachers’ Choices for Student Learning............................................................................................................................................... 145 Devery J. Rodgers, California State University, Long Beach, USA This chapter aims to serve a constructive purpose from pandemic pedagogy by presenting practice-driven pedagogical strategies for online teaching and learning. Through phenomenological HelpDesk analysis from a K12 school district’s Education Technology Department, their Education Technology Specialist presents an ethnographic empirical study on what advice was sought and given during emergency remote teaching of 2020. Using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM-2), it shows how teachers defaulted to practices which connected them with their students, helped them stay organized for synchronous and asynchronous instruction, and gave them “eyes on” student learning with easily accessible data. The value of this study lies in its ability to help understand the professional learning efects of the COVID-19 pandemic and provide a guide for those who need a deeper understanding of teachers’ instructional choices during emergency remote education.

Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest



Chapter 9 Enacting Care-Ful Engagement in the (Post)Pandemic Care-Less University.................................... 169 Deanna Grant-Smith, Queensland University of Technology, Australia Ryan Payne, Queensland University of Technology, Australia There is a strong link between student engagement and successful educational outcomes which is driven by the actions of and interactions with educators. In the context of pandemic pedagogies, many educators have taken on additional responsibility for the wellbeing and engagement of their students. The performance of this emotion work is strongly connected to an educator’s professional and philosophical stance about the role of caring in teaching and learning. Building on the principles of care ethics with autoethnographic refection of emergency remote teaching, this chapter presents a model of student engagement which refects the additional needs and demands of care-based education on both educators and students. This model outlines for the enactment of deliberate, sustainable, and care-ful engagement based on an assessment of learner needs as well as educator investment and contributes insights for shaping (post pandemic) pedagogical practices. Chapter 10 Opinions of Field Experts on Practices That Will Increase the Motivation Levels of Learners During the COVID-19 Pandemic Process........................................................................................... 191 Hakan Kılınç, Anadolu University, Turkey This study aimed to determine what applications could be used to increase the motivation levels of learners during the COVID-19 pandemic process and what roles should be carried out by teachers, institutions, families, and learners in this process. In this study, phenomenology design, one of the qualitative research methods, was used. In this context, the opinions of the participants who were determined by purposeful sampling method were consulted. The opinions obtained from the participants were analyzed with content analysis. The fndings obtained within the scope of the study, in order to maintain the motivation levels of the learners in the COVID-19 pandemic period, revealed the roles that teachers, institutions, families, and learners should carry out.

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Chapter 11 Determination of Preschool Teacher Candidates’ Views on the Learning Management System Used in the COVID-19 Pandemic Process.......................................................................................... 209 Hakan Altinpulluk, Anadolu University, Turkey The aim of this study is to examine learning management systems (LMS) in the COVID-19 pandemic process in Turkey according to preschool teacher candidates’ views. The sample group of the study consists of 22 participants who are undergraduate students of the Faculty of Education, Pre-School Teaching 2nd Grade. The data were collected between 4-30 December 2020. In this study, which was carried out in qualitative research method and phenomenology design, the standardized open-ended interview form was used as the data collection tool, and content analysis was used in the analysis of the data. Live lectures, discussion forums, and assignments/online exams tools in the LMS were examined. In addition, opinions on the general usability of the LMS and suggestions for the improvement of the LMS have been presented. Some suggestions were made at the end of the research.

Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest



Chapter 12 The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Field of Economics of Education: An Analysis Based on Digital Skills........................................................................................................................ 230 Eren Kesim, Anadolu University, Turkey Every era exists within its own paradigm, and the COVID-19 pandemic era is a game changer that requires new perspectives. This requirement also holds true for the feld of economics of education. This era of change requires the reevaluation of educational institutions. The economics of education are venturing beyond traditional felds of study regarding the development of digital skills. Topics such as fnancial administration, budget management, costs, supply and demand of educational services, and the refections of learning losses on the knowledge economy represent the changing dynamic locus of the economics of education regarding digital skills during the pandemic period. In this chapter, the general impact of the pandemic on educational institutions is portrayed, the importance of digital skills in global competition in the digital economy is discussed, and lastly, the paradigm shifts in economics of education as an important feld of educational sciences caused by the COVID-19 pandemic are described and evaluated within the context of the economics of distance education. Chapter 13 An Analysis of Fully Synchronous Pandemic Secondary Education.................................................. 250 Mark Patrick Ryan, National University, USA Twenty-one grades 6-12 students were interviewed to learn about their experiences participating in a fully synchronous virtual learning environment at a public charter school in California, USA. Students take seven 50-minute classes four days a week and seven 30-minute classes the ffth weekday using the Zoom platform and Google Classroom. One-third of participants were students with disabilities, one-third English language learners, and one-third possessed neither designation. This study identifes several themes regarding the benefts and drawbacks of an entirely synchronous learning experience for secondary students. The participants make recommendations for their general education, special education, and English language development teachers, including strategies to engage secondary students more efectively, assessment suggestions, curriculum design ideas, advice about organizing Google Classrooms in ways that are supportive of student needs, and exhortations about what teachers should not do when planning and implementing synchronous online learning.

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Chapter 14 Good Vibes Only: Learning English at a Distance Within Pandemic Pedagogy................................ 269 Nil Goksel, Anadolu University, Turkey We live in a period when schools are involuntarily closed; human life gradually slowed down and came to a halt due to a pandemic, but distance education is already underway. While some higher education institutions have been struggling to meet distance education, the ones that have currently provided distance education in many parts of the world continued to maintain their existing educational systems in the time of the pandemic. In this connection, the central objective of this paper is to explore how online solutions and attempts have been defned under the term of “emergency remote education” since the frst outbreak of the pandemic and how pandemic pedagogy during COVID-19 has contributed to emergency remote education and online education both in the world and specifcally in Turkey. As there has been a gradual shift in higher education lately, this chapter is a response to educational crisis specifcally for English teaching and learning at a distance from a positive perspective.

Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest



Chapter 15 University Instructors’ Views on Distance Medical Education Activities........................................... 284 Alper Altunçekiç, Gazi University, Turkey The fact that most of the classes are based on cases and learners are normally in the feld rather than in classrooms in medical education stands out as the biggest problem faced in conducting medical education through distance education. The study collected data by asking open-ended questions, which were formed by taking domain experts’ opinions, to 27 instructors working in various universities in Turkey. The collected data were subjected to qualitative data analysis in an attempt to determine the strengths and weaknesses of distance medical education activities, the positive and negative efects of distance education on learners, and the difculties faced by instructors. The analysis results show that the instructors experience difculties in terms of practical training, communication, feedback, and classroom management in distance medical education. On the other hand, the instructors highlight that such features of distance education as accessibility and individual learning have a positive contribution to medical education. Chapter 16 Implementation Example for the Structured Mathematics Teaching in Learning Environments During the Pandemic Period................................................................................................................ 301 Eminer Nur Ünveren Bilgiç, Sakarya University, Turkey The purpose of the study is to provide exemplary work for academicians and feld experts working in the feld during the COVID-19 outbreak to efectively use technology in mathematics teaching environments in the distance education process and integrate it into teaching environments. Both the course content presented to prospective teachers and also the learning materials created by the prospective-teachers in line with the learning acquisitions of the course have become a part of the teaching process, and the teaching process has been structured by integrating both the course content and the prepared learning materials into the teaching process under the TPACK theory frame. Section 2 Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy

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Chapter 17 Intolerance of Uncertainty Experienced by Faculty of Education Students in the COVID-19 Pandemic and Their Strategies to Cope With Uncertainty:................................................................. 328 Menşure Alkış Küçükaydın, Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey COVID-19, which emerged and turned into a global pandemic within a short time, has caused great concern in terms of health, and it has also brought some problems to the education sector. Due to some uncertain situations in this process and worries about the pandemic, students have been faced with unfamiliar situations. This study aims to determine the intolerance of uncertainty that university students in Turkey have experienced in the process of this pandemic and the strategies they have used to cope with this situation. In this context, 179 university students participated in the study. The Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale and an interview form were used. ANOVA was used with the independent samples t-test and content analysis was used in the analysis of data. The data obtained showed that third-year students in the psychological counseling and guidance program had high levels of intolerance of uncertainty and had difculties in developing strategies to deal with uncertainty.

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Chapter 18 Pedagogy of the Pandemic: Refections of Mother-Scholar-Practitioners........................................... 347 Audrey Faye Falk, Merrimack College, USA Kate Orbon, Merrimack College, USA This chapter explores emergency remote teaching and learning experiences at the K-12 educational levels and in higher education within the context of the Coronavirus pandemic. Since March 2020, schools at all levels across the US and globally have ofered fully remote or hybrid learning opportunities in order to respond to public health needs. The pandemic created a major disruption in education, as in virtually every aspect of human activity. The authors apply a feminist lens to refect on their lived experiences with emergency remote teaching and learning. Chapter 19 Psycho-Social Well-Being of Young Learners During Emergency Remote Teaching: General Scope and Suggestions for Improvement............................................................................................. 368 Ayse Taskiran, Anadolu University, Turkey The COVID-19 pandemic, which started through the end of 2019 and which seems to continue for an unknown period of time, has had unprecedented efects that are not limited to health conditions only, but also include fnancial, sociological, and psychological consequences. This global pandemic forced schools and universities to close their doors, causing a large-scale educational disruption for a large number of learners worldwide. Despite the measures taken to compensate for education at all levels, there still is another concern for K-12 level learners’ psycho-social well-being. This chapter elaborates some points that should be considered in case of emergency remote teaching applications in terms of enhancing psycho-social well-being of young learners.

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Chapter 20 Empowering Teachers Who Work in Inclusive Practices: E-Coaching............................................... 386 Cigdem Uysal, Anadolu University, Turkey Sunagul Sani-Bozkurt, Anadolu University, Turkey Gulden Bozkus-Genc, Anadolu University, Turkey Hasan Gurgur, Anadolu University, Turkey Taking into account the efects of integration practices and the coronavirus (COVID-19) epidemic, e-coaching, which handles distance education practices and coaching approach together, came to the fore. With the global epidemic of COVID-19, new ones have been added to the professional competencies of teachers working in integration practices. In this respect, this chapter discusses the professional competencies of teachers working in integration practices and the competencies that they should have in order to use technology and emergency distance education applications. In addition, new approaches have been brought to the agenda with the efect of the epidemic in order to improve the emerging competencies of teachers and to strengthen teachers. Thus, in the new world, e-coaching, which handles distance education practices and coaching approach together, has become important. As a result, it is aimed to address the e-coaching approach, which ofers a hybrid perspective to empower teachers working in integration environments in the context of their emerging new competencies.

Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest



Chapter 21 Play Specialist-Based Intervention in the COVID-19 Era: Crisis and Opportunities of Change – An Experience From Italy.................................................................................................................... 401 Giulia Perasso, Porto dei Piccoli, Italy Giulia Boldrini, Porto dei Piccoli, Italy Alice Maggiore, Porto dei Piccoli, Italy Chiara Allegri, Porto dei Piccoli, Italy Gloria Camurati, Porto dei Piccoli, Italy The present chapter provides insights about the play specialist-based intervention for children with a wide range of pathologies. Telematic adaptations of pedagogical interventions are needed in order to overcome the obstacles given by pandemic emergency and social isolation. The chapter ofers a literature review around the role of the play specialist, providing defnitions, historical evolution, and outcomes on children’s wellbeing. Plus, results from a research around parental wellbeing after the telematic play specialist-based adaptation are displayed and discussed. Finally, qualitative outcomes from parent and educator interviews over the telematic intervention are presented. Chapter 22 The Power of Inclusion: Embracing Multilingual E-Learning Opportunities in Science Education.. 421 Erasmos Charamba, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa The year 2019 saw the emergence of COVID-19, an infectious disease spread through human-to-human transmission. This resulted in the immediate worldwide suspension of contact classes as countries tried to contain the wide spread of the pandemic. Consequently, educational institutions were thus left with only one option: e-learning. E-learning is the delivery of learning experiences through the use of electronic mail, the internet, the world wide web, and it can either be synchronous or asynchronous. Through the translanguaging lens, this chapter reports on a qualitative study that sought to explore the crucial role language plays in the e-learning of multilingual science students at a secondary school in South Africa. The e-learning lessons were in the form of videos, multilingual glossaries, and narrated slides in English and isiZulu languages. Data was collected through lesson observations and interviews held via Microsoft Teams. This chapter suggests numerous cognitive and socio-cultural benefts of multilingual e-learning pedagogy and recommends its use in education. Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 439

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About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 500 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 507

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Preface

Coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak has turned to be a global pandemic and educational institutions were closed to slow down the Covid-19 (Bond, 2020; Bozkurt et al., 2020). Closures of schools and interruption of education affected more than 1.6 billion enrolled students of all ages which equal nearly 90% of the global student population. Consequently, utopic scenarios have become real, and these scenarios have been experienced in the educational landscape globally. As a response to the Covid-19 crisis, emergency remote teaching and learning were put into practice to ensure the continuity of education (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020a). Covid-19 pandemic impacted many dimensions of our lives, including education (Ali, 2020; Aristovnik et al., 2020; Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020b; Peters et al., 2020; Quilter-Pinner & Ambrose, 2020). We have observed that both K-12 and higher education was unprepared and fell short with current pedagogical approaches. The pandemic revealed the flaws in our education systems and taught us that we are not prepared for the educational crisis, which requires us to study education and emerging pedagogies such as trauma-Informed, care, and pandemic pedagogy. The global educational crisis further indicated that there is a need to understand the effects of the Covid-19 pandemic to be better prepared for future interruptions. Within this context, the main purpose of this book is to evaluate the interruption of education, report best-practices, identify the strengths and weakness of the educational systems, provide a base for emerging pedagogies. The book intends to provide a walkthrough for the education in the new normal by distilling lessons learned and extracting the knowledge and experience gained through the Covid-19 crisis to better envision the emerging pedagogies for the future of education. From this perspective, the value of this book lies in its ability to document these historic moments and also lies in its capacity to provide a guide for those who need a deeper understanding to respond to the current and potential future crisis by interpreting emerging pedagogies.

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OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK The book consists of two sections. The first section (From Chapter 1 to Chapter 16) focuses on education in the new normal and the second section (From Chapter 17 to Chapter 22) focuses on education from the perspective of pandemic pedagogy. The book has a total of 22 chapters with invaluable insights and critical perspectives. Chapter 1, “From Equality to Equity to Justice: Should Online Education Be the New Normal in Education?” by Junhong Xiao, examines emergency online education from various perspectives and suggests that the crisis can be an opportunity to fix the broken educational system.  

Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest

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Preface

Chapter 2, “Resilient Sustainable Education for the Futures of Education: Emerging Challenges,” by Ebba Ossiannilsson, focuses on futures of education on the grounds of sustainability, more specifically through the sustainable development goals (SDGs) of United Nations. This conceptual chapter provides a review of the literature on several global initiatives to shape the futures of education by focusing on resilient open education for all in the context of social justice, human rights, and democracy. Chapter 3, “Navigating the Barriers Presented by the COVID-19 Pandemic: Reflections and Innovative Educational Solutions,” by Colleen Lelli, Kelly Ballard, and Amber Gentile, highlights the findings and recommendations of a study that surveyed over 400 educators to gather their perceptions of the barriers presented by COVID-19 and their experiences as they adjusted to educating students during a pandemic. Chapter 4, “The University Instructors’ Opinions About Emergency Remote Education in Turkey,” by Halil Kayaduman and Ali Battal, explores university instructors’ opinions regarding emergency remote education practices during the Covid-19 pandemic. The findings revealed the instructors’ positive and negative opinions, educational preferences, and support demands. Chapter 5, “Best Practices for Emergency Remote Teaching,” by Michelle Dennis, evaluates best practices for the design of emergency remote teaching, faculty preparation, and student support. Further, the chapter explores effective communication strategies for the delivery of information regarding procedural changes to students and faculty. Chapter 6, “A Road Map for COVID-19 Pandemic Process to Ensure Quality of Assurance Active Learning Strategies in Online Learning Environments: How to Plan, Implement, Evaluate, and Improve Learning Activities,” by Nazire Hamutoglu, provides a road map and aims to identify while designing teaching and learning activities in an online learning environment considering the learning outcomes to ensure the quality assurance with the basis of SMART goals and “Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction” model by including active learning strategies. Chapter 7, “Factors Influencing Student Engagement During COVID-19 Emergency Remote Teaching,” by Murat Ekici and Didem Inel Ekici, reports on the results of a comprehensive study on student engagement during emergency remote teaching. The chapter shows that having a personal computer, owning a room for study and household internet connection, perceived information and communication self-efficacy, past e-learning experience as well as course delivery format affect behavioral, emotional, and cognitive aspects of online student engagement should be taken into consideration. Chapter 8, “An Ethnographic Phenomenology of Pandemic Pedagogy: K-12 Teachers’ Choices for Student Learning,” by Devery Rodgers, aims to serve a constructive purpose from pandemic pedagogy by presenting practice-driven pedagogical strategies for online teaching and learning. Chapter 9, “Enacting Care-Ful Engagement in the (Post)Pandemic Care-Less University,” by Deanna Grant-Smith and Ryan Payne, presents a model of student engagement which reflects the additional needs and demands of care-based education on both educators and students. This model outlines for the enactment of deliberate, sustainable and care-full engagement based on an assessment of learner needs as well as educator investment and contributes insights for shaping (post) pedagogical practices. Chapter 10, “Opinions of Field Experts on Practices That Will Increase the Motivation Levels of Learners During the COVID-19 Pandemic Process,” by Hakan Kılınç, aims to determine what applications could be to increase the motivation levels of learners during the Covid-19 pandemic process and what roles should be carried out by teachers, institutions, families and learners in this process. Chapter 11, “Determination of Preschool Teacher Candidates’ Views on the Learning Management System Used in the COVID-19 Pandemic Process,” by Hakan Altinpulluk, examines learning man-

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Preface

agement system (LMS) in the Covid-19 pandemic process in Turkey according to preschool teacher candidates’ views. Chapter 12, “The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Field of Economics of Education: An Analysis Based on Digital Skills,” by Eren Kesim, evaluates the general impact of the pandemic on educational institutions, the importance of digital skills in the global competition in the digital economy, and lastly the paradigm shifts in the economics of education as an important field of educational sciences caused by the COVID-19 pandemic within the context of the economics of distance education. Chapter 13, “An Analysis of Fully Synchronous Pandemic Secondary Education,” by Mark Ryan, identifies several themes regarding the benefits and drawbacks of an entirely synchronous learning experience for secondary students. Chapter 14, “Good Vibes Only: Learning English at a Distance Within Pandemic Pedagogy,” by Nil Goksel, explores how online solutions and attempts have been defined under the term of “emergency remote teaching” since the first outbreak of the pandemic and how pandemic pedagogy during COVID-19 has contributed to emergency remote teaching and online education both in the world and specifically in Turkey. Chapter 15, “University Instructors’ Views on Distance Medical Education Activities,” by Alper Altunçekiç, examines distance medical education from the perspective of instructors at higher education. The chapter reports that the instructors experience difficulties in terms of practical training, communication, feedback and classroom management in distance medical education. On the other hand, the chapter also points out that characteristics of distance education such as accessibility and individual learning have a positive contribution to medical education. Chapter 16, “Implementation Example for the Structured Mathematics Teaching in Learning Environments During the Pandemic Period,” by Eminer Nur Ünveren Bilgiç, provides exemplary work for academicians and field experts working in the field during the COVID-19 outbreak to effectively use technology in mathematics teaching environments in the distance education process and integrate it into teaching environments. Chapter 17, “Intolerance of Uncertainty Experienced by Faculty of Education Students in the COVID-19 Pandemic and Their Strategies to Cope With Uncertainty: COVID-19 Crisis, Pedagogy, and Education in Higher Education,” by Menşure Alkış Küçükaydın, aims to determine the intolerance of uncertainty that university students in Turkey have experienced in the process of this pandemic and the strategies they have used to cope with this situation. Chapter 18, “Pedagogy of the Pandemic: Reflections of Mother-Scholar-Practitioners,” by Audrey Falk and Kate Orbon, explores emergency remote teaching and learning experiences at the K-12 educational levels and in higher education within the context of the Coronavirus pandemic. The chapter benefits from a feminist lens to reflect on their lived experiences with emergency remote teaching and learning. Chapter 19, “Psycho-Social Well-Being of Young Learners During Emergency Remote Teaching: General Scope and Suggestions for Improvement,” by Ayse Taskiran, reports issues that should be considered in case of emergency remote teaching applications in terms of enhancing psycho-social well-being of young learners. Chapter 20, “Empowering Teachers Who Work in Inclusive Practices: E-Coaching,” by Cigdem Uysal, Sunagul Sani-Bozkurt, Gulden Bozkus-Genc, and Hasan Gurgur, aims to discuss the professional competencies of teachers working in integration practices and the competencies that they should have in order to use technology and emergency distance education applications.

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Preface

Chapter 21, “Play Specialist-Based Intervention in the COVID-19 Era: Crisis and Opportunities of Change – An Experience From Italy,” by Giulia Perasso, Giulia Boldrini, Alice Maggiore, Chiara Allegri, and Gloria Camurati, provides insights about the play specialist-based intervention for children with a wide range of pathologies. The chapter further offers a systematic review around the role of the play specialist, providing definitions, historical evolution, and outcomes on children’s wellbeing. Chapter 22, “The Power of Inclusion: Embracing Multilingual E-Learning Opportunities in Science Education,” by Erasmos Charamba, reports on a qualitative study that sought to explore the crucial role language plays in the e-learning of multilingual science students at a secondary school in South Africa.

TARGET AUDIENCE AND POTENTIAL USES This book addresses to the teachers, researchers, professionals, decision-makers, institutions and, most importantly, main-actors from various disciplines and any individuals from the educational landscape. The book intends to provide a walkthrough for the education in the new normal by distilling lessons learned and extracting the knowledge and experience gained through the Covid-19 crisis.

REFERENCES Ali, W. (2020). Online and remote learning in higher education institutes: A necessity in light of COVID-19 pandemic. Higher Education Studies, 10(3), 16–25. doi:10.5539/hes.v10n3p16 Aristovnik, A., Keržič, D., Ravšelj, D., Tomaževič, N., & Umek, L. (2020). Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on life of higher education students: A global perspective. Sustainability, 12(20), 8438. doi:10.3390u12208438 Bond, M. (2020). Schools and emergency remote education during the COVID-19 pandemic: A living rapid systematic review. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(2), 191–247. http://www.asianjde. org/ojs/index.php/AsianJDE/article/view/517 Bozkurt, A., Jung, I., Xiao, J., Vladimirschi, V., Schuwer, R., Egorov, G., ... Paskevicius, M. (2020). A global outlook to the interruption of education due to COVID-19 pandemic: Navigating in a time of uncertainty and crisis. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 1–126. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3878572

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Bozkurt, A., & Sharma, R. C. (2020a). Emergency remote teaching in a time of global crisis due to CoronaVirus pandemic. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), i–vi. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3778083 Bozkurt, A., & Sharma, R. C. (2020b). Education in normal, new normal, and next normal: Observations from the past, insights from the present and projections for the future. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(2), i–x. http://www.asianjde.org/ojs/index.php/AsianJDE/article/view/512 Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Bond, A. (2020). The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. EDUCAUSE Review, 27(March). https://er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/ the-difference-between-emergency-remote-teaching-and-online-learning

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Peters, M. A., Rizvi, F., McCulloch, G., Gibbs, P., Gorur, R., Hong, M., Hwang, Y., Zipin, L., Brennan, M., Robertson, S., Quay, J., Malbon, J., Taglietti, D., Barnett, R., Chengbing, W., McLaren, P., Apple, R., Papastephanou, M., Burbules, N., ... Misiaszek, L. (2020). Reimagining the new pedagogical possibilities for universities post-Covid-19. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 1–44. doi:10.1080/0013 1857.2020.1777655

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Quilter-Pinner, H., & Ambrose, A. (2020). The ‘new normal’: The future of education after Covid–19. IPPR. https://www.ippr.org/research/publications/the-new-normal

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Acknowledgment

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to my family and every single individual who contributed to my personal and professional development. As the editor of this book, I would like to acknowledge the extraordinary efforts by the educators and instructional/learning designers who enabled and ensured the continuity of education during the COVID-19 pandemic. I would like to thank to the authors of this book for their contribution and I also would like to take this great opportunity to sincerely thank the reviewers regarding the improvement of quality, coherence, and content presentation of chapters. Most of the authors also served as referees; I highly appreciate their double task. Without their support, this book would not have become a reality. I sincerely thank the group at IGI Global in Hershey PA, USA, for their great help and excellent support on this project and for providing the opportunity to publish this book.

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Aras Bozkurt Anadolu University, Turkey

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Section 1

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Emergency Remote Teaching and Learning

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1

Chapter 1

From Equality to Equity to Justice:

Should Online Education Be the New Normal in Education? Junhong Xiao Shantou Radio and Television University (Shantou Open University), China

ABSTRACT Due to its role in addressing school closures amid the COVID-19 pandemic, emergency online education (EoE) is politicized and assumed to be the new normal in the post-crisis age. This chapter aims to answer the following questions: Should online education be the new normal for all, and if not, what should it be like? After briefy introducing how the world ensures educational continuity and distinguishing EoE from conventional online education, it examines education in the discourse of sustainable development goals, EoE from an equality-equity-justice perspective, and lessons learnt from EoE. It is argued that instead of OE, the new normal for all should be a package of solutions able to cater for learners of various types, minimizing inequality and inequity to allow as many people as possible to access quality education and hence enhance educational equity and justice. Issues related to the new normal are then discussed. The chapter concludes by calling on educational stakeholders to use this crisis as an opportunity to think about how to fx our already ailing educational system.

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EMERGENCY ONLINE EDUCATION: A MAKESHIFT RESPONSE TO SCHOOL CLOSURES AT A GLOBAL SCALE When human-to-human transmission of coronavirus was confirmed in January 22, 2020 (World Health Organization, 2020), the world was simply caught by surprise although reactions varied from one country to another. Some countries immediately took precautionary measures such as practicing social distancing, mandating mask wearing, working at home, closing high-risk venues and locations, isolating infected DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7275-7.ch001

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 From Equality to Equity to Justice

neighborhoods and even shutting down whole cities while others seemed to take a wait-and-see approach due to numerous reasons (Bozkurt et al., 2020). Nevertheless, regardless of our efforts, all walks of life have been devastatingly hit, to varying extents, ever since the outbreak and education is among the most severely affected worldwide because millions and millions of families are involved. The magnitude and severity of the impact on education is echoed by the statistics from the United Nations. As of August, 2020, The COVID-19 pandemic has created the largest disruption of education systems in history, affecting nearly 1.6 billion learners in more than 190 countries and all continents. Closures of schools and other learning spaces have impacted 94 per cent of the world’s student population... (United Nations, 2020, p. 2).

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When faced with this global disaster, governments, educational communities, educational institutions, and individual educators all over the world have wasted no time in mobilization to deal with school closures, which ‘has been nothing short of miraculous’ (Olcott, 2020). Indeed, the pandemic is unprecedented and our response is also unprecedented (Bates, 2020d). Measures taken by a particular country may be influenced by its human development level (United Nations Development Programme, 2019), albeit no evidence of consistent correlation between the two. Approaches in support of education continuity are many and various, ranging from no-tech, low-tech to high-tech solutions (United Nations, 2020), for example, from ‘old’ technologies used in earlier generations of distance education such as printed materials, telephone, radio and TV to high-tech such as digital devices, online platforms and mobile applications (Bozkurt et al., 2020; García & Weiss, 2020; McBurnie, 2020). Nevertheless, despite this diversity, online education has emerged seemingly as ‘a victor ludorum’ (Dhawan, 2020, p. 7) globally, both in developed and developing countries, obviously overshadowing other emergency solutions. In light of this predominance, this chapter will focus on the ‘online’ solution. The response to global school closures due to the coronavirus emergency is proclaimed as ‘the largest-scale Internet-based education experiment in the human history’ (Zhang, 2020) or ‘the Great Online-Learning Experiment’ (Zimmerman, 2020), which has caused controversy over the legitimacy of its being labelled as online teaching, online learning, online education, or any other already existing terminology (for the sake of convenience, the term ‘online education’ will be adopted thereafter). Critics argue that this is not an online education experiment because online education has long been in practice and well researched, insisting that it [online education during the COVID-19 pandemic] was legions of dedicated instructors doing their best to figure out how to deliver courses they had built for a physical classroom to a group of nowdispersed students, using whatever technology and often rudimentary pedagogical practices they (with help from their colleges’ instructional designers and faculty development staff members) could master in a matter of days (Lederman, 2020). In other words, the kind of online education practiced during the pandemic is ‘an abrupt mass migration of traditional college courses to the internet’ (Carey, 2020) with very limited time left for planning. This makeshift, unplanned nature is what distinguishes it from what is already known as online education in that the latter is often well designed in advance and appropriately informed by theoretical research and best practice (Bozkurt et al., 2020). Therefore, online education researchers and practitioners prefer to coin alternative terms to describe what is happening to ensure continuity of learning and teaching 2

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 From Equality to Equity to Justice

during the crisis, including ‘emergency remote teaching’ (Hodges, Moore, Lockee, Trust, & Bond, 2020), ‘emergency remote instruction’ (Lederman, 2020), ‘emergency online learning’ (Bates, 2020a; Patricia, 2020), ‘emergency remote learning’ (Bates, 2020d; Naffi, 2020), and ‘emergency remote teaching’ (Aguliera & Nightengale-Lee, 2020). All of these terms share a common feature – emergency. It is because of this feature that Welner (2020) refers to it as ‘temporary distance education’. Again, for the sake of convenience, emergency online education (EoE) will be used as an umbrella term in this chapter thereafter to refer to all the online technology-based education solutions adopted during COVID-19. It is hoped that the distinction of EoE from conventional online education may help prevent the latter from being further stigmatized, making it clear that the main purpose of EoE is ‘not to re-create a robust educational ecosystem but rather to provide temporary access to instruction and instructional supports’ quickly enough to meet emerging urgent needs (Hodges et al., 2020), in other words, ‘whether online teaching–learning methods can provide quality education’ is not the primary concern amid this global crisis (Dhawan, 2020, p. 7). Despite this gloomy prospect, EoE has actually been associated with political agendas one way or another (Hodges et al., 2020; Selwyn, 2020), hence often creating over-optimistic expectations. As early as April, 2020, there were assumptions that EoE was ushering in a new era of education with online education becoming the norm, ‘which could represent the development for the next decade’ (Li, 2020; also see Male, 2020; Puri, 2020) and the hype has been gaining momentum ever since (for example, Raveendran, 2020; Yan, 2020). While EoE is now turning into a hot topic, research in this area is ‘of the quick-and-dirty kind’, often centering on questions such as ‘how did students, faculty and administrators react and what are they expecting in the future?’ (Bates, 2020d). In contrast, it seems that whether online education should be the new normal is not a concern. It is simply taken for granted. In light of this scenario, this chapter attempts to address this concern by answering the following questions: 1. Should online education be the new normal for ALL in the years to come? 2. If not, what should the new normal be like? The rest of this chapter will first examine education in the context of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) (United Nations, 2015) and then look at education from an equality-equityjustice perspective before highlighting problems arising from EoE during the COVID-19 pandemic, discussing lessons learnt and expounding on the new normal in education.

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EDUCATION IN THE DISCOURSE OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS In 2015, the United Nations announced its 2030 agenda for sustainable development, setting 17 SDGs, the achievement of which is believed to be able to transform the world (United Nations, 2015). The 17 SDGs concern the people, the planet we live on, prosperity, peace, and partnership. When it comes to the people, the United Nations are determined to eradicate poverty and hunger and ensure dignity, equality and health (physical, mental and social well-being), for all. Education is primarily about human being, for human beings and by human beings. This suggests that it is basically a human-to-human transaction. Therefore, its impact extends far beyond education itself. This is why we should not regard education merely as a human right. It is actually ‘an enabling right with direct impact on the realization of all other human rights’ (United Nations, 2020, p. 3). And 3

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as ‘a primary driver of progress across all 17 Sustainable Development Goals’, education is ‘a bedrock of just, equal, inclusive peaceful societies’ (ibid.). Therefore, we are fully justified in claiming that there will be no sustainable development without equitable quality education for all. Of the 17 SDGs, Goal 4 is education specific – ‘Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all’ (United Nations, 2015). One of the key concepts regarding this goal is equity for ALL. Whether SDG 4 is achievable by 2030 or in the farther future is one thing and to what extent equity for ALL is realized is another. In my eyes, the latter matters far more than the former which can serve well as a dream driving our persistent pursuit. The extent to which education is equitable for ALL has an immediate effect on how well the other SDGs can be achieved or to what extent our development is sustainable. In this sense, research into educational equity is of practical relevance, both short-term and long-term, to the human society. Furthermore, in the discourse of the 2030 agenda, education is not only about cognition but also concerns essential services (meals, clean water, safe sheltering and so on), emotion, psychology and healthcare (Bozkurt et al., 2020). Many countries provide meals to K-12 students. For example, in Sweden, ‘high school pupils have by law free lunches at school, which for many pupils are the only daily meal, especially for those whose families are poor’ (Bozkurt et al., 2020, p. 76). According to the United Nations’ (2020) statistics, ‘the loss of school meals and other health and nutrition services in the first months of the pandemic affected 370 million children in 195 countries’ (p. 10). Even in the most developed countries such as the United States, ‘access to food and nutrition, housing, health insurance and care, and financial relief measures’ was a problem for some students because of COVID-19 (García & Weiss, 2020). A survey in April, 2020 showed 80% of the participating college students claimed that they suffered from poor mental health (Active Minds, 2020). In a word, equity in education should not be limited to the cognition aspect of education but extends to the above related aspects, i.e. education in its broad sense. No efforts should be spared to enhance equity in all aspects of education.

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EMERGENCY ONLINE EDUCATION IN THE DISCOURSE OF EQUALITY, EQUITY AND JUSTICE It is worthwhile to look at EoE from the perspective of equality, equity and justice. A carton drawn by Tony Ruth for Design in Tech Report 2019 (Maeda, 2019) illustrates the distinction between these concepts vividly and concisely (Figure 1). As is clear from Figure 1, inequality arises if learners are not given the same opportunities, i.e. if they are not treated in the same way (Horner, 2019). However, without fixing the cause of inequality in the first place, there is no equity even if all learners are treated equally, i.e. given the same support (Paper Pipecone, 2020), hence the need for equity literacy (Bali, 2020b). Furthermore, even if there is equity, i.e. giving everyone what they need to succeed, which, in the case of Figure 1, means that both children can reach the tree for apples, there is still no justice to speak of in that the opportunity is fair to one but not to the other. As can be easily noticed, because the tree bends towards the left and the apples on the tree hang likewise, the child on the left can access more apples than the one on the right. Therefore, unless we do something to straighten the tree so that the apples hang evenly on both sides, there is no fairness and hence no justice. So when EoE is adopted as a solution to the disruption of campus-based education during COVID-19, this may be considered to be an act of equality: everyone is given the same opportunity. But equality 4

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does not necessarily elicit fairness. If actions are taken to enable disadvantaged learners to access EoE, there may be equity. Similarly, equity does not necessarily elicit justice because access to EoE does not solve its inherent limitations. Online education is not universally applicable. It may work for certain groups of learners in certain contexts but not as well or not at all for other groups of learners in other contexts. It is by no means a one-size-fits-all solution, a panacea for all the problems faced by all learners in all contexts during this crisis (Carey, 2020). Justice can be achieved only when other alternative solutions are available so that all learners can have what they need and feel most comfortable with to continue their study.

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Figure 1. A visual summary of inequality, equality, equity and justice

We may as well adapt Lambert’s (2018) social justice model for open education to underpinning our views on EoE. According to Lambert (2018), ‘social justice outcomes for Open Education do not flow from the affordances of our technologies… but flow from our commitment to design explicitly for it via the application of one, two or three of the principles of social justice’ (p. 227), that is, redistributive justice, recognitive justice and representational justice which refer to ‘allocation of material or human resources towards those who by circumstance have less’, ‘recognition and respect for cultural and gender difference’ and ‘equitable representation and political voice’ respectively (p. 228). In the case of EoE, when support is given to disadvantaged learners so that they can access EoE, this is redistributive justice. It goes without saying that this is far from adequate. We should recognize the need for diversity in terms of responses to educational disruption due to school closures, which leads to recognitive justice. EoE, as will be delineated below, cannot cater for this diversity. Finally, by following the principle of recognitive justice, we design and offer a package of educational solutions to learners who decide which one is most suitable for their own conditions, that is ‘to put power of decision making in the hands of those farthest from justice’ which is considered to be ‘one of the most empowering ways to redress injustice’ by Bali (2020c). This is the embodiment of representational justice. As will be argued in the section on the new normal, the ‘normal’ in education should not only recognize and respect learner differences but also embody representational justice by offering options to learners so that they may choose what best meets their needs and suits their conditions. Until this representational justice is realized, injustice will persist.

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 From Equality to Equity to Justice

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LESSONS LEARNED FROM EMERGENCY ONLINE EDUCATION Of the 94% global student population affected by school closures, as many as 99% are from low and lower-middle income countries (United Nations, 2020). Learners disadvantaged by EoE are typically those from racial and ethnic minorities, remote areas, developing countries, or poor families (Bates, 2020a). This argument echoes findings from numerous studies and surveys (for example, Bates, 2020b; Bizaer, 2020; Carey, 2020; Li & Lalani, 2020; Naffi, 2020). For these disadvantaged learners, problems brought about by EoE include no or insufficient access to reliable devices such as computers, laptops, tablets, or other smart or mobile devices, no or poor connectivity, inability to afford connectivity costs, or lack of digital skills, all of which, however, are essential to successful online learning. In addition to the above EoE-specific barriers, disadvantaged learners are also likely to be vulnerable in other aspects, for example, inadequate home study conditions (Bliss, 2020), no academic support from parents (Burgess & Sievertsen, 2020; United Nations, 2020), the need for ‘food and nutrition, housing, health insurance and care, and financial relief measures’ (García & Weiss, 2020; also see Bauer, 2020), and psychosocial services (United Nations, 2020). These inequalities surface, regardless of modes of emergency teaching adopted. Attempts are made by governments, civil society and educational institutions to solve these problems or enhance equity, for example, by using radio or television to deliver courses, providing free data or WIFI access, lending or giving digital devices, distributing take-home study printed materials or even getting food to those who rely on school meals and setting up hotlines to provide support to learners, parents and even teachers (for example, Bozkurt et al., 2020; García & Weiss, 2020; United Nations, 2020). Nonetheless, disparities continue to exist and vary across and within countries, regions, school districts, and educational institutions. It is worth noting that many of these inequalities already existed in the pre-COVID-19 days and even at the best of times. It is because of these barriers that disadvantaged learners are not the major beneficiaries of online education (Lee, 2020). For example, it is a widely-known fact that there are far more MOOC learners who already have a university degree or are studying for a university degree than those who have no other access to higher education. In other words, COVID-19 is not the cause of these educational inequalities; it only exacerbates the already existing barriers, putting them in the spotlight. When online education is an option and/or when learning and teaching goes on in the conventional campus-based mode, these inequalities are ‘out there’ for many people. Yet when schools close down and online education is a must, they suddenly become conspicuous because every one of us is vulnerable one way or another, tends to have ‘a more nuanced understanding of vulnerability…’ and more importantly, may realize ‘how our responses to ameliorate the vulnerability of targeted individuals may actually increase their vulnerability’ (Prinsloo, 2020). Although online education had long been practiced before the COVID-19 outbreak, it did not become ‘a new normal’ then because it could not fix educational problems, including inequity and injustice in education, an issue well expounded by Lee (2020) who tries to answer the question ‘Who opens online distance education, to whom, and for what?’. Therefore, unless we could solve these problems, how should online education become the new normal simply because it is used as an emergency response to school closures during this pandemic? Inequality, inequity and injustice are deeply rooted in the human society. It is unrealistic to imagine that they can be eliminated; the best we can do and hope for is to enhance equality, equity and justice. If online education is a forced new normal, it is definitely not fit for ALL, hence misaligning with SDG 4. In other words, online education should not be the new normal for 6

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ALL, at least in the foreseeable future. In these circumstances, the online-education-as-the-new-normal discourse is no more than an ‘“affordance” account of technological determinism’ (Lambert, 2018, p. 229). For these advocators, each new generation of technology will lead to a new normal in education. So we have every reason to anticipate that they will champion another new normal even before online education has actually become one. The lessons we have learnt from EoE are valuable not because we may anticipate what education will be like in the future but because they remind us of the importance of crafting contingency plans for educational disruption caused by large-scale disasters. We are not short of emergency management experience in many areas, for example in dealing with natural disasters. Nevertheless, COVID-19 has revealed our lack of knowledge, skills and resources to minimize educational disruption in a large-scale crisis more effectively. Indeed, ‘our public education system was not built, nor prepared, to cope with a situation like this’ (García & Weiss, 2020). This is not the first time education is disrupted by crisis or calamities, though not in such a scale. The problem is that we have not taken educational disruption seriously and learnt from previous incidents that we need to craft contingency plans for this purpose. Dhawan (2020) is right to argue that a lesson we should take from COVID-19 is that ‘planning is the key’ (p. 17).

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THE NEW NORMAL Currently there is a debate about the future of online education. As mentioned above, there seems to be a strong sentiment that online education will be the new normal (for example, Darby, 2020). On the other hand, there are also voices against the ’techno-romantic’ discourse from tech utopians (Selwyn, 2011), arguing that online education is not the future, among other things, because of resistance from students (Herman, 2020). The South African Students Congress even called on its members to boycott EoE until no one was left behind (Mokhoali, 2020; Mukeredze, Kokutse, & Dell, 2020). Similar sentiments from university students are reported in other surveys (for example, College Pulse, 2020). It seems to me that there is little point in arguing whether online education should be the new normal in education because ‘online’ is at most an external factor, not an inherent feature of education. If online education should not be the new normal, or if it is not right to force a new normal, what should the new normal be like? First and foremost, the ‘normal’ in education should be a package of solutions intended to cater for learners of various types, minimizing inequality and inequity so as to allow as many people as possible to access quality education and hence enhance educational equity and justice. The history of education tells us that there is no silver bullet that can ensure equity and justice for ALL. It is unethical to designate, impose or force-implement any single solution as the ‘normal’ in education. Bates (2020b) is right when he argues that ‘there is no one solution that fits everybody, and there is no ideal solution for anybody. You need to craft the best solution under the circumstances for your particular context’. Otherwise, instead of reducing inequalities, the ‘new’ normal will most likely aggravate the problem of inequity in education, as repeatedly witnessed during the COVID-19 crisis (García & Weiss, 2020; Prinsloo, 2020; Tam & El-Azar, 2020). Secondly, the ‘normal’ in education is a relative concept. No ‘normal’ is fit for ALL. What proves to be the best ‘normal’ for some may not be appropriate for others. For example, face-to-face education may be a better ‘normal’ for K-12 learners and full-time learners in higher education in general while 7

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online education may be more suitable for K-12 learners in very remote areas or part-time higher education learners. Even in this case, there should be alternatives to attend to special needs of the ‘minority’ of any cohort. In other words, the ‘normal’ for a particular type of learners tends to be composed of a popular approach and some alternatives. What really matters is that the new normal should embody equity-mindedness, recognizing how systemic inequalities marginalize disadvantaged learners, attributing negative outcomes to institutional poor performance rather than ‘exclusively to students or perceived deficits in students’ identities, life circumstances, or capabilities’, and reflecting on how to address these inequalities (Harris & Woods, 2020). Thirdly, it is of paramount importance to interpret the connotation of ‘new’ as used in the so-called ‘new normal’. Here, ‘new’ implies ‘evolving’ rather than contrasting or even intending to replace the ‘old’ as seems to be the case in today’s discourse about the future of education. The ‘normal’ today is an evolution from the ‘normal’ of yesterday, built on historical ‘relics’ of educational development. Many of the mistakes that have been made or repeated in today’s online education could have been avoided if it were not regarded as something new (Baggeley, 2017) and if we have been able to learn from history (Lederman, 2020; Moore, 2014). For example, even such an influential authority figure as President of the Association of American Universities Hunter Rawlings ignorantly declared that ‘there is very little good research on the best forms of online learning (and) no good studies of what constitutes bad online pedagogy’ (Rawlings, 2013) despite the 50-year history of modern theory and practice of distance education from which online education has evolved as a branch and the history of research and practice of online education before the arrival of MOOCs. It goes without saying that this mindset of ‘new normal’ can lead us to the wrong direction and do more harm than good (Moore & Diehl, 2019). Therefore, it should be abandoned. Finally, by making a case against the online-education-as-the-new-normal-for-ALL assumption, there is no intention to deny the role of technology in education or to decouple education from technology. The history of educational development shows that technology has been a catalyst for equity in education if properly utilized to serve the purpose. For example, mass education was, to a large extent, enabled by printing, in particular movable printing, the invention of which ‘began the process of much wider availability of text, and its mobility in book form, to a more literate population in Europe…’ (Tait, 2014, p. 6). Before this, education was a privilege exclusively for a very small number of ‘chosen’ learners with elite backgrounds. And now universal education is a global goal. As for distance education, from which, as mentioned above, online education has evolved, it has been relying on technology ever since its inception. There is no distance education without advancements in technology. To put it more specifically, the appearance of the stage coach and the railways in the 19th century ‘led to the initiation of correspondence education’ due to their affordances of accelerating ‘mobility of print’ and supporting interaction between learner and teacher (Tait, 2014, p. 6). This is often categorized as the first generation distance education, and the second and third generations of distance education are also defined by technology (Anderson & Dron, 2011). Whether distance education is divided into three generations or five generation, it is technology-led. This is also the case with the fifth generation theory of distance education (Taylor, 2001). As is well known, the primary goal of distance education is to provide learners disadvantaged by conventional education one way or another with access to education, hence aiming to enhance educational equity (Bates, 2020c). This was the goal pursued in the earlier days when distance education was the ‘prerogative’ of dedicated distance education institutions such as open universities. Nevertheless, now that it is in the mainstream of higher education, campus-based institutions become new major players in this sector (Xiao, 2018). As higher education gets more and more commercialized 8

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due to various reasons, distance education, including online education is beginning to veer off course, with the pursuit of equity no longer as a priority (Lee, 2020). To sum up, technology has affordances to eliminate inequalities and facilitate equity (Sator & Williams, 2020). Yet, these affordances do not automatically translate into realities. As education is a humanto-human transaction, the design of education should be primarily informed by teaching and learning approaches, theories and methodologies rather than led by technology, an approach called ‘pedagogy first’ by Sanky (2021). Furthermore, digital solutions ‘which are institutionalized in the aftermath of the pandemic need to put equity and inclusion at their centre, to ensure all children may benefit from them’ (United Nations, 2020, p. 24).

CONCLUSION We need to consider ‘what education is ABOUT and what education is FOR’ (Bali, 2020a). Watters’ (2014) remark on open education equally applies to online education if the word ‘open’ is replaced with ‘online’:

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What are we going to do when we recognize that “open” is not enough. I hope, that we recognize that what we need is social justice. We need politics, not simply a license. We need politics, not simply technology solutions. We need an ethics of care, of justice, not simply assume that “open” does the work of those for us. As argued above, in the discourse of SDGs, education goes beyond disseminating academic knowledge, i.e. fostering learners’ cognitive development. It is fundamentally about the development of the whole person. Hence, learners’ daily necessities, emotion, psychology and healthcare are, to some extent, within the scope of education. Technology is merely a tool rather than a panacea for all educational problems. It should never be put at the heart of education. The ultimate goal of education is to promote social justice. With this in mind, we need to ‘pursue equity in all senses so as to ensure that everyone can meet their potential and be successful in society’ (Horner, 2020). Learners who suffered from injustice before COVID-19 will not look forward to returning to ‘normal’ (Bozkurt et al., 2020). Black (2020) makes a convincing case for using COVID-19 as a valuable opportunity to think about how to fix our already ailing educational system, saying that ‘plum choices are only obvious in hindsight’. Our educational system has never been fair because we have always taken the disadvantaged as exceptions who are in fact as normal and dignified as other learners. Just as Horner (2020) puts it, ‘Differences should not be divided into “norm” and “not the norm”’ because the label of being disadvantaged tends to be associated with ‘being “deficient” in some respects’ (Prinsloo, 2020). If they are not exceptions, then we need to design the new normal with them in mind ‘so that they do not have to be reminded regularly that they are less, have less, must be “accommodated”’ (Bali, 2020a). Governments, educational authorities, educational institutions, civil society, and individual educators are not patrons when it comes to ensuring equitable education for all; enabling the less privileged to enjoy the same quality education with their privileged counterparts is not an act of ‘patronizing care’ (Bali, 2020a). It is incumbent on us to ‘seize this moment to redesign the system to deliver the excellence and equity needed for every child to be able to thrive’ (García & Weiss, 2020, p. 32).

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The United Nations call on governments around the world to ‘focus on equity and inclusion; reinforce capacities for risk management, at all levels of the system; ensure strong leadership and coordination; and enhance consultation and communication mechanisms’ in order to build resilient educational systems (United Nations, 2020, pp. 3-4). This is a timely call and should be used as guidelines to design the new normal in education. It is also worth noting that ensuring equitable education should not be left to the governments only. There should be research and actions at the macro, meso and micro levels (Zawacki-Richter & Anderson, 2014). From equality to equity to justice in education, the end of the road does not appear to be in sight. It may be unrealistic to expect that SDG 4 will come true by 2030 or any time later. But it is worthwhile to be committed to the improvement of equity and justice in education. ‘Major world events are often an inflection point for rapid innovation’ (Li & Lalani, 2020). Education will surely have a new normal, a much better and fairer normal for ALL in the post-COVID-19 age.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-forprofit sectors.

REFERENCES Active Minds. (2020). COVID-19 Impact on College Student Mental Health (infographic). Retrieved from https://www.activeminds.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Student-Survey-Infographic.pdf Aguliera, E., & Nightengale-Lee, B. (2020). Emergency remote teaching across urban and rural contexts: Perspectives on educational equity. Information and Learning Sciences, 121(5/6), 471–478. doi:10.1108/ ILS-04-2020-0100 Anderson, T., & Dron, J. (2011). Three generations of distance education pedagogy. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 12(3), 80–97. doi:10.19173/irrodl.v12i3.890 Baggeley, J. (2017). Where did online education go wrong? Distance Education in China, 4, 5–14. doi:10.13541/j.cnki.chinade.2017.04.001

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Bali, M. (2020a, April 16). Care is not a fad: Care beyond COVID-19. Reflecting Allowed. Retrieved from https://blog.mahabali.me/pedagogy/critical-pedagogy/care-is-not-a-fad-care-beyond-covid-19/ Bali, M. (2020b, May 13). Literacies Teachers Need During Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www. al-fanarmedia.org/2020/05/literacies-teachers-need-during-covid-19/ Bali, M. (2020c, May 28). Pedagogy of Care: Covid-19 Edition. Retrieved from https://blog.mahabali. me/educational-technology-2/pedagogy-of-care-covid-19-edition/ Bates, T. (2020a, April 20). Emergency online learning and inequity: developed countries. Retrieved from https://www.tonybates.ca/2020/04/20/emergency-online-learning-and-inequity-developed-countries/

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Bates, T. (2020b, April 26). Crashing into online learning: a report from five continents – and some conclusions. Retrieved from https://www.tonybates.ca/2020/04/26/crashing-into-online-learning-a-reportfrom-five-continents-and-some-conclusions/ Bates, T. (2020c, June 18). Equity and online learning: practical design steps. Retrieved from https:// www.tonybates.ca/2020/06/18/equity-and-online-learning-practical-design-steps/ Bates, T. (2020d, July 27). Research reports on Covid-19 and emergency remote learning/online learning. Retrieved from https://www.tonybates.ca/2020/07/27/research-reports-on-covid-19-and-emergencyremote-learning-online-learning/ Bauer, L. (2020, July 9). About 14 Million Children in the US Are Not Getting Enough to Eat. The Brookings Institution. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2020/07/09/about-14million-children-in-the-us-are-not-getting-enough-to-eat/ Bizaer, M. (2020, April 17). Pandemic reveals Iran’s online-learning challenges. Al-Monitor. Retrieved from https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/04/iran-pandemic-online-learning-challengescoronavirus-covid19.html#ixzz6KHcmOabJ Black, S. (2020, April 30). OPINIONISTA: Covid-19 has given us the breathing space to fix our broken education system. Daily Maverick. Retrieved from https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/opinionista/202004-30-covid-19-has-given-us-the-breathing-space-to-fix-our-broken-education-system/ Bliss, C. (2020, August 17). Stanford makes strides to improve online learning in pandemic environment. Stanford News. Retrieved from https://news.stanford.edu/2020/08/17/stanford-makes-strides-improveonline-learning-pandemic-environment/Bozkurt Bozkurt, A., Jung, I., Xiao, J., Vladimirschi, V., Schuwer, R., Egorov, G., ... Paskevicius, M. (2020). A global outlook to the interruption of education due to COVID-19 pandemic: Navigating in a time of uncertainty and crisis. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 1–126. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3878572 Burgess, S., & Sievertsen, H. H. (2020, April 1). Schools, skills, and learning: The impact of COVID-19 on education. VOX. Retrieved from https://voxeu.org/article/impact-covid-19-education Carey, K. (2020, March 13). Everybody ready for the big migration to online college? Actually, no. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com

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College Pulse. (2020). COVID-19 on Campus: The Future of Learning. Retrieved from https://marketplace.collegepulse.com/img/covid19oncampus_ckf_cp_final.pdf Darby, F. (2020, June 16). Sorry not sorry: Online teaching is here to stay. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from https://www.chronicle.com/article/Sorry-Not-Sorry-Online/248993 Dhawan, S. (2020). Online Learning: A Panacea in the Time of COVID-19 Crisis. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 49(1), 5–22. doi:10.1177/0047239520934018

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García, E., & Weiss, E. (2020, September 10). COVID-19 and student performance, equity, and U.S. education policy: Lessons from pre-pandemic research to inform relief, recovery, and rebuilding. Economic Policy Institute. Retrieved from https://www.epi.org/publication/the-consequences-of-the-covid19-pandemic-for-education-performance-and-equity-in-the-united-states-what-can-we-learn-from-prepandemic-research-to-inform-relief-recovery-and-rebuilding/ Harris, F., & Woods, J. L. (2020). Equity-Minded and Culturally-Affirming Teaching and Learning Practices in Virtual Learning Communities. Center for Organizational Responsibility and Advancement (CORA)/Northern Illinois University. Retrieved from https://www.niu.edu/keepteaching/workshops/ equity-in-virtual-learning.shtml Herman, P. C. (2020, June 10). Online learning is not the future. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/digitallearning/views/2020/06/10/online-learning-notfuture-higher-education-opinion Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Bond, A. (2020, March 27). The Difference between Emergency Remote Teaching and Online Learning. EDUCAUSE Review. https://er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/the-difference-between-emergency-remote-teaching-and-online-learning Horner, J. (2019, May 1). Let’s think about Equity, Equality, & Justice! Retrieved from https://psychology.wisheights.org/2019/05/01/lets-think-about-equity-equality-justice/ Lambert, S. (2018). Changing our (dis)course: A distinctive social justice aligned definition of open education. Journal of Learning for Development, 5(3), 225–244. https://jl4d.org/index.php/ejl4d/article/ view/290 Lederman, D. (2020, June 10). What do we know about this spring’s remote learning? Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/digitallearning/article/2020/06/10/what-do-we-knowand-what-should-we-try-learn-aboutsprings Lee, K. (2020). Who opens online distance education, to whom, and for what? Distance Education, 41(2), 186–200. doi:10.1080/01587919.2020.1757404 Li, C., & Lalani, F. (2020, April 29). The COVID-19 pandemic has changed education forever. This is how. Retrieved from https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/04/coronavirus-education-global-covid19online-digital-learning/

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Li, X. (2020, April 28). Online learning the new normal and a sign of the future. Retrieved from https:// www.shine.cn/education/2004287134/ Maeda, J. (2019). Design in Tech Report 2019 (Section 6 Addressing Imbalance). Retrieved from https:// designintech.report/2019/03/11/%F0%9F%93%B1design-in-tech-report-2019-section-6-addressingimbalance Male, B. (2020, April 26). Online learning: The ‘new normal’. Retrieved from https://www.wnypapers. com/news/article/featured/2020/04/26/141219/online-learning-the-new-normal

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McBurnie, C. (2020, April 8). The Role of Interactive Radio Instruction in the COVID-19 Education Response. Open Development & Education. Retrieved from https://opendeved.net/2020/04/08/the-roleof-interactive-radio-instruction-in-the-covid-19-education-response/ Mokhoali, V. (2020, April 20). Boycott e-learning until all students are brought on board—Sascoc. Retrieved from https://ewn.co.za/2020/04/20/boycott-e-learning-until-all-students-are-brought-on-board-sascoc Moore, M. G. (2014). From Radio to the Virtual University: Reflections on the History of American Distance Education from One Who Was There! Distance Education in China, 1, 24-34+58. doi:10.13541/j. cnki.chinade.2014.01.008 Moore, M. G., & Diehl, W. C. (Eds.). (2019). Handbook of distance education (4th ed.). Routledge. Mukeredze, T., Kokutse, F., & Dell, S. (2020, April 22). Student bodies say e-learning is unaffordable and elitist. University World News. Retrieved from https://www.universityworldnews.com/post. php?story=20200422075107312 Naffi, N. (2020). Disruption in and by Centres for Teaching and Learning During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Leading the Future of Higher Ed. Québec City: L’Observatoire Internationale sur les Impacts Sociétaux de l’IA et du Numerique and the Government of Québec. Retrieved from https://observatoireia.ulaval.ca/en/whitepaper-leading-the-future-of-higher-ed/ Olcott, D. (2020). The Leadership imperative: Back to the future after the COVID-19 pandemic. Distance Education in China, 7, 1-6+40. doi:10.13541/j.cnki.chinade.2020.07.001 Paper Pipecone. (2020, June 4). Teaching the difference between equality, equity and justice in preschool. Retrieved from https://www.paperpinecone.com/blog/teaching-difference-between-equality-equity-andjustice-preschool Prinsloo, P. (2020, August 12). Rethinking student vulnerability and risk: Researching student success and retention in open education contexts. Retrieved from https://opendistanceteachingandlearning. wordpress.com/2020/08/12/rethinking-student-vulnerability-and-risk-researching-student-success-andretention-in-open-education-contexts/ Puri, R. (2020, April 10). Online Learning is the New Norm. retrieved from https://www.highereducationdigest.com/online-learning-is-the-new-norm/

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Raveendran, H. (2020, August 21). Remote learning is education’s new normal. Retrieved from https:// insights.samsung.com/2020/08/21/remote-learning-is-educations-new-normal/ Rawlings, R. (2013, November 11). Cited in M. O’Neil, New council to develop standards, best practices for online learning. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://www.chronicle.com/blogs/ wiredcampus/new-council-to-develop-standards-best-practices-for-online-learning/48171 Sanky, M. (2021). Technology enhanced learning: getting the technology mix right (translated by Junhong Xiao). Distance Education in China, 3, 24-35+60. DOI: doi:10.13541/j.cnki.chinade.2021.03.003’

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Sator, A., & Williams, H. (2020). Removing Barriers to Online Learning Through a Teaching and Learning Lens. Victoria BC: BCcampus/ABLE Research Consultants. Retrieved from https://bccampus. ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Report_Removing-Barriers-to-Online-Learning-Through-a-Teachingand-Learning-Lens.pdf Selwyn, N. (2011). In praise of pessimism - the need for negativity in educational technology. British Journal of Educational Technology, 42(5), 713–718. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2011.01215.x Selwyn, N. (2020, April 30). Online learning: Rethinking teachers’ ‘digital competence’ in light of COVID-19. Manosh Lens. Retrieved from https://lens.monash.edu/@education/2020/04/30/1380217/ online-learning-rethinking-teachers-digital-competence-in-light-of-covid-19 Tait, A. (2014). From Place to Virtual Space: Reconfiguring Student Support for Distance and E-Learning in the Digital Age. Open Praxis, 6(1), 4–16. doi:10.5944/openpraxis.6.1.102 Tam, G., & El-Azar, D. (2020, March 13). 3 ways the coronavirus pandemic could reshape education. Retrieved from https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/03/3-ways-coronavirus-is-reshaping-educationand-what-changes-might-be-here-to-stay Taylor, J. (2001). 5th Generation Distance Education. E-Journal of Instructional Science and Technology., 4(1). Advance online publication. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511495618.002 United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Retrieved from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld United Nations. (2020). Education during COVID-19 and Beyond. Policy Brief. Retrieved from https:// www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2020/08/sg_policy_brief_covid-19_ and_education_august_2020.pdf United Nations Development Programme. (2019). Human Development Report 2019. Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2019.pdf Watters, A. (2014, November 16). From “open” to justice. Retrieved March 28, 2017, fromhttp://hackeducation.com/2014/11/16/from-open-to-justice Welner, K. G. (2020). NEPC Review: “Public-Private Virtual-School Partnerships and Federal Flexibility for Schools during COVID-19.” Boulder, CO: National Education Policy Center. Retrieved from https://nepc.colorado.edu/thinktank/coronavirus

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World Health Organization. (2020, January 22). Timeline: WHO’s COVID-19 response. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/interactive-timeline#event-28 Xiao, J. (2018). On the margins or at the center? Distance education inhigher education. Distance Education, 39(2), 259–274. doi:10.1080/01587919.2018.1429213 Yan, J. (2020, July 8). Online education normalization will be the trend in the post-pandemic age. Retrieved from http://coaledu.cn/cinfocontent.php?id=8049 Zawacki-Richter, O., & Anderson, T. (Eds.). (2014). Online distance education—Towards a research agenda. Athabasca University Press. doi:10.15215/aupress/9781927356623.01

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Zhang, J. (2020). A resurgence of Internet-based education. Oriental Outlook, 16. Retrieved from http:// www.dooland.com/magazine/online.php?pid=MjExMjU2 Zimmerman, J. (2020, March 10). Coronavirus and the Great Online-Learning Experiment. Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from https://www.chronicle.com/article/coronavirus-and-the-greatonline-learning-experiment/

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Emergency Online Education (EoE): An umbrella term for all the online technology-based education solutions adopted to ensure educational continuity during COVID-19. Equality: A situation in which everyone is treated in the same way. Equity: A situation in which everyone is given what they need to succeed. Justice: A situation in which the opportunity is fair to everyone. New Normal: A way whereby education is expected to take place in the post COVID-19 age which will be different from the way education was commonly practiced in the pre-COVID-19 days. Online Education: A model of online technology-based education which is often well designed in advanced and appropriately informed by theoretical research and best practice, hence distinguishing itself from EoE.

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Chapter 2

Resilient Sustainable Education for the Future of Education: Emerging Challenges

Ebba S. I. Ossiannilsson https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8488-5787 Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden

ABSTRACT In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic afected all economic sectors and disrupted many areas of our lives, especially education. More than 1.7 billion learners in over 200 countries around the world were afected, and these numbers will continue to increase in 2021 and beyond. Therefore, the efects of the COVID-19 pandemic must be understood in order to be better prepared for future disruptions. There is a need to recognize that education is an investment in rebuilding. The key lessons learned are that the future of education needs to be rethought without forgetting the past. Certainly, there is room for improvement in the technical area, but most importantly, it is critical to recognize the social dimensions of learning and education. This conceptual chapter provides a review of the literature on several global initiatives to shape the futures of education by focusing on resilient open education for all in the context of social justice, human rights, and democracy.

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INTRODUCTION In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic affected all economic sectors and disrupted many areas of our lives, especially education. More than 1.7 billion learners in almost 200 countries around the world have been affected by school and university closures, and this number will continue to increase in 2021 and beyond. The pandemic has affected not only the education of over 90% of students worldwide but also 63 million primary and secondary school teachers. Higher education is therefore now facing unprecedented changes and challenges. Around the globe, there are concerns about the current disruption, the new normal, next normal, and the best post-COVID-19 normal in education (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020; Ossiannilsson, 2020a; Ossiannilsson & Sandström, DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7275-7.ch002

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2020). Large organizations, such as the Commonwealth of Learning (COL) (2020, 2021), the European Commission (2020), the International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE) (2020), the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2020), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2020a, 2020b, 2020c, 2020d, 2020e, 2020f, 2020g), and the World Economic Forum (WEF) (WEF, 2020, 2021) are united regarding the crucial need for major paradigm shifts, especially in education, digitalization, and infrastructure. It is critical to recognize that education is not universally free for society or individuals. However, education is an investment in rebuilding society and capacity building. The digital revolution now affects most areas of society, such as banking, healthcare, and citizen information within central and local governments. There have also been major changes in the film and music industries in recent years. Unfortunately, the education sector has lagged although there were visible changes in 2020 because of the pandemic. Despite the closures and lockdowns, an opening up of education and a culture of sharing began to emerge, as well as changes in mindsets, attitudes, values, and culture. However, an important lesson learned during the pandemic has concerned the difference between emergency remote education and an educational ecosystem based on a culture of creativity and innovation, which is resilient and sustainable (Bates, 2020; Ossiannilsson et al., 2020). Also crucial are the broad questions of what education is about and how to prepare individuals to solve future problems that we are not yet aware of, using methods and processes that we do not yet know about, which COL (COL Connections, 2020, p. 14) expressed as “preparing children for their future, not our past”. They also frame it as ”is the educational profession as we know it headed for obsolescence?” Not only is there room for improvement in the technical area, but it is also crucial to recognize the social dimensions of learning and education. Improvements in technology and digitization must not come at the cost of replacing human interaction and contact between teachers and students because human interaction is crucial in learning. Therefore, it is important to embrace and implement digital transformation, which includes people, processes, and products. At present, experience from the pandemic continues across the globe. However, when the pandemic ends, other crises will ensue. To be better prepared for future disruptions, such as pandemics or natural and economic disasters, it is necessary to understand the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic at different levels and in different contexts (Ossiannilsson, 2020a). The COVID-19 pandemic has led to fundamental disruptions and changes in society and in our lives. It is necessary to recognize this shift and to engage in reflective learning about what it will mean to be human in a post-pandemic society. It is crucial to address the socio-ethical and moral dimensions of learning and education, which are high on the agenda of social justice and human rights. Only then can resilient, sustainable education be achieved in line with UNESCO’s Sustainability Goals (SDG) and UNESCO’s initiative regarding the futures of education. There is, of course, a focus on SDG4 in education, which aims to ensure accessible, inclusive, and equitable quality education and to promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. In addition, other SDGs are crucial, as education is linked to human rights and social justice (UNESCO, 2016). Other initiatives by UNESCO, which are relevant, is the Futures of Education initiative. This initiative builds on the SDGs, aiming to rethink education and shape the futures by 2050 (UNESCO, 2019). The initiative catalyzes the global debate on how knowledge, education, and learning should be rethought in a world that is increasingly complex, uncertain, and precarious. Even of particular significance is the call to support learning and knowledge sharing through open educational resources (OER) worldwide. This initiative was launched by UNESCO in response to the massive disruption to education caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.

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This conceptual chapter provides a review of the literature on several global initiatives that address the desired futures of education by focusing on open education for all in the context of social justice, human rights, and democracy. The chapter is a response to current global initiatives, such as those of not only COL, WEF, ICDE, OECD, and UNESCO but also the European Commission (EC). The author of this chapter is from Sweden and familiar with the European context and initiatives. This short introduction is followed by background information regarding global challenges for education, the consequences of COVID-19, and the need for resilient, agile, and sustainable ecosystems. Following the background, a discussion of current global initiatives is presented. Then follows conclusion and recommendations for future initiatives in global education.

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BACKGROUND Unprecedented social, economic, and environmental challenges are ahead, driven by accelerating globalization and rapid technological development. At the same time, these forces offer countless new opportunities for human progress. Schools are challenged to prepare the young generation for jobs that have not yet been created, for technologies that have not yet been invented, and for solving problems that are not yet foreseeable. There must be shared responsibilities to seize opportunities and find solutions (OECD, 2020). The main global megatrends that shape governance are exemplified by Klynveld Peat Marwick Goerdeler (KPMG) Future State 2030 (KPMG, n.d.). They pointed out that at the same time we shape the world, the world shapes us. They emphasized that global megatrends are related to individuals, society, physical environments, and the global economy. Particularly notable and interesting is that the focus is on people and how individuals and societies respond or fail to respond to global challenges. To navigate this uncertainty, students need to develop curiosity, imagination, resilience, and selfregulation. They also need to respect the ideas, perspectives, and values of others, and they need to learn to cope with failure and rejection and move forward in the face of adversity. Their motivation will be more than a good job and a high income; they will also need to care about the wellbeing of their friends and families, their communities, and the planet. Education can equip learners with agency and purpose, giving them the skills, they need to shape their own lives and contribute to the lives of others (OECD, 2020). During the Davos Conferences in 2016, Schwab (2016), Schwab and Davis (2018), and the WEF (2019) also pointed in this direction by advocating the fourth industrial revolution (4IR). Schwab and Davis (2018) argued that the 4IR will change everything: how we relate to each other, the work we do, how our economies function, and what it means to be human. This brave new world will not be based on only technological advancements. Humans must help shape the future that we desire. The question concerns what we need to know and what must we do make that happen? The WEF (2020) suggested that the 4IR not only concerns technology, digitization, and digitalization but also requires a social revolution. Ossiannilsson (2019, 2020a, 2021b) argued that the 4IR will change the way we live, work, earn, communicate, collaborate, and relate to each other, which will include emotions, empathy, identity, “just for me,” and “just in time” learning, personal concerns, and considerations. During the crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, distance learning solutions have been implemented to ensure the continuity of education. Much of the current debate focuses on how much students have learned during school closures. However, while this potential loss of learning may be temporary, other consequences of the absence of traditional schooling, such as the curbing of educational aspirations 18

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or disengagement from the school system, will have a long-term impact on student outcomes. Because this “hysteresis” effect requires special attention, there are needs for strategies bringing disengaged students back to school and effectively mitigating student disengagement in future closures (OECD, 2020). At present, schools and universities are striving to transform teaching and learning so that students of all ages can learn from home (Bozkurt et al. 2020). While these changes present enormous practical and logistical problems for students, teachers, and parents (especially women), they also open up a world of opportunity to transform learning in the 21st century. The WEF (2020) argued that pressures on individuals, organizations, and societies enduring this crisis are accelerating, blurring boundaries between physical, digital, and biological worlds. New questions have arisen in all countries, such as the following: • •

Are our educational systems preparing students for a world driven by disruptive scientifc and technological advances in artifcial intelligence, robotics, biotechnology, clean energy, and quantum computing? Are we encouraging students to think critically about how science, technology, and innovation can help address—or exacerbate—economic, geopolitical, environmental, and societal challenges?

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The largest organizations, such as UNESCO, OECD, COL, WEF, Gartner and the EC, have launched several initiatives on the future of education. The driving force has been the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020; however, several initiatives were put forward previously, which have led to changes in the educational discourse and a paradigm shift in education. The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 has severely affected all sectors and disrupted many aspects of our lives, especially education. In response to the disruption of education by the COVID-19 pandemic, a global study was conducted by Bozkurt et al. (2020), which included overall views, reflections about the educational landscape, lessons learned, and suggestions by 31 countries representing 62.7% of the total world population. One crucial finding showed that social injustice, inequality, and the digital divide have been exacerbated during the pandemic and require unique and targeted interventions if they are to be addressed. While supportive communities and mechanisms were found to exist, parents were overloaded by regular daily and professional duties and new educational roles, and all had experienced trauma, psychological pressure, and anxiety to varying degrees, which required pedagogies of care, affection, and empathy. The massive disruption in educational processes has signified the importance of openness in education and highlighted issues that should be considered, such as the use of alternative assessment and evaluation methods and concerns about surveillance, ethics, and privacy arising from the almost exclusive reliance on online solutions

FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER Current global initiatives on the future of education in the context of social justice and human rights are presented and elaborated in this conceptual chapter. The overview is not exhaustive, but it can be considered an example of what major international organizations are advocating and initiating regarding the future, particularly the building of an ecosystem that includes resilience in education, social justice, human rights, and sustainability. In the following section, some of the most prominent global initiatives are described and discussed.

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CURRENT GLOBAL INITIATIVES The chapter is based on the approach used in current UNESCO initiatives, such as the SDG, the Futures of Education, the OER Recommendation, and the OER Dynamic Coalition. This approach includes the culture of lifelong learning: contributions to the Futures of Education Initiative and the COVID-19 Crisis UNESCO call for supportive learning and knowledge sharing through OER. The COL, the OECD initiative on the Future of Education and Skills 2030, Learning Compass 2030, the WEF, and Garter’s forecasts and outlooks for the future are examined, as well as the perspectives and initiatives of the EC.

UNESCO Initiatives In the ongoing revolution in higher education, UNESCO, as the only UN agency with a mandate in the educational area, is responsible for leading all its partners to the inclusion, relevance, and excellence of all students.

UNESCO Sustainability Goals The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by all UN member states in 2015, offers a shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet both now and in the future. At its heart are the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), which represent an urgent call to action by all countries—developed and developing—in a global partnership. The SDGs focus on the path of sustainable development, specifically addressing social, economic, and environmental areas. They recognize that ending poverty and other deprivations must go hand-in-hand with strategies for improving health and education, reducing inequality, and spurring economic growth, while combating climate change and working to preserve our oceans and forests (United Nations, 2016). SDG4, which is specifically dedicated to education, focuses on ensuring accessible, inclusive, and equitable quality education and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all (UNESCO, 2020). In addition, several other SDGs are critical, as education must be considered in the context of human rights and social justice.

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The Futures of Education UNESCO’s Futures of Education initiative aims to change the way we think about education to shape the future. The initiative catalyzes the global collaborative debate on how knowledge, education, and learning need to be rethought in a world that is increasingly complex, uncertain, and precarious (UNESCO, 2019). The initiative goes beyond the SDGs and aims at the futures of education, which is based on becoming and learning; that is, becoming what each individual has the potential to be and aspire to be both personally and as a global citizen. In the initiative, UNESCO proposed nine ideas for public action to achieve its goals and ambitions, which are shown in Figure 1.

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Figure 1. The UNESCO initiative on nine ideas for public actions to achieve goals and ambitions Source: UNESCO

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A Culture of Lifelong Learning Another initiative of UNESCO is lifelong learning. Millions of people, even in the richest economies, face financial and other barriers that exclude them from learning and prevent them from realizing their potential. The complexity and multidimensionality of the challenges faced by humans require the implementation of a holistic vision of lifelong learning. Further dislocations will be caused by climate change, demographic shifts, and the transformation of the labor market through the 4IR. Therefore, the policy agenda needs to prioritize lifelong learning beyond the realms of education and labor market policies (UNESCO, 2020g).

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There is an urgent need to create a culture of lifelong learning. The initiative is based on the argument that creating a global culture of lifelong learning is key in addressing the challenges facing humanity, such as the climate crisis, technological and demographic changes, as well as those caused by the COVID-19 pandemic and the inequalities it has exacerbated. While it is recognized that the effects of COVID-19 on communities have been severe, they also provide the opportunity to consider how learning could better contribute to the creation of sustainable and inclusive societies in which people are engaged as active and global citizens. The expert survey, conducted by the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL), explored existing barriers and how participation could be promoted and services be made fairer, more open, and participatory. The work also contributed to the UNESCO Futures of Education initiative (UNESCO, 2019). Lifelong learning strengthens the ability to cope with change and shape the futures, which is paramount because of the disruptions and uncertainties posed by both the threats and the opportunities of demographic change, the climate crisis, rapid technological progress, and the COVID-19 pandemic (UNESCO, 2020g). The initiative reflects the potential contribution of lifelong learning to transforming education and creating a more sustainable, healthy, and inclusive future. It presents a compelling vision for lifelong learning as well as the values and principles that must underpin it. It calls on the international community to view education as having both public and private value and to recognize lifelong learning as a new human right. UIL Director David Atchoarena stated the following: We are emerging from a period characterized by an excessive focus on the vocational and skills dimensions of lifelong learning. Recognition of the complexity and multidimensional nature of the challenges facing humanity requires the restoration of a holistic vision of lifelong learning. …. As we anticipate further dislocations caused by the effects of climate change, demographic shifts and the fundamental transformation of the labor market brought about by the fourth industrial revolution, lifelong learning needs to be moved higher up the policy agenda, beyond the realms of education and labor market policies.

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The Lifelong Learning Report (UNESCO, 2020g) outlined the key features of the “enabling environment” needed to make lifelong learning the guiding principle of education and policy and to provide lifelong learning opportunities to people regardless of their background or context. Looking to the future, the report contains 10 key messages that are crucial for creating a culture of lifelong learning: • • • • • • • • • •

Recognize the holistic nature of lifelong learning. Promote transdisciplinary research and cross-sectoral collaboration for lifelong learning. Place disadvantaged groups at the heart of the lifelong learning agenda. Establish lifelong learning as a common good. Ensure better and equitable access to learning technologies. Transform schools and universities into lifelong learning institutions. Recognize and promote the collective dimension of learning. Encourage and support local lifelong learning initiatives, including learning cities. Revise and revitalize learning in the workplace. Recognize lifelong learning as a human right.

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UNESCO (2020g) emphasized that a vision of lifelong learning must be embedded in a broad understanding of the futures. Therefore, the consultation process was devoted to developing a collective vision that explored the potential of lifelong learning from the perspective of different disciplines. The vision focused simultaneously on the learner (i.e., motivation, skills, and ways of learning) and on the social dimensions of learning (i.e., learning as a collective endeavor that strengthens the sense of community). In 2050, the achievement of this vision will have resulted in a profound cultural transformation based on a strong awareness of the potentiality of learning. Societies will self-consciously aspire to be learning societies, and people will identify themselves as lifelong learners. Because an ethos of continuous learning will permeate all areas of life, education will be seen as much more than just completing a course. Lifelong learning will have fundamentally changed the way the typical life course is perceived and how people deal with its complexity. Learning pathways will no longer be tied to the categories of age and formal education. The life course will have become more diverse, and education and learning will occur throughout people’s lives. Formal, non-formal, and informal learning activities will permeate all aspects of life, including work, family, civic engagement, and leisure. Regardless of age, method, or context, learners will be able to learn whatever they want in order to update their knowledge or skills, adapt to an ever-changing environment, get a better job, or simply for the pleasure of expanding their skills or satisfying their curiosity. Learning to learn, managing a learning journey, and creating a learning biography will have become fundamental skills. Understanding that all levels of learning are learner-centered represents a crucial shift in fundamental assumptions about education and demand-led planning. Based on this understanding, learners are active agents rather than passive recipients of prescribed knowledge. They actively shape each learning process and its outcomes, and they use them to maximize their potential. To effectively support individuals in building their learning biographies, legal and other formal mechanisms have been established for the recognition, validation, and accreditation of learning outcomes acquired in different contexts. This has led to the democratization of negotiation processes and forums to balance individual and societal learning needs. Moreover, learning is understood as a collective process that takes place among peers, in communities, and across generations. Education emphasizes the development of global citizens who care about each other, other communities, and the planet. Consequently, lifelong learning is for all, and learning opportunities can be created for the most excluded learners. A global learning ecosystem is collectively built to inspire and empower learners by offering a wealth of opportunities. To strive for a culture of lifelong learning is to advance education policy and to provide real opportunities for people to learn throughout their lives. This learning ecosystem fluidly integrates different learning modalities, as well as blending formal, non-formal, and informal learning. Learning opportunities allow for planned or spontaneous and individual or collective learning. There is easy access to face-to-face and online learning opportunities because local infrastructure, global connectivity, and sponsored devices are available to all. In the paradigm of lifelong learning, diversity and multifaceted ways of learning are required at all levels, from beginners to very advanced, at a pace that suits the learner. Another issue is the need to ensure safety standards, which includes learning about risks and rights in the online world and improving both health and digital health literacy.

UNESCO OER Recommendation In November 2019, at the General Conference of UNESCO, their member states adopted the Recommendation on Implementation (OER), by which they agreed to further their commitment to the open 23

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sharing of knowledge and learning (UNESCO, 2019). This was an important milestone in the history and development of quality resources for all and for the advocates of open education. This recommendation was based on several conferences and declarations since 2002, when the term OER was coined at a UNESCO conference in Paris. Subsequently, the Paris Declaration (2012), Cape Town Open Education Declaration, Anniversary 10+ (2017), and Ljubljana Declaration (2017), were some important declarations. Since its adoption in November 2019, the definition of OER has been revised (UNESCO, 2019) to the following: OER are learning, teaching, and research materials in any format and medium, which are publicly available or are protected by copyright under an open license allowing free access, reuse, reuse, reutilization, adaptation, and redistribution by others. The definition of open license was also revised to the following: An open license refers to a license that respects the intellectual property rights of the copyright owner and provides permissions granting the public the rights to access, reuse, repurpose, adapt, and redistribute educational materials. OER offer promising solutions for accessing, creating, and sharing knowledge, as well as supporting learning at all grade levels. OER also offer benefits for teachers, teacher educators and trainers, parents, education policy makers, and government agencies (Butcher, 2015; Cape Town Open Education Declaration, 2007, 2017; Kawachi, 2014). They are also useful in a wide range of groups, including cultural institutions (e.g., libraries, archives, and museums) and their users, researchers, civil society organizations (e.g., professional and student associations), publishers, public and private sectors, intergovernmental organizations, copyright holders and authors, and media and broadcasting groups. OER can help to meet the needs of individual learners, including people with disabilities and those in marginalized or disadvantaged groups. They can be used to effectively promote gender equality and stimulate innovative pedagogical, didactic, and methodological approaches. In the framework of the OER Recommendation, the following five areas are the core: •

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•

•

Capacity building and use of OER: Develop the capacity of all key stakeholders in education to create, access, reuse, repurpose, adapt, and share OER and apply open licenses in a manner consistent with national copyright legislations and international obligations. Develop supportive policies: Governments and educational authorities and institutions should be encouraged to establish legal frameworks to support the open licensing of publicly funded educational and research materials and to develop policies that enable the use and adaptation of OER to support quality, inclusive education, and lifelong learning for all, supported by relevant research in this area. Ensure efective, inclusive, and equitable access to quality OER: Support the adoption of policies and programs, including relevant technology solutions, which ensure that OER in any medium are shared in open formats and standards to maximize equitable access, co-creation, curation, and searchability, including people in vulnerable groups and people with disabilities.

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• •

Promote the creation of sustainability models for OER: Support and promote the creation of sustainability models for OER at national, regional, and institutional levels, as well as the planning and testing of new sustainable forms of education and learning. Promote and facilitate international collaboration: Support international collaboration among stakeholders to minimize unnecessary duplications of OER investments and develop a global pool of culturally diverse, locally relevant, gender-sensitive, accessible educational materials in multiple languages and formats.

To support member states in successfully implementing the OER Recommendation, the UNESCO OER Dynamic Coalition was launched in March 2020 (UNESCO, 2020f). This Coalition is a multistakeholder group of partners dedicated to sharing expertise on the implementation, and to support collaborative actions of the OER Recommendation. The implementation of the OER Recommendation will contribute to the achievement of at least six SDGs: SDG 4 (quality education); SDG 5 (gender equality); SDG 9 (industry, innovation, and infrastructure); SDG 10 (reduce inequalities within and between countries); SDG 16 (peace, justice, and strong institutions); and SDG 17 (partnerships to achieve these goals) (UNESCO, 2020). Because access to quality OER concerns human rights and social justice, this recommendation is vital.

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Support Learning and Knowledge Sharing Due to the COVID-19 Crisis In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, UNESCO launched a call to support learning and knowledge sharing through OER worldwide. As discussed above, the adoption of OER is one of the few available ways to successfully achieve SDG4, which is quality education for all. The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a paradigm shift in the ways in which learners of all ages access learning. It is therefore more necessary than ever for the global community to collaborate in promoting the universal access to information and knowledge through OER. The joint actions in the call were aimed to address the challenges to learners of this and future pandemics, as well as to lay the foundation for the systematic integration of best practices to improve knowledge sharing in the future of learning after the COVID-19 pandemic (UNESCO, 2020). The call stimulated the implementation of the OER recommendation described above. This call highlighted the important roles of the recently launched COVID-19 Global Education Coalition and the Dynamic OER Coalition. The UNESCO Global Education Coalition, which focuses on the development and deployment of inclusive distance learning solutions, emphasizes the importance of the access to OER, which is fundamental in ensuring the continuity of learning. Therefore, in the spirit of the collaborative implementation of the OER Recommendation, UNESCO has called on the global community to support the use of OER in open exchanges of learning and knowledge worldwide to build inclusive, sustainable, and resilient knowledge societies.

The Commonwealth of Learning The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) is closely aligned with UNESCO. Its mandate is to empower people through learning that leads to economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection. COL has launched several initiatives in the areas of open education and leadership, such as the Digital Education Leadership Training in Action (C-DELTA) program, which was a finalist in the Falling Walls

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2020 Award in the Digital Education category. They have also launched several initiatives for the pandemic and post-pandemic periods.

OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030 The OECD’s initiative, the Future of Education and Skills 2030 (OECD, 2020), aims to help education systems determine the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values that students need to succeed in and shape their futures. Their initiative is aimed at creating a shared understanding of the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values that students will need in the 21st century, Figure 2). Figure 2. Future of education and skills 2030

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Source: OECD

The OECD learning and teaching framework Compass 2030 which is illustrated in Figure 3, concerns the future of education. Compass 2030 builds on the following questions: How can we prepare students for jobs that do not yet exist, for societal challenges we cannot yet imagine, and for the use of technologies that have not yet been invented? How can we prepare students to thrive in an interconnected world where they must understand and value diverse perspectives and worldviews, interact respectfully with others, and act responsibly for sustainability and collective wellbeing? The answers to such questions are not simple. One answer is that the urgent need to open a global discussion on education must be recognized. The initiative focused initial on curriculum redesign and the development of a conceptual framework for learning in 2030, as change begins with the curriculum. As illustrated in Figure 3, knowledge, values, skills and attitudes form the core of the OECD’s Compass 2030 It is also obvious that one aim is to achieve wellbeing by 2030. The learning compass is based on a circular approach to action, reflection, and anticipation.

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Figure 3. OECD learning compass 2030. Source: OECD

Based on new data from different areas of science and innovation policy, the OECD showed what challenges innovation systems are facing in the current economic crisis and what governments can do to improve their resilience and preparedness for future crises (OECD, 2020).

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European Commission In 2011, the EC identified, understood, and visualized the major changes necessary to achieve learning in the future, to contribute to social cohesion, socioeconomic inclusion, and economic growth (Redecker et al., 2011). According to the vision, already in 2011, personalization, collaboration, and informalization (i.e., informal learning) are at the heart of learning in the future. These concepts are not new in education and training, but they must become the central guiding principle in the organization of learning and teaching in the futures. The central learning paradigm is characterized by lifelong and life-wide learning that is shaped by the ubiquity of information and communication technologies (ICT). To achieve the goals of personalized, collaborative, and informalized learning, holistic changes must be made (e.g., curricula, pedagogy, assessment, leadership, teacher training, etc.). Mechanisms must be developed to achieve flexible and purposeful lifelong learning and to support the recognition of informally acquired skills (Bjursell, 2020).

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In addition, the EC proposed a vision of the European Education Area (EEA) to be achieved by 2025. The Commission proposed new initiatives, higher investment, and greater cooperation between member states so that Europeans of all ages will benefit from the EU’s rich education and training offerings. The Communication on the EEA (2020) described how cooperation would further improve the quality, inclusiveness, and digital green dimensions of member states’ education systems, based on the freedom of learners and teachers to learn and work across the continent and the freedom of institutions to network freely across Europe and beyond. The EEA is based on six dimensions: quality, inclusion and gender equality, green and digital transition, teachers, higher education, and a stronger Europe in the world. The initiatives include how to improve quality, with particular regard to basic skills and digital literacy, how to make school education more inclusive and gender-sensitive, and how to improve school performance. These dimensions help strengthen the understanding of climate change and sustainability, promote the greening of education infrastructure, support the teaching profession, develop European universities, and improve connectivity between educational and training institutions. In 2020, when Europe was closed because of the COVID-19 pandemic, young people were the first to feel the effects. To avoid lasting effects on young people’s lives, the European Commission proposed new measures in September 2020 and adopted two initiatives to strengthen the contributions of education and training to the EU’s recovery from the pandemic and help build a green and digital Europe. The EC established a vision and milestones to achieve the EEA by 2025. (European Commission, 2020). Young people have a strong interest in the future of education and training. According to the 2019 Eurobarometer survey, they consider education and training among the highest three priorities of the EU, as well as the green transition and tackling inequalities. The EEA by 2025 will build on and develop the following concrete actions: develop European higher education institutions; automatic recognition of qualifications and knowledge acquired abroad in all member states; improve language learning; embed common values; strengthen the quality of early childhood education and care; increase the employability of graduates; support the acquisition of key competences; and strengthen digital learning. The Commission also adopted the Digital Education Action Plan (DEAP) 2021–2027 (2020 September 30) as part of the education package to reflect the lessons learned from the coronavirus crisis and develop a plan for a high-performing digital education ecosystem with digital skills improved for the digital transformation. The updated DEAP incorporates the lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic and from open public consultation in which the Lifelong Learning Platform participated. It set out a long-term vision with two strategic priorities and 14 actions to achieve them: support the development of a high-performing digital education ecosystem and improve digital skills and competences for the digital transformation. The COVID-19 pandemic has revealed that we are not prepared for digital transformation in sectors such as education and training. However, it has also shown the need and willingness of stakeholders such as education and training providers to embrace the digital transformation. Hence, the DEAP takes into account short-term needs related to the pandemic, in addition to a broader, longer-term perspective in the form of the two strategic priorities. Two tracks are emphasized:

Inclusion to Bridge the Digital Divide The COVID-19 crisis and the sudden, unexpected shift to online and distance learning have revealed the barriers of inequality in society. During this crisis, a better understanding emerged regarding the 28

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barriers to digital learning, which went beyond a lack of digital skills to include the lack of stable broadband access, the lack of electronic devices, and the lack of a quiet place to study. Unsurprisingly, these barriers have been the most pronounced in households with lower socioeconomic means and among learners in disadvantaged groups. In effect, vulnerable groups became even more vulnerable, and the digital divide increased. Striving to include all learners, regardless of background, requires targeting interventions that benefit disadvantaged learners. Hence, there are calls for greater attention to how non-formal and informal education and training providers contribute to reaching hard-to-reach learners. The mastery of basic skills is critical for inclusion. As mentioned in the European Commission’s 2017 statement on Reimagining Education for the Digital Age, advanced or new digital skills depend on basic skills, which remains a problem in the EU. To ensure that all learners have equal opportunities, it is crucial that this gap be closed.

Mental Health and Wellbeing Online In the ECs public consultation for feedback on the DEAP, civil society organizations, such as the Lifelong Learning Program (LLLP) and its members, emphasized the need for guidance and focus on mental health support during the COVID-19 pandemic. Action needs to be taken to support learners, staff, and the community in maintaining mental health and wellbeing. The reference to mental health is also relevant in the context of digital education outside the COVID-19 pandemic, as there is evidence that digital technologies negatively affect human wellbeing, particularly in younger people. The EC therefore suggested that DigiComp should be updated to include mental health as well as artificial intelligence (European Commission, 2020).

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World Economic Forum A study by WEF (2021) entitled, “Reimagining the future of skills: What do young people think?” found that COVID-19 has cast a long shadow on the future of young people around the world For children and young people who want to acquire education and skills, COVID-19 has worsened the current crisis. Before the pandemic, they faced a growing mismatch between the skills they learned in school and those needed for employment. At present, in the shadow of COVID-19, more than a billion students are not in school. Moreover, millions of young people who should be entering the workforce are not finding jobs. The WEF stressed that this moment is an important opportunity to rethink how and what education and skills are taught to prepare students for the rapidly changing world of work. However, governments and businesses cannot tackle this problem alone. There is a need for collaboration, networking, and coordinated action on how education and skills systems can be redesigned to meet the demands of the present and the future. Four key principles were identified to guide such changes: •

Modern skills: A gap exists between 20th-century teachers who teach 21st-century students, which resembles a gap of 100 years. Schools and universities do not resonate with young people, equip them with the right skills, or teach in a way that optimizes the use of modern technology. Educators need to be aware that curricula are outdated. Moreover, companies play an important role in knowing what skills are lacking in their employees because they can advise educators about skills that are relevant.

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•

•

•

Soft skills: Young people need strong communication and advocacy skills so they can demand what they need to drive change. To succeed in the workplace of the future, young people need strong soft skills, such as communication, critical thinking, and resilience, and they need to keep learning throughout their lives. There are needs to stop thinking that skills require high-level academic knowledge; instead, human skills should ber concidered. This crisis will lead to a new and more responsible economy that is not based on proft-making. To achieve this economy, people with strong soft skills are needed. Digital connectivity and digital learning: This crisis have taught us that online learning is possible. It has taught us how to use online tools to share, teach, and learn skills. Another theme is a strong emphasis on the potential of digital connectivity and online learning to widen the access to opportunities for young people around the world. There is a need to reshape the future of skills and enable diverse online learning. By ensuring that every young person everywhere has access to a mobile phone and the Internet, we can create an equitable future. Reaching vulnerable communities. Key issues are access and the decentralization of education and understanding that it extends beyond the classroom to those who are struggling. On the corporate side, opportunities must be available for people in vulnerable areas.

In summary, at stake is a future in which young persons never feel that they are limited because of their circumstances. No ability is unattainable because young persons do not know who they are or where they are. Furthermore, WEF (2021) has argued that technological innovations are changing education and updating the skills required for today’s workplace. Building sustainable education systems requires designing curricula that suit the 21st century, in addition to the consistent delivery of basic education that provides a solid foundation for a lifetime of adapting and developing new skills. Specialized training should be focused on in-demand skills, and it should address the mismatch between employers’ requirements and existing training. In addition, digital literacy and Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) skills, educational innovation, lifelong learning pathways, and 21st century curricula are critical in post-pandemic and crisis periods.

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Gartner Gartner (2020a) emphasized the importance of preparing for the long-term implications of COVID-19 and the “next normal” in higher education. Gartner has advocated preparation for the next normal by digitally adapting business models and addressing the question of why it is imperative to move from cohort key performance indicators (KPI) to competency KPIs. The implications of the COVID-19 pandemic for higher education are still unclear, and they will continue to unfold over the next few years. However, the next normal is already emerging, and it will have implications for higher education, business models, operating models, and product portfolios. In addition, Garter (2020b) suggested that the current world context has forced organizations to make better-informed and faster decisions to survive in a rapidly changing environment. As organizations begin to transition from the recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic to the next normal, many are focused on the near future and on leveraging the changes made in organizations during the pandemic. One reason that digital business strategies will be different in the post-pandemic period than they were before the pandemic is the pace of adoption. Because of the potentially short window of opportunity before a resurgence of the virus or a related crisis, businesses need to act quickly. Digitalization is 30

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not new, but acceleration is critical. The concern is about the urgent adoption of established patterns, many of which are digital, in addition to patterns of psychology (how do we survive?), organization (do we equip people with the best skills and cohorts?), and governance (do we need so many rituals or can we move faster?). In addition, Gartner has argued that organizations need to change immediately to sustain their business now and in the future. When the economy is doing as well as it has been over the last decade, companies have not had to make difficult decisions or deal with fundamental failures. Business and operating models before the COVID-19 pandemic could probably be improved by certain digitization efforts, but why change something that works well enough? Now the path is clear: accelerate digital business or risk failure. Companies need to make better-informed, faster decisions and focus on automation, realtime risk assessment and mitigation, continuous value creation, and agile strategy development. These changes are imperative. Acceleration is experienced in the search for new solutions in the face of broken assumptions. Disruption is useful because it drives progress. Now is the time to do things better instead of falling back on what worked previously. Over time, new business practices will be developed that were forever changed by the COVID-19 pandemic.

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GLOBAL CHALLENGES FOR EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP DURING CRISES In the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, universities are looking ahead to define their priorities for the next 10 years. The world is facing immense challenges, such as finding a sustainable balance between environmental, economic, and social concerns, digital transformation, and (geo) political uncertainty. Because being at a turning point and a time of transformation in society and universities, it is important to take a step back and think strategically about the future. The European University Association (EUA) conducted a large-scale consultation process that included more than 100 experts and visionaries and a wide range of external stakeholders (Jørgensen & Claeys-Kulik, 2021). Their key questions were the following: What should universities in Europe look like in 10 years’ time? What role should they play in society, and how should their missions evolve? What are the core values and the key conditions that we need to maintain? The result was Universities Without Walls: A Vision for 2030, which provides inspiration and guidance to university leaders and academic communities. It is a call to strengthen the role of universities in society and an invitation to all stakeholders to join forces in deeper and more impactful collaboration. At the heart of this vision are openness and engagement based on the core academic values of respect for knowledge and evidence, critical thinking, open debate, scientific rigor, integrity, and ethics, in which academic freedom and institutional autonomy are essential components. To enable the transition to distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, it has been necessary for teachers in all educational institutions to work collaboratively. Rapid support for professional learning has been needed to quickly develop teachers’ ability to participate in the digital transformation. Leadership has also embraced a collaborative approach in preparing for crises, which includes forward thinking, being highly responsive, and focusing on value-based and morally grounded leadership (Gurr, 2020). At the International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE) President Forum 2020 addressed upcoming challenges to leaders in providing resilient education. Several key themes were suggested which impacts the delivery of education, according to Gjeldsvik (2020), the most pressing challenges across global regions were the following: 31

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Figure 4. Resilient leadership.

Source: Ossiannilsson (2020d, 2021b)

• • • • • • • • •

Environmental and human factors Socioeconomic factors Equity Infrastructure and connectivity leading to greater inequalities in access to education, and already marginalized groups of learners sufered the most Financial challenges, particularly in relation to infrastructure and connectivity The reputations of online and distance learning were damaged by poor quality distance education. Mental health issues in students and staf The lack of capacity building and support systems in educational ecosystems Policy and regulatory areas

Gjeldsvik (2020) summarized that regarding needs, leadership was at the top of the agenda. In crises, leaders must know how to “pivot,” which was described as “leadership agility.” Some of the proposed solutions to the main challenges were the following: •

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• • •

Recalibration of curricula and assessments to develop new ways of teaching and learning; OER and a culture of sharing are important parts of the solution. Partnerships between the public and private sectors to invest in the necessary infrastructure and equipment. Partnerships between the education and industrial sectors to identify value propositions for both sectors to achieve lifelong learning, relevant training and retraining, new credentials and skills validation, and employability in an ever-changing labor market. Prioritizing advocacy and political infuence in relation to ope, distance, and fexible learning quality and the overall societal value proposition.

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To face such challenges, resilient leadership was emphasized and valued as crucial. Resilient leadership includes and empowers people, processes, cultures, and systems, as shown in Figure 4 (Ossiannilsson, 2020d, 2021b). Based on Khan’s framework of the three Ps, People, processes and products (Kahn, 2014), Ossiannilsson (2020d, 2021b) argued for a eight-P framework of resilient education and leadership: people, process, promise, participation, policy, partnership, products, and prospective, as illustrated in Figure 5. Figure 5. The 8-P framework of resilient education.

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Source: Ossiannilsson (2020d, 2021b)

Resilient leadership might comprise the COVID leadership framework, (Happier, 2020, personal communication) which includes Communication, Opportunities, Visions, Impact, and Development. In addition, there might be three perspectives to consider, which should be both differentiated and embraced: i.e., how we think the future will be, how we want the future to be, and what the future can be. Leadership at all levels—macro, meso, and micro—has been crucial during the pandemic. Singer (2020) pointed out that a new human-centered approach to technology could and should start by considering what we learn in our schools and universities, and it should be related to interventions, such as changing technology education, to align with political, economic, cultural, and humanist thinking. This approach would lead to clarifying what is mean by design and digital literacy and how they are empowered in curricula and course design. Finally, universities need to focus on professionalization. Leadership should be inclusive, diverse, communicative, and transparent, and leaders must be willing to embrace their roles, and empower others. Similarly, the professionalization of staff will continue to be important in supporting key objectives, such as equality, diversity, and open data management.

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SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Open education has a long history, and it gained increasing attention in 2020 as educators responded to the COVID-19 pandemic. Its potential benefits often emerge in three areas: widening the access to education; improving pedagogy; and promoting equal opportunities. In April 2020, UNESCO called on the global community to support the use of OER to build inclusive, sustainable, and resilient knowledge societies. Because local and global inequalities have been dramatically exposed during the COVID-19 pandemic, OER and open education practices (OEP) have facilitated practical and equitable approaches to learning, teaching, and assessment in our respective contexts (Huang et al., 2020; Ossiannilsson et al., 2020). The pandemic has also brought the adoption of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC) from the margin to the center of the educational field. According to Coursera (2020), the rise and scale of MOOCS has increased enormously, and they estimated that more than 1.6 million learners around the world have benefited from partner contributions to Coursera’s response to the pandemic In the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, the lack of resilience was obvious. Companies scrambled to respond to new and unforeseen challenges, and many businesses failed. Many leaders were forced to reassess, realign, and transform in preparation for whatever came next: a world still struggling to recover from the crisis, or a world transformed by science and technology and ready for the future (Diana, n.d.). It is obvious that transformation requires a holistic approach to a networked system. According to Diana, transforming means changing form, appearance, structure, condition, nature, or character. Change is nothing new; however, the dynamics of what is certain to be a more volatile and complex future, triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic, should compel us all to change. The pandemic has underscored that the world has become a complex, interconnected system. In such systems, the understanding of the individual parts does not automatically lead to the understanding of the behavior of the whole system, which increases the importance of a holistic, systemic approach. With the high degree of uncertainty and the speed at which change is likely, holistic adaptation is the only way to survive in such an environment. Innovations in pedagogy is cruial. Kukulska-Hulme et al. (2021) proposed raising awareness of the role of attitudes and emotions in teaching and learning. They argued that educators want their students to pay attention in class, but ideally, they want that students should have the right attitude, and they should be fully engaged and deeply immersed in their learning experience, which would lead to higher levels of achievement and satisfaction. As a pedagogy, gratitude suggests considering attitude to improve wellbeing, relationships, and learning. Practicing gratitude has been shown to lead to improving students’ ability to focus on class and remain resilient in the face of adversity, as well as helping teachers to better cope with stress. This approach seems germane in times of adversity, and the positive feelings it generates could counteract the emotional anxiety and cognitive stress caused by uncertainty and insecurity during the current pandemic. Research has indicated that people learn the best when they are in a mental state that makes learning easier or more enjoyable. Therefore, they emphasized that in the best learning moments, learners utilize heightened attention and engagement, which signal positive mental states that can lead to enjoyable and effective learning. The idea of “best learning moments” builds on the psychological concept of cognitive absorption or “flow,” which is defined as deep involvement or immersion in an activity or task often accompanied by feelings of enjoyment. In addition, they advocated social justice and student engagement. Some suggested pedagogical interventions, including providing equitable opportunities and enabling greater student participation in open and distance learning contexts.. Equityfocused pedagogy emphasizes inclusivity and extends beyond opening up access to education by asking how every student in a class, cohort, or program could achieve similar positive outcomes regardless of 34

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their background and characteristics, such as gender, disability, or ethnicity. The pedagogical focus on equity requires teachers to really listen to students and challenges them to address inequities that may arise in tests and assessments and the unequal access to and skills in technology. One way to work toward equity is through student-designed teaching and learning, which could lead to greater student ownership and better relationships among students and between students and teachers. Other innovations are related to enriched realities. Already at the beginning of online and distance education, Holmberg (1983, 2005) and Moore (1989) emphasized the importance of human interaction as crucial in learning, as well as the need to improve technology.

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Pivoting to the Next Normal State Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the present era is a pivotal moment in history. While a turbulent and tragic 2020 has heralded an uncertain 2021, one thing is clear: it will be a decidedly digital year. Because the dramatic shift to living and working online has accelerated changes across the business landscape, there are both opportunities and challenges. It is a historic moment in finding a new global trend in dealing with the current situation and redefining the futures in the post-COVID-19 era. The COVID-19 pandemic sounded a global alarm to change educational paradigms and the way the world is perceived. Not surprisingly, the pandemic has changed the way the concept of normal is interpreted, as well as the way life has been lived will be lived in the future (Ossiannilsson & Sandström, 2020). Bozkurt and Sharma (2020) emphasized that “normal” is relative. Currently, various definitions of normal now abound, such as normal, new normal, and next normal. Nevertheless, it is important to understand that what is “new normal” in one circumstance may be “normal” in another. Similarly, “normal” and “new normal” in some circumstances may be the “next normal” in others. These variations in the concept of normal suggest that most individuals are now living through an unprecedented time that is marked by major shifts in understanding and interpreting life. Education has changed and will continue to change, particularly in teaching and learning. Despite the multitude of written and oral arguments that have already been made on this subject, there is uncertainty about what the future will bring forward, which means that now is the time to ask what is past, what is present, and what is next? Understanding that the world, particularly education, will never be the same, it is wise to address some of the most critical issues in the educational landscape by focusing on lessons learned in both the past and the present. New interpretations of such lessons must be made to ensure a solid future. Ossiannilsson and Sandström, (2020) argued that the new normal will be about adaptation, ecosystem, sustainability, and resilience. A common strategy during the crises has been to maintain quality education for learners. In addition, it became clear that in the post-pandemic period, different skills would be needed. Xie and Li (2020) have focused on accessibility, affordability, accountability, sustainability, and social justice in the future of education. Bozkurt et al. (2020) argued for a crucial difference between emergency distance education and planned and deliberate quality distance education, the latter strategy being the most desirable for all stakeholders. Ossiannilsson (2020a, 2021b) argued for the next normal and the importance of resilient strategies built on social justice, strategic leadership, and student engagement. She also emphasized the importance of communication, emotional intelligence, diversity, teamwork skills, ethics, and core values in ensuring social justice and human rights. In their study on the labor market, Carnevale, Peltier, and Campbell (2020) identified that the basic competencies of the workforce are communication, teamwork, sales, customer service, leadership, prob35

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lem solving, and complex thinking. They also emphasized the challenges and opportunities related to developing skills and dispositions that were transferable across multiple careers, flexibility, resilience, self-confidence, and initiatives in the face of career uncertainty. Sir J. Daniel (2020, September 14, personal communication) argued in favor of three assumptions to which higher education should adhere: resilience in crises, the capacity to change to online operations, and student access to online education. Resilience has been placed high on the list of qualities required in the emerging post-pandemic future (Diana, n.d.;; Ossiannilsson, 2020). It has been defined as the ability to recover quickly from difficulty and the ability to absorb and respond to sudden shocks and regain momentum. Diana argued that the stable and predictable environment during previous decades has given way to a new norm. The new era brings with its unprecedented challenges and shifts. The COVID-19 pandemic has served as an undeniable accelerant that has driven all sectors and organizations to transform. There will be intense pressure to intelligently establish an adaptive core and a capable edge to drive resilience. Resilience must become a high strategic priority because turbulent times, uncertainty, and new opportunities require us to be adaptable and evolve.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The COVID-19 pandemic has affected student learning on an unprecedented global scale. Education systems have responded to this crisis in varying ways. Some have implemented homeschooling programs and distance learning and offered free online resources, while others have delivered paper-based assignments to students’ homes or used public TV and broadcast channels. However, systematic, efficient, and scientifically collected first-hand information is still lacking, which is needed to assess the extent to which teaching, and learning have been challenged, continued, and adapted as a result of the current crisis. The pandemic has led to a paradigm shift in how learners of all ages access learning around the world. It is therefore more necessary than ever for the global community to collaborate in promoting universal access to information and knowledge through OER. UNESCO (2020d) argued that joint action is aimed at addressing the challenges of this and future pandemic crises to learners as well as to lay the foundation for the systematic integration of best practices to increase knowledge sharing in the post-pandemic future of learning. The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) and UNESCO, in collaboration with the EC, conducted a survey on responses to an educational disruption to provide a comprehensive picture of the impact of COVID-19 on global education. The survey was part of a collective effort under the UNESCO Global Education Coalition, to facilitate inclusive learning opportunities for children and youth in the context of educational disruption and to establish approaches to developing open and resilient education systems in the future. The findings of REDS are germane to SDG4, which seeks to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education for all, particularly subgoals 4.1 and 4.4. The findings may also provide an opportunity to reconceptualize the purpose, role, content, and delivery of education in the future. The study aimed to identify sustainable, transformative approaches that have emerged from the crisis and that could serve to inform good practice as schools reopen, and intended to serve as a valuable resource to inform policymakers and practitioners about the need for resilient education systems in the future.

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 Resilient Sustainable Education for the Future of Education

Based on the current situation, the post-pandemic and ongoing global research and initiatives, a framework for resilient education is shown in Figure 6. The framework contextualizes and prescribes post-crisis resilient and agile approaches. Figure 6. Toward a framework of resilient education

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CONCLUSION According to Jørgensen and Claeys-Kulik (2021), the universities of the future will be open, transformative, and transnational in building partnerships with a wide range of local and international stakeholders. Their nature and structure will be hybrid, combining physical and virtual spaces in a holistic learning and research environment that addresses the needs of a diverse university community. Higher education has a key role to play in addressing global challenges, such as poverty and climate change, by directly advocating the universal values of human dignity, as well as the values of science and research. UNESCO’s Education Chief, Stefania Giannini, argued that competition between universities and between countries is increasingly over human capital. Countries that attract talented and highly skilled people and give them opportunities to improve their skills will be the most competitive. Although globalization has allowed people to live, learn, and work in different countries, many ordinary people now perceive that it has been accompanied by challenges.

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Perhaps it is now time to return to a universal perspective based on human dignity, respect, tolerance, and shared knowledge of cultures and religions. This is a dimension in which education, and specifically higher education, can play a crucial role. Higher education … is a “fundamental human right” and more than ever, education is the most important infrastructure for building sustainable development and a sustainable society and should “contribute to society as a whole.” (Giannini, 2015) Higher education institutions are critical in advancing inclusive national and regional development and in shaping resilient and inclusive societies. They are inextricably linked to shaping the economic, social, and environmental fabric of our world. Higher education has a leading role to play in understanding and finding solutions to the challenges that affect all countries, including the ethical dimension. Motivation and leadership are more important than ever in managing the upheavals affecting higher education today. Leaders must focus the energies of diverse groups and channel them into swift, decisive actions. Moreover, the skills that have served leaders in the past must be applied in new ways, and reskilling and upskilling are required by both leaders and managers. To achieve resilient educational systems in the future, what we want may also be of value in empowering the specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and time-bound (SMART) approach. It is crucial to support workforces in preparing for new and more skilled roles, as competition for talent will become even fiercer in the near future. There is a need for employees to take personal responsibility for their learning journeys and embrace the concept of lifelong learning. The demands of the labor market are very much on “just for me” and “just in time learning” as well as microlearning (Corbeil, Kahn, & Corbeil, 2020; Fifilan, 2019). Education and training providers have to keep pace with this unprecedented change. Additionally, curriculum re design to the demands of 4IR is major challenge because it involves complex decision-making processes and various administrative hurdles. Many departments and faculties are still dominated by traditional approaches and subject-specific “silo thinking,” whereas the new industrial age requires new ways of thinking and visionary leadership. To strive for a culture of lifelong learning is to advance education policy and provide real opportunities for people to learn throughout their lives (Bjursell, 2020). To achieve this culture, universities need innovative business models. The pursuit of sustainability will be another key feature of universities in 2030. Universities will make sustainability an integral part of their missions in learning and teaching, research, innovation, and culture. The civic functions of universities must be given priority. Universities are at the forefront of promoting a public debate on the respect for evidence-based arguments. Universities need to encourage staff engagement, and learners and researchers need to connect with society in building bridges with other communities, external partners, and citizens, all of whom must be welcomed as active participants in university activities. Universities and the academic community need to reach out, open doors, and collaborate with society and the external world. The social ethical and moral dimensions of learning and education need to be taken seriously because they are at the top of the social justice and human rights agenda. Only then can resilient, sustainable education be achieved in line with the global major initiatives referred to and discussed in this chapter.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-forprofit sectors. 38

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REFERENCES Bates, T. (2020, July 27). Research reports on COVID-19 and emergency remote learning/online learning [Web log message]. https://www.tonybates.ca/2020/07/27/research-reports-on-covid-19-and-emergencyremote-learning-online-learning/ Bjursell, C. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic as disjuncture: Lifelong learning in a context of fear. International Review of Education, 66(5-6), 673–689. Advance online publication. doi:10.100711159020-09863-w PMID:33144741 Bozkurt, A., Jung, I., Xiao, J., Vladimirschi, V., Schuwer, R., Egorov, G., Lambert, S., Al-Freih, M., Pete, J., Olcott, D. Jr, Rodes, V., Aranciaga, I., Bali, M., Alvarez, A. J., Roberts, J., Pazurek, A., Raffaghelli, J. E., Panagiotou, N., de Coëtlogon, P., ... Paskevicius, M. (2020). A global outlook to the interruption of education due to COVID-19 pandemic: Navigating in a time of uncertainty and crisis. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 1–126. http://asianjde.org/ojs/index.php/AsianJDE/article/view/462 Bozkurt, A., & Sharma, R. C. (2020). Education in normal, new normal, and next normal: Observations from the past, insights from the present and projections for the future. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(2), i–x. https://www.asianjde.org/ojs/index.php/AsianJDE/article/view/512 Butcher, N. (2015). A basic guide to open educational resources (OER). Report for the Commonwealth of Learning and UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002158/215804e.pdf Cape Town Open Education Declaration. (2007). Cape Town open education declaration: Unlocking the promise of open educational resources. https://www.capetowndeclaration.org/read-the-declaration Cape Town Open Education Declaration. (2017). Cape Town open education declaration: 10th Anniversary. Ten directions to move open education forward. https://www.capetowndeclaration.org/cpt10/ Carnevale, A., Peltier, M., & Campbell, K. (2020). Workplace basics: The competencies employers want. Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce. https://www.luminafoundation. org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/workplace-basics.pdf Corbeil, J. R., Kahn, B. H., & Corbeil, M. E. (Eds.). (2020). Microlearning in the digital age: The design and delivery of learning snippets. Routledge.

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Diana, F. (n.d.). Why resilience is imperative in a post-pandemic world. https://www.tcs.com/perspectives/articles/why-resilience-is-imperative-in-a-post-pandemic-world European Commission. (2020a). Young people shaping the future of education in Europe: Video conference on the European Education Area. https://ec.europa.eu/education/events/young-people-shaping-thefuture-of-education-in-europe-video-conference-on-the-european-education-area_en European Commission. (2020b). Achieving a European Education Area by 2025 and resetting education and training for the digital age. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_20_1743 European Commission. (2020c). European Education Area. https://ec.europa.eu/education/educationin-the-eu/european-education-area_en

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Fifilan, K. (2019, September 3). Could micro-learning make employees more engaged? HR learning and development. https://www.raconteur.net/hr/micro-learning-engagement?utm_source=email&utm_ medium=Newsletter&utm_campaign=Weekly&utm_term=July-23&utm_content=1 Gartner. (2020a). Prepare for the long-term impacts of COVID-19 and the next normal in higher education. https://www.gartner.com/en/webinars/3986713/prepare-for-the-long-term-impacts-of-covid-19and-the-next-norma Gartner. (2020b, September 10). The current world context is pushing organizations to make betterinformed, faster decisions to survive in a rapidly changing environment. https://www.gartner.com/ smarterwithgartner/why-now-is-the-time-to-accelerate-digital/ Gjeldsvik, T. (2020). Secretary General’s summary of the ICDE Presidents’ Forum 2020. https://www. icde.org/icde-news/summary-of-pf2020. Gurr, D. (2020). Academia letters. Educational leadership and the pandemic. Holmberg, B. (1983). Guided didactic conversation in distance education. In D. Sewart, D. Keegan, & B. Holmberg (Eds.), Distance education: International perspectives (pp. 114–122). Croom Helm; Routledge. Routledge Holmberg. B. (2005). The evolution, principles and practices of distance education (vol 11). Oldenburg: BIS Studien und berichte der Arbeitsstelle Fernstudienforschung der Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg. Huang, R., Liu, D., Tlili, A., Knyazeva, S., Chang, T. W., Zhang, X., Burgos, D., Jemni, M., Zhang, M., Zhuang, R., & Holotescu, C. (2020). Guidance on open educational practices during school closures: Utilizing OER under COVID-19 pandemic in line with UNESCO OER recommendation. Smart Learning Institute of Beijing Normal University. Inamorato Dos Santos, A., Punie, Y., & Castaño-Muñoz, J. (2016). The OpenEdu framework. Joint Research Center. Jørgensen, T., & Claeys-Kulik, A-L. (2021, February 6). What does the future hold for Europe’s universities? University World News. Kahn, B. H. (2010). The global e-learning framework. Academic Press.

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Kahn, B. H. (2014). Continuum in e-learning: People, process and product (P3). https://elearningindustry. com/continuum-in-e-learning-people-process-and-product-p3 Kahn. B. H. (2020). E-learning framework and models. Academic Press. Kawachi, P. (2014). Quality assurance guidelines for open educational resources: TIPS framework. CEMCA. Kukulska-Hulme, A., Bossu, C., Coughlan, T., Ferguson, R., FitzGerald, E., Gaved, M., Herodotou, C., Rienties, B., Sargent, J., Scanlon, E., Tang, J., Wang, Q., Whitelock, D., & Zhang, S. (2021). Innovating pedagogy 2021: Open University innovation report 9. The Open University. http://www.open.ac.uk/ blogs/innovating/

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Moore, M. (1989). Three types of interaction. American Journal of Distance Education, 3(2), 1–7. doi:10.1080/08923648909526659 O’Malley, B. (2018, December 16). Higher education role is to reassert universal values. University World News. OECD. (2020, June 29). Education and COVID-19: Focusing on the long-term impact of school closures. OECD. OECD. (2020). The OECD learning compass. https://www.oecd.org/education/2030-project/teachingand-learning/learning/ OECD. (2021). Impacts of COVID-19: How STI systems responded to the crisis, and the challenges that lie ahead. OECD Directorate for Science, Technology and Innovation, and ACRL/Choice for a presentation of the key findings from the new STI Outlook. https://www.choice360.org/webinars/impacts-ofcovid-19-how-sti-systems-responded-to-the-crisis-and-the-challenges-that-lie-ahead/ Ossiannilsson, E. (2012). Benchmarking e-learning in higher education: Lessons learned from international projects (Doctoral dissertation). Oulu University, Finland. Ossiannilsson, E. (2019). OER and OEP for access, equity, equality, quality, inclusiveness, and empowering lifelong learning. The International Journal of Open Educational Resources, 1(2). Advance online publication. doi:10.18278/ijoer.1.2.9 Ossiannilsson, E. (2020a). After Covid-19: Some challenges for universities. In A. Tlili, D. Burgos, & A. Tabacco (Eds.), Education in a crisis context: COVID-19 as an opportunity for global learning. Springer. Ossiannilsson, E. (2020b). Online open pedagogy and management. In F. Altinay & Z. Altinay (Eds.), Online pedagogy and management for smart societies. Pegem Akademi. doi:10.14527/9786257052498.02 Ossiannilsson, E. (2020c). Quality models for open, flexible, and online learning. Journal of Computer Science Research, 2(4). Ossiannilsson, E. (2020d). Reflection on 21st century competences, smart learning environments, and digitalization in education. Near East University Online Journal of Education – NEUJE. http://dergi. neu.edu.tr/index.php/neuje/article/view/244 Ossiannilsson, E. (2021a). OER: Open to ideas, open to the world. Manuscript submitted for publication.

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Ossiannilsson, E. (2021b). The new normal: Post COVID-19 is about change and sustainability. Near East University Online Journal of Education – NEUJE. Ossiannilsson, E., Glapa-Grossklag, J., & Zhang, X. (2019, November). Opening pathways for access, inclusion, flexibility, and quality. Paper presented at the ICDE WCOL 2019, Dublin, Ireland. Ossiannilsson, E., Zhang, X., Wetzler, J., Gusmão, C. M. G., Aydin, C. H., Jhangiani, R. S., GlapaGrossklag, J., Makoe, M., & Harichandan, D. (2020). From open educational resources to open educational practices: For resilient sustainable education. DMS-DMK Distance et mediations des saviors – Distance and mediations of knowledge.

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Redecker, C., Leis, M., Leendertse, M., Punie, Y., Gijsbers, G., Kirschner, P., Stoyanov, S., & Hoogveld, B. (2011). The future of learning: Preparing for change. https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eurscientific-and-technical-research-reports/future-learning-preparing-change Sala, A., Punie, Y., Garkov, V., & Cabrera-Giraldez, M. (2020). LifeComp: The European framework for personal, social and learning to learn key competence. doi:10.2760/302967 Stracke, C. M., Bozkurt, A., Conole, G., Nascimbeni, F., Ossiannilsson, E., Sharma, R. C., . . . Shon, J. G. (2020). Open education and open science for our global society during and after the COVID-19 Outbreak. Proceedings of the Open Education Global Conference 2020. www.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4275669 UNESCO. (2015). Rethinking education: towards a global common good? https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ ark:/48223/pf0000232555 UNESCO. (2016). Sustainable development goal 4. http://uis.unesco.org/en/topic/sustainable-development-goal-4 UNESCO. (2019). Futures of education. UNESCO. UNESCO. (2020a). Covid-19 crisis: UNESCO call to support learning and knowledge sharing through open educational resources. https://en.unesco.org/news/covid-19-crisis-unesco-call-support-learningand-knowledge-sharing-through-open-educational UNESCO. (2020b). Supporting learning and knowledge sharing through open educational resources (OER). https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/covid19_joint_oer_call_en.pdf UNESCO. (2020c, July 1). Towards resilient education systems for the future: A new joint study launched by UNESCO and IEA. UNESCO. UNESCO. (2020d). Recommendation on open educational resources (OER). Ref: CL/4319. UNESCO. (2020e). OER. https://en.unesco.org/themes/building-knowledge-societies/oer/recommendation UNESCO. (2020f) OER dynamic coalition. https://en.unesco.org/themes/building-knowledge-societies/ oer/dynamic-coalition UNESCO. (2020g). Embracing a culture of lifelong learning: Contribution to the Futures of Education initiative. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000374112

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United Nations. (n.d.). Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. https:// sdgs.un.org/2030agenda World Economic Forum. (2020, July 20). Reimagining the future of skills: What do young people think? https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/07/reimagining-future-skills-what-we-learned-youngpeople?utm_source=facebook&utm_medium=social_scheduler&utm_term=Youth+Perspectives&utm_ content=09/01/2021+12:00&fbclid=IwAR0a5A-LA9mhvBIUvMtuTBL6xwgLTbF2lKwdk_ hQU51MEFrFfQ4QIgB7EJ4 World Economic Forum. (2021). Strategic intelligence: Education and skills. https://intelligence.weforum.org/topics/a1Gb0000000LPFfEAO?tab=publications

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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COVID-19: Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by a newly discovered coronavirus. OEP: Open education practice (OEP) encompasses teaching techniques and academic practices that draw on open technologies, pedagogical approaches, and OER to facilitate collaborative and flexible learning. OEP may involve both teachers and learners engaging in co-creating learning experiences, participating in online peer communities, using, creating, and sharing open educational resources (OER), sharing experiences and professional practice, and engaging in open scholarship. OER: OER are learning, teaching, and research materials in any format and medium, which are publicly available or subject to copyright and published under an open license that allows free access, reuse, reuse, adaptation, and redistribution by others. Quality: Quality refers to the degree of excellence. When the term is used to describe people, it refers to a particular quality or attribute that they possess. Quality is the set of characteristics and attributes of a product or service that affect its ability to satisfy certain needs. Quality is an inherent or distinguishing characteristic, degree, or level of excellence. Resilience: Resilience is the capacity of a system, be it an individual, a forest, a city or an economy, to deal with change and continue to develop. It is about how humans and nature can use shocks and disturbances like a financial crisis or climate change to spur renewal and innovative thinking. Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) or Global Goals: SDGs are a collection of 17 interlinked goals designed as a “blueprint for achieving a better and more sustainable future for all.” The SDGs were set in 2015 by the United Nations General Assembly. They are intended to be achieved by the year 2030. They are included in the UN Resolution for the 2030 Agenda, which is commonly known as Agenda 2030.

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Chapter 3

Navigating the Barriers Presented by the COVID-19 Pandemic: Reflections and Innovative Educational Solutions Colleen Lelli Cabrini University, USA Kelly M. Ballard https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3125-3839 Bryn Athyn College, USA Amber Gentile https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1329-4071 Cabrini University, USA

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ABSTRACT As educators and students navigated the changes amid COVID-19 and the switch to on-line learning, there became a critical need to identify and address the challenges experienced by all. This chapter highlights the fndings and recommendations of a study that surveyed over 400 educators to gather their perceptions of the barriers presented by COVID-19 and their experiences as they adjusted to educating students during a pandemic. The COVID-19 Educator Impact Survey developed by the researchers focused on educators’ perceptions of the impact of COVID-19 on instructional practices, emotional health, and student learning. Innovative practices to create a more equitable education with the intentional inclusion of Trauma Informed Practices and the newly created Guideposts for Trauma Informed Strategies are described. These guideposts can serve as recommendations for stakeholders with the goal of reimagining pedagogical practices and educational policies including trauma informed frameworks related to equity, access, and social-emotional learning skills for vulnerable populations. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7275-7.ch003

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Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest

 Navigating the Barriers Presented by the COVID-19 Pandemic

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INTRODUCTION The COVID-19 pandemic has created the opportunity to further define trauma and determine its implications, particularly for education. As Horesh and Brown (2020) and Bozkurt et al. (2020) have recognized, the pandemic has been global in scope, the impact has rippled into every aspect of society and the crisis has received unprecedented levels of documentation, like in social media. A thorough review of the experiences caused by the pandemic, the reactions to it, and the subsequent learnings can guide our future approaches. It has become even more apparent that educators need to use an empathetic approach, for example using trauma informed practices and self-care, during such uncertain times and ensure the focus is on supporting the learners (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020). It is also important that educators receive the support and resources necessary to ensure they are positioned to use the empathetic approach during such times of emergency remote teaching (Hodges et al., 2020). Amid the COVID-19 pandemic many school systems in the United States had to pivot to online instruction, which is starkly different from the traditional, preplanned online approach (Hodges et al., 2020). It presented many challenges and highlighted gross inequities including resources such as technological access for our most vulnerable populations: those from low socio-economic households, Limited English Proficient Students, and students with learning differences. Many educators experienced frustrations and heartbreak over their perceived inability to reach and teach their students. Some teachers even experienced what is known as vicarious trauma (compassion fatigue) which creates emotional stress and concern with the stories/trauma experiences of their students. Thus, educators are expressing a desire to ensure equitable educational opportunities for all students in the event of continued or new interruptions of instruction and learning opportunities. To examine the significant concerns and challenges around teaching and learning through a pandemic, the researchers developed and administered a survey, entitled The COVID-19 Educator Impact Survey. This instrument included 15 Likert scale questions, six open-ended narrative response questions and was administered to over 400 educators of two suburban school districts in southeast Pennsylvania, United States. The districts are composed of two vastly different student population demographics: socio-economic status, race and cultural diversity, limited English proficiency, as well as students identified with low and high incidence disabilities. The focus of this qualitative research study was to gather the educators’ perceptions of the barriers presented by COVID-19 and their experiences as they navigated this sudden and new learning environment and adjusted to educating their students in the context of a pandemic. The open-ended questions allowed for freedom of expression in regard to the participants’ experiences. The information was collected and analyzed to inform the development of strategies and innovative practices for a more equitable education with the intentional inclusion of Trauma Informed Practices (TIP). Furthermore, these newly developed strategies can serve as recommendations for educational stakeholders with the ultimate goal of reimagining pedagogical practices and educational policies including trauma informed frameworks related to self-care for educators and equity, access, and social-emotional learning support skills for all students. The findings, conclusions, and identified solutions of the study are shared through the researcher developed Guideposts for Trauma Informed Strategies offering pedagogical practices that support equity and access for all students regardless of instructional modality. As educators and students navigated the changes amid COVID-19 and the switch to on-line learning without a clear end in sight, there became a critical need to identify and address the challenges experienced by all. Immediate and relevant support is critical to mitigate difficulties as educators navigate the instructional and emotional challenges associated with educating their students in the context of an 45

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 Navigating the Barriers Presented by the COVID-19 Pandemic

emergency such as a pandemic. Identifying the challenges and barriers experienced through the pandemic provided newfound information regarding the need to shift educational practices due to inherent inequities that currently exist. The data gathered supported the formation of suggested educational policies that support educators’ well-being and foster impactful, equitable educational opportunities for all students. A review of the literature has revealed that research in the area of moving to online instruction in k-12 schools as a result of a catastrophe or pandemic is limited. However, as evidenced by Bozkurt et. al (2020), there are lessons to be learned due to the spontaneous interruption of the learning experience. Supporting the various needs specific to k-12 education, the research findings from The COVID-19 Educator Impact Survey include extensive results beyond the stated research questions. Through the open-ended response questions, participants provided insights into their overall experiences such as their mental health, engagement with students, communication with caregivers and administrators, etc. The qualitative research study was guided by the following two research questions: 1. Q1: What are the educators’ perceptions of the impact of COVID-19 on their instructional practices? 2. Q2: What are the educators’ perceptions of the impact of COVID-19 on their emotional health?

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BACKGROUND Many teachers are never explicitly taught how to support students of trauma and are also unsure how to address the impact it has on their own health. This fact, along with the findings revealed in the researcher developed COVID-19 Educator Impact Survey, highlights the need for educators to be well trained regarding trauma informed practices and the importance of self-care in order to support themselves and their students holistically. The seminal Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE) Study provided much needed information about the neurobiological, including the cognitive, long term effects of childhood trauma (Anda et al., 2006). The ACE study included over 17,000 participants assessing eight adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) including abuse, witnessing domestic violence and serious household dysfunction. The number of ACEs was used to measure “cumulative childhood stress and hypothesized a ‘dose-response’ relationship” (Anda et al., 2006). The ACE study and the resulting follow up studies provided much information about the effect’s trauma can have on an individual. For example, the research suggests that early trauma or stress can cause long term changes in the brain (as cited in Anda et al., 2006) and it has also been highly researched and confirmed that the relationship between development, early stress, and the hippocampus, a stresssensitive brain region that plays a critical role in learning and memory, can cause cognitive disconnect for all learners. The number of children affected by trauma are staggering. Duke, Pettingell, McMorris, & Borowsky (2010) report twenty-five percent of children have been affected by physical, sexual and emotional abuse that can be classified as traumatizing. Another important consideration needs to be made for our youths living in economically disadvantaged communities where incidents of community violence can be constant, with long-lasting effects. As a result, the education field has determined the pedagogical practices and strategies to best support children, teens and young adults who have been exposed to trauma and complex traumas. An examination of the impact of the COVID-19 and the subsequent circumstances revealed not only direct trauma on educators and students but vicarious trauma experienced by educators as well. As cited in Kim & Asbury (2020), teacher stress has long been a prevalent topic of discussion among educational 46

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practitioners, policymakers, and researchers. One such research study has identified a correlation between teacher stress and the impact on students and their classroom experiences; Oberle & Schonert- Reichl (2016) facilitated a study involving teachers who experienced high-levels of occupational stress and the cortisol levels of their students. The findings revealed that the students educated by teachers who experience a high level of stress had increased levels of cortisol than those of their counterparts. It is clear emotional stress experienced by teachers has a negative impact on the student experience and potentially student learning outcomes. As we know from the seminal work of Abraham Maslow (1943), one’s basic needs must be met in order to reach higher level needs. Darling-Hammond and Hyler (2020) further assert that students’ social and emotional experiences influence their learning. In light of the stress experienced during the pandemic, it is clear that educators need to focus on these basic needs in their instructional approach. An empathetic approach and trauma informed practices for the students and the educators are critical during such challenging times (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020). Educators are in need of training, support and resources to implement the empathetic approach in their teaching practice (Hodges, et al., 2020). Furthermore, these findings indicate the need for formalized policies addressing and mitigating challenges related to interruptions of the teaching and learning experience. It is recommended that The National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN) system framework (2017) be used by school systems to make improvements and organizational changes to ensure the use of trauma informed practices. This framework was the lens utilized and referenced in the creation of the recommended strategies and practices for educators as a result of the data provided by The COVID-19 Educator Impact Survey. The researchers refer to these strategies and pedagogical practices within their Guideposts for Trauma Informed Strategies. The NCTSN framework was chosen due to the distinct features that align closely with the Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) framework pyramid. The MTSS framework pyramid is a multi-tiered approach for the early identification and support of students with learning and emotional/behavior needs (Sulkowski & Michael, 2014). It is also important to note that the environment or culture of the school system, community and family partnerships, can be a positive and welcoming support for the faculty, administration and the students to ensure well-being during unprecedented challenges. Thus, the ultimate goal is to recommend trauma informed pedagogical practices and innovative educational policies in order to address and mitigate the stress and challenges experienced by those within the K-12 education system.

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THE COVID-19 EDUCATOR IMPACT SURVEY FINDINGS Examining the impact of COVID-19 within the context of an educational system is critical in determining how to support educators, students, and their families through an emergency response to a local or national crisis, such as a pandemic or any other risk of trauma and interrupted instruction/student learning. To gather this information, approximately n=400 educators were invited to participate in the The COVID-19 Educator Impact Survey that included both Likert scale items and open-ended questions. The participants and their corresponding sites, identified as School District 1 and District 2, were selected to ensure representation from racially, culturally, and financially diverse school communities (see Table 1).

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Table 1. District student demographic information for the COVID-19 educator impact survey % White

% of Special Education Services (Not Gifted)

% of Limited English Proficient Students

42%

14%

21%

13%

12%

52%

15%

6%

Sites

Number Enrolled

Economically Disadvantaged

% Asian

% Black

% Hispanic

District 1

7500

75%

N/A

33%

District 2

4100

39%

17%

11%

The narrative questions included in the survey were designed to garner information that would identify educators’ perception of critical issues related to the impact of COVID-19. From these findings and a review of relevant research, recommendations have been developed to inform policies and practices designed to mitigate the impact of possible future local, state, or national crises and related trauma. An analysis of the narratives in response to the key open-ended questions and related findings are examined below:

How did the Covid-19 Pandemic Impact Your Instructional Practice? Barrier Building Relationships With Students and Parents

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One of the most significant impacts by the pandemic was on the relationships between the teachers and their students. Participants reported that moving to an on-line teaching and learning experience negatively impacted their relationships with their students. For example, one participant stated, “not seeing students’ faces impacted meaningful interactions.” Another shared their concern related to their inclusion students: “special education teachers lost interactions with their inclusion students as they were relegated to working with their students with higher needs.” Disrupting the foundation for an effective student/ teacher relationship created interruptions in the teaching/learning experience and is not trauma informed. As teachers and students experienced the disruption of their daily, in-person interactions because of the pandemic, new concerns of building positive relationships in the up-coming school year came to the surface. One participant explained: I am highly concerned about starting online in the fall with kids and families; I have no relationship already established. It is so hard to come across as personable through a screen and I always worry about how tone can be misinterpreted. I also really worry about not creating those relationships with my students and establishing the expectations with them first. I don’t know how well we’ll be able to connect through a screen without building a foundation in person first. I think it will be very hard and take more time for everyone to get on the same page about their expectations in my class, my teaching style, and how I choose to try to build relationships virtually. The question remained how to support teachers and their students if the need to teach virtually continued for the next school year.

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Barriers to Instruction In addition to fostering relationships with their students, the learning curve related to the technology presented many challenges early on in the transition to on-line teaching and learning, both for students and teachers. Challenges related to authentic assessments and lack of hands-on learning activities were also evident. A fundamental issue for many families was the lack of supplies that would support their child’s learning: paper, technology, etc. Several participants highlighted the critical “lack of one-on-one instruction and conferences.” Not having the ability to conference with their students limited the teachers’ abilities to meet their students’ individual needs, making differentiating content very challenging. Concerns related to preparing students for the next school year were also present, “I just feel like the students are not fully ready for first grade. I worry about their reading and writing…we tried to make the assignments as simple as possible to complete and that meant sacrificing some writing.” Not only were teachers unable to offer one-on-one instruction, but they also were limited in modeling capabilities within their lessons that compounded the impact of instructional barriers. Along with the instructional challenges identified above, many participants identified barriers within specific grade-levels. One participant stated, “First graders were impacted as well. Having to learn everything via a screen posed challenges for them.” Another participant shared, “Kindergarten presented numerous challenges: parents were doing the work, pre-recorded lessons without feedback from students to determine understanding” limited teachers in their capacity to authentically assess what the students were learning. In addition to grade-level challenges, specialists (physical education, music, art, etc.) also experienced barriers to their instruction. One physical education teacher illuminated the challenge of not being able to model for the students’ specific activities for her students. Another participant declared, “Specialists were side-lined as their content was ‘optional’...they were relegated to contacting parents because the ‘teachers were so overwhelmed’ with the instruction.” This reality left the specialist teachers feeling marginalized and not a part of the instructional process for their students.

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Concerns About Student Engagement The data revealed that the second biggest concern for educators was student engagement and “showing up” for online sessions. A significant number of educators reported concerns over the lack of student engagement. One commented, “I had about 60% student engagement and I am concerned I will have the same limited amount [if we continue virtual in the fall].” Another participant noted, “I will be concerned that without seeing students every day some of the same issues will occur regarding lack of motivation, decreased engagement and withdrawal/frustration.” The participants reported feeling powerless in increasing their attendance and participation. In addition to barriers with student engagement, fostering a virtual environment that was interactive was also difficult. For example, one participant stated, “it was difficult to teach without the interaction of questions, teachable moments, and experiences in the classroom.” Another shared their concern related to their students completing the school year: “I was unable to get all the students to complete the year, as a few just bowed out of the process no matter what I did.” Many participants expressed anxiety about their ability to reach their students in the online format, “It was a challenge to have students that did not complete any of the work (or very little). I was unable to get in contact with them or their families. I also found that most students [were] unresponsive to emails or messages offering them help or sugges49

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tions.” Creating meaningful student engagement and interactive learning opportunities was a significant barrier for instruction and may be a leading cause of worry associated with potential vicarious trauma.

Barriers to Technology Access and Use Limited access to technology and technological support was a challenge many students faced during the pandemic. Teachers felt that students were not able to complete their assignments and participate in online learning due to technology needs. For example, one stated that, “Access to internet/devices isn’t always present or equitable. Parents (some) aren’t familiar with technology and Google platform and cannot assist their child.” Another shared, “being unable to help kids with connectivity issues, and troubleshooting non-working links were all issues that I continued to encounter.” The pandemic illuminated additional inequities in educational access experienced by students and families within vulnerable populations and access to technology. Equally important was the lack of proficiency in how to use the technology and programs that were required by the districts. Many participants felt that the use of technology was a challenge that they were unable to overcome. Some of the concerns had to do with the lack of familiarity with the technology as well as the lack of training provided to use the technology. For example, one participant stated “Some tech issues weren’t easy to resolve remotely. [There was a] lack of training on tech that was recommended to be used.” The challenges with technology experienced by teachers and students were perceived to impede the teaching and learning process.

Lack of Work Completion/Student Accountability Challenges related to students’ lack of work completion and accountability was a hindrance to teachers’ ability to monitor their students’ academic progress. Participants’ pondered “how do we encourage work completion?” Yet another noted, “Unfortunately, we had some students that did not join our Google classrooms and/or complete any work.” The lack of work completion and subsequent accountability provided additional challenges and concern for the participants. It increased their perception that they were unable to address the various needs of their students.

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Grading Monitoring student progress was negatively affected not only by the barriers to technology access, but also to moving to an on-line teaching/learning modality. One participant noted the challenge of “providing student grades based on work they completed independently while only receiving synchronous instruction one time per week” and another stated, “I did not feel that expectations for how to grade were clear.” Similarly, another responded, “I don’t know that I was able to hold as high standards as I would have liked. It seemed that kids didn’t have to do much to get good grades….I don’t know how to fairly hold them accountable.” Other participants shared the concern of the change of their role from “teacher to grader.” Concerns regarding how to meet the demands of ensuring adequate student progress were clearly noted in the data.

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Communication Participants reported a lack of effective communication by administration during the response to COVID-19. These perceptions were derived from several factors such as not knowing enough to be prepared for the change in the instructional format and unclear expectations of various components of instruction (i.e.: grading, student engagement, accountability). One participant summed it up well in stating, “all the programs were thrown at us in an email with no training.” Others noted a lack of clearly communicated “…directives from administration based on research into best practices…they do surprisingly little to actually lead.” Other participants emphasized the constant change in what was communicated: “changing plans involving curriculum and teaching [was difficult]. I felt like I was told what I needed to do and did it, then all of a sudden the plan was changed, and I had to redo everything.” The perceived ineffective communication left participants confused and frustrated about the uncertainty related to teaching, student learning, and best practices to support effective instruction in an on-line format.

Parent Engagement The lack of parent engagement emerged as a challenge that was difficult to overcome. Participants noted that many parents did not join or engage in the Google classroom through the family access and did not assist with the lessons. Participants expressed frustration in the lack of parent support to the teacher and to the students and felt that parents “just said what I wanted to hear but never followed through” while others were “not responding to emails.” Educators found it to be “difficult to hold the students accountable for turning in lessons” without parental support which exacerbated the degree of frustration.

How Did Covid-19 Impact Your Emotional Health? Much of the data rests within the emotional and mental impacts the pandemic had on the teachers and students. Educators reported a perceived notion that the instruction was compromised. A high-level analysis of the rich data revealed specific mental health factors affecting teachers’ instructional practices. The following summary will be organized by the identified themes.

Anxiety

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One of the most significant impacts of the pandemic was anxiety experienced by the educators. Fear of the virus was prominent. For example, one participant summed it up by stating, It was and is very stressful, especially in the beginning when I knew that I had been around a lot of people and I was concerned about my families’ and my own exposure. I was also concerned for people that I knew who had it…So overall, my stress and anxiety level was very high. Another shared concern related to uncertainty: “Unknowns and lack of control has caused anxiety.” Participants reported that suddenly moving to an on-line teaching and learning format negatively affected their anxiety levels. Many participants expressed anxiety about their ability to reach their students in the online format:

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I was stressed and anxious about my ability to deliver instruction in the distance learning format. Because I don’t use a lot of technology in my regular teaching, I lacked confidence and was anxious about trying to learn the technology to use it effectively especially given the limited time we had to be ready for online instruction... A participant revealed a significant amount of the “stress of on-the-job training.” Anxiety related to the pandemic impacted the participants’ ability to complete their daily teaching tasks with ease.

Worry Although anxiety played a significant role in the emotional distress that the participants experienced, the sense of worry regarding factors related to COVID-19 were also present. Some of the worry had to do with the fear of illness. For example, one participant stated, “I became sick and then hyper worried about my family and the spread of the virus.” Others were worried for their students and their overall wellness and education: “…I constantly worried about my students and their families and felt so helpless at times knowing how much they struggled both with access to essentials and with academics…” while another stated “I worried about my students lack of schedule and motivation to complete work.” The impact on vulnerable students also was highlighted by one participant, “Many students fell through the cracks.” Experiencing anxiety and worry was reported as negatively affecting the participants’ emotional well-being.

Work/Life Balance Struggles Participants noted that trying to balance multiple demands of work and life while working remotely due to COVID-19 presented many challenges and negatively affected their emotional health. One participant summed it up well: “It seemed like an impossible task to do it all. Trying to be the teacher I want to be, the parent, the family member, it was all too much.” Of particular concern were those who had the responsibility of young ones at home that required their care:

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Like many, I found it extremely challenging to balance working full time from home with a young toddler in the house. A lot of anxiety, stress, and sleeplessness came from trying to be the best teacher, colleague, wife, and mother I could be while living in the midst of a pandemic. The work/life balance for teachers may have been challenging prior to the pandemic, but in the midst of it the challenge seemed insurmountable to many. Others focused on the struggle of educating their students while also assisting their own children in their schooling: It was hard! I have 2 young kids and between trying to teach my students, and my own children all of my ‘self-care’ went out the window. I was working during every break, staying up until midnight doing work and checking work. We were all stressed.

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Isolation Another theme that emerged in the narrative data was the feeling of being isolated and missing their normal interactions. One participant noted, The COVID-19 pandemic was a very sad time. Everything about it was sad. I don’t believe isolating people from families, friends, teachers, and community members for this length of time is healthy. I believe it created a lot of stress and sadness in the lives of many, many people. and another stated, “It was a huge adjustment in the teaching department; but [there was] great difficulty having to cancel trips, staying at home, not being able to do the same activities outside the home as normal.” There were many disappointments and loneliness expressed in the narrative data that included descriptions of what was lost from normalcy.

Stressed/Overwhelmed Participants noted a sense of increased stress and feelings of being overwhelmed during COVID-19. These feelings were brought about from several aspects such as the change in the instructional format, the apprehensiveness of the unknown, the lack of preparedness and decreased confidence in their instructional impact. One participant summed it up well in stating, I was pretty stressed about my job. I felt that all the parts of it that I really enjoy (interacting with teenagers on a daily basis, the casual conversations with kids before/after class, etc.) were absent and the parts that I don’t typically enjoy (grading and email) were all that was left. I found myself working many more hours but being much less content with the quality of instruction and the quality of work coming from my students. I became so disillusioned and frustrated by the lack of student engagement despite the crazy hours that I was putting in that I sometimes cried and often couldn’t sleep. Other participants emphasized the stress of the instructional demands due to online learning,

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I really had no time to ‘turn off.’ I felt that I was compelled to answer my students as quickly as possible. I was stressed about my slides, were they engaging, could I get my point across to the students? My mind was constantly working and I was not sleeping as well as I could have. Indications of educators feeling overwhelmed and stressed was expressed throughout the narrative data as a result of the sudden interruption to traditional face-to-face teaching and needing to change modalities without training and preparation.

Working From Home/Time and Stress Participants noted that trying to balance multiple demands of work and life while working remotely due to COVID-19 presented many challenges they had a hard time overcoming. Several participants indicated that time management and stress management were particularly challenging: “The amount of time to meet with different groups, adapt and modify so many lessons, attend live sessions, attend meetings 53

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with admin, and the paperwork…[was overwhelming].” Of particular concern were those who had the responsibility of young ones at home that required their care: “Not being in school makes it hard to do all this and be a parent to two kids all day/night”. Participants repeatedly shared comments regarding the increased and complex demands of working from home while balancing their personal responsibilities and the ways in which this impacted their overall well-being.

STRATEGIES AND RECOMMENDATIONS After reviewing the results of the COVID-19 Educator Impact Survey and the critical needs identified above, the following recommendations have been developed to mitigate the effects of these challenges.

Supports for Relationships In order to support fostering strong student and parent relationships, meaningful and regular interactions and communications should be established. One participant highlighted the need for incorporating social-emotional “check-ins” during the week. The participant remarked, “students showed up for the social-emotional check-ins even if they didn’t show up to class-time.” Additionally, another participant shared she was “encouraged [to have] more frequent and immediate collaboration with parents.” These two examples highlight the importance of increasing opportunities to engage both with students and families to foster strong connections when there is an unexpected and lengthy interruption to the delivery of instruction.

Instructional Support A variety of needed instructional support was identified by the participants. Guidance related to expectations for student work completion as well as how best to assess student learning in a virtual classroom was also requested. A key concern for participants was needed support meeting the needs of students with learning differences. On-line programs designed to support differentiated instruction were also requested, “I would need an online program to help me differentiate reading for my students. One that was academically sound for learners with significant needs AND one that could easily be used by parents at home.” Virtual labs, ability to meet with small groups of students, as well as the opportunity to engage with students daily were identified as key instructional support needs.

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Student Engagement and Support Transitioning from in-class instruction to a virtual classroom posed numerous challenges for teachers and students. Support in fostering student engagement is of critical need. One participant shared, “I also think the administration needs to be able to provide more support to teachers in reaching out to families, and a clear, transparent process for reaching students and families who are not engaged.” Several participants requested the need to allow for synchronous instructional opportunities while others requested support in offering increased physical check-ins with the students. Increasing synchronous meeting times with students offers meaningful opportunities to practice the empathetic approach in order to foster academic learning (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020). 54

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Parent Engagement and Support During times of crisis, it is critical to engage all stakeholders, especially parents, to mitigate stressors on students as they face the challenges related to an abrupt change in the learning experience. Offering immediate support related to engagement, communication, and resources is necessary. One participant identified this critical need, ...more support to students’ families [is needed]. Parents need training on how to use the technology that their children are using. Live parent tech briefings, curriculum updates, emotional support workshops for parents on how to support their children [is also needed]. Parents were reaching out to me to help with their children’s emotional breakdowns and I did not know how to help. Parents also need direct tech support. They reached out to me after not receiving help from tech help tickets. I was overwhelmed with tech emails and frustrated parents. Many participants echoed this need. One participant argued, “I would need the district to continue to provide technology and internet access to families so they could access the learning platforms.” Offering parents meaningful and frequent communication and engagement opportunities as well as technology support and resources will enable teachers to continue to meet the academic needs of students while fostering effective collaboration with families.

Professional Development Support

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Intentional professional development to meet the demands of an abrupt interruption to the delivery of the teaching and learning experience is warranted. Authentic professional development in self-care strategies and on-line teaching practices are a priority. One participant shared, “I would need some professional development on how to make better videos of myself where I can present material to students on a screen. I would also need some help setting up google meets with entire classes.” Another shared, participating in “professional development of new and fun ways to create resources and activities for students and families” would be a benefit as well. Lastly, creating time and space for colleagues to meet and collaborate around new professional development would be critical “... time to talk and work with my team” was highlighted by another participant. Offering opportunities for teachers to share successes and challenges and experience intentional professional development to address the immediate needs of a swift, unexpected change in the delivery of instruction would provide a much-needed lifeline to mitigate challenges faced by teachers and students.

Administrator Support Effective leadership is key to supporting the school community in the event of an abrupt interruption to the delivery of instruction. Participants identified three critical expectations of building and district leadership: communication, policies and procedures related to student expectations (work completion, grading, etc.), and specific considerations for students with diverse learning needs. One participant illuminated these needs,

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I need reasonable, consistent, and clearly communicated expectations for both myself and my students. This includes expectations for student attendance, how to deal with students who are not attending or engaging, late work and grading policies, expectations for providing accommodations for students with IEPs, how materials would be distributed and collected, etc. Another demanded, “FAR more communications and support from counselors and administrators, especially the high school principals…[was needed].” Ensuring effective communication and clear expectations regarding policies and procedures will enable teachers to mitigate the challenges faced by teachers, students, and families as they navigate a pandemic or any other interruption in the teaching and learning experience. In addition to clear communication from building administration to teachers regarding the policies and procedures identified above, ensuring that messaging and communication is consistent between district and building levels to the greater school community is needed, “I would need to feel that the goals and expectations of the central and building level administrators were more aligned because occasionally there were mixed messages/signals, and that only added to the stress of the situation.” In challenging times, clear, streamlined, and effective communication from administration will eliminate confusion and minimize stress for all stakeholders.

State and National Policy Development Although this study and its results are bound by two school districts in southeastern Pennsylvania, much may be learned and applied to reimagining educational policies at the state and federal levels. Evaluating and creating policies related to meeting the needs of vulnerable populations cannot be left to school districts alone. Collaborating with state and national educational leaders to identify resources that support professional development in the areas of trauma-informed instruction as well as innovative technologies that support distant learning is paramount. Additionally, examining and enhancing teacher preparation and administrator certification programs to require competencies in the areas of social emotional learning and collaboration would offer critical foundational knowledge to support faculty and administration in meeting the needs of students and their families, not only in the time of crisis but also in their everyday practice. Finally, and most importantly, creating state required competencies and systems to support self-care practices for educators beyond the standard one day obligatory “professional development” session should be implemented.

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Research to Practice Using a Trauma-Informed Approach The conceptual framework for a trauma informed approach was developed by the NCTSN, which was formed as a collaborative network to enhance treatment, services, and access to care for traumatized children and their families (Pynoos et al., 2008). It addresses the full range of types of trauma ranging in age from early childhood through late adolescence. Along with many of the resources the NCTSN has developed, the NCTSN system framework is most helpful in illustrating why becoming “traumainformed” should be an essential component for any education system (National Child Traumatic Stress Network, Schools Committee, 2017). The goal of the framework is to provide “strategic guidance” and includes core areas for educational systems to focus on improvement and organizational change to create a trauma-informed environment. 56

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The framework as proposed by the NCTSN, is rooted in the Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) framework pyramid (Sulkowski & Michael, 2014). The MTSS is used as an early identification tool to support students with learning and behavioral difficulties. The Trauma Informed Schools Systems Framework uses all three tiers of the MTSS but includes trauma-informed concepts and practices. It uses a holistic and ecological approach and acknowledges the contexts in which these tiers function including school environment/culture, community and family partnerships (2014). Tier 1 is the foundation for “Creating a Safe Environment and Promoting Healthy and Successful Students” and includes the backbone to support safe environments that promote healthy and successful students and staff. Tier 2, “Early Intervention/Identifying Students and Staff At Risk” is the way in which schools identify and respond to students and staff who are at risk and/or have been exposed to trauma. Tier 3 is the level of “Intensive Support” that schools provide to students whose behaviors and/ or experiences warrant intensive interventions. The framework goes a step further and offers ten core elements relevant for a trauma-informed school system and can be used to make recommendations to support educators, staff and students in the classroom. Many of these suggestions were intended for use in a traditional face-to-face format but could also be used for distance learning or an online delivery method. The ten core elements provided by the National Child Traumatic Stress Network (2017) include:

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Identifying and assessing traumatic stress Addressing and treating traumatic stress Teaching trauma education and awareness Fostering partnerships with students and families Creating a trauma-informed learning environment (social/emotional skills and wellness) Being culturally responsive Integrating emergency management/crisis response Understanding and addressing staff self-care and secondary traumatic stress Evaluation and revising school discipline policies and practices Collaborating across systems and establishing community partnerships

Students will be engaged when they know someone cares about them and families will be more likely to be a supportive partner when the school is prioritizing students’ physical and emotional well-being (Berg et al., 2017; Chafouleas et al., 2016; Lelli, 2021). The Guideposts for Trauma Informed Strategies listed below were created by the researchers as a result of the perceptions of the participants from the The COVID-19 Educator Impact Survey as well as recommendations provided in the research literature. They include strategies and suggestions for educators to consider and are meant to be used in tandem with the NCTSN framework. Following the Guideposts for Trauma Informed Strategies, Table 2 is presented and includes recommendations stemming from the analysis of the data garnered from the study. Recommendations are included to address an abrupt interruption of traditional face-to-face instruction. It should be noted that these recommendations or strategies may be used regardless of instructional delivery.

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Guidepost 1: Relationships/Partnerships Research has proven that the presence of a consistent, supportive adult is a great source of building resilience for children (Burke-Harris, 2018; Ginsburg & Jablow, 2006; Jennings, 2019) and a relationship with a caring teacher can support students in the classroom, especially for our most vulnerable students (Hughes, 2012; Sabol & Pianta, 2012). As stated in Lelli (2021), “teachers are uniquely positioned to offer the safety, care, and security needed by children while promoting healthy relationships and the motivation to learn” (p.70). Likewise, connecting with outside agencies in building partnerships can help support the educational landscape. One example of a way to build community partnerships could be connecting with local domestic violence agencies. Oftentimes such agencies or nonprofits provide free education programming for local schools that promote healthy relationships. This is one example of how schools can partner with outside various community agencies to support the curriculum. During an unexpected interruption like the pandemic, it is especially important for teachers to build relationships with their students so that they can support them during such extremely difficult times. It is also imperative to support families by connecting them with community agencies. Lastly, teachers need to connect with one another as well. Space and time are necessary for teachers to connect with one another, commiserate and share educational practices. Whether teachers are online or face-to-face, building relationships with each other is of utmost importance. Professional developments and additional training can contribute to relationship building. Setting aside time for educators to converse without a strict agenda should also be provided. To support building relationships while teaching virtually or in-person, there are a number of strategies that can be implemented with relative ease, including: •

• • •

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•

Gratitude bombs are quick emails, notes, or videos students (and teachers) can create to thank someone or show appreciation within the school system. Combining this with literature (a read aloud of pertinent books connecting with gratitude such as, Have You Filled a Bucket Today? by Susan McCloud) is a way to tie in reading and writing competencies as well. Class websites and/or class newsletters can be created as another way to grow relationships with caregivers. Students can make individual contributions. “Check-ins” with students can be done regularly--every day--to see how they are doing. Talk to them. Share with them how you have faced problems in your life and how you solved them. When conferring with them, review their strengths and the goals they have set for themselves. Cooperative learning strategies can be shared as another way to support and build student-student relationships and social-emotional learning. Requests for student input about your teaching practices can be benefcial. Students will feel valued when they are provided opportunities for their voices to be heard and in turn it builds stronger student-teacher relationships.

Guidepost 2: Routines/Predictability COVID-19, being an identified batch (mass) trauma, has created feelings of unpredictability for many students and educators alike. One way to ease these feelings is the creation of routines to increase predictability. One must note, however that strategic flexibility related to these routines is necessary to allow grace for yourself and your students. Routines are important regardless of the instructional modality. 58

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Some examples for creating routines include the delivery of check-ins (live or recorded) at the same time every day, the inclusion of a calming activity like a read-aloud to help with dysregulation, and planning for connections amongst peers such as an opening activity. Providing students with “agendas” for the day ahead and providing ample transition time with announcements both written and through expressive language will also provide students with a safe, predictable environment. Clear communication between all parties is another consideration that should be executed to offer security and predictability. Effective communication is critical between the teacher, the students and their caregivers; the administration and the caregivers; and the administration and the teachers. Consistent and frequent communication can create stronger relationships between all parties. As a result, the school can be a strong community committed to educating the children.

Guidepost 3: Resilience/Perseverance Resiliency is a topic that is discussed a lot in the education field today. It refers to the ability to bounce back or recover quickly from a difficulty. In our classrooms, we can model resiliency by sharing our lived experiences with our students and offering compassion and insight. Also, teaching students to recognize each other’s strengths will help them to grow and change. Teaching students about growth mindset and the role of mistakes in the learning process (Dweck, 2006) is another reminder of resilience; using effort and strategy focused feedback encourages perseverance. All of this can be achieved by offering formative assessments with growth-oriented feedback, teaching goal setting and rewards for goal attainment, facilitating peer feedback, reviewing long term assignments, and offering one-on-one conferencing to support students as they work toward the goals they’ve set.

Guidepost 4: Rest/Pause Educators, being in a helping profession field, need to ensure they are receiving appropriate rest and self-care. Self-care helps to build resilience and support educators. In turn, self-care can decrease teacher turnover (Brasfield, Lancaster, & Xu 2019). Teachers will only be able to master new instructional challenges if they are in a good place both mentally and physically (Goodwin & Shebby, 2021). The good news is that teachers can be proactively supported through the use of strategies and by instituting a supportive framework within the school system. It is important to note there is not one way to provide or implement self-care strategies. The following essential actions can provide the needed support for educators in the field:

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•

•

Provide opportunities for teachers to connect with one another. This was discussed briefy in Guidepost 1 above. While educators have been teaching remotely during the pandemic, it has been more difcult for them to connect with each other. Continuing to provide the teachers the time to connect is a must. This may require something else to be taken of their plate to allow the time and space for this meaningful connection to occur. Encourage the use of gratitude journals. Gratitude journals may be a way to reduce stress levels, keep negative emotions at bay, improve mental and physical health and improve sleep (Lelli, 2021).

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Table 2. Guideposts for trauma informed strategies to support research to practice

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The COVID-19 Educator Impact Survey Recommendations

Guidepost 1 Relationships & Partnerships

Provide professional development to educators about how to build relationships and be trauma informed with students in a virtual format.

X

Outline an effective communication plan for students and families.

X

Offer teachers and students opportunities to interact “in-person” for follow up instruction.

X

Provide synchronous meeting times to allow teachers the opportunity to continue their relationships with students and “check-in” with them regarding their needs.

X

Provide specific community/parent outreach regarding the importance of family engagement in the educational process. Offering workshops, resources, training, etc. to families so that they know that they play an important role along with specific things they can do to facilitate the learning process would be beneficial.

X

Offer opportunities for teachers for continued collaborative support as well as professional development related to instructional technology.

X

Guidepost 2 Routines & Predictability

Guidepost 3 Resilience & Perseverance

Guidepost 4 Rest & Pause

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Offer teachers resources and opportunities for selfcare and clear communications regarding the status of students.

X

Provide teachers with specific techniques and strategies to use at home to assist teachers in prioritizing their self-care. Scheduling of specific times for synchronous instruction may provide a schedule that helps to separate the work time from the home responsibilities

X

Facilitate social events, even virtual, should be scheduled in order to provide the educators with the opportunity for social interaction without a work focus.

X

Provide reading materials (as a form of bibliotherapy) and other resources as a source of distraction to the daily circumstances may be beneficial to educators during these times. At the very least, encouraging collegial support to the education community should be emphasized.

X

Encourage the use of self-care routines, techniques, and stress relievers for teachers

X

Provide training in instructional techniques for the online format. Clear communication of expectations, available supports, and updates are also important to alleviate stress.

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

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• •

Recommend exercise. Any form of exercise is necessary for positive mental and physical health. Walking, biking, swimming, yoga are all wonderful activities for wellness. Provide and encourage the use of reading materials. There are positive efects to reading and can be a type of therapy known as bibliotherapy (Jack & Ronan, 2008). Beginning and maintaining a daily habit of reading is an opportunity for rest, pause and self-care.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Although the data garnered from The COVID-19 Educator Impact Survey examines the significant negative impact the pandemic had on the instructional practice and emotional well-being of educators, incorporating trauma-informed practices illuminated by the Guideposts for Trauma Informed Strategies above can do much to mitigate these significant challenges in the future. These Guideposts for Trauma Informed Strategies are designed to not only address challenges presented by a global crisis where there is an immediate interruption to the delivery of instruction, but more importantly, are designed to offer a framework that may buffer the negative impact of issues that can interrupt the teaching and learning experience. Recommendations for future research examining a deeper look at the impact of COVID-19 on vulnerable populations: those from low socio-economic households, Limited English Proficient students, and students with learning differences is warranted to assess the possible long-term outcomes. Continued investigation into the anticipated long-term educational impacts of COVID-19 (cognitive, social, and emotional) is necessary to develop interventions designed to intervene and lessen these consequences. Finally, research is warranted to explore the students’ perceptions of the impact of COVID-19 on their educational experiences to offer a comparison to those expressed by educators.

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CONCLUSION The COVID-19 pandemic and the pivot to online emergency instruction presented many challenges for students, educators and administrators alike. The results of the qualitative research study garnered through the responses to the COVID-19 Educator Impact Survey provided rich data about the barriers and experiences presented by this sudden change to delivering instruction. Challenges related to effective communication from both the district and building levels created confusion and uncertainty among the teachers and staff. Issues related to inadequate technology for families interrupted the teaching and learning experiences and burdened the teachers to identify alternative ways in which to meet their students’ learning needs. Concerns related to meeting the academic needs of students with learning disabilities were illuminated as well as the emotional toll participants felt as a result of COVID-19. Through the analysis of the data, recommendations were outlined including the implementation of Trauma Informed Practices (TIP). Additional supports were suggested through the researcher designed Guideposts for Trauma Informed Strategies, which may reimagine pedagogical practices currently used in school systems today. The intention is to mitigate negative impacts of future, unexpected interruptions to the educational experience. Encouraging state departments of education to consider enhancing social emotional learning and trauma-informed pedagogical competencies in partnership with institutions of 61

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higher education may support pre-service teachers in developing the skills and strategies needed to meet these future challenges. Inviting institutions of higher education to examine their teacher preparation program to ensure the inclusion of these critical competencies may meet the immediate development needs of both pre-service and in-service teachers through undergraduate and graduate programs. Finally, encouraging local school districts and their personnel to examine and include trauma informed frameworks may provide equity, access and social emotional learning support skills for all students while advocating for educators’ overall well-being.

REFERENCES Anda, R. F., Felitti, F. J., Bremner, J. D., Walker, J. D., Whitfield, C., Perry, B. D., Dube, S. R., & Giles, W. H. (2006, April). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256(3), 174–186. doi:10.100700406-005-0624-4 PMID:16311898 Berg, J., Osher, D., Moroney, D., & Yoder, N. (2017). The intersection of school climate and social and emotional development. American Institutes for Research. Bozkurt, A., Jung, I., Xiao, J., Vladimirschi, V., Schuwer, R., Egorov, G., Lambert, S. R., Al-Freih, M., Pete, J., & Olcott, D., Jr., Rodes, V., Aranciaga, I., Bali, M., Alvarez, Jr., A. V., Roberts, J., Pazurek, A., Raffaghelli, J. E., Panagiotou, N., de Coëtlogon, ... Paskevicius, M. (2020). A global outlook to the interruption of education due to COVID-19 Pandemic: Navigating in a time of uncertainty and crisis. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 1–126. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3878572 Bozkurt, A., & Sharma, R. C. (2020). Emergency remote teaching in a time of global crisis due to CoronaVirus pandemic. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), i–vi. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3778083 Brasfield, M. W., Lancaster, C., & Xu, Y. J. (2019). Wellness as a mitigating factor for teacher burnout. Journal of Education, 199(3), 166–178. doi:10.1177/0022057419864525 Burke-Harris, N. (2018). The deepest well: Healing the long-term effects of childhood adversity. Bluebird Publishing. Chafouleas, S. M., Johnson, A. H., Overstreet, S., & Santos, N. M. (2016). Toward a blueprint for traumainformed service delivery in schools. School Mental Health, 8(1), 144–162. doi:10.100712310-015-9166-8

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Darling-Hammond, L., & Hyler, M. E. (2020). Preparing educators for the time of COVID...and beyond. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 457–465. doi:10.1080/02619768.2020.1816961 Duke, N. N., Perringell, S. L., McMorris, B. J., & Borowksy, I. W. (2010). Adolescent violence perpetration: Associations with multiple types of adverse childhood experiences. Pediatrics, 125(4), 778–786. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-0597 PMID:20231180 Dweck, C. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Ballentine Books. Ginsburg, K. R., & Jablow, M. M. (2006). Building resilience in children and teens: Giving kids roots and wings. American Academy of Pediatrics.

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Goodwin, B., & Shebby, S. (2021). Research matters/restoring teachers’ efficacy. Educational Leadership, 78(4), 76–77. Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Bond, A. (2020). The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. EDUCAUSE Review. Horesh, D., & Brown, A. D. (2020). Traumatic stress in the age of COVID-19: A call to close critical gaps and adapt to new realities. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(4), 331–335. doi:10.1037/tra0000592 PMID:32271070 Hughes, J. N. (2012). Teacher-student relationships and school adjustment: Progress and remaining challenges. Attachment & Human Development, 14(3), 319–327. doi:10.1080/14616734.2012.67228 8 PMID:22537527 Jack, S. J., & Ronan, K. R. (2008). Bibliotherapy: Practice and research. School Psychology International, 29(2), 161–182. doi:10.1177/0143034308090058 Jennings, P. A. (2019). The trauma sensitive classroom: Building resilience with compassionate teaching. W. W. Norton Company. Kim, L. E., & Ashbury, K. (2020). ‘Like a rug had been pulled from under you’: The impact of COVID-19 on teachers in England during the first six weeks of the UK lockdown. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(4), 1062–1083. doi:10.1111/bjep.12381 PMID:32975830 Lelli, C. (2021). Trauma-sensitive schools: The importance of instilling grit, determination, and resilience. Rowman and Littlefield. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396. doi:10.1037/h0054346 National Child Traumatic Stress Network, Schools Committee. (2017). Creating, supporting, and sustaining trauma-informed schools: A system framework. National Center for Child Traumatic Stress. Oberle, E., & Schonert-Reichl, K. A. (2016). Stress contagion in the classroom? The link between classroom teacher burnout and morning cortisol in elementary school students. Social Science & Medicine, 159, 30–37. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.04.031 PMID:27156042

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Pynoos, R. S., Fairbank, J. A., Steinberg, A. M., Amaya-Jackson, L., Gerrity, E., Mount, M. L., & Maze, J. (2008). The National Child Traumatic Stress Network: Collaborating to improve the standard of care. Professional Psychology, Research and Practice, 39(4), 389–395. doi:10.1037/a0012551 Sabol, T., & Pianta, R. C. (2012). Recent trends in research on teacher-child relationships. Attachment & Human Development, 14(3), 213–231. doi:10.1080/14616734.2012.672262 PMID:22537521 Sulkowski, M. L., & Michael, K. (2014). Meeting the mental health needs of homeless students in schools: A Multi-Tiered System of Support framework. Children and Youth Services Review, 44, 145–151. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.06.014

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ADDITIONAL READING Aguilar, E. (2018). Onward: Cultivating emotional resilience in educators. Jossey-Bass. doi:10.1002/9781119441731 Alexander, J. (2019). Building trauma sensitive schools: Your guide to creating safe, supportive learning environments for all students. Paul H. Brookes. Chafouleas, S. M., Johnson, A. H., Overstreet, S., & Santos, N. M. (2016). Toward a blueprint for trauma informed service delivery in schools. School Mental Health, 8(1), 144–162. doi:10.100712310-015-9166-8 Frey, N., Fisher, D., & Smith, D. (2019). All learning is social and emotional: Helping students develop essential skills for the classroom and beyond. ASCD Publications. Gibbs, S., & Miller, A. (2014). Teachers’ resilience and well-being: A role for educational psychology. Teachers and Teaching, 20(5), 609–621. doi:10.1080/13540602.2013.844408 Gorski, P. (2020). How trauma informed are we, really? Educational Leadership, 78(2), 14–19. PMID:33614921 Gross, K. (2020). Trauma doesn’t stop at the school door: Strategies and solutions for educators, PreKCollege. Teachers College Press. Klapproth, F., Federkeil, L., Heinschke, F., & Jungmann, T. (2020). Teachers’ experiences of stress and their coping strategies during COVID-19 induced distance teaching. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 4(4), 444–452. doi:10.33902/JPR.2020062805 Mansfield, C. F., Beltman, S., Broadley, T., & Weatherby-Fell, N. (2016). Building resilience in teacher education: An evidenced informed framework. Teaching and Teacher Education, 54, 77–87. doi:10.1016/j. tate.2015.11.016

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS COVID-19 Educator Impact Survey: Researchers’ designed survey consisting of both Likert scale questions and open-ended responses to garner perceptions of the impact of COVID-19 on educators’ instructional practices and overall well-being. Empathetic Approach: An approach derived from a willingness to deeply understand and prioritize the social emotional needs of another during a crisis or time of difficulty. Guideposts for Trauma Informed Strategies: Researchers’ designed approach that offers strategies grounded in research to facilitate connection and application of theory to practice. Multi-Tiered System of Support (MTSS) Framework: A framework that includes a multi-tiered approach for the early identification and support of students with learning and emotional/behavior needs. National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN) System Framework: A framework used by school systems to make improvements and organizational changes to ensure the use of trauma informed practices.

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 Navigating the Barriers Presented by the COVID-19 Pandemic

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Trauma: An event that causes a negative emotional and/or physical response. The response may be immediate or latent and may impact developmental, physiological, cognitive, behavioral, and socialemotional well-being. Trauma Informed Practices: A structure that incorporates recognition and responding to trauma by implementing strategies to mitigate the adverse impact experienced. Vicarious Trauma: A term also known as compassion fatigue which creates emotional stress and concern experienced by educators due to the stories/trauma experiences of their students.

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Chapter 4

The University Instructors’ Opinions About Emergency Remote Education in Turkey Halil Kayaduman https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5316-1893 Inonu University, Turkey Ali Battal Selçuk University, Turkey

ABSTRACT

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This study explores university instructors’ opinions regarding emergency remote education practices during the COVID-19 pandemic. This research included 248 university instructors from 29 universities in Turkey. The fndings revealed the instructors’ positive and negative opinions, educational preferences, and support demands. While instructors found the process useful in terms of cost-efectiveness, providing individualized learning environments, and supporting ubiquitous learning, their negative opinions stemmed from course-, student-, technology-, and instructor-related factors. The instructors demanded support in technology and training aspects, and they preferred face-to-face education rather than blended and distance education. This study suggests considering the technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) framework for professional development programs. As well, it emphasizes the importance of open educational resources and collaboration eforts at the institution level to share digital resources to eliminate the digital divide and digital literacy issues.

INTRODUCTION The Covid-19 outbreak has affected many areas of life. After the World Health Organization declared the virus as a pandemic (WHO, 2020), many countries, including Turkey, implemented lockdown procedures to hinder its spread. As one of the results, universities and schools were suspended and they rapidly moved their education practices to online environments. Accordingly, teachers, faculties, and DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7275-7.ch004

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 The University Instructors’ Opinions About Emergency Remote Education in Turkey

students were expected to adopt this new education format in a short time (Alshehri et al., 2020; Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020; Rahiem, 2020). This rapid and unexpected transition to online has brought various challenges. Exploring the challenges associated with the implementations of this new format in Turkey’s higher education institutions during the Covid-19 pandemic is critical to facilitate the process for more satisfactory learning and teaching outcomes and to guide future practices in education.

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LITERATURE REVIEW Distance education has a critical role in education and provides many advantages. Due to technological advancements, distance education has transformed into an online format; subsequently, online campuses, courses, and programs have emerged and become widespread due to facilitating access to learning materials, promoting cost-effectiveness, and providing personalized learning environments (Moore & Kearsley, 2011). With the recent Covid-19 outbreak, educational institutions have moved their practices to an online format, taking into consideration the advantages of distance education. Although the practices during the Covid-19 pandemic seem to be distance education, the current literature distinguishes online or distance education from emergency remote education. While distance education is expressed as a more planned and guided practice that offers an alternative method to face-to-face education, emergency remote education is a sub-branch of distance education that emerged as an obligation to survive in the time of crisis (Bozkurt et al., 2020). Given the rapid and obligatory transition to online education due to the Covid-19 outbreak, the practices in the current situation could be considered emergency remote education. The research studies in the literature explained that emergency remote education revealed some of the challenges regarding educational implementations. The digital divide is one of the problems and it is expressed as the division between those who are able and unable to access digital technologies (Selwyn, 2004). The practices in emergency remote education highly depend on technological devices and the internet; as a result, the digital divide became a more evident problem (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020). A recent study, which spans the reflections from many countries around the world (Bozkurt et al., 2020), stated that the digital divide was prominent in both developed and developing countries; people accessing digital technologies managed the emergency remote education process better than those who do not have them. In another study, Fishbane and Tomer (2020) pointed out that students who are unable to afford digital technologies and high-bandwidth internet connections struggled with additional problems to catch up with their peers in the time of the Covid-19 pandemic. Similarly, Bozkurt (2020a) noted that emergency remote education practices during the Covid-19 pandemic increased social injustice and widened the gap among students depending on the facilities they have. Hence, the digital divide could be said as one of the challenges that emerged as a result of emergency remote education. Digital literacy is another challenge that students, teachers, and faculties had to deal with in the time of the Covid-19 pandemic. Digital literacy is defined as the attitude, ability, and awareness of people to access, manage, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information through digital tools (Martin & Grudziecki, 2006). Bozkurt et al. (2020) stated that digital literacy is necessary for emergency remote education practices and providing only digital technologies for students and instructors may not produce expected outcomes in education. They further explained that most of the instructors and students did not have sufficient digital competencies and skills required for this process. A recent study conducted in a developing university of Turkey (Alma et al., 2020) found that some students lacked the necessary 67

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knowledge and skills to use the learning management system and the faculties had concerns about the students’ digital literacy level. Adedoyin and Soykan (2020) expressed that instructors and students with low levels of digital literacy might not fulfill their roles in online learning and teaching at the time of the pandemic. Similarly, Trust and Whalen (2020) noted that teachers who utilized technologies in their teaching practices regularly before the pandemic made an easier transition to emergency remote education. Moreover, there is a relationship between digital literacy and distance education perceptions of students (Kayaduman & Battal, 2020). Therefore, one can conclude that the digital literacies of both instructors and students have critical importance and have become one of the key barriers as a result of emergency remote education during the Covid-19 pandemic. Furthermore, the instructors have additional roles when they move their educational practices to an online format. Keast (1997) stated that changing roles and responsibilities of instructors in distance education is one of the obstacles. When instructors moved their teaching to an online environment, they are supposed to be not only subject matter and pedagogical expert but also technology savvy so as to produce digital content, and guide and assess their students (Anderson et al., 2001; Bawane & Spector, 2009; Berge, 1995; Egan & Akdere, 2005). Thus, instructors may experience technical and pedagogical problems (Conrad, 2004) and accordingly, some set of concerns may arise, especially if they teach for the first-time in distance education (Kayaduman & Demirel, 2019). Considering the rapid and mandatory transition to online education due to the Covid-19 pandemic, adaptation of instructors to new roles that come with emergency remote education may be more troublesome. The recent studies conducted during the Covid-19 outbreak explained that faculty members had a lack of online teaching experience (Bao, 2020) and most of them had difficulty in assessing their students’ learning (Cutri et al., 2020). Hence, exploring this process from instructors’ perspectives is of paramount importance since they are the main practitioners in education. Although some studies already explored the process of emergency remote education during the Covid-19 pandemic from the perspectives of different users in the ecosystem of distance education in Turkey (Alma et al., 2020; Bozkurt, 2020a, 2020b; Bozkurt et al., 2020; Karadağ & Yücel, 2020), very little is known about the university instructors’ experiences. Therefore, investigating the university instructors’ opinions about emergency remote education practices is a critical area of research for professional development efforts and, consequently, for a more successful and sustainable implementation of distance education.

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PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The present study aims to explore university instructors’ opinions regarding emergency remote education practices that arose during the Covid-19 pandemic. Investigating the experiences of instructors when implementing emergency remote education practices can first contribute to professional development efforts and then inform decision-makers to help the transition to more efficient and effective distance education implementations. The authors address the following research question in the scope of the study: 1. What are the university instructors’ opinions about emergency remote education practices during the Covid-19 pandemic?

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METHOD The present study is qualitative (Patton, 2001) in nature and analyzes the data from open-ended questions to reveal the university instructors’ opinions on emergency remote education practices during the Covid-19 pandemic. The case study, one of the qualitative research types, was used in the present study. Merriam (1998) defines the case study as an in-depth description and investigation of a context. The reason for employing this type of qualitative research is to investigate the emergency remote education practices in their natural context to accomplish an in-depth analysis of university instructors’ opinions in Turkey.

Sampling and Procedure The authors collected the data via an anonymous online survey from instructors working in Turkey’s universities. Two hundred and forty-eight university instructors (158 males, 90 females) participated in the current study. Tables 1-3 illustrate the demographic information of the participants. Table 1. The instructor’s age groups in years Age Group

n

21-30

47

31-40

106

41-50

54

51-60

28

61 and over

13

Total

248

Note. n=number of instructors.

Table 2. The title of the instructors

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Title

n

Research Assistant

46

Instructor

46

Dr. Research Assistant

12

Dr. Instructor

13

Assistant Prof. Dr.

74

Associate Prof. Dr.

30

Prof. Dr.

27

Total

248

Note. n=number of instructors.

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 The University Instructors’ Opinions About Emergency Remote Education in Turkey

Table 3. The information and communication technologies that instructors have access to n Desktop Computer

189

Laptop Computer

241

Tablet Computer

97

Broadband Internet Connection

217

Smartphone

238

Printer

210

Office Software (Microsoft Office/Open Office, etc.)

230

Photo Editing Software

123

Video Editing Software

109

Statistics Software (SPSS, SAS, etc.)

135

Note. n=number of instructors.

The spring semester in Turkish universities generally starts at the beginning of February and ends at the end of June. In mid-March 2020, shortly after the semester began, Turkish universities were suspended by the Higher Education Council due to the Covid-19 outbreak (Bozkurt et al., 2020). After a short break, the council allowed universities to continue their education via online format. In this direction, the universities carried out their courses whether synchronous or asynchronous format depending on their facilities. The data were collected from the second week of May to the last week of June via an online anonymous survey. The authors prepared an email containing the purpose of the study and the survey link, and directly sent it to the instructors’ email addresses from 29 universities situated in different parts of Turkey. The universities were randomly selected; 23 state and 6 foundation universities were included in the current study. In total, 230 instructors from state universities and 18 instructors from foundation universities participated in the study.

Instrument

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In the scope of the study, the authors developed a survey containing demographic and open-ended questions. The demographic questions asked about gender, age, title, type of university (state or foundation), and the information and communication technologies that they have access to. The two open-ended questions sought to reveal the instructors’ opinions on distance education practices during the Covid-19 pandemic. The following open-ended questions were asked in this regard: • •

What are your problems and suggestions about the use of information and communication technologies in education? What are your opinions about distance education practices during the Covid-19 pandemic (in both aspects, positive/negative)?

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Data Analysis The authors followed the content analysis procedures (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2013) to analyze the data obtained from open-ended questions. Using the NVivo 12 program, the data was first imported and then read multiple times to understand the opinions of the instructors in general. Then, the authors followed the data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing/verification steps to describe and interpret the findings.

Validity and Reliability The authors used a variety of strategies to ensure the validity and reliability of the study. First, they randomly selected the universities in Turkey to provide a broader perspective regarding distance education practices during the Covid-19 pandemic. Second, to ensure the credibility of the study, there was no incentive or enforcement for instructors to participate in the study; they answered the questions voluntarily. Third, for the transferability of the study, the authors explained in detail the instructors’ characteristics, the reason for employing the qualitative research, the instrument utilized in the study, and the data analysis steps. Fourth, an expert holding a doctorate in the field of Educational Technology checked the appropriateness of the themes and calculated the inter-coder reliability score using the below formula (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Reliability =

Number of agreements Number of agreements + Number of disagreements



The inter-coder reliability score was found to be appropriate (86%). Lastly, the authors kept the data for the confirmability of the study.

FINDINGS To answer the research question, the authors analyzed the data obtained from open-ended questions. Table 4 illustrates the findings regarding the university instructors’ opinions on distance education practices during the Covid-19 pandemic. The main themes were grouped around positive and negative opinions, education preferences, and support demands.

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Instructors’ Positive Opinions Regarding Distance Education Practices The findings revealed that some instructors had positive opinions about distance education practices. Many instructors (f=20) first expressed that distance education practices supported ubiquitous learning which means students could study anytime and anywhere. One said: The absence of limitations such as time and place to learn is very nice in that it provides opportunities for students to attend the lessons whenever they want. There are very good applications that allow individual and group studies, interactive activities, and remote exams…

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The instructors (f=7) further acknowledged that distance education can support individualized learning. One stated that, “It is very useful in terms of individualization of education. It is an ideal method for students to be aware of their responsibility”. In that regard, some instructors (f=4) believed that distance education was more suitable for graduate education than associate or undergraduate education. One stated, “I think it is more suitable for upper classes such as master’s or doctorate”. The second positive opinion expressed by the instructors (f=19) was that distance education saved time, energy, and costs. One instructor noted: “A positive aspect is that it has removed the barriers such as time, space and cost for attending classes”. Similarly, the instructors (f=11) also found distance education efficient in terms of time and energy since they could create and reuse digital content for their classes. One articulated that, “The positive side is that I am recording lessons and students can listen again and thus they don’t bother me too much while preparing homework”. Furthermore, some instructors (f=4) noted the efficiency that distance education facilitated to reach many students at the same time. One instructor stated that, “You can easily reach a large number of people in a short time”. As well, some instructors (f=3) also considered that distance education supported technology integration in education.

Instructors’ Negative Opinions Regarding Distance Education Practices The findings illustrated that the instructors mostly had negative opinions regarding distance education practices. Of the negative themes, course-related factors were the most-stated factor by the instructors. Most of the instructors (f=48) expressed that delivering courses interactively via distance education is relatively difficult for them. One noted that, “What I find negative about distance education is the inability to deliver interactive lessons. We feel like we are talking to a black wall because the students don’t turn on their cameras”. Following that, the instructors (f=24) noted that measurement and evaluation methods in distance education may not be reliable since there is not much control over the exams and assignments. One said that, “I find the effectiveness and reliability of the exams conducted with distance education problematic”. Furthermore, some instructors (f=21) stated that it is difficult to conduct applied courses that require field experience via distance education. One instructor expressed: Distance education is not very successful in applied fields. Virtual training in applications can often fail or lead to a waste of time. It may be applicable in theoretical subjects, but we cannot say that it is fully successful in applied fields.

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In terms of student-related factors, many instructors (f=33) pointed out that students had insufficient technological facilities such as the internet, desktop, laptop, or tablet computers and this causes problems for implementing their courses online. One stated: Especially in the distance education process, I and my students have limited access to technology from time to time. Our students are expected to attend classes with a strong internet connection on the computer, but not everyone has this at home. Correspondingly, instructors (f=19) reported that most of the students do not attend classes and course activities. One instructor articulated that, “The negative aspect of the distance education process is that some students are unable to attend classes actively due to insufficient technological facilities”. Besides, some instructors (f=11) stated that students’ digital literacy levels are not sufficient which negatively 72

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affects distance education practices. An instructor noted: “The most negative aspect is that the students’ digital literacy levels are quite insufficient. This makes the process weary”. Table 4. Instructors’ opinions on emergency remote education practices during Covid-19 pandemic Main Themes

Positive

Supporting ubiquitous learning

20

Providing cost-effectiveness principle in education

19

Facilitating to create and reuse of digital content

11

Supporting individual learning

7

Facilitating to reach many students at the same time

4

More suitable for graduate education

4

Supporting technology integration in education

3

Course-related factors

Student-related factors Negative

Technology-related factors

Instructor-related factors

Support Demands

Preferences

f

Difficulty in delivering courses interactively

48

Reliability issues in measurement and evaluation methods

24

Difficulty in delivering applied courses

21

Insufficient technological facilities

33

Low participation rates for classes

19

Digital literacy inadequacy

11

Low level of motivation

10

Weak adaptation to distance education

3

Technical or infrastructure insufficiency

33

Software deficiencies

9

Requiring more effort to teach

3

Digital literacy inadequacy

3

Low level of motivation

2

Training support

15

Technological support

4

Face-to-face education

30

Blended education

8

Distance education

4

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Note. f=frequency of data excerpts.

Furthermore, the instructors (f=10) expressed that students’ motivation levels are very low and they do not participate in learning activities accordingly. One instructor pointed out that, “The negative side of the distance education process is that students’ motivation is low and this prevents them from benefitting the learning materials we have prepared”. As a result, some instructors (f=3) noted that students’ adaptation to distance education is relatively weak. In this regard, an instructor said that, “I think we do not provide effective education in distance education after the cancellation process of the academic year due to the pandemic. It was very difficult for us as well as for the students to adapt”.

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In terms of technology-related factors, the instructors reported that having software deficiencies and insufficient technical infrastructure negatively influenced distance education practices during the Covid-19 pandemic. While most of the instructors (f=33) described the problems due to the internet and virtual class software infrastructures, others (f=9) stated that they were unable to use specific software programs due to a lack of licensing. One pointed out that, “When many students entered the system during the online class, there were problems with the system crashing or internet interruptions”. As the least-stated factors, the instructors described instructor-related factors that had negative effects on distance education practices. While some (f=3) emphasized instructors’ digital literacy inadequacy, others (f=2) reported instructors’ low level of motivation in distance education. One noted: “Of course, distance education is not only about technology use, but it cannot be said that distance education provided by academicians over the age of 45 who cannot use technological devices and programs is a bit problematic”. In addition to that, some instructors (f=3) thought that implementing a distance education course requires more effort than face-to-face education.

Instructors’ Education Preferences and Support Demands The findings further illustrated the instructors’ education preferences and support demands. In terms of support demands, many instructors (f=15) emphasized the importance of in-service training opportunities for them so that they could improve themselves in technology integration in education and distance education accordingly. In that regard, one of the instructors articulated: Many programs can be used in the field of education. However, as an instructor, it is not possible to be familiar with all of them. Basic programs specific to each discipline should be determined and correspondingly training should be provided to instructors before students so that they could improve themselves.

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The instructors (f=4) requested licensed or affordable software choices so that they could use them in their courses as well. One noted that, “The licensed software of each program cannot be used due to its prices. Providing more software choices especially for instructors and students will increase the effectiveness of the process”. Many instructors stated their educational preferences as a result of involving distance education practices during the Covid-19 pandemic. While many (f=30) stated that face-to-face education practices are better than distance education, some (f=8) preferred blended learning, which includes both face-to-face and distance education practices, and very few (f=4) favored distance education. One instructor pointed out: Because every person’s learning style is different, I always favor face-to-face education. I have never found distance education as favorable. I need to make eye contact with students, I have to breathe in the same environment with them and I should be able to observe their reactions during the class. All in all, instructors identified positive and negative opinions regarding distance education practices during the Covid-19 pandemic, expressed their support demands, and indicated their education preferences. In terms of positive opinions, instructors mostly stated that distance education supports ubiquitous and individualized learning. Furthermore, they also noted that distance education increases the efficiency of instructors by reducing the time and energy commitment in preparing and implementing course activities. Despite the positive opinions, many instructors emphasized negative opinions stem74

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 The University Instructors’ Opinions About Emergency Remote Education in Turkey

ming from course-, student-, technology-, and instructor-related factors. The findings indicated that most of the negative opinions stemmed from course structures. In this direction, the instructors mentioned the difficulty of delivering applied courses, ensuring interaction with students in the course activities, and providing valid and reliable exams. In addition to the course-related factors, instructors identified negative opinions stemming from students. The instructors first expressed that students had a lack of technical facilities such as the internet and a computer. Therefore, they stated that this situation caused low motivation and participation in the course activities. Besides, they also said that students had a low level of digital literacy and weak adaptation to distance education. As for the technology-related factors in negative opinions, the instructors pointed out that they had issues of implementing their online courses due to the deficiencies of internet and software infrastructures at their institutions. On the other hand, the instructor-related factors were least stated by them. As a consequence, while many instructors demanded training to improve themselves in distance education practices, they preferred face-to-face education more than distance education.

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DISCUSSION The present study investigated the university instructors’ opinions regarding emergency remote education practices in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic to expand the existing body of knowledge. The findings revealed the instructors’ positive and negative opinions about emergency remote education practices, educational preferences, and support demands. According to the positive opinions, the instructors stated that the practices they have experienced during the Covid-19 pandemic were beneficial in terms of cost-effectiveness, provided individualized learning environments for students, and supported ubiquitous learning. Moore and Kearsley (2011) also pointed out that online distance education practices facilitate access to course materials, support anytime and anywhere learning, increase cost-effectiveness, and support personalized learning environments. Therefore, considering the extant practices as emergency remote education (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020), the present study further contributed to the current knowledge pool of distance education research by providing evidence from instructors’ perspectives who experienced online teaching during the Covid-19 pandemic. According to the findings, instructors’ negative opinions stemmed from course-, student-, technology-, and instructor-related factors, respectively. The instructors expressed course-related factors more than others. While instructors stated difficulty in delivering interactive lessons and applied courses, they also expressed reliability issues in measurements and evaluation methods. In this direction, the online teaching pedagogy of the instructors may be the source of these negative views. In terms of the online teaching pedagogy, instructors generally maintain their traditional instructional methods and strategies to carry out their courses when they move from face-to-face to distance education (Aydemir et al., 2016; Roy & Boboc, 2016). However, carrying out traditional instructional methods and strategies might not be useful in distance education. Distance education underlines the importance of student-student, studentinstructor, and student-content interactions for satisfactory learning outcomes (Moore, 1993). While some of these interactions can occur naturally in face-to-face learning environments, they may not take place in online learning environments without designing them. Continually, the instructors’ concerns on the reliability issues in measurement and evaluation methods may also stem from their traditional teaching pedagogies which is a continuation of face-to-face approaches. Cutri et al. (2020) articulated that university instructors had difficulty in assessing learning outcomes and requested to know how to do a 75

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formative and summative assessment during the Covid-19 pandemic. Therefore, a lack of understanding in online teaching pedagogy and the persistence of utilizing the traditional instructional methods and strategies during the Covid-19 outbreak could be one of the sources of the instructors’ negative opinions. As for student-related factors, instructors pointed out students’ inadequate digital facilities and literacy level, and low motivation and participation rates in online courses. In this direction, the digital facilities and digital literacy level of the students may be the sources of these negative opinions. The digital divide was an evident problem during the Covid-19 pandemic (Alma et al., 2020; Bozkurt et al., 2020); students with no digital device or internet connection had greater difficulty than those who had them, and had to exert more effort to level up with their peers (Fishbane & Tomer, 2020). Considering the distance education as an alternative approach to face-to-face education and the emergency remote education is a mandatory transition (Bozkurt et al., 2020), the digital divide may cause low motivation and participation rates in online courses for students with no digital device and internet connection. Furthermore, the digital divide may also cause a low level of digital literacy as well. Online education is highly dependent on the use of technological devices and an internet connection; consequently, students who have a low level of digital literacy may not accomplish their duties during online learning (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020). Since there is a correlation between digital literacy and distance education perceptions of students (Kayaduman & Battal, 2020), inadequate digital literacy levels may also cause low motivation and participation rates in online courses for students. Bergdahl and Nouri (2020) noted that enabling student interactions during emergency remote education was challenging for many teachers. Therefore, instructors’ difficulties in delivering an interactive course could stem from not only a lack of online teaching pedagogy and the persistence of using the traditional instructional methods and strategies as abovementioned, but could also be due to the digital divide and digital literacy level of the students. The findings of the study revealed that the instructors’ negative opinions regarding the practices of emergency remote education were dominant over positive opinions. Considering many instructors are experiencing online teaching for the first time during the Covid-19 pandemic, instructors may have some set of concerns (Kayaduman & Demirel, 2019) and various stressors and barriers could emerge if they are not prepared (Trust & Whalen, 2020). As a consequence, the instructors demanded support in technology and training aspects, and they preferred face-to-face education rather than blended and distance education. As stated in a comprehensive study (Bozkurt et al., 2020), there was not high-quality training regarding how to teach online in some of the countries. Thus, the instructors in the present study might not have received the necessary support from their respective institutions due to the rapid and obligatory transition to online education; therefore, they have requested training and preferred face-to-face education over blended and distance education.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS Many instructors around the world have switched to online teaching due to the Covid-19 outbreak. The instructors’ transition was rapid and obligatory rather than planned and voluntary (Bozkurt et al., 2020). In this regard, this study investigated the opinions of university instructors to provide a better understanding of emergency remote education practices during the Covid-19 pandemic. First, the findings revealed that instructors had positive opinions about emergency remote education; they found this process useful in terms of cost-effectiveness, providing an individualized learning environment for students, and sustaining learning and teaching anytime and anywhere. Although there were also negative opinions, these posi76

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tive opinions may facilitate the instructors’ adaptation to distance education in the future. According to Rogers (2003), the relative advantage is critical in the adaptation process and if people see the advantage of using innovation, they can adopt it quickly. Hence, experiencing this process and seeing the positive aspects may be a facilitative ingredient for professional development efforts about distance education. Second, this study presented a lack of understanding of online teaching pedagogy as one of the reasons behind the negative opinions of instructors. Instructors tend to resume their traditional instructional methods and strategies in distance education (Aydemir et al., 2016; Roy & Boboc, 2016) and professional development programs are mostly insufficient due to being one-shot and focusing on the technology component of online education (Bickerstaff & Cormier, 2015; Flint et al., 2011). However, the success of online education is beyond the use of technology and traditional instructional methods and strategies. In this regard, considering the negative opinions of instructors about course and evaluation methods in this study, one could state that student-student, student-instructor, and student-content interactions (Moore, 1993) and formative assessment (Gikandi et al., 2011) in distance education are of paramount importance. Hence, this study underlines the importance of increasing the awareness of instructors’ opinions about online teaching pedagogy for better educational practices. To do this, as (Kayaduman & Demirel, 2019) suggested, designing professional development programs by considering the technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) framework and including topics such as ensuring interactions and implementing formative assessment could contribute to the understanding of instructors and produce more satisfactory teaching and learning experiences. Third, while online teaching pedagogy is extremely critical in this process, having it carry out an effective and efficient lesson may not be enough due to the issues arising from the digital divide and digital literacy. Students who have a low level of digital literacy and access problems to digital technologies and the internet may not fulfill their roles in online learning (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020; Fishbane & Tomer, 2020) and instructors may experience challenges to enabling student interactions accordingly (Alshehri et al., 2020; Bergdahl & Nouri, 2020). In this regard, the present study further revealed that the digital facilities and digital literacy level of the students may cause low motivation and participation rates in online courses. Therefore, it is important to eliminate the factors that cause inequalities and exclusion in online education. Bozkurt et al. (2020) stated that the Covid-19 pandemic indicated the importance of open educational resources and collaborative efforts among stakeholders. Accordingly, initiatives to raise awareness of open educational resources such as massive open online courses and collaboration efforts at the institution level to share digital resources could help mitigate the digital divide and digital literacy issues in online education. Lastly, decision-makers, educational planners, change-agents, administrators, and researchers could acquire insights from the present study regarding university instructors’ opinions about the implementations during the Covid-19 pandemic. They could improve the teaching and learning experiences of instructors and students through the implications of the study.

LIMITATIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH The present study provided rich data regarding university instructors’ opinions about emergency remote education practices during the Covid-19 pandemic and answered the research question at hand. However, there is a need for future studies to eliminate the limitations of the study and to acquire a better understanding of emergency remote education practices. First, the current study is limited by the 77

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characteristics of instructors working in Turkish universities. Therefore, this limitation should be taken into account when interpreting the findings, and future studies should include participants from different educational institutions to investigate the experiences of instructors during the Covid-19 pandemic. Second, the authors only collected qualitative data through online open-ended questions with a limited number of demographic questions in the scope of the study. Hence, future studies should develop surveys that include detailed questions about the characteristics of participants and carry out inferential statistics measures to investigate instructors’ opinions about the implementations. Third, the authors only collected data from instructors. Hence, future studies should also obtain data from administrators, students, and instructional designers as well. Lastly, future studies should focus on analyzing administrative works, the training process of instructors and students, and collaboration efforts to provide a complete picture of emergency remote education practices.

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Bao, W. (2020). COVID‐19 and online teaching in higher education: A case study of Peking University. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 113–115(2), 113–115. Advance online publication. doi:10.1002/hbe2.191 PMID:32510042 Bawane, J., & Spector, J. M. (2009). Prioritization of online instructor roles: Implications for competencybased teacher education programs. Distance Education, 30(3), 383–397. doi:10.1080/01587910903236536 Bergdahl, N., & Nouri, J. (2020). Covid-19 and Crisis-Promted Distance Education in Sweden. Technology, Knowledge and Learning. doi:10.100710758-020-09470-6 Berge, Z. L. (1995). The Role of the Online Instructor/Facilitator. Educational Technology, 35(1), 22–30. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238348806_The_Role_of_the_Online_InstructorFacilitator

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Bickerstaff, S., & Cormier, M. S. (2015). Examining faculty questions to facilitate instructional improvement in higher education. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 46, 74–80. doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2014.11.004 Bozkurt, A. (2020a). Koronavirüs (Covid-19) pandemi süreci ve pandemi sonrası dünyada eğitime yönelik değerlendirmeler: Yeni normal ve yeni eğitim paradigması [The evaluations for education during and after the Coronavirus (Covid-19) pandemic process: New normal and new educa]. Açıköğretim Uygulamaları ve Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6(3), 112–142. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/auad/issue/56247/773769 Bozkurt, A. (2020b). Koronavirüs (Covıd-19) Pandemisi Sırasında İlköğretim Öğrencilerinin Uzaktan Eğitime Yönelik İmge Ve Algıları: Bir Metafor Analizi [Images And Perceptions Of Primary School Students Towards Distance Education During Coronavirus (Covid-19) Pandemic: A Meta]. Uşak Üniversitesi Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6(2), 1–23. doi:10.29065/usakead.777652 Bozkurt, A., Jung, I., Xiao, J., Vladimirschi, V., Schuwer, R., Egorov, G., Lambert, S., Al-Freih, M., Pete, J., Olcott, J. D., Rodes, V., Aranciaga, I., Bali, M., Alvarez, A. J., Roberts, J., Pazurek, A., Raffaghelli, J. E., Panagiotou, N., de Coëtlogon, P., ... Paskevicius, M. (2020). A global outlook to the interruption of education due to COVID-19 pandemic: Navigating in a time of uncertainty and crisis. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 5(1), 1–126. http://www.asianjde.org/ojs/index.php/AsianJDE/article/view/462 Bozkurt, A., & Sharma, R. C. (2020). Emergency remote teaching in a time of global crisis due to CoronaVirus pandemic. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), i–vi. https://asianjde.org/ojs/index.php/ AsianJDE/article/view/447 Conrad, D. (2004). University instructors’ reflections on their first online teaching experiences. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 8(2), 31–44. http://docushare3.dcc.edu/docushare/dsweb/Get/Version-9844/FacultyReflectionsTeachingOnline.pdf Cutri, R. M., Mena, J., & Whiting, E. F. (2020). Faculty readiness for online crisis teaching: Transitioning to online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 523–541. doi:10.1080/02619768.2020.1815702 Egan, T. M., & Akdere, M. (2005). Clarifying distance education roles and competencies: Exploring similarities and differences between professional and student-practitioner perspectives. American Journal of Distance Education, 19(2), 87–103. doi:10.120715389286ajde1902_3

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Fishbane, L., & Tomer, A. (2020). As classes move online during COVID-19, what are disconnected students to do? Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/the-avenue/2020/03/20/as-classes-moveonline-during-covid-19-what-are-disconnected-students-to-do Flint, A. S., Zisook, K., & Fisher, T. R. (2011). Not a one-shot deal: Generative professional development among experienced teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(8), 1163–1169. doi:10.1016/j. tate.2011.05.009 Gikandi, J. W., Morrow, D., & Davis, N. (2011). Online formative assessment in higher education: A review of the literature. Computers & Education, 57(4), 2333–2351. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.06.004 Karadağ, E., & Yücel, C. (2020). Distance Education at Universities during the Novel Coronavirus Pandemic: An Analysis of Undergraduate Students’ Perceptions. Yükseköğretim Dergisi, 10(2), 181–192. doi:10.2399/yod.20.730688

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Kayaduman, H., & Battal, A. (2020). The Relationship Between Digital Literacy and Distance Education Perceptions. 13th Annual International Conference of Education, Research and Innovation, 2223–2227. 10.21125/iceri.2020.0533 Kayaduman, H., & Demirel, T. (2019). Investigating the Concerns of First-Time Distance Education Instructors. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 20(5), 85–103. doi:10.19173/irrodl.v20i5.4467 Keast, D. A. (1997). Toward an effective model for implementing distance education programs. American Journal of Distance Education, 11(2), 39–55. doi:10.1080/08923649709526960 Martin, A., & Grudziecki, J. (2006). DigEuLit: Concepts and Tools for Digital Literacy Development. Innovation in Teaching and Learning in Information and Computer Sciences, 5(4), 249–267. doi:10.11120/ ital.2006.05040249 Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education (2nd ed.). JosseyBass Publishers. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). Sage Publications. Moore, M. G. (1993). Theory of transactional distance. In Theoretical Principles of Distance Education (pp. 22–38). Routledge. Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (2011). Distance education: A systems view of online learning (3rd ed.). Cengage Learning. Patton, M. Q. (2001). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Sage Publications. Rahiem, M. D. H. (2020). The Emergency Remote Learning Experience of University Students in Indonesia amidst the COVID-19 Crisis. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(9), 1–26. doi:10.26803/ijlter.19.6.1 Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of Innovation (5th ed.). Free Press. Roy, M., & Boboc, M. (2016). Professional Development Needs of Online Teachers. Journal of Online Learning Research, 2(3), 283–302. https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/172451

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Selwyn, N. (2004). Reconsidering Political and Popular Understandings of the Digital Divide. New Media & Society, 6(3), 341–362. doi:10.1177/1461444804042519 Trust, T., & Whalen, J. (2020). Should Teachers be Trained in Emergency Remote Teaching? Lessons Learned from the COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 28(2), 189–199. https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/215995/ WHO. (2020). Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Pandemic. https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (2013). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri [Qualitative research methods in the social sciences] (9th ed.). Şeçkin.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Case Study: In-depth description and investigation of a context (Merriam, 1998). COVID-19: It stands for corona virus disease and highly infectious (WHO, 2020). Digital Divide: The division between those who can access digital technologies and those who are unable to access them (Selwyn, 2004). Digital Literacy: The attitude, ability, and awareness of people to access, manage, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information through digital tools (Martin & Grudziecki, 2006). Distance Education: A planned and guided practice that offers an alternative method to face-to-face education (Bozkurt et al., 2020). Emergency Remote Education: A sub-branch of distance education and it was stated as an obligation to survive in the time of crisis (Bozkurt et al., 2020). University Instructors: Academic staff working at tertiary institutions to teach associate, undergraduate, and graduate courses.

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Chapter 5

Best Practices for Emergency Remote Teaching Michelle Dennis Adler University, USA

ABSTRACT

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Unforeseen events, such as the global pandemic COVID-19, have the potential to necessitate abrupt closures of the physical campuses of higher education institutions. In these situations, emergency remote teaching procedures may be implemented to enable the continuation of courses and reduce the magnitude of disruptions to the learning process for students and faculty members. In this chapter, the author will evaluate best practices for the design of emergency remote teaching, faculty preparation, and student support. Further, the author will explore efective communication strategies for the delivery of information regarding procedural changes to students and faculty.

Events such as the global pandemic COVID-19, which are unforeseen in nature and necessitate the rapid closure of the physical campuses of institutions of higher education, highlight the importance of the efficient implementation of best practices for the design and delivery of emergency remote teaching experiences (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020). Procedures for the implementation of emergency remote teaching are similar to those required for the implementation of online education in terms of content, but not in terms of time frame and resource needs. In the case of the former, little time is available and resources are typically less robust, except in cases where contingency planning has been prioritized. In the case of the latter, adequate resources and time support the effective preparation of online courses through intentional and collaborative design, the training of faculty members to facilitate the courses, and the integration of student supports into the online education experience. This chapter presents three key factors which have been widely explored in the literature in terms of their impact on the success of emergency remote teaching (Martin, Ritzhaupt et al., 2019; Outlaw & Rice, 2015): Design, faculty preparation, and student support. In terms of design, engagement plays an important role in the student experience and can be impacted in many ways throughout the design process. The presentation of course content is a second area of focus within the design pillar, and many strategies for the presentation of content may impact the student experience during periods of emergency DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7275-7.ch005

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remote teaching. A final aspect of design, the assessment of learning, is also a key area in which best practices may be employed to improve the design of emergency remote teaching experiences. The second key factor, faculty preparation, can be categorized into four main areas: Expectation setting, training and development, mentorship, and evaluation. As in the case of design, application of best practices for faculty preparation can support a smooth transition and a positive student experience. The third factor, student support, also impacts the student experience during times of transition. Resource and adjustment needs of students and considerations for meeting these needs through the implementation of best practices for outreach and community building are explored. The chapter closes with an analysis of considerations for the implementation of effective communication protocols to ensure understanding across campus communities, thereby impacting the ease with which students, faculty, and administrators adjust to abrupt changes in structure as they pertain to course delivery modality.

EMERGENCY REMOTE TEACHING VS. ONLINE EDUCATION There are multiple key distinctions that must be made between emergency remote teaching and online education (Zimmerman, 2020). The later has been established as a very effective strategy for instruction at the primary (Journell, 2015), secondary (Kumi-Yeboah, 2015), and post-secondary (Eom & Ashill, 2016) levels. Further, online education is structured based on best practices for course design, facilitation, assessment, and faculty interaction, and, as such, requires a significant amount of preparation prior to course delivery. This time investment allows for the accurate alignment of course- and program-level objectives to resources, activities, and assessments. Further, this investment of time allows for the adequate training of faculty members and the planned provision of student supports. Emergency remote teaching, on the other hand, involves rapid modality changes, which allow content that was formulated for presentation in the face-to-face format to be delivered through virtual means (Hodges et al., 2020). Institutions that have adopted emergency remote teaching procedures in response to the global pandemic vary widely in terms of the resources they have been able to dedicate to this change in modality. Further, institutions of higher education differ greatly in terms of the infrastructure that is available to support these changes. Irrespective of resources and infrastructure, there are key best practices that can support the effective delivery of emergency remote teaching, which pertain to design, faculty preparation, student support, and communication.

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DESIGN Course design, arguably, has the potential to make or break the educational experience, in that poorly designed online courses often create more frustration than learning. The effective design of online courses involves the assignment of a subject matter expert and an instructional designer and is a rigorous and extended process that requires collaboration, discussion, and revision. Throughout the process of online course design, factors such as engagement, alignment, instructional level, and workload are considered, and the optimal result is a well-organized and engaging presentation of content, including aligned resources, activities, and assessments, which represent an instructional level that is consistent with the program through which the course will be offered (Baldwin et al., 2018). As referenced above, emergency remote teaching differs significantly from online education in important ways, but many of 83

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the best practices for online course design may be applied to the design of emergency remote teaching (Hodges et al., 2020; Rahim, 2020). One best practice for the design of online courses is to include an instructional designer (Outlaw & Rice, 2015; Stevens, 2013). The collaboration achieved by this strategy allows for a comprehensive review and evaluation of the content, as well as its presentation. Additionally, collaborative course design contributes to improved course quality (Chao et al., 2010). Further, instructional designers may advise subject matter experts regarding technology tools (Bennett et al., 2015), the use of which represents an additional best practice. The inclusion of technology tools is a best practice for online course design because it promotes student engagement with content. Additionally, it can increase student-student engagement and student-faculty engagement by providing platforms for communication. A third best practice for online course design is the use of evaluation models to assess online course structure (Baldwin et al., 2018). Models may be developed within institutions or by outside organizations. These models provide a framework which may be used to assess various facets of online courses, such as alignment, resource relevance, workload, and active learning. A fourth best practice for online course design is to incorporate active learning elements (Koohang et al., 2016), which is associated with positive student perceptions (Fayer, 2014).

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Engagement Abrupt changes to the format of one’s regular schedule are not easy to avoid during emergency situations. With respect to college coursework, a change in format should not be equated with a change in content (Mohmmed et al., 2020). In other words, the planned content outlined in the syllabus of the formerly face-to-face course should be preserved as much as possible. This supports a reduction in the stress associated with adjusting to multiple changes simultaneously. Content presented in the face-to-face format may be preserved through the creative application of practices that facilitate student engagement (Toquero, 2020a). One such practice is the use of multimedia. Faculty who are accustomed to delivering lectures face to face may have notes to accompany their lectures but typing and sharing notes may not be the best way to engage students remotely. Recording a video of a lecture, on the other hand, may serve to engage students in a more effective way. This represents an efficient strategy for connecting with students in ways similar to those used in the physical classroom. A related strategy is hosting virtual lectures via Web conferencing software, which is a common practice in emergency remote instruction. When employing this method, there are several key considerations pertaining to effective facilitation. Perceptions of quality in the virtual delivery of courses vary and are impacted by prior exposure to online content (Hixon et al., 2016), but most individuals who have attended live lectures can tell that the length of the lecture and the degree to which activities are incorporated both directly impact engagement. This phenomenon is magnified when it is applied to remote lectures, during which engagement is impacted not only by lecture length and activities, but also by environmental factors outside of the control of the faculty member, such as television sets and family members. Lectures that run for fewer than 60 minutes and include activities for students tend to be perceived as engaging to most students, and yet one hour per week does not provide adequate time to address all content. In online instruction, the discussion board replaces (or, in some cases, complements) the lecture, for the aforementioned reasons as well as others, and this strategy can easily be incorporated into emergency remote teaching situations. Employing the use of the discussion board offers many benefits, key among which is the ability to deliver content in an asynchronous manner (Affouneh et al., 2020). When utilizing this format, students 84

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and faculty are not required to dissect content simultaneously. Rather, students can review resources and prompts and post their responses when it is convenient for them to do so. Faculty can then facilitate the discussion board by reviewing responses, posing questions, providing examples, and proposing connections as appropriate. Students can also interact with one another in this manner by posting peer responses. Although a formal weekly discussion board is integrated into online courses during the design phase, faculty tasked with facilitating emergency remote teaching can easily incorporate key questions from readings or lectures and post them to the discussion board, asking students to reply, and demonstrating their dedication to the learning experience by responding promptly and with intentionality to all students. When providing prompts, it is of the utmost importance to ensure the prompts provided are aligned to the resources students are asked to view prior to responding.

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Presentation of Course Content Resources may be in the form of textbook readings, journal articles or lectures. In all cases, the instructor must create prompts that align to resources. In cases where this is not done, multiple questions from students are likely to result. Further, in cases where students do not pose questions, they may interpret the prompts in very different ways, resulting in a discussion that is not at all consistent with the original aims of the course. While this phenomenon may certainly exist in face-to-face courses, it is magnified in the virtual classroom, as the instructor is not constantly present and available to direct the discussion towards the intended aims. It is useful for faculty members engaged in emergency remote teaching who plan to use the discussion board to create a table of alignments. The objectives for each week of the course can be added as columns within the table and then aligned to weekly activities, weekly resources, discussion board questions or prompts, and assessments. Viewing this content in tabular form may help faculty to identify strategies for improving alignment, so that the resulting presentation of content flows in a manner that is clear to students. A related suggestion for improving clarity pertains to the accessibility of information. Students have varying preferences with respect to the presentation of content. Some students learn best when content is presented visually, and others are auditory learners. In the face-to-face classroom, it is relatively easy to incorporate a diverse presentation of content. For instance, lectures are usually provided in the spoken language, but are accompanied by the projection of slides onto a white board. In emergency remote teaching, it is important to consider student preferences when translating one’s face-to-face lecture into the virtual space. The use of closed captioning is an excellent way to increase the accessibility of content and is also often required to stay in compliance with policies outlined in the Americans with Disabilities Act (McKeown & McKeown, 2019). Platforms such as Amara and YouTube provide faculty members with the ability to add captioning to their lectures, but, in cases where this is not possible, simple changes can make a world of difference for students. One strategy is to post slides or notes alongside a recorded lecture. This will help to address students’ learning preferences and provide a more engaging presentation of content. A related idea is to record videos of lectures using the recording feature within PowerPoint. This ensures that content on each slide is accompanied with verbal analysis by the instructor.

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Assessment of Learning When implementing assessments in emergency remote teaching, it is important to follow best practice guidelines. Rahim (2020) outlined nine criteria for the delivery of assessments in the online space in situations where formal online course design has not been employed due to emergency conditions. The first guideline pertains to the evaluation of requisites for the implementation of online assessment procedures. Will students need materials in order to complete the assessments, and, if so, do they have access to these materials? Second, the alignment between assessments and learning objectives must be clear. It is of the utmost importance to adequately align objectives to any graded aspect of a course, so that student performance clearly represents an understanding of course content. The third criterion references the importance of addressing the diversity of the situations of all students. In other words, the unique position in which each student has been placed, due to the emergency situation(s) that precipitated the change in course modality, must be factored into any assessment plan. Additionally, criterion four outlines the importance of establishing an effective balance of formative and summative assessments. While formative assessment may be utilized to gauge the effectiveness of the presentation of content prior to the end of each module, thereby informing the need for potential changes, a summative assessment is administered at the end of the module, providing a summary of student learning. The next criterion Rahim outlined references the use of online assessment to stimulate student learning. Students often learn a great deal during periods of assessment, and there are multiple opportunities to structure activities towards this end when delivering content through virtual means. For instance, students may be asked to conduct outside research to provide a solution to a problem. Alternately, students may be asked to complete a simulation and then reflect on the impact of the activity. These examples relate to the next two criteria: format and scheduling/timing. In a face-to-face course, assessments may be conducted via an exam. This can also be done online, but requires that the faculty member enters the exam questions into the learning management system. Once entered, determinations regarding the length of time that is adequate must be made. Further, it is possible to proctor exams to reduce the odds that academic dishonesty will impact results, but arrangements such as this typically take a significant amount of time, and, as such, are typically not made in emergency remote teaching situations. Instructors may decide to allow the use of resources on exams and set timers to deter students from looking up answers. In either case, communication, the next criterion, is key. Faculty must clearly communicate with students regarding assessment procedures to alleviate unnecessary fears and promote fairness through transparency. Following the assessment, high-quality feedback, criterion eight of nine, is of the utmost importance. Particularly in cases where assessments will require writing, faculty must provide feedback that is relevant, helpful, and targeted to the work of individual students. Providing general feedback is not helpful, and students often perceive it as far less meaningful. The final criterion Rahim outlined references the importance of addressing threats to the validity of the assessment. This requires a thoughtful appraisal of the factors that may impact the performance of each student, which do not directly relate to his/her understanding of the course material. In emergency remote teaching, there are many threats to assessment validity, including but not limited to poorly formulated assessment procedures, inadequate student understanding of expectations, academic dishonesty, technology failures, and poor alignment between assessments and course content. Due to the significant amount of time that is required to accurately select, align, and implement online assessment procedures, some institutions have adopted alternate strategies for assessment in situations involving emergency remote teaching. 86

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One such strategy involves the use of pass/fail assessment (Stanger, 2020). In pass/fail assessment, the use of grades is omitted to address potential validity concerns that may be associated with the rapid design and implementation of assessment tools in a modality in which they were not intended to be delivered. Some institutions have also permitted students to opt for a pass/fail final grade in situations involving emergency remote teaching. This helps to provide additional options to students and faculty alike during conditions that do not offer optimal levels of flexibility.

FACULTY PREPARATION One important best practice for online teaching which is well documented in the literature is presence (Bailey & Card, 2009; Baran et al., 2013; Kumar et al., 2019). Presence can be demonstrated through the use of welcome messages, personalized multimedia (Mandernach, 2009), responsiveness to student emails, and scheduling office hours at regular intervals. A second best practice involves demonstrating support and engagement through the use of a variety of activities (Erbaggio et al., 2012; Martin, Ritzhaupt e al., 2019). An additional best practice for online teaching involves expectation setting and use of effective assessment methods (Baldwin & Trespalacios, 2017; Cundell & Sheepy, 2018; Lewis & Abdul-Hamid, 2006). Faculty must clearly communicate to students what will be expected of them during an online course. A related best practice, feedback (Alderman et al., 2012) is of the utmost importance when teaching online, as feedback provides students with direction. These best practices should be communicated to faculty as part of the process of preparing them to engage in the process of emergency remote teaching. Best practices for the preparation of faculty to facilitate online courses involve the clear presentation of expectations (Edwards et al., 2011) combined with practice opportunities and supports, including the delivery of regular professional development opportunities (Baran & Curreia, 2014; Coswatte Mohr & Shelton, 2017; Frankel et al., 2020). Further, the provision of regular feedback to highlight strengths and areas of opportunity is integral to the preparation of effective facilitators of online courses. As in the case of online course design, emergency remote teaching situations offer administrators the opportunity to apply best practices for training faculty in multiple ways.

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Expectation Setting Institutions that are forced to close their physical campuses and move to emergency remote teaching must ensure that all faculty understand their new roles. Expectations must be set in an intentional manner and reinforced on a regular basis. Before expectations are shared, they must be identified, which requires administrators to quickly adapt to novel circumstances, assess limitations and opportunities, and create best-case scenarios and steps for their implementation. The process of setting expectations for faculty who are engaged in emergency remote teaching is inherently challenging, as an important goal for higher education is superior learning experiences for all students. In cases where obstacles to this goal are present, it can be challenging to quickly assess opportunities to preserve the student experience while adhering to changes in policy that follow emergency closures of physical structures. Institutions that employ individuals with knowledge regarding best practices for online education may consider their organizations to be at an advantage in these situations, as they will likely find it easier to set expectations for faculty engaged in remote teaching. Despite this presumed advantage, it is important to recognize 87

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that the delivery of online education differs significantly from emergency remote teaching, and, as such, expectations for each endeavor must be unique and clearly aligned to the intended outcome. One effective first step when working to develop expectations is to consider the intended outcomes (Dennis, Halbert et al., 2020). Intended outcomes of emergency remote teaching include, but are not limited to, the effective transition to a virtual modality, presentation of course content in a manner that is accessible and understandable, engagement of students, assessment of student learning outcomes, and calculation of grades. If the aforementioned intended outcomes are taken as integral outcomes that must occur, then faculty actions can be outlined in a manner that supports these outcomes. For instance, an effective transition can be nurtured through the clear and frequent delivery of announcements, which is a best practice which impacts student perceptions of course quality (Brown et al., 2018). This requires that faculty craft and post announcements and then respond promptly to student questions pertaining to the announcements. Three key expectations can be taken from this analysis: The expectation that faculty will draft announcements, the expectation that faculty will post these announcements on a regular basis, and the expectation that faculty will respond to student questions in a prompt manner. Asking faculty to engage in specific steps, such as those the author has outlined above, may greatly improve the understanding of expectations among faculty, irrespective of the familiarity they may have with online instruction. After expectations have been set, it is important to communicate these expectations to faculty. It is useful to communicate expectations through multiple modalities. First, sharing expectations in writing is of the utmost importance. Written instructions can be referred back to if or when questions arise. Written expectations should be organized in a manner that is easy to follow to decrease the odds that instructions will be missed. For instance, expectations pertaining to the management of administrative aspects of a class can be grouped together, such that faculty can review this group of tasks together and easily refer back in situations where questions regarding administrative management present themselves. Although the administrative management of online courses is certainly important, particularly in cases where the institution is forced to make rapid adjustments, additional categories should be delineated in expectation documents. One such category may be termed discussion board management. Within this category, best practices pertaining to the facilitation of the discussion board could be shared. For instance, one expectation might be to add prompts that are aligned to the resources for the week. A second expectation might be to respond to the post of each student or to respond to the post of every third student, depending on the size and level of the course. Outlining expectations pertaining to effective management of the discussion board in clear terms serves to provide faculty with the direction they need, particularly in cases where experience teaching online is minimal. A second, related category, may be termed course resource management and could refer to the preparation and sharing of readings and lectures. A clear expectation pertaining to this category might reference the importance of checking each link that is posted to ensure that readings are easily accessible to students. Broken links to required readings serve to create easily avoidable stress for students and faculty alike, but faculty teaching face-to-face courses typically do not consider this, as it generally does not apply. As such, providing this clear direction improves the ease with which faculty may facilitate emergency remote teaching. An additional category of expectations might be termed feedback and grading. In emergency remote teaching, the provision of substantial and prompt feedback can serve to keep students engaged and ensure that student learning outcomes are met during tumultuous times. Providing faculty who are new to this area with direction referencing the level of detail that is expected in feedback and the desired turnaround time for feedback and grading may help significantly, by setting expectations and reduc88

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ing the amount of time that faculty must spend figuring out the most advantageous ways to apply best practices. Additional parameters may certainly be included, but avoiding information overload is also a best practice when aiming to quickly set clear and achievable expectations for faculty who are new to emergency remote teaching. The presentation of key best practices and expectations in a clear and well-categorized manner is a helpful way to prepare faculty to move into the virtual space abruptly. Communication, however, must not be limited to written direction. In cases where faculty are presented with written direction that pertains to activities to which they are not accustomed, content is often lost due to differences in interpretation. One strategy for preventing the loss of information and ensuring accurate understanding among large groups of faculty is to schedule a virtual meeting utilizing web conferencing software. Key benefits of this strategy are that it provides time for community building in the online space and models best practices for online meeting facilitation for faculty. In addition to these benefits, virtual meetings allow for the explanation of written guidelines. Faculty can also ask questions in real time and benefit from the questions posed by their peers. Further, this strategy helps to demonstrate the dedication of the department to the faculty experience. Setting clear expectations has a tremendous impact on the ability of faculty members to effectively engage in emergency remote teaching, but it is not sufficient. Resources are also needed, in order to adequately equip faculty members with the tools they will need to inspire learning in the remote realm.

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Training and Development There are many tool kits available that can be used to provide faculty who are accustomed to teaching in the face-to-face format with the resources they need to effectively facilitate emergency remote educational experiences (Toquero, & Talidong, 2020; Whalen, 2020; Williamson et al., 2020). These kits categorize key strategies for engaging with students online (Whittle et al., 2020) and present best practices for assessment and instructions for utilizing technology to facilitate the learning process, but instructions alone do not suffice. Virtual training delivered in real time is necessary, particularly when demonstrating the use of technology tools to faculty who will be asked to employ those tools in the online classroom. This training allows faculty to practice key skills and explore the subtle nuances of each technology tool they will be asked to use. In cases where this step is missed, faculty often experience challenges, which make it very difficult for them to be effective in the online space. The provision of adequate resources and training in their use, even when combined, serve to prepare faculty only minimally. Regular professional development is needed to reinforce newly acquired skills. Professional development can help faculty to gain comfort utilizing technology tools and can also help to support and nurture the adoption of key best practices for engaging with students online (Gay, 2016). Key topics of interest include, but are not limited to, Socratic questioning on the discussion board, providing helpful feedback, mentoring students in academic honesty, facilitating difficult dialogues, and supporting students during times of crisis. One challenge that is often associated with professional development planning initiatives is workload. It is important to develop opportunities that are delivered with a regular cadence, but it is also important to get that cadence right, so that development opportunities are perceived as helpful, rather than as a chore. Strategies for increasing faculty interest in professional development include delivering sessions on applicable topics, delivering sessions on multiple topics, allowing faculty to make their own selections, and involving faculty in the training delivery process. 89

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While these best practices for the delivery of professional development may be applied in most online instructional situations (Coswatte Mohr & Shelton, 2017), emergency remote teaching is characterized by the need to abruptly adjust one’s teaching modality, and resources for adequate training often do not exist, let alone resources for regular professional development. In cases where these resources do exist, faculty often do not have the bandwidth to fully engage in the associated activities, given the changes that have been made to their roles. As such, professional development offerings for faculty engaged in emergency remote teaching must be flexible and extremely relevant, in order to encourage participation. Sharing links to self-paced courses that focus on relevant topics is one way to support faculty engaged in emergency remote teaching without adding to their workload in a significant manner. The assignment of a mentor is another key strategy that helps to provide the necessary ongoing support that faculty new to remote instruction need.

Mentorship The assignment of mentors is a helpful way to provide regular support to faculty who are tasked with learning and applying new strategies quickly (Baran & Correia, 2017). Faculty mentors are optimally selected from among the current group of faculty but can be recruited from outside institutions as well. Administrators may also serve as mentors in cases where they possess an appropriate level of experience in online course facilitation. One key to the successful implementation of a mentoring program is expectation setting. In cases where a formal plan for mentoring is developed and implemented, more positive outcomes and less confusion among faculty are likely to be reported. An additional consideration for the assignment of mentors pertains to workload. Many institutions employ at least some faculty members who teach online courses on a regular basis. In emergency situations, which require rapid modality changes and necessitate the assignment of mentors, this group of faculty is likely to be asked to step in. In cases where selected faculty are asked to engage in additional activities to support the effective operations of the department, adjustments to workload are often necessary. Despite the need for workload adjustments, resources are often not available to support these changes. In these cases, temporary additional compensation may be offered if financially feasible. In cases where institutional finances are not sufficient, many faculty members gain a great deal of satisfaction from the opportunity to mentor others, particularly in cases where expectations are clearly outlined by administration and recognition is delivered on a regular basis.

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Evaluation Procedures for faculty evaluation at brick-and-mortar institutions vary widely and may be accomplished through a combination of student end-of-term feedback surveys and classroom observations. Formal online education typically includes comprehensive faculty evaluation procedures that involve a regular review of the online classroom for each faculty member (Benton, 2018). It is certainly important to exercise some degree of flexibility when evaluating faculty members during emergency situations, in which they often lack the training, resources, and supports to serve in their role in a prepared manner (Green, 2020). There are several best practices for the evaluation of online faculty that may be applied in situations involving emergency remote teaching, which serve to benefit the faculty, the students, and the institution.

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One best practice pertains to the provision of regular feedback to faculty members. The administration should provide faculty with the opportunity to check in on a regular basis. During check-ins, strengths and areas of opportunity may be explored, with an emphasis on the ways in which the faculty member has demonstrated their skills to the benefit of the students and can continue to do so. Evaluation during emergency situations should never be punitive in nature, but, rather, should present opportunities for greater engagement with students and provide faculty members with the opportunity to share questions or concerns they may have regarding resources shared by the department.

STUDENT SUPPORT Effective student support is one of the best predictors of student retention (Bailey & Brown, 2016), and it is also particularly important during periods of organizational adjustment, such as that which resulted from the global pandemic. There are a multitude of issues that students may face when the modality of their program shifts suddenly. Student support services are a necessary prerequisite for student success and can be applied to address resources and adjustment (Knudson, 2020; Petillion & McNeil, 2020; Rahiem, 2020).

Resource Needs First, in terms of resources, students vary widely with respect to their comfort with technology, and this may significantly impact their ability to adjust to emergency remote teaching situations. Ensuring that students have the resources they need to access and use technology effectively is key to the facilitation of an effective remote learning experience. Key considerations for assessing student resource needs must start with the identification of available and accessible resources. Students may not always have access to technology tools. Students are not generally required to purchase computers to attend brickand-mortar institutions, though they certainly are required to obtain this equipment as a prerequisite to enrolling in an online program. In addition to ensuring access, training must be provided to ensure that all students have the necessary understanding to make use of the technology tools that are required for their courses. Even students with optimal resources who are proficient in online course technology often need extra support while navigating course modality changes during pandemic conditions (Van Heuvelen et al., 2020).

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Adjustment Needs There are many adjustment-related challenges that may be faced by students whose educational experience has been abruptly shifted to the remote format (Toquero, 2020b). While some of these challenges may be mediated by support gained from faculty (Gares et al., 2020), formal institutional supports are also necessary. One challenge pertains to health. Institutions of higher education must provide clear guidance regarding their policy on illness and participation in emergency remote education. A second challenge pertains to outside events that may impact the ability of a student to engage in remote instruction (Green et al., 2020; Jeffery & Bauer, 2020). Students with children, for instance, may be placed into the position of teacher, if the school district attended by said children has also closed its physical doors. To address students concerns, the implementation of best practices for online student 91

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support, including regular outreach, clear communications regarding resources, community building opportunities, and individual advising sessions may be implemented through virtual means. In terms of resources, institutions of higher education often have multiple resources that are available to students on campus. Further, the large majority of colleges that deliver most of their courses on campus provide their online students with the same campus-based services that are available to students enrolled in face-to-face courses. In cases where emergency situations require the closure of physical campuses, institutions that lack formal online resources must quickly adapt to support the needs of students. In cases where online services were previously available, these services must be expanded. In the case of the former, the rapid development of online student services poses significant challenges. Step one involves providing the staff with the equipment and programs they need to complete their daily tasks. In many cases, access to sensitive information, such as student data, is only available while on a physical campus or while connected to a virtual private network. In order to access a virtual private network, staff must have access to computers that support the necessary applications. Without this access, operations of the university essentially cease, as no processing can be completed. The establishment of temporary virtual student services involves sufficient considerations to warrant its own chapter, but the assumption will be made here that such services have been operationalized and allow for student outreach and the delivery of resources.

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Outreach First, in terms of outreach, emergency situations often necessitate demonstrations of care, and higher education is no exception. Students who are provided with outreach from the institutions they attend during times of crisis tend to experience higher levels of engagement, higher levels of satisfaction, and improved retention rates (Bailey & Brown, 2016). Many online student services departments schedule their outreach at predetermined times each term, such as several weeks ahead of a term, one week prior to the add/drop period of the campus, one week ahead of the end of each term, and the date on which the end-of-term feedback survey will open. In addition to these scheduled messages, online student services teams engage in outreach on an individual basis in cases where certain parameters are met. For example, students may receive outreach when they file for graduation, if their grades drop or if their attendance is below the level that is expected. Best practices for student outreach will likely not be supported by the current student services resources of a campus (Jeffery & Bauer, 2020). As such, adjustments must be made to provide all students with at least minimal outreach, thereby contributing to continued engagement. Email messages can be sent to students utilizing mail merge, for instance, to ensure that at least some communication is received on a regular basis. Another key strategy for supporting students is sharing resources. During times of crisis, many students could greatly benefit from community resources, and yet many are unsure how to go about obtaining these resources. Student services teams should ensure that all students are aware of available community resources during emergency situations. For instance, the global pandemic has led to the loss of employment for many, and the consequent need for resources in the form of food and/or shelter. Sharing community resources pertaining to these needs with students contributes to the success of the student and demonstrates institutional support. Students who feel supported by the institutions they attend are far more likely to successfully complete their degrees. In addition to outreach efforts and sharing resources, student services during emergency situations should involve community building. 92

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Community Building

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Virtual engagement opportunities serve to bring together students and faculty who are geographically distributed, connecting them through the pursuit of a shared goal. Student services teams often organize cocurricular activities on campuses to bring together groups of students, thereby contributing to engagement. In the case of emergency remote teaching, virtual engagement is a key strategy for building and nurturing communities of students. One strategy for remote engagement in emergency situations is listening sessions. Listening sessions can be scheduled online utilizing Web conferencing software. These sessions tend to be less formally scripted and are generally intended to provide a forum for discussion. Listening sessions are typically held in the aftermath of significantly traumatic events to allow students and faculty to share their reflections in a safe space. When scheduling a listening session, it is important for the organizers to come ready to hear what is shared without judgment. Further, it is important to prepare resources, which can be shared with any attendees who may benefit from additional discussion or support following the conversation. Another strategy is to schedule virtual celebrations. Holidays present an opportunity to schedule virtual celebrations, and engagement can easily be built into remote parties with music, readings, games, and networking time. Additionally, events such as the end of a term can be celebrated. Finally, students can be asked to come together to share feedback on their experience in a program. If this strategy is utilized, it is important to follow up with students to ensure they feel heard. Further, it is important to develop a response that takes into account the feedback shared and that proposes strategies for addressing any noted deficiencies. A final strategy for providing student support involves remote advising sessions. Advising can easily be moved into the virtual format in cases where adequate resources are available. In cases where the number of students is too great for current advisors to support, course-embedded advising can be built into online courses (Dennis, Fornero et al., 2020). Course-embedded advising allows faculty members assigned to teach select courses to meet individually with each student in their course to discuss predetermined prompts. The individual discussion of the prompts replaces one assignment, thereby equalizing the workload for both students and faculty members. Clear and direct alignment of the course-embedded advising session prompts to weekly and course level objectives is key to the ability of the session to serve as an assessment point for student learning outcomes. Although emergency remote teaching will likely not support the formal adoption of this particular strategy, given the time required for adequate implementation, variations could be utilized by faculty who hope to provide individual advising during times of crisis. However, it is important to note that all aspects of the emergency remote teaching experience are best supported by effective communication.

COMMUNICATION Direct and comprehensive communication that is easily accessible helps to support abrupt procedural changes for students and faculty alike (Schlesselman, 2020). First, in terms of direct communication, institutions of higher education must aim for transparency, even in cases where unknown decisions exist. It is important to share with the campus community that information is being evaluated and provide an estimated date by which a decision will be determined. Additionally, where possible, the solicitation of feedback from the campus community is optimal, as it empowers staff and faculty to share their views 93

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and often contributes to more balanced decisions. Messages must be accessible to benefit the campus community. The degree to which a communication may be deemed accessible depends on multiple factors. To address this fact, many institutions make use of multiple communication channels to share announcements with relevance to the campus community, such as text message, voicemail, and email. Further, emergency communications are often shared via news media to ensure all affected parties are informed promptly.

Faculty Faculty may employ the use of virtual office hours to communicate with their students during periods of emergency remote teaching. This provides students with scheduled times during which they may connect with their faculty members. Scheduling time for virtual office hours should not replace availability to meet with students by appointment, as the hours selected by the faculty members may not be consistent with the needs of the students. In addition to scheduled office hours, faculty members should post announcements on a regular basis. Posting announcements via the learning management system is a best practice and preferable to the use of email alone. When announcements are posted, students can easily refer back to the message, while emails may easily be deleted from student inboxes. Faculty should start each course with an announcement notifying students that the course has been moved to the remote format and outlining the specific changes that will take place. Further, faculty should state the response time that students can expect from them. Faculty should ensure their messages are consistent with institutional announcements. Announcements should also be posted at the start of each week, summarizing the content that will be covered, highlighting the resources and activities, and reviewing any assessments that will be administered. In addition to announcements, faculty should ensure they respond to student emails promptly. Prompt faculty responses facilitate effective communication and are a key characteristic of any successful online course. In the case of emergency remote teaching, responding promptly is arguably even more important. Students may have significant questions, the answers to which will allow them to complete their weekly work. This is not to say that faculty must be constantly available to their students. It is important to set boundaries when teaching online, lest one’s home and work life begin to merge to the detriment of the individual. As referenced earlier, faculty should set the expectation for response time via an announcement. If a 24-hour or 48-hour response time is stated, then students will know what to expect and will be less likely to expect immediate responses. Parameters for student communication should also be addressed in emergency remote teaching situations.

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Students Students who are engaged in face-to-face courses understand well the importance of showing up during scheduled class times. Attendance is quite easily assessed through this format, as the individual is either present or absent. In formal online courses, faculty measure attendance in specific terms, which are outlined in institutional policies. For instance, if a student views a resource, but does not post a reply to the discussion board or submit an assignment, he/she may not be considered present. If, on the other hand, a student does not review one of the resources or complete the weekly discussion, but does complete the weekly assignment, then he/she may be considered present during that particular week. Participation is typically defined as meaningful interaction with course activities in the virtual realm. In emergency 94

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remote teaching, it is important for institutions and faculty to set parameters regarding attendance so as to prepare students to fully participate. If no parameters are set, it will be impossible for faculty and administration to engage in outreach in cases where students are not participating.

CONCLUSION In sum, the global pandemic COVID-19 required institutions of higher education to rapidly adjust to course delivery in a remote modality with few resources to support necessary changes. Despite the challenges which are often associated with emergency remote teaching, best practices for online course design, faculty training, and student support may be effectively implemented through careful planning and the use of innovative strategy. The adoption of these best practices serves to improve the educational experience for students, faculty, and administrators alike, and allows for the continuation of courses and the reduction of disruptions to the learning process. Effective communication strategies must be implemented throughout the process of emergency remote teaching to ensure cohesion and nurture community within the organization.

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Baldwin, S., Ching, Y., & Hsu, Y. (2018). Online course design in higher education: A review of national and statewide evaluation instruments. TechTrends, 62(1), 46–57. doi:10.100711528-017-0215-z Baldwin, S. J., & Trespalacios, J. (2017). Evaluation instruments and good practices in online education. Online Learning, 21(2), 104–121. doi:10.24059/olj.v21i2.913 Baran, E., & Correia, A. P. (2014). A professional development framework for online teaching. TechTrends, 58(5), 95–101. doi:10.100711528-014-0791-0

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Rahiem, M. D. (2020). The emergency remote learning experience of university students in Indonesia amidst the COVID-19 crisis. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(6), 1–26. doi:10.26803/ijlter.19.6.1 Rahim, A. F. A. (2020). Guidelines for online assessment in emergency remote teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic. Education in Medicine Journal, 12(2), 59–68. doi:10.21315/eimj2020.12.2.6 Schlesselman, L. S. (2020). Perspective from a teaching and learning center during emergency remote teaching. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 84(8), 1–2. doi:10.5688/ajpe8142 PMID:32934391 Stanger, A. (2020). Make all courses pass/fail now. https://www.chronicle.com/article/make-all-coursespass-fail-now/

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Stevens, K. B. (2013). Contributing factors to a successful online course development process. The Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 61(1), 2–11. doi:10.1080/07377363.2013.758554 Toquero, C. M. (2020a). Emergency remote education experiment amid COVID-19 pandemic. IJERI: International Journal of Educational Research and Innovation, 15(15), 162–172. doi:10.46661/ijeri.5113 Toquero, C. M. (2020b). Emergency remote teaching amid COVID-19: The turning point. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 185–188. https://www.asianjde.org/ojs/index.php/AsianJDE/article/view/450 Toquero, C. M., & Talidong, K. J. (2020). Webinar technology: Developing teacher training programs for emergency remote teaching amid COVID-19. Interdisciplinary Journal of Virtual Learning in Medical Sciences, 11(3), 200–203. doi:10.30476/IJVLMS.2020.86889.1044 Van Heuvelen, K. M., Daub, G. W., & Van Ryswyk, H. (2020). Emergency remote instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic reshapes collaborative learning in general chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education, 97(9), 2884–2888. doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c00691 Whalen, J. (2020). Should teachers be trained in emergency remote teaching? Lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 28(2), 189–199. Whittle, C., Tiwari, S., Yan, S., & Williams, J. (2020). Emergency remote teaching environment: A conceptual framework for responsive online teaching in crises. Information and Learning Sciences, 121(5-6), 311–319. doi:10.1108/ILS-04-2020-0099 Williamson, B., Eynon, R., & Potter, J. (2020). Pandemic politics, pedagogies, and practices: Digital technologies and distance education during the coronavirus emergency. Learning, Media and Technology, 45(2), 107–114. doi:10.1080/17439884.2020.1761641 Zimmerman, J. (2020). Coronavirus and the great online learning experiment. The Chronicle of Higher Education. https://www.chronicle.com/article/coronavirus-and-the-great-online-learning-experiment/

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Best Practice: A best practice is a set of procedures that represents the accepted or correct strategy for accomplishing an aim. Discussion Board: A virtual sharing forum to which instructors post questions and students post responses. Emergency Remote Teaching: Nonpermanent rapid adjustments to the mode of course delivery in response to situations which are catastrophic in nature. Engagement: Expressed interest, attention, enthusiasm, and commitment to an institution, task or activity. Learning Management System: A virtual domain which facilitates the management of course delivery. Listening Session: A strategy for collecting feedback which includes a group and is led by a facilitator. Mentorship: Advice and support which is shared by an individual who holds experience in the subject matter on which the mentoring is being provided. Multi-Media: Varied means for communication and presentation.

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Online Education: Facilitation of a class which was designed for delivery through a completely online modality. Online education involves extensive planning over a period of months.

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Chapter 6

A Road Map for the COVID-19 Pandemic Process to Ensure Quality of Assurance Active Learning Strategies in Online Learning Environments: How to Plan, Implement, Evaluate, and Improve Learning Activities Nazire Burcin Hamutoglu Eskisehir Technical University, Turkey

ABSTRACT

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The damage caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in the feld of education on a global scale has caused many school closures worldwide and prevented many students from beneftting from the educational services in a limited way. In order to overcome this situation, educational institutions had to switch to distance education applications. This study provides a roadmap and aims to identify teaching and learning activities in an online learning environment considering the learning outcomes to ensure the quality assurance with the basis of SMART goals and “Gagne’s Events of Instruction” model by including active learning strategies. Assessments were completed by the alternative approaches, such as self-evaluation, peer evaluation, and evaluation by the instructor. Finally, based on the identifed scenarios, an eclectic model of scenario which is called “FlipHyb” is presented.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7275-7.ch006

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Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest

 A Road Map for the COVID-19 Pandemic Process to Ensure Quality of Assurance Active Learning Strategies

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INTRODUCTION The damage caused by the Covid 19 pandemic in the field of education on a global scale has caused many school closures worldwide and prevented many students to benefit from the educational services and / or to benefit from it in a limited way. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization-UNESCO (2020a) while on the 16th of February only Mongolia closed their status due to Covid-19 pandemic and China had a partially open status, the impact of pandemic spread day by day around worldwide. It is stated that by the end of March, 169 countries around the world closed schools and / or interrupted education, and approximately 84% of the total enrolled students (f = 1,471,046,684) were affected by this situation (UNESCO, 2020a). In order to overcome this situation, educational institutions had to switch to distance education applications. However, it is seen that the practices were insufficient, many dynamics of distance education, especially technology and pedagogy, remained outside of this process. This process can be likened to hedgehogs hugging each other when they are cold and then finding the right distance due to their spines. Accordingly, most of the practices made could not prevent the hedgehogs from getting cold by maintaining their own distance due to the prickling of their thorns when they got cold. Then, based on this metaphor, we can explain why distance education applications are called Emergency Remote Teaching-ERT. This compulsory and rapid movement made by many educational institutions during the crisis is nothing more than remote access (Erkut, 2020; Hodges, Moore, Lockee, Trust & Bond, 2020; Williamson, Eynon, & Potter, 2020). Although examples of best practice can be seen during the pandemic, it is clear that the applications made in general cannot go beyond accessing the learning content in an online learning environment. Most of the best practices have seen that are incorporated with technology and pedagogy. For example, it is recommended in the study of O’Keefe, Rafferty, Gunder and Vignare (2020) that Open Suny Course Quality Rubric (OSCQR) Course Design Review Scorecard is a course-level quality rubric developed by the State University of New York for reviewing and improving the instructional design and accessibility of online courses based on online best practices, includes Course Overview and Information, Course Technology and Tools, Design and Layout, Content and Activities, Interaction, Assessment and Feedback categories. It is determined that conceptually using rubrics in educational activities and the online course review and refresh process are implemented as a professional development exercise designed to guide online faculty to use research-based effective practices and standards to improve the quality, effectiveness, and efficiency of their online course design, rather than as an online course evaluation, or quality assurance procedure (URL 1). Contrary to this, other examples (i.g uploading portable document file etc.) have been seen during the ERT process. These practices caused the stakeholders to experience psychological problems as well as academically. Especially considering the motivational factors. As stated in Bozkurt (2020b) metaphoric views. In fact, the concept of “remote” reveals the difference between good practice examples and the deficiencies in common applications. As it is stated in Bozkurt (2020b, p.120) If we consider face-to-face lectures and distance education lessons as an equation, both sides of the equation are equal, but the variables that make up the equation are different on both sides. For example, a two-hour face-to-face lesson may correspond to a 20-minute synchronous lesson and different asynchronous activities that support this process. Another point to be considered in this process is flexibility in the presentation of the contents and the provision of different access options. In other words, the learner should be able to access different contents and different access points in return for the face-toface course (p.120).

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 A Road Map for the COVID-19 Pandemic Process to Ensure Quality of Assurance Active Learning Strategies

In fact, the explanation of the concept of “remote” explains that the variables in distance education and face to face environments are different; on the other hand, it contains hints that the quality assurance criteria of these variables are also different. Studies in the literature come together on the ground that interventions to be made are necessary to make distance education planned, institutional and sustainable (Hamutoğlu & Arslan, 2020). Güneş and Hamutoğlu (2020) express distance education as an umbrella concept in the regulation and execution of learning-teaching activities and draws attention to the lively and dynamic nature of the distance education system. In the light of all these explanations, it is possible to say that the activities carried out only change the environment to extinguish the existing fire. Although the distance education activities should include serious planning, within the pandemic process the applications made during the pandemic process are far from these plans, they are not integrated with the designs in accordance with the dynamics of the online environment, and they are not aware of the activities for implementation, evaluation and improvement. In the light of all these arguments, it can be said that quality assurance in distance education is very important. It is thought that observing the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle in planning distance education activities will help ensure quality assurance in education so that the dynamics of the “distance” concept can be applied by moving away from the concept of “remote” in the activities.

The Aim and Significance of the Study

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This study provides a roadmap for both decision makers and practitioners in the Covid 19 process in terms of planning, implementing, evaluating and improving activities in online learning environments by employing Gagne’s Events of Instruction model and SMART approach with active learning strategies, which are well known in terms of instructional design and quality assurance. In this study, it is believed that during the Covid 19 pandemic process the teaching and learning activities are moved to online learning environments without any care to provide the learning outcomes. The worry about ensuring the learning outcomes, this study provides a road map and aims to identify while designing teaching and learning activities in an online learning environment considering the learning outcomes to ensure the quality assurance. Hence, this study mainly focus on the followings: 1. How to plan teaching and learning activities with active learning strategies in online learning environments? 2. How to implement teaching and learning activities with active learning strategies in online learning environments? 3. How to evaluate teaching and learning activities with active learning strategies in online learning environments? 4. How to improve teaching and learning activities with active learning strategies in online learning environments?

BACKGROUND OF THE CHAPTER The application of educational activities during global pandemic has resulted in a movement to an online learning environment from a traditional educational setting with not well-planned activities for online learning dynamics. This fast reflexive learning emerged a definition which is different from 103

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distance education applications. Covid 19 is the first global crisis to occur in the digital world (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020). As indicated in Hodges, Moore, Lockee, Trust and Bond (2020) emergency remote teaching (ERT) is a

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temporary shift of instructional delivery to an alternate delivery mode due to crisis circumstances and it involves the use of fully remote teaching solutions for instruction or education that would otherwise be delivered face-to-face or as blended or hybrid courses and that will return to that format once the crisis or emergency has abated. According to O’Keefe, Rafferty, Gunder, and Vignare (2020) the differences between online learning and ERT could be visualized in Table 1 (p.7). In this manner, it is possible to say that the Covid 19 global pandemic has affected the educational settings with all stakeholders, and interrupted to education community most perspectives from such as academical (i.e. institutional and program learning outcomes) as well as psychological (i.e. motivational factors) and technical. Actually, this process, which seems to be a great loss at first sight, is actually interpreted as an advantage in some educational circles (Bozkurt, 2020a), and as Costello, Brown, Donlon and Girme’s (2020) conclusions, it is calling that for other historians of futures past to help uncover timelines, and write alternative fictions, that promote pedagogies of hope, care, justice, and a brighter day. Because nowadays, as we approached the end of the first quarter of the century we are in, we still observe that traditional learning approaches are trying to be squeezed between closed walls. We can say that the Covid 19 pandemic process showed us that we were not very mistaken in these observations. Because we have witnessed that the process carried out in many educational institutions is limited to changing the environment. Actually distant learning is a serious process which requires a lot of planning and designing, but during this period the only difference that we did in terms of educational activities was to stay at home, instead of physically going to school, and try to do these activities on online platforms such as Zoom, Meet, Hangout with either a free limited version or a paid license purchased by our organizations. We observed that many of them had a lower-level of awareness about asynchronous applications, moreover even those who had awareness were trying to teach synchronously during priorly set teaching sessions without changing the content of the lessons that were originally planned for faceto-face teaching. It is as if online teaching is only speaking in front of a camera and telling exactly the same things that they regularly used to do in their physical classroom environment. We wish it was that simple. Unfortunately, education is not just telling or speaking. Additionally, straining and pushing the dynamics of online teaching to the limits for transferring and integrating activities that are originally designed for conventional face-to-face teaching environments is a big mistake. These mistakes have various aspects. For example, from the psychological aspect: there were of course good practices. However, it can be said that uploading ordinary pdf files into the system, powerpoint presentations being too big and artless and apparently external factors such as inefficient Internet connection and lack of necessary hardwares lead to negative issues such as lack of motivation, exhaustion, anxiety and anger. As a matter of fact, in the metaphor example of Bozkurt (2020b) it is stated that it is important to apply the theory and the application in a balanced manner on the basis of instructional design in line with themes obtained as positive metaphors (facilitator, life-long learning, readiness for teaching, structured learning, sense of community, autonomy, independence from time and place, internal motivation and accessibility) as well as negative metaphors (sense of loneliness, artificiality, socializing, external motivation, isolation, lack of communication, psychological withdrawal, quality, inequality, instantaneity and emotional affinity). 104

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 A Road Map for the COVID-19 Pandemic Process to Ensure Quality of Assurance Active Learning Strategies

Since human beings are social beings, planning should be made considering its psychological aspects as well as social aspects on individuals rather than a cognitive-oriented approach in these applications. Communal life is an important feature of the human kind which made it possible to spread to every part of the world and it is what distinguishes us different from our cousins Homo neandertalensis, Homo erectus, Homo soloensis, Homo floresienss, Homo denisova, Homo rudolfensis, Homo ergaster (Harari, 2016). These applications appear to be progressing without considering the results of the studies carried out in the field of educational technologies. In fact, interaction, which is one of the basic dynamics of online learning, can be maintained and sustained with activities intended for improving the engagement of learners in front of the screen. Teaching design principles and applications which are the body knowledge of the field of educational technologies should be progressed and improved in a systemic, planned, applicable, evaluable and sustainable way by integrating the approaches of theoreticians in the field. In order to do this, the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework suggested by Garrison, Anderson and Archer, and components of the model that Mishra and Koehler (2006) addressed for technology, pedagogy and content knowledge (TPACK) and the Cognitive Load theory that John Sweller worked on in a detailed way and other relevant components (Sweller, Van Merrienboer and Paas, 1998) should be discussed. Additionally, practical results of the scientific studies carried out in the light of theories and relevant models of the related components of Dual-Coding Theory proposed by Paivio (1991) and Mayer’s (2001) Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning should also be considered. The CoI model has some applications which allow creating a sense of classroom community and it is also included in the distant learning systems of major universities such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Open University, similarly some learning management systems such as KhanAcademy, Canvas, Blackboard and Moodle have tools that allow creating a sense of classroom as well. Similarly, TPACK is an important model of the educational technologies which are thought to integrate technology and pedagogy knowledge with content and strengthen the sense of belonging by improving the individuals’ level of being accepted in their current environment. Lastly, cognitive load theory and multimedia design principles have also research results and applications that allow learners to have a healthy interaction with the content. Accordingly, merely presenting an educational content with traditional methods in a way that is detached from the principles, models and techniques of educational technologies and pedagogical approaches of educational science certainly will not go beyond “remote” and will bring psychological outcomes of the interactive remoteness. Negative emotions experienced as a result of being unable to contact the instructor, being late to online exams because of various reasons, anxiety about delivering homeworks, reports and presentations on time may affect the psychological well-being of individuals and that may ultimately lead to traumas in the future by developing various symptoms stemming from these issues. Similarly, instructors experience anxiety as well. Responsibilities and challenges such as evaluating the students in a safe and reliable way, ensuring the subjects and topics are understood well, working from home being difficult, having too much administrative tasks and Zoom meetings, and bureaucratic processes may cause instructors feel psychologically exhausted. As a matter of fact, in the study carried out by Hamutoğlu and Arslan (2020) it is stated that instructors expressed negative opinions about having endless meetings on the Zoom platform. This statement is supported by the study carried out by Degges-White (2020) in which they stated Zoom tiredness causes social and psychological exhaustion. In such a difficult situation, the pandemic should be regarded as an opportunity. In fact, despite believing that nothing will be the same as before but still designing our lesson content in accordance with the dynamics of the distant learning even in such an instability brought by the Chaos Theory will ultimately

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bring a balance. It should be remembered that the most basic and important step is to ensure the learning outcomes. For this purpose, good practices both in the world and across Turkey should be reviewed.

Best Practices and Key Terms in Online Learning Environment During Coronavirus Pandemic When Covid-19 outbreak turned to be a global pandemic, educational institutions were closed to slow down, the education community started to talk about the synchronous and asynchronous applications which are the different application styles of online learning (Gülbahar, 2012). However, it was observed that the practices carried out were pedagogically incomplete and did not progress on the basis of a wellplanned design. Hence, considering the dynamics of these environments in this part, it is planned to be integrated with pedagogy suitable for the dynamics of different online learning environments. As it is indicated in UNESCO’s (2020b) online meeting report, cities at the forefront of COVID-19 should be recovery processes and in crafting forward-looking solutions. In the report, it is among the main aims of doing this to share best practices and initiatives from cities’ responses to COVID-19 to allow cities to better adapt and recover (p.4). O’Keefe, Rafferty, Gunder, and Vignare (2020) indicated key issues of high quality instruction online in response to COVID-19 with several topics such as designing in equity in mind, course design, course component, source management and evaluation and continuous improvement. In their playbook, it is aimed to deliver high-quality online courses from continuity planning during a crisis, to developing and maintaining with the keys of quality course design. It is worthwhile to note that while equitable course design encompasses academic, pedagogical, psychological, social and technological consideration (Keller, 2019); the course design principles consist of three trivets such as learning goals and objectives, teaching and learning activities, and feedback and assessment that need to be aligned (O’Keefe et al., 2020). Designing courses provide a structure for the course and clear goals, and these goals help you enhance for creating a “map” for the course which shows an outline of the associated course content and learning objectives for an effective teaching and learning experience (O’Keefe et al., 2020). Finally, in the playbook, it is suggested to evaluate quality for optimizing which is an essential part of continuous improvement, and using tools such as the Scorecard. Addition to this it is believed that scorecard helps to ensure that course content is in alignment with current best practices.

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A Brief Information Package of Based on SMART Learning Outcomes Related With the Program Outcomes and Quality Assurance As indicated above the difference of ERT and distance learning and their dynamics in applications, in this part it is planned to prepare an information package which integrates both technology and pedagogy as well as context knowledge while planning the teaching and learning activities in line with the online learning environment dynamics to ensure the quality assurance with the basis of SMART goals and a well-known instructional design model called “Gagne’s Events of Instruction”. SMART goals are written as follows: 1) Specific – define exactly what is being pursued? and exactly, what is it you want to achieve in your program or course? 2) Measurable – is there a number to track completion? and exactly how will you track the progress or measure the outcome in your program or course? 3) Attainable – can the goal be achieved? and exactly what are you going to do to reach the outcome in your program or course. 4) Realistic – doable from a business perspective, and the program learning objects (LO) should be challenging but realistic and also relevant. LO may be optimistic at first but once you develop 106

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strategies to achieve the PLO or CLO, it will become more realistic. 5) Timely – can it be completed in a reasonable amount of time? and should include a time limit by when do you want to achieve your result? Who is responsible? (often programs name the course where it is found – curriculum map.) Will it transfer to other institutions? (Williams, 2012). There is written a sample learning outcomes based on SMART goals below: [time] By the end of the [program] Mathematical Education Program [who] the graduate will be able to [active verb/measure] ______________ [what to be mastered/achieved] ________________ [in what context/relevance] _____________.

Instructional Design Based on Gagne’s “Events of Instruction” Model In the part, while preparing as a brief information package for lesson plans Gagne’s events of instruction model will be taken into consideration in line with the SMART goals. This instructional design model is well-known and it is believed that this model will be useful to provide the learning outcomes by making instruction effective, efficient, and attractive. This model consists of nine stages and these stages are as follows: (1) Gaining attention, (2) Informing the learner of the objective, (3) Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning, (4) Presenting the stimulus material, (5) Providing learning guidance, (6) Eliciting the performance, (7) Providing feedback, (8) Assessing the performance, (9) Enhancing retention and transfer (Gagne, Wager, Golas, Keller, & Russell, 2005).

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Designing Teaching and Learning Activities This part of the book deals with teaching design and learning activities related to achievements such as “(1) will be able to explain concepts related to polygons (remembering)”, “(2) will be able to draw a polygon using the dynamic software program (applying-valuing-perception-set-guided response)”, “(3) will be able to discuss on the concepts which they developed by using the dynamic software program (creating, valuing, adaptation, origination)” which are a part of the “definition of polygon, proving the geometrical theorems related to tetragon, parallel edge, rhombus, rectangle, square, deltoid, trapezoid, isoscleles.” subjects of “Geometry” lesson. These outcomes are related to the program outcomes such as “Identifies basic concepts, theories and applications”, “Thinks mathematically and uses it in daily life” and “Thinks in a creative and critical way, and identified with the basis of cognitive, affective and psych-motor learning domains. Allocated time for this subject in accordance with the identified outcomes is limited to 3 teaching hours in the weekly program and is equal to 5 ECTS-credits. It is evaluated according to some criteria such as classroom activities, non-classroom activities, mid-term exam, quiz, homework and final exam. Since the subject is studied one week and teaching hours during a week are 3 hours, the total working hours for classroom and non-classroom activities are 6 hours. Student achievement level in this outcome will be evaluated with a subject follow-up test that will contribute to the evaluation process which is set as 1 hour. In this way, the preliminary preparation of the subject has 7 hours work load and its influence on ECTS (7 hours/25 hours) is calculated as 0.28 ECTS. (Note. 1 ECTS equals 25 lesson hours. Table 2 presents the information pocket of the course sample.

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Planning Online Learning Activities This part deals with planning online learning activities related to the lesson learning objectives which are written above in accordance with the SMART objective. Planning stage corresponds to (1) drawing attention, (2) informing the students about the objective and (2) reminding preliminary information stages of Gagne’s events of instruction model. In this stage, in order to draw their attention, the students are asked the following question: “Have you ever seen a honey comb?” Then, they are informed about the outcomes of the subject. In the last stage of the introduction part, students are asked: “Do you think patterns on a honey comb are perfect?” and to increase their readiness to the desired level they are asked questions such as “if yes, do you think it is possible draw a flawless/perfect polygon?”. In the development stage of the lesson, in accordance with Gagne’s event of instruction model, learning and teaching activities are planned about (4) presenting the stimulus material, (5) providing learning guidance, (6) eliciting the performance and (7) feedback. In this context, a presentation will be showed to the students in order to let them understand the concepts related to polygons better and also to let them realize that a flawless and perfect polygon can only be drawn with dynamic software programs. After this presentation, students will be introduced an interactive Web 2.0 tool for implementing the relevant concept (PADLET) and within the context of the related instructions (Annex A) students will be asked to draw a polygon, then the flawlessness of the polygon will be discussed. Students will be asked to achieve the learning outcomes by using the active learning methods based on the principles given in the instructions. After the discussion, the polygon concept, its implementations and outcomes of related subject will be reinforced by drawing a flawless polygon on GeoGebra. The instructor will guide the students by giving them constructive feedback. Finally, in the results stage of the lesson (8) assessing the performance, (9) enhancing retention and transfer, students will evaluate both their own and peers’ performance by using a rubric. The activity in the implementations for the objective of “drawing a circle based on the polygon concept” which is related to the “circle concept and its implementations” subject is found to be retentive and transferable. (Maintaining Retention and Transferability) (Annex 1a). Planned activities will be implemented by using the break out rooms feature of Zoom platform in accordance with Buzz 66 which is an active learning method. Additionally, to provide the scope validity of teaching, it is recommended to be planned and applied an indicator chart which shows the relation between learning outcomes and level of learning domains (e.g. cognitive learning, affective learning and psycho-motor learning) (Annex 1b).

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Implementing Online Learning Activities This part deals with the implementation of online learning activities planned in relation to lesson learning achievement that is written above in accordance with SMART objective, by using Buzz 66 groups created on Zoom platform, and Padlet and GeoGebra dynamic software program. In the implementation stage, learning-teaching activities planned in accordance with Gagne’s events of instruction model will be implemented (Annex 1a, Annex A). Figure 1 and Figure 2 present the implementation environment of online learning activities. The interaction of cooperative learner groups during the learning process should be paid special attention during the implementation. In fact, in this design, the interaction between the learner and his buzz group is an example of “learner-learner” interaction and it can be said that the implementations they do with their peers during process structuring will affect the quality of learning. Furthermore, the learner interacts with the content that is presented to him with a pedagogy and technology infrastructure 108

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conforming with the nature of online learning environment. During this process, the instructor’s offering “structured support” in order to let the learners achieve the outcomes of the subject also ensures a “learner-instructor” interaction. “Break out rooms” feature of Zoom application can be used to do this implementation. In fact, by keeping the students with the cooperative buzz groups in a room/group can help to manage their learning with the help learning instructions presented to them and meet the expectations. The instructor and/or assistant in charge can visit the rooms/groups on Zoom platform to interact with learners and can give them structured support in the light of relevant achievements. Learners can structure learning process in cooperation with their peers as well as individually gaining experience in buzz learning groups about the instructions presented to them related to the learning content. This application is a teaching environment which is designed considering the dynamics of teaching environments and in which the learning process is enriched with the technological infrastructure based on different pedagogical approaches so that quality is ensured by meeting the learning achievements. This design ensured the learners had a sense of classroom community in an online environment and experience the dynamics of online learning environments with regards to taking learner’s responsibilities in cooperative buzz groups. Different interactions experienced by learners is a result of putting the approach that serves for learning into the center and it occurs on the basis of removing the gaps stemming from psychological factors and lack of communication.

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Evaluating Online Learning Activities (Annex B) This part aims to evaluate the learning activities carried out related to subject outcomes. Within the context of this aim, the applications that the students are expected to perform using the PADLET application, regarding the “(1) will be able to explain polygon-related concepts” outcome which is listed in remember category of Bloom’s Taxonomy, will be evaluated with a “Rubric” (holistic). In addition to this, the applications that the students are expected to perform using the GeoGebra Dynamic software application, regarding the “(1) will be able to draw a polygon by using a dynamic software program” outcome which is listed in apply category of Bloom’s Taxonomy, will be evaluated with a “Check List”. The check list evaluation criteria include the “Construction Protocol” implementation steps which were previously presented to students. Lastly, “(3) will be able to discuss the concepts and the applications that they developed using the dynamic software program.” Regarding the applications they performed in accordance with the outcome of the subject that is listed in the evaluation category of Bloom’s Taxonomy, the students are expected to “Discuss on the grounds of polygon-related concepts and the dynamic software program whether it is possible to draw a flawless and perfect polygon in real life” and this discussion will be evaluated personally by an instructor with the help of an open-ended question. Evaluation will be made in three ways: (a) Self-evaluation “students evaluate their own applications according to the specified criteria”, (b) Peer evaluation “applications of the students are evaluated by the other members of the group according to the specified criteria” and (c) Evaluation by the instructor “applications of the students are evaluated by the instructor according to the specified criteria”. Evaluation results will contribute to the final results at different rates. The rates determined for this study are 15% for self-evaluation while rates for peer evaluation (average) and instructor evaluation are 25% and 60%, respectively. Contribution of the evaluation results to the final evaluation of the first, second and third achievements are 20%, 30% and 50%, respectively. Lastly, students with a final evaluation result greater or equal to 85 will be given a gold badge, and those between 75 to 85 a silver badge and finally 109

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those between 65 and 75 will be given a bronze badge by using the dynamics of the online learning environment. This implementation intends to promote and reinforce learning.

Improving Online Learning Activities Based on the Feedback From Stakeholders (Annex C) In this part of the study, students are expected to provide feedback about the activities performed related to the subject achievements. In this context, the questions addressed to the students are as follows: “What is your favorite aspect of the activity?”, “Is there anything that you think “it should be included in the activity” in the future?”, and “What do you dislike most about the activity?” and “Any other thoughts or suggestions?” Student feedbacks will be reviewed in order to improve the next activities? This will allow the instructors see the weaknesses and strengths of the activity they perform. Improvements will make it possible to control the activities and strengthen the failing components by ensuring the quality in education.

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CONCLUSION In this chapter, as a conclusion, it is worthwhile to determine the importance of CITE departments in higher education institutions. CITE departments are like an umbrella organization for integrating technology into the curriculum and pedagogy in educational settings, even online learning environments. Additionally, ensuring the quality of teaching and learning outcomes should also be taken into consideration while designing teaching and learning activities within the concept of Plan-Do-Check-Act to close the circle. This approach is important to endure and sustain online teaching and learning activities within the context of quality assurance while planning the course design. Actually, during the novel Coronavirus pandemic, it is believed that the teaching and learning activities should be sustained based on different scenarios. Based on the models (Maloney & Kim, 2020) in the article named “15 Fall Scenarios” in which fifteen different scenarios related to higher education in the social distance / distancing period are discussed. At the end of this part, an eclectic model is going to be proposed for this chapter. The scenarios identified by Maloney and Kim (2020) are as follows: (1) Back to Normal, (2) A Late Start, (3) Moving Fall to Spring, (4) First Year Intensive, (5) Graduate Students Only, (6) Structured Gap Year, (7) Target Curriculum, (8) Split Curriculum, (9) A Block Plan, (10) Modularity, (11) Students in Residence, Learning Virtually, (12) A Low-Residency Model, (13) A HyFlex Model, (14) A Modified Tutorial Model, (15) Fully Remote. Based on the identified scenarios above, an eclectic model of scenario which is called “FlipHyb” is presented which takes into account organization, cooperation/collaboration and evaluation strategies. Eclectic Model is based on the principle of examining all models and creating based on the advantages of each model, and its name was written inspired by the eclectic philosophy. Accordingly, the “FlippHyb” model, which is a new model proposal that can be applied in higher education institutions, was a model created with the bases and abbreviations of “flipped classroom”, which means an inverted classroom, and “hybrid / blended learning” applications used for mixed learning. Accordingly, the proposed model follows six principles as seen in Figure 3. Moreover, the justification of the principles also take place in Table 3. 110

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Regardless of whether FlippHyp model or applications in the scenarios are proposed, the main concern should be ensuring the quality of teaching design. Quality assurance requires using efficient learning strategies without compromising learning objectives, regardless of the teaching environment. In times of crises, improving the learner engagement to the learning environment by committing to quality assurance of activities is important. This study deals with designing a subject based on pedagogic and technological infrastructure in order to ensure quality. The applications that will be implemented throughout the design process should be planned even before the school year begins. As a matter of fact, this planning process demands a lot of time and effort but the applications performed during the global pandemic are quite different and more difficult than the applications qualified as ERT. With this being the case, it should be regarded as a great opportunity to benefit more from the distant education models by updating the learning content. Instructors are recommended to review the good practices and to restructure their teaching content. Integration of the content with the appropriate technology infrastructure and/or online learning environment and the effort to reach learning outcomes by taking a pedagogical approach in the process will certainly increase the quality of the educational processes. It should be remembered that the problems experienced in this process will be detected in the first cycle of the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle and the improvements will ensure the quality.

RECOMMENDATION

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For Decision Makers and Practitioners Decision makers should support the continuity of the education of the learners in order not to interrupt the education in the Covid 19 global pandemic. In this respect, some implementation models are mentioned above in order to ensure quality assurance in education and to ensure that decision makers and politicians manage this process in the best way in order not to compromise the provision of learning outcomes. The “FlippHyb” model has been proposed in the book section on bringing together the strengths and practicalities of these models. It can be said that the dynamics of this model are very important before the planning and implementation of learning and teaching activities by practitioners. So much so that the “FlippHyb” model, in which the strengths of traditional face-to-face and distance education applications are integrated with a flexible approach according to the pandemic conditions, can provide flexibility for the practitioners. The transfer of learning and teaching activities either as a whole or a certain part to online learning environments and / or supporting them with the dynamics of online learning environments can be a model that can be taken as a basis in ensuring the continuity of education and making its impact less felt by reducing the impact of the global pandemic we are in. The positioning of decision makers and politicians in accordance with the dynamics of this proposed model can create a solid basis for practitioners in terms of developing and evaluating learning and teaching activities in a planned manner in the next step.

For Practitioners Practitioners are a very important foundation in the motivation of this book chapter. In fact, in line with the dynamics of the model that decision makers take as the basis for ensuring continuity of education 111

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and quality assurance in the Covid 19 global pandemic, it is recommended that practitioners plan their learning and teaching activities. In line with, decision-makers and politicians could apply the model presented above and practitioners can plan to what extent (all and / or part of it - mixed or fully online) they will conduct their lessons in an online learning environment. After the implementation of this decision, at the planning stage, practitioners can evaluate whether they have reached the course learning outcomes by designing their teaching using the Gagne’s Events of Instruction model and SMART approach presented in the relevant section in the design of the teaching. Practitioners can benefit from active learning strategies that are well suited to the dynamics of online learning environments and can evaluate after planning and implementing learning and teaching activities in accordance with this strategy. According to the results of the evaluation, it can help to ensure the transfer and permanence with activities aimed at improvement, as well as support the monitoring of learning and teaching activities by seeing whether the design serves to provide learning outcomes.

REFERENCES Bozkurt, A. (2020a). Koronavirüs (Covid-19) pandemi süreci ve pandemi sonrası dünyada eğitime yönelik değerlendirmeler: Yeni normal ve yeni eğitim paradigması. Açıköğretim Uygulamaları ve Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6(3), 112–142. Bozkurt, A. (2020b). Koronavirüs (Covid-19) Pandemisi Sırasında İlköğretim Öğrencilerinin Uzaktan Eğitime Yönelik İmge ve Algıları: Bir Metafor Analizi. Uşak Üniversitesi Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6(2), 1–23. doi:10.29065/usakead.777652 Bozkurt, A., & Sharma, R. C. (2020). Emergency remote teaching in a time of global crisis due to CoronaVirus pandemic. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), i–vi. Costello, E., Brown, M., Donlon, E., & Girme, P. (2020). The Pandemic Will Not be on Zoom: A Retrospective from the Year 2050. Postdigital Science and Education, 1-9. doi:10.100742438-020-00150-3 Degges-White, S. (2020). Zoom Fatigue: Don’t Let Video Meetings Zap Your Energy. Some ‘cheats’ to help you beat Zoom fatigue before it beats you. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/ us/blog/lifetime-connections/202004/zoom-fatiguedont-let-video-meetings-zap-your-energy Erkut, E. (2020). Covid-19 Sonrası Yükseköğretim, Yükseköğretim Dergisi. Çevrimiçi Erken Baskı. doi:10.2399/yod.20.002

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Gagne, R. M., Wager, W. W., Golas, K. C., Keller, J. M., & Russell, J. D. (2005). Principles of instructional design. Performance Improvement, 44(2), 44–46. doi:10.1002/pfi.4140440211 Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2–3), 87–105. Gülbahar, Y. (2012). E-öğrenme (2nd ed.). Pegem yayıncılık. Güneş, E., & Hamutoğlu, N. B. (2020). Açık ve uzaktan öğrenme. Uzaktan Eğitimin Geleceği In Uzaktan Eğitimde Araştırma ve Değerlendirme (1. Baskı). Ankara: Pegem Akademi Yayıncılık.

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Hamutoğlu, N. B., & Arslan, G. (2020). Covid-19 küresel salgın dönemi: Eskişehir Teknik Üniversitesi deneyimi – Yenilikçi uygulamalar. In Covid-19 küresel salgın sürecinde öğretim elemanlarının ve öğrencilerin uzaktan eğitim deneyimlerinin değerlendirilmesi. Eskişehir Teknik Üniversitesi Yayınları (Baskıda). Harari, N. Y. (2016). Hayvanlardan tanrılara: Sapiens. Retrieved from https://anarcho-copy.org/free/ sapiens.pdf Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Bond, A. (2020). The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. https://er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/the-difference-betweenemergency-remote-teaching-and-online-learning Maloney, E. J., & Kim, J. (2020). 15 Falls Scenarios. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/ digital-learning/blogs/learning-innovation/15-fall-scenarios Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139164603 Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017–1054. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00684.x O’Keefe, L., Rafferty, J., Gunder, A., & Vignare, K. (2020). Delivering High-Quality Instruction Online in Response to COVID-19: Faculty Playbook. Online Learning Consortium. Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory: Retrospect and current status. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 45(3), 255–287. doi:10.1037/h0084295 Sweller, J., Van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251–296. doi:10.1023/A:1022193728205 The SUNY online course quality review rubric OSCQR. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://oscqr.suny.edu/ UNESCO. (2020a). Covid 19 Impact on Education. https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse UNESCO. (2020b). Urban Solutions: Learning from cities’ responses to Covid 19. https://en.unesco. org/sites/default/files/ucp_meeting_report_.pdf Williams, C. (2012). MGMT (5th ed.). SouthWestern College Publishing.

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Williamson, B., Eynon, R., & Potter, J. (2020). Pandemic politics, pedagogies and practices: Digital technologies and distance education during the coronavirus emergency. Learning, Media and Technology, 45(2), 107–114. doi:10.1080/17439884.2020.1761641

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ADDITIONAL READING Aloizou, V., Villagrá Sobrino, S. L., Martínez Monés, A., Asensio Pérez, J. I., & García Sastre, S. (2019). Quality assurance methods assessing instructional design in MOOCs that implement active learning pedagogies: An evaluative case study. CEUR Workshop Proceedings. McKenna, C., & Bull, J. (2000). Quality assurance of computer‐assisted assessment: Practical and strategic issues. Quality Assurance in Education, 8(1), 24–32. doi:10.1108/09684880010312659 Nerantzi, C. (2020). The use of peer instruction and flipped learning to support flexible blended learning during and after the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Management and Applied Research, 7(2), 184–195. doi:10.18646/2056.72.20-013 Quilter, S., & Weber, R. K. (2004). Quality assurance for online teaching in higher education: Considering and identifying best practice for e-learning. International Journal on E-Learning, 3(2), 64–73. Sung, Y. T., Chang, K. E., & Yu, W. C. (2011). Evaluating the reliability and impact of a quality assurance system for E-learning courseware. Computers & Education, 57(2), 1615–1627. doi:10.1016/j. compedu.2011.01.020

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Assessment and Evaluation (Formative Evaluation): It is the process in which variables such as reinforcement, hint, feedback, correction, student participation, methods and strategies used, tools, and materials are taken into account. Checklist: It is a type of job aid used to reduce failure by compensating for potential limits of human memory and attention and helps to ensure consistency and completeness in carrying out a task. Gagne’s Instructional Design: The model is a systematic process that helps instructors to develop strategies and crate activities for instructional classes. Geogebra: It is an open source dynamic mathematics software, which was prepared by Markus Hohenwarter in 2001 as a master’s thesis at the University of Salzburg, and later developed by an international group that carries geometry, algebra and analysis to a single interface that can be used at all levels from primary education to higher education. Learning Outcomes: They are statements of what a learner is expected to know, understand and be able to demonstrate at the end of a learning experience. Padlet: Is an extremely easy-to-use tool that allows learners to collaborate online by posting text, images, links, documents, videos, and voice recordings. Rubric: It is a scoring chart that lists the criteria to be used in evaluating a study. SMART: SMART is an approach of a set of criteria or characteristics (specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-oriented) used to develop learning outcomes.

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APPENDIX 1: TABLES Table 1. Differences between online learning and ERT Emergency Remote Teaching

Optimal Online Learning

Less time for planning

Teaching and learning is planned and effective

Assistance to design and facilitate instruction may be limited

There is a more developed instructional design and planning process

Support systems for faculty and students may be limited or unavailable

Community development and engagement is built into the learning

Not all faculty will be comfortable teaching in the online format

Various support systems are in place for the learner at the start

Time may be limited for ensuring quality measures for design and teaching

More time to prepare faculty for online facilitation Quality assurance for learning is an ongoing part of the process

Teaching in a one-size-fits-all framework

Ensures equity and provides personalization

APPENDIX 2: FIGURES Table 2. The information pocket of the course sample

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Part I Lesson

Code

Midterm

T+P (Hour)

Credit

ECTS

Geometry

IME 104

2

2+1

3

5 ECTS

Subject:

Definition of polygon, proving the geometrical theorems related to tetragon, parallel edge, rhombus, rectangle, square, deltoid, trapezoid, isoscleles, and applications related to polygons.

Goal:

To improve mathematical thinking with the help of basic geometrical definitions and theorems

Objective:

To explore the characteristics of polygons with the help of relevant dynamic geometrical software programs

Category

Basic Teaching Suitable for the Field

Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, students will: 1. be able to explain the concepts related to polygons (remembering) 2. be able to draw a polygon using the dynamic software program. (applying-valuing-perception-set-guided response) 3. be able to discuss on the concepts which they developed by using the dynamic software program. (creating, valuing, adaptation, origination)

The Program Outcomes that the Lesson Learning Outcomes are related to

1. Identifies basic concepts, theories and applications. 2. Thinks mathematically and uses it in daily life. 3. Thinks in a creative and critical way.

Pre-requirements of the lesson

     1. Must have a PADLET account      2. Must have GeoGebra application

Time:

50+50+50 min. Self-evaluation (15%), peer evaluation (25%), instructor evaluation (60%)      1. Rubric      2. Check List

Evaluation

Classroom Activities (hour) 2+1 hour

Non-classroom Activities (hour)

Evaluation (Monitoring) (hour)

1 hour (individually) 1 hour (homework) 1 hour (group)

1 hour

Total WorkLoad (hour)

7 hours

Contribution to the ECTS 7 hours/25 hours=0.28 ECTS

Please see other parts of the information pocket on Annex 1a.

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APPENDIX 3 Table 3. Scenario models based on the creation of the FlippHyb model and their justification FlippHyb Stages

The Scenario Based On

Justification

1

In the webinar, Prof. Dr. Kornelia Freitag’s application example at Ruhr University and Maloney and Kim’s (2020) “First Year Intensive” Model in Scenario 4.

The idea that first year students have just started university and their negative experiences about university life should be prevented and the reality of social distant interaction and the need to get to know each other.

2

Maloney and Kim (2020) “A HyFlex Model” in Scenario 13 and “A Modified Tutorial Model” in Scenario 14.

Although the Covid-19 epidemic makes this application necessary, the thought that this situation will create an opportunity for the steps to be taken for the coming periods and the reality of transformations in education and digital media applications, including the second quarter of the twenty-first century and beyond.

3

Maloney and Kim’s (2020) “A Low-Residency Model” in Scenario 12.

In accordance with the pandemic period we are in, the effectiveness and efficiency of the campus application, which has been watched with the importance of social distance, in the applications to be presented face to face to the students.

4

Although this application is not directly specified in scenarios, it is highly emphasized under the element of “interaction” among distance education theories (For example, Moore’s Transactional Distance Theory)

It is a fact that includes rich pedagogical applications related to learning-teaching within this step.

5

As in the fourth step, although this application is not included among the direct models, it is inspired by the “Structured Gap Year” model in Scenario 6.

Among the learner-centered practices and evaluations, it is an important and undeniable fact for digital natives.

6

Maloney and Kim’s (2020) “A Block Plan” model in Scenario 9 and “Target Curriculum” model in Scenario 7.

Giving the essence of the subject as realistic / integrated / block with the fact that the subjects / disciplines that are related to each other can provide similar learning outcomes.

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Figure 1. PADLET online learning environment

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Figure 2. GeoGebra online learning environment (please see all stages on annex A)

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Figure 3. The principles of proposed model named “FlippHyb”

Annex 1a: Activity Plan

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Table 4. ­ Part I Midterm T+P (Hour) Credit ECTS 2 2+1 3 5 ECTS Definition of polygon, proving the geometrical theorems related to tetragon, parallel edge, rhombus, Subject: rectangle, square, deltoid, trapezoid, isoscleles, and applications related to polygons. Goal: To improve mathematical thinking with the help of basic geometrical definitions and theorems Objective: To explore the characteristics of polygons with the help of relevant dynamic geometrical software programs Category Basic Teaching Suitable for the Field At the end of this lesson, students will: 1. be able to explain the concepts related to polygons (remembering) 2. be able to draw a polygon using the dynamic software program. (applying-valuing-perception-set-guided Outcomes response) 3. be able to discuss on the concepts which they developed by using the dynamic software program. (creating, valuing, adaptation, origination) 1. Identifies basic concepts, theories and applications. The Program Outcomes that the Lesson Learning Outcomes 2. Thinks mathematically and uses it in daily life. are related to 3. Thinks in a creative and critical way.      1. Must have a PADLET account Pre-requirements of the lesson      2. Must have GeoGebra application Time: 50+50+50 min. Self-evaluation (15%), peer evaluation (25%), instructor evaluation (60%)      1. Rubric      2. Check List Classroom Activities Non-classroom Activities Evaluation (Monitoring) Total WorkLoad (hour) Contribution to the ECTS Evaluation (hour) (hour) (hour) 1 hour (individually) 7 hours/25 hours=0.28 2+1 hour 1 hour (homework) 1 hour 7 hours ECTS 1 hour (group) Part II This activity will be implemented in 3 stages. •           In this first stage, the target group will be informed about the content, objective and outcomes of the lesson. Additionally, their attention and readiness level will be increased. •           In the second stage, the target group will be given a presentation about the subject that was Methods and Techniques Used previously presented (in this stage narration, case study, discussion, question and answer methods will be used). •           In the third stage, “Buzz 66” technique from the Cooperative Learning methods will be used (Açıkgöz, 2007). This technique will be implemented via Zoom online learning platform. Activity Implementation Environment Activity Implementation Environment 1. For this purpose, the classroom group/room feature of the Zoom application will be used. 2. When creating classroom group/room, a special attention will be paid to create the groups heterogeneously. 3. The Buzz 66 groups will answer the questions in the instructions by using the PADLET application. 4. Practical implementations related to the outcome will be made by using GeoGebra dynamic software program. 5. Upon completing teaching, the instructor in-charge will visit the classroom group rooms and attend the learning environments. 6. After the activity is completed, the students are expected to self-evaluate and also be evaluated by the instructor and their peers according to the rubric/check list (lesson outcomes (considering the polygon concept and applications, and the construction protocol). Learning-teaching activities: Introduction: This part focus on starting the lesson by asking the students the following question: “have you ever seen a honey comb?” and “how was the shape of honey comb?”.(Drawing attention) Then, students will be informed about the outcomes of the lesson. (Informing about the objectives). Students’ readiness level is expected to be increased to the desired level by asking them the following Introduction questions “do you think patterns on a honey comb are perfect?” and if yes, “is it possible to draw a • Drawing attention flawless/perfect polygon?” (Remembering the preliminary information). • Informing about the objectives Development: The students will be given an interactive presentation which intends to let them understand • Reminding preliminary knowledge the polygon-related concepts and applications better and recognize that a perfect polygon can only be drawn with the help of dynamic software programs (Presenting new information by using stimulus material). Development After this presentation, students will be introduced an interactive Web 2.0 tool for implementing the relevant • Presenting new information using stimulating materials concept (PADLET) and within the context of the related instructions (ANNEX A) students will be asked • Guiding for learning to draw a polygon, then the flawlessness of the polygon will be discussed (Providing learning guidance). • Eliciting the performance Students will be asked to achieve the learning outcomes by using the active learning methods based on • Giving feedback the principles given in the instructions. After the discussion, the polygon concept, its implementations and outcomes of related subject will be reinforced by drawing a flawless polygon on GeoGebra (Eliciting the Result performance). The instructor will guide the students by giving them constructive feedback (Feedback). • Evaluation Conclusion: The performance of students will be evaluated using a rubric and a check list (ANNEX B) by •Maintaining retention and transferability themselves, other members of the group and the instructor in charge (Evaluation). The activity in the implementations for the outcome of “drawing a circle based on the polygon concept” which is related to the “circle concept and its implementations” subject is found to be retentive and transferable. (Maintaining Retention and Transferability)

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Lesson Geometry

Code IME 104

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Annex 1b: Indicator Chart Related With Learning Domains Table 5. ­

Learning Objectives

LO 1: Be able to explain the concepts related to polygons (remembering)

Cognitive

Affective

Psycho-motor

What are the learners expected to know?

What are learners being asked to value / care for?

What are the learners expected to be able to do?

Knowledge

Skill

*Remembering *Understanding

*Applying *Analyzing *Evaluating

Competence *Creating

x

LO 2: Be able to draw a polygon using the dynamic software program. (applyingvaluingperceptionset-guided response)

Knowledge *Receiving *Responding

Skill *Valuing

Competence

Knowledge

Skill

Competence

*Organization *Characterization

*Perception *Set *Guided response

*Mechanism *Complex overt response

*Adaptation *Origination

x

x

x

x

LO 3: Be able to discuss on the concepts which they developed by using the dynamic software program. (creating, valuing, adaptation, origination)

x

x

x

x

How will the measurement and evaluation activities of the specified learning outcomes be carried out? (Please see on Annex B)

Annex A. Instructions Dear Students, In this study,

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1. You are expected to answer the questions below using the PADLET application. When answering the questions, you need to discuss in Buzz 66 (groups with 6 members) groups to progress. (Note: Having PADLET application and GeoGebra dynamic software program installed is a prerequirement of the lesson) 2. You should draw individually in a group by using GeoGebra dynamic software program as described in the construction protocol below. 3. You are expected to evaluate both yourself and your friends by using the rubric and the check list given to you at the end of the applications. 4. You are expected to answer open-ended questions individually.

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5. You are expected to provide us feedback individually about the online learning activities to improve the future course activities. Good luck. (1) Questions (PADLET Application) Question 1. Which concepts would you use to identify a polygon and a regular polygon? Question 2. Draw a regular polygon on paper without using a screw compass or a ruler, then share its photograph to Padlet application. Question 3. Draw a regular polygon on paper using a screw compass or a ruler, then share it to Padlet application. Question 4. In your both try-out, (using or without using a screw compass or a ruler, do you think you drew a perfect polygon? Write your thoughts to the Padlet application, (2) Construction Protocol (For GeoGebra Dynamic Software Program)

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Figure 4a. GeoGebra online learning environment

(3) Evaluate both yourself and your friends by using the rubric and the check list

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Annex B. Evaluation Dear Students, In this part, we expect you to separately evaluate yourself and 5 of your friends in the buzz 66 groups regarding the implementation you performed. When evaluating, you are expected to follow the steps in the Construction Protocol in the GeoGebra dynamic software program and the activities in the Padlet application.

I. Check List (GeoGebra) (Students) II. Rubric (Padlet+GeoGebra) (Students) (4) Questions: Open-ended Question Dear Students, You are expected to individually discuss the open-ended question below about the concepts related to polygons and the dynamic software program. Good luck. 1. Is it possible to draw a perfect regular polygon in real life? Discuss it. Important note: When answering the question, consider the activities we performed during the lesson.

III. Rubric (Instructor) (5) Feedback

Annex C. Improvement

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Dear Students, We’d like to learn your thoughts about the activity. Please answer the following questions. 1. 2. 3. 4.

What is your favorite aspect of the activity? What do you dislike most about the activity? Is there anything that you think “it should be included in the activity” in the future?” Any other thoughts or suggestions?

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Figure 4b. GeoGebra online learning environment

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Figure 4c. GeoGebra online learning environment

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Table 6. ­ Me In the GeoGebra Dynamic Software Program;

Yes (1)

Friend 1 No (2)

Yes (1)

No (2)

Friend 2 Yes (1)

No (2)

Friend 3 Yes (1)

No (2)

Friend 4 Yes (1)

No (2)

Friend 5 Yes (1)

Is the first circle tied to the slider drawn? Is the second circle tied to the first circle drawn? Is the third circle tied to the first circle drawn? Are the three circles intersected? Is the polygonal region drawn?

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Are the circles removed?

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No (2)

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Table 7. ­ Me Suggestion

Yes (2)

Partly (1)

My Friend 1 No (0)

Yes (2)

Partly (1)

My Friend 2 No (0)

Yes (2)

Partly (1)

No (0)

Are the polygon-related concepts (definitions related to angle, side and polygon) written in Padlet application? Are the polygons (based on the size length or angles) drawn with and without using a screw compass and a ruler shared to Padlet application? Is the flawless of the polygons discussed on Padlet application? Are the steps in GeoGebra application followed? Is the regular polygon on the milimeter graph paper drawn with the help of the circles? While drawing with the circles technique (anglecentral angle, side-radius) is it recognized that it is possible to draw a regular polygon without fixing the lengths of the sides? Are the relationship and differences between the polygon and regular polygon revealed? Are the characteristics of the triangle separated by the diagonals in the regular polygon noticed?

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Are the angles of polygon drawn with GeoGebra equal? Are the sides lengths of the polygon drawn with GeoGebra equal? Are the triangles formed when the polygons drawn with GeoGebra are divided into diagonals equilateral triangles?

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Table 8. ­ Suggestion

First and Last Name of the Student: Yes (2)

Partly (1)

Are the polygon-related concepts (definitions related to angle, side and polygon) written in Padlet application? Are the polygons (based on the size length or angles) drawn with and without using a screw compass and a ruler written in Padlet application? Are the perfectness of the polygons drawn discussed on Padlet application? Are the steps of GeoGebra application followed when discussing the perfectness of the polygon drawn? When drawing on the milimetric graph paper, is it expressed that it is possible to draw a regular polygon with the help of circles? While drawing with the circles technique (angle-central angle, side-radius) is it expressed that it is possible to draw a regular polygon without fixing the lengths of the sides? Are the relationship and differences between the polygon and regular polygon revealed? Are the characteristics of the triangle separated by the diagonals in the regular polygon expressed? Are angle degrees of the drawn polygons expressed? Are side lengths of the drawn polygons expressed? Are characteristics of the triangles that are formed when the drawn polygons are divided into diagonals expressed? Is the regular polygon defined? Is the polygon defined?

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Can the arguments suggested be a basis for drawing a perfect polygon in the real life?

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Chapter 7

Factors Influencing Student Engagement During COVID-19 Emergency Remote Teaching Murat Ekici https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2189-7294 Usak University, Turkey Didem Inel Ekici Usak University, Turkey

ABSTRACT

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Student engagement is an important construct of education that is strongly correlated with the quality of learning outcomes. Educators have long been looking for ways to increase student engagement. It has become even more critical in the global COVID-19 pandemic where schools and universities switched to entirely online as a consequence of school closures. This chapter reports on the results of a comprehensive study on student engagement during emergency remote teaching. The aim of this study is to take a snapshot and explore the efects of personal and institutional variables on online student engagement. Research data was collected from 1,027 Turkish university students from both state and private universities. Data analysis showed that having a personal computer, owning a room for study and household internet connection, perceived information and communication self-efcacy, past e-learning experience, as well as course delivery format afect behavioral, emotional, and cognitive aspects of online student engagement.

INTRODUCTION COVID-19 was a challenge for all the countries and education systems. Due to the outbreak, many educational institutions worldwide have canceled face-to-face classes and closed their campuses. School closures affected 94% of the world student population which is nearly 1.6 billion learners (United Nations, 2020). Most countries have developed quick responses using distance learning technologies and DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7275-7.ch007

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Handbook of Research on Emerging Pedagogies for the Future of Education : Trauma-Informed, Care, and Pandemic Pedagogy, edited by Aras Bozkurt, IGI Global, 2021. ProQuest

Copyright © 2021. IGI Global. All rights reserved.

 Factors Influencing Student Engagement During COVID-19 Emergency Remote Teaching

moved away from the traditional classroom to online learning. Developing a response is not an option; it is an obligation for the countries because school closures have a negative impact on student achievement. Baker (2013) found that interruption of education during the teacher strike in Canada has caused a significant decrease in test scores, especially in math. So, this mandatory transition led to the emergence of a new concept “emergency remote teaching” (Hodges, Moore, Lockee, Trust, & Bond, 2020). In order for this concept to be fully understood, it must be distinguished from traditional online distance education. As it is already known, distance education is not merely putting educational content online, it is a complex process that requires careful planning and preparation (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020). In contrast to planned online or blended forms of distance learning, emergency remote teaching (ERT) involves the use of online learning as an alternate modality to face-to-face learning. The main goal of ERT is to provide rapid and temporary access to instruction and educational support during an emergency or crisis. Holzweiss et al. (2020) assert that “with proper support, students and instructors moving into the online learning environment due to a crisis could successfully recover with fewer obstacles”. However, neither students nor institutions were ready for this mandatory shift. On the one hand, international organizations reported that a substantial amount of students and teachers did not have access to digital tools and internet connection during the ERT. According to UNESCO (2020), 50% of the learners worldwide do not have a personal computer, and 43% do not have a household internet connection to keep up with online lectures during school closures. Moreover, across OECD countries on average 9% and in some countries over 30% of the students do not have a quiet place to study like their own room (Reimers & Schleicher, 2020). Lack of technological resources and physical space affected not only students from disadvantaged families but also families with multiple children (Ferri, Grifoni & Guzzo, 2020). On the other hand, instructors were expected to learn to teach online in a short, often unrealistic time frame (Johnson, Veletsianos, & Seaman, 2020). They have been asked to become both designers and tutors using the tools that only a few have mastered (Rapanta et al., 2020). It was a real challenge for those who had no experience in nontraditional learning spaces because online teaching and learning require a completely distinct skill-set. Without providing a sound pedagogical background regarding the use of digital tools teachers had to learn in the process. but it is difficult to say that they were successful in that. For instance, even early career teachers in Germany do not have sophisticated digital skills and more than half of the teachers don’t know how to assess student learning using ICT (König, Jäger-Biela, & Glutsch, 2020). Unfortunately, most primary and secondary schools around the world had not previously needed to use distance education, so they did not have hardware software, or trained staff for remote education. But luckily, as the majority of the higher education institutions already offer online or blended courses before the pandemic, the transition to online learning was easier compared to other levels of the education system (Brooks, Grajek & Lang, 2020). During the ERT, some institutions adopted synchronous lectures using video conferencing software such as ZOOM, Big Blue Button, and Google Meet. Others used asynchronous course format using learning management systems like Moodle, Canvas, and Google Classroom. Some employed synchronous and asynchronous formats together to increase learner engagement. Previous studies focused on the student experiences and views during ERT but the findings are controversial. For instance, Shin and Hickey (2020) report on the detrimental effects of COVID-19 on college students’ learning. On the contrary, Lee et al. (2021) claim that college students were flexible enough to cope with the challenges related to the pandemic. Another concern with the ERT for some institutions is cheating by sharing files or answers (Bilen & Matros, 2021; Lancaster & Cotarlan, 2021; Lee et al., 2020). Therefore, focusing on engagement rather than other parameters can give more accurate 128

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 Factors Influencing Student Engagement During COVID-19 Emergency Remote Teaching

information about the effectiveness of remote schooling. Mandernach et al., (2011) claim that engagement provides a more detailed picture of instructional effectiveness compared to traditional indicators such as grades, satisfaction, and retention. Martin and Bolliger (2018) also empirically confirm the importance of engagement in online learning for institutions. Engagement literature showed that student engagement is a strong predictor of learning outcomes whether it is online, blended, or face-to-face. Engagement refers to the amount of effort a student puts into learning (Kuh, 2003). By assessing student engagement, faculty can monitor and adjust the instructional strategies they use (Mandernach et al., 2011), and can determine the students at-risk for poor educational outcomes (O’Donnell, & Reschly, 2020). Lawson and Lawson (2013) conceptualize engagement as a dynamic process and define student engagement as “various states of experience of individuals as they participate in discrete activities at particular moments in time”. As discussed above, measuring student engagement can provide reliable evidence regarding the impact and success of the ERT process. However research on online student engagement during ERT is limited (Bond, 2020). This study aims to take a snapshot and investigate factors affecting student engagement in higher education settings during the COVID-19 ERT period.

BACKGROUND Engagement

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Researchers have used various terms to identify engagement including, engagement, student engagement, academic engagement, school engagement, engagement in schoolwork (Appleton, Christenson, & Furlong, 2008; Reschly & Christenson, 2012). Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris (2004) identify engagement as a multidimensional construct involving distinct, yet interrelated aspects: cognitive, behavioral, and emotional engagement. Cognitive engagement refers to students’ motivation and self-regulation, behavioral engagement refers to students’ participation in learning activities, and emotional engagement students’ positive or negative emotional reactions to learning activities, peers, and academics. Researchers also proposed additional dimensions to Fredricks and colleagues, such as academic engagement (Appleton et al., 2006), agentic engagement (Reeve & Tseng, 2011), social engagement (Wang et al., 2016), and collaborative engagement ( Redmond et al., 2018). The most comprehensive definition of engagement is offered by Bond et al. (2020) which covers the previous attempts. Student engagement is the energy and effort that students employ within their learning community, observable via any number of behavioral, cognitive or affective indicators across a continuum. It is shaped by a range of structural and internal influences, including the complex interplay of relationships, learning activities and the learning environment. The more students are engaged and empowered within their learning community, the more likely they are to channel that energy back into their learning, leading to a range of short and long-term outcomes, that can likewise further fuel engagement (Bond et al., 2020). Student engagement has been studied for decades both in the traditional and online learning environments and is widely recognized as critical for students to be successful. Engagement improves critical thinking, self-esteem and student satisfaction (Trowler & Trowler, 2010; Webber, Krylow, & Zhang, 2013). Earlier studies have also reported that student engagement is positively correlated with academic performance (Lee, 2014), achievement and retention (Lei, Cui & Zhou, 2018). Pascarella and Terenzini 129

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 Factors Influencing Student Engagement During COVID-19 Emergency Remote Teaching

(2005) claim that the impact of college is largely determined by individual effort and involvement in the academic, interpersonal, and extracurricular offerings on campus. In a similar vein, Axelson and Flick (2011) argue that the level of student engagement at a particular college or university is increasingly seen as a valid indicator of institutional excellence. In other words, student engagement is one of the key factors determining the quality of learning outcomes in higher education. Engagement predicts students’ learning, grades, and achievement test scores in the short run whereas patterns of attendance, retention, graduation, and academic resilience can be predicted over the long term (Skinner et al., 2008).

Disengagement There are distinct conceptualizations of disengagement. Some scholars assume that engagement and disengagement are on a continuum and disengagement is the absence of engagement (Reschly & Christenson, 2012). In contrast, some argue that engagement and disengagement are conceptually distinct constructs (Fredricks et al., 2019). We adopt the first view and define disengagement as basically the lack of engagement. Disengagement has been a challenge for educators to overcome because remaining engaged is an important outcome of schooling (Finn & Zimmer, 2012). It is a critical factor both in face-to-face and online learning (DeFalco, Baker & D’Mello, 2014). Research showed that behavioral and emotional disengagements are associated with lower academic performance and increased drop-out (DeFalco, Baker & D’Mello, 2014; Wang & Fredricks, 2014). Besides, there is a correlation between behavioral and emotional disengagement (Wang & Eccels, 2012). Behavioral disengagement causes emotional disengagement.

METHODOLOGY This study employs a quantitative cross-sectional survey research design. Survey is not just a way of collecting information (De Vaus, 2002). Survey research provides a quantitative description of trends of a population or tests for associations among variables of a population (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The survey methodology was quite suitable for the variable being investigated and the participants could only be reached online due to quarantine measures. Research data was collected via an online form containing demographics form and the online student engagement scale in the last week of April 2020, after four weeks of the initiation of ERT in Turkey. The authors disseminated the online form with the help of scholars from different universities.

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Participants Participants of the study were 1027 undergraduate students from 29 (4 private and 25 public) universities from Turkey. 63.4% of the students were female (n=651), while 36.6% of them were male (n=376). Age range of the participants was 18-37. About half of the participants (47.9%, n=492) have not taken any online courses before the transition, and 85.7% (n=880) indicated that they were participating in the courses on a regular basis during COVID-19 pandemic. 82.9% (n=851) reported that their university employed synchronous online lectures. 68.5% (n=704) had personal computers and 78.2% (n=803) had household internet connection. 66.3% (n=681) had their own private room at home.

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 Factors Influencing Student Engagement During COVID-19 Emergency Remote Teaching

Data Collection Tools Two data collection tools were used in this study. The first one was a personal information form including items regarding participants’ age, gender, past e-learning experience, personal computer ownership, internet access, computer usage experience, and perceived ICT use self-efficacy. The second was the student engagement scale developed by Sun and Rueda (2012) and adapted into Turkish by Ergün and Usluel (2015). The scale consists of 19 items assigned to three factors: cognitive (8 items), emotional (6 items) and behavioral engagement (5 items). The scale uses a 5‐point Likert rating (5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 2 = disagree and 1= strongly disagree). Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients regarding the factors of the scale were calculated as .75, .88 and .63. In this study, Cronbach alpha reliability coefficients of the factors were re-calculated as .79, .93 and .83, respectively.

Data Analysis Research data was first screened to identify missing columns and no missing values were detected. Then the reverse items in the online student engagement scale were re-coded and the factor scores were calculated. Each factor score was averaged using the number of items related to that factor. Since the research sample is big enough (>30), the distribution of the data is assumed to be normal in accordance with the central limit theorem (Field, 2018; Stevens, 2009). To reveal each factor’s effect on students’ behavioral, emotional and cognitive engagement, independent samples t-tests and analyses of variance were conducted. Assumptions of the analyses were checked and no violations were detected. The Tukey HSD test as Post-hoc was performed to check the direction of the difference in analyses of variance. The threshold value for the level of significance was accepted as .05. throughout the analyses. The effect sizes (Cohen’s d and eta-squared) were also reported to evaluate the practical interpretation of the significance of the effect in question. as suggested by Hattie (2009), the effect size magnitudes of .20, .40, and .60 were interpreted as small, medium, and large, respectively. The authors’ did not use the original classification suggested by Cohen (1988) because the interpretation of the effect size is highly context-dependent (Cumming, & Calin-Jageman, 2016; Ellis, 2010).

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FINDINGS Students’ levels of engagement according to cognitive, behavioral, and emotional factors, were assessed before any further analysis. As seen in Figure 1, students’ cognitive engagement (M = 3.68, SD = .68 ) and behavioral engagement (M = 3.62, SD = .73) levels are comparatively high and the mean scores are very close to each other whereas their emotional engagement levels (M = 2.58 , SD = 1.01) are comparatively low. Herein, it should be noted that each engagement factor score was averaged and the averaged mean scores can range from 1 to 5. Larger values indicate higher levels of student engagement, while lower values represent lower levels of engagement. The findings related to the effects of the investigated variables are presented below. Table 1 provides an overview of the research findings.

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 Factors Influencing Student Engagement During COVID-19 Emergency Remote Teaching

Figure 1. Engagement levels of the participants

Table 1. Overview of the findings Variable

Cognitive

Behavioral

Emotional

Personal computer ownership

+

+

+

Household internet connection

+

+

+

Having own room

+

+

+

Past e-learning experience

+

+

+

Course delivery method (synchronous/asynchronous)

+

+

+

Perceived ICT use self-efficacy (office software and web surfing)

+

+

+

Note: The “+” sign indicates a positive effect.

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Personal Computer Ownership Independent samples T-tests were conducted to evaluate the effect of owning a personal computer on engagement. The results showed that there was a statistically significant difference in comparisons between participants who had a personal computer and who did not (See Table 2) in terms of cognitive (t(1025) = 2.89, p = .000, d=.195), behavioral (t(1025) = 5.14, p = .000, d=.346) and emotional (t(1025) = 3.67, p = .000, d = .247) engagement. Participants who had a personal computer (M = 3.71, SD = .66) had higher cognitive engagement compared to the participants who did not (M = 3.58, SD = .73). The participants who had a personal computer (M = 3.70, SD = .71) also had higher behavioral engagement than who did not (M = 3.45, SD = .69). Again the participants who had a personal computer (M = 2.66, SD = 1.0) had higher emotional engagement than who did not (M=2.41, SD=1.01). Overall, students who had personal computers to keep up with online lectures also had the higher-levels of engagement.

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 Factors Influencing Student Engagement During COVID-19 Emergency Remote Teaching

Table 2. Independent samples T-test results of student engagement scores in relation to personal computer ownership Engagement Cognitive

Behavioral

Emotional

Group

n

M

SD

Have

704

3.71

.66

Don’t have

323

3.58

.73

Have

704

3.70

.71

Don’t have

323

3.45

.69

Have

704

2.66

1.0

Don’t have

323

2.41

1.01

t

df

p

Cohens’ d

Effect Size Interpretation

2.89

1025

.000*

.195

Small

5.14

1025

.000*

.346

Medium

3.67

1025

.000*

.247

Small

  *p